In neurology, anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories after an event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact. This is in contrast to retrograde amnesia, where memories created prior to the event are lost while new memories can still be created. Both can occur together in the same patient. To a large degree, anterograde amnesia remains a mysterious ailment because the precise mechanism of storing memories is not yet well understood, although it is known that the regions of the brain involved are certain sites in the temporal cortex, especially in the hippocampus and nearby subcortical regions.

Signs and symptoms
People with anterograde amnesic syndromes may present widely varying degrees of forgetfulness. Some with severe cases have a combined form of anterograde and retrograde amnesia, sometimes called global amnesia.

In the case of drug-induced amnesia, it may be short-lived and patients can recover from it. In another case, which has been studied extensively since the early 1970s, patients often have permanent damage, although some recovery is possible, depending on the nature of the pathophysiology. Usually, some capacity for learning remains, although it may be very elementary. In cases of pure anterograde amnesia, patients have recollections of events prior to the injury, but cannot recall day-to-day information or new facts presented to them after the injury occurred.

In most cases of anterograde amnesia, patients lose declarative memory, or the recollection of facts, but they retain nondeclarative memory, often called procedural memory. For instance, they are able to remember, and in some cases learn how to do things, such as talking on the phone or riding a bicycle, but they may not remember what they had eaten earlier that day for lunch. One extensively studied anterograde amnesiac patient, codenamed H.M., demonstrated that despite his amnesia preventing him from learning new declarative information, procedural memory consolidation was still possible, albeit severely reduced in power. He, along with other patients with anterograde amnesia, were given the same maze to complete day after day. Despite having no memory of having completed the maze the day before, unconscious practice of completing the same maze over and over reduced the amount of time needed to complete it in subsequent trials. From these results, Corkin et al. concluded despite having no declarative memory (i.e. no conscious memory of completing the maze exists), the patients still had a working procedural memory (learning done unconsciously through practice). This supports the notion that declarative and procedural memory are consolidated in different areas of the brain. In addition, patients have a diminished ability to remember the temporal context in which objects were presented. Certain authors claim the deficit in temporal context memory is more significant than the deficit in the semantic learning ability (described below).

Causes
This disorder is usually acquired in one of four ways: One cause is benzodiazepine drugs such as midazolam, flunitrazepam, lorazepam, temazepam, nitrazepam, triazolam, clonazepam, alprazolam, diazepam, and nimetazepam; all of these are known to have powerful amnesic effects. This has also been recorded in non-benzodiazepine sedatives or "z-drugs" which act on the same set of receptors; such as zolpidem (also known as Ambien), eszopiclone (also known as Lunesta), and zopiclone (also known by brand names Imovane and Zimovane). A second cause is a traumatic brain injury in which damage is usually done to the hippocampus or surrounding cortices. It may also be caused by PTSD, a shocking event, or an emotional disorder.

Illness, though much rarer, can also cause anterograde amnesia if it causes encephalitis, which is the inflammation of brain tissue. There are several types of encephalitis: one such is herpes simplex encephalitis (HSV), which, if left untreated, can lead to neurological deterioration. How HSV gains access to the brain is unknown; the virus shows a distinct predilection for certain parts of the brain. Initially, it is present in the limbic cortices; it may then spread to the adjacent frontal and temporal lobes. Damage to specific areas can result in reduced or eliminated ability to encode new explicit memories, giving rise to anterograde amnesia. Patients with anterograde amnesia may have episodic, semantic, or both types of explicit memory impaired for events after the trauma that caused the amnesia. This suggests that memory consolidation for different types of memory takes place in different regions of the brain. Despite this, current knowledge on human memory is still insufficient to "map out" the wiring of a human brain to discover which parts of which lobe are responsible for the various episodic and semantic knowledge within a person's memory.

Amnesia is seen in patients who, for the reason of preventing another more serious disorder, have parts of their brains known to be involved in memory circuits removed, the most notable of which is known as the medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system, described below. Patients with seizures originating in the MTL may have either side or both structures removed (there is one structure per hemisphere). In addition, patients with tumors who undergo surgery will often sustain damage to these structures, as is described in a case below. Damage to any part of this system, including the hippocampus and surrounding cortices, results in amnesic syndromes. This is why after a stroke people have a chance of developing cognitive deficits that result in anterograde amnesia, since strokes can involve the temporal lobe in the temporal cortex, and the temporal cortex houses the hippocampus.

Finally, anterograde amnesia can be the first clinical sign that Alzheimer's disease is developing within the brain. Although later the complications can be much more widespread and strongly impair cognitive processes, at the initial stage of Alzheimer's the changes observed can be restricted to anterograde amnesia and a mild deficit in retaining newly learnt sequences. This is explained by the fact that the disease is initiated within the medial temporal lobe and first affects the entorhinal cortex that directly sends and receives information from the hippocampal formation.

Alcohol intoxication

Anterograde amnesia can also be caused by alcohol intoxication, a phenomenon commonly known as a blackout. Studies show rapid rises in blood alcohol concentration over a short period of time severely impair or in some cases completely block the brain's ability to transfer short-term memories created during the period of intoxication to long-term memory for storage and later retrieval. Such rapid rises are caused by drinking large amounts of alcohol in short periods of time, especially on an empty stomach, as the dilution of alcohol by food slows the absorption of alcohol. Alcohol-related anterograde amnesia is directly related to the rate of consumption of alcohol (and is often associated with binge drinking), and not just the total amount of alcohol consumed in a drinking episode. Test subjects have been found not to experience amnesia when drinking slowly, despite being heavily intoxicated by the end of the experiment. When alcohol is consumed at a rapid rate, the point at which most healthy people's long-term memory creation starts to fail usually occurs at approximately 0.20% BAC, but can be reached as low as 0.14% BAC for infrequent drinkers. The exact duration of these blackout periods is hard to determine, because most people fall asleep before they black out. Upon reaching sobriety, usually after waking, long-term memory creation is completely restored.

Chronic alcoholism often leads to a thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency in the brain, causing Korsakoff's syndrome, a neurological disorder which is generally preceded by an acute neurological condition known as Wernicke's encephalopathy (WE).
The memory impairment that is pathognomonic to Korsakoff's syndrome predominantly affects the declarative memory, leaving non-declarative memory that is often procedural in nature relatively intact. The disproportionate severity in anterograde episodic memory processes in contrast to other cognitive processes is what differentiates Korsakoff syndrome from other conditions such as alcohol-related dementia. Evidence for the preservation of certain memory processes in the presence of severe anterograde episodic memory serve as an experimental paradigm to investigate the components of human memory.

Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of anterograde amnesic syndromes varies with the extent of damage and the regions of the brain that were damaged. The most well-described regions indicated in this disorder are the medial temporal lobe (MTL), basal forebrain, and fornix. Beyond the details described below, the precise process of how we remember – on a micro scale – remains a mystery. Neuropsychologists and scientists are still not in total agreement over whether forgetting is due to faulty encoding, accelerated forgetting, or faulty retrieval, although a great deal of data seem to point to the encoding hypothesis. In addition, neuroscientists are also in disagreement about the length of time involved in memory consolidation. Though most researchers, including Hasselmo et al., have found the consolidation process is spread out over several hours before transitioning from a fragile to a more permanent state, others, including Brown et al., posits that memory consolidation can take months or even years in a drawn-out process of consolidation and reinforcement. Further research into the length of time of memory consolidation will shed more light on why anterograde amnesia sometimes affects some memories gained after the event(s) that caused the amnesia, but does not affect other such memories.

Medial temporal lobe

The MTL memory system includes the hippocampal formation (CA fields, dentate gyrus, subicular complex), perirhinal, entorhinal, and parahippocampal cortices. It is known to be important for the storage and processing of declarative memory, which allows for factual recall. It is also known to communicate with the neocortex in the establishment and maintenance of long-term memories, although its known functions are independent of long-term memory. Nondeclarative memory, on the other hand, which allows for the performance of different skills and habits, is not part of the MTL memory system. Most data point to a "division of labor" among the parts of this system, although this is still being debated and is described in detail below.

In animal models, researchers have shown monkeys with damage to both the hippocampus and its adjacent cortical regions were more severely impaired in terms of anterograde amnesia than monkeys with damage localized to hippocampal structures. However, conflicting data in another primate study point to the observation that the amount of tissue damaged does not necessarily correlate with the severity of the memory loss. Furthermore, the data do not explain the dichotomy that exists in the MTL memory system between episodic memory and semantic memory (described below).

An important finding in amnesic patients with MTL damage is the impairment of memory in all sensory modalities – sound, touch, smell, taste, and sight. This reflects the fact that the MTL is a processor for all of the sensory modalities, and helps store these kind of thoughts into memory. In addition, subjects can often remember how to perform relatively simple tasks immediately (in the order of 10 seconds), but when the task becomes more difficult, even on the same time scale, subjects tend to forget. This demonstrates the difficulty of separating procedural memory tasks from declarative memory; some elements of declarative memory may be used in learning procedural tasks.

MTL amnesic patients with localized damage to the hippocampus retain other perceptual abilities, such as the ability to intelligently function in society, to make conversation, to make one's bed, etc. Additionally, anterograde amnesics without combined retrograde disorders (localized damage to the MTL system) have memories prior to the traumatic event. For this reason, the MTL is not the storage place of all memories; other regions in the brain also store memories. The key is the MTL is responsible for the learning of new materials.

Other memory systems
A limited number of cases have been described in which patients with damage to other parts of the brain acquired anterograde amnesia. Easton and Parker observed damage to either the hippocampus or the surrounding cortices does not seem to result in severe amnesia in primate models. They suggested damage to the hippocampus and surrounding structures alone does not explain the amnesia they saw in patients, or increasing damage does not correlate with the degree of impairment. Furthermore, the data does not explain the dichotomy that exists in the MTL memory system between episodic and semantic memory. To demonstrate their hypothesis, they used a primate model with damage to the basal forebrain. They proposed that the disruption of neurons that project from the basal forebrain to the MTL are responsible for some of the impairment in anterograde amnesia. Easton and Parker also reported MRI scans of patients with severe anterograde amnesia showed damage beyond to cortical areas around the hippocampus and amygdala (a region of brain involved in emotions) and to surrounding white matter (white matter in the brain consists of axons, long projections of neuronal cell bodies).

Another case described the onset of anterograde amnesia as a result of cell death in the fornix, another structure that carries information from the hippocampus to the structures of the limbic system and the diencephalon. The patient in this case did not show any disconnection syndrome, which is unexpected since the structures involved divide the brain hemispheres (both sides of her brain were able to communicate). Instead, she showed signs of amnesia. The final diagnosis was made by MRI. This particular amnesic syndrome is difficult to diagnose and is often misdiagnosed by physicians as an acute psychiatric disorder.

Reorganization of memory
When there is damage to just one side of the MTL, there is opportunity for normal functioning or near-normal function for memories. Neuroplasticity describes the ability of the cortex to remap when necessary. Remapping can occur in cases like the one above and with time the patient can recover and become more skilled at memory retention. A case report describing a patient who had two lobectomies – in the first, doctors removed part of her right MTL first because of seizures originating from the region, and later her left because she developed a tumor – demonstrates this. This case is unique because it is the only one in which both sides of the MTL were removed at different times. The authors observed that the patient was able to recover some ability to learn when she had only one MTL, but observed the deterioration of function when both sides of the MTL were affected. The reorganization of brain function for epileptic patients has had limited investigation, but imaging results show that it may occur.

Rehabilitation
Approaches used to treat those with anterograde amnesia often use interventions which focus on compensatory techniques, such as beepers, written notes, diaries or through intensive training programs involving the active participation of the individual concerned, along with their supporting network of family and friends.
In this perspective, environmental adaptation techniques are used, such as the compensatory technique education to training (exercise), organizational strategies, visual imagery and verbal labeling. In addition, other techniques are also used in rehabilitation, such as implicit tasks, speech and mnemotechnic methods.
So far, it has been proven that education techniques of compensatory strategies for memory disorders are effective in individuals with minor traumatic brain injuries. In moderately or severely injured individuals, effective interventions are those appealing to external aids, such as reminders in order to facilitate particular knowledge or skill acquisition. In reality, orientation techniques are also considered; their purpose is to enhance orientation using stimulation and repetition of the basic orientation information. These techniques are regularly applied in populations of patients primarily presenting dementia and head injuries.

Controversies

Episodic versus semantic memory
As described above, patients with anterograde amnesia have a wide range of forgetfulness. Declarative memory can be further subdivided into episodic and semantic memory. Episodic memory is the recollection of autobiographical information with a temporal and/or spatial context, whereas semantic memory involves recall of factual information with no such association (language, history, geography, etc.). In a case study of a girl who developed anterograde amnesia during childhood, it was determined that the patient ("C.L.") retained semantic memory while having an extreme impairment of episodic memory.

One patient, known by the codename "Gene", was involved in a motorcycle accident that damaged significant portions of his frontal and temporal lobes, including his left hippocampus. As a result, he could not remember any specific episode in his life, such as a train derailment near his house. However, his semantic memory was intact; he remembered that he owned a car and two motorcycles, and he could even remember the names of his classmates in a school photograph.

In stark contrast, a woman whose temporal lobes were damaged in the front due to encephalitis lost her semantic memory; she lost her memory of many simple words, historical events, and other trivial information categorized under semantic memory. However, her episodic memory was left intact; she could recall episodes such as her wedding and her father's death with great detail.

Vicari et al. describe that it remains unclear whether neural circuits involved in semantic and episodic memory overlap partially or completely, and this case seems to suggest that the two systems are independent. Both of the patient's hippocampal and diencephalic structures on the right and left sides were disconnected. When C.L. came to Vicari et al.'s office, her chief complaint was forgetfulness involving both semantic and episodic memory. After administering a battery of neuropsychological tests, Vicari determined that C.L. performed well in tests of visual naming and sentence comprehension, visual-spatial ability, and "general semantic knowledge about the world". They also noted an improved vocabulary and general knowledge base after 18 months. C.L.'s episodic memory, on the other hand, was far below expectations: She could not retain daily events, where she had gone on vacation, the names of places she had been, and other such information. However, this study and others like it are susceptible to subjectivity, since it is not always possible to clearly distinguish between episodic and semantic memory. For this reason, the topic remains controversial and debated.

Familiarity and the fractionation of memory
The right hippocampus is clearly necessary for familiarity in spatial tasks, whereas the left hippocampus is necessary for familiarity-based recollection in verbal tasks. Some researchers claim the hippocampus is important for the retrieval of memories, whereas adjacent cortical regions can support familiarity-based memories. These memory decisions are made based on matching already-existing memories (before the onset of pathology) to the current situation. According to Gilboa et al., patients with localized hippocampal damage can score well on a test if it is based on familiarity.

Poreh et al. describe a case study of patient A.D., whose damage to the fornix rendered the hippocampus useless, but spared adjacent cortical areas – a fairly rare injury. When the patient was given a test with something with which he had some familiarity, the patient was able to score well. In general, however, A.D. had severely impaired episodic memory, but had some ability to learn semantic knowledge. Other studies show animals with similar injuries can recognize objects with which they are familiar, but, when the objects are presented in an unexpected context, they do not score well on recognition tests.

Islands of memory
Patients with anterograde amnesia have trouble recalling new information and new autobiographical events, but the data is less consistent in regard to the latter. Medveds and Hirst recorded the presence of islands of memory – detailed accounts – that were described by such patients. The island memories were a combination of semantic and episodic memories. The researchers recorded patients giving long narratives with a fair amount of detail that resembled memories that the patients had prior to the trauma. The appearance of islands of memory could have something to do with the functioning of adjacent cortical areas and the neocortex. In addition, the researchers suspect that the amygdala played a role in the narratives.

Notable cases
The most famous case reported is that of patient Henry Molaison, known as H.M., in March 1953. Molaison's chief complaint was the persistence of severe seizures and therefore had a bilateral lobectomy (both of his medial temporal lobes were removed). As a result, Molaison had bilateral damage to both the hippocampal formation and the perirhinal cortex. Molaison had average intelligence and perceptual ability and a decent vocabulary. However, he could not learn new words or remember things that had happened more than a few minutes earlier. He could remember anything from his childhood. If the memory was created from before his lobectomy, he still had the ability to retrieve it and remember. However, he was able to learn some new skills. He was the first well-documented case of severe anterograde amnesia, and was studied until his death in 2008.

A similar case involved Clive Wearing, an accomplished musicologist who contracted a cold sore virus that attacked his brain, causing herpes simplex encephalitis. As a result, Wearing developed both anterograde and retrograde amnesia, so he has little memory of what happened before the virus struck him in 1985, and cannot learn new declarative knowledge after the virus struck him either. As a result of anterograde amnesia, Wearing repeatedly "wakes up" every day usually in 30-second intervals. He has a history of repeatedly recording these moments of waking up in his journal (e.g., On Sept 2, 2013, I woke up, etc. etc.) and crossing out prior entries, as if the other moments of waking up were not real. His episodic memory is nonfunctional (so he does not consciously recall having woken up 30 seconds prior). Clive is often elated to see his wife, as if he has not seen her for a while. Despite this, however, Wearing maintained his ability to play the piano and conduct choirs. This case is significant because it demonstrates declarative and procedural memory are separate. Therefore, despite anterograde amnesia preventing Wearing from learning new bits of information that can be explained in words (declarative memory), and also preventing him from storing new memories of events or episodes (also part of declarative memory), he has little trouble in retaining his musical abilities (procedural memory), though he has no conscious memory of having learned music.

Another case in the literature is Eugene Pauly, known as E.P., a severely amnesic patient (owing to viral encephalitis) who was able to learn three-word sentences. He performed better on consecutive tests over a 12-week period (24 study sessions). However, when asked how confident he was about the answers, his confidence did not appear to increase. Bayley and Squire proposed his learning was similar to the process required by procedural memory tasks; E.P. could not get the answers right when one word in the three-word sentence was changed or the order of words was changed, and his ability to answer correctly, thus, became more of a "habit". Bayley and Squire claim the learning may have happened in the neocortex, and it happened without the conscious knowledge of E.P. They hypothesized the information may be acquired directly by the neocortex (to which the hippocampus projects) when there is repetition. This case illustrates the difficulty in separating procedural from declarative tasks; this adds another dimension to the complexity of anterograde amnesia.

In fiction
Notable examples include Lucy Whitmore in 50 First Dates, Jonathan Archer in the Star Trek: Enterprise episode "Twilight", Joseph Gordon-Levitt in The Lookout, Kaori Fujimiya in One Week Friends, Chihiro Shindou in Ef: A Fairy Tale of the Two, Christine Lucas in Before I Go to Sleep, Gus in Remember Sunday.

Christopher Nolan's psychological crime film Memento (2000) contains a distinguished depiction of anterograde amnesia, in that the memory-impaired protagonist Leonard Shelby is trying to identify and kill the man who raped and murdered his wife, and does so through a system of writing crucial details related to the search on his body and on the blank spaces of Polaroid photographs. Mental health experts have described Memento as one of the most accurate depictions of amnesia in film history, an accuracy that was enhanced by the film's fragmented, non-linear structure that mimics the protagonist's memory problems.

Dory, the happy-go-lucky Regal Blue Tang from Finding Nemo (2003) and Finding Dory (2016), suffers from anterograde amnesia. While Dory forgets conversations within minutes of having them, she never quite forgets who she is, or the fact that she has short-term memory loss, and can therefore explain her bizarre behavior to those around her.

Ghajini (2008), a Hindi language film from India based on Memento, in which the main protagonist Sanjay Singhania played by Amir Khan has short-term memory loss, a variant of amnesia. In the film he is the one behind Ghajini, the killer of his fiancée Kalpana.
In the TV series Perception, an episode revolved around a crime victim with this condition. The main character Latro in Gene Wolfe's novels Soldier of the Mist, and the anime characters Vash the Stampede from Trigun and Index and Tōma from A Certain Magical Index had both retrograde and anterograde amnesia. The disorder has also been portrayed in music by English musician the Caretaker in Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia (2005) and Additional Amnesiac Memories (2006).

In the 1965 film 36 Hours, Rod Taylor plays Nazi Major Walter Gerber, a psychiatrist who has developed an effective method for treating German soldiers with what is now known as PTSDand for painlessly extracting information from Allied prisoners. The technique involves convincing patients that years have passed, the war is over, and that they have anterograde amnesia, which supposedly can be cured with talk therapy. A few days before D-Day, U.S. Army Major Jeff Pike (James Garner) is drugged, kidnapped and taken to what appears to be a hospital run by American Occupation Forces, where his appearance is altered overnight. Pike knows that the invasion is aimed at Normandy, not Pas de Calais, as the Nazi high command expects. He buys Gerber's explanation of anterograde amnesiausing the double doors of a wardrobe as illustrationand speaks casually of Normandy. Salt in a papercut alerts him to the horrible truth, and the drama proceeds from there.

In the 2011 the light novel Danganronpa Zero, the protagonist and "Ultimate Analyst" Ryoko Otonashi has anterograde amnesia as a result of "The Tragedy", keeping note of her memories by writing into a journal at all times and using her speedreading to keep herself up to date. Seen to be her boyfriend and "Ultimate Neurologist" Yasuke Matsuda, Ryoko witnesses a murder committed by Junko Enoshima, before being mistaken for wanted murderer and Tragedy perpetrator Izuru Kamukura by the "Ultimate Bodyguard" Madarai octuplets. After teaming up with the perverted "Ultimate Secret Agent" Yuto Kamishiro in an attempt to discover the perpetrator behind the Tragedy, Ryoko learns that she herself was personally involved in the event as the true Junko. The Junko she met having been her non-identical twin sister Mukuro Ikusaba (with whom she shared Matsuda as a boyfriend) attempting to trigger her memories, which Matsuda had been suppressing on Junko's own request both to clear her of suspicion in the events of the Tragedy, attempt to cure her depression, and a test to wipe the memories of others. Attempting to subdue Ryoko, Matsuda accidentally restores her memories of being Junko and being fatally stabbed, before wishing Junko success in her planned actions with Izuru and Mukuro: a collapsing world society and launching a "killing game".

In the 2016 video game Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Spirit of Justice, the character Sorin Sprocket is eventually revealed to have anterograde amnesia, which he developed after unintentionally causing a car accident which killed his sister. This causes his memories to completely reset every time he wakes up from sleeping, to the day after this accident. This depiction is notable for demonstrating the relationship issues that arise between Sorin and his fiancée, Ellen Wyatt, as a result of this disorder, most noticeably with how Sorin's feelings towards her comes across as distant and cold. As the storyline continues, however, the player comes to uncover that Sorin in fact deeply loves his fiancée, and is able to maintain this love despite his disorder, but in fact feels a sense of guilt over the fact that he has to constantly remind himself of the fact that this love exists inside of him every day, due to his disorder. It is also noticeable that it depicts how Sorin deals with his disorder, by keeping a journal where he writes down every detail of every day after his sister's death. He carries this journal around everywhere he goes as a substitute to his memories, and uses what is written in the notebook to become aware each time he wakes up of the fact that he has this condition, what the current date apparently is, and everything important that have apparently occurred on every day since he first developed the condition. The episode also deals with legal issues concerning the disorder, when it is debated during Ellen Wyatt's trial as to whether Sorin's journal can be considered a proper substitution to his memories for the sake of viable witness testimony. Dangers imposed by this also come into play when it is revealed that a page in Sorin's journal had been altered by someone, which causes him to go into a mental collapse, afraid that any of his other memories and thoughts could also have arisen from someone else's manipulation.

In the episode "Pimemento" of Brooklyn Nine-Nine, Adrian Pimento develops an artificial form of anterograde amnesia after being drugged by his therapist, which is the main plot point of the episode.

See also
Transient global amnesia
Patient N.A.

References

Other sources

 Weingartner, H., Parker, E. Memory Consolidation: Psychobiology of Cognition. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, 1984.

External links

Amnesia

Anterograde amnesia


Salvador Massip Valdés: geógrafo, pedagogo y notable profesor universitario cubano (1891-1978). Se destacó además como político, periodista y diplomático. Su obra representó un cambio radical en los conceptos geográficos aceptados en Cuba hasta ese momento. Enlazó los trabajos de los geógrafos cubanos precursores como Tranquilino Sandalio de Noda, Esteban Pichardo y Felipe Poey. Massip introdujo nuevos métodos en la enseñanza de la geografía en Cuba, entre ellos, las excursiones y trabajos de campo, además de situar al hombre entre los componentes del medio natural.

Síntesis biográfica
Nació el 19 de abril de 1891 en el poblado de Puerta de Güira, término municipal de Artemisa (ubicado entonces en la provincia de Pinar del Río,  actualmente en la Provincia de Artemisa), Cuba. Cursó las carreras de pedagogía, y filosofía y letras en la Universidad de La Habana a partir de 1909. Fue profesor de geografía e historia en el Instituto de Segunda Enseñanza de Matanzas en 1916. Posteriormente, cursó estudios de Geografía en la Universidad de Columbia, Estados Unidos, donde en 1922 alcanzó el grado de "Master of Arts". Comenzó a laborar como profesor en la Universidad de La Habana en 1924. Alcanzó el grado de Profesor Titular y fundó la primera cátedra de geografía de esta universidad y de Cuba en 1927, donde se desempeñó durante 40 años. Introdujo la asignatura de Geografía económica y creó un laboratorio de geografía, en la propia universidad. Más tarde fue decano de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras. Fue maestro de Antonio Nuñez Jiménez. En 1962, después del triunfo de la Revolución Cubana de 1959 fue uno de los miembros fundadores de la Academia de Ciencias de Cuba y el primer director del Instituto de Geografía y Geología adscrito a la Academia. Entre 1965 y 1969 fue también vicepresidente del consejo de dirección del primer Atlas Nacional de Cuba, publicado en 1970. Impartió conferencias sobre geografía en seis universidades extranjeras. Falleció en La Habana el 16 de octubre de 1978.

Actividad política
Fue declarado cesante en 1930 por oponerse a la dictadura de Gerardo Machado durante la Revolución del 30. En 1934 se reincorporó a la enseñanza universitaria, pero fue obligado al exilio en México por su participación en la huelga general de marzo de 1935. Se opuso al golpe de Estado del 10 de marzo de 1952, encabezado por Fulgencio Batista. Apoyó resueltamente la Revolución Cubana de 1959 liderada por Fidel Castro y después de su triunfo fue nombrado embajador en México y posteriormente en Polonia. En su actividad docente  supo concebir la enseñanza de la geografía en relación con el desarrollo socioeconómico y político, la historia y el sentimiento patriótico nacional de Cuba. Fundó la Cátedra "José Martí" en la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la propia Universidad de La Habana. Fue miembro del Partido Comunista de Cuba.

Honores
 Profesor Emérito de la Universidad de La Habana.
 Socio numerario y presidente de la Sociedad Geográfica de Cuba.
 Presidente de Honor del Instituto de Geografía de la Academia de Ciencias de Cuba.
 Recibió la Medalla "XX Aniversario del Moncada", otorgada por el Gobierno Revolucionario en 1973.

Obra publicada
Pronunció conferencias, escribió artículos en la Revista "Alrededor de la Escuela", la Revista de Instrucción Pública, y la Revista de la Educación, entre otras. Publicó trabajos en la prensa y varios libros. Entre sus principales obras se encuentran:

 Factores geográficos de la Historia de Cuba. Academia de la Historia y Geografía deMéxico. Imprenta el Avisador Comercial, La Habana, 1931
 Geografía Económica del Café. Editorial. Atalaya, La Habana, 1939
 Introducción a la Geografía Física. Imprenta Universitaria, La Habana, 1951
 La Geografía y su importancia en la resolución de los problemas planteados a la nación cubana. Imprenta Universitaria, La Habana, 1951
 Massip y Valdés, Salvador y Sarah E. Ysalgué. Elementos de Geografía Regional. Editorial Minerva, La Habana, 1957.

Cabe resaltar su participación notable en la dirección y como parte del colectivo de autores del primer Atlas Nacional de Cuba, publicado en 1970.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Salvador Massip Valdés en el sitio de EcuRed.

Geógrafos de Cuba

Salvador Massip Valdés


Kitsch, (Kiç diye okunur), tüketicilerinde (seyreden, izleyen, dinleyen, okuyan, bakan kişilerde) estetik etki yaratan ancak
herhangi bir sanat akımı kapsamında değerlendirilmesi mümkün olmayan ürünleri ifade eden bir sanat terimidir. Genellikle var olan bir tarzın "aşağı bir kopyası" olan sanatı sınıflandırmak, ifade etmek için kullanılmıştır.

Kitsch terimi, 19. yüzyılda Almanya'da ucuz ve popüler resimleri veya eskizleri betimlemek için kullanılmaya başlanmış ve ardından pek çok dile aynı kelime çevirisi yapılmadan kavramsal olarak yerleşmiştir. Modernist dönemde "taklit, popüler, değersiz, klişe, dekoratif ve kitlelere hitap eden" anlamında ve "yüksek sanat"ın karşısında konumlandırılmış ve olumsuzlama üzerinden neyin sanat olduğunu tanımlayan bir işlev de görmüştür. Zaman içinde hem anlamı hem kullanımı evrilen ve değişen kitsch, güncel sanatın benimsediği, kullandığı, ironisini sahiplendiği bir kavrama dönüşmektedir.

Kelime anlamı ve kökeni

Kitsch kelimesi, Almanca'ya ait bir kelimedir ve Fransızca'ya acotille  ya da art tape-à-l'oeil şeklinde çevrilmiştir. Ancak bu kelime, günümüzde tüm Avrupa dillerinde aynı şekilde ve aynı anlamda kullanılır. Sıfat olarak kullanıldığında, kitleler için tasarlanmış ve büyük çoğunluk tarafından beğenilen kültür ürünlerini niteler. İsim olarak ise bir zevk kategorisini tanımlar.

Bir görüşe göre kelime İngilizce'de gelişigüzel yapılmış karalama, müsvedde anlamına gelen "sketch" kelimesinin Almanca'da yanlış telaffuz edilmesinden doğmuştur. Bir başka görüşe göre Bavyera yöresinde yaygın olarak kullanılan ucuzlatmak, ayağa düşmek, bayağılaştırmak anlamlarına gelen, kimi yerel lehçelerde eski eşyadan yenisini yapmak, sokaktan çöp toplamak gibi anlamlar da kazanan "verkitschen" kelimesinden türemiş olabilir. Verkitschen fiilinden türeyen bu kavram, bir şeyin yerine başkasını satmak anlamına gelir.

Kitsch uzun zaman "çirkin", "rüküş", "zevksiz" gibi kelimelerle tanımlanmış, bu kelime akla kaba bir zevksizlik anıtı ya da kullanım eşyalarındaki gülünç ve naif bir tutumu getirmiştir. Ancak zamanla kitsch kavramının  "estetik zevkten yoksunluğu" değil, estetik kalitenin özel bir türünü nitelediği kabul edilmeye başlanmıştır.

Kavram, sanat dünyasına ilk olarak resim dalından girmiş, ardından edebiyat otoriteleri tarafından ele alınmış ve bazı eserler acımasızca eleştirilip "kitsch" ilan edilmiştir.  Mimaride kitsch yapıtlar, komik, yerine uygun olmayan, aniden insanın karşısına çıkmış bir şekil alırlar.

Sanat tarihinde kitsch
19. yüzyılda Almanya'da ve Avusturya'da yaygın olarak kullanılan kitsch  kelimesinin ilk olarak 1860'lar ve 1870'lerde Münih'in sanat piyasasında ortaya çıktığı ve kolayca pazarlanabilen, ucuz ve çokça rağbet gören resimleri ve eskizleri tarif etmek için kullanıldığı konusunda mutabakat vardır.   Dramatik etki, duygusallık, dokunaklı olma gibi özellikleri vurgulayan Romantizmin, kitsch ile yapısal olarak benzediği düşünülmektedir.  Kitsch'in özünü oluşturan şey onun açık uçlu belirlenemezliği,  bulanık "halüsinasyon" gücü, aldatıcı düşselliği, kolay bir katharsis vaadidir.  Kitsch, kendisini ironiye bırakır, bu da onun sanat alanında yeniden ortaya çıkmasına yön veren tarafı olmuştur.

Kitsch tanımlaması ve analizi oldukça zor bir kavramdır. Net ve katı bir tanımını yapmak neredeyse imkansızdır. Kitsch, modern estetiğin en şaşırtıcı ve en belirsiz kategorilerinden biridir; sanatın kendisi gibi kitsch de tek bir noktadan tanımlanamaz.  Kitsch, herkesin anlayabileceği yaygın bir dil konuşmalıdır. Kitsch kafa karıştırıcı değildir, her zaman doğrudan temsili kullanır.

Sanat eleştirmeni Clement Greenberg,  1939 yılında Partisan Review dergisinde yayımlanan "Avangard ve Kitsch" başlıklı makalesinde sanat ve kitsch'i karşıt iki kavram olarak ele almıştır: "Kitsch mekaniktir ve formüllere dayanır. Kitsch zamanımızda sahte olan her şeyin özüdür. Kitsch müşterilerinden paraları hariç hiçbir şey talep etmez – zamanlarını dahi". Kitsch, avangarda ve modernizme karşıt bir estetik anlamında yaygınlaşmaya bu makaleden sonra başlamıştır. Gillo Dorfles'e göre, "kitsch sanatın özelliklerini taşır, oysa gerçekte sanatın yanıltılmasıdır". Matei Calinescu'ya göre ise "Bütün kitsch kavramı, taklit, sahtekarlık, karşıtlık ve aldatma-estetiği etrafında döner."  Kitsch, gotik, rokoko ve barokun çağdaş biçimidir. Jean Baudrillard kitsch'i kültürel bir kategori olarak gerçek olmayanla, simülasyonla ve taklitle özdeşleştirir.  Yazar Milan Kundera'ya göre ise "Ne kadar aşağılık bulursak bulalım, kitsch insanlık durumunun vazgeçilmez bir parçasıdır."

Cool kitsch
"Kitsch! Kültürel politikalar ve beğeni" kitabının yazarları Ruth Holliday ve Tracey Potts'a göre günümüzde kitsch, "şüpheli geçmişinden sıyrılarak biyografisinin 'eğlence' aşamasına giriyor gibi görünmektedir" ve  "muhtemelen dokunmak için güvenli olacak kadar soğumuştur".

Cool kitsch, havalı-yapan-kitsch'tir ve havalı-yapan-kitsch, yoğunlaştırılmış bir kendi kendine yapım tekniğidir.  Bazı kitsch nesnelerini havalı bir şekilde sahneye koymaya ve yeniden değerlendirmeye yardımcı olan karmaşık manevralara dikkat etmektir, bir dizi gizlenmiş sınıf eylemini açığa çıkarır.

Nostaljik kitsch ve melankolik kitsch
Kültür tarihçisi Celeste Olalquiaga, Yapay Krallık kitabında, bilim ve endüstri tarafından dönüştürülen bir dünyanın ortaya çıkardığı kayıp duygularıyla ilişkilendiren bir kitsch teorisi geliştirir. Kâğıt ağırlıkları, akvaryumlar, deniz kızları ve Kristal Saray gibi örneklere odaklanan Olalquiaga, Benjamin'in "diyalektik görüntü" kavramını, daha yaygın olarak tartışılan "nostaljik kitsch" ten farklılaştırdığı "melankolik kitsch" in ütopik potansiyelini tartışmak için kullanır.

Bu iki tip kitsch, iki farklı bellek biçimine karşılık gelir. Nostaljik kitsch, "bilinçli veya uydurulmuş bir devamlılık duygusu için deneyim yoğunluğunu feda eden" "anımsama" yoluyla çalışır: "Anın yoğunluğunu tolere edemeyen anımsama, bir olayın kabul edilebilir kısımlarını seçer ve tamamlanmış olarak algılanan bir bellekte birleştirir. […] Yeniden inşa edilen bu deneyim, kendisinin bir amblemi olarak dondurularak kültürel bir fosil haline gelir."

Buna karşılık, melankolik kitsch, Olalquiaga'nın "bir nesne aracılığıyla yoğunluk ve dolaysızlık deneyimini yeniden ele geçirmeye" çalışan "hatıra" ile ilişkilendirdiği bir bellek biçimi olan "hatırlama" yoluyla işlev görür. Anımsama, hatırlanan bir olayı sembolik aleme çevirirken ("temsili anlam lehine dolaysızlıktan yoksun bırakılmış"), hatırlama "bilinçdışının anısıdır."

Kitsch kavramı üzerine bazı çalışmalar
Endüstri Ürünleri Tasarımcısı Sebahat Karcı, mimar ve akademisyen Emre Demirtaş ve İrem Uslu danışmanlığında yürüttüğü "Araştırma Tabanlı Tasarım Projesi" kapsamında kitsch kavramı üzerinden kent kimliği analizi yaparak İstanbul'a dair bir  "Kitsch Pop-Up Kitap" (üç boyutlu katlanabilir kitap) üretti (2019).

19. yüzyıldan bu yana anlamı değişikliğe uğrayan kitsch kavramı üzerine Ulya Soley küratörlüğünde İstanbul'da Pera Müzesi'nde bir grup sergisi açıldı (2021).< Sergide , Alex Da Corte ve Jayson Musson, Bruno Miguel, Cameron Askin, FAILE, Farah Al Qasimi, Gülsün Karamustafa, Hayırlı Evlat, Miao Ying, Nick Cave, Olia Lialina ve Mike Tyka, Pierre et Gilles, Slavs and Tatars ve Volkan Aslan'ın  yapıtları yer aldı.

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
 Camp
 Parodi
 Klişe

Sanat terimleri
Sosyal sınıf altkültürleri

Kitsch


Nevakürdi (Nevâ Kürdî), Klasik Türk müziğinde birleşik bir makamdır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 neva
 kürdi

Klasik Türk müziği makamları

Nevakürdi


أهل القمة هو فيلم مصري اجتماعي تم إنتاجه عام 1981، من إخراج علي بدرخان وقصة نجيب محفوظ وبطولة عزت العلايلي ونور الشريف وسعاد حسني وعمر الحريري ونادية عزت وصبري عبد المنعم، يدور حول الانفتاح الاقتصادي الذي تم في فترة السبعينات وتأثيره على المجتمع المصري من خلال ثراء أحد النشالين عن طريق الانفتاح الاقتصادي وتهريب البضائع من الجمارك وضابط يرفض زواج النشال من أخته ويسعى للإيقاع به.

روابط خارجية

المصادر

أفلام أخرجها علي بدرخان
أفلام إنتاج 1981
أفلام باللغة العربية
أفلام باللغة العربية في عقد 1980
أفلام دراما إنتاج عقد 1980
أفلام دراما مصرية
أفلام درامية 1981
أفلام سعاد حسني
أفلام عزت العلايلي
أفلام عمر الحريري
أفلام عن ضباط شرطة
أفلام عن لصوص
أفلام مصرية إنتاج 1981
أفلام نادية عزت
أفلام نجيب محفوظ
أفلام نور الشريف

أهل القمة (فيلم)


In law, ex parte () is a Latin term meaning literally "from/out of the party/faction of" (name of party/faction, often omitted), thus signifying "on behalf of (name)". An ex parte decision is one decided by a judge without requiring all of the parties to the dispute to be present. In English law and its derivatives, namely Australian, New Zealand, Canadian, South African, Indian, and U.S. legal doctrines, ex parte means a legal proceeding brought by one party in the absence of and without representation of or notification to the other party.

The term is also used more loosely to refer to improper unilateral contacts with a court, arbitrator, or represented party without notice to the other party or counsel for that party. The phrase was common in the titles of habeas corpus and judicial review cases until the end of the twentieth century, because those cases were originally brought by the Crown on behalf of the claimant. In Commonwealth common law jurisdictions, the title typically appeared as R v (Defendant), ex parte (Claimant); in the US, this was shortened to Ex parte (Claimant). A proceeding in an executive agency to establish a right, such as patent prosecution, can also be ex parte.

Australia
In Australian law ex parte is used in two senses. The predominant use is to refer to an ex parte hearing, being one which is heard in the absence of one or more parties. Where proceedings are heard ex parte, a high degree of candour is required, including full and fair disclosure of facts adverse to the moving party. A failure to make such disclosure is ordinarily sufficient to warrant discharge of such order as might be made.

The other use means 'on the application of' when used in the case name where prerogative relief is sought, such as a writ of prohibition, certiorari or mandamus. Thus for example the case name in the Boilermakers' case is R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia as the case concerned a writ of prohibition that was sought against Kirby, Dunphy and Ashburner, who were judges of the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration, on the application of the Boilermakers Society of Australia. While the case name is 'ex parte' it was not heard in the absence of a party, with the judges being represented by D I Menzies QC who also represented the Commonwealth Attorney-General. Similarly the case of Re Wakim; Ex parte McNally concerned application of McNally for a writ of prohibition in relation to proceedings in the Federal Court that were commenced by Wakim. Both McNally and Wakim appeared in the High Court.  There was however no appearance for the first respondents in the bankruptcy cases, the judges of the Federal Court.

United States
In the United States, the availability of ex parte orders or decrees from both federal and state courts is sharply limited by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, which provide that a person shall not be deprived of any interest in liberty or property without due process of law. In practice this has been interpreted to require adequate notice of the request for judicial relief and an opportunity to be heard concerning the merits of such relief. A court order issued on the basis of an ex parte proceeding, therefore, will necessarily be temporary and interim in nature, and the person(s) affected by the order must be given an opportunity to contest the appropriateness of the order before it can be made permanent.

There are exceptions to this. The secret Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, which grants the National Security Agency permission to perform certain types of electronic surveillance, operates on a permanent ex parte basis. Parties other than the government are not normally permitted to argue in front of the court, though it is possible for the recipients of court orders to challenge them in other ways. This is as directed by statute. Most US states also allow for initial hearings regarding civil protection orders to be done ex parte; however, a second hearing is usually set a short time later to allow the alleged abuser to answer for the allegations.  An article about such restraining orders, authored by Debra Stark and Jessica Choplin, indicated this concept in its title, "Seeing the Wrecking Ball in Motion: Ex Parte Protection Orders and the Realities of Domestic Violence".  The idea is that ex parte orders must be used in a "wrecking ball" type of situation, where giving advance notice to a respondent would allow him or her to cause irreversible damage before the notice takes effect.  Stark and Choplin argued that such damage would be possible if ex parte orders were not used for restraining orders, and that the very fact of an order being issued might increase the chance of the respondent causing damage.

The phrase has also traditionally been used in the captions of petitions for the writ of habeas corpus, which were (and in some jurisdictions, still are) styled as "Ex parte Doe," where Doe was the name of the petitioner who was alleged to be wrongfully held. As the Supreme Court's description of nineteenth century practice in Ex parte Milligan shows, however, such proceedings were not ex parte in any significant sense. The prisoner's ex parte application sought only an order requiring the person holding the prisoner to appear before the court to justify the prisoner's detention; no order requiring the freeing of a prisoner could be given until after the jailer was given the opportunity to contest the prisoner's claims at a hearing on the merits.

State trial courts

State courts vary in their use of ex parte proceedings (for example, in custody cases, replevin cases and other civil matters), though most have it in one form or another. For example, in the States of California and Illinois, ex parte proceedings are available if notice is given before 10 a.m. the previous court day, or even shorter upon showing of emergency need.  As most courts in these two states hold law and motion hearings in the early morning, this notice is typically confirmed by facsimile although oral notice may be effective.  Some courts in California have procedures to allow opponents to appear telephonically, while other courts do not allow any oral argument and only consider written papers. In California, the party who files an ex parte application must file a declaration showing compliance with these requirements, and no relief may be granted absent such declaration. In addition to the notice requirements, an ex parte application must contain an affirmative actual showing in a declaration based on personal knowledge of "irreparable harm, immediate danger, or any other statutory basis for granting relief ex parte".

United Kingdom
Before the Woolf Reforms, judicial reviews in England were cited Regina v [The Public Body] ex parte [Person], where the person was the one actually bringing the case. The 'Regina' (or Rex if the monarch is a male) refers to the sovereign in whose name all judicial reviews are brought. This derives from the petition for writs, which were in the name of the Crown. Since the reforms, cases are now named Rex (on the application of [Person]) v [The Public Body].

See also
Ex parte Endo
Ex parte Merryman
Ex parte Milligan
Ex parte Quirin
Inter partes
Temporary injunction
R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte Pinochet
R v Burgess; Ex parte Henry
R v Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration; Ex parte BHP
R v Department of Trade and Industry, ex parte Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematographic and Theatre Union
R. v. North and East Devon Health Authority, ex parte Coughlan

References

External links

Latin legal terminology
Civil procedure

Ex parte


الشاعر الليبي الكبير هاشم عبد الكريم الخطابية المريمي من قبيلة العبيدات الليبية والمشهور ب(هاشم بوخطابية).

ولد في نواحي طبرق عام 1887م وتوفى في مدينة طبرق يوم 16 أبريل 1967م. شارك في المعارك ضد الغزو الإيطالي لمدينة طبرق وكان يمتهن الفلاحة. شعرة يمتاز بطابع الخطابة والملحمي وطولها. من أشهر أشعارة ( السن , البير , البطنان , طبرق , يا دار , العين همدت ) .

شعراء شعبيون ليبيون
مواليد 1887
وفيات 1387 هـ
وفيات 1967

هاشم بوخطابية


12464 Manhattan este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
12464 Manhattan este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Kitt Peak National Observatory în cadrul proiectului Spacewatch. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,29 ua, o excentricitate de 0,06 și o înclinație de 7,4° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 12001-13000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1997
Centura de asteroizi

12464 Manhattan


Mariame Touré ou Mariama Touré, née en , est une syndicaliste et femme politique guinéenne.

Depuis le , elle est conseillère au sein du Conseil national de la transition (CNT) de la République de Guinée en tant que représentante des centrales syndicales.

Notes et références

Voir aussi
 Conseil national de la transition de 2021

Naissance en Guinée
Naissance en 1975
Étudiant de l'université Julius-Nyerere de Kankan
Membre du Conseil national de transition guinéen de 2021

Mariame Touré (1975)


The California Highway Patrol (CHP) is a state law enforcement agency of the U.S. state of California. The CHP has primary patrol jurisdiction over all California highways and roads and streets outside city limits, and can exercise law enforcement powers anywhere within the state. The California Highway Patrol can assist local and county agencies and can patrol major city streets along with local and county law enforcement, state and interstate highways, and is the primary law enforcement agency in rural parts of the state.

The California State Legislature originally established the California Highway Patrol as a branch of the Division of Motor Vehicles in the Department of Public Works, with legislation signed by Governor C. C. Young on August 14, 1929. It was subsequently established as a separate department with legislation signed by Governor Earl Warren in 1947. The CHP gradually assumed increased responsibility beyond the enforcement of the State Vehicle Act and eventually merged with the smaller California State Police in 1995. It is currently organized as part of the California State Transportation Agency (CalSTA).

In addition to its highway patrol duties, the CHP also provides other services including protecting state buildings and facilities (most notably the California State Capitol) and guarding state officials. The CHP also works with municipal and federal law enforcement agencies, providing assistance in investigations, patrol and other aspects of law enforcement.

The California Highway Patrol is the largest state police agency in the United States, with 11,000 employees, over 7,600 of whom are sworn officers, according to a study in December 2019.

The CHP gained international recognition in the late 1970s to the early 1980s through the broadcast of the TV series CHiPs, which chronicled the adventures of two fictional CHP motorcycle officers and served as technical advisors to the 1950s TV show Highway Patrol.

Duties
The agency is responsible for law enforcement on all California state routes (including all freeways and expressways), U.S. Highways, Interstate Highways and all public roads in unincorporated and incorporated portions of any specific county. Local police or the local sheriff's department having a contract with an incorporated city are primarily responsible for investigating and enforcing traffic laws in incorporated cities, but any peace officer of the CHP can still enforce any state law anywhere within the state, even though the agency's primary mission is related to transportation. Furthermore, CHP officers act as bailiffs for the California Supreme Court and California Court of Appeal, as well as providing security at buildings occupied by the State of California.

CHP officers enforce the California Vehicle Code, pursue fugitives spotted on the highways, and attend to all significant obstructions and accidents within their jurisdiction. They patrol in various vehicles including the 2014 & 2016 Ford Police Interceptor Utility, 2015 Dodge Charger and in 2015 Chevrolet Tahoes. The main vehicle that the CHP uses to patrol is the Dodge Charger Pursuit in the RWD V6 Police Package. The only Hemi V8 Chargers CHP have are in the EVOC unit used for training purposes. CHP Officers have been using some police cars from the early 2000s such as Ford Expeditions.

CHP officers are responsible for investigating and disposing of car accidents, disabled vehicles, debris, and other impediments to the free flow of traffic. They are often the first responders at the scene of an accident (or obstruction), and in turn summon paramedics, firefighters, tow truck drivers or Caltrans personnel. The CHP files traffic collision reports for state highways and within unincorporated areas. The CHP responds to and investigates all accidents involving school buses throughout the state including incorporated cities.

CHP also has Multidisciplinary Accident Investigation Teams (MAIT) for the investigation of traffic collisions.

Special responsibilities

The CHP also publishes data on traffic accidents in California from a database called SWITRS (Statewide Integrated Traffic Records System).

After the September 11, 2001 attacks the CHP became responsible for securing and patrolling a number of potential terrorist targets in California. These sites include nuclear power plants, government buildings, and key infrastructure sites. The CHP also maintains a SWAT team on 24‑hour stand‑by to respond to any terrorist activity.

In September 2005, the CHP sent its two Mobile Field Forces (highly trained and equipped quick reaction/deployment teams for civil disturbances and/or disasters) to the Gulf Coast to assist in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Before the National Guard arrived, the CHP had four patrol helicopters over Marianna, Florida, more than eighty vehicles on the ground, and more than 200 officers and other staff, including a SWAT team, deployed in New Orleans.

The CHP also has officers assigned to drug task forces and other criminal investigative task forces throughout the state, and maintains highly trained Warrant Service Teams (WST) throughout each of its Divisions. These teams serve high-risk felony arrest and search warrants generated as a result of CHP investigations, and the WST assists local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies to serve the same type of high-risk warrants. CHP investigators also work closely with agents of the State Bureau of Investigation, Office of the Attorney General.

Additionally, the CHP has dozens of narcotic patrol and explosive detection K-9 teams stationed throughout the state.

The California Highway Patrol's additional responsibilities includes a governor protection detail.

Somewhat controversially, the cities of Oakland and Stockton have contracted with the California Highway Patrol to assist their police departments with local patrol duties, including traffic stops and responding to 911 calls.

Pay and pensions
Average officer pay was $118,000 in 2014. By law, salaries are set by an average of the five largest police departments in the state. In 2012, the top paid CHP officer received $483,581, 44 other officers earning over $200,000, and over 5,000 officers receiving over $100,000. In 2011, CHP officers earned $82.4 million in overtime, triple the amount in the second largest state, and with one officer earning over $93,000 in overtime alone. Officers are strictly prohibited from working more than 16.5 hours at a time before having to take a minimum 8-hour break.

In 1999, Governor Gray Davis signed SB 400, which allowed CHP officers to retire at age 50 and continue receiving as much as 90% of their peak pay as a pension. This raised the pension earned for 30 years of service from an average of $62,218 to $96,270. Officers' average retirement age is 54. New officers have a retirement age of 57 in accordance with CalPers 2.7% at 57 formula. As of 2019, a new contract was negotiated with the state, causing officers to increase their contribution to the retirement plan by deferring any percentage over 3% of their annual raise towards their pension. This brings their contribution closer to a 50–50 split with the state, while boosting state contributions toward the officers' retirements from other sources.

Organization and accreditation

The CHP is led by the Commissioner, who is appointed by the Governor of California. The Deputy Commissioner is also appointed by the Governor and the Assistant Commissioners are appointed by the Commissioner.

On February 3, 2023, Acting Commissioner Duryee was appointed to Commissioner by Governor Gavin Newsom.

Hierarchy

 Commissioner of the Highway Patrol — Sean A. Duryee
 Office of Employee Relations
 Deputy Commissioner of the Highway Patrol — Troy D. Lukkes
 Office of Inspector General
 Office of Community Outreach & Media Relations
 Office of Legal Affairs
 Office of Internal Affairs
 Office of Risk Management
 Office of Equal Employment Opportunity
 Assistant Commissioner, Field Operations — Aniceto Ortiz
 Northern Division
 Valley Division
 Golden Gate Division
 Central Division
 Southern Division
 Border Division
 Coastal Division
 Inland Division
 Office of Air Operations
 Protective Services Division
 Capitol Protection Section
 Dignitary Protection Section
 Judicial Protection Section
 Assistant Commissioner, Staff Operations — Brandon S. Johnson
 Administrative Services Division
 Enforcement and Planning Division
 Information Management Division
 Office of Employee Safety and Assistance
 Personnel and Training Division

On November 20, 2010, the CHP received its initial accreditation under the CALEA Advanced Law Enforcement Accreditation Program. Upon receiving this honor, the CHP became the largest CALEA-accredited law enforcement agency in the nation.

On November 16, 2013, the CHP Academy was formally recognized as an accredited Public Safety Training Academy by CALEA, becoming the first accredited state police training academy in the nation. Additionally, the department succeeded in its bid for Advanced Law Enforcement reaccreditation, and remains the largest accredited law enforcement agency in the nation.

On November 22, 2014, the CHP communications centers were formally accredited by CALEA under the Public Safety Communications Agencies Accreditation Program. Having received this honor, the CHP became the first accredited state highway patrol in the nation to receive communications accreditation.

Having received accreditation status for its communications centers, the CHP became one of only two agencies in California to receive the CALEA TRI-ARC award, which is given to agencies having concurrent CALEA accreditation for their law enforcement, public safety communications and public safety training Academy. The CHP is one of nearly 20 agencies to have received this award.

Rank structure

Traditions
CHP uniforms are traditionally khaki-colored with campaign hat and blue-and-gold trouser stripe. Command officers wear a tan combination cap. The dress uniform includes a forest green jacket and royal blue tie (bow tie for motor officers). Cold weather and utility uniforms are dark blue. Leather gear is black basketweave leather with brass snaps and buckles.

Standard traffic enforcement patrol vehicles are required by state law to have a white door with, in the case of the CHP, a star. The CHP operates traditional black and white as well as all-white patrol vehicles.

The California Highway Patrol is one of the few organizations to continue to use the older toll-free "Zenith 1-2000" number. With the falling cost of telephone area code 800 and 888 numbers, most organizations have chosen to switch to one of the newer numbers and discontinue use of the Zenith service, which requires operator assistance. The CHP's traditions include its own radio codes, widely adopted by local agencies. The most important is 11‑99, which signifies that an officer needs emergency assistance or that an officer is down.

In 1981, a charitable foundation called the 11‑99 Foundation was founded to provide benefits and scholarships to officers and their families. The members of the foundation's board of directors have provided over $16 million in assistance to current, retired, and those fallen in the line of duty CHP employees and their families. The organization's name is taken from the radio code.

Fallen officers

Since its inception in 1929, 227 officers have died in the line of duty. The top three frequent causes of line of duty deaths to date are (in order of cause): Automobile/Motorcycle Accidents, Gunfire, and Vehicular Assault (i.e., struck by drunk driver, reckless driving, or hearing and/or visually impaired drivers). 1964 was the deadliest year, in which eight officers died in the line of duty; 1970 and 1978 were the second deadliest years, in which seven officers died in the line of duty.

Mexico Liaison Unit

The "Mexico Liaison Unit" is a Border Division Unit based in San Diego. Since the CHP has no jurisdiction directly in Mexico, officers from the Unit work closely with Mexican authorities to recover stolen vehicles and assist with other law enforcement issues. The purpose of the "Mexico Liaison Unit" is to develop and maintain positive working relations with Mexican authorities in order to:
 Locate and identify stolen U.S. vehicles taken to Mexico
 Identify vehicle thieves and ensure their prosecution, either in Mexico or California
 Provide assistance to Mexican and U.S. authorities

The unit was originally established in 1958 and only consisted of one officer. It was discontinued in the 1970s, and reestablished in 1980. The unit now consists of one sergeant and six officers, all of whom are fluent in Spanish.

Newhall Incident

On April 6, 1970, four California Highway Patrol officers were killed in a 4‑minute shootout in the Newhall region of Southern California. The incident is a landmark in CHP history because of both its emotional impact and the procedural and doctrinal reforms implemented by the CHP in the incident's aftermath.

The shootout occurred in a restaurant parking lot just before midnight. Officers Walt Frago and Roger Gore were alerted by radio of a vehicle carrying someone who brandished a weapon. They spotted the car, fell in behind, called for backup, and began the stop procedure. When the suspects' vehicle came to a halt in the parking lot, the driver was instructed to step out of the vehicle and spread his hands on the hood. Gore approached him and Frago moved to the passenger side. The passenger side door suddenly swung open and the passenger sprung out, firing at Frago, who fell with two shots in his chest. The gunman, later identified as Jack Twinning, then turned and fired once at Gore, who returned fire. In that moment the driver, Bobby Davis, turned and shot Gore twice at close range. Both officers died instantly.

When Officers James Pence and George Alleyn drove in moments later, they could not see suspects or other officers, but both immediately came under fire. Officer Pence put out an 11‑99 call ("officer in distress") then took cover behind the passenger door. Alleyn grabbed his shotgun, and positioned himself behind the driver-side door. Both officers were mortally wounded in the ensuing exchange, and one suspect was hit.

Suspects Jack Twinning and Bobby Davis escaped, later abandoned their vehicle and then split up. For nine hours, officers blanketed the area searching for the killers. Twinning broke into a house and briefly held a man hostage. Officers used tear gas before storming the house, but Twinning committed suicide with the shotgun he stole from Frago. Davis was captured, stood trial and convicted on four counts of murder. He was sentenced to death, but in 1972, the California Supreme Court declared the death penalty to be cruel and unusual punishment and in 1973, the court commuted his sentence to life in prison.

Of the incident, Ronald Reagan, who was governor of California at the time, said the following words: "If anything worthwhile comes of this tragedy, it should be the realization by every citizen that often the only thing that stands between them and losing everything they hold dear ... is the man wearing a badge."

A follow-up investigation eventually led to a complete revision of procedures during high-risk and felony stops. Firearms procedures have also changed fundamentally due to this incident, and physical methods of arrest have been improved. The police baton and pepper spray have been added to the officer's arsenal, with more in‑depth training in their use.

The 25th anniversary of the Newhall Incident was observed on April 6, 1995, at the present Newhall Area office, where a brick memorial pays tribute to Officers George Alleyn (6290), Walt Frago (6520), Roger Gore (6547) and James Pence (6885). The memorial once stood at the former Newhall office, but was rebuilt at the new site, about one mile (1.6 km) from the scene of the slayings.

History of the former California State Police and its Merger with the California Highway Patrol
On July 12, 1995, the California State Police, which was a separate agency, was merged into the CHP, thus greatly expanding the agency's mandate. In addition to safety on the state highway system, it is now responsible for the safety of all elected state officials and all people who work in or are utilizing a state building in California, such as the State Capitol Building in Sacramento.

It has also been discussed to merge the Law Enforcement Division of the California Department of Fish and Wildlife into the California Highway Patrol. By doing so, this may allow for better protection of California's environment and natural resources. The underfunded CDFW Law Enforcement Division has faced low numbers of Game Wardens also known as Wildlife Officers for the last ten years; a similar idea is already in place in Oregon and Alaska, where the Oregon State Police and Alaska State Troopers serve as game wardens under a separate fish and wildlife division within the two departments.

Firearms

The California Highway Patrol currently issues the Smith & Wesson M&P pistol, replacing the Smith & Wesson 4006 TSW.

Vehicles

Origins
When motor vehicles in California were first seen as needing legislation, law enforcement agencies began to patrol using motorcycles, cars and trucks. Motorcycle officers in 1920 Fresno, started a group to assist each other and promote road safety – the Joaquin Valley Traffic Officer's Association – led by Harry Wilson who they elected as president. They renamed themselves the California Association of Highway Patrolmen in 1921, and became the California Highway Patrol in 1927 under the auspices of the Department of Motor Vehicles.

Motorcycles

Through the public competitive bidding process, the Harley-Davidson Electraglide motorcycle was selected as the primary enforcement motorcycle for the California Highway Patrol in 2013.

These replacement enforcement motorcycles will replenish the department's aging motorcycle fleet. In a cost-saving move, the CHP previously deferred the purchase of replacement motorcycles and has not purchased enforcement motorcycles since January 14, 2011. As a result, approximately 20 percent of the current fleet has logged 100,000 plus miles – well exceeding the manufacturer's warranty.

CHP's motorcycle program enhances public safety. Motorcycle officers are able to effectively enforce traffic laws in areas in which enforcement by four-wheel vehicles is impractical. Motorcycles can access scenes of accidents and natural disasters more quickly and work commute traffic in way that is unique to the motorcycle. Additionally, motorcycles play a special role in dignitary protection.

The CHP has approximately 415 enforcement motorcycles working the roads throughout California. The CHP purchased 121 of the Harley-Davidson enforcement motorcycles to replace motorcycles that have high mileage or have been damaged in traffic collisions. As of June 2013, approximately 22 percent of the CHP's motorcycle fleet is over 100,000 miles with more than half of those over 125,000 miles. On average, a CHP enforcement motorcycle is driven 14,000 miles per year.

Early motorcycles used included Indian, Harley-Davidson and Henderson manufactured bikes during the 1920s and 30s; though by 1941, the main manufacturers used at the training academy were Harley-Davidson and Indian.

In 1998, CHP began using the BMW R1100RT-P, with features including a helmet interface for communications, two batteries, and a top speed of .

Patrol cars

The Department of General Services is responsible for selecting a vehicle based on price, performance and payload capacity for the CHP. The bid specifications require a pursuit-rated, rear-wheel drive or all-wheel drive that can carry at least 1,500 pounds, the approximate weight of four officers, their equipment, and the police vehicle equipment.

As of July 2013, CHP had not purchased patrol vehicles since January 2011 and their fleet was rapidly aging. On average, CHP patrol vehicles are driven 33,000 miles per year. Half of their 2,153-vehicle fleet had over 100,000 miles as of June 2013. After 100,000 miles, the warranty on CHP vehicles expires, forcing CHP to pay for maintenance costs. In July 2013, the CHP was authorized to purchase up to 751 new vehicles to begin replacing its aging fleet, starting with cars that have the highest mileage.

Through a public, competitive bidding process, the Ford Police Interceptor Utility Vehicle (Explorer) was selected as the new enforcement vehicle for the CHP in 2013. The Ford Police Interceptor Utility Vehicle is All Wheel Drive and powered by a V6, 3.7 Liter engine. It is a Flex Fuel vehicle that can use gasoline or E85 and gets 16 mpg city and 21 mpg highway.

Several Dodge Charger Police Packages were also purchased for testing.

The Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor averaged 14 mpg city and 21 mpg highway. The new Ford Police Interceptor Utility Vehicle costs $26,578, which includes a 5-year, 100,000-mile warranty. The department was paying $24,043 for the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptors and recently spent hundreds of thousands of dollars per month to maintain all vehicles no longer covered by warranty.
Several vehicles were allocated to public affairs officers and are used for recruiting purposes. An example of these vehicles can be seen at the California State Fair and other venues. The last Crown Victorias were retired in September 2020. CHP also uses Chevrolet Silverados, Dodge Rams (for commercial vehicle enforcement), Ford Expeditions, and Dodge Durangos for their divisions that experience snow frequently or have certain terrain that is inaccessible to sedan-based patrol cars.

In July 2016, it was announced that the CHP would be taking delivery of 516 2016 Dodge Chargers. These cars are hoped to be more reliable than the Ford Police Interceptor Utility Vehicle, which have been plagued with various recalls and breakdowns, most notably, transmission failures.

In 2017, it was announced that the CHP were going to start using Chevrolet Tahoe Police Patrol Vehicles (PPV) for rural and resident posts. This is because of their ability to carry a larger "basic load" of normal issue equipment, equipment that may be only in a few cars, and / or not carried by patrol cars at all, in a more urban setting.

As of 2023 the California Highway Patrol has officially rolled out its 2020 Ford Interceptor Utility Vehicles after a 3-year hold due to an issue involving the low-band frequency of the headlights which caused issues with the radios. During 2023 the average mileage of its in-service primary patrol vehicles ranged anywhere from 150,000 miles to nearly 400,000 miles proving the 2013-2019 Year Interceptor Utilities nearly as or more effective then the previous Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptors.

As it stands the highest mileage vehicle that was still used by the California Highway Patrol was a 2013 Ford Interceptor Utility ranking at 384,857 miles which had patrolled the California Nevada Border.

Aircraft

The CHP utilizes both helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft. As of October 2020, the fleet consisted of:

15 Airbus Helicopters (Eurocopter) AS350B3 Squirrels
8 Cessna T206H Turbo Stationairs
7 Gippsaero GA8 TC-320 Airvans
1 Raytheon (Beechcraft) B300 Super King Air
1 Cessna 208B Grand Caraven EX

Notable incidents

George Gwaltney
George Gwaltney, a former officer from Barstow, was convicted on May 10, 1984, in federal court for the on‑duty rape and murder of 23-year-old Robin Bishop on January 11, 1982. He had reported finding a dead body off a deserted stretch of interstate 15 the same day he murdered her with his service weapon. Gwaltney was tried twice for this murder at the San Bernardino County Court House. The first trial ended with the jury deadlocked 8–4 and the second 7–5. The district attorney attempted to try Gwaltney a third time, but a Superior court judge dismissed the murder charge. Since Gwaltney was allowed to go free for the first two state trials, the FBI took over the case. The FBI was able to piece together the events leading up to the murder and the on-duty rape of Robin Bishop and interrogating Gwaltney's alibi, Preston Olson and his mother. There was more forensic evidence that the FBI succeeded in getting to build their case against Gwaltney; soon his story started to fall apart. After the six-month investigation by the FBI, George Michael Gwaltney was arrested in Barstow and tried at the US District Court in Los Angeles. He was represented by a public defender who chose not to have Gwaltney testify as he had done in the previous two state trials. He was found guilty of the murder, rape and the deprivation of Robin Bishop's civil rights while on duty. He was the first California Highway Patrol officer to be charged with the indictment of violating the civil rights of Robin Bishop as well as being the first CHP officer known to commit a murder while on duty. Following the conviction, Gwaltney was subsequently sentenced to 90 years in prison, being eligible for parole after serving at least 30 years. Gwaltney died in federal custody from a heart attack in 1997.

Craig Peyer

Craig Peyer, a former officer from Poway, is serving a forty-year prison sentence for the on-duty strangulation and murder of 20-year-old Cara Knott on December 27, 1986. After she was killed, Knott's body was discarded over an abandoned highway bridge. Peyer was convicted of first-degree murder in 1988. Though he has maintained innocence ever since, Peyer has been denied parole consistently. In 2004, the parole board offered Peyer the chance to prove his alleged innocence by providing a DNA sample to compare against a drop of blood found on Cara's shoe, using modern DNA profiling. Peyer declined to provide a sample, nor explain why he declined to do so.

Pictures

In 2006, two officers forwarded photos taken of Nikki Catsouras, a teenager who died in a motor vehicle accident, to colleagues without authorization. These photos quickly spread on the internet. The family sued and reached a settlement in the case with CHP for $2.37 million in 2012.

Programs
The CHP hosts or partners with numerous programs for public safety education and community involvement.

Youth programs
 Start Smart – a class for prospective and new teen drivers
 Every 15 Minutes – a two-day anti-drunk driving presentation for high school students
 Impact Teen Drivers – a nonprofit against teen distracted driving that is partnered with the CHP
 Make the Right Turn – aimed at educating 11- to 14-year-olds about drugs and peer pressure
 California Highway Patrol Explorer Program – A law enforcement career exploration program for teenagers ages 15–21 years old who are interested in becoming a CHP Officer.
 Sober Graduation – promoting sober driving and the use of a designated driver for teens
 Red Ribbon Week – a week in October dedicated to education about the dangers of illicit drugs for students of all ages

Vehicle Theft Recognition and Awards Program
 10851 Award for Superior Efforts in Vehicle Theft Arrests and Recovery. The CHP developed the 10851 Awards Program to recognize the superior efforts made by CHP and allied law enforcement personnel who have met specified criteria toward the reduction of stolen vehicle crimes. This includes actual arrests made of suspects charged with California Vehicle Code Section 10851 – Vehicle Theft. The CHP, in conjunction with the California State Automobile Association, presented an estimated 2,009 awards in 1995 to the more than 170 allied agencies participating in the 10851 Awards Program.

Other programs
 Highway Safety Corridor Program – promoting caution on roads with high accident rates
 Senior Volunteer Program –  Citizens ages 55 and older can volunteer their time to help the CHP out in their community.
 Designated Driver Program – program to reduce drunk driving incidents through using a designated driver

Origins of the name
When the CHP was formed, there were discussions as to what to call this new agency. The consensus was for the name "California Highway Patrol". The American Automobile Association (AAA) is a private organization which provided, among other things, roadside assistance to their members. At that time, the AAA had a fleet of trucks which patrolled the roads so they could assist their members. These trucks carried a sign which said "Highway Patrol". The CHP organizers decided it would be best to contact the AAA to see if they would object to the state using this name. The AAA considered the idea, and gave their consent.

See also
 Highway patrol
 List of law enforcement agencies in California

References

Further reading
 Crane, Bob, California Association of Highway Patrolmen Golden Chronicle 1920–1970, (Sacramento, California: California Association of Highway Patrolmen, 1970).

External links

 CHP Traffic Incident Information Page
 CHP recruitment website
 California Association of Highway Patrolmen (CAHP) website

California Highway Patrol


Un gondolier este un barcagiu venețian care conduce o gondolă.

Gondolier se poate referi, de asemenea, la:
 Gondolier (album), album muzical din 1958 al cântăreței Dalida
 Gondolier (cântec), un popular cântec francez din 1957, popularizat de Dalida

Vezi și
 The Gondoliers, o operă din 1891 compusă de Gilbert și Sullivan

Dezambiguizare

Gondolier (dezambiguizare)


Giovanni Andrea Irico est un érudit italien, préfet de la Bibliothèque Ambrosienne à Milan.

Biographie
Giovanni Andrea Irico naquit à Trino, près de Verceil, le 6 juin 1704, et reçut dans sa famille la première éducation. Appelé bientôt à Casale, dans le Montferrat, par son oncle le chanoine Irico, qui était grand vicaire de l'évêque, il y fit sous sa direction les études de théologie, et fut ordonné prêtre. Il étudia ensuite pendant trois ans, aux frais de son oncle, le droit civil et canonique à l'université de Turin ; et en 1725, après la nouvelle organisation de cette université par le roi Victor-Amédée II, Irico, ayant montré une grande supériorité dans les examens qu'il eut à subir, reçut le grade de docteur. Un canonicat étant devenu vacant dans l'église collégiale du bourg de Livorno , près de Crescentino, il y fut promu. C'est dans cette solitude que, s'adonnant à des études solides et s'appliquant à méditer les ouvrages des Pères de l'Église, le jeune chanoine composa, en 1728, un ouvrage où l'on trouve un grand nombre de documents et de maximes tirés des Lettres de St-Jérôme aux dames romaines Paule, Eustochium, Læta, Celantia et Furia. Cet ouvrage, intitulé Specchio della dama cristiana formato con documenti cavati da varie lettere del dottore massimo san Girolamo opera postumia dell'abate Gian Andrea Irico, patrizio Trinese, fut publié pour la première fois à Turin, 1819, in-12. Irico, après avoir consacré plusieurs années à étudier l'histoire de son pays et celle de l'ancienne Lombardie, établit sa résidence à Milan, où l'appelaient plusieurs savants avec lesquels il entretenait des relations. C'est dans cette ville que, sous le nom d'Idrenio Anacaringio, anagramme de ses noms propres, il publia :

 Dialoghi tre sopra la descrizione di Milano del Latuada, Milan, 1738, in-8° ;
 Epistola ad Philippum Argellatum institutum edendi historiam urbis-Tridinensis exponens. Cette lettre fut insérée dans les Actes de Leipzig, en juin 1740, avec la suivante : Epistola ad comitem Antonium Simonetta patricium mediolanensem de veteri argenteo sigillo Mediolani reperto.

Ces trois ouvrages firent une grande réputation à Irico ; et, après qu'il eut été nommé membre de l'Académie palatine, fondée par le comte d'Archinto, celui-ci le créa, en 1748, directeur de sa bibliothèque et du magnifique établissement typographique qu'il avait dans son propre palais. Encouragé par ces avantages, Irico s'occupa de la publication de l'histoire de sa patrie, qui était l'objet de ses travaux depuis vingt ans, et fit paraître, sous les auspices de son protecteur :

 Rerum patriæ libri tres ab anno urbis æternœ 154, ad annum Christi 1672, ubi Montisferrati principum, episcoporum, aliorumque virorum gesta ex monumentis plurimis nunc primum editis recensentur : accedit dissertatio de sancto Oglerio, Locediensis monasterii abbate, cum figuris et indicibus, Milan, de l'imprimerie palatine, 1745, in-fol. L'auteur dédia ce grand ouvrage à son concitoyen le cardinal Millo. Les journaux littéraires, entre autres celui de Venise, ont fait un pompeux éloge de cette histoire, rédigée sur de nombreux documents.

Irico fut reçu en 1748 docteur au collège de la bibliothèque ambrosienne, et nommé l'un des préfets de ce riche dépôt de manuscrits. Tous les savants italiens, et parmi eux le comte Beccaria, Denina, Paciaudi, Lagrange, Bodoni, Amoretti, Valperga di Caluso, et particulièrement le laborieux Sassi et l'historien Filippo Argelati, auquel Irico adressa sa lettre latine en 1738, entretenaient avec lui une correspondance active. Sa réputation fut portée à un tel point que, en 1745, ayant aidé son ami Argelati pour la publication d'un grand ouvrage intitulé Bibliotheca scriptorum mediolanensium, cui accedit J.-A. Saxii historia litteraria typographica, 4 vol. in-fol., le seul nom d'Irico fut généralement annoncé ; et, en 1746, le professeur des écoles palatines, le savant Horace Bianchi, ayant avancé, dans un discours publié à Rome, que notre abbé était l'auteur de cette histoire, celui-ci, plein de délicatesse, s'empressa de désavouer cette allégation et de se plaindre du tort qu'on faisait à son ami Argelati.

L'amour de son pays décida notre historien à publier les deux ouvrages suivants :

 De sancto Evasio, Astentium primo episcopo et martyre, Casalensis urbis patrono, dissertatio historico-critica, Milan, 1748, in-4° ;
 Codex Evangeliorum sancti Eusebii magni episcopi et martyris manu exaratus, ex autographo basilicæ Vercellensis ad unguem exhibitus, nunc primum in lucem proditus, Milan, 1748, 2 vol. in-4°. L'auteur dédia cette dernière publication au cardinal delle Lanze, Vercellais d'origine. Il eut une longue contestation avec le P. Bianchini, de Vérone, qui prétendait prendre date pour la même publication ; et Millin, dans son voyage en Piémont, s'est déclaré pour le littérateur véronais.

Une polémique s'étant engagée, en 1751, entre le comte Rubini et l'abbé Irico, sur l'objet principal du mariage, celui-ci publia :

 Dissertazione sul fine primario del matrimonio a confutazione del conte Rubini, 1751 , in-8° ;
 Oratio habita in laudem Dominici Leonardi, Milan, 1751, in-8° ;
 Fragmenti antiqui lapidis Romæ effossi explicatio absque nota anni et loci.

Le comte Rubini répondit aux observations de l'abbé Irico, ce qui donna lieu à l'ouvrage suivant :

 Controreplica al signor conte Rubini sul fine primario del matrimonio, Milan, 1755, in-8°. Tiraboschi en fit l'éloge.

On doit à Irico aussi les ouvrages suivants :

 Riposta alla lettera publicata da don Paolo Onofrio Branda, chierico regolare di S.-Paolo, in difesa d'una brève inscrizione dedicata al conte Ludovico Archinto da G. -A. Irico, dottore del collegio Ambrosiano, le 20 juillet 1756, in-8°. Le moine Branda avait attaqué Irico d'une manière fort inconvenante ; celui-ci ne voulait point lui répondre, mais le comte Archinto lui conseilla d'en agir autrement.
 Vita dei SS. martyri Vitale ed Agricola, Milan, 1759, in-8°.

En 1764, la dignité de prévôt et de curé du chapitre collégial en l'église paroissiale de Trino étant devenue vacante, l'abbé Irico en fut revêtu le 9 mars de la même année. L'homme de lettres, le philosophe hésitait à abandonner le collège ambrosien pour aller dans son pays sacrifier sa tranquillité et s'embourber dans des procès de chapitre et de confrérie, comme s'exprime son ami, l'abbé Denina, dans ses Lettres brandebourgeoises. Ce fut l'amour de la patrie et cette tendance de l'homme avancé en âge pour sa terre natale qui prédominèrent ; et Irico accepta cette charge noble, mais difficile, dans laquelle il n'eut que des désagréments, pour avoir voulu rétablir l'ordre et la discipline dans l'administration de sa paroisse. Loin de sa bibliothèque ambrosienne, le prévôt Irico n'avait plus la force de s'occuper de littérature et ne pouvait plus se nourrir de la société savante dont il avait joui à Milan ; néanmoins, préoccupé toujours de l'histoire de son pays, il publia encore :

 Memorie degli atti e translazione di santo Cajo, papa e martire venerato nella chiesa di Palazzuolo pressa a Trino, con notizie del venerabile frate Bonaventura Relli, francescano reformato, che portò alla sua patria quel sacro tesoro, Casal, 1768, in-8°.

Depuis cette année jusqu'à sa mort, arrivée le 2 mars 1782, Irico, livré aux fonctions de son ministère, ne publia plus rien. L'abbé Biandrate, son successeur dans ses charges et dignités, lui éleva, dans le vestibule de la sacristie, une table de marbre sur laquelle on lit :

Le nombre des manuscrits inédits trouvés dans la bibliothèque de ce savant laborieux se monte à vingt-quatre ; la plupart se rapportent aux antiquités ecclésiastiques, et plusieurs mériteraient d'être publiés, notamment : Le antichità ecclesiastiche in opposizione a quelle dell'inglese Bingam publicate in Londra nel 1708 al 1722, 8 vol. Cet ouvrage important n'a pu être terminé par Irico, et Denina, son ami, qui l'avait examiné, en témoigna un vif regret.

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Naissance en juin 1704
Naissance à Trino
Décès en mars 1782
Décès à Trino
Historien italien
Décès à 77 ans

Giovanni Andrea Irico


El Jardín botánico de Marsella también Jardín Botánico E.M. Heckel () es un jardín botánico de  de extensión, dependiente administrativamente de la municipalidad de Marsella, Francia.

El adyacente Château Borély alberga el museo «Musée des Arts décoratifs, de la Faïence et de la Mode», inscrito como monumento histórico de Francia desde 1993.

El Jardín botánico de Marsella tiene código de identificación como miembro del "Botanic Gardens Conservation Internacional" (BGCI), y las siglas de su herbario es MARSM.

Localización

Jardin botanique E.M. Heckel Parc Borély, 48, Avenue Clot Bey, 13272 Marseille Cedex 8, Bouches-du-Rhône, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France-Francia.

Se encuentra abierto todos los días del año excepto los lunes, se cobra una tarifa de entrada.

Historia
Este es el cuarto jardín botánico que ha tenido la ciudad de Marsella. El primero de ellos fue establecido por René de Anjou cerca de la abadía « Abbaye Saint-Victor » como Jardin botanique des Chartreux.

El segundo fue inaugurado en 1802 por Joséphine de Beauharnais y dirigido por M. Gouffé de la Cour, pero desapareció en 1856 para hacer sitio para el trazado de un ferrocarril. El jardín fue luego restablecido en el parque Borély, en el sitio de la actual rosaleda, pero rápidamente fue juzgado como demasiado pequeño por su director, Édouard Marie Heckel.

En 1913 fue adquirido un terreno adicional al lado del parque, en el cual el jardín fue vuelto a instalar y nombrado en su honor.

Colecciones
Actualmente el jardín alberga unas 3,500 especies de plantas que se agrupan como :

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Página oficial de Jardin botanique E.M. Heckel
 Página del jardín botánico (Inglés) en el BGCI.
 Descripción en Gralon.net (Francés)
 Entrada en Parcs et Jardins en France (Francés)
 Entrada en Documentation Provence (Francés)
 Descripción en Petit Futé (Francés)
 Descriopción en Bloc.com (Francés)

Marsella
Marsella
Marsella
Marsella
Cultura de Marsella
Edificios y estructuras de Marsella
Urbanismo de Marsella
Francia en 1913

Jardín botánico de Marsella


Georgiens kvindefodboldlandshold repræsenterer Georgien i internationale fodboldturneringer. Georgien deltog i kvalifikationen til EM i fodbold for kvinder 1999, men trak sig ud af turneringen efter to kampe mod henholdsvis Jugoslavien (0–11) og Tyrkiet (0–1). Efter dette deltog Georgien ikke i EM-kvalifikationen før EM i 2009. Denne gang kom Georigen i gruppe med Tyrkiet, Nordirland og Kroatien. Georgien endte på sidstepladsen i gruppen uden nogen point.

Georgien vandt deres første landskamp den 11. maj 2009, da de vandt 3–1 mod Makedonien. De scorede også deres første mål det år i et 1-3 nederlag til Skotland i kvalifikationen til VM 2011. Georgien satte dog også en negativ rekord samme år, da Danmark slog dem 15-0 i VM-kvalifikationen. I de efterfølgende kvalifikationer til henholdsvis EM 2013 og VM 2015 klarede de heller ikke at komme længere end til den preliminære runde, hvor de endte på en tredjeplads begge gange.

Resultater

VM i fodbold for kvinder

EM i fodbold for kvinder

Referencer

Kvindefodboldlandshold
Kvindefodboldlandshold

Georgiens kvindefodboldlandshold