Leh () is a city in Indian-administered Ladakh in the disputed Kashmir region.   It is the largest city and the joint capital of Ladakh. Leh, located in the Leh district, was also the historical capital of the Kingdom of Ladakh. The seat of the kingdom, Leh Palace, the former residence of the royal family of Ladakh, was built in the same style and about the same time as the Potala Palace in Tibet. Since they were both constructed in a similar style and at roughly the same time, the Potala Palace in Tibet and Leh Palace, the royal residence, are frequently contrasted. It's crucial to keep in mind, though, that Leh Palace lacks the same grandeur and historical significance as the Potala Palace. Although the assertion regarding the architectural period and timeline is frequently made. Leh is at an altitude of , and is connected via National Highway 1 to Srinagar in the southwest and to Manali in the south via the Leh-Manali Highway (part of National Highway 3).

Etymology

History

Leh was for centuries an important stopover on trade routes along the Indus Valley between Tibet, Kashmir, India and China. The main goods carried were salt, grain, pashm or cashmere wool, charas or cannabis resin from the Tarim Basin, indigo, silk yarn and Banaras brocade.

Although there are a few indications that the Chinese knew of a trade route through Ladakh to India as early as the Kushan period (1st to 3rd centuries CE), and certainly by the Tang dynasty, little is actually known of the history of the region before the end of the 10th century, when Tibetan prince Skyid lde nyima gon (or Nyima gon), a grandson of the anti-Buddhist Tibetan king, Langdarma (r. c. 838 to 841), founded the kingdom. He conquered Western Tibet, although his army originally numbered only 300 men. Several towns and castles are said to have been founded by Nyima gon, and he apparently ordered the construction of the primary sculptures at Shey. "In an inscription, he says he had them made for the religious benefit of the Tsanpo (the dynastical name of his father and ancestors), and of all the people of Ngaris (Western Tibet). This shows that already in this generation Langdarma's opposition to Buddhism had disappeared." Shey, 15 km east of modern Leh, was the ancient seat of the Ladakhi kings.

During the reign of Delegs Namgyal (1660–1685), the nawab of Kashmir, then a province in the Mughal Empire, arranged for the Mongol army to temporarily leave Ladakh, though it returned later. As payment for assisting Delegs Namgyal in the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal War of 1679–1684, the nawab made a number of onerous demands. One of the least was construction of a large Sunni Muslim mosque in Leh, at the upper end of the bazaar in Leh below Leh Palace. The mosque reflects a mixture of Islamic and Tibetan architecture and can accommodate more than 500 people. This was apparently not the first mosque in Leh; there are two smaller ones that are said to be older.

Trade routes have traditionally converged on Leh from all four directions. The modern highway follows the most direct route from the Punjab via Mandi, the Kulu valley, the Rohtang Pass, and Lahaul to the Indus Valley, then downriver to Leh. The route from Srinagar was roughly the same as the road that today crosses the Zoji La (pass) to Kargil, then up the Indus Valley to Leh. From Baltistan there were two difficult routes: the main one ran up the Shyok Valley from the Indus, over a pass and then down the Hanu River to the Indus again below Khalsi (Khalatse). The other ran from Skardu straight up the Indus to Kargil and on to Leh. Both summer and winter routes ran from Leh to Yarkand via the Karakoram Pass and Xaidulla. A couple of possible routes also ran from Leh to Lhasa.

The first recorded royal residence in Ladakh, built at the top of the high Namgyal ('Victory') Peak overlooking the present palace and town, is the now-ruined fort and gon-khang (Temple of the Guardian Divinities) built by King Tashi Namgyal. Tashi Namgyal ruled in the final quarter of the 16th century CE. The Namgyal (also called "Tsemo Gompa" (Red Gompa), or dGon-pa-so-ma (New Monastery), a temple, is the main Buddhist centre in Leh. There are some older walls of fortifications behind it which Francke reported were once known as the "Dard Castle." If it was indeed built by Dards, it must pre-date the establishment of Tibetan rulers in Ladakh over a thousand years ago.
The Sankar Labrang (Bsam dkar bla brang) is a small, two-storeyed building owned by Sankar monastery. Sankar monastery is the seat of Bakula Rinpoche, immediately to the northwest of Leh. The monastery's Labrang building is located in the old town of Leh, in the Manikhang neighbourhood. Manikhang is the area between the main bazaar of Leh and the historic Stalam path that leads up to the royal palace. Four huge stūpas standing at this point mark the beginning of historic Leh. In recent memory, the Sankar Labrang had a metalsmith's workshop downstairs, while upstairs lived the monk caretaker of the White Maitreya Temple (Byams khang dkar po), also known locally as "Street Maitreya". The White Maitreya Temple dates back to the reign of King Drakpa Bumd´e (Grags pa 'bum lde, r. ca 1410–1435), following the arrival of a mission sent to Ladakh by the Tibetan lama Tsongkhapa.
Below this are the Chamba (Byams-pa, i.e., Maitreya) and Chenresi (sPyan-ras-gzigs, i.e. Avalokiteshvara) monasteries which are of uncertain date.

Leh Palace

The royal palace, known as Leh Palace, was built by King Sengge Namgyal (1612–1642), presumably between the period when the Portuguese Jesuit priest Francisco de Azevedo visited Leh in 1631, and made no mention of it, and Sengge Namgyal's death in 1642.

The Leh Palace is nine storeys high; the upper floors accommodated the royal family, and the stables and storerooms are located on the lower floors. The palace was abandoned when Kashmiri forces besieged it in the mid-19th century. The royal family moved their premises south to their current home in Stok Palace on the southern bank of the Indus River.

As has already been mentioned, the original name of the town was not sLel, as it is nowadays spelled, but sLes, which signifies an "encampment of nomads". These [Tibetan] nomads probably visited the Leh valley at when it began to be irrigated by Dard colonisers. The most ancient part of the ruins, atop rNam-rgyal-rtse-mo hill, are called 'aBrog-pal-mkhar (Dard castle).

In 2010, Leh was heavily damaged by the sudden floods caused by a cloud burst.

Administration
The Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council (LAHDC) is in charge of governance in Leh.

It has 30 councillors, 4 nominated and 26 elected. The Chief Executive Councillor heads and chairs this council. The Deputy Commissioner of Leh also holds the power of Chief Executive Officer of the LAHDC. The current Deputy Commissioner of Leh district is Santosh Sukhdeve.

Leh Old Town

The old town of Leh was added to the World Monuments Fund's list of 100 most endangered sites due to increased rainfall, due to climate change among other reasons. Neglect and changing settlement patterns in the old town have also threatened the long-term preservation of the site.

The rapid and poorly planned urbanisation of Leh has increased the risk of flash floods in some areas, while other areas, according to research by the Climate and Development Knowledge Network, suffer from the less dramatic, gradual effects of 'invisible disasters', which often go unreported.

Geography

The city is located on the bank of the Indus River. The mountains dominate the landscape around the Leh, as it is at an altitude of 3,500m. Peaks such as Nanga Sago can reach well above 5,500m. The principal access roads include the 434 km Srinagar-Leh highway and the 428 km Leh-Manali Highway. Both roads are only open on a seasonal basis. Although the roads from Srinagar and Manali are often blocked by snow in winter, the local roads in the Indus Valley usually remain open due to the low levels of snowfall.

Climate
Leh has a cold desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWk) with long, cold winters from late November to early March, with minimum temperatures well below freezing for most of the winter. The city gets occasional snowfall during winter, which is very cold by Indian standards, mainly due to its high elevation. The weather in the remaining months is generally fine and warm during the day. Average annual rainfall is only 35 mm (1.37 inches). In 2010, the city experienced flash floods that killed more than 100 people.

Agriculture

Leh is located at an average elevation of about 3500 metres, which means that only one crop a year can be grown there, while two can be grown at Khalatse. By the time crops are being sown at Leh in late May, they are already half-grown at Khalatse. The main crop is grim (naked barley, Hordeum vulgare L. var. nudum Hook. f., an ancient form of domesticated barley with an easier-to-remove hull. Tsampa, the staple food in Ladakh, is made from this barley. The water for agriculture of Ladakh comes from the Indus, which runs low in March and April when barley-fields have the greatest need for irrigation. Grapes, apricots, currants, walnuts, and apples are also grown in the arid temperate climate.

Demographics

As of the 2011 India census, Lehhad a population of 30,870. Males constituted 70% of the population and females 30%, due to a large presence of transient labourers, traders and government employees. The child sex ratio was 987. Leh had an average literacy rate of 90%, higher than the national average of 74.04%; male literacy was 94.89%, and female literacy was 78.85%. In Leh, 5.5% of the population was under 6 years of age. The people of Leh are ethnic Tibetans who speak
Ladakhi, a Tibetic language.

The Muslim presence dates back to the annexation of Ladakh by Kashmir, after the Fifth Dalai Lama came to Ladakh from Tibet. Since then, there has been further migration from the Kashmir Valley, due to trade and recently to the transfer of tourism from the Kashmir Valley to Ladakh.

Ladakh receives very large numbers of tourists for its size. In 2010, 77,800 tourists visited Leh. Visitor numbers have swelled rapidly in recent years, increasing 77% from 2005 to 2010. This growth is largely caused by an increase in domestic Indian travellers.

Religion
Buddhism is the largest religion in Leh, followed by over 43.8% of people. Hinduism is the second-largest religion with 35.4% adherents. Islam and Sikhism form 15.14% and 2.7% of the population respectively.

Since the 8th century, people of different religions, particularly Buddhism and Islam, have lived in Leh. They co-inhabited the region from the early Namgyal dynasty and there are no records of any conflict between them. Meer Izzut-oollah wrote in the early 19th century:

This mosque was built by Ibraheem Khan (in the mid 17th century), who was a man of noble family in the service of the descendants of Timoor. In his time the Kalimaks (Calmuck Tartars), having invaded and obtained possession of the greater portion of Thibet [Ladakh], the Raja of that country claimed protection from the Emperor of Hindoostan. Ibraheem Khan was accordingly deputed by that monarch to his assistance, and in a short time succeeded in expelling the invaders and placing the Raja once more on his throne. The Raja embraced the Mahomedan faith, and formally acknowledged himself as a feudatory of the Emperor, who honored him with the title of Raja Akibut Muhmood Khan, which title to the present day is borne by the Ruler of Cashmere.

In recent times, Muslim migration to Leh from neighbouring Kargil and Kashmir has increased due to better opportunities, and relations between the Buddhist and Muslim communities have soured due to socio-political conflicts.

Other religions such as Christianity, Hinduism and Sikhism do exist in Leh. The small Christian community in Leh descend from Tibetan Buddhists converted by German Moravian missionaries, who established a church at Keylong in Lahaul in the 1860s, and were allowed to open another mission in Leh in 1885 and had a sub-branch in Khalatse. They stayed until Indian Independence in 1947. In spite of their successful medical and educational activities, they were able to make only a few converts.

Every year Sindhu Darshan Festival is held at Shey, 15 km from town, to promote religious harmony and the glory of the Sindhu river. Many tourists come to Leh for this.

Attractions

In Leh

Leh Palace
Namgyal Tsemo Gompa
Shanti Stupa
Cho Khang Gompa
Chamba Temple
Jama Masjid
Gurdwara Pathar Sahib
Sankar Gompa and village
War Museum
The Victory Tower
Zorawar Fort
Ladakh Marathon
Datun Sahib
Ice Stupa

Transportation

Road
Leh is connected to the rest of India by two high-altitude roads, both of which are subject to landslides and impassable in winter due to snows. The National Highway 1 from Srinagar via Kargil is generally open longer. The Leh-Manali Highway can be troublesome due to very high passes and plateaus. A third road is under construction.

National Highway 1
The overland approach to Ladakh from the Kashmir valley via the 434-km. National Highway 1 typically remains open for traffic from April/May to October/November. The most dramatic part of this journey is the ascent up the  Zoji-la, a tortuous pass in the Great Himalayan Wall. The Jammu and Kashmir State Road Transport Corporation (JKSRTC) operates regular deluxe and ordinary bus services between Srinagar and Leh on this route, with an overnight halt at Kargil. Taxis (cars and jeeps) are also available at Srinagar for the journey.

National Highway 3 or Leh-Manali Highway
Since 1989, the  Leh-Manali Highway has served as the second land approach to Ladakh. Open from June to late October, this high road traverses the upland desert plateaux of Rupsho, whose altitude ranges from  to . There are a number of high passes en route among which the highest one, known as Tanglang La, is sometimes incorrectly claimed to be the world's second-highest motorable pass at an altitude of

Nimmu–Padam–Darcha road

This third road to Leh is currently under construction.

Air

Leh Kushok Bakula Rimpochee Airport has flights to and fro Delhi, Jammu, Srinagar and Chandigarh. Air India, Go First, IndiGo & Vistara operate Delhi to Leh daily with multiple flights at peak times.

Rail
There is currently no railway service in Ladakh, however two railway routes are proposed: the Bhanupli–Leh line and Srinagar–Kargil–Leh line.,

Banking facilities
List of functioning banks in Leh
State Bank of India, Leh
HDFC Bank, Leh
Axis Bank, Leh
IDBI Bank, Leh

Media and communications
State-owned All India Radio Leh has a local station in Leh, which transmits various programs of mass interest. Leh head post office owned by India Post also serves as a major means of communications. On 14 December 2021, the first FM radio station in Ladakh was established in Leh.

See also
Sonmarg
Ladakh
Dal Lake
Mughal Road
Gulmarg
Pahalgam
Gangabal
Zanskar
Kargil

Footnotes

References
Alexander, André, and Van Shaik, Sam. (2011). The Stone Maitreya of Leh: The Rediscovery and Recovery of an Early Tibetan Monument.. JRAS, Series 3, 21, 4(2011), pp. 421–439.Janet Rizvi. Ladakh: Crossroads of High Asia. Second Edition. (1996). Oxford University Press, Delhi. .
Cunningham, Alexander. (1854). LADĀK: Physical, Statistical, and Historical with Notices of the Surrounding Countries. London. Reprint: Sagar Publications (1977).
Francke, A. H. (1977). A History of Ladakh. (Originally published as, A History of Western Tibet, (1907)). 1977 Edition with critical introduction and annotations by S. S. Gergan & F. M. Hassnain. Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.
Francke, A. H. (1914). Antiquities of Indian Tibet''. Two Volumes. Calcutta. 1972 reprint: S. Chand, New Delhi.

External links
Visit Ladakh Daily website – Ladakh Leading News Website
Population Figures
City of Leh Thrives as Oasis of Peace in Kashmir

Ladakh
Cities and towns in Leh district
Indian union territory capitals
Geography of Ladakh

Leh


Olaylar

Doğumlar

Ölümler
 Bavyeralı Grimoald, Bavyera Düklüğü'nü yöneticisi
 İkrime, Tabiin döneminde yaşamış muhaddis ve müfessir.
 Kâsım bin Muhammed, Ebu Bekir'in torunu (d. 653)

725


Ugarsko-poljska kronika (lat. Chronicon Hungarico-Polonicum), srednjovjekovna kronika koja postoji u dvije redakcije. Njen puni naslov je "Kronika Mađara povezana i pomiješana s kronikom Poljaka i životom svetog Stjepana (Cronica Ungarorum juncta et mixta cum cronicis Polonorum, et vita sancti Stephani). Original je napisan u 13. stoljeću na dvoru hrvatskog hercega i galičkog kralja Kolomana. Nakon 1241. godine, originalni rukopis odnijela je Kolomanova udovica, Salomea, u Poljsku.

Tekst kronike je kompilacija usmene predaje i legendi te obiluje povijesnim netočnostima.

Sadržaj kronike kreće se vremenski od vladavine kralja "Akvile" (Atila) pa do vladavine kralja Ladislava I. Kronika donosi i legendu o nasilnoj smrti kralja "Kazimira" (Zvonimir), u kojoj se očituje utjecaj usmene povijesne predaje, preuzete s hrvatskih prostora. Kronika opisuje kako je ugarski kralj Akvila odlučio osvetiti smrt hrvatskog kralja Kazimira, kojeg su "sramotno izdali i ubili" Hrvati. Po dolasku ugarske vojske na čelu s Akvilom, na granicu Hrvatske i Slavonije, odnosno, "između rijeka Save i Drave", došli su pred njega "prvaci Hrvatske i Salvonije" i zametnuli "veliku bitku", koja je trajala osam dana, nakon čega je pobijedio i zauzeo zemlju.

U daljnjem tekstu, navodi se da Hrvatska obiluje pašnjacima i puna je "pastira i ovaca, odnosno goveda i neukroćene ždrebadi", uz dodatak da je "kralj Slavonije i Hrvatske" imao svoju prijestolnicu na morskoj obali, u gradu Splitu.

Izvori za hrvatsku povijest
Kronika
Povijest Mađarske
Povijest Poljske

Ugarsko-poljska kronika


Peter Bogdanovich () a fost un regizor, scenarist, actor, producător, critic și istoric de film american. El face parte din valul de regizori "Noul Hollywood", iar filmul său cel mai cunoscut și mai elogiat critic este drama The Last Picture Show (1971).

Bogdanovich a regizat, de asemenea, thrillerul Targets (1968), comedia de situații What's Up, Doc? (1972), drama cu accente comice Paper Moon (1973), They All Laughed (1981), drama Mask (1985) și The Cat's Meow (2001). Filmul său cel mai recent, She's Funny That Way, a fost lansat în 2014.

Cariera

Tinerețea
Bogdanovich s-a născut în Kingston, New York, ca fiu al Hermei (născută Robinson; 1904-1978) și a pianistului și pictorului Borislav Bogdanovich (1899-1970). Mama sa originară din Austria era evreică (familia ei s-a mutat de la Viena la Zagreb, Iugoslavia în 1932), în timp ce tatăl său era un sârb creștin ortodox; cei doi au sosit în SUA în mai 1939. Peter a absolvit Collegiate School din New York în 1957 și a studiat actoria la Stella Adler Conservatory. El vorbește fluent limba sârbă, pe care a învățat-o înainte de învăța limba engleză.

Critic de film
Bogdanovich a fost influențat de criticii francezi din anii 1950, care au scris în revista Cahiers du Cinéma, mai ales de criticul devenit regizor François Truffaut. Înainte de a deveni regizor el însuși, Bogdanovisch și-a construit o reputație de critic de film cu articolele publicate în Esquire. Aceste articole au fost adunate în volumul Pieces of Time (1973).

Mutarea la Los Angeles și Roger Corman
În 1966, urmând exemplul criticilor revistei Cahiers du Cinéma Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol și Éric Rohmer, care au creat Nouvelle Vague ("Noul val francez") și au făcut propriile lor filme, Bogdanovich a decis să devină regizor. Împreună cu soția lui, Polly Platt, a plecat spre Los Angeles, trăind o perioadă în chirie.

Revenind la jurnalism, Bogdanovich a început o relație de prietenie cu Orson Welles în timp ce l-a intervievat pe platoul filmului Catch-22 (1970) al lui Mike Nichols. Bogdanovich a jucat un rol important în cunoașterea vieții și carierei lui Welles prin cărțile sale despre actorul-regizor, mai ales cartea This is Orson Welles (1992). La începutul anilor 1970, când Welles avea probleme financiare, Bogdanovich l-a lăsat să locuiască timp de câțiva ani în conacul lui din Bel Air.

În 1970 Bogdanovich a primit o comandă de la Institutul American de Film pentru a regiza un documentar despre John Ford ca un omagiu adus marelui regizor, Directed by John Ford (1971). Filmul rezultat a inclus interviuri sincere cu John Wayne, James Stewart și Henry Fonda și a fost narat de Orson Welles. Scos din circuit timp de ani de zile din cauza problemelor legate de drepturi de autor, a fost relansat de Bogdanovich și TCM în 2006, cu secvențe noi și cu interviuri suplimentare cu Clint Eastwood, Walter Hill, Harry Carey Jr., Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg și alții.

Trei hituri
O mare parte a inspirației cinematografice a lui Bogdanovich a provenit de la primele vizionări ale filmului Cetățeanul Kane. Într-un interviu cu Robert K. Elder, autorul cărții The Film That Changed My Life, Bogdanovich a explicat aprecierea sa pentru creația lui Orson Welles:Nu e ca orice alt film pe care îl știi. E primul film modern: fragmentat, nepovestit direct, sărind împrejur. El anticipează tot ce se face acum și de aceea este considerat a fi atât de modern. Totul a devenit acum foarte decadent, dar atunci a fost cu siguranță proaspăt.Bogdanovich, aflat atunci la vârsta de 32 de ani, a fost descris de critici ca fiind o minune "wellesiană" în 1971, atunci când a fost lansat filmul său cel mai bine primit, The Last Picture Show. Filmul a obținut opt nominalizări la premiul Oscar, inclusiv pentru cel mai bun regizor, și a câștigat două premii, pentru Cloris Leachman și Ben Johnson la categoria cea mai bună actriță / cel mai bun actor în rol secundar. Bogdanovici a scris scenariul în colaborare cu Larry McMurtry și a câștigat în 1971 premiul BAFTA pentru cel mai bun scenariu. Bogdanovich a distribuit în rolul principal un tânără de 21 de ani, fotomodelul Cybill Shepherd, de care s-a îndrăgostit ulterior. Această relație a condus în cele din urmă la divorțul său de Polly Platt, vechea sa colaboratoare în plan artistic și mama celor două fiice ale lui.

După The Last Picture Show a realizat comedie populară Ce se întâmplă, doctore?  (1972), cu Barbra Streisand și Ryan O'Neal, o comedie de situații asemănătoare cu Bringing Up Baby (1938) și His Girl Friday (1940) ale lui Hawks. În timp ce a adus un omagiu cinematografului din Epoca de Aur, Bogdanovich și-a consolidat statutul său ca membru al noului grup de regizori, care i-a inclus pe câștigătorii premiului Oscar Francis Ford Coppola și William Friedkin, cu care a fondat The Directors Company. The Directors Company a încheiat un acord generos e producție cu Paramount Pictures, care le-a oferit regizorilor mână liberă cu condiția să se încadreze în bugetul stabilit anterior. Prin intermediul acestei companii a fost produs filmul Paper Moon (1973) al lui Bogdanovich.

Paper Moon, o comedie petrecută în timpul Marii crize economice, i-a avut ca interpreți principali pe Ryan O'Neal și pe fiica sa de 10 ani Tatum O'Neal, care a câștigat Premiul Oscar pentru cea mai bună actriță, și a devenit un film de referință în cariera lui Bogdanovich. Profitul a fost împărțit de Bogdanovich cu colegii săi regizori, ceea ce l-a nemulțumit pe cineast. Bogdanovich a devenit nemulțumiți de aranjament. The Directors Company a mai produs ulterior doar două filme: The Conversation (1974) al lui Coppola, care a fost nominalizat în 1974 la premiul Oscar pentru cel mai bun film, alături de Nașul: Partea a II-a, și Daisy Miller (1974) al lui Bogdanovich, care a avut parte de o primire critică modestă.

Dorothy Stratten și They All Laughed
Următorul film al lui Bogdanovich a fost comedia romantică They All Laughed (1981), în care a apărut Dorothy Stratten, un fost model cu care regizorul a început o relație romantică. Stratten a fost ucisă de soțul ei, de care era despărțită, la scurt timp după ce filmările s-au încheiat.

Bogdanovici s-a întors la activitatea de scriitor deoarece cariera sa de regizor intrase în impas și a scris cartea de memorii Killing of the Unicorn: Dorothy Stratten 1960-1980, care a fost publicată în 1984. Articolul "Death of a Playmate" al Teresei Carpenter despre uciderea lui Dorothy Stratten a fost publicat în The Village Voice și a câștigat Premiul Pulitzer în 1981 și, deși Bogdanovich nu a criticat articolul lui Carpenter în cartea lui, ea i-a criticat pe Bogdanovich și pe Hugh Hefner, mogulul Playboy, susținând că Stratten a fost o victimă a lor în aceeași măsură în care a fost victima soțului ei, Paul Snider, care a ucis-o și apoi s-a sinucis. Articolul lui Carpenter a servit ca bază a filmului Star 80 (1983) al lui Bob Fosse, în care Bogdanovich, din motive juridice, a fost portretizat ca regizorul fictiv "Aram Nicholas", un personaj simpatic, dar cam naiv și dezorientat.

Bogdanovich a preluat distribuția filmului They All Laughed pe cont propriu. A fost ulterior blamat pentru aceasta, deoarece a trebuit să se declare în faliment în 1985. El a declarat ca a avut un venit lunar de 75.000 de dolari și cheltuieli lunare de 200.000 de dolari.

Pe 30 decembrie 1988 Bogdanovici, care avea atunci 49 de ani, s-a căsătorit cu Louse Stratten (20 de ani), sora mai mică a lui Dorothy. Cuplul a divorțat în 2001.

Mask și Texasville
La începutul anilor 1980, Bogdanovich a vrut să facă filmele I'll Remember April cu John Cassavetes și The Lady in the Moon, scrise împreună cu Larry McMurtry. El a făcut în schimb filmul Mask, lansat în 1985.

Continuarea filmului The Last Picture Show, Texasville (1990), a fost o dezamăgire critică și de box office.

În 1997 a declarat din nou că este în faliment.

În 1998 comitetul National Film Preservation Board al Bibliotecii Congresului a inclus The Last Picture Show în Registrul Național de Film, o onoare acordată filmelor semnificative din punct de vedere cultural, istoric sau estetic.

Filmografie

Regizor

Filme de cinema

Filme de televiziune

Actor

Cărți
Cărți scrise de Peter Bogdanovich:

 1961: The Cinema of Orson Welles. New York: Museum of Modern Art Film Library. .
 1962: The Cinema of Howard Hawks. New York: Museum of Modern Art Film Library. .
 1963: The Cinema of Alfred Hitchcock. New York: Museum of Modern Art Film Library. .
 1967: John Ford. Londra: Studio Vista. . Ediție adăugită: Berkeley: University of California, 1978. .
 1967: Fritz Lang in America. Londra: Studio Vista. ; New York: Praeger. .
 1970: Allan Dwan: The Last Pioneer. Inglaterra: Studio Vista. .
 1973: Pieces of Time. New York: Arbor House. . Ediție adăugită, 1985: Pieces of Time: Peter Bogdanovich on the Movies, 1961-1985. .
 1984: The Killing Of The Unicorn - Dorothy Stratten 1960-1980. William Morrow and Company. .
 1992: This is Orson Welles. HarperPerennial. .
 1995: A Moment with Miss Gish. Santa Barbara: Santa Teresa Press. .
 1997: Who The Devil Made It: Conversations with Legendary Film Directors. Alfred A. Knopf. .
 1999: Peter Bogdanovich's Movie of the Week. New York: Ballantine Books. .
 2004: Who the Hell's in It: Conversations with Hollywood's Legendary Actors. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. .

Note

Lectură suplimentară
 Yule, Andrew, Picture Shows: The Life and Films of Peter Bogdanovich, Limelight, 1992

Legături externe

 , movie clip compilation, 4 minutes
 1Bogdanovich's Who the Hell's in It? reviewed in Seattle Weekly
 Bogdanovich's blog at indiewire

Nașteri în 1939
Nașteri pe 30 iulie
Decese în 2022
Decese pe 6 ianuarie
Scriitori din statul New York
Teoreticieni ai filmului
Câștigători ai premiilor BAFTA
Producători de film americani
Istorici de film americani
Critici de film americani
Scriitori americani din secolul al XX-lea
Scriitori americani din secolul al XXI-lea
Actori americani din secolul al XX-lea
Actori americani din secolul al XXI-lea
Regizori de film americani
Regizori de televiziune americani

Peter Bogdanovich


Das Erdbeben von Pernik 2012 (genannt auch Erdbeben von Sofia 2012) ereignete sich am 22. Mai 2012 um 03:00:33 (OESZ). Sein Epizentrum lag sechs Kilometer nordwestlich von Pernik in Bulgarien. Das Erdbeben wurde mit 5,9–6,0 auf der Richter-Skala gemessen. Es war im ganzen Land – insbesondere in den Oblasten Blagoewgrad, Kasanlak und Stara Sagora – sowie in einigen Nachbarländern zu spüren.

Weitere Nachbeben wurden gemeldet, das stärkste davon mit der Magnitude 4,7 ML um 4:31 OESZ.

In Pernik sind einige Schornsteine und in Rudarzi (Gemeinde Pernik) ein Haus eingestürzt, in Sofia wurde ein Wohngebäude im Viertel Borovo beschädigt. In Pernik wurde am 22. Mai Notlage und Ruhetag erklärt. Fenster sind kaputtgegangen, und Wände stürzten ein. Einer der Schornsteine des Wärmekraftwerks Republika in Pernik ist eingestürzt.

Über Opfer in Sofia oder Pernik lagen keine Berichte vor. Nach Angaben des bulgarischen seismischen Instituts gibt es keinen Zusammenhang zwischen diesem Erdbeben und dem Erdbeben in Emilia-Romagna vom 20. Mai 2012.

Das ist das stärkste Erdbeben in den Oblasten Sofia und Pernik seit der Befreiung Bulgariens, stärker als das Erdbeben von 1917 mit der Magnitude 5,2 ML.

Die Tiefe des Erdbebens ist 9,1 Kilometer. Nach anderen Angaben beträgt die Magnitude 5,8 ML.

Eine 65-jährige Frau aus Kjustendil ist wegen der psychischen Belastung während des Bebens an einem Herzanfall gestorben. In der Hälfte der Stadt Radomir wurde die Wasserversorgung unterbrochen.

Ursachen
Das Erdbeben von Pernik stand in engem zeitlichen Zusammenhang mit dem Erdbeben in Norditalien 2012. Beide Erdbeben ereigneten sich innerhalb weniger Stunden. In Norditalien erreichte es eine Stärke von 6,1 und in Westbulgarien 5,8. Auch einem Nachbeben in Pernik mit der Stärke 4,3 am 29. Mai folgte 24 Minuten später ein Nachbeben in Norditalien.

Trotzdem besteht nach Meinung des Erdbebenexperten von Munich Re, Alexander Allmann, kein kausaler Zusammenhang zwischen den Erdbeben in beiden Ländern.

Auch der Geophysiker Wolfgang Lenhardt vom Österreichischen Erdbebendienst sieht in dem
Zusammentreffen der Erdbeben in Italien und Bulgarien einen reinen Zufall. In einem Interview sprach er davon, dass es in Bulgarien zu einer Abschiebung der Erdkruste kam, was in der Gegend äußerst selten passiert.

Einzelnachweise

Pernik 2012
Bulgarische Geschichte (21. Jahrhundert)
Gemeinde Pernik
Naturkatastrophe 2012
Ereignis in Bulgarien

Erdbeben von Pernik 2012


San Antonio es el distrito número cinco del cantón de Desamparados, de la provincia de San José, en Costa Rica, fundado en el año de 1841.

Toponimia
El nombre del distrito proviene en honor a San Antonio de Padua, patrono del distrito de San Antonio y de la Iglesia de San Antonio de Padua, localizada en el centro del distrito.

Historia
Las primeras ocupaciones recordadas de este territorio fueron por indígenas del antiguo Reino Huetar de Occidente, el cual se encontraba encabezado por el Cacique Garabito. Los indígenas que habitaron esta región fueron los mismos que habitaron la región de Aserrí, sobresaliendo entre ellos el Cacique Accerrí, originario de la tribu Quepoa.

Los primeros pobladores ubicaron sus casitas a lo largo de un camino que unía San José con Aserrí, y separaron sus propiedades con cercas, ya sea de piedra o árboles naturales, por lo que antiguamente se llamó a esta región Dos Cercas.

En aquella época, Dos Cercas, que era un distrito de San José, se conformaba por los barrios de Patarrá, Salitral (hoy San Antonio), San Felipe (hoy San Miguel), Palo Grande (hoy San Rafael) y El Molino (hoy San Juan de Dios).

En 1821, el caserío Dos Cercas ya tenía gran importancia y se había planificado muy bien sus primeros cuadrantes, de conformidad con las normas que ordenaba la vetusta "Ley de Indias para la formación de cabildos", además de que ya contaba con más población que otros asentamientos como Patarrá, San Antonio, Aserrí y el mismo Curridabat.

En 1841, Desamparados ya era un barrio de San José, y se conformaba por los cuarteles de El Centro, El Molino (hoy San Juan de Dios), Palo Grande (hoy San Rafael), Patarrá, San Antonio y San Felipe (hoy San Miguel).

Se tienen datos de su fundación que datan de 1841 en un lugar que llamaron "El cuartel del Molino". Actualmente ese lugar conserva solamente el nombre de "El Molino", según la historia se le llama así ya que ahí había un molino para procesar trigo. Luego de la construcción del templo católico el lugar dejó de llamarse el Cuartel del Molino y pasó a llamarse San Juan de Dios, en honor al santo del mismo nombre, cuya celebración dan a cabo todos los 8 de marzo de cada año.

El 4 de noviembre de 1962, se funda el cantón de Desamparados, número tres de la provincia de San José, mediante la Ley de Ordenanzas Municipales.

Ubicación
Se ubica en el centro del cantón y limita al norte con los cantones de Curridabat y San José, al oeste con el distrito de Desamparados, al sur con los distritos de Gravilias y Damas y al este con el cantón de La Unión.

Geografía

Demografía

Concejo de distrito
El concejo de distrito de San Miguel vigila la actividad municipal y colabora con los respectivos distritos de su cantón. También está llamado a canalizar las necesidades y los intereses del distrito, por medio de la presentación de proyectos específicos ante el Concejo Municipal. El presidente del concejo del distrito es el síndico propietario del partido Liberación Nacional, Gabriel Gustavo Picado Oviedo.

El concejo del distrito se integra por:

Organización territorial
El distrito de San Antonio se conforma por las siguientes comunidades o barrios:

 Barrio Amador
 Barrio Calle Trejos
 Barrio Churruca
 Barrio Constancia
 Barrio Huetares
 Barrio INVU San Antonio
 Barrio Las Acacias
 Barrio Lourdes
 Barrio Pueblo Nuevo (comparte con Curridabat)
 Barrio Rotonda
 Barrio San Antonio (centro)
 Barrio Villa Karen (comparte con San José)

Cultura

Educación
Ubicadas propiamente en el distrito de San Antonio se encuentran los siguientes centros educativos:

 Escuela República de Panamá
 Escuela Misionera Católica Reina de la Paz
 Escuela Bendito Jesús
 Liceo de San Antonio

Transporte

Carreteras
Al distrito lo atraviesan las siguientes rutas nacionales de carretera:
 Ruta nacional 207
 Ruta nacional 210
 Ruta nacional 212
 Ruta nacional 409

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Costa Rica Database. Página web con información sobre cada una de las localidades de Costa Rica.

Distritos del cantón de Desamparados

San Antonio de Desamparados


خليفة محمد التليسي (9 مايو 1930 - 13 يناير 2010)، أديب ومؤلف ليبي ينتمي لعائلة تسمى أولاد تليس التي تنحدر من علي بن تليس الذي حكم ورفلة في القرن السادس عشر  ، كتب في مجالات الشعر والتاريخ والقصة إضافة إلى الترجمة.

حياته

توجه إلى إيطاليا العام 1960 في بعثة أدبية على نفقة اليونيسكو للتعرف على الأدب الإيطالي وكتابه المعاصرين، ليتحصل على دبلوم التعليم العام والدكتوراه الفخرية من جامعة نابولي – المعهد الشرقي.

عمل موظفاً إدارياً بمجلس النواب الليبي سنة 1952، ثم أميناً عاماً له سنة 1962، فوزيراً للإعلام والثقافة من عام 1964 حتى 1967 (في حكومات محمود المنتصر، و حسين مازق، و عبد القادر البدري) ثم سفيراً لدى المغرب سنة 1968.

تولّى رئاسة اللجنة العليا للإذاعة الليبية، وعُيِّن رئيساً لمجلس إدارة الدار العربية للكتاب سنة 1974، واختير أمينا أولا لاتحاد الأُدباء والكتاب الليبيين، وانتخب نائباً للأمين العام لاتحاد الأُدباء العرب سنة 1978، واختير سنة 1981 أميناً عاماً للاتحاد العام للناشرين العرب.
توفي الكاتب الكبير خليفة محمد التليسي يوم الأربعاء 13 -1- 2010 عن عمر يناهز الثمانين عاما وتم دفنه بمقبرة شهداء الهاني بطرابلس يوم الجمعة 15 - 1 -2010 عقب صلاة الجمعة.

مؤلفات
 الشابي وجبران، طرابلس 1957
 رفيق شاعر الوطن، المطبعة الحكومية 1965
 مُعجم معارك الجهاد في ليبيا، دار الثقافة 1972
 بعد القرضابية، دار الثقافة 1973
 رحلة عبر الكلمات، وزارة الإعلام 1973
 كراسات أدبية، الدار العربية للكتاب 1975
 رفيق شاعر الوطن، 1966
 الفنان والتمثال (ترجمة)، اللجنة العليا للآداب 1967
 قصص إيطالية (ترجمة)، دار الثقافة 1967
 ليلة عيد الميلاد (ترجمة)، دار الثقافة 1968
 طرابلس تحت حكم الأسبان (ترجمة)، دار الثقافة 1968
 طرابلس من 1510 -1850 (ترجمة)، دار الفرجاني 1969
 الرحالة والكشف الجغرافي في ليبيا (ترجمة)، دار الفرجاني 1971
 ليبيا أثناء الحكم العثماني (ترجمة)، دار الفرجاني 1971
 ليبيا مند الفتح العربي حتى سنة 1911، (ترجمة)، دار الثقافة 1974
 سكان طرابلس الغرب (ترجمة)، دار الثقافة سنة 1975
 مذكرات جيولتي (ترجمة)، الدار الجماهيرية سنة 1976
 برقة الخضراء (ترجمة)، الدار العربية للكتاب سنة 1991
 نحو فزان (مُراجعة)، دار الفرجاني سنة 1971
 تأملات في نُقوش المعبد، دار طرابلس سنة 1983
 من الحصاد الأول، الدار الجماهيرية 1989
 مُختارات من روائع الشعر العربي (الجزء الأول)، الدار العربية للكتاب 1983
 مُختارات من روائع الشعر العربي (الجزء الثاني)، الدار العربية للكتاب سنة 1983
 معارك الجهاد من خلال الخطط الحربية الإيطالية، الدار الجماهيرية 1980
 حكاية مدينة، الدار العربية للكتاب سنة 1985
 زخارف قديمة، الدار الجماهيرية سنة 1986
 ديوان خليفة محمد التليسي، الدار العربية للكتاب سنة 1989
 هكذا غنى طاغور، الدار العربية للكتاب 1991
 الأعمال الشِعرية الكاملة للوركا، الدار العربية للكتاب 1991
 محمد علي لاغا رائد الرسامين الليبيين، مجهول النشر
 قاموس التليسي (إيطالي _عربي)، الدار العربية للكتاب 1984
 مُعجم سٌكان ليبيا، دار الربان 1990
 قاموس التليسي (إيطالي _عربي طُلابي)، الدار العربية للكتاب سنة 1984
 قصيدة البيت الواحد، دار الشروق 1990
 قصائد من نيرودا، الدار العربية للكتاب 1991
 سُكان ليبيا (الجزء الخاص ببرقة)، الدار العربية للكتاب 1990
 مُختارات خليفة التليسي، من روائع الشعر العربي (الجزء الأول)، توزيع الدار العربية للكتاب 1991
 مُختارات خليفة التليسي، من روائع الشعر العربي (الجزء الثاني) توزيع الدار العربية للكتاب 1991
 مُختارات خليفة التليسي، من روائع الشعر العربي (الجزء 3)، توزيع الدار العربية للكتاب 1991
 مُختارات خليفة التليسي، من روائع الشعر العربي (الجزء 4)، توزيع الدار العربية للكتاب 1991
 مُختارات خليفة التليسي، من روائع الشعر العربي (الجزء5)، توزيع الدار العربية للكتاب 1991
 المجانين، دار الربان 1991
 وقفٌ عليها الحبُّ، مجهول الناشر 1989
 شاعر القرية، مجهول لناشر 1981
 قدر المواهِب، مجهول الناشر 1990
 وجوه وملامح، مجهول الناشر 1990

ترجمات
 صوت في الظلام (ترجمة عن الإيطالية لمجموعة قصصية للكاتب الإيطالي لويجي بيرانديللو)

كتاب «سكان ليبيا» تأليف : هنريكو دي أغسطيني ترجمة وتقديم : خليفة التليسي

المخطوطات
1- النفيس (معجم لغوي موسع في عدة أجزاء).

مقالات ذات صلة
 أحمد الشارف
 أبو القاسم الشابي
 جبران خليل جبران
 علي مصطفى المصراتي
 أحمد رفيق المهدوي
 علي صدقي عبد القادر
 علي الرقيعي
 علي فهمي خشيم
 وهبي البوري

وصلات خارجية

 الجزيرة نت: رحيل المؤرخ الليبي خليفة التليسي

مصادر

 من كتاب (مُعجم الأُدباء والكتاب الليبيين المُعاصرين، د. عبد الله سالم مليطان.

أشخاص من طرابلس (ليبيا)
دبلوماسيون ليبيون
سفراء ليبيا لدى المغرب
شعراء ليبيون
مؤرخون ليبيون
مترجمو القرن 20
مترجمون ليبيون
مترجمون من الإيطالية إلى العربية
مواليد 1348 هـ
مواليد 1930
وزراء إعلام ليبيا
وزراء ليبيا
وفيات 1431 هـ
وفيات 2010

خليفة التليسي


La iglesia de San Agustín es una iglesia cristiana de Madrid (España), erigida en la calle de Joaquín Costa, en la Colonia de El Viso. Es una obra del arquitecto clasicista Luis Moya Blanco realizada de 1946 a 1950.

Características
El edificio presenta una planta elíptica. Posee cuatro capillas laterales de forma circular, dedicadas al Santísimo Sacramento, Santa Filomena, sacristía y baptisterio. La iglesia se encuentra situada en el Paseo de Ronda (calle de Joaquín Costa), con vuelta a la calle de Felipe Pérez y fachada posterior a la de Puente Duero. La parte posterior del solar se reserva para la casa parroquial. Contiene una importante pintura de Luis de Morales, la Virgen y el Niño con un pajarito.

Es muy similar a la iglesia de la Universidad Laboral de Gijón, del mismo autor y mismas fechas.

Referencias

Bibliografía
Pedro Montoliú Camps: Enciclopedia de Madrid, Planeta, 2002, ISBN 8408043382

Enlaces externos

Obras de Luis Moya Blanco
Madrid
Madrid
Madrid
Agustín
Agustín
Edificios religiosos terminados en 1950
España en 1950
Madrid

Iglesia de San Agustín (Madrid)


الظهرة إحدى بلديات ولاية الشلف بالجزائر التابع لـ دائرة تاوقريت.

مراجع

ظهرة

الظهرة (ولاية الشلف)


بيكاردا بويري (فيرونا ، في النصف الثاني من القرن الرابع عشر - فلورنسا ، في النصف الأول من القرن الخامس عشر) زوجة جوفاني دي بيتشي دي ميديشي مؤسس ثروة عائلة ميديشي.

الأخبار عنها شحيحة . يعرف أنها ابنة ادواردو بويري من عائلة العريقة النسب فلورنسية الأصل و لكن لها مصالح اقتصادية حتى في المدن الأخرى ؛ في واقع الأمر تواجدت الأسرة في فيرونا في النصف الأول من القرن الرابع عشر حين ولادة بيكاردا. في فلورنسا تزوجت بيكاردا من المصرفي الشاب جوفاني دي بيتشي سنة 1386 ، الموظف آنذاك في مصرف عمه المزدهر أفيراردو دي ميديشي. تم تعيين جوفاني للتو مديراً لفرع روما ، كان ميسور الحال و لكن ليس ثرياً على أي حال .

سمح الزواج من بيكاردا لجوفاني الذي دفع ميراثه البسيط مهراً لها بتحقيق طفرة كبيرة نحو النجاح والثروة، و هو ما كان لاحقاً الأساس الصلب لمجمل القدر العائلي للميديشيين : فقد تمكن بتلك الأموال من استغلال قدرته الاسثمارية، و استثمرها في شراء فرع الرومي للمصرف و قام بتوسيعه أيضاَ بفضل أموال المساهمين الآخرين. من النجاح الاقتصادي لهذه الصفقة وصل جوفاني حين موته لأن يكون أحد أغنى فلورنسيي ذلك الزمن.

عاشت بيكاردا و جوفاني في مبنى على بعد بضع خطوات من كاتدرائية فلورنسا . لطالما تولت بيكاردا أمور الأسرة، كما تولت الأمور الوضع في فلورنسا عندما كان زوجها مسافراً غالباً، ولكن بعيداً عن السياسة التي لم تكن ضمن اهتمامات العائلية.

كان للزوجين اثنين من أبناء، اللذان نصفهما المؤرخون في وقت لاحق على أنهما مؤسسا الفرعين الرئيسيين لعائلة ميديشي :
 كوزيمو (1389-1464) ، الذي ورث ثروة الأب تفرع عنه فرع كافاجولو ''
 لورينزو (1395-1464) الذي تفرع عنه الفرع الشعبي .

مراجع

إيطاليون في القرن 14
أشخاص من جمهورية فلورنسا القرن 14
أشخاص من جمهورية فلورنسا القرن 15
أشخاص من فلورنسا
إيطاليات في القرن 14
إيطاليات في القرن 15
إيطاليون في القرن 15
مواليد 1368
مواليد في فيرونا
ميديشي
نبلاء من فلورنسا
نساء من إيطاليا في العصور الوسطى
وفيات 1433
وفيات في فلورنسا

بيكاردا بويري


Notolirijon (lat. Notholirion), rod lukovičastih trajnica iz porodice ljiljanovki, dio je potporodice Lilioideae. Postoje četiri vrste koje rastu po Aziji, od Iraka, na istok sve do Kine.

Vrste
 Notholirion bulbuliferum (Lingelsh.) Stearn
 Notholirion koeiei Rech.f.
 Notholirion macrophyllum (D.Don) Boiss.
 Notholirion thomsonianum (Royle) Stapf

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Lilioideae

Notolirijon


Stephan Gans zu Putlitz (* 4. Februar 1854 in Retzin; † 24. Juli 1883 in Berlin) war ein deutscher Volkswirt und möglicherweise das Urbild des Grafen Waldemar von Haldern in Theodor Fontanes Roman Stine.

Leben
Stephan Gans zu Putlitz war der Sohn des Diplomaten, Schriftstellers und Theaterdirektors Gustav Gans zu Putlitz und dessen Frau Elisabeth geb. Gräfin von Königsmarck. Er promovierte zum Dr. jur. und zum Dr. phil. und wurde Privatdozent an der Berliner Universität und später außerordentlicher Professor in Halle an der Saale.

Mit Hans Delbrück gründete er die Zeitschrift Politische Wochenblätter, die nur 1882 und 1883 erschien und in den Preußischen Jahrbüchern aufging.

Er stand mit Otto Zacharias in Kontakt, der das Buch Die Bevölkerungsfrage in ihrer Beziehung zu den socialen Nothständen der Gegenwart geschrieben hatte, das 1883 in vierter Auflage erschien. In diesem Werk zitierte Zacharias aus dem Briefwechsel mit Putlitz: "[...] eine übermäßige Kinderzahl darf nicht wie bisher als ein Segen, sondern muss als ein Makel von der Gesammtheit angesehen werden."

Stephan Gans zu Putlitz heiratete am 2. August 1881 auf Schloss Buckow Elisabeth von Flemming, die er nach seiner Habilitation in Verona kennengelernt hatte. Aus der Ehe ging die 1882 geborene Tochter Stephanie hervor, die später Hans von Raumer heiratete. Als seine Ehefrau die Scheidung wünschte, erschoss sich Stephan Gans zu Putlitz im Sommer 1883. Der Vorfall wurde von der Familie vertuscht; man setzte die Behauptung in Umlauf, Stephan Gans zu Putlitz sei in einem Duell gefallen. Offenbar hatten diese Bemühungen jedoch nur bedingten Erfolg, da Theodor Fontane in einem Brief an seine Ehefrau vom 29. Juli 1883 bereits erklärte, die Familie versuche etwas Fatales zu kaschieren.

Über die missglückte Ehe wurde geurteilt, Stephan Gans zu Putlitz habe "mit seinem burschikosen Wesen durchaus nicht zu der kühl reservierten, anspruchsvollen, hyperästhetischen Diplomatentochter" gepasst. Im Vorwort zum Tagebuch seiner einstigen Frau ist die Rede von "dem jungen, durch und durch idealistisch angelegten Begleiter, zu dessen Wesensart das Blut des Vaters, des Verfassers von Was der Wald erzählt, starke Komponenten geliefert hat". Ursächlich genannt wird "das unumstößliche Bewußtsein im Gemüt der jungen Frau, daß irgendwelche Anlagen und Kräfte in ihr bei dem stark bürgerlich eingestellten Leben als Professorsgattin verkümmern mußten".

Stephan Gans zu Putlitz als Urbild einer Romanfigur
In dem 1888 erschienenen Roman Stine wirft der Held der Erzählung in einem entscheidenden Augenblick der Handlung einen Blick zu den Fenstern des Königsmarckschen Palais' in der Berliner Mauerstraße hinauf, hinter denen er in glücklichen, vergangenen Zeiten mit einem Freund geplaudert hat. Das Palais war der Berliner Wohnsitz der Familie Gans zu Putlitz, in der Fontane verkehrte. Der Blick von Halderns kann also als ein Hinweis auf Stephan Gans zu Putlitz bzw. als Vorausverweis auf das Schicksal des Grafen im Roman gesehen werden. Eine Parallele in den Lebensläufen Stephan Gans zu Putlitz' und des Grafen Haldern ist auch der Reitunfall, der beide die Gesundheit gekostet hat. Während Haldern laut Romanhandlung bei einer kriegerischen Auseinandersetzung Verletzungen erlitten hat und dann noch beim Sturz mit dem Pferd unter dieses geraten ist, berichtet seine ehemalige Frau: "Ein Unglücksfall kurz vor der Hochzeit – er stürzte in Hannover bei einer militärischen Reitübung schwer – hat seine von Haus aus gesunde und normale Konstitution geschädigt und wohl die physiologische Grundlage geschaffen für Überreizungszustände, die ihm früher fremd gewesen waren. Jedenfalls zeigten sich schon in den allerersten Wochen nach der Hochzeit auf der Reise so tiefgehende Irritationen, daß die junge Frau nahe daran war, in das Haus ihres Vaters zurückzukehren."

Werke
 Ein Rechtsfall. Dissertation Juridische Promotion, Universität Göttingen, 1876. Quelle: Herward Sieberg: Elisabeth von Heyking. Ein romanhaftes Leben. Georg Olms-Verlag (Hildesheim), 2012, 628 Seiten, ISBN 978-3-487-14774-1, Seite 165.
 Werth, Preis und Arbeit: Ein Beitrag zur Lehre von Werthe. Berlin 1880, Buchdruck von Gustav Schade.
 J. P. Proudhon. Sein Leben und seine positiven Ideen. Berlin 1881.

Einzelnachweise

Ökonom (19. Jahrhundert)
Hochschullehrer (Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin)
Hochschullehrer (Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg)
Stephan
Stephan
Geboren 1854
Gestorben 1883
Mann

Stephan Gans zu Putlitz


Paul Salopek (Barstow, Kalifornija, 9. veljače 1962.) američki je novinar, istraživač, biolog i književnik hrvatskoga podrijetla, dvostruki dobitnik prestižne Pulitzerove nagrade za izvjestiteljstvo.<ref> [https://web.archive.org/web/20060109170104/http://www.pulitzer.org/year/2001/international-reporting/bio/salopekbio.html Paul Salopek, novinar 'Chicago Tribuna'''] , www.pulitzer.org, arhivirano s izvorne stranice 9. siječnja 2006. (pristupljeno 12. siječnja 2017.) </ref>

Pisao je za utjecajne američke novine i tjednike Chicago Tribune, The Atlantic, National Geographic i druge.

 Životopis
Rođen je u kalifornijskom gradiću Barstowu u obitelji hrvatskih doseljenika. Diplomirao je biološki smjer enviromentalistike na Kalifornijskom sveučilštu Santa Barbara 1984. godine.

Prije novinarske karijere, bavio se ribarstvom i uzgajao školjke u Massachusettsu. Novinarsku karijeru započeo je kada mu se na putovanju Novim Meksikom u gradiću Roswellu pokvario motocikl te je, kako bi zaradio novac za popravak, napisao izvještaj za lokalne novine. Njegov članak postao je vrlo populanran te je ubrzo dobio ponude u više izdavačkih kuća.

Za Chicago Tribune je u razdoblju između 1996. i 30. travnja 2009. izvještavao s ratišta u Hrvatskoj, Bosni i Hercegovini, Središnjoj Aziji i Iraku. Za National Geographic pisao je od 1992. do 1995. tijekom putovanja po Maliju, Čadu, Sudanu, Senegalu, Nigeru i Nigeriji te je izvještavao o njihovoj povijesti, kulturi, običajima i onovremenim političkim zbivanjima.  Za El Paso Times'' izvještvao je o događajima s američko-meksičke granice i pisao o pričama meksičkih useljenika tijekom kasnih 1980-ih i ranih 1990-ih. 1990. otvorio je izvjestiteljski ured u Mexico Citiju otkuda je za američke novine izvještavao u vladinim skandalima, obračunima s mafijom i narkobandama te podmitljivosti u političkom sustavu.

Izvori

Američki novinari
Američki književnici
Putopisci
Američki biolozi
Hrvati u SAD-u

Paul Salopek


Pišteti su krški bunari u Radošiću. Preventivno su zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Građeni su od 17. do 20. godine. Bunari Pišteti smješteni su južno od zaseoka Rajčići, zapadno od zaseoka Bejići i sjeveroistočno od crkve sv. Jurja. Skupinu bunara Pišteti sačinjava veliki broj bunara otvorenog i zatvorenog tipa. U njima se nalazi pitka voda visoke kvalitete, koja je služila za piće i napajanje stoke. Lokalitet se visoko valorizira kao osebujni primjer predindustrijskog vodoopskrbnog sustava sela Radošića koji je nastao najvjerojatnije u 17. stoljeću.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom P-5057 zavedeni su kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - kulturno-povijesna cjelina, pravna statusa preventivno zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "ostalo".

Izvori

Zaštićena kulturna dobra u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji

Pišteti


إرنستو ليكونا  (6 أغسطس 1895 في كوبا - 29 نوفمبر 1963 في الولايات المتحدة) كان ملحناً كوبياً وواحدا من أهم الملحنين والموسيقيين في القرن العشرين.

بدأ هذا الطفل الأعجوبة العزف على آلة البيانو في سن الخامسة من عمره. نشر أول عمل موسيقي له وعمره 11 سنة. درس البيانو وقيادة الأوركسترا في المعهد الموسيقي في هافانا. في بداية العشرينات من القرن الماضي درس لوقت قصير لدى الملحن الفرنسي موريس رافل في باريس.

أسس إرنستو أوركسترا باسم أوركسترا الإخوة بالاو الكوبية. استطاعت هذه المجموعة أن تحقق نجاحاً كبيراً في فترة الثلاثينات والأربعينات من القرن الماضي في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، وأوروبا. في عام 1960 ترك كوبا ليستقر في مدينة نيويورك الأمريكية.

أعماله
ألف إرنستو أعمالا كثيرة مختلفة بلغت أكثر من 400 مقطوعة موسيقية. معزوفته سيبوني (Siboney) التي ألفها عام 1929 هي واحدة من أشهر مؤلفاته الموسيقية التي أعاد عزفها بأشكال مختلفة فنانون عدة.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص من هافانا
عازفو بيانو
عازفو بيانو كلاسيكيون ذكور
عازفو بيانو كلاسيكيون في القرن 20
عازفو بيانو كلاسيكيون كوبيون
كوبيون من أصل كناري
مغتربون كوبيون في الولايات المتحدة
ملحنو بيانو
ملحنو موسيقى لاتينية
ملحنون كلاسيكيون
ملحنون كلاسيكيون كوبيون
مواليد 1895
مواليد 1896
مواليد في كوبا
موسيقيون ذكور في القرن 20
موسيقيون كوبيون
موسيقيون من هافانا
مؤلفون موسيقيون في القرن ال20
وفيات 1963
وفيات بسبب الربو
وفيات في سانتا كروث دي تينيريفه

إرنستو ليكونا


Guy Goma (d. 1969), 8 Mayıs 2006'da İngiliz haber kanalı BBC'ye bir internet dergisi editörünün yerine yanlışlıkla canlı yayın konuğu olarak çıkartılan Kongolu taksi şoförü. Canlı yayın başlarken, sunucunun kendisini yanlış takdimi sırasındaki yüz ifadesi ve sonra durumu idare etmeye çalışması ile beğenilmiş ve ardından birçok teklif almıştır.

Dış bağlantılar
 BBC Haber
 Video
 Transcript of the interview
 The Wrong Guy website (collection of articles and latest news)
 Guy Goma auctions his shirt

Video
 Second BBC interview
 Channel 4 interview
 GMTV interview
 availability.tv Viral Advert

Audio
 Story from NPR All Things Considered program, May 15, 2006

1969 doğumlular
İngiliz halk kahramanları
İngiliz televizyon kişilikleri
Yaşayan insanlar

Guy Goma


An Sporobolus purpurascens in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Olof Swartz, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni William Hamilton. An Sporobolus purpurascens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sporobolus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Sporobolus

Sporobolus purpurascens


Markov trg je hrvatska televizijska i politička satira. U kolovozu 2014. prvi put je emitirana pilot epizoda na RTL-u, ali kako je bilo teško plasirati seriju zbog reakcija, ostale epizode nisu prikazane. U ožujku 2017. ponovo je emitirana pilot epizoda, ali ponovo se nije nastavila emitirati.

Radnja
Radnja serije smještena je u Vladi Republike Hrvatske na Markovu trgu.

Radnja serije uglavnom se vrti oko predsjednika Vlade Republike Hrvatske dr. Slavka Patljaka (Željko Konigsknecht), državnog tajnika Marka Crnogaće (Tarik Filipović), srbijanskog predsjednika Svetozar Panajotovića (Nikola Kojo) te predsjedavajućeg predsjedništva BiH, Envera Hadžibajrića (Emir Hadžihafizbegović). Tu su još službeni vozač Marka Crnogaće Marinko (Vedran Mlikota), zamjenica ministrice europskih integracija Mirjana Gruber-Cicvarić (Lana Barić), ministar prometa, pomorstva i veza Pravomil Karković  (Ozren Grabarić), premijerova tajnica Zrinka Francetić (Mia Biondić), politički novinar Branimir Hrušt (Ranko Zidarić) i drugi.

Glumačka postava

Izvori

Hrvatske serije
Televizijske serije iz 2014.

Markov trg (televizijska serija)


Die Baikalgroppen (Cottocomephoridae Berg, 1907) sind eine nicht mehr allgemein anerkannte Familie kleiner Süßwasserfische, die im sibirischen Baikalsee, seinen Zuflüssen und einigen anderen sibirischen Flüssen (Angara, Irkut, Selenga) vorkommen.

Merkmale
Baikalgroppen werden 14 bis 24 Zentimeter lang. Sie haben einen dicken, breiten Kopf mit einem großen Maul und einen sich nach hinten bis zur Schwanzflosse verjüngenden Körper. Die Brustflossen sind groß, die Bauchflossen stehen weit vorn unterhalb der Brustflossen. Der hartstrahlige und der längere, weichstrahlige Teil der Rückenflosse sind durch eine Einbuchtung deutlich voneinander getrennt. Baikalgroppen sind für gewöhnlich tarnend grau oder schwärzlich gefärbt. Bei in größeren Tiefen lebenden Arten dominieren rötliche, braune, bräunlich-gelbe bis blassgelbe Töne mit hellen Flecken auf der Körperoberseite. Auch die Augengröße ist von der Tiefe des Lebensraums abhängig. Tiefseearten besitzen große Augen und ein gut entwickeltes Seitenlinienorgan. Baikalgroppen ernähren sich vor allem von Flohkrebsen (Amphipoda), haben demersale (zu Boden sinkende Eier) und sind selbst eine wichtige Nahrung für größere Fische des Baikalsees und für die Baikalrobbe. Einige Baikalgroppen leben pelagisch. Allen Baikalgroppen fehlt die Postcleithra (ein Knochen im Schultergürtel).

Systematik
Phylogenetisch stehen die Baikalgroppen, sowie die in tieferen Schichten des Baikalsees endemisch lebenden Tiefwassergroppen (Abyssocottidae) und Baikal-Ölfische (Comephoridae) innerhalb der Gattung Cottus aus der Familie der Groppen (Cottidae). Der amerikanische Ichthyologe Joseph S. Nelson führt die Familie in seinem Standardwerk zur Fischsystematik Fishes of the World deshalb nicht mehr auf und stellt Gattungen und Arten der Baikalgroppen zu den Groppen.

Gattungen und Arten
Es werden neun Arten in vier Gattungen unterschieden:
 Gattung Batrachocottus
 Batrachocottus baicalensis  (Dybowski, 1874)
 Batrachocottus multiradiatus  Berg, 1907
 Batrachocottus nikolskii  (Berg, 1900)
 Batrachocottus talievi  Sideleva, 1999
 Gattung Cottocomephorus
 Cottocomephorus alexandrae  Taliev, 1935
 Cottocomephorus grewingkii  (Dybowski, 1874)
 Cottocomephorus inermis  (Yakovlev, 1890)
 Gattung Leocottus
 Leocottus kesslerii  (Dybowski, 1874)
 Gattung Paracottus
 Paracottus knerii  (Dybowski, 1874)

Literatur
 Joseph S. Nelson: Fishes of the World, John Wiley & Sons, 2006, ISBN  0-471-25031-7.

Einzelnachweise

Alternatives Taxon (Fisch)
Baikalsee

Baikalgroppen


In computer science and operations research, the ant colony optimization algorithm (ACO) is a probabilistic technique for solving computational problems which can be reduced to finding good paths through graphs. Artificial ants stand for multi-agent methods inspired by the behavior of real ants.
The pheromone-based communication of biological ants is often the predominant paradigm used.   Combinations of artificial ants and local search algorithms have become a method of choice for numerous optimization tasks involving some sort of graph, e.g., vehicle routing and internet routing.

As an example, ant colony optimization  is a class of optimization algorithms modeled on the actions of an ant colony.  Artificial 'ants' (e.g. simulation agents) locate optimal solutions by moving through a parameter space representing all possible solutions.  Real ants lay down pheromones directing each other to resources while exploring their environment.  The simulated 'ants' similarly record their positions and the quality of their solutions, so that in later simulation iterations more ants locate better solutions.  One variation on this approach is the bees algorithm, which is more analogous to the foraging patterns of the honey bee, another social insect.

This algorithm is a member of the ant colony algorithms family, in swarm intelligence methods, and it constitutes some metaheuristic optimizations. Initially proposed by Marco Dorigo in 1992 in his PhD thesis, the first algorithm was aiming to search for an optimal path in a graph, based on the behavior of ants seeking a path between their colony and a source of food. The original idea has since diversified to solve a wider class of numerical problems, and as a result, several problems have emerged, drawing on various aspects of the behavior of ants. From a broader perspective, ACO performs a model-based search and shares some similarities with estimation of distribution algorithms.

Overview

In the natural world, ants of some species (initially) wander randomly,  and upon finding food return to their colony while laying down pheromone trails. If other ants find such a path, they are likely not to keep travelling at random, but instead to follow the trail, returning and reinforcing it if they eventually find food (see Ant communication).

Over time, however, the pheromone trail starts to evaporate, thus reducing its attractive strength. The more time it takes for an ant to travel down the path and back again, the more time the pheromones have to evaporate. A short path, by comparison, gets marched over more frequently, and thus the pheromone density becomes higher on shorter paths than longer ones. Pheromone evaporation also has the advantage of avoiding the convergence to a locally optimal solution. If there were no evaporation at all, the paths chosen by the first ants would tend to be excessively attractive to the following ones. In that case, the exploration of the solution space would be constrained. The influence of pheromone evaporation in real ant systems is unclear, but it is very important in artificial systems.

The overall result is that when one ant finds a good (i.e., short) path from the colony to a food source, other ants are more likely to follow that path, and positive feedback eventually leads to many ants following a single path. The idea of the ant colony algorithm is to mimic this behavior with "simulated ants" walking around the graph representing the problem to solve.

Ambient networks of intelligent objects
New concepts are required since "intelligence" is no longer centralized but can be found throughout all minuscule objects. Anthropocentric concepts have been known to lead to the production of IT systems in which data processing, control units and calculating forces are centralized. These centralized units have continually increased their performance and can be compared to the human brain. The model of the brain has become the ultimate vision of computers. Ambient networks of intelligent objects and, sooner or later, a new generation of information systems that are even more diffused and based on nanotechnology, will profoundly change this concept. Small devices that can be compared to insects do not dispose of a high intelligence on their own. Indeed, their intelligence can be classed as fairly limited. It is, for example, impossible to integrate a high performance calculator with the power to solve any kind of mathematical problem into a biochip that is implanted into the human body or integrated in an intelligent tag which is designed to trace commercial articles. However, once those objects are interconnected they dispose of a form of intelligence that can be compared to a colony of ants or bees. In the case of certain problems, this type of intelligence can be superior to the reasoning of a centralized system similar to the brain.

Nature offers several examples of how minuscule organisms, if they all follow the same basic rule, can create a form of collective intelligence on the macroscopic level. Colonies of social insects perfectly illustrate this model which greatly differs from human societies. This model is based on the co-operation of independent units with simple and unpredictable behavior. They move through their surrounding area to carry out certain tasks and only possess a very limited amount of information to do so. A colony of ants, for example, represents numerous qualities that can also be applied to a network of ambient objects. Colonies of ants have a very high capacity to adapt themselves to changes in the environment as well as an enormous strength in dealing with situations where one individual fails to carry out a given task. This kind of flexibility would also be very useful for mobile networks of objects which are perpetually developing. Parcels of information that move from a computer to a digital object behave in the same way as ants would do. They move through the network and pass from one knot to the next with the objective of arriving at their final destination as quickly as possible.

Artificial pheromone system
Pheromone-based communication is one of the most effective ways of communication which is widely observed in nature. Pheromone is used by social insects such as
bees, ants and termites; both for inter-agent and agent-swarm communications. Due to its feasibility, artificial pheromones have been adopted in multi-robot and swarm robotic systems. Pheromone-based communication was implemented by different means such as chemical  or physical (RFID tags, light, sound) ways. However, those implementations were not able to replicate all the aspects of pheromones as seen in nature.

Using projected light was presented in an 2007 IEEE paper by Garnier, Simon, et al. as an experimental setup to study pheromone-based communication with micro autonomous robots. Another study presented a system in which pheromones were implemented via a horizontal LCD screen on which the robots moved, with the robots having downward facing light sensors to register the patterns beneath them.

Algorithm and formula
In the ant colony optimization algorithms, an artificial ant is a simple computational agent that searches for good solutions to a given optimization problem. To apply an ant colony algorithm, the optimization problem needs to be converted into the problem of finding the shortest path on a weighted graph. In the first step of each iteration, each ant stochastically constructs a solution, i.e. the order in which the edges in the graph should be followed. In the second step, the paths found by the different ants are compared.  The last step consists of updating the pheromone levels on each edge.

 procedure ACO_MetaHeuristic is
     while not terminated do
         generateSolutions()
         daemonActions()
         pheromoneUpdate()
     repeat
 end procedure

Edge selection
Each ant needs to construct a solution to move through the graph.  To select the next edge in its tour, an ant will consider the length of each edge available from its current position, as well as the corresponding pheromone level. At each step of the algorithm, each ant moves from a state  to state , corresponding to a more complete intermediate solution. Thus, each ant  computes a set  of feasible expansions to its current state in each iteration, and moves to one of these in probability. For ant , the probability  of moving from state  to state  depends on the combination of two values, the attractiveness  of the move, as computed by some heuristic indicating the a priori desirability of that move and the trail level  of the move, indicating how proficient it has been in the past to make that particular move. The trail level represents a posteriori indication of the desirability of that move.

In general, the th ant moves from state  to state  with probability

where  is the amount of pheromone deposited for transition from state  to , 0 ≤  is a parameter to control the influence of ,  is the desirability of state transition  (a priori knowledge, typically , where  is the distance) and  ≥ 1 is a parameter to control the influence of .  and  represent the trail level and attractiveness for the other possible state transitions.

Pheromone update

Trails are usually updated when all ants have completed their solution, increasing or decreasing the level of trails corresponding to moves that were part of "good" or "bad" solutions, respectively. An example of a global pheromone updating rule is

where  is the amount of pheromone deposited for a state transition ,  is the pheromone evaporation coefficient,  is the number of ants and  is the amount of pheromone deposited by th ant, typically given for a TSP problem (with moves corresponding to arcs of the graph) by

where  is the cost of the th ant's tour (typically length) and  is a constant.

Common extensions
Here are some of the most popular variations of ACO algorithms.

Ant system (AS)
The ant system is the first ACO algorithm. This algorithm corresponds to the one presented above. It was developed by Dorigo.

Ant colony system (ACS)
In the ant colony system algorithm, the original ant system was modified in three aspects:

 The edge selection is biased towards exploitation (i.e. favoring the probability of selecting the shortest edges with a large amount of pheromone);
 While building a solution, ants change the pheromone level of the edges they are selecting by applying a local pheromone updating rule;
 At the end of each iteration, only the best ant is allowed to update the trails by applying a modified global pheromone updating rule.

Elitist ant system
In this algorithm, the global best solution deposits pheromone on its trail after every iteration (even if this trail has not been revisited), along with all the other ants. The elitist strategy has as its objective directing the search of all ants to construct a solution to contain links of the current best route.

Max-min ant system (MMAS)
This algorithm controls the maximum and minimum pheromone amounts on each trail. Only the global best tour or the iteration best tour are allowed to add pheromone to its trail. To avoid stagnation of the search algorithm, the range of possible pheromone amounts on each trail is limited to an interval [τmax,τmin]. All edges are initialized to τmax to force a higher exploration of solutions.  The trails are reinitialized to τmax when nearing stagnation.

Rank-based ant system (ASrank)
All solutions are ranked according to their length. Only a fixed number of the best ants in this iteration are allowed to update their trials. The amount of pheromone deposited is weighted for each solution, such that solutions with shorter paths deposit more pheromone than the solutions with longer paths.

Parallel ant colony optimization (PACO)
An ant colony system (ACS) with communication strategies is developed. The artificial ants are partitioned into several groups. Seven communication
methods for updating the pheromone level between groups in ACS are proposed and work on the traveling salesman problem.

Continuous orthogonal ant colony (COAC)
The pheromone deposit mechanism of COAC is to enable ants to search for solutions collaboratively and effectively. By using an orthogonal design method, ants in the feasible domain can explore their chosen regions rapidly and efficiently, with enhanced global search capability and accuracy. The orthogonal design method and the adaptive radius adjustment method can also be extended to other optimization algorithms for delivering wider advantages in solving practical problems.

Recursive ant colony optimization
It is a recursive form of ant system which divides the whole search domain into several sub-domains and solves the objective on these subdomains. The results from all the subdomains are compared and the best few of them are promoted for the next level. The subdomains corresponding to the selected results are further subdivided and the process is repeated until an output of desired precision is obtained. This method has been tested on ill-posed geophysical inversion problems and works well.

Convergence
For some versions of the algorithm, it is possible to prove that it is convergent (i.e., it is able to find the global optimum in finite time). The first evidence of convergence for an ant colony algorithm was made in 2000, the graph-based ant system algorithm, and later on for the ACS and MMAS algorithms. Like most metaheuristics, it is very difficult to estimate the theoretical speed of convergence. A performance analysis of a continuous ant colony algorithm with respect to its various parameters (edge selection strategy, distance measure metric, and pheromone evaporation rate) showed that its performance and rate of convergence are sensitive to the chosen parameter values, and especially to the value of the pheromone evaporation rate. In 2004, Zlochin and his colleagues showed that COAC-type algorithms could be assimilated methods of stochastic gradient descent, on the cross-entropy and estimation of distribution algorithm. They proposed these metaheuristics as a "research-based model".

Applications

Ant colony optimization algorithms have been applied to many combinatorial optimization problems, ranging from quadratic assignment to protein folding or routing vehicles and a lot of derived methods have been adapted to dynamic problems in real variables, stochastic problems, multi-targets and parallel implementations.
It has also been used to produce near-optimal solutions to the travelling salesman problem. They have an advantage over simulated annealing and genetic algorithm approaches of similar problems when the graph may change dynamically; the ant colony algorithm can be run continuously and adapt to changes in real time. This is of interest in network routing and urban transportation systems.

The first ACO algorithm was called the ant system and it was aimed to solve the travelling salesman problem, in which the goal is to find the shortest round-trip to link a series of cities. The general algorithm is relatively simple and based on a set of ants, each making one of the possible round-trips along the cities. At each stage, the ant chooses to move from one city to another according to some rules:

 It must visit each city exactly once;
 A distant city has less chance of being chosen (the visibility);
 The more intense the pheromone trail laid out on an edge between two cities, the greater the probability that that edge will be chosen;
 Having completed its journey, the ant deposits more pheromones on all edges it traversed, if the journey is short;
 After each iteration, trails of pheromones evaporate.

Scheduling problem
Sequential ordering problem (SOP)
Job-shop scheduling problem (JSP)
Open-shop scheduling problem (OSP)
Permutation flow shop problem (PFSP)
Single machine total tardiness problem (SMTTP)
Single machine total weighted tardiness problem (SMTWTP)
Resource-constrained project scheduling problem (RCPSP)
Group-shop scheduling problem (GSP)
Single-machine total tardiness problem with sequence dependent setup times (SMTTPDST)
Multistage flowshop scheduling problem (MFSP) with sequence dependent setup/changeover times
Assembly Sequence Planning (ASP) problems

Vehicle routing problem
Capacitated vehicle routing problem (CVRP)
Multi-depot vehicle routing problem (MDVRP)
Period vehicle routing problem (PVRP)
Split delivery vehicle routing problem (SDVRP)
Stochastic vehicle routing problem (SVRP)
Vehicle routing problem with pick-up and delivery (VRPPD)
Vehicle routing problem with time windows (VRPTW)
Time dependent vehicle routing problem with time windows (TDVRPTW)
Vehicle routing problem with time windows and multiple service workers (VRPTWMS)

Assignment problem
Quadratic assignment problem (QAP)
Generalized assignment problem (GAP)
Frequency assignment problem (FAP)
Redundancy allocation problem (RAP)

Set problem
Set cover problem (SCP)
Partition problem (SPP)
Weight constrained graph tree partition problem (WCGTPP)
Arc-weighted l-cardinality tree problem (AWlCTP)
Multiple knapsack problem (MKP)
Maximum independent set problem (MIS)

Device sizing problem in nanoelectronics physical design
 Ant colony optimization (ACO) based optimization of 45 nm CMOS-based sense amplifier circuit could converge to optimal solutions in very minimal time.
 Ant colony optimization (ACO) based reversible circuit synthesis could improve efficiency significantly.

Antennas optimization and synthesis

To optimize the form of antennas, ant colony algorithms can be used. As example can be considered antennas RFID-tags based on ant colony algorithms (ACO), loopback and unloopback vibrators 10×10

Image processing
The ACO algorithm is used in image processing for image edge detection and edge linking.
 Edge detection:
The graph here is the 2-D image and the ants traverse from one pixel depositing pheromone. The movement of ants from one pixel to another is directed by the local variation of the image's intensity values. This movement causes the highest density of the pheromone to be deposited at the edges.

The following are the steps involved in edge detection using ACO:

Step 1: Initialization. Randomly place  ants on the image  where  . Pheromone matrix  are initialized with a random value. The major challenge in the initialization process is determining the heuristic matrix.

There are various methods to determine the heuristic matrix. For the below example the heuristic matrix was calculated based on the local statistics:
the local statistics at the pixel position .

where  is the image of size ,

is a normalization factor, and

 can be calculated using the following functions:

The parameter  in each of above functions adjusts the functions' respective shapes.

Step 2: Construction process. The ant's movement is based on 4-connected pixels or 8-connected pixels. The probability with which the ant moves is given by the probability equation

Step 3 and Step 5: Update process. The pheromone matrix is updated twice. in step 3 the trail of the ant (given by  ) is updated where as in step 5 the evaporation rate of the trail is updated which is given by:
,
where  is the pheromone decay coefficient

Step 7: Decision process. Once the K ants have moved a fixed distance L for N iteration, the decision whether it is an edge or not is based on the threshold T on the pheromone matrixτ. Threshold for the below example is calculated based on Otsu's method.

Image edge detected using ACO: The images below are generated using different functions given by the equation (1) to (4).

 Edge linking: ACO has also proven effective in edge linking algorithms.

Other applications

 Bankruptcy prediction
 Classification
 Connection-oriented network routing
 Connectionless network routing
 Data mining
 Discounted cash flows in project scheduling
 Distributed information retrieval
 Energy and electricity network design
 Grid workflow scheduling problem
 Inhibitory peptide design for protein protein interactions
 Intelligent testing system
 Power electronic circuit design
 Protein folding
 System identification

Definition difficulty

With an ACO algorithm, the shortest path in a graph, between two points A and B, is built from a combination of several paths. It is not easy to give a precise definition of what algorithm is or is not an ant colony, because the definition may vary according to the authors and uses. Broadly speaking, ant colony algorithms are regarded as populated metaheuristics with each solution represented by an ant moving in the search space. Ants mark the best solutions and take account of previous markings to optimize their search. They can be seen as probabilistic multi-agent algorithms using a probability distribution to make the transition between each iteration. In their versions for combinatorial problems, they use an iterative construction of solutions. According to some authors, the thing which distinguishes ACO algorithms from other relatives (such as algorithms to estimate the distribution or particle swarm optimization) is precisely their constructive aspect. In combinatorial problems, it is possible that the best solution eventually be found, even though no ant would prove effective. Thus, in the example of the Travelling salesman problem, it is not necessary that an ant actually travels the shortest route: the shortest route can be built from the strongest segments of the best solutions. However, this definition can be problematic in the case of problems in real variables, where no structure of 'neighbours' exists. The collective behaviour of social insects remains a source of inspiration for researchers. The wide variety of algorithms (for optimization or not) seeking self-organization in biological systems has led to the concept of "swarm intelligence", which is a very general framework in which ant colony algorithms fit.

Stigmergy algorithms
There is in practice a large number of algorithms claiming to be "ant colonies", without always sharing the general framework of optimization by canonical ant colonies. In practice, the use of an exchange of information between ants via the environment (a principle called "stigmergy") is deemed enough for an algorithm to belong to the class of ant colony algorithms. This principle has led some authors to create the term "value" to organize methods and behavior based on search of food, sorting larvae, division of labour and cooperative transportation.

Related methods
Genetic algorithms (GA)
 These maintain a pool of solutions rather than just one. The process of finding superior solutions mimics that of evolution, with solutions being combined or mutated to alter the pool of solutions, with solutions of inferior quality being discarded.
Estimation of distribution algorithm (EDA)
An evolutionary algorithm that substitutes traditional reproduction operators by model-guided operators. Such models are learned from the population by employing machine learning techniques and represented as probabilistic graphical models, from which new solutions can be sampled or generated from guided-crossover.
Simulated annealing (SA)
A related global optimization technique which traverses the search space by generating neighboring solutions of the current solution. A superior neighbor is always accepted. An inferior neighbor is accepted probabilistically based on the difference in quality and a temperature parameter. The temperature parameter is modified as the algorithm progresses to alter the nature of the search.
Reactive search optimization
Focuses on combining machine learning with optimization, by adding an internal feedback loop to self-tune the free parameters of an algorithm to the characteristics of the problem, of the instance, and of the local situation around the current solution.
Tabu search (TS)
Similar to simulated annealing in that both traverse the solution space by testing mutations of an individual solution. While simulated annealing generates only one mutated solution, tabu search generates many mutated solutions and moves to the solution with the lowest fitness of those generated. To prevent cycling and encourage greater movement through the solution space, a tabu list is maintained of partial or complete solutions. It is forbidden to move to a solution that contains elements of the tabu list, which is updated as the solution traverses the solution space.
Artificial immune system (AIS)
Modeled on vertebrate immune systems.
Particle swarm optimization (PSO)
A swarm intelligence method.
Intelligent water drops (IWD)
A swarm-based optimization algorithm based on natural water drops flowing in rivers
Gravitational search algorithm (GSA)
A swarm intelligence method.
Ant colony clustering method (ACCM)
A method that make use of clustering approach, extending the ACO.
Stochastic diffusion search (SDS)
An agent-based probabilistic global search and optimization technique best suited to problems where the objective function can be decomposed into multiple independent partial-functions.

History

Chronology of ant colony optimization algorithms.
 1959, Pierre-Paul Grassé invented the theory of stigmergy to explain the behavior of nest building in termites;
 1983, Deneubourg and his colleagues studied the collective behavior of ants;
 1988, and Moyson Manderick have an article on self-organization among ants;
 1989, the work of Goss, Aron, Deneubourg and Pasteels on the collective behavior of Argentine ants, which will give the idea of ant colony optimization algorithms;
 1989, implementation of a model of behavior for food by Ebling and his colleagues;
 1991, M. Dorigo proposed the ant system in his doctoral thesis (which was published in 1992). A technical report extracted from the thesis and co-authored by V. Maniezzo and A. Colorni was published five years later;
 1994, Appleby and Steward of British Telecommunications Plc published the first application to telecommunications networks
 1995, Gambardella and Dorigo proposed ant-q, the preliminary version of ant colony system as first extension of ant system;.
 1996, Gambardella and Dorigo proposed ant colony system
 1996, publication of the article on ant system;
 1997, Dorigo and Gambardella proposed ant colony system hybridized with local search;
 1997, Schoonderwoerd and his colleagues published an improved application to telecommunication networks;
 1998, Dorigo launches first conference dedicated to the ACO algorithms;
 1998, Stützle proposes initial parallel implementations;
1999, Gambardella, Taillard and Agazzi proposed  macs-vrptw, first multi ant colony system applied to vehicle routing problems with time windows,
 1999, Bonabeau, Dorigo and Theraulaz publish a book dealing mainly with artificial ants
 2000, special issue of the Future Generation Computer Systems journal on ant algorithms
 2000, Hoos and Stützle invent the max-min ant system;
 2000, first applications to the scheduling, scheduling sequence and the satisfaction of constraints;
 2000, Gutjahr provides the first evidence of convergence for an algorithm of ant colonies
 2001, the first use of COA algorithms by companies (Eurobios and AntOptima);
 2001, Iredi and his colleagues published the first multi-objective algorithm
 2002, first applications in the design of schedule, Bayesian networks;
 2002, Bianchi and her colleagues suggested the first algorithm for stochastic problem;
 2004, Dorigo and Stützle publish the Ant Colony Optimization book with MIT Press
 2004, Zlochin and Dorigo show that some algorithms are equivalent to the stochastic gradient descent, the cross-entropy method and algorithms to estimate distribution
 2005, first applications to protein folding problems.
 2012, Prabhakar and colleagues publish research relating to the operation of individual ants communicating in tandem without pheromones, mirroring the principles of computer network organization. The communication model has been compared to the Transmission Control Protocol.
 2016, first application to peptide sequence design.
 2017, successful integration of the multi-criteria decision-making method PROMETHEE into the ACO algorithm (HUMANT algorithm).

References

Publications (selected)
 M. Dorigo, 1992. Optimization, Learning and Natural Algorithms, PhD thesis, Politecnico di Milano, Italy.
 M. Dorigo, V. Maniezzo & A. Colorni, 1996. "Ant System: Optimization by a Colony of Cooperating Agents", IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics–Part B, 26 (1): 29–41.
 M. Dorigo & L. M. Gambardella, 1997. "Ant Colony System: A Cooperative Learning Approach to the Traveling Salesman Problem". IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 1 (1): 53–66.
 M. Dorigo, G. Di Caro & L. M. Gambardella, 1999. "Ant Algorithms for Discrete Optimization". Artificial Life, 5 (2): 137–172.
 E. Bonabeau, M. Dorigo et G. Theraulaz, 1999. Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial Systems, Oxford University Press.
 M. Dorigo & T. Stützle, 2004. Ant Colony Optimization, MIT Press.
 M. Dorigo, 2007.  "Ant Colony Optimization". Scholarpedia.
 C. Blum, 2005 "Ant colony optimization: Introduction and recent trends". Physics of Life Reviews, 2: 353-373
 M. Dorigo, M. Birattari & T. Stützle, 2006 Ant Colony Optimization: Artificial Ants as a Computational Intelligence Technique. TR/IRIDIA/2006-023
 Mohd Murtadha Mohamad,"Articulated Robots Motion Planning Using Foraging Ant Strategy",Journal of Information Technology - Special Issues in Artificial Intelligence, Vol.20, No. 4 pp. 163–181, December 2008, .
 N. Monmarché, F. Guinand & P. Siarry (eds), "Artificial Ants", August 2010 Hardback 576 pp. .
 A. Kazharov, V. Kureichik, 2010. "Ant colony optimization algorithms for solving transportation problems", Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences International, Vol. 49. No. 1. pp. 30–43.
 C-M. Pintea, 2014, Advances in Bio-inspired Computing for Combinatorial Optimization Problem, Springer
 K. Saleem, N. Fisal, M. A. Baharudin, A. A. Ahmed, S. Hafizah and S. Kamilah, "Ant colony inspired self-optimized routing protocol based on cross layer architecture for wireless sensor networks", WSEAS Trans. Commun., vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 669–678, 2010.
 K. Saleem and N. Fisal, "Enhanced Ant Colony algorithm for self-optimized data assured routing in wireless sensor networks", Networks (ICON) 2012 18th IEEE International Conference on, pp. 422–427.
 Abolmaali S, Roodposhti FR. Portfolio Optimization Using Ant Colony Method a Case Study on Tehran Stock Exchange. Journal of Accounting. 2018 Mar;8(1).

External links
Scholarpedia Ant Colony Optimization page
Ant Colony Optimization Home Page
"Ant Colony Optimization" - Russian scientific and research community
AntSim - Simulation of Ant Colony Algorithms
MIDACO-Solver General purpose optimization software based on ant colony optimization (Matlab, Excel, VBA, C/C++, R, C#, Java, Fortran and Python)
 University of Kaiserslautern, Germany, AG Wehn: Ant Colony Optimization Applet Visualization of Traveling Salesman solved by ant system with numerous options and parameters (Java Applet)
Ant algorithm simulation (Java Applet)
Java Ant Colony System Framework
Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm Implementation (Python Notebook)

Articles which contain graphical timelines
Nature-inspired metaheuristics
Optimization algorithms and methods

Ant colony optimization algorithms


Alchilarea este un tip de reacție chimică în chimia organică, prin intermediul căreia o grupă alchil este transferată de la o moleculă la alta. Gruparea alchil poate fi transferată ca și carbocation alchil, radical liber, carbanion sau ca și carbenă (sau structuri echivalente). Grupa alchil are formula generală CnH2n+1, unde n este un număr natural ce reprezintă numărul de atomi de carbon legați între ei în catenă. Agenții de alchilare sunt folosiți pentru alchilarea selectivă, prin adiția catenei alifatice la molecula dorită.

Una dintre cele mai cunoscute tipuri de reacții de alchilare este alchilarea Friedel–Crafts, în care un radical alchil dintr-un derivat halogenat substituie un atom de hidrogen de la nucleul benzenic:

Agenți de alchilare

Alchilarea biologică

Vezi și
 Acilare
 Sinteză organică
 Reacție Friedel–Crafts

Referințe

Reacții organice
Procese industriale

Alchilare


Esta é uma lista de guerras da Holanda desde 1560 até os dias atuais .

A Holanda emergiu como um estado durante a Guerra dos Oitenta Anos como um conjunto de províncias e cidades que declararam sua independência do Império Espanhol em 1581. Isso tornou a República dos Sete Países Baixos Unidos (também conhecida como 'Províncias Unidas' ou simplesmente 'a República') uma entidade política soberana, enquanto o resto dos Países Baixos ou Holanda (exceto alguns estados, como o Príncipe- Bispado de Liège, o Principado da Abadia de Stavelot-Malmedy e assim por diante), com o qual foi gradualmente integrado à Holanda dos Habsburgos na época da Borgonha, permaneceu sob o domínio da Casa de Habsburgo . A República e mais tarde o Reino dos Países Baixos estiveram envolvidos em várias guerras europeias e também travaram guerras coloniais no exterior para estabelecer as colônias holandesas, primeiro lideradas pela Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) e West-Indische Compagnie (WIC), posteriormente diretamente pelo estado. No século 20, a Holanda perdeu suas colônias, após o que as partes caribenhas remanescentes do império receberam um status igual. Desde 1950, a Holanda está envolvida por meio das Nações Unidas em guerras em países como a ex- Iugoslávia, Oriente Médio e Afeganistão, e a Holanda envia tropas de manutenção da paz.

Esta lista inclui todas as guerras travadas pelo estado holandês, ou seja, a República dos Sete Países Baixos Unidos (1581/88–1795), a República Batávia (1795–1806), o Reino da Holanda (1806–1810), o Principado dos Holanda (1813–1815), o Reino Unido dos Países Baixos (1815–1839) e o atual Reino dos Países Baixos (1839–presente).

 Para obter mais detalhes sobre os combates durante a guerra neste período, consulte Lista de batalhas holandesas e batalhas navais (1560-presente).
 Para guerras anteriores, consulte Lista de guerras nos Países Baixos até 1560 .
 Para guerras simultâneas no sul até 1829, consulte Lista de guerras nos Países Baixos do Sul (1560–1829) .
 Para as guerras do Reino da Bélgica a partir da Revolução Belga, consulte Lista de guerras da Bélgica (1830-presente).
 Para guerras do Grão-Ducado do Luxemburgo desde a sua independência, consulte Lista de guerras do Luxemburgo (1890-presente).

Veja também

 Lista de conflitos e guerras com envolvimento do Suriname
 Lista de batalhas da Frísia
 Lista de batalhas holandesas e batalhas navais
 Lista de guerras nos Países Baixos até 1560
 Lista de guerras nos Países Baixos do Sul (1560-1829)
 Lista de guerras da Bélgica
 Lista de guerras de Luxemburgo
 Border Wars (1779-1879), Boer Wars (1880-1902) e Maritz Rebellion (1914-1915) - colonos holandeses na África do Sul ( Afrikaners ou Boere (n))
 Revoltas na Flandres
Guerras envolvendo os Países Baixos
Listas de guerras

Lista de conflitos envolvendo a Holanda


المعالجة المثلية   (نقحرة: هوميوباثي) ويسمى أيضا بالطب التجانسي، هو نظام علاجي وشكل من أشكال الطب البديل يستند إلى المبادئ التي صاغها صامويل هانيمان عام 1796. ويعتمد هذا العلاج على قانون أبقراط في الطب، والذي يقول المثل يعالج المثل.

تاريخه
يعتبر الطبيب الألماني صمويل هانيمان (1755-1843) والد الطب التجانسي الحديث، عبر كتابه (القانون في فن الشفاء) الذي يبسط في تجاربه التي ادت عام 1796 إلى اكتشاف المفعول التجانسي لشجر (الكنكينا) المعروف بشجر الحميات. حيث ان هذه الشجرة لها مفعول مزدوج متناقض. حيث يسبب حمى (الملاريا) للانسان السليم، لكنه يشفي من الملاريا إذا يتناوله الشخص المصاب بكمية ضئيله.

طريقة العمل
والمبدأ الأساسي؛ أن شفاء المرض يتم بواسطة عقاقير أثبتت أنها تنتج عند شخص سليم نفس الأعراض، التي يجب علاجها. ويستكمل نظام المعالجة المثلية بالنظر إلى صفات المريض (أنواع البُنْية)، وكذلك الأدوية المستخدمة، وتستعمل كميات دقيقة صغيرة جدا.ومن مميزاته أن ليس له آثار جانبية. وقد توصل هانمان من خلال تجاربه إلى الأعراض المشتركة المتكررة في أغلب الحالات الناتجة عن كل مادة من المواد التي استعملها، سميت تلك الأعراض بالأعراض الرئيسة التي تكون معاً ما يمكن تسميته بالصورة الدوائية لكل مادة مختبرة، ومن ثم فقد توصل إلى اكتشاف قاعدة المثل يعالج المثل. ويلقى هذا النوع من العلاج شعبية كبيرة في الهند وباكستان ويدرس في الجامعات وكذلك يدرس في جامعات أوروبا وأمريكا.

.
تنص نظرية المعالجة المثلية على أن الشخص المريض يستطيع أن يشفى باستخدام كميات ضئيلة من المواد التي تسبب في جسم الشخص السليم أعراضاً مشابهة لأعراض مرض الشخص المصاب. الكلمة المستخدمة باللغات الأوربية لوصف هذه الطريقة مستمدة من الكلمة اليونانية "ὅμοιος" (أوميوس) ومعناها المثل أو المشابه، و"πάθος" (باثوس) ومعناها المعاناة أو العذاب.
يختار الممارسون لهذه الطريقة المعالجة المناسبة للمريض بعد فحص دقيق لاستكشاف الحالة البدنية والنفسية للمريض حيث أن هاتين الحالتين تعتبران مهمتين لاختيار نوع العلاج.
اعتقد هانيمان أن التخفيف (التمديد) المتسلسل للمادة المستخدمة مع رج المحلول بعد كل تخفيف يزيل التأثيرات السامة للمادة ويحتفظ المخفف (الماء أو السكر أو الكحول) بالصفات الأساسية للمادة.

الدلائل العلمية والسريرية العديدة لم تثبت نجاح المعالجة المثلية، حيث أنها لا تختلف عن الغفل.
يتعذر تمييز المستحضرات المستخدمة في المعالجة المثلية من المخففات النقية لأن المركب الدوائي المزعوم مخفف لما بعد الحالة التي يمكن فيها أن تكون الجزيئات من المادة المستخدمة قبل التخفيف موجودة أو حاضرة في المحلول المستخدم بعد التخفيف.
وبالتالي، فإن الادعاء بأن هذه المعالجة لها تأثير دوائي غير معقول علمياً ويتعارض مع المبادئ الأساسية للعلم، بما فيها قانون فعل الكتلة. ويشير الناقدون إلى أن الدراسات عالية الجودة التي تتناول نجاعة المعالجة المثلية قليلة للغاية ونتائجها غير جازمة، كما أن التناتج (تأكيد النتائج في عدة دراسات مستقلة) يمكن وصفه بالإشكالي في أحسن الأحوال. كما يُنسب النجاح في علاج بعض الحالات باستخدام العلاج المثلي إلى قناعة المريض بتأثير العلاج أو جودة العلاقة بين الطبيب والمريض وليس إلى فاعلية العلاج نفسه. اما جامعة ماربورغ في ألمانيا فقد سمت العلاج المثلي في تقريرها الصادر عام 1992 حول الموضوع ب «علم الخطأ». إن غياب الدلائل المقنعة على نجاعة المعالجة المثلية واستخدامها لعلاجات لا تحوي مكونات فعالة جعل بعض الباحثين يعتبرونها علماً زائفاً أو دجلاً.

في بريطانيا (المملكة المتحدة) تدير خدمة الصحة الوطنية خمس مستشفيات تعالج بالمعالجة المثلية وفي التسعينات أثبتت الإحصائيات أن نسبة 5.9% إلى 7.5% من أطباء العائلات الإنكليزية قد وصفوا لمرضاهم العلاج بالمعالجة المثلية كما أن هذه النسبة ارتفعت إلى 12% في اسكتلنده.

أما في ألمانيا، ففي عام 2015 وحده تم انفاق 595 مليون يورو على العلاج المثلي، أي بزيادة 12.8٪ عن العام السابق. وفي دراسة أجراها معهد ألنسباخ عام 2009 أقر 17٪ من المستطلعة آراؤهم بأنهم قد استعملوا أدوية تعتمد على مبدأ التخفيف والمثلية.

عموماً عدد الحالات المعالجة بالمعالجة المثلية من قبل أطباء عامين (GPs) في إنجلترا هبطت بنسبة 40% بين عامي 2005 و 2007 ومع ذلك فقد صرحت منظمة الصحة العالمية عام 1999 هي واحدة من أكثر طرق العلاج الغير تقليدية انتشاراً إلى العالم بجانب الطب الشعبي الصيني وطب الأعشاب وتجبير العظام.

المعالجة المثلية في تاريخ الطب
انتقد هاينمان طرائق الطب التقليدية المستعملة في القرن الثامن عشر كالفصد والملينات لذلك لجأ إلى وضع مبدأ المعالجة المثلية قاصدا بذلك معالجة الامراض بطريقة مبسطة بدون الحاجة إلى فقدان الدم أو التعرض للاسهال. وكان اقتراح هاينمان باجراء التجارب العلاجية على اشخاص اصحاء فكرة جديدة لم تستعمل من قبل. وبقيت مبادئ وتجارب المعالجة المثلية إلى يومنا هذا لان طرق اثبات صحتها بعيدة عن الانتقاد الدقيق والمنطقية العلمية. وعلى الرغم من المحاولات المتكررة لم تجد المعالجة المثلية موقعا دائما لها في الجامعات الناطقة باللغة الألمانية.

محاولة السينكونا - ولادة علم المعالجة المثلية
يعتبر المعالجين المثليين في الوقت الحالي محاولة هاينمان باستعمال نبتة السنكونا ساعة ولادة علم المعالجة المثلية لانها الهمت هاينمان لوضع مبدأ المعالجة المثلية.

لم يتمكن علماء الطب إلى وقتنا الحالي من إعادة إجراء تجربة هاينمان، حيث طلب الطبيب يوهان يورغ في عام 1821 من أربعة طلاب ان يتناولوا علاج مثلي مركب حسب مبدأ هاينمان من مادة السينكونا، لكن لم تظهر على أي منهم أي اعراض من التي ذكرها هاينمان. اما الطبيبان هانس يواخيم كريمر وايرنست هابرمان فقد تناولا مركبا مثليا مركب حسب مبادئ هاينمان، ولكن لم يوءكد أي منهما ظهور أي عرض من الاعراض التي ذكرها هاينمان، بل اصيبا بمشاكل هضمية.

تعتبر آلية تأثير المركبات الموجودة في نبتة السنكونا - التي تستخرج بواسطة الكحول - على مرضى الملاريا امراً معروفاً في وقتنا الحالي، حيث تثبط مادة الشينين الموجودة في السينكونا بناء الحمض النووي للملاريا وبالتالي تمنع تكاثرها، كما ان لمادة الشينين تأثير مسكن للالم وخافض للحرارة. يُعتقد بان الاعراض التي ظهرت لدى هاينمان كان سببها هو تحسس جسم هيانمان لمادة الشينين.

هاينمان والأمراض المزمنة
بعد سنوات عديدة من التجارب أكد هاينمان على ان هناك بعض الامراض المزمنة التي لا يمكن ان تعالج باستخدام طريقة المعالجة المثلية، ولذلك طور هو طريقة لمعالجة تلك الامراض ونشر في عام 1828 نتائج بحوثه في كتاب اسماه «الامراض المزمنة». بعد ذلك انتُقدت فكرة هاينمان بشدة ذلك ان الطرق والعلاجات التي وصفها لم تنجح في علاج سبع اثمان الحالات التي وصفت من اجلها. ويعتبر العلماء في الوقت الحالي ان فهم هاينمان للامراض المزمنة لا يخرج عن اطار المفاهيم الطبية السائدة انذاك.

انتشار فكرة المعالجة المثلية
انتشرت فكرة العلاج المثلي خلال فترة حياة هاينمان واستمرت بالتوسع حتى بعد وفاته، حيث توسعت الفكرة في فرنسا من خلال هاينمان نفسه بعد ان تزوج في عام 1835 من ميلاني ديرفلي  وانتقلا سويا للعيش في باريس حيث افتتح هناك - بفضل علاقات زوجته - عيادة متقدمة ادارها حتى وفاته في عام 1843. بعد ذلك ادارت زوجته العيادة بدون ان يكون لديها ترخيص بذلك ثم اضطرت في حوالي العام 1870 لبيع مبنى العيادة. في اواخر عمرها حصلت ميلاني على ترخيص حكومي كطبيبة مختصة بالعلاج المثلي لتكون بذلك أول طبيبة مختصة بالمعالجة المثلية.

اما في برطانيا فقد انتشرت المعالجة المثلية منذ القرن التاسع عشر، ومنذ ذلك الحين اعتمدت العائلة المالكة على هذا النوع من العلاج، كما ادخلت مبادئ المعالجة المثلية في مناهج الطب الاكاديمية في اوائل القرن التاسع عشر داخل وخارج المملكة المتحدة. وبينما انتشرت المعالجة المثلية قي دول وسط وجنوب أوروبا، لم تجد لها انتشارا واسعا في الدول الاسكندنافية. كما انتشرت في بلدان أمريكا الجنوبية كالبرازيل وكولومبيا وتشيلي والأرجنتين. اما في الهند فقد ادخل الطبيب الروماني يوهان مارتن هونيغ بيرغر مبادئ المعالجة المثلية وتقبلها الهنود بشكل كبير، وكان لذلك التقبل سبب سياسي لدى الهنود، حيث ان العلاج المثلي يأتي من الرايخ الألماني الذي كان يعتبر معاديا للإنجليز المحتلين للهند انذاك. اما في وقتنا الحالي تعتبر المعالجة المثلية راسخة في الطب الهندي، حيث كانت نسبة المعالجين المثليين المعترف بهم في ثمانينيات القرن العشرين 17,6٪ من الاطباء الهنود كما توجد مئتي كلية تُعنى بالمعالجة المثلية في الهند.

الاستعمال

اختيار العلاج المناسب
يعتمد اساس اختيار العلاج المثلي من جهه على السيرة المرضية للمريض، والاعراض التي يمكن ان تظهر عند أي شخص سليم يتناول علاجا مثليا معينا من جهه أخرى.

توجد العلاجات المثلية على هيئة محاليل أو حبوب أو حبيبات. عند تناول المحلول يُنصح استعمال ملاعق من الخشب أو البلاستك بدلا من الملاعق المعدنية وذلك لان الملاعق المعدنية - حسب الكثير من الاختصاصيين في العلاج المثلي - تضر بالقوى الداخلية الموجودة في العلاج.

حسب رأي المعالجين المثليين يجب ان يتم وضع العلاج المثلي تحت اللسان وتركه في الفم لمدة دقيقة كي يساهم ذلك في زيادة امتصاصه وبالتالي فعاليته، كما ان أفضل النتائج تظهر عند تناول العلاج مباشرة بعد ظهور أول اعراض المرض. وبغض النظر عن المواد الفعالة الموجودة في العلاج المثلي هناك بعض العوامل التي تلعب دورا مهما في وصف العلاج المثلي، فمثلا لا يُسمح لمدمن كحول تعالج من الإدمان ان يتناول علاج مثلي على هيئة محلول كحولي لان ذلك قد يتسبب بعودة المريض إلى إدمانه السابق، كما يجب أخذ تحسس جسم المريض لمادة معينة (سم النحل مثلا عند صرف علاج يحتوي على عسل النحل) بعين الاعتبار. كما يتوجب على النساء الحوامل والمرضعات والاطفال استشارة الطبيب قبل تناول العلاج. لا يمكن استعمال العلاج المثلي في علاج الامراض الحادة كالنوبة القلبية والالتهاب الربوي المزمن، كما يجب ان لا يستعمل العلاج المثلي في معالجة الامراض العضوية التي تهدد حياة الإنسان.

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