Reinhard Heydrich, the commander of the German Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), the acting governor of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a principal architect of the Holocaust, was assassinated during the Second World War in a coordinated operation by the Czechoslovak resistance. The assassination attempt, code-named Operation Anthropoid, was carried out by resistance operatives Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš on 27 May 1942. Heydrich was wounded in the attack and died of his wounds on 4 June 1942.

The operatives who carried out the assassination were soldiers of the Czechoslovak Army who were prepared and trained by the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) with the approval of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile, led by Edvard Beneš. The Czechoslovaks undertook the operation to help confer legitimacy on the government-in-exile, and to exact retribution for Heydrich's brutal rule. The operation was the only verified government-sponsored assassination of a senior Nazi leader during the war. Heydrich's death led to a wave of reprisals by SS troops, including the destruction of villages and mass killings of civilians, notably the Lidice massacre.

Multiple memorials have been created in different nations such as in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and in the United Kingdom as a result of both the assassination and its aftermath. In addition, the events have been featured in several well-known dramatic films (this taking place in the general context of World War II in popular culture and specifically Reinhard Heydrich in popular culture).

Background

Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
Reinhard Heydrich had been the chief of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) since September 1939 and was appointed acting Protector of Bohemia and Moravia after replacing Konstantin von Neurath in September 1941. Chancellor Adolf Hitler agreed with Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler and Heydrich that von Neurath's relatively lenient approach to the Czechs promoted anti-German sentiment, and encouraged anti-German resistance by strikes and sabotage.

Heydrich came to Prague to "strengthen policy, carry out countermeasures against resistance", and keep up production quotas of Czech motors and arms that were "extremely important to the German war effort". During his role as de facto dictator of Bohemia and Moravia, Heydrich often drove with his chauffeur in a car with an open roof. This was a show of his confidence in the occupation forces and in the effectiveness of his government. Due to his brutal efficiency, Heydrich was nicknamed the Butcher of Prague, the Blond Beast and the Hangman.

Strategic context

By late 1941, Nazi Germany controlled almost all of continental Europe, and German forces were approaching Moscow. The Allies deemed Soviet capitulation likely. The exiled government of Czechoslovakia under President Edvard Beneš was under pressure from British intelligence, as there had been very little visible resistance since the occupation of the Sudeten regions of the country in 1938. The takeover of these regions was accepted by the United Kingdom and France in the Munich Agreement. Occupation of the whole country had begun in 1939, and the initial betrayal, along with the subsequent terror of the Nazis, seemed to break the will of the Czechs for a period.

The German invasion of the Soviet Union had stimulated acts of sabotage by Czech communists, leading to Heydrich's appointment. As well as terrorizing the opposition and establishing the Theresienstadt ghetto/concentration camp, Heydrich had overseen a progressive policy of good wages (equivalent to those in Germany) for industrial workers and farmers, which caused acts of sabotage to drop significantly and helped cooperative production of war materials. Heydrich was thought to be scheduled to transfer to occupied northern France and Belgium, with the intent to implement similar policies there.

Resistance movements were active from the very beginning of occupation in several other countries defeated in open warfare (Poland, Yugoslavia and Greece), but the subjugated Czech lands remained relatively calm and produced significant amounts of materiel for Germany. The exiled government felt that it had to do something that would inspire the Czechoslovaks, as well as show the world that the Czechs and Slovaks were allies. In particular, Beneš felt that a dramatic action displaying a Czech contribution to the Allied cause would make it politically harder for the British to forge any possible peace agreement with Germany that would undermine Czech national interests. Heydrich was chosen over Karl Hermann Frank as an assassination target due to his status as the acting Protector of Bohemia and Moravia as well as his reputation for terrorizing local citizens. The operation was also intended to demonstrate to senior Nazis that they were not beyond the reach of Allied forces and the resistance groups they supported.

Operation

Planning
The operation was initiated by František Moravec, head of the Czechoslovak intelligence services, with the knowledge and approval of Beneš, almost as soon as Heydrich was appointed Protector. Moravec personally briefed Brigadier Colin Gubbins, who at the time was the Director of Operations in the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) and who had responsibility for the Czech and Polish "country" sections of the organisation. Gubbins readily agreed to help mount the operation, although knowledge of it was restricted to a few of the headquarters and training staff of SOE. The operation was given the codename Anthropoid, Greek for "having the form of a human", a term usually used in zoology.

Preparation began on 20 October 1941. Moravec had personally selected two dozen of the most promising personnel from among the 2,000 exiled Czechoslovak soldiers based in Britain. They were sent to one of SOE's commando training centres at Arisaig in Scotland. Warrant Officer Jozef Gabčík (Slovak) and Staff Sergeant Karel Svoboda (cs) (Czech) were chosen to carry out the operation on 28 October 1941 (Czechoslovakia's Independence Day), but after Svoboda received a head injury during training he was replaced by Jan Kubiš (Czech). This caused delays in the mission as Kubiš had not completed training, nor had the necessary false documents been prepared for him.

Training was supervised by the nominated head of the Czech section, Major Alfgar Hesketh-Prichard, who turned to Cecil Clarke to develop the necessary weapon, light enough to throw but still be lethal to an armour-plated Mercedes. During extensive training, the new weapon was found to be easy to throw by Hesketh-Prichard, who had a strong cricketing background, his father having been a first-class bowler, but less so by Gabčík and Kubiš.

Insertion

Gabčík and Kubiš, along with seven other soldiers from Czechoslovakia's army-in-exile in the United Kingdom in two other groups named Silver A and Silver B (who had different missions), were flown from RAF Tangmere by a Halifax of No. 138 Squadron RAF at 22:00 on 28 December 1941. The groups, along with some supply containers, left the plane by parachute, in drops in three separate areas. The Anthropoid pair landed near Nehvizdy east of Prague. Originally, the plane had been planned to land near Pilsen, but the aircrew had navigation problems and each of the groups landed in different places from where intended. Gabčík and Kubiš then moved to Pilsen to contact their allies, and from there on to Prague, where the attack was planned.

In Prague, the pair contacted several families and Czechoslovak resistance organisations who helped them during the preparations for the assassination. Upon learning of the nature of the mission, resistance leaders begged the Czechoslovak government-in-exile to call off the attack, saying that "[a]n attempt against Heydrich's life... would be of no use to the Allies and its consequences for our people would be immeasurable". Beneš personally broadcast a message insisting that the attack go forward, although he denied any involvement after the war. Professor Vojtěch Mastný argues that he "clung to the scheme as the last resort to dramatize Czech resistance".

Gabčík and Kubiš initially planned to kill Heydrich on a train, but after examination of the practicalities they realised this was not going to be possible. A second plan was to kill Heydrich on a forest road that led from his home to Prague. They planned to pull a cable across the road that would stop Heydrich's car, but after waiting several hours their commander, Lt. Adolf Opálka (from the group Out Distance), came to bring them back to Prague. A third plan was to kill Heydrich in Prague.

Attack in Prague

At 10:30 on 27 May 1942, Heydrich started his daily commute from his home in Panenské Břežany, 14 km (9 mi) north of central Prague, to his headquarters at Prague Castle. He was driven by SS-Oberscharführer Johannes Klein. Gabčík and Kubiš waited at the tram stop at the junction between the road then known as , and , in Prague 8-Libeň near Bulovka Hospital. The tight curve there would force Heydrich's car to slow down as it turned westwards into . Josef Valčík (from group Silver A) was positioned about 100 m (109 yards) north of Gabčík and Kubiš to look out for the approaching car.

Heydrich's green, open-topped Mercedes 320 Cabriolet B reached the curve two minutes later. As it slowed down and rounded the corner, Gabčík, who concealed his Sten submachine gun under a raincoat, dropped the raincoat and raised the gun and, at close range, tried to shoot Heydrich, but the gun jammed. As the car passed, Heydrich, instead of ordering his driver to accelerate, stood up and drew his Luger pistol, yelling at the driver to halt.

As the Mercedes braked in front of him, Kubiš, who was not spotted by Heydrich or Klein, threw a modified anti-tank grenade (concealed in a briefcase) at the car; he misjudged his throw. Instead of landing inside the Mercedes, it landed against the rear wheel. Nonetheless, the bomb severely wounded Heydrich when it detonated, its fragments ripping through the right rear fender and embedding fragmentation and fibers from the upholstery of the car into Heydrich, causing serious injuries to his left side, with major damage to his diaphragm, spleen and lung, as well as fracturing a rib.

Kubiš received a minor wound to his face from the shrapnel. The explosion shattered the windows of the tram, which had stopped on the opposite side of the road, with shrapnel striking passengers. Two SS jackets that had been folded on the back seat of the car were whirled upwards by the blast and draped themselves over the trolley wire.

Heydrich and Klein leapt out of the shattered Mercedes with drawn pistols; Klein ran towards Kubiš, who had staggered against the railings, while Heydrich went to Gabčík, who stood paralyzed holding the Sten. As Klein came towards him, Kubiš recovered, jumped on his bicycle and pedaled away, scattering passengers spilling from the tram by firing in the air with his Colt M1903 pistol. Klein tried to shoot at him, but dazed by the explosion, pressed the magazine release catch and the gun jammed.

A staggering Heydrich came towards Gabčík, who dropped his Sten and tried to reach his bicycle but was forced to abandon the attempt and took cover behind a telegraph pole, firing at Heydrich with his pistol. Heydrich returned fire and ducked behind the stalled tram. Suddenly, Heydrich doubled over and staggered to the side of the road in pain. He then collapsed against the railings, holding himself up with one hand. As Gabčík took the opportunity to run, Klein returned from his fruitless chase of Kubiš to help his wounded superior.

Heydrich, his face pale and contorted in pain, pointed toward the fleeing Slovak, saying, "Get that bastard!" As Klein gave pursuit, Heydrich stumbled along the pavement before collapsing against the bonnet of his wrecked car. Gabčík fled into a butcher shop, where the owner, a man named Brauer, who was a Nazi sympathiser and had a brother who worked for the Gestapo, ignored his request for help. Brauer ran out to the street and attracted Klein's attention by shouting and pointing inside the shop.

Klein, whose gun was still jammed, ran into the shop and collided with Gabčík in the doorway. In the confusion, Gabčík shot him twice, severely wounding him in the leg. Gabčík then escaped in a tram, reaching a local safe house. At this point, Gabčík and Kubiš did not know that Heydrich was wounded and thought the attack had failed.

Medical treatment and death
A Czech woman and an off-duty policeman went to Heydrich's aid and flagged down a delivery van. Heydrich was first placed in the driver's cab but complained that the truck's movement was causing him pain. He was then transferred to the back of the truck on his stomach and taken to the emergency room at Bulovka Hospital. A Dr. Slanina packed the chest wound, while Dr. Walter Diek, the Sudeten German chief of surgery at the hospital, tried to remove the shrapnel splinters.

Professor Hollbaum (a Silesian German who was chairman of surgery at Charles University in Prague) operated on Heydrich with Diek and Slanina's assistance. The surgeons reinflated the collapsed left lung, removed the tip of the fractured 11th rib, sutured the torn diaphragm, inserted several catheters and removed the spleen, which contained a grenade fragment and upholstery. Himmler, Heydrich's superior, despatched his personal physician, Karl Gebhardt, who flew to Prague and arrived that evening. After 29 May, Heydrich was entirely in the care of SS physicians. Postoperative care included administration of large amounts of morphine.

Conflicting accounts exist concerning whether sulfanilamide, a new antibacterial drug, was given; Gebhardt testified at his 1947 war crimes trial that it was not. Theodor Morell, Hitler's doctor, suggested its use, but Gebhardt, thinking Heydrich was recovering, declined. Heydrich developed a fever of 38–39 °C (100.4–102.2 °F) and wound drainage, and he was in great pain. Despite the fever, his recovery appeared to progress well. On 2 June, during a visit by Himmler, Heydrich reconciled himself to his fate by reciting a part of one of his father's operas:

Ja, die Welt ist nur ein Leierkasten,
die unser Herrgott selber dreht.
Jeder muß nach dem Liede tanzen,
das gerade auf der Walze steht.
The world is just a barrel-organ
which the Lord God turns Himself.
We all have to dance to the tune
which is already on the drum.

Heydrich's condition appeared to be improving, until while sitting up eating a noon meal on 3 June, he suddenly collapsed and went into shock. He soon slipped into a deep coma and never regained consciousness, dying on 4 June around 04:30. An autopsy concluded he died of sepsis. Heydrich's facial expression as he died betrayed an "uncanny spirituality and entirely perverted beauty, like a renaissance Cardinal" according to Bernhard Wehner, a Kriminalpolizei police official who investigated the assassination.

One of the theories was that some of the horsehair in the upholstery of Heydrich's car was forced into his body by the blast of the grenade, causing a systemic infection. Another suggestion was that Heydrich died of a massive pulmonary embolism (probably a fat embolism). In support of the latter possibility, particles of fat and blood clots were found at autopsy in the right ventricle and pulmonary artery and severe oedema was noted in the upper lobes of the lungs, while the lower lobes were collapsed.

Botulinum poisoning theory
The authors of A Higher Form of Killing claim that Heydrich died from botulism (Clostridium botulinum toxin poisoning). According to this theory, based on statements made by Paul Fildes, a Porton Down botulism researcher, the No. 73 anti-tank grenade used in the attack had been modified to contain the toxin. The authors say that only circumstantial evidence supports this allegation; SOE records for the period have remained sealed and few medical records of Heydrich's condition and treatment have been preserved.

The evidence cited to support the theory includes the modifications made to the No. 73 grenade; the bottom two-thirds of this weapon had been removed, and the open end and sides were wrapped up with adhesive tape. The modification of the weapon could indicate an attached toxic or biological agent. Heydrich received excellent medical care by the standards of the time. His post mortem examination showed none of the usual signs of sepsis, although infection of the wound and areas surrounding the lungs and heart was reported. A German wartime report on the incident stated, "[d]eath occurred as a consequence of lesions in the vital parenchymatous organs caused by bacteria and possibly by poisons carried into them by bomb splinters".

Heydrich's condition while hospitalized was not documented in detail, but he was not noted to have developed any of the distinctive symptoms associated with botulism, which have a gradual onset, invariably including paralysis, with death generally resulting from respiratory failure. Two others were also wounded by fragments of the same grenade – Kubiš, the Czech soldier who threw the grenade, and a bystander – but neither was reported to have shown any sign of poisoning.

The botulinum toxin theory has not found widespread acceptance among scholars. Fildes had a reputation for "extravagant boasts" and the grenade modifications could have been aimed at making the  weapon lighter. Two of the six original modified grenades are kept by the Military History Institute in Prague.

Consequences

Reprisals

Hitler ordered an investigation and reprisals on the day of the assassination attempt, suggesting that Himmler send SS General Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski to Prague. According to Karl Hermann Frank's postwar testimony, Hitler knew Zelewski to be even harsher than Heydrich. Hitler favoured killing 10,000 politically unreliable Czechs, but after he consulted Himmler, the idea was dropped because Czech territory was an important industrial zone for the German military, and indiscriminate killing could reduce the productivity of the region.

According to one estimate, 5,000 people were murdered in the reprisals. More than 13,000 people were arrested, including Gabčík's girlfriend Anna Malinová, who died in the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp. Adolf Opálka's aunt, Marie Opálková, was executed in the Mauthausen camp on 24 October 1942; his father Viktor Jarolím was also killed.

Nazi intelligence falsely linked Heydrich's assassins to the village of Lidice. A Gestapo report suggested Lidice was the hiding place of the assassins, since several Czech army officers exiled in England were known to have come from there. On 9 June 1942, the Germans committed the Lidice massacre; 199 men were killed, 195 women were deported to Ravensbrück concentration camp and 95 children taken prisoner. Of the children, 81 were later killed in gas vans at the Chełmno extermination camp, while eight were adopted by German families. The Czech village of Ležáky was also destroyed because a radio transmitter belonging to the Silver A team was found there. The men and women of Ležáky were murdered, both villages were burned and the ruins of Lidice were levelled.

Investigation and manhunt

In the days following the Lidice massacre, no leads were found for those responsible for Heydrich's death. A deadline was issued to the military and the people of Czechoslovakia for the assassins to be apprehended by 18 June 1942. If they were not caught by then, the Germans threatened to spill far more blood, believing that this threat would be enough to force a potential informant to sell out the culprits. Many civilians were indeed wary and fearful of further reprisals, making hiding information much longer increasingly difficult. The assailants initially hid with two Prague families and later took refuge in the Cathedral of Sts Cyril and Methodius (until 1935 the Karel Boromejsky Church) a cathedral of the Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church in Prague. The Germans were unable to locate the attackers until Karel Čurda of the Out Distance sabotage group turned himself in to the Gestapo and gave up the names of the team's local contacts for the bounty of one million Reichsmarks.

Čurda betrayed several safe houses provided by the Jindra group, including that of the Moravec family in Žižkov. At 05:00 on 17 June, the Moravec flat was raided. The family was made to stand in the hallway while the Gestapo searched their flat. Marie Moravec was allowed to go to the toilet, where she bit into a cyanide capsule and killed herself. Alois Moravec was unaware of his family's involvement with the resistance; he was taken to the Petschek Palace together with his 17-year-old son Vlastimil, or "Ata", who was tortured throughout the day but refused to talk. The youth was stupefied with brandy, shown his mother's severed head in a fish tank, and warned that, if he did not talk, his father would be next; Ata gave in. Ata was executed by the Nazis in Mauthausen on 24 October 1942, the same day as his father, his fiancée, her mother and her brother.

Waffen-SS troops laid siege to the church the following day, but they were unable to take the assailants alive, despite the best efforts of 750 SS soldiers under the command of SS-Gruppenführer Karl Fischer von Treuenfeld. They also brought along Čurda, who tried to get them to surrender by shouting: "" () to which the paratroopers fired back and shouted: "" () Adolf Opálka and Josef Bublík were killed in the prayer loft after a two-hour gun battle, and Kubiš was reportedly found unconscious after the battle and died shortly after from his injuries. Gabčík, Josef Valčík, Jaroslav Švarc and Jan Hrubý killed themselves in the crypt after repeated SS attacks, attempts to force them out with tear gas and fire brigade trucks brought in to try to flood the crypt. The SS report about the fight mentioned five wounded SS soldiers. The men in the church had only pistols, while the attackers had machine guns, submachine guns and hand grenades. After the battle, Čurda confirmed the identity of the dead Czech resistance fighters, including Kubiš and Gabčík.

Bishop Gorazd took the blame for the actions in the church to minimize the reprisals among his flock, and even wrote letters to the Nazi authorities, who arrested him on 27 June 1942 and tortured him. On 4 September 1942, the bishop, the church's priests and senior lay leaders were taken to Kobylisy Shooting Range in a northern suburb of Prague and shot. For his actions, Bishop Gorazd was later glorified as a martyr by the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Aftermath

Two large funeral ceremonies were held for Heydrich as one of the most important Nazi leaders, first in Prague, where the way to Prague Castle was lined by thousands of SS men with torches, and then in Berlin attended by all high-ranking Nazi figures. Hitler attended the Berlin ceremony and placed the German Order and Blood Order medals on Heydrich's funeral pillow.

The assassination of Heydrich was one of the most significant moments of the resistance in Czechoslovakia. Čurda, who had betrayed Heydrich's assassins, was hanged for high treason in 1947 after attempting suicide.

On 5 August 1942, British foreign secretary Anthony Eden issued a declaration that Germany had destroyed the Munich Agreement. However, the declaration did not commit the UK to Czechoslovakia's pre-Munich borders and did not declare the Munich agreement void ab initio as Czechoslovakia wanted, thus the statement has been questioned as a full repudiation of the deal. A September 1942 declaration by the French National Committee suggested that the agreement was void ab initio as it had come about under threat of aggression and recognizing no changes in Czechoslovakia's borders since 1938.

Neither the Czech government-in-exile nor the British SOE likely foresaw the possibility that the Germans would apply the principle of Sippenhaft (collective responsibility) on the scale they did in avenging Heydrich's assassination. Moreover, decisions about whether to conduct assassinations of this kind are resistant to a rational choice process, as computing the probability of success or the likely benefits and costs involved is inherently difficult, and even if it were possible, the benefits (in this case, the diplomatic value of British repudiation of the Munich Agreement) are not in a form that Beneš could readily compare against the nature of the costs (the loss of Czech civilian lives). British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was infuriated enough by the scale of reprisals to suggest levelling three German villages for every Czech village that the Nazis destroyed. Two years after Heydrich's death, Operation Foxley, a similar assassination plan, was drawn up against Hitler but not implemented.

Operation Anthropoid was the only successful government-organized assassination of a top-ranking Nazi official. The Polish underground killed two senior SS officers in the General Government in Operation Kutschera and Operation Bürkl; Wilhelm Kube, the General-kommissar of Belarus, was killed in Operation Blowup by Soviet partisan Yelena Mazanik, a Belarusian woman who had managed to find employment in his household to kill him.

Memorials

The soldiers of Operation Anthropoid, their helpers and the operation itself were memorialized in the Czech Republic and abroad. The oldest memorial is a plaque on the Cathedral of Saints Cyril and Methodius in Resslova Street, Prague. It was created in 1947 by an ex-soldier of the Czechoslovak army-in-exile, František Bělský and is dedicated to the paratroopers, the clergymen and other Czech patriots who died for the sake of the operation.

The National Memorial to the Heroes of the Heydrich Terror was created beneath the Cathedral of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 1995. Later, it underwent significant reconstruction and the extended exposition was reopened in 2010.

Another important monument is in the form of a fountain, and symbolically commemorates the seven paratroopers. It was installed in 1968 in the Jephson Gardens, Leamington Spa, England. The headquarters of the Czechoslovak military training camp during the Second World War were in Leamington.

The Slovak National Museum opened an exhibition in May 2007 to commemorate the heroes of the Czech and Slovak resistance, one of the most important resistance actions in the whole of German-occupied Europe.

The Anthropoid Operation Memorial, 2009, Prague, authors: sculptor David Mojescik and sculptor Michal Smeral; architects: M. Tumova and J. Gulbis.

Also, a memorial has been placed in Arisaig, Scotland, to the Czechoslovakian members of SOE who trained in that area, with a list of those killed and the missions in which they took part.

In October 2011, a memorial plaque was unveiled on residential block Porchester Gate (London), which housed the Czechoslovak military intelligence service and where the Operation Anthropoid was planned in October 1941.

Portrayals in literature and popular culture

Literature
Jiří Weil's 1959 book Mendelssohn is on the Roof features the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich as a subplot.

The story of Operation Anthropoid is narrated in a short Czech comic book titled Atentát (The Assassination), created in 1976 by brothers Jan Saudek and Kája Saudek. It was published in 1976 in the Polish comic-book magazine Relax, as Zamach (The Assassination).

The alternate history novel The Man with the Iron Heart by Harry Turtledove is based on the premise that Heydrich survived the 1942 assassination attempt, and led a postwar insurgency campaign, using the Werwolf.

Jiří Šulc's novel Dva proti Říši (literally Two Men Against The Empire) describes the events long before the assassination, assassination itself, its consequences and a detailed look at the life of the Czech resistance and exiled paratroopers in the Protectorate.

Laurent Binet's novel HHhH (Himmlers Hirn heißt Heydrich, or "Himmler's brain is called Heydrich"), published in 2010 by Grasset & Fasquelle, chronicles the lives of Reinhard Heydrich and his assassins Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš.

Movies
The following is a list of the movies dealing with Operation Anthropoid or portraying the assassination as a crucial moment of the film's plot:
 Hangmen Also Die! (1943)
 Hitler's Madman (1943)
 Muži bez křídel (1946)
 Atentát (1964)
 Sokolovo (1975)
 Operation Daybreak (1975)
 Protector (2009)
 Lidice (2011)
 Bullet for Heydrich (2013 TV movie)
 Anthropoid (2016)
 The Man with the Iron Heart (2017)

Songs
There are two Czech songs about operation Anthropoid.

One is by Jan Vyčítal, from Czech country band Greenhorns, called Battledress (2006).

Second is from Daniel Landa, called Anička Malinová (2022; Anna Malinová was Gabčík's girlfriend. She was executed by Nazis in Mauthausen)

Gallery
Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius is where the Czechoslovak paratroopers died after being cornered, and the memorial there is for those killed by the SS in retaliation for Operation Anthropoid.

See also

Aston House - Station XII
Czech resistance to Nazi occupation
Occupation of Czechoslovakia
Operation Kutschera – Polish assassination of the SS and Police Leader Franz Kutschera in 1944
List of Nazi Party leaders and officials
List of rulers of the Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia

References

Further reading

External links

 National Memorial to the Heroes of the Heydrich Terror
 Radio Prague: Czechs in World War II
 Radio Prague: Exhibitions mark 60th anniversary of assassination of Nazi governor Heydrich
 Operation Anthropoid at Everything2
 Czechs in Exile website
 Exhibition on Operation Anthropoid at the Slovak Nation Museum
 The Prague Daily Monitor: Experts find wartime paratroopers' grave
 RCAHMS record for Arisaig memorial
 Highland HER entry for Arisaig memorial

1942 murders in Europe
1942 in Czechoslovakia
20th century in Prague
Conflicts in 1942
Czechoslovakia in World War II
History of Prague
Military assassinations
Military operations of World War II involving Germany
Reinhard Heydrich
Special Operations Executive operations
World War II operations and battles of Europe
May 1942 events
Covert operations
Code names
People killed in United Kingdom intelligence operations

Assassination of Reinhard Heydrich


Le commandement opérationnel ouest (en , abrégé en  ; numéro d'unité militaire А0796) est une structure militaire ukrainienne de l'Armée de terre ukrainienne créée en 1996.

Il dirige les unités présentes dans les oblasts de Volhynie, de Transcarpatie, d'Ivano-Frankivsk, de Lviv, de Rivne, de Ternopil, de Khmelnytskyï et de Tchernivtsi.

Historique

Le Commandement opérationnel nord est créé en 1998 à partir du district militaire des Carpates ; depuis 2021 Serhiy Litvinov est à sa tête.

Composition
En août 2023, il comprend :
   de chars, à Iarmolyntsi ;
   d'assaut de montagne, à Kolomya ;
   de chasseurs, à Rivne ;
   mécanisée, à Volodymyr ;
   mécanisée, à Tchernivtsi ;
   mécanisée, à Yavoriv ;
   mécanisée, à Rivne ;
   mécanisée, à Tchortkiv ;
   mécanisée, à Starokostiantyniv ;
   mécanisée, à Starychi ;
   de chasseurs, à Oujhorod ;
  , à Rivne ;
   d'assaut de montagne, à Moukatchevo ;
   d'artillerie, à Ternopil ;
   d'artillerie, à Yavoriv ;
   antiaérien, à Volodymyr ;
  de transmissions, à Rivne ;
  de reconnaissance, à Rivne ;
  du génie, à Sambir ;
  de soutien matériel, à Berejany ;
  de soutien et de réparation, à Zolotchiv ;
  de commandement et de renseignement, à Rivne ;
 Centre régional de renseignement d'origine électromagnétique, à Brody ;
  mobile de ROEM, à Kovel ;
  mobile de ROEM, à Vynohradiv ;
  mobile de ROEM, à Serebriya ;
  de guerre électronique, à Rivne.

D'autres unités basées sur ce territoire peuvent passer sous son commandement opérationnel :
 dépendant directement de l'état-major général :
   d'aviation de l'armée, à Novyï Kalyniv ;
   d'artillerie de reconnaissance, à Drohobytch ;
   d'aviation de l'armée, à Brody ;
   de missiles, à Khmelnytskyï ;
   du génie, à Doubno ;
   du génie, à Kamianets-Podilskyï ;
   de pontonniers, à Ternopil ;
   de protection NBC, à Sambir ;
 Force aérienne :
   de missiles antiaériens, à Chepetivka ;
   de missiles antiaériens, à Stryï ;
  de missiles antiaériens, à Kamianka-Bouzka ;
 Forces d'opérations spéciales :
  centre Ouest des opérations spéciales (ex  de forces spéciales), à Khmelnytskyï ;
   des forces spéciales, à Khmelnytskyï ;
   des opérations psycho et d'information, à Lviv ;
 Forces d'assaut aérien :
   d'assaut aérien, à Lviv ;
   d'assaut aérien, à Tchernivtsi ;
 Force de défense territoriale :
   de défense territoriale « Volhynie », à Loutsk ;
   de défense territoriale « Transcarpatie », à Oujhorod ;
   de défense territoriale « Ivano-Frankivsk » ;
   de défense territoriale « Lviv » ;
   de défense territoriale « Rivne » ;
   de défense territoriale « Ternopil » ;
   de défense territoriale « Khmelnytskyï » ;
   de défense territoriale « Tchernivtsi » ;
   de défense territoriale « ville de Lviv ».

Son terrain d'entrainement et de tir est à Mala Lioubacha, dans le raïon de Rivne.

Commandants
 1992 : lieutenant-général Valeriy Stepanov
 1993–1994 : colonel-général Vassyl Sobkov
 1994–1998 : colonel-général Petro Chouliak
 1998–1999 : colonel-général Serhiy Chernilevsky
 2003–2004 : colonel-général Mykola Petrouk
 2004–2010 : lieutenant-général Mykhaïlo Koutsyne
 2010 : Viktor Yvanovitch
 2010-2012 : Youri Doumanskiy
 2015 - mars 2017 : major-général Ihor Dovhan
 mars 2017 - mars 2022 : major-général Oleksandr Pavliouk
 avril 2020 - août 2021 : major-général Serhiï Chaptala
 depuis août 2021 : major-général Serhiy Litvinov

Notes et références

Articles connexes

Guerre russo-ukrainienne
Invasion de l'Ukraine par la Russie en 2022
Forces armées de l'Ukraine

Commandement opérationnel ouest


San Bernardino (en honor a su santo patrono Bernardino de Siena) es un municipio del departamento de Suchitepéquez de la región sur-occidente de la República de Guatemala.

Después de la Independencia de Centroamérica en 1821, San Bernardino fue parte del Circuito de Mazatenango en el Distrito N.º11 (Suchitepéquez) para la administración de justicia.  Luego formó parte del efímero Estado de Los Altos que fue creado por los criollos liberales en 1838.  Este estado fue recuperado por la fuerza y reintegrado al Estado de Guatemala por el general conservador Rafael Carrera en 1840.

El 9 de diciembre de 1893 los pobladores recibieron los papeles y los derechos del territorio de San Bernardino.

Toponimia
Muchos de los nombres de los municipios y poblados de Guatemala constan de dos partes: el nombre del santo católico que se venera el día en que fueron fundados y una descripción con raíz náhuatl; esto se debe a que las tropas que invadieron la región en la década de 1520 al mando de Pedro de Alvarado estaban compuestas por soldados españoles y por indígenas tlaxcaltecas y cholultecas.  En algunos casos, los poblados solamente tenían el nombre del santo, como el caso de San Bernandino, el cual fue nombrado así en honor a San Bernardino de Siena.

División política

El municipio cuenta cinco aldeas que son: Las Flores, El Progreso, Las Cruces, El Sauce y La Libertad.

Demografía
El municipio cuenta con una población aproximada de 16,204 habitantes según el Censo de Población del año 2018 con una densidad de 506.38 personas por kilómetro cuadrado. El municipio tiene un población superior de gente indígena con un porcentaje del 66% y sus principales etnias son quiché, kakchiquel, y quekchí y el 34% son ladinos.

Geografía física

El municipio de San Bernardino tiene una extensión territorial de 32 km² convirtiéndolo en uno de los más pequeños del departamento de Suchitepéquez.

Clima

El clima es tropical, con gran precipitación pluvial durante la mayoría de los meses del año (de diciembre a marzo son los meses con menos precipitaciones); y según la Clasificación de Köppen es de Clima Monzónico o Subecuatorial (Am). Alcanzan en promedio los 3,150 mm anuales, esto en consecuencia por estar situado en el sur de la Sierra Madre, además de las altas temperaturas cargadas con mucha humedad en la temporada de lluvias por la baja elevación a nivel del mar.

Ubicación geográfica

San Bernardino se encuentra a una distancia de 6 km de la cabecera departamental Mazatenango y a 166 km de la Ciudad de Guatemala; está rodeado por municipios del departamento de Suchitepéquez:

 Norte: Samayac
 Este: San Antonio Suchitepéquez
 Oeste: Mazatenango
 Sur: Santo Domingo Suchitepequez

Gobierno municipal

Los municipios se encuentran regulados en diversas leyes de la República, que establecen su forma de organización, lo relativo a la conformación de sus órganos administrativos y los tributos destinados para los mismos.  Aunque se trata de entidades autónomas, se encuentran sujetos a la legislación nacional y las principales leyes que los rigen desde 1985 son:

El gobierno de los municipios está a cargo de un Concejo Municipal mientras que el código municipal —ley ordinaria que contiene disposiciones que se aplican a todos los municipios— establece que «el concejo municipal es el órgano colegiado superior de deliberación y de decisión de los asuntos municipales […] y tiene su sede en la circunscripción de la cabecera municipal»; el artículo 33 del mencionado código establece que «[le] corresponde con exclusividad al concejo municipal el ejercicio del gobierno del municipio».

El concejo municipal se integra con el alcalde, los síndicos y concejales, electos directamente por sufragio universal y secreto para un período de cuatro años, pudiendo ser reelectos.

Existen también las Alcaldías Auxiliares, los Comités Comunitarios de Desarrollo (COCODE), el Comité Municipal del Desarrollo (COMUDE), las asociaciones culturales y las comisiones de trabajo. Los alcaldes auxiliares son elegidos por las comunidades de acuerdo a sus principios y tradiciones, y se reúnen con el alcalde municipal el primer domingo de cada mes, mientras que los Comités Comunitarios de Desarrollo y el Comité Municipal de Desarrollo organizan y facilitan la participación de las comunidades priorizando necesidades y problemas.

Los alcaldes que ha habido en el municipio son:

Historia

La existencia del poblado de San Bernardino se remonta en la época precolombina con el nombre de «Ixtacapa». El municipio fue un paraje que formó parte de la capital del reino de Xochiltepec Zapotitlán, que actualmente es el departamento de Suchitepéquez.

Tras la Independencia de Centroamérica

La constitución del Estado de Guatemala promulgada el 11 de octubre de 1825 —y no el 11 de abril de 1836, como numerosos historiadores han reportado incorrectamente — creó los distritos y sus circuitos correspondientes para la administración de justicia según el Código de Lívingston traducido al español por José Francisco Barrundia y Cepeda; menciona que San Bernardino era parte del Circuito de Mazatenango en el Distrito N.º11 (Suchitepéquez), junto con el propio Mazatenango, Samayac, San Lorenzo, San Gabriel, Santo Domingo, Retalhuleu, San Antonio Suchitepéquez, Sapotitlán y Santo Tomás.

El efímero Estado de Los Altos

A partir del 3 de abril de 1838, San Bernardino fue parte de la región que formó el efímero Estado de Los Altos y que forzó a que el Estado de Guatemala se reorganizara en siete departamentos y dos distritos independientes el 12 de septiembre de 1839:

 Departamentos: Chimaltenango, Chiquimula, Escuintla, Guatemala, Mita, Sacatepéquez, y Verapaz
 Distritos: Izabal y Petén

La región occidental de la actual Guatemala había mostrado intenciones de obtener mayor autonomía con respecto a las autoridades de la ciudad de Guatemala desde la época colonial, pues los criollos de la localidad consideraban que los criollos capitalinos que tenían el monopolio comercial con España no les daban un trato justo.  Pero este intento de secesión fue aplastado por el general Rafael Carrera, quien reintegró al Estado de Los Altos al Estado de Guatemala en 1840.

El 9 de diciembre de 1893 los pobladores recibieron los papeles y los derechos del territorio de San Bernardino.

Véase también

 Elecciones municipales de Guatemala de 2015
 Historia Territorial de Guatemala
 Organización territorial de Guatemala

Notas y referencias

Referencias

Bibliografía

Municipios de Suchitepéquez
Patronazgo de San Bernardino de Siena
Poblados del extinguido Estado de Los Altos
Toponimia castellana de Guatemala

San Bernardino (Suchitepéquez)


Nicholas "Nick" Menza (München, Njemačka, 23. srpnja 1964. – Los Angeles, Kalifornija, SAD, 21. svibnja 2016.) bio je američki glazbenik, najpoznatiji kao bubnjar američkog thrash metal sastava Megadeth, od 1989. do 1998. godine, pa ponovno 2004. i 2014. godine. Svirao je bubnjeve na četiri Megadethova albuma: Rust in Peace (1990.), Countdown to Extinction (1992.), Youthanasia (1994.) i Cryptic Writings (1997.).

Rani život
Menza je rođen u Münchenu pošto je njegov otac, jazz glazbenik Don Menza, bio smješten s kopnenom vojskom SAD-a u Njemačkoj. Menza je počeo svirati bubnjeve s dvije godine, te je i tada imao i svoj prvi javni nastup, kada ga je netko tijekom pauze koncerta, sjeo za bubnjarski set Jacka DeJohnettea. Najbitniji uzori bili su mu Buddy Rich, Steve Gadd, Nick Ceroli, Jeff Porcaro i Louie Bellson.

Profesionalnu bubnjarsku karijeru započeo je s 18 godina, bubnjajući u sastavu Rhoads, u kojem je pjevao Kelle Rhoads, brat preminulog Randyja Rhoadsa. Menza se prvi put pojavio na profesionalnom albumu Rhoadsa, Into the Future, koji je objavljen u Europi 1986. godine.

Nakon Rhoadsa, Menza je bio dio mnogih metal sastava iz L.A.-a, a to su The Green (s kolegama iz Rhoadsa Johnom Goodwinom na gitari i Darwinom Ballardom na bas-gitari), Von Skeletor (još jedan sastav s Goodwinom i Michaelom Guilloryjem na gitari, Camom Daigneaultom na bubnjevima, i Menza pjevajući glavne vokale na samoobjavljenom demou sastava, Injection of Death), i Cold Fire (na kojem je svirao gitarist Warriora Joe Floyd). Nakon toga perioda, pridružio se Megadethu.

Životopis

Megadeth: 1989. – 1998.
Dok je svirao uglavnom kao studijski bubnjar žanrova kao što su R&B, gospel, funk i heavy metal, i snimao bubnjeve za Johna Fogertyja, Menzu je primijetio tadašnji bubnjar Megadetha Chuck Behler te je postao njegov tehničar. Kada je Megadeth zatrebao bubnjara 1989. godine, Dave Mustaine pitao je Menzu da se pridruži sastavu. Mustaine je također rekao da je Menza zamijenjivao Behlera kada on nije mogao. Menzin prvi koncert s Megadethom bio je 12. svibnja 1988. godine u Bradfordu, Engleska. Ovo prijašnje iskustvo i osobno prijateljstvo s članovima sastava pridonilo je odluci da se Menzu pozove u sastav za snimanje albuma Rust in Peace iz 1990. godine.

Sljedećih deset godina, Menza postao je dio Megadethovog "klasičnog" sastava kao i jedan od rijetkih bubnjara koji su koristili Greg Voelkerov položaj bubnjeva. To je uključivalo dvije bas pedale, tomove zakačene za šipke i činele povišene i pričvrščene za šipke. Megadeth je sličan sistem bubnjeva koristio na Blackmail the Universe tour 2004. godine.

Dok je svirao u Megadethu, Menza je također svirao bubnjeve na tri samostalna albuma svog kolege iz sastava Martyija Friedmana, Scenes (1992.), Introduction (1994.) i True Obsessions (1996.).

Do ljeta 1998. godine, dok je sastav još bio na turneji za album Cryptic Writings, Menza je imao problema s koljenom te je tražio medicinsku pomoć. Rečeno mu je kako ima tumor, te se kasnije otkrilo kako je tumor benigni. Uspješno je uklonjen. Umjesto da otkažu nadolazeće koncerte, Megadeth je doveo Jimmyija DeGrassoa kao privremenu zamijenu. Kada je došlo vrijeme za snimanje novog albuma, Menza nije bio pozvan na snimanje te je informiran kako je DeGrasso postao službeni bubnjar sastava. Menza je rekao u nekoliko intervjua, dok se u bolnici oporavljao od operacije koljena, kako je zaprimio poziv od Mustainea, koji mu je rekao kako "Njegove usluge više nisu potrebne".

Pokušaj samostalne karijere
Nakon što je odbačen iz sastava, počeo je raditi na albumu Menza: Life After Deth s gitaristom Anthonyijem Galloom, basistom Jasonom Levinom, i gitaristom Tyom Longleyom. Album je objavljen 2002. godine te je trebao imati turneju koja će ga pratiti; ali 2003. godine, tijekom turneje sastava Great White, Longley je bio među sto ljudi ubijenih tijekom požara u noćnom klubu The Station u Rhode Islandu. i godinu dana kasnije, Jason Levin je umro od zastoja srca, Menza i Gallo tugovali su te Life After Deth turneja nikada nije najavljena. Gostujući gitarist Christian Nesmith, sin Michaela Nesmitha, člana The Monkeesa, odradio je nekoliko pjesama te je Menza zaposlio producenta Maxa Normana (Ozzy Osbourne, Megadeth).

Kratko ujedinjenje s Megadethom i karijera nakon
Nakon ponovno objave cijelog Megadethovog kataloga, Menza je pozvan da se ponovno ujedini s Megadethom 2004. godine. Par dana nakon što je turneja najavljena, Menza je otpušten s proba te ga je zamijenio Shawn Drover. Mustaine je objasnio kako Menza "jednostavno nije bio spreman" za turneju po Americi, fizički.

U travnju 2006. godine, Menza se pridružio metal sastavu iz Los Angelesa, Orphaned to Hatred. Sastav je opisivao svoj zvuk kao "nastavak klasičnog metal zvuka Pantere iz 90-ih". Napustio je sastav krajem 2010. godine.

Menza je skoro izgubio ruku 2007. godine, nakon incidenta s motornom pilom. Trebao je rekonstruktivnu operaciju te ugradbu metalne ploče u ruku. Dugo se oporavljao, no uspješno. Menza je kasnio prodavao motornu pilu s njegovom krvlju te kopiju X-ray slike ruke iz incidenta.

U ožujku 2011. godine, Menza se pojavio u glazbenom videu sastava Mindstreem, "We Up Next", pjesmu koju je napisao gitarist SIN 34Anthony Gallo, na kojoj su pjevali Tony Lanza i Daniel Wayne, Jr. Na pjesmi svirali su Menza (bubnjevi), Gallo (gitara), Gregg Babuccio (bas-gitara), i Tony Lanza i Daniel Wayne, Jr. (vokali).

Također u ožujku 2011., Menzain sastav Deltanaut objavio je video za pjesmu "Sacrifice", zajedno s objavom svog digitalnog EP-a od pet pjesama. Članovi sastava bili su Menza, njegov stari prijatelj i kolega basist Darwin Ballard, gitaristi Christopher Grady i Colin Reid, i glavni vokalist Brian Williams. Menzin otac Don Menza, koji je svirao saksofon na poznatoj The Pink Panther Theme pjesmi s okrestrom Henryija Mancinija, svira saksofon na pjesmi "The King"; drugi gosti bili su Roy Z na gitari i Ed Roth na klavijaturama.

Godine 2015., Menza odsvirao je bubnjeve na pjesmi "Are We Alone?" na albumu Warless Society (The Global Invasion) od Ci2ia, s Johnom Goodwinom i Darwinom Ballardom na gitari i bas-gitari. Također je počeo raditi sa sastavom iz Los Angelesa, Sweet Eve na njihovom albumu "The Immortal Machine" kao producent i bubnjar.

Smrt
Dana 21. svibnja 2016. godine, Menza je svirao sa svojim sastavom, OHM, u The Baked Potato jazz klubu u Studio Cityiju, Kalifornija. Nakon samo tri pjesme, Menza se srušio na pozornici. Hitno je prevezen u bolnicu gdje je proglašen mrtvim na dolasku. Autopsija kasnije je pokazala kako je uzrok smrti bio zatajenje srca. Menza je imao samo 51. godinu.

Sastavi
Rhoads (1986. – 1987.)
Cold Fire (1988.)
Megadeth (1989. – 1998.)
Marty Friedman (1992. – 1996.)
Menza (1997. – 2016.)
Chodle's Trunk (2000. – 2001.)
Fear Assembly (Mindstreem) (2002. – 2003.)
Memorain (2005. – 2008.)
Orphaned to Hatred (2006. – 2010.)
Deltanaut (2006. – 2016.)
OHM (2015. – 2016.)
Sweet Eve (2015. – 2016.)

Diskografija

Rhoads
Into the Future (1986.)

Megadeth
Rust in Peace (1990.)
Countdown to Extinction (1992.)
Youthanasia (1994.)
Nativity in Black – počast Black Sabbathu (1994.)
Hidden Treasures (1995.)
Cryptic Writings (1997.)
Capitol Punishment (2000.)
Arsenal of Megadeth (2006.)
Warchest (2007.)
Anthology: Set the World Afire (2008.)

Marty Friedman
Scenes (1992)
Introduction (1994.)
True Obsessions (1996.)

Menza
Life After Deth (2002.)

Memorain
Reduced to Ashes (2006.)

Von Skeletor
Injection of Death (1988.)

Deltanaut
Deltanaut EP  (2011.)

Sweet Eve
The Immortal Machine  (2016.)

Izvori

Članovi sastava Megadeth
Thrash metal
Američki bubnjari heavy metala

Nick Menza


Lexa er en fiktiv karakter fra den amerikanske post-apokalyptiske science fiction serie The 100, produceret af The CW. Den tilbagevendende tv-karakter (spillet af Alycia Debnam-Carey) vises ikke i de bøger, som serien er baseret på. Lederen af de 12 klaner, Lexa, har vist sig at være en rimelig leder og en stærk kriger. Hun betragter kærlighed som en svaghed, en opfattelse, der er væsentligt påvirket af hendes kæreste Costias død. Alligevel begynder hun at vise romantiske følelser for Clarke Griffin (leder af Skaikru) og tager hensyn til Clarkes synspunkter. Men Lexa sætter sit folk først, selv på bekostning af at miste Clarkes tillid.

Lexa har været godt modtaget af kritikere og fans, som anser hende for at være en af showets mere interessante og komplekse karakterer. Hun har været en kilde til hyppig debat, især for hvordan hun blev skrevet ud af serien. Hendes forhold til Clarke, havde stor indflydelse på LGBTQ-samfundet, og mange seere tog det som en positiv eller stormfuld skildring af venskab, kærlighed og svigt. Forholdet blev imidlertid kritiseret for at være unødvendigt tragisk, hvilket førte til en national debat om "bury your gays".

Lexas legacy
Lexas død medførte flere kampagner på Twitter, hvoraf den største var gennem hashtagget "LGBT Viewers Deserve Better", hvor fans forsøgte at opnå produktionsselskabets og de ansatte på The 100s opmærksomhed, her især showrunner Jason Rothenberg og gøre dem opmærksomme på den skade de påførte deres LGBTQ-fans gennem håndteringen af Lexa som karakter og hendes død. Kampagnen indebar bl.a. en indsamling på i skrivende stund 171,565$ til The Trevor Project , en organisation der hjælper unge selvmordstruede LGBTQ-personer & en række billboards der blev strategisk placeret i Los Angeles (bl.a. på en populær highway & tæt ved The CWs hovedkontor) .

Det var så omfattende og så succesfuldt, der opstod flere frivillige organisationer, bl.a. LGBT Fans Deserve Better som fortsat kæmper for bedre repræsentation i film & TV, samt har til formål at uddanne producere, manuskriptforfattere mm. om bl.a. bury your gays-tropen.

Derudover har det også resulteret i flere akademiske artikler og universitetsprojekter om Lexa og begivenhederne omkring Lexas død samt tilblivelsen af ClexaCon - en convention for LGBTQ personer og allies, som faciliteterer debatter om repræsentation og fejringen af de eksisterende nutidige LGBTQ-karakterer i film & TV. Derudover udbydes også writer's workshops for at få flere LGBTQ-personer ind i branchen og naturligvis meet-and-greet med kendte skuespillere, som ved enhver anden convention. ClexaCon foregår i Las Vegas og har eksisteret siden 2017.

Litteratur

Fiktive personer

Lexa


Thomas Gustafsson (Västergötland; 25 de febrero de 1968), conocido como Thomas G:son, es un compositor y músico sueco, especialmente conocido por su implicación en el Melodifestivalen, para el que ha escrito o coescrito unas 60 canciones. Además, doce de sus canciones han llegado al Festival de la Canción de Eurovisión: tres por Suecia (2001, 2006 y 2012), España (2007, 2012 y 2015) y Georgia (2013, 2015, 2016), dos por Chipre (2016 y 2017) y una por Dinamarca (2010) y Noruega (2007). Con su tema "Euphoria", la sueca Loreen venció en la edición de 2012, convirtiéndose en un gran éxito en toda Europa.

Temas para Eurovisión

Melodifestivalen (Suecia)

 «Natten är min vän», de Cleo Nilsson (1999), 8ª
 «Lyssna till ditt hjärta» («Listen To Your Heartbeat») de Friends (2001). Ganadora (5ª en Eurovisión 2001)
 «Vem é dé du vill ha?», de Kikki, Lotta & Bettan (2002), 3ª
 «Ingenting är större än vi», de Arvingarna (2002), semifinal
 «Världen utanför», de Barbados (2002), 4ª
 «What Difference Does It Make?», de Poets (2002), semifinal
 «Hela världen för mig», de Sanna Nielsen (2003), 5ª
 «C'est la vie», de Hanson, Carson & Malmkvist (2004), 10ª
 «Tango Tango», de Petra Nielsen (2004), 4ª
 «Säg att du har ångrat dig», de Anne-Lie Rydé (2004), («Långt bortom tid och rum», de Mathias Holmgren (2005)), semifinal
 «As If Tomorrow Will Never Come», de Katrina & The Nameless (2005), semifinal
 «Så nära», de Anne-Lie Rydé (2005), semifinal
 «Evighet», («Invincible»); de Carola (2006). Ganadora (5ª en Eurovisión 2006)
 «Ge mig en kaka till kaffet», de Östen med Resten (2006), semifinal
 «Idag & imorgon», de Kikki Danielsson (2006), 10º
 «Innan natten är över», de Kayo (2006), semifinal
 «When Loves Coming Back Again», de Jessica Folcker (2006), semifinal
 «Silverland», de Roger Pontare (2006), semifinal
 «Amanda», de Jimmy Jansson (2007), Andra Chasen
 «Samba Sambero», de Anna Book (2007), 9ª
 «Här för mig själv», de Maja Gullstrand (2009), semifinal
 «Du vinner över mig», by Mikael Rickfors (2009), semifinal
 «Show Me Heaven», de Lili & Susie (2009), Andra Chasen
 «Thursdays», de Lovestoned (2010), (semifinal)
 «I'm In Love», de Sanna Nielsen (2011), 4ª
 «E de fel på mig», de Linda Bengtzing (2011), 7ª
 «Something In Your Eyes», de Jenny Silver (2011), Andra Chasen
 «Run», de Anders Fernette (2011), 8ª (en la semifinal)
 «Euphoria», de Loreen (2012), Ganadora (1ª en Eurovisión 2012)
 «Jag reser mig igen», de Thorsten Flinck & Revolutionsorkestern (2012), 8ª
 «Land of broken dreams», de Dynazty (2012), Andra Chasen
 «On Top Of The World», de Swedish House Wives (2013), eliminadas en la segunda semifinal
 «Alibi», de Eddie Razaz (2013), 6ª (elimidado en la tercera semifinal)
 «In And Out Of Love», Martin Rolinski (2013), (eliminado Andra chansen)
 «Trivialitet», de Sylvia Vrethammar (2013), 7ª (eliminada en la cuarta semifinal)
 «Tell the World I'm Here», de Ulrik Munther, 3ª
 «Love Trigger», de J.E.M (2014)
 «If I Was God For One Day», de Andreas Weise (2015), 5ª (en la segunda semifinal; eliminada)
 «Möt mig i Gamla stan», de Magnus Carlsson, (2015) finalista
 «Bring Out the Fire», (Andreas Weise)(2015)  Andra cahnsen
 «För din skull», de Kalle Johansson(2015) Eliminado
  "Rollercoaster" de Dolly Style (2016), eliminada en second chance.
 "One More Time" de Dinah NAH  (2017), Eliminada.
 "Wild Child" de Ace Wilder (2017), 7ª en la Final.
 "A Million Years" de Mariette (2017), 4ª en la Final.
 "Himel och hav" de Roger Pontare (2017), Eliminado
 "Min Dröm" de Kalle Moraeus & Orsa Spelmän (2018), Eliminado.
 "Icarus" de Emmi Christensson (2018), Eliminado.
 "Livet på en pinne" de Edward Blom (2018), Eliminado.
 "Cry" de Dotter (2018), Eliminado.
 "Ashes to Ashes" de Anna Bergendahl (2019)
 "Hello" de Mohombi (2019)
 "Chasing Rivers" de Nano (2019)
 "Mina bränder" de Zeana feat. Anis don Demina (2019)
 "Somebody Wants" de The Lovers of Valdaro (2019)
"Kingdom Come" by Anna Bergendahl (2020), 3rd place
"Ballerina" by Malou Prytz (2020), eliminated in Second-Chance Round
"Shout It Out" by Mariette (2020), 10th place
"Miraklernas tid" by Jan Johansen (2020), 7th place (Semi-final)
"Tänker inte alls gå hem" by Arvingarna (2021), 9th place
"Still Young" by Charlotte Perrelli (2021), 8th place
"Bigger Than the Universe" by Anders Bagge (2022), 2nd place
"Higher Power" by Anna Bergendahl (2022), 12th place
"Fyrfaldigt hurra!" by Linda Bengtzing (2022), 4th place (Semi-final)
"Tattoo" by Loreen (2023), TBA
"One Day" by Mariette (2023), TBA
"Släpp alla sorger" by Nordman (2023), TBA
"Mer av dig" by Theoz (2023), TBA

Melodi Grand Prix, Noruega

 «Din hånd i min hånd», de Kikki, Lotta & Bettan (2003), 4º
 «Anyway you want it», de Ingvild Pedersen (2003), 8º
 «Absolutely Fabulous», de Queentastic (2006), 3º
 «Ven a bailar conmigo», de Guri Schanke (2007). Ganadora (18º en la Seminifinal Eurovisión 2007)
 «Rocket Ride», de Jannicke Abrahamsen (2007), 2º
 «High on Love», de Reidun Sæther (2012), eliminada

España

 «I love you mi vida», de D'NASH, (2007). Ganadora (20.ª en Eurovisión 2007)
 «Piénsame», de Anael (2008). eliminada por votación en línea
 «Todo está en tu mente», de Coral Segovia (2008), 2ª
 «Te prefiero», de Baltanás (2008), eliminada por votación en línea
 «Nada es comparable a ti», de Mirela (2009), 4ª
 «Amor radical», de Rebeca (2009), eliminada por votación en línea
 «Perfecta», de Venus (2010), 4ª
 «Recuérdame», de Samuel & Patricia (2010), 5ª
 «En una vida», de Coral Segovia (2010), 2ª
 «Beautiful Life», de José Galisteo (2010), 7ª
 «Abrázame», de Lucía Pérez (2011), finalista
 «Quédate conmigo», de Pastora Soler (2012). Ganadora (10.ª en Eurovisión 2012)
 «Más (Run)», de Brequette Cassie (2014), 2ª
 «Amanecer», de Edurne (2015). Representante por elección interna (21.ª en Eurovisión 2015)
 «Victorious», de Xuso Jones (2016), 2ª

Dansk Melodi Grand Prix, Dinamarca

 «In a Moment Like This», de Chanée & Tomas N'evergreen (2010), Ganadora (4ª en Eurovisión 2010)
 «Let Your Heart Be Mine», de Jenny Berggren (2011), 1ª
 «25 Hours a Day», de Le Freak (2011), 4ª
 «We own the universe», framförd av Daze. (2013), eliminada en la inal
 «Mi amore», de Tina & René (2015) 7ª

Malta Song For Europe, Malta

 «Ultraviolet», de Jessica Muscat, 8ª
 «Taboo», de Christabelle. Ganadora (Eurovisión 2018)

Euroviisut, Finlandia

 «Who Cares About A Broken Heart?», de Johanna (2002), 5ª
 «Say You Will, Say You Won't», de Ressu (2002), 4ª
 «I Can't Stop Loving You», de Kirsi Ranto (2004), semifinal
 «Till The End Of Time», de Arja Koriseva (2004), 10.ª

Eirodziesma, Letonia

 «Heaven In Your Eyes», de Elina Furmane (2006), 8ª

Selecţia Naţională, Rumania

 «Lovestruck», de Indiggo (2007), descalificada

Piosenka dla Europy, Polonia

 «Viva la música», de Man Meadow (2008), 3ª
 «Love Is Gonna Get You», de Man Meadow (2009), 6ª

Eurosong, Bélgica

 «Addicted to you», de Tanja Dexters (2008), semifinal

Georgia

 «Waterfall*», de Sopho Gelovani & Nodiko Tatishvili (2013) (15.ª en Eurovisión 2013)
 «''"Warrior", de Nina Sublatti (2015) (11ª en Eurovisión 2015)

 «Midnight gold», de Nika Kocharov & Young Georgian Lolitaz (2016) (20.ª en Eurovisión 2016)

Chipre

 «Alter Ego», de Minus One (2016) (21.ª en Eurovisión 2016)
 «Gravity», de Hovig (2017) (21.ª en Eurovisión 2017)

Músicos de Suecia
Participantes en Eurovisión
Melodi Grand Prix

Thomas G:son


Geodezija je znanstvena disciplina koja se bavi mjerenjem i prikazom Zemlje i njene površine. Povijest geodezije započinje u antici, no najveći razvoj dogodio se u doba prosvjetiteljstva.

Rana razmatranja oblika Zemlje dovela su do zaključka da je Zemlja ravna ploča, a da je nebeski svod fizički objekt rasprostranjen nad njom. Dva rana argumenta u korist Zemlje oblika kugle bili su činjenica da pri pomrčini Mjeseca Zemlja na nj baca okruglu sjenu, što je moguće samo ako je Zemlja kugla, te da se Sjevernjača s južnijih lokacija vidi niže na nebu.

Antička Grčka
Grci u doba antike imali su dvije glavne zamisli o obliku Zemlje: Homerov ravan disk i Pitagorinu kuglu. Aristotel je kasnije podržao Pitagorino stajalište. Pitagora je bio matematičar, te je smatrao da je najsavršeniji oblik kugla. Zaključio je da bi bogovi koristili savršeni oblik, te je stoga Zemlja napravljena u obliku kugle. Anaksimen je vjerovao da je Zemlja oblika pravokutnika.

Budući da je oblik kugle bio tada široko prihvaćen, uslijedila su mjerenja čiji je cilj bio ustanoviti dimenzije Zemlje. Platon je od oka procijenio da opseg Zemlje (u stvarnosti malo više od 40000 kilometara) iznosi 400000 stadija (između 62800 i 74000 km, zavisno o veličini stadija), dok je Arhimed izračunao 300000 stadija (48300 km), koristeći helenski stadij, za koji se danas drži da je iznosio 185 metara.

Helenističko razdoblje
U Egiptu, grčki matematičar i filozof Eratosten (276 - 195 pr. n. e.) je napravio kvalitetnija mjerenja. Čuo je da na dan ljetnog suncostaja, najdulji dan u godini, Sunce u podne osvijetli dno dubokog bunara u Sijeni. Ustanovio je da u tom istom trenutku Sunce u Aleksandriji nije točno u zenitu, već baca sjenu pod kutom jednakim pedesetom dijelu kruga (7°12´). Tim činjenicama, Eratosten je pridodao nekoliko saznanja "zdravog razuma":

 Na dan ljetnog solsticija, na Rakovoj obratnici, Sunce u podne prolazi kroz zenit
 Sijena se nalazi na Rakovoj obratnici
 Aleksandrija se nalazi točno sjeverno od Sijene
 Sunce je prilično daleko od Zemlje (1 aj)

Prema legendi Eratosten je poslao nekoga da otpješači od Aleksandrije do Sijene da bi izmjerio udaljenost, za koju se ispostavilo da iznosi 500 stadija, tj. oko 925 km. Eratosten je stoga zaključio da, jer je otklon Sunca u Aleksandriji od zenita jednak luku između Aleksandrije i Sijene po Zemljinoj površini, udaljenost između Aleksandrije i Sijene mora biti 1/50 opsega Zemlje, koji bi dakle iznosio 50 × 5000 = 250 tisuća stadija. Stvarni ekvatorijalni opseg Zemlje iznosi 40075.16 km, a opseg preko polova iznosi 40008 km. Veličina Eratostenovog stadija danas nije zasigurno poznata, no neki smatraju da se radilo o helenističkom stadiju od 185 m.

Da je pokus izveden prema danom opisu, ne bi bilo neobično da se slagao sa stvarnom situacijom. Međutim, rezultat pokusa bio je prevelik za 0.4%. Eratostenova mjerenja bila su neispravna iz nekoliko razloga:

 Iako je Sunce na Rakovoj obratnici u zenitu u podne na dan ljetnog solsticija, Sijena se nije nalazila na obratnici. Rakova obratnica je tada bila na geografskoj širini od 23°43´, a Sijena se nalazila oko 40 km sjevernije.
 Luk između Aleksandrije (31.2°N) i Sijene (24.1°N) iznosi 7.1, a ne 7.2 stupnja. Eratosten je možda zaokružio na 7.2 jer je to točno pedeseti dio punog kruga.
 Stvarna udaljenost Sunca u podne od zenita u Aleksandriji je iznosila 31°12´- 23°43´= 7°29´, što je otprilike 1/48, a ne 1/50 punog kruga. Ta pogreška je vjerojatno uzrokovana korištenjem gnomona, koji ne mjeri središte Sunčevog diska, već njegov gornji rub, uzrokujući pogrešku od 16 kutnih minuta.
 Najveća pogreška bila je uzrokovana procjenom kilometarske udaljenosti između Aleksandrije i Sijene (ili stvarne Rakove obratnice, koja se nalazila malo južnije). Dotična je najveći dio ukupne pogreške u Eratostenovoj procjeni.

Sličan pokus je kasnije obavio starogrčki znanstvenik Posejdonije, koji je primijetio da se zvijezda Canopus ne vidi na noćnom nebu u većem dijelu Grčke, ali je katkad uočljiva na horizontu na otoku Rodosu. Posejdonije je navodno izmjerio visinu Canopusa na nebu u Aleksandriji i dobio 1/48 punog kruga. Kao udaljenost Aleksandrije od Rodosa uzeo je 5000 stadija, pa je opseg Zemlje procijenio na 240000 stadija. Neki znastvenici smatraju da je ta procjena prilično precizna čistom slučajnošću, jer su se dvije znatne greške poništile. Oba mjerenja visine Canopusa bila su promašena za više od jednog stupnja, te je Posejdonijev "pokus" možda bio tek recikliranje Eratostenovog rezultata, s tim da je brojka od 1/50 punog kruga promijenjena na ispravnu 1/48. On ili neki njegov sljedbenik kasnije je promijenio procjenu kilometarske udaljenosti da se složi s Eratostenovom procjenom od 3750 stadija između Aleksandrije i Rodosa, te je Posejdonijeva konačna procjena opsega iznosila 180000 stadija (48 puta 3750; 33336 km). Ovaj iznos je sumnjivo blizu iznosu dobivenom jednim drugim grčkim pokusom, koji je uključivao mjerenje vremena proteklog između zalazaka Sunca na raličitim nadmorskim visinama. Taj pokus je davao neispravne zaključke jer nije uzimao u obzir atmosfersku refrakciju.

Ptolomej koristio je oba spomenuta iznosa opsega Zemlje: 252000 stadija u Almagestu, te 180000 stadija u Geografiji. Dotična promjena usred njegove karijere uzrokovala je znatnu promjenu procjene kilometarske duljine jednog stupnja geografske duljine u Sredozemnom moru u Geografiji. To znači da je Ptolomej uračunao nova saznanja o veličini Zemlje, a ne promjenu u dogovorenoj duljini stadija.

Drevna Indija
Indijski matematičar Aryabhata (476 - 500 poslije Kr.) bio je jedan od prvih znanstvenika koji su primijenili matematiku u astronomiji. U svome dijelu Āryabhaṭīya opisuje Zemlju kao kuglu koja se okreće oko svoje osi. Āryabhaṭīya se dijeli na četiri dijela, s naslovima: Gitika, Ganitha (matematika), Kalakriya (znanost o vremenu) i Gola (nebeski svod). Otkriće da se Zemlja okreće oko svoje osi sa zapada prema istoku opisano je u poglavljima Gitika 3,6; Kalakriya 5; i Gola 9,10. Primjerice, sljedećom analogijom Aryabhata je pokazao kako je najočitije kretanje nebeskih tijela tek privid (Gola 9):Kao što se putniku na brodu koji se kreće nizvodno čini da se nepokretno [drveće na obalama rijeke] kreće uzvodno, tako se i promatraču na Zemlji čini da se nepokretne zvijezde kreću prema zapadu, sve istom brzinom [kojom se Zemlja okreće sa zapada na istok].U Āryabhaṭīyi je također izračunat opseg Zemlje s pogreškom od samo 1%. Aryabhata je procijenio veličinu orbita planeta kao proporcionalnu trajanju njihovih revolucija (okreta oko Sunca). Isto je ispravno objasnio prirodu pomrčina Sunca i Mjeseca, te da je Mjesečevo svjetlo reflektirano Sunčevo zračenje.

Srednjovjekovna Arabija
Arapski znanstvenici, koji su bili uvjereni da je Zemlja kugla, koristili su to znanje da izračunaju udaljenost i smjer u kojem se nalazi Meka s bilo koje točke na Zemljinoj površini, što je u Islamu važno za molitvu. Arapski matematičari izumili su sfernu trigonometriju radi tih izračuna.

Oko 830. godine kalif Al-Mamun naredio je timu astronoma predvođenom Al-Hvarizmijem da odredi udaljenost od Palmire do Rake u današnjoj Siriji. Ustanovili su da su ta dva grada razdvojena jednim stupnjem geografske širine, te procijenili duljinu stupnja geografske širine na 56 2/3 arapske milje, odnosno 111,8 km. Prema tome opseg Zemlje bi iznosio 40248 km. Te vrijednosti prilično su blizu danas priznatim vrijednostima od 111,3 km i 40068 km.

Arapski astronomi i geografi poznavali su koncept magnetske deklinacije još u 15. stoljeću, kada je egipatski astronom 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i (umro 1469./1471.) izmjerio deklinaciju od 7 stupnjeva u Kairu.

Al Biruni

Europa u srednjem vijeku
Revidiravši Posejdonijevu procjenu, jedan drugi grčki filozof je napisao da Zemljin opseg iznosi 33336 km. Ptolomej je popularizirao tu vrijednost svojim kartama svijeta. Njegove karte su imale velik utjecaj na kartografe u srednjem vijeku. Kristofor Kolumbo je vjerojatno koristeći se tim kartama došao do svoje zamisli da je istočna obala Azije tek 5000-6000 km zapadno od Europe.

Ptolomejevo mišljenje nije bilo univerzalno prihvaćeno; 20. poglavlje "Mandevilleovih putovanja" (oko 1357.) koristi Eratostenovu vrijednost.

Nova saznanja o veličini Zemlje nisu se pojavila sve do 16. stoljeća. Tada je flamanski kartograf Mercator načinio niz sve manjih procjena kutnih veličina Sredozemnog mora i ostatka Europe, čime je efektivno povećao procjenu veličine Zemlje.

Novi vijek
Izum teleskopa i teodolita, te razvoj logaritmskih tablica omogućio je preciznu triangulaciju i mjerenje zakrivljenosti Zemljine površine.

Europa
Kozmograf i istraživač Duarte Pacheco Pereira izračunao je 1505. godine duljinu jednog stupnja na meridijanu s pogreškom od samo 4%. Za usporedbu, tadašnja mjerenja su imala pogreške od 7 do 15%.

Jean Picard je izveo prvo moderno mjerenje duljine jednog stupnja meridijana u 1669. i 1670. Za mjerenje udaljenosti koristio se drvenim štapovima, mjerenje kutova obavio je teleskopom, a u izračunu je koristio logaritme. Jacques Cassini je kasnije produžio Picardov luk na sjever do Dunkerquea i na jug do granice sa Španjolskom. Cassini je podijelio izmjereni luk na dva dijela sa središtem u Parizu. Kad je izračunao duljinu stupnja geografske širine pomoću oba luka, otkrio je da je stupanj na sjevernom luku kraći od stupnja na južnom.

Taj rezultat značio bi da je zemlja rotacijski elipsoid s jednom duljom osi. Međutim, to je bilo u kontradikciji s izračunima Isaaca Newtona i Christiaana Huygensa. Newtonov zakon gravitacije predviđao je da bi Zemlja bila rotacijski elipsoid s jednom kraćom osi, čija bi spljoštenost bila 1/230.

Ovaj problem mogao se razrješiti odabirom nekolicine točaka na Zemljinoj površini i proučavanjem odnosa njihovih udaljenosti (u smjeru sjever-jug) i kutova između njihovih zenita. Na spljoštenoj Zemlji matematički je dokazivo da razmaci između paralela rastu prema polovima.

Francuska akaedmija znanosti odaslala je dvije ekspedicije. Prvu ekspediciju (1736/37.) u dolini Meänmaa u Laponiji predvodio je Pierre Louis Maupertuis. Druga ekspedicija (1735. – 1744.), pod vodstvom Pierrea Bougera, otišla je na teritorij današnjeg Ekvadora, blizu ekvatora. Njihova mjerenja podržala su ideju elipsoida s kraćom osi sa spljoštenošću od 1/210. Takva zamisao o obliku Zemlje postala je novi referentni elipsoid.

Azija i Amerika
U Južnoj Americi Bouger je zamijetio, kao i George Everest u toku geodetskih ekspedicija u Indiji u 19. stoljeću, da se astronomska okomica često lagano naginje u smjeru velikih planinskih lanaca zbog njihovog gravitacijskog privlačenja. Budući da je ta okomica svugdje točno okomita na idealnu površinu mora (geoid), to je značilo da je oblik Zemlje još nepravilniji od rotacijskog elipsoida. Iz tih razloga mjerenje "undulacije geoida" postalo je sljedeći glavni cilj geodezije.

19. stoljeće
U drugoj polovici 19. stoljeća u Njemačkoj i Austro-Ugarskoj ustanovljen je Centralni ured za međunarodnu geodeziju (Zentralbüro für die internationale Erdmessung). Jedan od njegovih glavnih ciljeva bio je određivanje međunarodnog elipsoida i formule za gravitaciju koja bi bila optimalna ne samo za Europu nego i za ostatak svijeta. Taj ured bio je preteča Međunarodne geodetske zajednice (International Association of Geodesy) i Međunarodne unije za geodeziju i geofiziku (International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics), koja je osnovana 1919.

Većinu relevantnih saznanja dokučio je njemački geodet Friedrich Robert Helmert u svojem nizu knjiga "Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie). Helmert je također i odredio prvi globalni elipsoid u 1906., s preciznošću od 100 metara (0.002% Zemljinog polumjera). Američki geodet John Fillmore Hayford odredio je u 1910. drugi globalni elipsoid baziran na izostazi kontinenata i s preciznošću od 200 m, koji je bio prihvaćen od strane IUGG kao "međunarodni elipsoid 1924.".

Povijest geodezije


7416 Linnankoski este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
7416 Linnankoski este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul La Silla de Eric Walter Elst. El prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,36 ua, o excentricitate de 0,14 și o înclinație de 4,4° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 7001-8000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1990
Centura de asteroizi

7416 Linnankoski


Demetrije I. (oko 127. -  9. listopada 232.), 12. papa Aleksandrije i patrijarh sv. Stolice sv. Marka.

Pregled

Prvi kršćanski povjesničar Julije Afrikanac (lat.:Sextus Julius Africanus, 180. – 250.), koji je posjetio Aleksandriju u vrijeme Demetrija, spominje ga kao jedanaestog papu nakon sv. Marka evanđeliste koji je počeo obnašati svoju dužnost u desetoj godini vladavine rimskog cara Komoda (177. – 192.), dok ga Euzebije Cezarejski stavlja u desetu godinu vladavine Septimija Severa (193. – 211.). U svakom slučaju, Demetrije je prvi aleksandrijski biskup o kojem je sačuvano dosta pisanih dokumenata.

Život

Demetrije je bio poljoprivrednik i živio je sa svojom ženom u obostranoj nevinosti; obostranom celibatu - životom brata i sestre punih 47 godina dok nije izabran za patrijarha. Prema sinaksarionu, povijesnoj zbirci svetaca Crkve, u to vrijeme bolesni papa Julijan imao je ukazanje anđela u kojem mu je rečeno da će ga njegov nasljednik sljedećeg dana posjetiti i počastiti grozdom grožđa, koje je bilo van sezone u to doba godine. Sutradan je poljoprivrednik po imenu Demetrije, dok je orezivao svoju lozu, pronašao grozd grožđa i odnio ga papi koji mu je udjelio blagoslov, a nedugo nakon toga, papa Julijan je preminuo, a Demetrije je postao papa Demetrije I., kao dvanaesti papa Aleksandrije.
Papa Demetrije I. je, odmah na početku svoga službovanja, bio zainteresiran za uspostavu čvrstih pravila vezanih za držanje posta kao i za slavljenje kršćanskih svetkovina. Utemeljio je izračun po kojem su određeni datumi svih postova. Kao znanstvenik koji je to postao svojim osobnim zalaganjem i učenjem, Demetrije je sudjelovao u kontroverzi vezanoj za pravilnu metodu za Računanje datuma Uskrsa, i smatra se prvim koji je osmislio metodu kojom se računa i utvrđuje točan datum na koji se slavi Uskrs svake godine. Njegov je izračun odobrio ekumenski sabor u Niceji 325. godine. Danas mnoge istočne pravoslavne crkve i dalje nastavljaju koristiti njegovu metodu izračuna.
U to vrijeme se kršćanstvo širilo i svećenici su obilazili veliki dio poznatog svijeta propovijedajući evanđelje, pa je zabilježena i druga kontroverza po kojoj je Jeronim tvrdio da je Demetrije poslao Pantenija u misiju u Indiju, međutim, vrlo je vjerojatno da je Klement već naslijedio Pantenija na položaju dekana (katehezijske škole prije samog imenovanja Demetrija na mjesto pape Aleksandrije. Kada se Klement dao umiroviti (oko 203. godine), Demetrije je odredio da Origen, kome je tada bilo osamnaest godina, bude Klementov nasljednik.

Demetrijev utjecaj na Origena

Demetrije je ohrabrivao Origena na početku njegove karijere, i navodno mu je pokazao naklonost. Između ostalog, poslao ga je kod guvernera Arabije, koji je zatražio njegovu prisutnost u pismima poslanim egipatskom prefektu, kao i samom Demetriju.
U to vrijeme se rimski car Karakala spremao za invaziju na Perziju, i u svome obožavanju i divljenju prema Aleksandru Velikom, koje je ga je dovelo do manijakalnog ponašanja, progonio je sve filozofe aristotelove škole, jer je ista bila ustanovljena na legendi da je Aristotel otrovao Aleksandra Velikog. To je profiliralo sljedeće događaje i bilo znak sveobuhvatnog Karakalinog ponašanja.
Ali ova manija za Aleksandrom, čudna kakva jeste, bila je zasjenjena kasnijim događajima u Aleksandriji.
Kada su stanovnici Aleksandrije saznali za Karakaline tvrdnje da je svoga brata Geta ubio u "samoobrani", napravili su satiru koja ga je izložila ismijavanju. Karakala je doputovao 215. godine u Aleksandriju, i na ovu satiru, koju je primio kao osobnu uvredu, odgovorio je divljački, tako što je, prvo pobio izaslanstvo sastavljeno od vodećih građana koji su se bezazleno okupili pred gradom da pozdrave njegov dolazak, a nakon toga je cijeli grad prepustio svojim postrojbama da ga pale i pljačkaju.
Tada je Origen pobjegao u Cezareju, gdje su ga primili biskupi Teoktista iz Cezarije i Aleksandar iz Jeruzalema. Kasnije su prisutni biskupi od njega zahtijevali da im pokazuje svoje umjeće propovjedanja tako što će u njihovoj nazoćnosti propovijedati vjernicima. Kad je za to čuo Demetrije, odmah je napisao pismo Teoktisti u kojem mu je otvoreno zamjerio na takvom činu, rekavši da takva aktivnost nije prikladna laiku. Biskupi Aleksandar iz Jeruzalema i Teoktista iz Cezareje su mu odgovorili pismom u kojem su se branili, pozivajući se na presedan za laike koji govore propovijedi, ali unatoč njihovim naporima, Demetrije je opozvao Origena.
Nešto kasnije, cca. 230. AD, kada je Origen, na zahtjev da smiri nerede u Ahei, u Grčkoj, prolazio kroz Palestinu kada je posjetio biskupe Teoktista i Aleksandara koji su ga tom prilikom zaredili. Kad je Demetrije za to doznao, to je smatrao činom neposluha, što je okončalo njegov odnos s Origenom. Demetrije je sazvao sinodu 232. godine na kojoj je Origen izgnan, a zatim je poslao formalnu osudu protiv Origena svim crkvama. Nemoguće je sumnjati da je krivovjerje, a ne samo neovlašteno ređenje, trebalo navesti Demetrija za takav potez. Rim je prihvatio tu odluku, ali Palestina, Fenicija, Arabija i Aheja je odbacuju. Iz Cezareje je Origen poslao pisma u svoju obranu, iskoristivši priliku da u istim napadne Demetrija.
Demetrije je katehetsku školu Aleksandrije stavio pod upravu Herakla, prvog Origenovog učenika, tako što ga je imenovao dekanom. Ovo je možda bio Demetrijev konačni čin biskupa.

Smrt i štovanje

Demetrije je upravljao aleksandrijskom crkvom četrdeset i dvije godine, a onda umire u dobi od 105 godina. Tijekom svoga službovanja ostao je nepokolebljiv u vjeri i širenju evanđelja, a odlazi u vrijeme vladavine Aleksandra Severa (208. – 235.), 9. listopada (28. dan Touta prema koptskom kalendaru) 232. godine.
Pokopan je u crkvi sv. Marka u Baukalisu, Aleksandrija s očevima koji su mu prethodili.
Štuje se u koptskoj pravoslavnoj Crkvi 9. listopada (28. dan mjeseca Touta prema koptskom kalendaru zabilježenom u sinaksarionu); 9. listopada u katoličkoj i pravoslavnoj crkvi.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Sinaksarion
Khaled Gamelyan - The Coptic Encyclopedia,opensourceHolweck, F. G., A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints''. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co. 1924.

Pravoslavni sveci
Koptski pape

Dmitar I. Aleksandrijski


Nicole Whippy, née le  à Suva, est une actrice et réalisatrice néo-zélandaise originaire des îles Fidji.

Biographie
Nicole Whippy est née à Suva, aux îles Fidji. Elle a deux ans lorsque sa famille s'installe à Botany Downs, en Nouvelle-Zélande. Très tôt, elle souhaite devenir actrice. En 1999, elle obtient un bachelor en arts de la scène et de l'écran. Pendant 20 ans, elle travaille pour la télévision, dans des séries de la comédie néo-zélandaise.

En 2011, elle interprêtre le rôle de Michelle Hardcastle, femme d'affaires pendant trois saisons de Nothing Trivial.

Elle fonde une école de théâtre pour les jeunes de son quartier : Point Chevalier Drama Club.

En 2019, Nicole Whippy réalise avec sa sœur Sharon, le film Vai. Elles dirigent la partie sur les îles Fidji.

Filmographie

Actrice
Séries
 Xena: Warrior Princess : Chilapa
 1999-2000 : Jackson's Wharf
 2001 : The Lost World
 2002-2003 : The Strip
 2003 : Mercy Peak
 2005-2010 : Outrageous Fortune
 2006-2007 : Orange Roughies
 2011-2013 : Nothing Trivial
 2019 : Shortland Street

Réalisatrice
 2019 : Vai

Théâtre
 The Mountaintop avec David Fane
 Un tramway nommé désir, 2017

Notes et références

Liens externes

Réalisatrice néo-zélandaise
Actrice néo-zélandaise
Naissance en septembre 1979
Naissance à Suva

Nicole Whippy


Mao ou Maurras ? est la transcription d'un entretien entre deux jeunes militants politiques Philippe Hamel, communiste, et Patrice Sicard, royaliste d'Action française, publié en 1970. Guy Baret, futur journaliste au Figaro, les réunit dans ce second volume de la collection Carrefour des Jeunes.

Présentation
Philippe Hamel, âgé de 20 ans, est étudiant en philosophie et Patrice Sicard, âgé de 23 ans, est étudiant en droit à Assas. Le premier est militant au sein d'un Comité d'Action d'obédience communiste et s'est engagé lors de la première quinzaine de Mai 1968. Le deuxième est responsable de la cellule de propagande du bureau des étudiants de la Restauration nationale et rédacteur à l'hebdomadaire Aspects de la France et du mensuel AF université. Philippe Hamel est une figure militante de moindre importance que celle de Patrice Sicard et « ce déséquilibre [...] se retrouve sur le plan de leurs discours ».

Philippe Hamel fait un exposé de la pensée marxiste-léniniste, de l'importance d'un parti avant-garde et sur le maoïsme.

Le discours de Patrice Sicard permet d'étudier l'interprétation de Mai 1968 à travers le prisme maurrassien et les compromis intellectuels d'une génération militante. Au départ, l'Action française condamne la rébellion de Mai 68 la jugeant comme une « menace marxiste » avant de chercher ensuite à la récupérer par l'organisation d'une « contre-révolution ». L'extension de la lutte du campus de Nanterre aux universités du Quartier Latin et l'émergence de contre-manifestations gaullistes forcent l'Action française à revoir sa stratégie : « la fronde devait commencer à s'inscrire dans une mémoire militante toujours fidèle à l'engagement royaliste, comme prélude à une opportunité politique éventuelle ».
Les deux militants se rejoignent sur la dénonciation de la société contemporaine mais divergent dans leurs analyses. Patrice Sicard critique les illusions du progrès, de la société de consommation et se réfère à Guy Debord en reprenant sa critique de la « survie augmentée ».

Réception
La Revue des Deux Mondes accueille favorablement cet échange sur « terrain neutre [entre] deux tenants des idéologies les plus opposées ».

Voir aussi

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 : document utilisé comme source pour la rédaction de cet article.

Ouvrage sur Charles Maurras
Maoïsme en France
Essai paru en 1970
Essai français paru en 1970
Essai français des années 1970
Livre politique
Essai sur la politique

Mao ou Maurras ?


Heinrich Hase (* 18. Januar 1789 in Altenburg; † 9. November 1842 in Dresden) war ein deutscher Altertumsforscher.

Leben
Hase studierte an den Universitäten Jena und Leipzig. 1809 wurde er Lehrer und Erzieher im Hause des Grafen von Medem in Kurland. Ab 1817 unternahm er Reisen nach Frankreich und Italien, die er nutzte, um Abschriften griechischer Handschriften anzufertigen. Nach seiner Rückkehr ließ er sich 1820 in Dresden nieder, wo er bald eine Anstellung als Unterinspektor an der Königlichen Antikensammlung fand. 1835 wurde er zum Oberinspektor der Antikensammlung und Inspector des Königlichen Münzkabinetts ernannt. Hase war Mitbegründer des Dresdner Kunstvereins.

1836 wurde er in den sogenannten akademischen Rat für die Kunstakademie berufen, wo er Vorlesungen über griechische und römische Kunstgeschichte hielt. 1839 unternahm er eine Reise nach Konstantinopel, Kleinasien, dem Peloponnes und Athen. Hase starb nach längerem Leiden früh im Alter von 53 Jahren.

Werke
 Fragmente des Commentars des Aspasios zu Aristoteles Nikomachischer Ethik. Classical Journal Vol. XXVIII. N. 56. p. 306 ss. und Vol. XXIX. N. 57. S. 104
  Die Schrift des Johannes Philoponus über den Gebrauch und die Anfertigung des Astrolabiums. Im Rheinischen Museum Bd. VI. 1838. S. 127 ff.
 Joannis Alexandrini cognomine Philoponi de usu astrolabii eiusque constructione libellus. E codd. mss. regiae bibliothecae Parisiensis ed. H. Hase. Bonn, 1839
 Nachweisungen für Reisende in Italien, in Bezug auf Oertlichkeit, Alterthümer, Kunst und Wissenschaft. Leipzig 1821. 16.
 Verzeichniß der alten und neuen Bildwerke und übrigen Alterthümer in den Sälen der königl. Antikensammlung zu Dresden. Dresden 1827, 16. 5. Ausg. 1839
 Uebersichtstafeln zur Geschichte der neueren Kunst von den ersten Jahrhunderten der christlichen Zeitrechnung an bis zu Rafael Sanzio's Tode. Nach Denkmälern zusammengestellt. Dresden 1827, Fol.
 Classische Alterthumskunde: Griechische Alterthümer. Erstes und zweites Bändchen.. Dresden 1828. In: Römische Alterthümer. Erstes Bändchen. Ebenda, 1830 (bei Google Books)
 Paläologus. Kleine Schriften meist antiquarischen Inhalts. Leipzig 1837. (Sammlung von 10 Aufsätzen antiquarischen und kulturhistorischen Inhalts, von denen der erste Ueber den Farnesischen Congius in der königl. Antikensammlung zu Dresden, vom Verfasser am 18. März 1824 der königlich preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften vorgelegt und von dieser als besondere Schrift, Berlin 1824, veröffentlicht wurde.)

Übersetzungen
 Bignon's Geschichte von Frankreich. Hartlebens Verlagsexpedition, Leipzig, 1830.

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

Althistoriker
Altphilologe (19. Jahrhundert)
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter der Skulpturensammlung Dresden
Geboren 1789
Gestorben 1842
Mann

Heinrich Hase (Altertumsforscher)


La culturología (del inglés culturology) es una subdisciplina de la antropología cultural, a veces sinónimo de ella misma, que entronca con la semiología, con el neoevolucionismo o con la comunicación. Es un término creado por Leslie White a finales de los años 50, definido como «el campo científico que estudia e interpreta los fenómenos distintivos que denominamos cultura». Define la cultura como «un continuum extra somático (ni corporal, ni genético) y temporal de cosas y hechos dependientes e independientes del estudio y de la simbolización... La cultura consiste en herramientas, implementos, utensilios, vestimenta, ornamentos, costumbres, instituciones, creencias, rituales, juegos, obras de arte, lenguaje...». Esta definición parte de Alfred Kroeber, de conceptos como área cultural y configuración cultural que aparecen bien definidos en Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America, obra publicada en 1939.

La culturología estudia el origen y la forma que toman los hechos humanos, cuya trama está entretejida por normas, valores, símbolos, con que las gentes de los distintos grupos humanos sienten, expresan y se comunican.

Autores como Yuri Lotman lo han ampliado posteriormente en la rama de la semiótica.

Enlaces
 Wikipedia: Culturology

Antropología cultural

Culturología


Cercocladia este un gen de insecte lepidoptere din familia Arctiidae.

Cladograma conform Catalogue of Life:

Referințe

Cercocladia

Cercocladia


ألاريك الثاني (؟ - معركة فويليه، ربيع سنة 507) ملك القوط الغربيين ، حكم من سنة 484 إلى وفاته في معركة معركة فويلي.

مراجع

حكام أطفال قدماء
سنة الولادة غير معروفة
قوط
قوطيو القرن 5
ملوك قتلوا في عمليات قتالية
وفيات 507

ألاريك الثاني


تمزاوت قرية مغربية أمازيغية شمال المملكة، تنتمي إلى إقليم الحسيمة الساحلي، شمالي فاس، تضم بلدة تمزاوت 12.610 نسمة (إحصاء 2004).

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في إقليم الحسيمة
الريف
جبال الريف
جماعات قروية في المغرب
جماعات قروية في إقليم الحسيمة
جماعات قروية في جهة طنجة تطوان الحسيمة

تمزاوت


One ship and one shore base of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) have borne the name HMAS Albatross, for the albatross:

 , a seaplane carrier launched in 1928, which left service in 1933 and was transferred to the Royal Navy in 1938
 , a naval aviation base at Nowra, New South Wales, which was opened in 1948 and is active as of 2016

See also
  - seven units of the Royal Navy

Royal Australian Navy ship names

HMAS Albatross


Svijet

Otkrića

Osnivanja

Događaji

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

 Evan T. Pritchard: američki Micmac Indijanac, antropolog, povjesničar, pisac i glazbenik

Smrti

 10. travnja  Pierre Teilhard de Chardin,  francuski isusovac, teolog, filozof, antropolog, geolog, paleontolog i esejist (* )

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Otkrića

Osnivanja

Događaji

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Znanost u 1955.


Sams ou SAMS est un acronyme et un patronyme pouvant désigner:

Accronyme
South American Mission Society, association anglicane
Syrian American Medical Society, obnl apolitique américaine
Staphylococcus aureus méti-sensible, ou dit "sauvage"

Patronyme
 (né en 1944), illustrateur américain
 (né en 1935), chef d'antenne télévisuel américain
 (né en 1980), joueur américain de football américain
 (1952-2007), homme politique américain du Minnesota
 (1926-2004), musicologue et shakespearien britannique
 (1922-2013), médecin et nouvelliste américain
 (né c. 1946), militant américain des Black Panther
 (né en 1948), artiste et auteur américain
Jeffrey D. Sams (né en 1968), acteur américain
 (né en 1957), directeur de théâtre britannique
, lieutenant général et administrateur américain
Joseph Reed Sams (1923-2000), homme politique canadien en Ontario
 (1792-1871), colonisateur britannique en Australie

Toponyme

, communauté du Colorado

Voir aussi

Homonymie de patronyme
Sigle de 4 caractères

Sams


Die Washingtonstraße ist eine nach George Washington benannte Straße in den Dresdner Stadtteilen Übigau, Mickten und Kaditz. Sie verbindet als Teil des Äußeren Stadtrings die Bundesautobahn 4 an der Anschlussstelle "Dresden-Neustadt" mit der Flügelwegbrücke.

Verlauf

Die Washingtonstraße verläuft in Nord-Süd-Richtung. Sie beginnt am Ende der Flügelwegbrücke und führt durch ein vornehmlich gewerblich genutztes Baugebiet im Stadtteil Übigau. Dort mündet die Werftstraße in die Washingtonstraße ein, weiter nördlich wird die Scharfenberger Straße gekreuzt.

Die Straße verläuft in nördlicher Richtung weiter durch den Stadtteil Mickten, in dem sie die Overbeckstraße und die Straße "An der Flutrinne" kreuzt. Zwischen diesen beiden Straßen wird die Washingtonstraße mit einer 160 Meter langen Brücke über die Kaditzer Flutrinne geführt. Schließlich führt die Straße in den Stadtteil Kaditz, wo sie sich mit der Lommatzscher/Kötzschenbroder Straße kreuzt. In ihrem weiteren Verlauf bindet sie über eine Kreuzung mit der Peschelstraße den Elbepark an die Bundesautobahn 4 an, in die sie wenig später im Zuge der Autobahnanschlussstelle Dresden-Neustadt übergeht.

Geschichte
Die erste Bezeichnung der Straße war "Am Flugplatz". Der Name leitete sich vom Flugplatz Dresden-Kaditz ab, dessen östliche Begrenzung die Straße bildete. Als die Flügelwegbrücke eröffnet wurde, erfuhr die Straße in den Jahren 1930 und 1931 einen Ausbau und bekam den Namen des ersten amerikanischen Präsidenten George Washington, dessen Geburtstag sich am 22. Februar 1932 zum 200. Mal jährte. Während der Zeit der DDR wurde die Straße nicht umbenannt.

Planungen zu einem Weiter- und Ausbau der Straße wurden zunächst nicht realisiert. Erst nach der Wende begann der Ausbau zu einer vierspurigen Verbindungsstraße zwischen der Bundesstraße 6 und der Autobahn. Durch die Eröffnung des Einkaufszentrums Elbepark im Jahr 1995 musste die Anschlussstelle Dresden-Neustadt leistungsfähiger gestaltet werden, um dem gestiegenen Verkehrsaufkommen gerecht zu werden. Dazu wurde die Washingtonstraße in ihrem nördlichen Verlauf etwas nach Osten verlegt und bis an die Peschelstraße erweitert, wo sie zusammen mit der Kötzschenbroder Straße den Autobahnanschluss bildet. Die Freigabe der Strecke erfolgte am 14. August 1998 nach etwa einjähriger Bauzeit. In diesem Zusammenhang erfolgte von 1996 bis 1998 auch der Brückenbau über die Kaditzer Flutrinne. Zuvor war die Straße auf der Sohle der Flutrinne entlanggeführt worden und endete an der Kötzschenbroder Straße an einem Kreisverkehr, in dessen Mitte sich der Autobahn-Obelisk befand.

Verkehr

Die Washingtonstraße ist vierspurig ausgebaut und hat durchgehend Fußgänger- und Radfahrerwege auf beiden Straßenseiten. Die Dresdner Verkehrsbetriebe befahren die Washingtonstraße zwischen Flügelwegbrücke und Lommatzscher Straße mit den Buslinien 70 (Gompitz–Industriegebiet Klotzsche) und 80 (Bahnhof Klotzsche–Omsewitz). Dabei werden die Haltestellen Werftstraße, Overbeckstraße und Gewerbegebiet Kaditz bedient.

Die Washingtonstraße ist als Staatsstraße 73 klassifiziert.

Bebauung

An der Washingtonstraße sind vornehmlich gewerbliche und Industriebauten zu finden. An der Straße befand sich früher die Kaserne Übigau, deren Gelände unter Denkmalschutz steht. Auf einem Teil des seit 1993 ungenutzten Geländes befindet sich die 1996/1997 erbaute Wache Übigau, eine der fünf Feuer- und Rettungswachen der Berufsfeuerwehr Dresden.

Die Gebäude des ehemaligen Dresdner Transformatoren- und Röntgenwerks werden heute als Sigma-Technologiepark (früher Siemens-Technopark) genutzt. Auf dem Gelände des früheren Flugplatzes entstanden Kleingartenanlagen und Industriebauten. In den 1990er Jahren wurde östlich der Washingtonstraße die Wohnsiedlung An der Flutrinne errichtet, in der Umgebung kam es zu weiteren Ansiedlungen von Industrie und Gewerbe.

Fußnoten

Weblinks

  auf dresdner-stadtteile.de (archiviert)

Innerortsstraße in Dresden
Straße in Europa
Kaditz
Mickten
Übigau
Beziehungen zwischen Deutschland und den Vereinigten Staaten
George Washington als Namensgeber

Washingtonstraße


An Aloe penduliflora in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Gilbert Baker. An Aloe penduliflora in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aloe, ngan familia nga Xanthorrhoeaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo nangangarat-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aloe

Aloe penduliflora


سكيدموري، أوينغس وميريل (Skidmore, Owings and Merrill) هو أحد أكبر مكاتب الهندسة المعمارية في العالم، له فروع في كل من لوس أنجلس، نيويورك، سان فرانسيسكو، واشنطن دي سي، لندن، هونغ كونغ، شانغهاي، وبروكسل.

تاريخ
تأسس المكتب في شيكاغو عام 1936 من طرف لويس سكيدموري وناثانيل أوينغس، ثلاث سنوات فيما بعد التحق إليهم جون ميريل. المهندسين المعماريين الذين كانو معروفين هم غوردون بونشافت، ميرون غولدشميث، بروس غراهام، ووالتر نتش. اشتغل لهذا المكتب بين عامي 1957 و1962 مصمم الأثاث نيكوس زوغرافوس.

المباني الشهيرة لهذا المكتب
 مركز جون هانكوك، شيكاغو.
 برج الأولمبي، نيويورك.
 برج سيرز، شيكاغو.
 برج جن ماو، شنغهاي.
 روندو 1-ب، وارسو.
 برج خليفة، دبي.
 برج الحمراء، الكويت.
 مكتبة بينيك للكتب النادرة والمخطوطات، كونيتيكت.

في البناء
 برج الحرية.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي

تأسيسات سنة 1936 في إلينوي
شركات أمريكية
شركات تصميم أسست في 1936
معماريون حداثيون
شركات هندسة معمارية مقرها في شيكاغو

سكيدموري، أوينغس وميريل


Indijanska banana (jabuka jajaste kreme, lat. Asimina triloba), biljna vrsta indijanska banana porijeklom iz Sjeverne Amerike a pripada rodu
papau drvo i porodici Annonaceae. Raste kao veći grm ili maleno drvo. Kod nas su se sadnice ove biljke pojavile prije nekih 5,6 godina. Plodovi navodno imaju okus sličan na bananu, mango i dinju.

Indijanci su plodove koristili za hranu a iz kore su dobivali vlakna.

Uporaba u narodnoj medicini
Listovi potiču mokrenje. Sjemenke se smatraju otrovnim te djeluju kao emetik i narkotik.Po ruskim izvorima djeluje i antikancerogeno.

Nutritivna vrijednost
Prema jednom izvještaju Kentucky State University Pawpaw Programa, svježi plodovi na 100 grama daju oko 80 kalorija i bogat su izvor  (20% ili više dnevne potrebe ) vitamina C, magnezija(oko 32% dnevne potrebe), željeza (54% dnevne potrebe) te mangana (124%  dnevne potrebe). Plod sadrži i umjerene količine vitamina A (11% dnevne potrebe).

Najčešće sorte i njihova organoleptička svojstva

Sorte označene sa  (*) mogu se naći u europskim rasadnicima (Francuska, Nizozemska, Češka, Slovačka, kod nas se mogu (2019.) nabaviti sorte: Davis, Sunflower, Overleese i Prima 1216).

Dodatna literatura
 Helmut Pirc: Enzyklopädie der Wildobst- und seltenen Obstarten. Graz 2015., .
 Meženskij, V.M., Meženska, L.O., Jakubenko, B.E. Netradicijni jagidni kulturi, Kijev 2014.

Vanjske poveznice
 Plants For A Furure
 Priroda i biljke

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Annonaceae
Alohtone voćne vrste

Indijanska banana


Cascalho é o título do livro de estreia do escritor brasileiro Herberto Sales, um romance ambientado na Chapada Diamantina e publicado originalmente em 1944, considerado um expoente do regionalismo.

Coloca-se ao lado das obras nordestinas de autores como José Américo de Almeida, Graciliano Ramos, José Lins do Rego, Jorge Amado e Rachel de Queiroz mas, ao contrário destes em que o ambiente é o engenho, a seca ou o litoral, ali o autor registra o universo da Chapada Diamantina e sua cidade natal Andaraí, retratando a corrida pela fortuna no garimpo do diamante e carbonado, que eram "encontrados até nas moelas das galinhas", sendo um precursor de Guimarães Rosa.

Nas duas edições seguintes, 1951 e 1955, o autor procedeu a algumas modificações: na primeira alterando questões de estilo, e a segunda é a versão definitiva que segue sendo publicada até o presente.

Histórico
A obra foi publicada quando o escritor contava apenas vinte e sete anos de idade e este, segundo registrou Carlos Heitor Cony, já havia desistido da carreira literária. Segundo o memorialista, Sales morava ainda em sua cidade natal e enviara as seiscentas e cinquenta páginas originais para um concurso no Rio de Janeiro promovido pela "Revista do Brasil", onde era secretário o dicionarista Aurélio Buarque de Holanda Ferreira que procurava expressões regionais para o seu dicionário.

Como aqueles originais seriam descartados pela organização do concurso ainda em 1942, Aurélio guardou para si esta cópia. Sales, em Andaraí, desistira da carreira literária e, acreditando possuir a única cópia remanescente do romance, o destrói e comunica o fato ao escritor Marques Rebelo. Aurélio, que era vizinho deste, numa conversa menciona o desconhecido autor e sua obra a Rebelo que, então, comunica que com ele se correspondia e relata a decisão do escritor, até então inédito, de destruí-la. No relato de Cony: "Juntara gravetos no quintal da casa de sua família, rasgara em quatro partes as 650 páginas da cópia que lhe restara. Queimara tudo (...) Quando Herberto escreveu a Rebelo, comunicando-lhe que queimara a cópia única do livro, foi surpreendido com a revelação de que o original continuava com Aurélio. Não foi difícil encontrar uma brecha no mercado editorial da época."

Sendo a história ambientada no ambiente em que nascera, a repercussão na cidade não foi positiva e Sales foi ameaçado de morte pelos poderosos locais que se sentiram ridicularizados pela forma como teriam sido retratados na obra de forma que, por instâncias do amigo e da mãe, com a ajuda de Rebelo em cuja casa se hospeda, o autor refugia-se no Rio de Janeiro e começa a trabalhar para o O Cruzeiro.

Análise

Everaldo Augusto assim se manifesta sobre o livro: "A narrativa de Herberto Sales em Cascalho vai às origens da civilização do garimpo para buscar ali as explicações relacionadas ao lugar ocupado pelos personagens. Estas idas e vindas da narrativa à fonte da história passam pela descrição sociogeográfica da região do garimpo, passam pela interação da história local com os acontecimentos do país. Através desta historicidade da obra, o autor vai montando uma biografia da civilização do garimpo através do texto literário."

Para Fernando Milliet, "Há em Cascalho, além do valor literário, uma importante contribuição ao estudo do vocabulário e da sintaxe de toda uma região. Do ponto de vista do estilo e da língua será talvez, esse, o melhor e mais sedutor aspecto do romance." Ruy Espinheira, no posfácio da terceira edição, informa que a obra causara impacto não somente no Brasil, mas "logo surgindo traduções para diversos países, dentre os quais a Tchecoslováquia, Romênia, Itália, Polônia, Argentina, Rússia, China, Coreia e Japão, além de edições em Portugal". Ele cita a análise feita por Wilson Martins, para quem a obra era uma "admirável interpretação romanesca de uma cruel realidade."

Cascalho é considerada a última obra expoente da chamada "geração de 30" de autores regionalistas.

Excerto
"Sente-se apanhado irrevogavelmente na armadilha: ia morrer como um bicho - sem vela nem sentinela - e esse pormenor lhe causava uma espécie de decepção. Por mal dos pecados, sua candeia apagara-se: mais pelo instinto que por outra coisa, avançava através da escuridão do lapeiro. Evidentemente, os outros gruneiros tinham fugido com muita rapidez ao ser dado o alarma, pois, do contrário, também estariam lutando ali para não morrer: isso lhe parecia de certo modo injusto. Enterra os pés na areia, para dar impulso ao corpo. Tem vontade de gritar, mas não o faz, por considerar essa ideia totalmente inútil: no bojo da gruna outra coisa não se ouve que não seja o rumor da água."

Ver também
Cascalho, filme baseado na obra.
Bibliografia sobre a Chapada Diamantina

Livros de 1944
Livros do Brasil
Chapada Diamantina
Livros de estreia

Cascalho (livro)