A joint venture (JV) is a business entity created by two or more parties, generally characterized by shared ownership, shared returns and risks, and shared governance. Companies typically pursue joint ventures for one of four reasons: to access a new market, particularly emerging market; to gain scale efficiencies by combining assets and operations; to share risk for major investments or projects; or to access skills and capabilities.

According to Gerard Baynham of Water Street Partners, there has been much negative press about joint ventures, but objective data indicate that they may actually outperform wholly owned and controlled affiliates. He writes, "A different narrative emerged from our recent analysis of U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC) data, collected from more than 20,000 entities. According to the DOC data, foreign joint ventures of U.S. companies realized a 5.5 percent average return on assets (ROA), while those companies' wholly owned and controlled affiliates (the vast majority of which are wholly owned) realized a slightly lower 5.2 percent ROA. The same story holds true for investments by foreign companies in the U.S., but the difference is more pronounced. U.S.-based joint ventures realized a 2.2 percent average ROA, while wholly owned and controlled affiliates in the U.S. only realized a 0.7 percent ROA."

Most joint ventures are incorporated, although some, as in the Oil and gas industry, are "unincorporated" joint ventures that mimic a corporate entity. With individuals, when two or more persons come together to form a temporary partnership for the purpose of carrying out a particular project, such partnership can also be called a joint venture where the parties are "co-venturers".

The venture can be a business JV (for example, Dow Corning), a project/asset JV intended to pursue one specific project only, or a JV aimed at defining standards or serving as an "industry utility" that provides a narrow set of services to industry participants.

Some major joint ventures include United Launch Alliance, Vevo, Hulu, Virgin Media O2, Penske Truck Leasing, and Owens-Corning.

Legal definition
In European law, the term "joint venture" is an exclusive legal concept, better defined under the rules of company law. In France, the term "joint venture" is variously translated as  "association d'entreprises", "entreprise conjointe", "coentreprise" or "entreprise commune".

Company incorporation
A JV can be brought about in the following major ways:

 Foreign investor buying an interest in a local company
 Local firm acquiring an interest in an existing foreign firm
 Both the foreign and local entrepreneurs jointly forming a new enterprise
 Together with public capital and/or bank debt

In the UK, India, and in many common law countries, a joint-venture (or else a company formed by a group of individuals) must file with the appropriate authority the memorandum of association. It is a statutory document which informs the outside public of its existence. It may be viewed by the public at the office in which it is filed. A sample can be seen at wikimedia.org. Together with the articles of association, it forms the "constitution" of a company in these countries.

The articles of association regulate the interaction between shareholders and the directors of a company and can be a lengthy document of up to 700,000+
pages. It deals with the powers relegated by the stockholders to the directors and those withheld by them, requiring the passing of ordinary resolutions, special resolutions and the holding of Extraordinary General Meetings to bring the directors' decision to bear.

A Certificate of Incorporation or the Articles of Incorporation is a document required to form a corporation in the U.S. (in actuality, the state where it is incorporated) and in countries following the practice. In the US, the "constitution" is a single document. The Articles of Incorporation is again a regulation of the directors by the stock-holders in a company.

By its formation, the JV becomes a new entity with the implication:

 that it is officially separate from its Founders, who might otherwise be giant corporations, even amongst the emerging countries
 the JV can contract in its own name, acquire rights (such as the right to buy new companies), and
 it has a separate liability from that of its founders, except for invested capital
 it can sue (and be sued) in courts in defense or its pursuance of its objectives.

On the receipt of the Certificate of Incorporation, a company can commence its business.

Shareholders' agreement
This is a legal area and is fraught with difficulty as the laws of countries differ, particularly on the enforceability of "heads of" or shareholder agreements. For some legal reasons, it may be called a Memorandum of Understanding. It is done in parallel with other activities in forming a JV. Though dealt with briefly for a shareholders' agreement, some issues must be dealt with here as a preamble to the discussion that follows.  There are also many issues which are not in the Articles when a company starts up or never ever present. Also, a JV may elect to stay as a JV alone in a "quasi partnership" to avoid any nonessential disclosure to the government or the public.

Some of the issues in a shareholders' agreement are:

 Valuation of intellectual rights, say, the valuations of the IPR of one partner and, say, the real estate of the other
 The control of the company either by the number of directors or its "funding"
 The number of directors and the rights of the founders to their appoint directors which shows as to whether a shareholder dominates or shares equality.
 Management decisions – whether the board manages or a founder
 Transferability of shares – assignment rights of the founders to other members of the company
 Dividend policy – percentage of profits to be declared when there is profit
 Winding up – the conditions, notice to members
 Confidentiality of know-how and founders' agreement and penalties for disclosure
 First right of refusal – purchase rights and counter-bid by a founder.

There are many features which have to be incorporated into the shareholders' agreement which is quite private to the parties as they start off. Normally, it requires no submission to any authority.

The other basic document which must be articulated is the Articles, which is a published document and known to members. This repeats the shareholders agreement as to the number of directors each founder can appoint to the board of directors; whether the board controls or the founders; the taking of decisions by simple majority (50%+1) of those present or a 51% or 75% majority with all directors present (their alternates/proxy); the deployment of funds of the firm; extent of debt; the proportion of profit that can be declared as dividends; etc. Also significant is what will happen if the firm is dissolved, if one of the partners dies, or if the firm is sold.

Often, the most successful JVs are those with 50:50 partnership with each party having the same number of directors but rotating control over the firm, or rights to appoint the Chairperson and Vice-chair of the company. Sometimes a party may give a separate trusted person to vote in its place proxy vote of the Founder at board meetings.

Recently, in a major case the Indian Supreme Court has held that Memorandums of Understanding (whose details are not in the articles of association) are "unconstitutional" giving more transparency to undertakings.

Dissolution
The JV is not a permanent structure. It can be dissolved when:

 Aims of original venture met
 Aims of original venture not met
 Either or both parties develop new goals
 Either or both parties no longer agree with joint venture aims
 Time agreed for joint venture has expired
 Legal or financial issues
 Evolving market conditions mean that joint venture is no longer appropriate or relevant
 One party acquires the other

Risks
Joint ventures are risky forms of business partnerships. Literature in business and management has paid attention to different factors of conflict and opportunism in joint ventures, in particular the influence of parent control structure, ownership change, and volatile environment.

Joint ventures in different jurisdictions

China
According to a report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 2003, China was the recipient of US$53.5 billion in direct foreign investment, making it the world's largest recipient of direct foreign investment for the first time, to exceed the US. Also, it approved the establishment of nearly 500,000 foreign-investment enterprises. The US had 45,000 projects (by 2004) with an in-place investment of over 48 billion.

Until recently, no guidelines existed on how foreign investment was to be handled due to the restrictive nature of China toward foreign investors. Following the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, initiatives in foreign trade began to be applied, and law applicable to foreign direct investment was made clear in 1979, while the first Sino-foreign equity venture took place in 2001. The corpus of the law has improved since then.

Companies with foreign partners can carry out manufacturing and sales operations in China and can sell through their own sales network. Foreign-Sino companies have export rights which are not available to wholly Chinese companies, as China desires to import foreign technology by encouraging JVs and the latest technologies.

Under Chinese law, foreign enterprises are divided into several basic categories. Of these, five will be described or mentioned here: three relate to industry and services and two as vehicles for foreign investment.
Those five categories of Chinese foreign enterprises are: the Sino-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures (EJVs), Sino-Foreign Co-operative Joint Ventures (CJVs), Wholly Foreign-Owned Enterprises (WFOE), although they do not strictly belong to Joint Ventures, plus foreign investment companies limited by shares (FICLBS), and Investment Companies through Foreign Investors (ICFI). Each category is described below.

Equity joint ventures
The EJV Law is between a Chinese partner and a foreign company. It is incorporated in both Chinese (official) and in English (with equal validity), with limited liability.  Prior to China's entry into WTO – and thus the WFOEs – EJVs predominated. In the EJV mode, the partners share profits, losses, and risk in equal proportion to their respective contributions to the venture's registered capital. These escalate upwardly in the same proportion as the increase in registered capital.

The JV contract accompanied by the articles of association for the EJV are the two most fundamental legal documents of the project. The Articles mirror many of the provisions of the JV contract. In case of conflict the JV document has precedence. These documents are prepared at the same time as the feasibility report. There are also the ancillary documents (termed "offsets" in the US) covering know-how and trademarks and supply-of-equipment agreements.

The minimum equity is prescribed for investment (truncated),
where the foreign equity and debt levels are:
  Less than US$3 million, equity must constitute 70% of the investment;
  Between US$3 million and US$10 million, minimum equity must be US$2.1 million and at least 50% of the investment;
  Between US$10 million and US$30 million, minimum equity must be US$5 million and at least 40% of the investment;
  More than US$30 million, minimum equity must be US$12 million and at least 1/3 of the investment.

There are also intermediary levels.

The foreign investment in the total project must be at least 25%. No minimum investment is set for the Chinese partner. The timing of investments must be mentioned in the Agreement and failure to invest in the indicated time, draws a penalty.

Cooperative joint ventures

Co-operative Joint Ventures (CJVs) are permitted under the Sino-Foreign Co-operative Joint Ventures.  Co-operative enterprises are also called Contractual Operative Enterprises.

The CJVs may have a limited structure or unlimited – therefore, there are two versions. The limited-liability version is similar to the EJVs in status of permissions – the foreign investor provides the majority of funds and technology and the Chinese party provides land, buildings, equipment, etc. However, there are no minimum limits on the foreign partner which allows him to be a minority shareholder.

The other format of the CJV is similar to a partnership where the parties jointly incur unlimited liability for the debts of the enterprise with no separate legal person being created. In both the cases, the status of the formed enterprise is that of a legal Chinese person which can hire labor directly as, for example, a Chinese national contactor. The minimum of the capital is registered at various levels of investment.

Other differences from the EJV are to be noted:

A Co-operative JV does not have to be a legal entity.
The partners in a CJV are allowed to share profit on an agreed basis, not necessarily in proportion to capital contribution. This proportion also determines the control and the risks of the enterprise in the same proportion.
It may be possible to operate in a CJV in a restricted area
A CJV could allow negotiated levels of management and financial control, as well as methods of recourse associated with equipment leases and service contracts. In an EJV management control is through allocation of Board seats.
During the term of the venture, the foreign participant can recover his investment, provided the contract prescribes that and all fixed assets will become the property of the Chinese participant on termination of the JV.
Foreign partners can often obtain the desired level of control by negotiating management, voting, and staffing rights into a CJV's articles; since control does not have to be allocated according to equity stakes.

Convenience and flexibility are the characteristics of this type of investment. It is therefore easier to find co-operative partners and to reach an agreement.

With changes in the law, it becomes possible to merge with a Chinese company for a quick start. A foreign investor does not need to set up a new corporation in China. Instead, the investor uses the Chinese partner's business license, under a contractual arrangement. However, under the CJV, the land stays in the possession of the Chinese partner.

There is another advantage: the percentage of the CJV owned by each partner can change throughout the JV's life, giving the option to the foreign investor, by holding higher equity, obtains a faster rate of return with the concurrent wish of the Chinese partner of a later larger role of maintaining long-term control.

The parties in any of the ventures, EJV, CJV or WFOE prepare a feasibility study outlined above. It is a non-binding document – the parties are still free to choose not to proceed with the project. The feasibility study must cover the fundamental technical and commercial aspects of the project, before the parties can proceed to formalize the necessary legal documentation. The study should contain details referred to earlier under Feasibility Study (submissions by the Chinese partner).

Wholly foreign-owned enterprises (WFOEs)

There is basic law of the PRC concerning enterprises with sole foreign investment controls, WFOEs. China's entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) around 2001 has had profound effects on foreign investment. Not being a JV, they are considered here only in comparison or contrast.

To implement WTO commitments, China publishes from time to time updated versions of its "Catalogs Investments" (affecting ventures) prohibited, restricted.

The WFOE is a Chinese legal person and has to obey all Chinese laws. As such, it is allowed to enter into contracts with appropriate government authorities to acquire land use rights, rent buildings, and receive utility services. In this it is more similar to a CJV than an EJV.

WFOEs are expected by PRC to use the most modern technologies and to export at least 50% of their production, with all of the investment is to be wholly provided by the foreign investor and the enterprise is within his total control.

WFOEs are typically limited liability enterprises (like with EJVs) but the liability of the directors, managers, advisers, and suppliers depends on the rules which govern the Departments or Ministries which control product liability, worker safety or environmental protection.

An advantage the WFOE enjoys over its alternates is enhanced protection of its know-how but a principal disadvantage is absence of an interested and influential Chinese party.

As of the 3rd Quarter of 2004, WFOEs had replaced EJVs and CJVs as follows:

(*)=Financial Vventures by EJVs/CJVs
(**)=Approved JVs

Foreign investment companies limited by shares (FICLBS)
These enterprises are formed under the Sino-Foreign Investment Act. The capital is composed of value of stock in exchange for the value of the property given to the enterprise. The liability of the shareholders, including debt, is equal to the number of shares purchased by each partner.

The registered capital of the company the share of the paid-in capital. The minimum amount of the registered capital of the company should be RMB 30 million. These companies can be listed on the only two PRC Stock Exchanges – the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchanges.  Shares of two types are permitted on these Exchanges – Types "A" and Type "B"  shares.

Type A are only to be used by Chinese nationals and can be traded only in RMB. Type "B" shares are denominated in Renminbi but can be traded in foreign exchange and by Chinese nationals having foreign exchange. Further, State enterprises which have been approved for corporatization can trade in Hong Kong in "H" share and in NYSE exchanges.

"A" shares are issued to and traded by Chinese nationals. They are issued and traded in Renminbi. "B" shares are denominated in Renminbi but are traded in foreign currency. From March 2001, in addition to foreign investors, Chinese nationals with foreign currency can also trade "B" shares.

Investment companies by foreign investors (ICFI)
Investment companies are those established in China by sole foreign-funded business or jointly with Chinese partners who engage in direct investment. It has to be incorporated as a company with limited liability.

The total amount of the investor's assets during the year preceding the application to do business in China has to be no less than US$400 million within the territory of China. The paid-in capital contribution has to exceed $10 million. Furthermore, more than 3 project proposals of the investor's intended investment projects must have been approved. The shares subscribed and held by foreign Investment Companies by Foreign Investors (ICFI) should be 25%. The investment firm can be established as an EJV.

On March 15, 2019, China's National People's Congress adopted a unified Foreign Investment Law, which comes into effect on January 1, 2020.

List of prominent joint ventures in China
 AMD-Chinese
 Huawei-Symantec
 Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (上海汽车集团股份有限公司), also known as SAIC (上汽) and SAIC-GM (上汽通用), is a Chinese state-owned automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Shanghaioperating in joint venture with US owned General Motors. Products produced by SAIC joint venture companies are sold under marques including Baojun, Buick, Chevrolet, Iveco, Škoda, and Volkswagen
 General Motors with SAIC Motor, formerly known as Shanghai General Motors Company Ltd., makes numerous cars in China in four factories, especially Buick, but also some Chevrolet and Cadillac models. In November 2018, the company announced new Chevrolet models for the Chinese market, including an extended-wheelbase Malibu XL, a new Chevy SUV concept, and a new Monza.
 Volkswagen Group China - The numerous VW and Audi cars manufactured in China are made under two joint-venture partnerships: FAW-Volkswagen and SAIC Volkswagen.
 Beijing Benz Automotive Co., Ltd is a joint venture between BAIC Motor and Daimler AG. As of November 22, 2018, a full two million Mercedes-Benz vehicles had been built in China by this alliance.
 Dongfeng Motor Corporation (东风汽车公司, abbreviated to 东风) is a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer headquartered in Wuhan. The company was the second-largest Chinese vehicle maker in 2017, by production volume, manufacturing over 4.1 million vehicles that year. Its own brands are Dongfeng, Venucia, and Dongfen Fengshen. Joint ventures include Cummins, Dana, Honda, Nissan, Infiniti, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Renault, Kia, and Yulon.  FAW Group Corporation (第一汽车集团, abbreviated to 一汽) is a Chinese state-owned automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Changchun. In 2017, the company ranked third in terms of output making 3.3 million vehicles. FAW sells products under at least ten different brands including its own and Besturn/Bēnténg, Dario, Haima, Hongqi, Jiaxing, Jie Fang, Jilin, Oley, Jie Fang and Yuan Zheng, and Tianjin Xiali. FAW joint ventures sell Audi, General Motors, Mazda, Toyota and Volkswagen.
 GAC (Guangzhou Automobile Group), is a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer headquartered in Guangzhou. They were the sixth biggest manufacturer in 2017, manufacturing over 2 million vehicles in 2017. GAC sells passenger cars under the Trumpchi brand. In China, they are more known for their foreign joint-venture with Fiat, Honda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, and Toyota.
 Chang'an Automobile Group (重庆长安汽车股份有限公司, abbreviated to 长安) is an automobile manufacturer headquartered in Chongqing, and is a state-owned enterprise. In 2017, the company ranked fourth in terms of output making 2.8 million vehicles in 2017. Changan designs, develops, manufactures and sells passenger cars sold under the Changan brand and commercial vehicles sold under the Chana brand. Foreign joint venture companies include Suzuki, Ford, Mazda and PSA Peugeot Citroën.
 Chery, a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer based in Anhui. They were the tenth biggest manufacturer in 2017. They have a foreign joint venture with Jaguar Land Rover for the production of Jaguar and Land Rover cars in China.
 Brilliance Auto, is a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer based in Shenyang. They were the ninth biggest manufacturer in 2017. They have a foreign joint venture with BMW and also sells passenger vehicles under their own brand Brilliance and are expected to make 520,000 cars in China during 2019.
 Honda Motor Co has a joint venture with Guangzhou Automobile Group (GAC Group)
 Geely-Volvo, Geely, is the biggest privately owned automobile manufacturer and seventh biggest manufacturer overall in China. Their flagship brand Geely Auto became the top Chinese car brand in 2017. Currently one of the fastest growing automotive groups in the world, Geely is known for their ownership of Swedish luxury car brand, Volvo. In China, their passenger car brands include Geely Auto, Volvo Cars, and Lynk & Co. The entire Volvo Cars company has been owned by the Chinese company Geely since 2010 and manufactures most of the XC60 vehicles in China for export.

India
JV companies are the preferred form of corporate investment but there are no separate laws for joint ventures. Companies which are incorporated in India are treated on par as domestic companies.

 The above two parties subscribe to the shares of the JV company in agreed proportion, in cash, and start a new business.
 Two parties, (individuals or companies), incorporate a company in India. Business of one party is transferred to the company and as consideration for such transfer, shares are issued by the company and subscribed by that party. The other party subscribes for the shares in cash.
  Promoter shareholder of an existing Indian company and a third party, who/which may be individual/company, one of them non-resident or both residents, collaborate to jointly carry on the business of that company and its shares are taken by the said third party through payment in cash.

Private companies (only about $2500 is the lower limit of capital, no upper limit) are allowed in India together with and public companies, limited or not, likewise with partnerships. sole proprietorship too are allowed. However, the latter are reserved for NRIs.

Through capital market operations, foreign companies can transact on the two exchanges without prior permission of RBI but they cannot own more than 10 percent equity in paid-up capital of Indian enterprises, while aggregate foreign institutional investment (FII) in an enterprise is capped at 24 percent.

The establishment of wholly owned subsidiaries (WOS) and project offices and branch offices, incorporated in India or not. Sometimes, it is understood, that branches are started to test the market and get its flavor. Equity transfer from residents to non-residents in mergers and acquisitions (M&A) is usually permitted under the automatic route. However, if the M&As are in sectors and activities requiring prior government permission (Appendix 1 of the Policy) then transfer can proceed only after permission.

Joint ventures with trading companies are allowed together with imports of secondhand plants and machinery.

It is expected that in a JV, the foreign partner supplies technical collaboration and the pricing includes the foreign exchange component, while the Indian partner makes available the factory or building site and locally made machinery and product parts.  Many JVs are formed as public limited companies (LLCs) because of the advantages of limited liability.

Ukraine
In Ukraine, most of joint ventures are operated in the form of Limited liability company, as there is no legal entity form as Joint venture. Protection of the rights of foreign investors is guaranteed by Law of Ukraine "On Foreign Investment". In Ukraine, JV can be established without legal entity formation and act under so called Cooperation Agreement (Dogovir pro spilnu diyalnist; Ukr. Договір про спільну діяльність). Under Ukraine civil code, CA can be established by two or more parties; rights and obligations of the parties are regulated by the agreement. Cooperation agreement has been widely spread in Ukraine, mainly in the field of oil and gas production.

See also

 Common purpose, also known as a "joint enterprise" (criminal law)
 Division (business)
 International joint venture
 Joint venture broker
 Partnership
 Subsidiary

References

External links
Cornell Law School's Joint Venture Info Page – contains legal information and relevant definitions regarding joint venture partnerships
Joint Ventures Staged a Quiet Comeback – article written by Gerard Baynham, published in Chief Executive, evaluating joint venture performance.

Business law
Strategic alliances

Types of business entity

Joint venture


In toxicology, the lethal dose (LD) is an indication of the lethal toxicity of a given substance or type of radiation. Because resistance varies from one individual to another, the "lethal dose" represents a dose (usually recorded as dose per kilogram of subject body weight) at which a given percentage of subjects will die. The lethal concentration is a lethal dose measurement used for gases or particulates. The LD may be based on the standard person concept, a theoretical individual that has perfectly "normal" characteristics, and thus not apply to all sub-populations.

Median lethal dose (LD50)

The median lethal dose, LD50 (abbreviation for "lethal dose, 50%"), LC50 (lethal concentration, 50%) or LCt50 (lethal concentration and time) of a toxin, radiation, or pathogen is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration. LD50 figures are frequently used as a general indicator of a substance's acute toxicity. A lower LD50 is indicative of increased toxicity.

History
The test was created by J.W. Trevan in 1927. The term "semilethal dose" is occasionally used with the same meaning, in particular in translations from non-English-language texts, but can also refer to a sublethal dose; because of this ambiguity, it is usually avoided. LD50 is usually determined by tests on animals such as laboratory mice. In 2011 the US Food and Drug Administration approved alternative methods to LD50 for testing the cosmetic drug Botox without animal tests.

Units and measurement
The LD50 is usually expressed as the mass of substance administered per unit mass of test subject, typically as milligrams of substance per kilogram of body mass, but stated as nanograms (suitable for botulinum), micrograms, milligrams, or grams (suitable for paracetamol) per kilogram. Stating it this way allows the relative toxicity of different substances to be compared, and normalizes for the variation in the size of the animals exposed, although toxicity does not always scale simply with body mass.

The choice of 50% lethality as a benchmark avoids the potential for ambiguity of making measurements in the extremes and reduces the amount of testing required. However, this also means that LD50 is not the lethal dose for all subjects; some may be killed by much less, while others survive doses far higher than the LD50. Measures such as "LD1" and "LD99" (dosage required to kill 1% or 99%, respectively, of the test population) are occasionally used for specific purposes.

Lethal dosage often varies depending on the method of administration; for instance, many substances are less toxic when administered orally than when intravenously administered. For this reason, LD50 figures are often qualified with the mode of administration, e.g., "LD50 i.v."

The related quantities LD50/30 or LD50/60 are used to refer to a dose that without treatment will be lethal to 50% of the population within (respectively) 30 or 60 days. These measures are used more commonly with radiation, as survival beyond 60 days usually results in recovery.

Estimation using model organisms
LD values for humans are best estimated by extrapolating results from human cell cultures. One form of measuring LD is to use model organisms, particularly animals like mice or rats, converting to dosage per kilogram of biomass, and extrapolating to human norms. The degree of error from animal-extrapolated LD values is large. The biology of test animals differs in important aspects to that of humans. For instance, mouse tissue is approximately fifty times less responsive than human tissue to the venom of the Sydney funnel-web spider. The square–cube law also complicates the scaling relationships involved. Researchers are shifting away from animal-based LD measurements in some instances. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has begun to approve more non-animal methods in response to animal welfare concerns.

Median infective dose
The median infective dose (ID50) is the number of organisms received by a person or test animal qualified by the route of administration (e.g., 1,200 org/man per oral). Because of the difficulties in counting actual organisms in a dose, infective doses may be expressed in terms of biological assay, such as the number of LD50's to some test animal. In biological warfare infective dosage is the number of infective doses per minute for a cubic meter (e.g., ICt50 is 100 medium doses - min/m3).)

Lowest lethal dose
The lowest lethal dose (LDLo) is the least amount of drug that can produce death in a given animal species under controlled conditions. The dosage is given per unit of bodyweight (typically stated in milligrams per kilogram) of a substance known to have resulted in fatality in a particular species. When quoting an LDLo, the particular species and method of administration (e.g. ingested, inhaled, intravenous) are typically stated.

Median lethal concentration
For gases and aerosols, lethal concentration (given in mg/m3 or ppm, parts per million) is the analogous concept, although this also depends on the duration of exposure, which has to be included in the definition. The term incipient lethal level is used to describe a LC50 value that is independent of time.

A comparable measurement is LCt50, which relates to lethal dosage from exposure, where C is concentration and t is time. It is often expressed in terms of mg-min/m3. LCt50 is the dose that will cause incapacitation rather than death. These measures are commonly used to indicate the comparative efficacy of chemical warfare agents, and dosages are typically qualified by rates of breathing (e.g., resting = 10 L/min) for inhalation, or degree of clothing for skin penetration.  The concept of Ct was first proposed by Fritz Haber and is sometimes referred to as Haber's law, which assumes that exposure to 1 minute of 100 mg/m3 is equivalent to 10 minutes of 10 mg/m3 (1 × 100 = 100, as does 10 × 10 = 100).{{Citation needed|reason=A citation for what?
There is a Wikipedia article about Habers law clearly linked to on the paragraph - please elaborate or remove this citation needed somebody, as I am not sure which to do.   Thank you.  date=April 2016|date=June 2017}}

Some chemicals, such as hydrogen cyanide, are rapidly detoxified by the human body, and do not follow Haber's Law.  So, in these cases, the lethal concentration may be given simply as LC50 and qualified by a duration of exposure (e.g., 10 minutes). The material safety data sheets for toxic substances frequently use this form of the term even if the substance does follow Haber's Law.

Lowest lethal concentration
The LCLo is the lowest concentration of a chemical, given over a period of time, that results in the fatality of an individual animal. LCLo is typically for an acute (<24 hour) exposure. It is related to the LC50, the median lethal concentration. The LCLo is used for gases and aerosolized material.

 Limitations
As a measure of toxicity, lethal dose is somewhat unreliable and results may vary greatly between testing facilities due to factors such as the genetic characteristics of the sample population, animal species tested, environmental factors and mode of administration.

There can be wide variability between species as well; what is relatively safe for rats may very well be extremely toxic for humans (cf.'' paracetamol toxicity), and vice versa. For example, chocolate, comparatively harmless to humans, is known to be toxic to many animals. When used to test venom from venomous creatures, such as snakes, LD50 results may be misleading due to the physiological differences between mice, rats, and humans. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators of mice, and their venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate mice; and mongooses may be exceptionally resistant. While most mammals have a very similar physiology, LD50 results may or may not have equal bearing upon every mammal species, including humans.

Animal rights concerns
Animal-rights and animal-welfare groups, such as Animal Rights International, have campaigned against LD50 testing on animals in particular as, in the case of some substances, causing the animals to die slow, painful deaths. Several countries, including the UK, have taken steps to ban the oral LD50, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) abolished the requirement for the oral test in 2001.

See also

References

Concentration indicators
Medical emergencies
Toxicology

Lethal dose


Akfırat, İstanbul'un Kocaeli sınırında yer alan ve bağlı olduğu Tuzla ilçesinin 19 km kuzeyinde, 5900 hektar yüzölçümüne sahip bir yerleşim yeridir.

Tarihçe
Daha önceleri köy statüsündeyken 27 Eylül 1994 tarihinde belediye statüsü alarak beldeye dönüştü. 28 Şubat 1995 tarihinde ise Akfırat'ta belediye kurulmasına dair verilen karar iptal edildi. 29 Aralık 1998 tarihinde tekrar belediye statüsü alarak beldeye dönüştü. Ardından Büyükşehir kanunuyla beraber mahalleye dönüşmüştür.

Coğrafya
Bölge, engebeli bir arazi yapısına sahip olup, 1800 hektarlık kısmı makilik ve yer yer de ormanlık alanlardan oluşmaktadır. Yerleşik ve gelişme alanları 3547.4 hektardır. Deniz seviyesinden yüksekliği ortalama 250 metredir. Doğusunda Kocaeli, güneybatısında Tuzla ilçesi ve Orhanlı Beldesi, kuzeyinde ve batısında Pendik bulunmaktadır. Güneyinden TEM otoyolu ve İstanbul-İzmit eski devlet yolu geçmektedir. Fırat ve Tepeören olmak üzere iki mahalleden oluşan beldenin nüfusu 89.370 kişidir. İstanbul Park'ta belde sınırları içindedir. Sabiha Gökçen Havaalanı beldeye çok yakın mesafededir. Ayrıca bölgenin en büyük alışveriş merkezlerinden biri olan Via Port Alışveriş Merkezi de beldeye 5 dk. mesafededir.

Akfırat Belediye olmadan da planlı yapılaşması ve alt yapısının tam olması, doğal yaşamın içinde olmasıyla parmak ile gösterilen bir yer.

Belediye olduktan sonra bu yer Fırat Mahallesi olarak geçen yerde başlayan serüvenin daha sonra Tepeören Mahallesinin de bu bölgeye ilave olunmasıyla büyümüş ve hızla gelişmeye başlamıştır.

Akfırat Beldesini şu anda önemli kılan en büyük etkenlerden biri temiz ve düzenli bir yapı sirkülesinin olması, Formula 1 tesislerinin ev sahibi olması, havalimanına sadece 10 dk. mesafede olması, TEM otoyoluna bağlantının çok rahat ve hızlı olması, iki il sınırının kesiştiği noktada olması ve İstanbul'a genel anlamda bakıldığında özellikle Avrupa yakası hınca hınç bir doluluk, trafik sıkıntısı, su problemleri, kendini aşmış olmasına rağmen yine İstanbul'un Tuzla ilçesi Akfırat Beldesinde tamamen doğal enstrümanlarla birleşen bir yapı ve temiz bir çevreye sahip olmasıdır.

Kaynakça

Kurtköy, Pendik
Tuzla'nın mahalleleri

Akfırat


Olaylar
 4 Eylül – Batı Roma İmparatorluğu'nun çöküşü'nün geleneksel tarihi, Romulus Augustus'un Odoacer tarafından azledilişi.

Doğumlar
 Aryabhata, Hint matematikçi ve astronom (ö. 550)

Ölümler
 28 Ağustos – Flavius Orestes, Batı Roma İmparatorluğu askerî lideri
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Basiliscus, devrik Doğu Roma imparatoru
 Romulus Augustus, son Batı Roma imparatoru (d. 463)

476


Abdou Diouf ( ; Serer: ; born 7 September 1935) is a Senegalese politician who was the second President of Senegal, in office from January 1981 to April 2000.

Diouf is notable both for coming to power by peaceful succession and leaving willingly after losing the 2000 presidential election to Abdoulaye Wade. He was also the second Secretary-General of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie from January 2003 to December 2014.

Early life
Diouf was born into the Joof family in Louga, Senegal, the child of an Halpulaar mother and a Serere father. He attended primary and secondary school at the Lycée Faidherbe in Saint-Louis. He studied law at Dakar University and then at the Sorbonne in Paris. Diouf graduated in 1959.

Political career

After graduation, Diouf returned to Senegal, where, in September 1960, he was appointed Director of International Technical Cooperation. In November 1960, he became assistant to the Secretary-General of the Government; in June 1961, he became Secretary-General of the Ministry of Defense.  In 1961 he joined the Senegalese Progressive Union (Union Progressiste Sénégalaise, UPS), which later became the Socialist Party of Senegal. In December 1961 he became Governor of the Sine-Saloum Region, serving in that position until December 1962, when he became Director of the Cabinet of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In May 1963, he became Director of the Cabinet of President Léopold Senghor, where he remained until December 1965. In January 1964, he became Secretary-General of the Presidency until March 1968, when he became Minister of Planning and Industry. He remained in the latter position until February 1970, when he was named Prime Minister.

Presidency
In 1970, Senghor reinstated the post of prime minister, giving it to Diouf, his protégé. Senghor trusted Diouf, who had administrative experience but no independent power base. This was important, for Senghor's last prime minister, Mamadou Dia, was accused of using the position to launch a coup d'état. On 1 January 1981, Senghor resigned in favor of Diouf, who became president of Senegal.

1983 and 1988 elections

Diouf continued the political liberalization Senghor had begun by holding elections in 1983. He allowed fourteen opposition parties to run instead of the four Senghor had allowed. The practical effect was to fragment the opposition, and Diouf won with 83.5 percent of the vote.

In 1985, opposing parties tried to form a coalition. It was broken up because the national constitution forbade coalitions. Also in 1985, Abdoulaye Wade, Diouf's main political opponent, was temporarily arrested for unlawful demonstration.

In February 1988, elections were held again. Diouf won 72.3 percent of the vote to Wade's 25.8 percent, and opposing parties alleged electoral fraud. Disturbances followed, and Diouf declared a state of emergency, detaining Wade again until May of that year.

Senegambia
Under Diouf, Senegal agreed to form a confederation called Senegambia with neighboring Gambia on 12 December 1981; this union took place on 1 February 1982. In April 1989, the Mauritania-Senegal Border War developed, leading to an outbreak of ethnic violence and the severing of diplomatic relations with Mauritania. As the region destabilized, Senegambia was dissolved.

Response to AIDS
In 1986, Diouf began an anti-AIDS program in Senegal before the virus was able to take off in earnest. He used the media and schools to promote safe-sex messages and required prostitutes to be registered. He also encouraged civic organizations and both Christian and Muslim religious leaders to raise awareness about AIDS. The result was that while AIDS was decimating much of Africa, the infection rate for Senegal stayed below 2 percent.

1993 and 2000 elections

Diouf was reelected in February 1993 with 58% of the vote to a 7-year term; presidential term lengths had been extended by two years in 1991. In the first round of the 2000 elections, on 27 February, he took 41.3% of the vote against 30.1% for the long-time opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade. Still, in the second round on 19 March, he received only 41.5% against 58.5% for Wade. Diouf conceded defeat and left office on 1 April.

One of Diouf's greatest contributions to African peace came from this electoral defeat, for he gracefully surrendered power to Abdoulaye Wade, his long-time rival. When Diouf left office, Wade even said he should receive a Nobel Peace Prize for leaving without violence.

Socialist Party leadership
Diouf was Deputy Secretary-General of the Socialist Party under Senghor. He became Secretary-General in 1981, and when the party was restructured at its Thirteenth Congress in 1996, he was moved to the position of President of the PS, while Ousmane Tanor Dieng became First Secretary, having been proposed by Diouf.

International organizations

Diouf has been active in international organizations both during and after his presidency. He was President of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) from 1985 to 1986. Soon after his election, he made a personal plea to François Mitterrand, the President of France, resulting in France speaking strongly for sanctions against South Africa. In 1992, he was again reelected President of the OAU for another year-long term. He was also instrumental in establishing the Goree Institute.

After leaving office as President of Senegal, he was unanimously elected as Secretary-General of La Francophonie at that organization's Ninth Summit on 20 October 2002 in Beirut, following the withdrawal of the only other candidate, Henri Lopes of the Republic of the Congo. Diouf took office as Secretary-General on 1 January 2003. He was reelected as Secretary-General for another four years at the organization's summit in Bucharest in September 2006.

Diouf is an Eminent Member of the Sergio Vieira de Mello Foundation.

He is also a member of the Fondation Chirac's honour committee, ever since the foundation was launched in 2008 by former French president Jacques Chirac in order to promote world peace and on the International Multilateral Partnership Against Cyber Threats (IMPACT) International Advisory Board.  Additionally, he is one of the 25 leading figures on the Information and Democracy Commission launched by Reporters Without Borders.

Honours and decorations

References

External links

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1935 births
Cheikh Anta Diop University alumni
Living people
Presidents of Senegal
Recipients of the Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Senegalese Muslims
Senegalese Sunni Muslims
Serer presidents
Prime Ministers of Senegal
Socialist Party of Senegal politicians
Secretaries-General of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
People from Louga Region
20th-century Senegalese politicians
Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Senegal
20th-century presidents in Africa

Abdou Diouf


Jan Theuninck (d. 7 Haziran 1954, Zonnebeke), Belçikalı ressam ve şair. Theunick, Felemenkçe'yi anadili gibi konuşur. Eserlerini Fransızca ve İngilizce dillerinde yazar. Çoğunlukla soyut tablolar çizen ressamın eserleri minimalizm ile tek renkli dışavurumculuk akımları arasında bir yerdedir. Ellsworth Kelly ve Joan Miró etkilendiği iki ressamdır.

Kaynakça
 Holokost-Resim
 Stalag XB
 I. Dünya Savaşı : Şiir

1954 doğumlular
West Vlaanderen doğumlular
20. yüzyıl Belçikalı ressamları
21. yüzyıl Belçikalı ressamları
20. yüzyıl Belçikalı şairleri
21. yüzyıl Belçikalı şairleri
Yaşayan insanlar
Fransızca eser veren yazarlar
Flaman yazarlar

Jan Theuninck


Saharanpur é uma cidade no estado de Utar Pradexe, capital do distrito de Saharanpur. Em 2001 tinha 705478 habitantes. A cidade foi fundada pelo sultão , que a nomeou em homenagem ao santo islâmico Xá Harune Chixti.

Localidades da Índia

Saharanpur


A Community of Witches: Contemporary Neo-Paganism and Witchcraft in the United States es un estudio sociológico de la comunidad wiccana y más ampliamente neopagana en el noreste de Estados Unidos.

Fue escrito por la socióloga estadounidense Helen A. Berger, de la West Chester University de Pennsylvania y  publicado por primera vez en 1999 por la Editorial de la Universidad de Carolina del Sur. Fue presentado como una parte de la serie de libros académicos titulada «Estudios en religión comparada», editada por Frederick M. Denny, un especialista en estudios religiosos de la Universidad de Chicago.

Berger se interesó por estudiar el movimiento wiccano y pagano en 1986, cuando presentó una conferencia sobre el tema en la Biblioteca Pública de Boston. Posteriormente, conoció a miembros de la comunidad pagana de Nueva Inglaterra, emprendió el trabajo de campo en la comunidad wiccana local, el Círculo de la Luz, así como en una organización pagana más amplia, la Comunidad EarthSpirit (ESC). En total, Berger pasó once años de trabajo de campo entre la comunidad neopagana. Junto con el fundador de la ESC Andras Corban Arthen, Berger también emprendió una especie de «censo pagano» de Estados Unidos a mediados de los años 1990 para obtener más información sobre la comunidad pagana del país.

Escrito sobre la base de entrevistas con más de cien practicantes wiccanos y paganos, estudia la literatura preexistente sobre el tema y una encuesta nacional de la comunidad pagana en Estados Unidos. En su trabajo, Berger interpreta la Wicca como una religión de la modernidad tardía, como opuesta a la posmodernidad, y la examina usando las teorías de los sociólogos Anthony Giddens y James A. Beckford. Los temas tratados incluyen concepciones paganas del yo, el papel de los aquelarres y la comunidad pagana más amplia, el lugar de los niños en el movimiento y la creciente rutinización de la Wicca a través de la fundación de iglesias y clero organizado.

Las reseñas académicas fueron, en su mayoría, positivas, pero varias plantearon preocupación por el uso incorrecto de la terminología por parte de Berger. Así, se señaló la importancia del estudio en el desarrollo de los estudios paganos como una disciplina académica y en ayudar a profundizar la investigación sociológica sobre los nuevos movimientos religiosos en los Estados Unidos. En los años siguientes a la publicación del estudio, Berger continuó investigando a la comunidad pagana y centró su interés en la popularidad de la Wicca entre los adolescentes.

Revisores señaló la importancia del estudio en el desarrollo de estudios Pagan como una disciplina académica y ayudar a promover la investigación sociológica más amplia en los nuevos movimientos religiosos en los Estados Unidos. En los años siguientes a la publicación del estudio, Berger continuó la investigación de la comunidad pagana, centrando su interés en la popularidad de la Wicca entre los adolescentes.

Antecedentes

Paganismo y Wicca en Estados Unidos

El paganismo contemporáneo, también llamado neopaganismo, es un denominación general empleado para identificar una amplia variedad de movimientos religiosos modernos, en particular aquellos influenciados por o que dicen ser derivados de varias creencias paganas de la Europa premoderna. La religión de brujería pagana, o Wicca, fue desarrollada en Inglaterra durante la primera mitad del  y es una de las varias religiones paganas. La figura a la vanguardia del desarrollo temprano de la Wicca fue el ocultista inglés Gerald Gardner (1884-1964), autor de Brujería hoy (1954) y El significado de la brujería (1959), y fundador de una tradición conocida como Wicca gardneriana. El gardnerianismo giraba en torno a la veneración tanto del dios Astado, como de una diosa madre, la celebración de ocho festivales basadas en las estaciones en una Rueda del Año y la práctica de rituales mágicos en grupos conocidos como aquelarres. Posteriormente, la Wicca gardneriana fue llevada a Estados Unidos a inicios de los años 1960 por un iniciado inglés, Raymond Buckland (1934–), y su entonces esposa Rosemary, quienes fundaron un aquelarre en Long Island.

En Estados Unidos se desarrollaron nuevas variantes de Wicca, incluyendo la Wicca feminista, una tradición fundada en los años 1970, que fue influenciada por la segunda ola del feminismo, enfatizó los aquelarres solo de mujeres y rechazó la veneración del dios Astado. Una iniciada tanto de la tradición diánica como de la gardneriana se hizo conocida como Starhawk (1951–), quien fundó su propia tradición: la Reclaiming Wicca y publicó The Spiral Dance (1979), un libro que ayudó a difundir la Wicca a lo largo de Estados Unidos.

Trabajo de campo académico sobre el paganismo
Antes del trabajo de Berger, varios investigadores estadounidenses en el campo de los estudios paganos habían publicado por separado estudios sobre la comunidad pagana en Estados Unidos y en el Reino Unido. El primero de ellos fue escrito por la sacerdotisa wicanna, periodistas y activista política Margot Adler en su Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today, que fue publicado por Viking Press en 1979.

Un segundo estudio fue producido por la antropóloga Tanya M. Luhrmann en su Persuasions of the Witches' Craft: Ritual Magic in Contemporary England (1989), en donde se centró tanto en el aquelarre wiccano como un varias órdenes mágicas ceremoniales que estaban entonces operando en Londres. Fue seguido por Never Again the Burning Times: Paganism Revisited (1995) por la socióloga Loretta Orion, que se enfocó en las comunidades paganas de la costa este y el Medio Oeste de Estados Unidos.

Sinopsis
El libro empieza con un prefacio, en el cual Berger explica cómo empezó a estudiar a la comunidad wiccana y pagana de Nueva Inglaterra. Berger inicia la parte principal de su libro con una descripción de una sanación a la que asistió. Luego, procede por introducir tanto la religión wiccana como su aproximación teórica. Allí, Berger explica tanto el enfoque del sociólogo británico James A. Beckford para las religiones de la modernidad tardía, como los enfoques teóricos al modernismo de Anthony Giddens.

En el segundo capítulo, titulado «The Magical Self», Berger examina las formas en que los wiccanos en Estados Unidos se entienden a sí mismo. Para ello, emplea ideas sociológicas sobre la identidad de sí mismo y las utiliza en su análisis de los rituales wiccanos que tratan con la transformación del sí-mismo. Luego, prosigue en la observación de conceptos de género en la comunidad wiccano, tanto para hombres y mujeres como para homosexuales. El tercer capítulo, titulado «El aquelarre: amor perfecto, confianza perfeecta», proporciona una explicación del sistema de aquelarres al interior de la Wicca y las formas en las cuales las amistades son construidas y colapsan entre miembros de un aquelarre, así como la extensión en que los aquelarres imitan estructuras familiares.

El capítulo cuarto, «Un círculo al interior de un círculo: la comunidad neopagana», observa la comunidad más allá de la estructura del aquelarre y la interpreta por medios de ideas teóricas sobre comunidad en la modernidad tardía. Berger se detiene en las ideas de la memoria comunitaria y la construcción de las comunidades entre los paganos estadounidenses, antes examinar la manera en que algunos paganos se involucran en políticas emancipatorias. El quinto capítulo, titulado «La siguiente generación», está dedicado a ubicar a los niños al interior de la comunidad pagana y trata con ideas de ritos de paso, actitudes hacia la sexualidad de los niños y la extensión en que los niños están involucrados en los rituales.

El sexto capítulo, «La rutinización de la creatividad», se concentra en la relación entre la Wicca y la rutinización y examina cómo los ethos anti-autoritarios de la religión han sido en parte erosionados por medio de la creación de organizaciones paganas como la Comunidad y el Circle Sanctuary, que han comprado tierra y llevado al desarrollo de un clero pagado. Finalmente, Berger concluye el libro con un resumen de su estudio y reflexiona sobre el posible futuro de la Wicca en Estados Unidos.

Argumentos

Wicca como religión de la modernidad tardía

Mientras la socióloga Loretta Orion había creído que el paganismo contemporáneo era un movimiento posmoderno, en A Community of Witches, Berger argumenta contra este supuesto; en su lugar, considera que la Wicca es una religión de la modernidad tardía. En apoyo de esta posición, Berger apela al trabajo del sociólogo británico de la religión, James A. Beckford (1942–), quien en su libro Religion and Advanced Industrial Society (1989) había sostenido que muchos nuevos movimientos religiosos reflejaban las características de la modernidad tardía al desafiar definiciones tradicionales de religión y compartir una cosmovisión holística y enfatizar el desarrollo y transformación del sí-mismo. Berger afirma que mientras «la Wicca no es específicamente mencionada por Beckford, se ajusta al modelo de religiones de la Nueva era que él analiza». Si bien acepta que elementos del posmodernismo pueden ser encontrados al interior de la Wicca, Berger sostiene que la religión no «significa un quiebre epistemológico con el pensamiento ilustrado» y que, como tal, correspondía intrínsicamente en su estructura al modernismo tardío. Así, señala, el «énfasis en el globalismo, la creencia en la transformación personal y social y el uso de racionalidad no instrumental ubica firmemente a la Wicca al interior de la tradición de la Ilustración».

Referencias

Bibliografía

Libros y artículos académicos

Reseñas académicas

Enlaces externos

Libros de sociología
Libros de 1999
Libros de Estados Unidos
Libros en inglés
Libros de Wicca
Neopaganismo
Religión en Estados Unidos

A Community of Witches


Međuopćinska nogometna liga Daruvar – Pakrac – Grubišno Polje je bila liga šestog stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1980./81.
Sudjelovalo je ukupno 12 klubova, a prvak je bio klub "Zdenka" iz Velikih Zdenaca.

Sustav natjecanja
12 klubova je igralo dvokružnu ligu (22 kola), ali je tijekom jeseni odustao jedan klub pa su klubovi odigrali po 20 utakmica.

Ljestvica

 Miokovićevo – tadašnji naziv za Đulovac

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Povezani članci
 Zona ZO Bjelovar 1980./81.
 Općinska liga Daruvar 1980./81.
 Međuopćinska liga Koprivnica – Križevci 1980./81.
 Međuopćinska liga Virovitica – Đurđevac 1980./81.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 library.foi.hr, Pakrački vjesnik (petnaestodnevnik općine Pakrac)
 digi-pakrac.com, Pakrački  vjesnik
 library.foi.hr, Jednota : organ Svazu čechu a Slovaku v SR Horvatsku
 library.foi.hr, "Pakrački vjesnik" - petnaestodnevnik OK SSRN Pakrac, br. 174, izdano 11. rujna 1980., str. 8 (Iz sportskog života;  najva lige), preuzeto 7. prosinca 2022.
 library.foi.hr, "Pakrački vjesnik" - petnaestodnevnik OK SSRN Pakrac, br. 191, izdano 30. lipnja 1981., str. 8 (Iz sportskog života;  konačna ljestvica), preuzeto 7. prosinca 2022.
  library.foi.hr, "Jednota", br. 25/1981, god. 36, izdano 20. lipnja 1981., str. 17 (22. kolo i ljestvica), preuzeto 7. prosinca 2022.
 Duško Kliček: 60 godina nogometa u Siraču 1937. - 1997., Sirač, 1997., str. 20-21
 Duško Kliček: Nogometni klub "Slavonija" Prekopakra 1975.-2015., Pakrac, 2015., str. 16

1980-81 MOL Daruvar - Pakrac - Grubišno Polje
MOL Daruvar - Pakrac - Grubišno Polje
1980-81 Daruvar - Pakrac - Grubišno Polje

Međuopćinska nogometna liga Daruvar – Pakrac – Grubišno Polje 1980./81.


Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, commonly referred to by its acronym EDSA, is a limited-access circumferential highway around Manila, the capital city of the Philippines. It passes through 6 of Metro Manila's 17 local government units or cities, namely, from north to south, Caloocan, Quezon City, San Juan, Mandaluyong, Makati, and Pasay.

Named after academic Epifanio de los Santos, the section of the road from Balintawak Interchange in Quezon City to Magallanes Interchange in Makati connects the North Luzon Expressway (NLEX) and South Luzon Expressway (SLEX). The avenue passes through the major financial districts of the metropolis which are Triangle Park, Araneta City, Ortigas Center, Makati CBD, and Bay City. It is the longest and the most congested highway in the metropolis, stretching some .

Structure
The entire avenue forms part of Circumferential Road 4 (C-4) of Metro Manila's arterial road network, National Route 1 (N1) of the Philippine highway network and Asian Highway 26 (AH26) of the Asian Highway Network. The locations around the avenue were marked with great economic and industrial growth, proven by the fact that all but two industrial centers in the Metropolis are directly accessible from the thoroughfare. The decent economic growth of the areas around the avenue adds a significant volume of traffic on the avenue, and in recent estimates, and an average of 2.34 million vehicles go through it every day.
The avenue is a divided carriageway, often consisting of 12 lanes, 6 in either direction, with the elevated railroads Manila Metro Rail Transit System Line 3 and Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 1 often serving as its median. Although it is not an expressway, traffic rules and speed limits are strictly implemented to the vehicles that pass along it. It is operated by the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority and is maintained and constantly being repaired by the Department of Public Works and Highways, whose maintenance over EDSA excludes the extension from Roxas Boulevard to SM Mall of Asia in Pasay.

Route description

EDSA starts from the Bonifacio Monument (Monumento) Circle in Caloocan, its intersection with MacArthur Highway, Rizal Avenue Extension, and Samson Road, the western side of the C-4 Road. The roundabout is also the marker of the 1896 Revolution by Andres Bonifacio. The  of the road are in Caloocan. The Avenue will then enter Quezon City through the Balintawak district, after an intersection with the North Luzon Expressway (NLEX) and A. Bonifacio Avenue at the Balintawak Interchange.

EDSA crosses much of the northern part of Quezon City, passing through the Balintawak, Muñoz, and Project 7 districts. It sharply curves southwards after crossing the North Avenue-West Avenue Intersection in the Triangle Business Park. On the north side of EDSA is the SM North EDSA. In front of it are the TriNoma mall and the Eton Centris or Centris Walk. ABS-CBN Broadcasting Center and its transmitter can be easily seen from EDSA and continues southwards, slightly turning westwards slowly until it leaves the Triangle Park after crossing the East Avenue-Timog Avenue Intersection, where the GMA Network Center is located. It continues through the district of Cubao, entering the Araneta Center after crossing the Aurora Boulevard Tunnel. In Cubao, several malls, infrastructure and offices are located, most notably the Smart Araneta Coliseum, the biggest coliseum in Southeast Asia. The Avenue curves southwards and crosses Santolan Road near Socorro, where the twin bases of Camps Crame and Aguinaldo are located. The Greenhills Shopping Center and the Eastwood City are also located nearby. EDSA then continues on its route and serves as the boundary of the cities of San Juan and Quezon City. The People Power Monument can be seen on the northbound side of EDSA at its junction with White Plains Avenue. After  in Quezon City, the Avenue will eventually leave the city and enter the City of Mandaluyong. EDSA enters Mandaluyong after crossing the borders of the Ortigas Center. In the Ortigas Center, some notable buildings around the area are the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration building, Robinsons Galleria, SM Megamall, and the bronze EDSA Shrine, a memorial church to the 1986 Revolution. It then curves smoothly westwards after it crosses Boni Avenue and Pioneer Street, and crosses the Pasig River via the Guadalupe Bridge, leaving the city of Mandaluyong.

After crossing the Pasig River, EDSA enters the city of Makati through Guadalupe, where it provides access to the Rockwell Center, a major mixed-use business park in Makati, through J.P. Rizal Avenue. The highway also provides quick access to the city of Taguig and the Bonifacio Global City nearby. After crossing Buendia Avenue, the highway enters the Ayala Center, an important commercial district in the Philippines, where the Greenbelt and Glorietta shopping centers are located via Ayala Avenue.  The road then curves eastwards, continues on a straight route to the city of Pasay, and passing the Chino Roces Avenue, Osmeña Highway and South Luzon Expressway (SLEX) through Magallanes Interchange.

EDSA enters Pasay shortly after crossing SLEX and Osmeña Highway in Makati. In Pasay, the highway provides access to Ninoy Aquino International Airport via a flyover to Tramo Street. EDSA would pass through Pasay Rotonda within Taft Avenue and continues on a straight route until it crosses to Roxas Boulevard. After crossing Roxas Boulevard, it becomes known as EDSA Extension and enters Central Business Park 1-A of the Bay City reclamation area, where SM Mall of Asia is located. EDSA's terminus is at the Globe Rotunda fronting SM Mall of Asia.

Bicycle lanes

The entire span of EDSA has one-way Class II bike lanes along both sides of the road, established as part of the national government's Metropolitan Bike Lane Network and funded by the Bayanihan to Recover as One Act during the COVID-19 pandemic. Most of the bicycle lanes along EDSA are paint separated while some sections have physical separation using bollards and concrete barriers.

Traffic management

The lead agency that manages the flow of traffic along EDSA is the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA), a government agency under the Office of the President of the Philippines and is advised by the Metro Manila Mayors League. One of the MMDA's traffic management schemes that is in effect on EDSA, among other major thoroughfares in the metropolis, is the Uniform Vehicular Volume Reduction Program.

Many have observed that the cause of many traffic jams on EDSA is its change from being a highway to an avenue. This resulted the erection of erring establishment, buses and jeepneys. Subsequently, buses have been the target of other traffic management programs, like the MMDA's Organized Bus Route Program. The MMDA is strictly implementing also the Motorcycle and Bus laning in EDSA, making it the second highway in the Philippines ever to have such traffic rule to be enforced, after Commonwealth Avenue. The average speed of vehicles in EDSA is .

On January 18, 2016, strict implementation on bus lanes started on the Shaw–Guadalupe segment, where plastic barriers are placed and prohibited entry of private vehicles and taxis on the bus lanes except when turning to EDSA's side streets. Despite the plastic barrier, many private vehicles still enter the lanes.

In June 2020, bus routes in the avenue were rationalized, creating the EDSA Carousel line carried by the new EDSA Busway. The EDSA Busway is separated from normal road traffic and now used only for buses and emergency vehicles. The new bus lane spans from Monumento to PITX and is divided by concreted barriers and steel fences. The old rightmost bus lanes was now opened for all vehicles, with the avenue now having total of 4-5 public-use lanes per direction instead of 3, excluding interchanges.

Decongestion program
A decongestion program under the Build! Build! Build! Infrastructure Program is ongoing to help decongest EDSA (which is under overcapacity, carrying 402,000 vehicles daily while has the capacity of 288,000). This involves the construction of other roads and bridges that will divert traffic from the avenue. The government aims to reduce travel time from Cubao to Makati to 5–6 minutes.

History

Construction of what was then called the North and South Circumferential Road began in 1939 under President Manuel L. Quezon. The construction team was led by engineers Florencio Moreno and Osmundo Monsod.

The road, starting from North Bay Boulevard in Navotas and ending at Taft Avenue (formerly known as Taft Avenue Extension / Manila South Road) in Pasay, then in the province of Rizal, was finished in 1940 shortly before the outbreak of World War II and the subsequent Japanese Occupation. It was then known as the Manila Circumferential Road or simply as Circumferential Road. It was also renamed to Highway 54 and thus designated as Route 54. Due to the route number, there was a common misconception on that time that the avenue is  long. The present-day North EDSA section in Caloocan and Quezon City was referred to as Calle Samson (Samson Street), while its section in Pasay was also known as P. Lovina Street. After the independence of the Philippines from the United States in 1946, the road was renamed Avenida 19 de Junio (June 19 Avenue), after the birth date of national hero José Rizal.

In the 1950s, the northern end of the avenue was designated to its present terminus at Bonifacio Monument in Caloocan and its section west of it later became known as Samson Road, General San Miguel Street, and Letre Road, respectively. In the same decade, Rizalists wanted the avenue's name to remain 19 de Junio, while President Ramon Magsaysay wanted the avenue named after Rizal. Residents of Rizal province (to which most parts of Metro Manila belonged until 1975) wanted the avenue to be named after a Rizaleño: the historian, jurist and scholar named Epifanio de los Santos y Cristóbal. The Philippine Historical Committee (now the National Historical Commission of the Philippines), the Philippine Historical Association, the Philippine Library Association, Association of university and College Professors, the Philippine China Cultural Association, and the Philippine National Historical Society, led by fellow Rizaleños Eulogio Rodríguez, Sr. and Juan Sumulong, supported the renaming of Highway 54 to Epifanio de los Santos Avenue.

On April 7, 1959, De los Santos' birth anniversary, Republic Act No. 2140 was passed, renaming the avenue to honor him. Rapid urbanization in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly after the annexation of several Rizal towns to the newly established National Capital Region, marked the growth of the industrial centers along the road, and several other roads connected to the avenue, such as Ayala Avenue and McKinley Road in Makati.

During the rule of President Ferdinand Marcos, traffic jams along the avenue started to build up. Several interchanges were constructed to relieve congestion, including the Balintawak and Magallanes Interchanges. Later, with the implementation of the Metro Manila Arterial Road System in 1965, in order to complete the Circumferential Road 4 system, EDSA was extended from Taft Avenue to Roxas Boulevard, occupying parcels of land along the old F. Rein and Del Pan Streets in Pasay. Until the mid-1980s, many parts of the highway still overlooked vast grassland and open fields.

The EDSA Revolution

By 1986, political opposition to the 20-year dictatorship of President Ferdinand Marcos mounted. In late February, high-ranking military officers including Defence Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and General Fidel Ramos, defected from the Marcos government and seized Camp Crame and Camp Aguinaldo, two military bases located across each other midway along EDSA. This triggered three days of peaceful demonstrations that became the People Power Revolution.

The majority of protesters were gathered at the gates of the two bases, along a stretch of EDSA between the commercial districts of Cubao in Quezon City and Ortigas Center in Mandaluyong. Over two million Filipino civilians, along with political, military, and religious groups led by Archbishop of Manila Cardinal Jaime Sin, succeeded in toppling President Marcos. Corazon Aquino, the widow of assassinated opposition senator Benigno Aquino Jr., was installed as president on the morning of February 25; by midnight, Marcos had escaped Malacañang Palace with his family, and was flying to exile in Hawaii.

Monuments
Several landmarks commemorate historical events that occurred along the avenue. At the intersection of EDSA and Ortigas Avenue is EDSA Shrine, a Catholic church capped by a bronze statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary as Our Lady of Peace. The shrine is dedicated to this Marian title in memory of the pious folk belief that in the 1986 Revolution, the Virgin Mary personally shielded the protesters – many of whom were peacefully praying and singing – as they faced government troops, tanks, and aircraft.

The People Power Monument (), consisting of a giant statue and esplanade, sits at the corner of EDSA and White Plains Avenue. Sculpted by Eduardo Castrillo and unveiled in 1993, the central sculpture depicts protesters standing upon a circular podium, all surrounding a woman (representing Ináng Bayan or the Motherland), reaching up to the heavens with her outstretched hands and broken shackles. A Philippine flag rises behind her, while a statue of Ninoy Aquino and an eternal flame stand on either side at its base. A huge, limestone-faced wall with grooves for ribbons in the national colors forms a backdrop to the scene. The surrounding pavement contains a row of flagstaffs, and is the center for protests and ceremonies held on the Revolution's anniversary of February 25.

Recent history

After the People Power Revolution, the highway was commonly referred to as EDSA, and it was connected to its southern extensions.

In 1997, construction began on the Manila Metro Rail Transit System, which runs the length of EDSA from North Avenue to Taft Avenue. It was opened under the administration of Joseph Estrada, the thirteenth President of the Philippines.

The Second EDSA Revolution, which also took place along the avenue, resulted in the peaceful ouster of President Estrada following his impeachment trial. He was succeeded by his Vice-President, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. She was sworn in on the terrace of EDSA Shrine by then-Chief Justice Hilario Davide Jr. at noon on January 20, 2001, several hours before Estrada and his family fled Malacañang Palace.

The EDSA III, which also took place along the avenue from April 25 to May 1 of the same year, resulted in violence when the supporters of former President Estrada attempted to storm the presidential palace and the military and police were ordered to use their arms to drive them back. Arroyo declared a state of rebellion because of the violence and prominent political personalities affiliated with Estrada were charged and arrested.

In 2006, the avenue was further extended from Roxas Boulevard to the SM Mall of Asia on the Bay City Reclamation Project, where it now ends at the Globe Rotunda, a roundabout. That same year, the avenue was badly damaged in September, when Typhoon Milenyo hit Manila.

In 2010, the LRT Line 1 (LRT-1) of the Manila Light Rail Transit System was extended from Monumento to Roosevelt (now Fernando Poe Jr.), ultimately transversing EDSA to end at the site of the current North Avenue MRT station.

On September 9, 2015, the Philippine National Police (PNP) deployed the Highway Patrol Group to support MMDA traffic constables easing traffic on congested segments of EDSA.

In September 2017, the construction of the North Triangle Common Station was started after numerous delays due to bureaucracy and location disputes. It will connect the LRT Line 1, MRT Line 3, MRT Line 7, and the Metro Manila Subway.

Intersections

Notes

Future developments

Proposed interchanges
An overpass over the North Avenue-West Avenue Intersection and Mindanao Avenue Junction in the Triangle Park and a Flyover over Congressional Avenue and Fernando Poe Jr. Avenue intersection in Muñoz are already approved and may start construction in 2013. As of 2020, the project is currently on hold.

Proposed renaming
In 2011, Bohol Representative Rene Relampagos filed House Bill (HB) No. 5422, proposing to rename Epifanio de los Santos Avenue as "Corazon Aquino Avenue." According to Relampagos, the idea to rename EDSA after Aquino, who led the 1986 People Power, was conceptualized in the aftermath of her death.

Construction of EDSA-Taft flyover
On April 2, 2013, then-President Benigno Aquino III gave the green light for the construction of a flyover at the perennially traffic-choked corner of EDSA and Taft Avenue in Metro Manila.

The project is estimated to cost , with the flyover extending to about  each side and it will take one and a half years to complete the project.

Barrier-separated bus lanes
After stricter implementation of bus lanes and barrier separation through plastic barriers, the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) will start to replace the orange barriers with a concrete permanent barrier used to separate the bus lanes from private vehicle lanes.

Proposed road pricing scheme
With support from Singapore, the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority proposed the implementation of road pricing, based on the Electronic Road Pricing scheme on Singapore, on EDSA to alleviate traffic congestion, along with providing alternate routes and opening some gated community roads. Implementation is set for 2018, but Rene Santiago, a transport engineer and planner, criticized the proposal because it may only worsen congestion, along with the numerous intersections and side streets along EDSA.

Bus Rapid Transit

The Department of Transportation proposed to have at least two lines of the Metro Manila Bus Rapid Transit System in 2017. EDSA's proposed BRT line will be named "Line 2: Central Corridor". The line will have  of segregated busways covering the length of the road. The agency planned to scrap the project by June 2018. However, this appeal was rejected and the Line 1 which will be built on Quezon Avenue, which passes EDSA, was later approved by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) on November 2. In 2019, Senator Win Gatchalian called for the approval of the BRT system as an alternate to the PNR Metro Commuter Line.

On March 16, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases (IATF-EID) imposed a community quarantine or lockdown, which halted almost all public and private transportations plying in EDSA. This paved way for the immediate construction of the bus rapid transit (BRT) system called EDSA Busway. The interim operations of the BRT system began on July 1, 2020. Intended to be largely served by bus stops along median lanes, some stops are temporarily served by stations on the curbside. The system runs on a dedicated bus lane which is separated by concreted barriers and steel fences.

Proposed shared bicycle-motorcycle lanes
On August 18, 2023, the MMDA proposed converting the bicycle lanes on EDSA exclusive to bicycles into shared lanes for bicycles and motorcycles, claiming that the EDSA bicycle lanes are "underutilized", and also proposed plans to build an elevated walkway and bikeway on EDSA from Guadalupe to Cubao. A preliminary feasibility study will be conducted within the week, with a stakeholders' meeting with cyclists and motorcycle riders taking place on August 29, 2023.

The proposal was criticized by sustainable transport advocates, who claimed that the proposed scheme would compromise the safety of cyclists and argued instead to carve an exclusive motorcycle lane from the regular lanes. The Department of Transportation will have the final say on the MMDA's proposal, which has jurisdiction over the EDSA bicycle lanes.

In popular culture
EDSA is frequently used as a protest site. In August 2012, the Catholic Church assembled a mass rally on EDSA to oppose the Reproductive Health Bill. On September 11, 2013, a prayer vigil called EDSA Tayo was held at the EDSA Shrine, where around 500–700 people were gathered to call for the abolition of the Priority Development Assistance Fund. On February 25, 2015, various groups held a demonstration along EDSA to demand that President Benigno Aquino III stand down. On August 27–31 of the same year,  adherents staged demonstrations along EDSA near SM Megamall, calling on then-Justice Secretary Leila De Lima to focus on issues such as the Mamasapano clash instead of a case filed by former INC minister Isaias Samson, Jr., against Church leaders. On November 30, 2016, an anti-Marcos protest was held in the People Power Monument due to the burial of Ferdinand Marcos at the Libingan ng mga Bayani. On November 5, 2017, critics of the Duterte administration attended a mass held in EDSA shrine to protest against extrajudicial killings in the country. On February 22, 2018, groups gathered at People Power Monument to hold a prayer vigil to show their opposition against constitutional reform. On February 22, 2020, demonstrators gathered at the People Power Monument to call on President Rodrigo Duterte to resign from office.

The avenue is also used in political campaigns by several politicians, particularly those who had been involved in the EDSA Revolution such as Joseph Estrada and Benigno Aquino III.

EDSA was also featured in the film The Bourne Legacy. Portions of the road from Magallanes Interchange to Taft Avenue were featured in a car chase wherein Aaron Cross, played by Jeremy Renner, jumps from the Taft Avenue footbridge to a plying bus.

Notes

References

External links

People Power Revolution
Streets in Metro Manila
Ring roads
Shopping districts and streets in Metro Manila
Limited-access roads in the Philippines
Bike lanes in Metro Manila

EDSA


An Fimbristylis merrillii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Johannes Hendrikus Kern. An Fimbristylis merrillii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Fimbristylis, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo diri gud kababarak-an.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 F. m. merrillii
 F. m. sofiyae

Mga kasarigan

Fimbristylis

Fimbristylis merrillii


نادي الاتحاد السكندري هو مؤسسة وطنية ورياضية وثقافية واجتماعية ضخمة، تأسس نادي الاتحاد السكندري عام 1914 وطوال أكثر من مائة عام صنع تاريخ بالبطولات والإنجازات في مختلف الألعاب الرياضية بالإضافة إلى المواقف الوطنية.

تاريخ إنشاء النادي

 1906 إنشاء نادي باسم نادي الاتحاد برئاسة حسن إسماعيل وشهرته حسن رسمي، وكان ملعبه في أرض الملاحة الخضراء أمام قصر رأس التين.
 1908 تغيير اسم نادي الاتحاد إلى نادي الاتحاد الوطني بعد وفاة الزعيم مصطفى كامل في فبراير 1908 بعد مائة يوم من إعلانه تأسيس الحزب الوطني.
 1908 إنشاء نادي الحديثة بمعرفة مجموعة من الوطنيين الغيورين برئاسة توفيق الحديني.
 1910 إنشاء نادي الأبطال المتحدين برئاسة مفضل أبو زيد وعضوية عبده الحمامي وشكري الحمامي.
 1912 عبده الحمامي يتولى رئاسة نادي الأبطال المتحدين.
 1912 اندماج نادي الاتحاد الوطني مع نادي الحديثة تحت اسم نادي الحديثة برئاسة حسن رسمي، وبذلك أصبح نادي الحديثة أقوى نادي كروي بالإسكندرية بعد انضمام نجوم الاتحاد الوطني إليه ومنهم الموهوبان محمود حودة والسيد حودة.
 1914 اندماج نادي الحديثة مع نادي الأبطال المتحدين تحت اسم نادي الاتحاد وبذلك عاد اسم نادي الاتحاد للظهور مرة أخرى.
 1916 إنشاء النادي السكندري وانضم إليه المنشقين عن نادي الموظفين (الأوليمبي).
 1918 اندماج نادي الاتحاد مع النادي السكندري تحت اسم نادي الاتحاد السكندري برئاسة محمد شاهين.
 1919 علي العبادي يرأس نادي الاتحاد السكندري.
 1919 نادي الاتحاد السكندري يحصل على أرض النتربول بالمنشية (المحاكم حاليًا).
 1928 نادي الاتحاد السكندري يحصل على أرض البلدية بالحضرة (ورش البلدية حاليًا).
 1929 نادي الاتحاد السكندري يحصل على استاد الشاطبي التاريخي مقر الاتحاد المختلط للألعاب الرياضية عن طريق رجال السياسة السكندريين بقيادة محمود فهمي النقراشي باشا (رئيس وزراء مصر بعد ذلك).
 2014 أقيمت مباراة مئوية نادي الاتحاد السكندري في استاد الإسكندرية أمام نادي سبورتينغ لشبونة البرتغالي، وانتهت المباراة بالتعادل الإيجابي 2–2.

رؤساء النادى
نادى الاتحاد السكندري هو النادى المصري الوحيد الذي لم يتولى رئاسته رئيس غير مصري ولذلك أطلق عليه نادي الوطنية.

سجل الألقاب والانجازات

 كأس مصر (6)
 البطل 1926، 1936، 1948، 1963، 1973، 1976
 كأس السلطان حسين (1)
 البطل 1935
 دوري منطقة الإسكندرية (27)
 البطل من عام 1926 وحتى عام 1953.
 الدوري المصري الممتاز
 المركز الثالث (2)
 الدوري المصري لكرة السلة
 البطل (14)
 كأس مصر لكرة السلة
 البطل (11)
 البطولة العربية لكرة السلة
 البطل (6)

المشاركات في البطولات الإفريقية

ملاحظات:
 1 توقفت المبارة بعد الدقيقة 70 على إثر انسحاب لاعبي فريق الاتحاد السكندري احتجاجًا على التحكيم، وكانت نتيجة المباراة تشير لتقدم فريق تونير ياوندى 3–0. ومن ثم، تم إقصاء الاتحاد من البطولة وتأهل الفريق الكاميروني للدور التالي.

شعارات الفريق
تميزت ألوان شعار نادي الاتحاد السكندري على مر العصور باللونين الأخضر والأبيض وكذلك الزي، حيث أن غالبا يكون الزي الأساسي للفريق باللون الأخضر والاحتياطي بالأبيض (أوالعكس نادرا)؛ ولم يخرج أبدا عن هذين اللونين.

تطور شعار الفريق على مر العصور نظرًا للتطور والحداثة أو باختلاف المناسبات سواء الخاصة بالنادي أو المناسبات الوطنية.

الدوري المصري

قائمة اللاعبين
أخر تحديث 27 أكتوبر 2022

تحت السن

مدربي الفريق الأول لكرة القدم

الفروع
 الفرع الرئيسي بمنطقة الشاطبي بمدينة الإسكندرية.
 الفرع الثاني بمنطقة سموحة بمدينة الإسكندرية.
 الفرع الثالث بالحي الرابع بمدينة برج العرب الجديدة على مساحة 52.4 فدان.

معرض الصور

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 الموقع الرسمي لنادي الاتحاد السكندري
 صفحة نادي الاتحاد السكندري على موقع ترانسفير ماركت
 صفحة نادي الاتحاد السكندري على موقع كووورة
 صفحة نادي الاتحاد السكندري على موقع فيلجول

ا
أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1914
أندية كرة قدم في الإسكندرية
تأسيسات سنة 1914 في مصر
نواد وجمعيات في مصر

الاتحاد السكندري


بلدية كاستيل دي لارين (بالكاتالانية: Castell de l'Areny) هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة برشلونة، والتي تقع في منطقة كاتالونيا، شرق إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 76 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2007).

مراجع

بلديات في مقاطعة برشلونة

كاستيل دي أريني