Metroid Prime 2: Echoes is an action-adventure game developed by Retro Studios and published by Nintendo for the GameCube. The sequel to Metroid Prime (2002) and the first Metroid game with a multiplayer feature, Echoes was released in North America, Europe and Australia in 2004 and in Japan under the name Metroid Prime 2: Dark Echoes in May 2005.

The story follows bounty hunter Samus Aran after she is sent to rescue Galactic Federation Marines from a ship near Aether, a planet inhabited by a race known as the Luminoth. She discovers that the troops were slaughtered by the Ing, a hostile race that came from an alternate dimension of Aether. Samus must travel to four temples to ensure the destruction of the evil Ing, while battling them, wild creatures, Space Pirates, and her mysterious doppelgänger Dark Samus.

Retro sought to differentiate Echoes with a heavier focus on storytelling and new gameplay mechanics. Nintendo launched a viral marketing campaign that included several websites written as if taking place in the Metroid universe. The single-player mode was acclaimed for its graphics, atmosphere and music, though its steep difficulty and multiplayer mode were met less positively.

Echoes received several video game industry awards and spots on "top games" lists by Nintendo Power and IGN. More than 1.1 million copies were sold worldwide. In 2009, an enhanced version was released for Wii in Japan and as part of Metroid Prime: Trilogy internationally.

Gameplay

Metroid Prime 2: Echoes is an action-adventure game in which the player controls the protagonist Samus Aran from a first-person perspective. It takes place in an open-ended world with interconnected regions. Gameplay involves solving puzzles to uncover secrets, platform jumping, and shooting enemies. Progress requires both dimensions to be explored, using power-ups that Samus acquires over time. Equipment players collect include the Screw Attack, which allows Samus to somersault in midair and off certain surfaces, and new beam weapons that have limited ammunition.

The head-up display simulates the inside of Samus' helmet and features a radar, map, missile ammunition meter and health meter. Several visors are available, and each performs a different function. One, also seen in the previous game, is a scanner that searches for enemy weaknesses, interfaces with mechanisms such as force fields and elevators and retrieves text entries from certain sources. The others reveal and highlight interdimensional objects or cloaked enemies, and create a visual representation of sound.

Echoes features the parallel dimensions Light Aether and Dark Aether; changes in either dimension often reflect changes in the other. Although the maps in both dimensions have the same general layout, rooms often vary in their designs, creatures, and objects. Dark Aether's atmosphere is caustic and damages Samus' Power Suit, requiring the player to move between "safe zones" that allow Samus' health to slowly regenerate. Safe zones are either permanent, or need to be activated by firing certain beam weapons at force field generators. Power Suit upgrades can reduce or nullify damage caused by the atmosphere.

Echoes also features a multiplayer mode that allows up to four players to engage in combat using a split screen. It has six arenas and two modes: Deathmatch, in which players attempt to kill their opponents as many times as possible within a set amount of time; and Bounty, which focuses on collecting coins that injured characters drop. Multiplayer in Echoes features the same control scheme as the single-player mode, including the lock-on system for circle strafing while targeting.

Synopsis

Setting
Echoes takes place on a rogue planet in the Dasha region, Aether, inhabited by a race known as the Luminoth. The Luminoth lived peacefully, protecting the planet's pure natural energy, which they call the "Light of Aether". Five decades before the game's events, a Phazon meteor collides into the planet and leaves a scar, causing environmental damage and splitting the planetary energy. The split creates another world in an alternate dimension, Dark Aether, a mirror version of Aether that is dark, arid, and has a poisonous atmosphere. Dark Aether becomes home to the Ing, cruel shapeshifting creatures who intend to destroy the Luminoth, and are able to possess bodies of the living, the dead, and the artificially intelligent (and even Metroids, something the X Parasites of Metroid Fusion can't do given the Metroids were engineered to prey on the X). Eventually, the Ing and the Luminoth engage in a war over the planet's energy  whichever race controls it is capable of destroying the other, since if one world gains control over all of the planet's energy, the other will perish.

Around this time, Space Pirates set up a base on Aether after detecting the mutagenic substance Phazon on the planet. The Pirates had previously tried to weaponize the substance after it contaminated the planet of Tallon IV, but their efforts were thwarted by the bounty hunter Samus Aran. A Galactic Federation Marine Corps patrol ship encounters one of the Pirates' supply ships leaving the planet and an altercation follows. Both ships suffer heavy damage, and after the Federation loses contact with the Marines, they call Samus to investigate.

Plot

While looking for the Marines near Aether, Samus' ship is damaged by severe lightning storms from the planet. Said storms have caused electromagnetic interference that prevented the Marines from communicating with the Federation. Samus finds the troops dead and surrounded by hive creatures called Splinters. The deceased Marines suddenly rise and attack her, apparently possessed, and she fights them off. Samus then encounters her evil doppelgänger, Dark Samus, for the first time, and after a small skirmish Dark Samus jumps through a portal. Samus decides to follow her through it and ends up on Dark Aether, a vile trans-dimensional duplicate of Aether, where she is attacked by a group of dark creatures called Ing, who capture Samus and after stealing the weapons from her suit, throw her back through the portal.

Upon returning to Aether, Samus learns that the Marines were attacked and killed by Ing-possessed Splinters, and decides to enter a nearby alien temple structure to look for clues. When she reaches the structure, she meets U-Mos, the last remaining sentinel of the Luminoth, an alien race that have fought against the Ing for decades. They are now on the verge of defeat. He tells Samus that after a meteor struck Aether, the impact was so devastating, it created "Dark Aether", from which the Ing spawned. He also tells Samus that the Ing have taken virtually all of the 'Light of Aether', the entire collective planetary energy for Aether that keeps the planet stable, and begs her to retrieve it, for if either world gains control over all of this energy, the other will perish. To reclaim the parts of Aether's energy taken by the Ing, she makes use of an energy transfer module, which the Ing that possessed the Alpha Splinter she fought just before the structure just so happened to have.

Samus goes to three regionsthe Agon Wastes, a parched, rocky, desert wasteland region; Torvus Bog, a drenched swamp area that houses a partially submerged hydrosubstation; and the Sanctuary Fortress, a highly advanced cliffside fortress built by the Luminoth filled with corrupted robots that serves as the Ing hive in Dark Aetherto retrieve the Light of Aether and return it to the Luminoth temples. Samus fights Space Pirates, Dark Samus, and monstrous Ing guardians on her mission. After Samus retrieves three pieces of the Light of Aether, she enters the Ing's Sky Temple and faces the Emperor Ing, the strongest Ing who guards the remaining Light of Aether. Samus defeats the creature and retrieves the last remaining energy, causing Dark Aether to become critically unstable and begin to collapse; however, her path out of the temple's gateway is blocked by a horribly altered and unstable Dark Samus. After defeating her foe in the final battle, Samus is surrounded by a group of Warrior Ing desperate to save their world and their lives; she escapes to Aether through a newly revealed portal just before Dark Aether and the Ing disappear forever.

Returning to U-Mos, Samus finds that the Luminoth were in a state of hibernation but have now awakened. After a brief celebration, Samus leaves Aether in her repaired gunship. If the player completes the game with all of the items obtained, Dark Samus is shown reforming herself above Aether.

Development

After the success of Metroid Prime, Nintendo asked Retro Studios to produce a sequel. They decided against recycling the features of the first game, and instead used new sound models, weapon effects, and art designs. They also implemented the Screw Attack and wall jumping features seen in previous Metroid games, which were not incorporated in the first Prime due to time constraints. Another element considered for the previous game was the multiplayer component. Since the game was a first-person adventure and its deathmatch mode could not easily replicate other shooting games, Retro just tried to "make a multiplayer experience that fans of Metroid games would instantly know and recognise".

The staff opted for a more immersive storyline, with more cut scenes and a plot that focused less on the Space Pirates and Metroids of other Metroid games. The theme of light and dark originated from "something that everyone understands: the conflict between good and evil". Senior designer Mike Wikan said: "We wanted a push and pull, the whole game is pushing and pulling you back and forth between the dark and the light. It ended up being that we wanted something that would feed into that dichotomy, that conflict between the two, and how the player's basic abilities reflect that". The developers sought advice from the producers of the Nintendo game The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past, which also used the theme of parallel worlds.

For Dark Samus, Retro wanted to create a character that was similar to Samus and be the same size, as opposed to the enormous monsters of Metroid Prime. One inspiration was a boss battle in Metroid: Zero Mission in which Samus fights a mirror image of herself. The developers considered Dark Samus a "natural choice" because it fit in well with the "dramatic feel of dark and light".

Whereas Metroid Prime was intended to familiarize players with the control scheme, Retro made Echoes more challenging. They targeted more hardcore audience, making the player "always worried about his health", and added more unique boss fights. Two bosses were made more difficult in the final days of development following a request by producer Kensuke Tanabe to "make it tighter". Wikan regretted this decision, and when adapting the game for compilation Metroid Prime: Trilogy took the opportunity to make those battles easier. The developers found it more difficult to develop than they had expected, and Retro president Michael Kelbaugh said: "We wanted to expand and add to the title, and not just slam out a sequel. Nintendo doesn't do things that way". Some features, such as a hidden version of Super Metroid (1994), were canceled for lack of time. Tanabe later said that Echoes was only about thirty percent complete three months before the deadline Nintendo had set for a 2004 holiday release.

The music was composed by Kenji Yamamoto. The themes used for areas on Dark Aether are dark variations of the themes used for the same areas on Light Aether. Some remixes of music from the previous Metroid games were also used, with the escape theme being a remix of Metroids "Escape" theme, the "Hunters" multiplayer theme taking on Super Metroids "Upper Brinstar" theme, and the theme for the underwater Torvus region, the "Lower Brinstar" theme from the same game.

Release
Metroid Prime 2: Echoes was released for the GameCube in North America on November 15, 2004, Europe on November 26, and in Australia on December 2. The PAL version lacked the standard 50 Hz mode, and offered 60 Hz mode only. In Japan, it was released on May 26, 2005 as Metroid Prime 2: Dark Echoes.

Marketing
Nintendo launched several websites to initiate a viral marketing campaign for Echoes, with inspiration drawn from Halo 2s alternate reality game I Love Bees. The websites included Luminoth Temple, an Internet forum; Channel 51, a conspiracy theory website that featured grainy QuickTime videos of Metroid Prime 2 as if it were footage of extraterrestrials; Orbis Labs, which sold a "self-contained armored machine" called "Battle Sphere", similar to the Morph Ball; and Athena Astronautics, which advertised sending women into space, featured a blog, and offered job positions for bounty hunters on Monster.com. Athena Astronautics gave a random selection of 25 people who replied to the offer an "interactive training manual", which was in fact a free copy of Metroid Prime 2: Echoes.

A Metroid-related spoof of "I Love Bees" appeared online in October 2004, to which Nintendo reacted by stating that it was not involved with it. The campaign featured similarly named domain names such as ilovebeams.com, which each had an image of Samus with the caption: "All your bees are belong to us. Never send a man to do a woman's job".

Re-releases
Echoes was re-released in Japan in 2009 for the Wii console, as part of the New Play Control! series. It has revamped controls that use the Wii Remote's pointing functionality, similar to those of Metroid Prime 3: Corruption. The credit system from Corruption is also included to unlock the original bonus content, as well as the ability to take snapshots of gameplay. The difficulty of the boss battles in Echoes was also lowered. The Wii version of Echoes was released in North America and Europe on August 24 as part of the compilation Metroid Prime: Trilogy, which also includes Metroid Prime and Metroid Prime 3: Corruption. Both Prime and Echoes contain all of the enhancements found in their Japanese New Play Control! counterparts. The compilation was re-released on the Wii U's Nintendo eShop on January 29, 2015.

Reception

Critics

Metroid Prime 2: Echoes was critically acclaimed. Comparing it to Metroid Prime, GameSpots Brad Shoemaker said that Echoes was as good as its predecessor, and delivered everything he expected. IGNs Matt Casamassina called the gameplay "superb" and "nearly flawless", and Vicious Sid of GamePro praised Echoes as "an extraordinary return to form". Echoes was considered one of the best single-player experiences on the GameCube by Kristan Reed of Eurogamer, who also considered the story to be "intricately designed and elaborately constructed into a coherent environment". GameSpot and IGN praised the campaign as a lengthy and rewarding adventure and appreciated the minimum 20 hours required to complete the game. The game was considered suitable for players of any age by Computer and Video Games, which called Echoes essential for anyone who owned a GameCube. The theme's dynamics between dark and light was lauded by GamePro, along with the "simple, quirky, and ridiculously addictive" multiplayer mode.

Echoes graphics and design received significant praise; GameSpot considered it some of the best on the GameCube, and IGN called it "gorgeous" and "one of the prettiest GameCube titles". The Guardians Nick Gillett found the game entertaining and stated that its maps, terrain, and bestiary made for an amazing epic space adventure. Bryn Williams from GameSpy complimented the game's controls and level design, commenting that the game was challenging but fair.

A major criticism of Echoes focused on the game's high difficulty, with Game Informer declaring that "not only are the boss fights unforgiving, the environment is sometimes difficult to follow". Some reviewers found it difficult to search for the Sky Temple keys. GameSpot criticized this mechanism and called it "a scavenger hunt much tougher than the rest of the game", and 1UP.com said that the only purpose it served was to artificially extend the game's length. The game's multiplayer mode was also considered by some to be unsatisfying. GameSpy called it a "secondary feature", The Ages Jason Hill called it "bland and dull" and Eurogamer said that the single-player features did not translate well to that mode. Game Informer criticized the multiplayer mode because of its inclusion of the lock-on mechanism, considering it a feature that made multiplayer too simple.

IGN was critical of Echoes graphics and noted that the textures sometimes blurred when viewed up close, and the frame rate occasionally decreased. Publications including IGN and The Independent considered the gameplay too similar to Metroid Prime, while GamePro was unhappy that the game did not have a customizable control scheme. Computer and Video Games and The Age were disappointed that Echoes was not as innovative in terms of gameplay as Metroid Prime. The Age review also found the control scheme "unwieldy" and the difficulty "unforgiving". Serge Pennings of The Observer noted there were too few opportunities to save the game while playing, an aspect X-Play also criticized by saying that most of the game's difficulty was "because the save system is poorly implemented and downright cheap".

Awards
Echoes won an award in almost every category it was nominated for at the 2004 Nintendo Power Awards, and won awards for Best GameCube Game of 2004 from IGN, Electronic Gaming Monthly, and GameSpy. The game received a runner-up position in GameSpot's 2004 "Best Action Adventure Game" category across all platforms. During the 8th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, Echoes received nominations for "Console First-Person Action Game of the Year", and outstanding achievement in "Art Direction" and "Visual Engineering". It was rated the 174th best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Powers Top 200 Games list, the 74th best game by GameFAQs users, the 15th best GameCube game by IGN, and the 13th best by GameSpy.

Sales
Echoes sold 470,000 copies in North America in December 2004. It was the ninth-bestselling game in its debut month in Japan with 16,105 copies sold, ranking it behind Yu Yu Hakusho Forever and Hanjuku Hero 4: 7-Jin no Hanjuku Hero. By August 2009, 800,000 copies had sold worldwide. The game ultimately sold more than 1.10 million copies worldwide.

Notes

References

External links
 Channel 51, Orbis Labs and Athena Astronautics websites at the Internet Archive
 Metroid Prime 2: Echoes at the Metroid Database

2004 video games
First-person adventure games
First-person shooters
GameCube games
Metroid Prime
New Play Control! games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Retro Studios games
Split-screen multiplayer games
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games about parallel universes
Video games scored by Kenji Yamamoto (composer, born 1964)
Video games set on fictional planets
Interquel video games
Video game sequels
Wii games
Metroidvania games
Rogue planets in fiction
Video games developed in the United States
Metroid games
Video games produced by Kensuke Tanabe

Metroid Prime 2: Echoes


Kül Tigin veya Köl Tigin (Eski Türkçe: 𐰚𐰇𐰠𐱅𐰃𐰏𐰤, Kül Tig(i)n, 闕特勤/阙特勤, Pinyin: quètèqín, Wade-Giles: chüeh-t'e-ch'in), d. 684 - ö. 27 Şubat 731), İkinci Doğu Göktürk Kağanlığı'nı ağabeyi Bilge Kağan ile birlikte yöneten devlet başkanıdır. Kül Tigin devletin askeri kanadını yönetiyordu.

Kutluk Kağan'ın oğlu, Bilge Kağan'ın kardeşi ve İstemi Kağan'ın torunudur.

Hayatı
Babası Kutluk Kağan (İlteriş) öldüğünde ağabeyi Bilge 8, Kül Tigin ise 7 yaşındaydı. Ağabeyiyle birlikte amcası Kapağan Kapgan Kağan tarafından büyütüldü. Kapağan Kağan, Türk töresine aykırı hareket ederek ölmeden önce kendi oğlunu veliaht ilan etti ve yeğenlerinin iktidar adaylığını geçersiz kıldı. Ancak Kapağan'ın ölümünden sonra Kül Tigin, daha önce Mete Han'ın yaptığına benzer bir darbeyle yönetimi ele geçirdi, Kapağan Kağan'ın oğlunu destekleyen beyleri idam ettirdi, Kapağan döneminde geri plana itilen Tonyukuk'u ve Alp Eletmiş'i yanına alarak büyük bir temizlik yaptı ve sonunda, tahta ağabeyini oturttu. Bilge Kağan 32 yaşında, Kül Tigin de 31 yaşındaydı. Resmi lider Bilge Kağan olsa da ülkede asıl güç, ordu komutanı Kül Tigin'in elindeydi. Ağabeyi ile birlikte ülkelerindeki isyanları bastıran Kül Tigin'e ilişkin en sağlıklı bilgiler Orhun Yazıtları'nda yer alır.

Kül Tigin, 16 yaşında iken amcası Kapağan Kağan ile birlikte 50 bin kişilik Çin ordusuyla yapılan savaşa katıldı ve kahramanlığı ile dikkat çekti. Kül Tigin, 21 yaşında iken Çinli general Caca ile yapılan savaşta da yer almış ve üç atını kaybetmesine rağmen düşmanla çarpışmaya devam etmişti. Çinli askerlerin attığı 100'den fazla oktan kurtulmayı başararak, bu savaşın kazanılmasında büyük payı olduğu abidelerde yazılıdır. Kitabeler, Kül Tigin'in kahramanlık öyküleriyle doludur. Örneğin erkekler batı seferine çıktığı zaman Türk yurduna baskın yapan Kırgız,Oğuz ve çin kuvvetlerine karşı kadın ve çocukları örgütleyerek zafer kazanmasından bahsedilir. Kül Tigin hem başarılı bir savaşçı, hem de başarılı bir komutandır.Bununla birlikte Tarihte ender görülen  bir olay olan iki kardeşin taht kavgasına tutuşmadan devleti birlikte yönetmesinde büyük pay sahibidir.

Kül Tigin, 26 yaşında iken Göktürk Devleti'ne başkaldıran Kırgızlara karşı düzenlenen sefere de katıldı. Sanga Dağı'nın eteklerinde 710 yılında yapılan savaşta, Kül Tigin'in savaşçılığı Çinlilerin de dikkatini çekti ve Çin kaynaklarında onu 'Yenilmez Savaşçı' olarak gösterdiler. Orhun Kitabeleri, bu savaşta Kül Tigin'in elinde bir hançerle kaplan gibi atılarak dokuz düşmanı biçtiğini anlatır.

Yuğ töreni
Kül Tigin 27 Şubat 731'de 47 yaşında iken öldü. 1 Kasım 731'de kendisine büyük bir cenaze töreni düzenlendi. Orhun Kitabeleri'nde Kül Tigin Yazıtında yazılanlara göre 47 yaşında iken Koyun yılında on yedinci günde öldü. Kül Tigin kony yılka yiti yigirmike uçdı (Kül Tigin anıtı Kuzey-doğu yüzü)
, Kuzey Yüzü, ll-13: "Yogçı, sıgıtçı, Kıtany, Tatabı bodun başlayu, Udar Sengün kelti. Tabgaç kaganta İsiyi Likeng kelti. Bir tümen agı altun, kümüş kergeksiz kelürti. Tüpüt kaganta bölön kelti. Kurıya kün batsıkdakı Sogd Berçik-er, Bukarak uluş bodunta Enik Sengün, Ogul
Tarkan kelti. On-Ok oglım Türgiş kaganta Makaraç Tamgaçı, Oguz Bilge Tamgaçı kelti. Kırkız kaganta Tarduş lnançu Çor kelti. Bark itgüçi, bediz yaratıgma, bitig taş itgüçi Tabgaç kagan çıkanı Çang Sengün kelti."

"Yasçı, ağlayıcı olarak Kıtay, Tatabı milletinden başta Udar general geldi. Çin kağanından İsiyi Likeng geldi. On binlik hazine, altın, gümüş fazla fazla getirdi. Tibet kağanından vezir geldi. Batıda gün batısındaki Soğd, İranlı, Buhara ülkesi halkından Enik general, Oğul Tarkan geldi. On Ok oğlum Türgiş kağanından Makaraç mühürdar, Oğuz Bilge mühürdar geldi. Kırgız kağanından Tarduş İnançu Çor geldi. Türbe yapıcı, resim yapan, kitâbe taşı yapıcısı olarak Çin kağanının yeğeni Çang general geldi."

yazıldığı gibi törene Çin, Kıtan, Tatabı, Tibet, İran, Soğd, Buhara, Türgiş, Kırgız ve diğer devlet boyları da katıldı. 732 yılında Kül Tigin'nin cenaze töreni için Orhon başkentine Türkçe adlı Ogul-Tarhan Buhara elçisi gelmiştir.

Kül Tigin'in Orhun Yazıtları'nda emeği vardır. 732'de ağabeyi Bilge Kağan bir Kül Tigin Bengü taşı diktirmiştir.
Kül tigin anıtı Batı yüzünde Bilge Kaganın ona ölümümünden sonra "İnançu Apa Yargan Tarkan" adını vermiştir.

Türk Bilge Hagan ayukıka inim Kül Tiginig küzedü olurttum.İnançu Apa Yargan Tarkan Atıg birtim Anı Ögtürtüm
Türk Bilge Kağanı, nezaret etmek üzere, küçük kardeşim Kül Tigini gözeterek oturdum. İnançu Apa Yargan Tarkan adını verdim. Onu övdürdüm.

Bu anıt, Baykal Gölü'nün güneyinde Koşo Çaydam gölü yakınındadır. Mermer üzerinde Göktürk yazısıyla "Kültigin koyun yılında 17. günde uçtu" diye yazar.

Ağabeyi Bilge Kağan 734 yılında ölmüştür. Tonyukuk, Bilge Kağan ve Kül Tigin'in yaptıkları Göktürk Yazıtları'nda(Orhun Kitabeleri) tüm sadeliğiyle yer almaktadır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Kül Tigin Yazıtı

Kaynakça

684 doğumlular
731 yılında ölenler
Doğu Göktürk Kağanlığı
Aşina ailesi
8. yüzyıl Türkleri

Kül Tigin


نيل ريتشي  ولد في 29 يوليو 1897 وتوفي في 11 ديسمبر 1983، قائد بريطاني من الحرب العالمية الثانية.

مسيرته العسكرية
 في نوفمبر 1941 عُيّن ريتشي قائداً للجيش الثامن البريطاني أثناء تنفيذ عملية الصليبي الهادفة إلى طرد قوات المحور من ليبيا، ونجحت القوات البريطانية في التقدم حتى مرسى البريقة.
 لكن في 21 يناير 1942 شنّ القائد الألماني إيرون رومل هجومه الجديد عبر برقة مما اضطر ريتشي لسحب قواته، وتقدمت قوات رومل حتى التميمي، وتوقفت هناك.
 في 26 مايو 1942 استأنف رومل هجومه الذي عُرف لاحقاً باسم معركة عين الغزالة وألحق الهزيمة بالجيش الثامن بعد معركة دامية، واستولى على طبرق في 21 يونيو، وأثناء تقدم رومل إلى مرسى مطروح قرر القائد البريطاني كلود أوكنلك ، قائد القوات البريطانية في الشرق الأوسط ، عزل ريتشي من قيادة الجيش الثامن في 25 يوينو، وقام بتولي مهمة قيادته بنفسه.
 شارك ريتشي بعد ذلك قائداً لإحدى الفيالق في حملة فرنسا في سنتي 1944-1945 تحت قيادة القائد الشهير برنارد مونتغمري.
 توفي ريتشي في تورنتو في كندا عام 1983.

مصادر

 الموسوعة العسكرية، إعداد مجموعة من الضباط، والخبراء العسكريين من سوريا، لبنان.
 ليدل هارت (ed.), "Purnell's History of the Second World War", Phoebus Publishing Company, London, 1980.
 Peter Young(ed.), "The History of World War II", Orbis Publication,1984.

أشخاص في عملية أوفرلورد
أشخاص متعلمون في كلية لانسنغ
أفراد الجيش البريطاني في الحرب العالمية الأولى
جنرالات إسكتلنديون
جنرالات القوات المسلحة البريطانية
جنرالات القوات المسلحة البريطانية في الحرب العالمية الثانية
حائزو رتبة الإمبراطورية البريطانية من طبقة فارس
حاصلون على الصليب العسكري
حاصلون على وسام جوقة الشرف من رتبة قائد
قادة الحرب العالمية الثانية
قادة عسكريون
قادة فيلق الاستحقاق
مواليد 1897
مواليد في جورج تاون
وفيات 1983
وفيات في تورونتو

نيل ريتشي


في الهندسة الرياضية، يطلق اسم المحل الهندسي  على مجموعة النقاط التي تشترك بخاصية معينة. على سبيل المثال المستقيم هو المحل الهندسي لمجموعة النقاط المتساوية البعد عن مستقيمين متوازيين.

أمثلة
 الدائرة هي المحل الهندسي للنقاط المتساوية البعد عن نقطة مركز الدائرة.
 القطع الناقص هو المحل الهندسي للنقاط التي تكون مجموع بعديها عن نقطتي المحرق متساوية.

أمثله أخرى من المواقع الهندسية البسيطة الأساسية هي:

 المركز المحيطي لمثلث (circumcenter)، له نفس البعد بالنسبة لرؤوس المثلث
 مركز الدائرة المحاطة (incentere)، مركز الدائرة الداخلية المماسة اضلع المثلث
 محور القطعة المستقيمة، المحل الهندسي للنقط التي لها نفس البعد بالنسبة لذلك المستقيم
 منصف الزاوية : المحل الهندسي للنقط التي لها نفس البعد بالنسبة لخطوط الزاوية، أو المحل الهندسي لمراكز الدوائر المماسة لتلك الخطوط.
 المستوى المنصف: المحل الهندسي للنقط التي لها نفس البعد عن مستويي الزاوية الزوجية.
 الاهليج هو المحل الهندسي لأقطاب الخط القطبي بالنسبة لثلاثة دوائر متحدة المستوى

مراجع

هندسة ابتدائية
هندسة وصفية

محل هندسي


مسييه 60 أو م60 (بالإنجليزية: Messier 60 أو NGC 4649) هي مجرة إهليجية تبعد عن الأرض نحو 55 مليون سنة ضوئية وتقع في كوكبة العذراء (انظر أسفله).

تاريخ اكتشافها
اكتشفت المجرة مسييه 60 والمجرة القريبة منها مسييه 59 من يوهان كوهلر في أبريل 1779 أثناء مراقبته لأحد المذنبات في نفس المكان من السماء . وسجل الفلكي شارل مسييه هاتين المجرتين في فهرسه بعد ذك بثلاثة أيام. وتعود التسمية NGC 4649 إلى الفهرس العام الجديد.

خصائص المجرة م60

 البعد عن الأرض: 55 مليون سنة ضوئية
 انزياح أحمر : 1117 كيلومتر/ثانية
 اللمعان الظاهري: 8و9 قدر ظاهري
 الحجم : 4و7 دقيقة قوسية * 6 دقيقة قوسية.

NGC 4647

تظهر المجرة NGC 4647 على بعد 5و2 دقيقة قوسية من مسييه 60 حيث يتطابق طرفي المجرتين . ورغم أن ذلك التطابق يوحي بأن هناك مفاعلة بين المجرتين إلا أن الصور الدقيقة للمجرتين لا تؤشر على وجود تآثر جاذبي بينهما والذي كان لابد أن يحدث في حالة أن تكونا المجرتين قريبتان من بعضهما. أي أن المجرتان تبعدان عن بعضهما في عمق الفضاء وأن التآثر بينهما ضعيفا.

معرض صور

اقرأ أيضا
 انفجار أشعة غاما 080319ب
 انفجار أشعة غاما 090423
 مجرة حلزونية
 مجرة ماجلان الكبرى
 نجم نيوتروني
 مجرة
 قزم أبيض
 عملاق أحمر
 نجم
 مجرة إهليجية
 الانفجار العظيم
 خط زمني للانفجار العظيم
 ثقب أسود

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 موقع الكون

أجرام أرب
أجرام الفهرس العام الجديد
أجرام فلكية اكتشفت في 1779
أجرام فهرس أوبسالا العام
اكتشافات يوهان غوتفريد كوهلر
تفاعل مجري
عنقود العذراء المجري
فهرس المجرات الرئيسية
فهرس مسييه
كوكبة العذراء
مجرات إهليلجية

مسييه 60


Campionatul European de Volei este o competiție sportivă pentru echipele naționale, organizată la fiecare doi ani de  CEV, federația europeană de volei. Există competiții atât pentru bărbați cât și pentru femei.

Primele Campionate Europene au avut loc în 1948, în Italia (la masculin) și în 1949, în Cehoslovacia (la feminin). Diferența inițială între campionate a fost variabilă, dar din 1975 campionatele au avut loc la fiecare doi ani.

Turneul masculin

Istoric

Total gazde

* = co-gazde.

Sumar medalii

Turneul feminin

Istoric

Sumar de medalii

Note

Legături externe

 Confederația Europeană de Volei (CEV)

Campionatul European de Volei

Campionatul European de Volei


In metallurgy, a flux () is a chemical cleaning agent, flowing agent, or purifying agent. Fluxes may have more than one function at a time. They are used in both extractive metallurgy and metal joining.

Some of the earliest known fluxes were sodium carbonate, potash, charcoal, coke, borax, lime, lead sulfide and certain minerals containing phosphorus. Iron ore was also used as a flux in the smelting of copper. These agents served various functions, the simplest being a reducing agent, which prevented oxides from forming on the surface of the molten metal, while others absorbed impurities into slag, which could be scraped off molten metal.

Fluxes are also used in foundries for removing impurities from molten nonferrous metals such as aluminium, or for adding desirable trace elements such as titanium.

As cleaning agents, fluxes facilitate soldering, brazing, and welding by removing oxidation from the metals to be joined. In some applications molten flux also serves as a heat-transfer medium, facilitating heating of the joint by the soldering tool or molten solder.

Uses

Metal joining
In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), flux is a substance that is nearly inert at room temperature, but which becomes strongly reducing at elevated temperatures, preventing oxidation of the base and filler materials. The role of flux is typically dual: dissolving the oxides already present on the metal surface, which facilitates wetting by molten metal, and acting as an oxygen barrier by coating the hot surface, preventing its oxidation.

For example, tin-lead solder attaches very well to copper, but poorly to the various oxides of copper, which form quickly at soldering temperatures. By preventing the formation of metal oxides, flux enables the solder to adhere to the clean metal surface, rather than forming beads, as it would on an oxidized surface.

Soldering
In soldering metals, flux serves a threefold purpose: it removes any oxidized metal from the surfaces to be soldered, seals out air thus preventing further oxidation, and by facilitating amalgamation, improves wetting characteristics of the liquid solder. Some fluxes are corrosive, so the parts have to be cleaned with a damp sponge or other absorbent material after soldering to prevent damage. Several types of flux are used in electronics.

A number of standards exist to define the various flux types. The principal standard is J-STD-004.

Various tests, including the ROSE test, may be used after soldering to check for the presence of ionic or other contaminants that could cause short circuits or other problems.

Brazing and silver soldering
Brazing (sometimes known as silver soldering or hard soldering) requires a much higher temperature than soft soldering, sometimes over 850 °C. As well as removing existing oxides, rapid oxidation of the metal at the elevated temperatures has to be avoided. This means that fluxes need to be more aggressive and to provide a physical barrier. Traditionally borax was used as a flux for brazing, but there are now many different fluxes available, often using active chemicals such as fluorides as well as wetting agents. Many of these chemicals are toxic and due care should be taken during their use.

Smelting

In the process of smelting, inorganic chlorides, fluorides (see fluorite), limestone and other materials are designated as "fluxes" when added to the contents of a smelting furnace or a cupola for the purpose of purging the metal of chemical impurities such as phosphorus, and of rendering slag more liquid at the smelting temperature. Slag is a liquid mixture of ash, flux, and other impurities. This reduction of slag viscosity with temperature, increasing the flow of slag in smelting, is the origin of the word flux in metallurgy.

The flux most commonly used in iron and steel furnaces is limestone, which is charged in the proper proportions with the iron and fuel.

Drawbacks
Fluxes have several serious drawbacks:
 Corrosivity, which is mostly due to the aggressive compounds of the activators; hygroscopic properties of the flux residues may aggravate the effects
 Interference with test equipment, which is due to the insulating residues deposited on the test contacts on electronic circuit boards
 Interference with machine vision systems when the layer of flux or its remains is too thick or improperly located
 Contamination of sensitive parts, e.g. facets of laser diodes, contacts of connectors and mechanical switches, and MEMS assemblies
 Deterioration of electrical properties of printed circuit boards, as soldering temperatures are above the glass transition temperature of the board material and flux components (e.g. glycols, or chloride and bromide ions) can diffuse into its matrix; e.g. water-soluble fluxes containing polyethylene glycol were demonstrated to have such impact
 Deterioration of high-frequency circuit performance by flux residues
 Deterioration of surface insulation resistance, which tends to be as much as three orders of magnitude lower than the bulk resistance of the material
 Electromigration and growth of whiskers between nearby traces, aided by ionic residues, surface moisture and a bias voltage
 The fumes liberated during soldering have adverse health effects, and volatile organic compounds can be outgassed during processing
 The solvents required for post-soldering cleaning of the boards are expensive and may have adverse environmental impact

In special cases the drawbacks are sufficiently serious to warrant using fluxless techniques.

Dangers
Acid flux types (not used in electronics) may contain hydrochloric acid, zinc chloride or ammonium chloride, which are harmful to humans. Therefore, flux should be handled with gloves and goggles, and used with adequate ventilation.

Prolonged exposure to rosin fumes released during soldering can cause occupational asthma (formerly called colophony disease in this context) in sensitive individuals, although it is not known which component of the fumes causes the problem.

While molten solder has low tendency to adhere to organic materials, molten fluxes, especially of the resin/rosin type, adhere well to fingers. A mass of hot sticky flux can transfer more heat to skin and cause more serious burns than a comparable particle of non-adhering molten metal, which can be quickly shaken off. In this regard, molten flux is similar to molten hot glue.

Fluxless techniques
In some cases the presence of flux is undesirable; flux traces interfere with e.g. precision optics or MEMS assemblies. Flux residues also tend to outgas in vacuum and space applications, and traces of water, ions and organic compounds may adversely affect long-term reliability of non-hermetic packages. Trapped flux residues are also the cause of most voids in the joints. Flux-less techniques are therefore desirable there.

For successful soldering and brazing, the oxide layer has to be removed from both the surfaces of the materials and the surface of the filler metal preform; the exposed surfaces also have to be protected against oxidation during heating. Flux-coated preforms can also be used to eliminate flux residue entirely from the soldering process.

Protection of the surfaces against further oxidation is relatively simple, by using vacuum or inert atmosphere. Removal of the native oxide layer is more troublesome; physical or chemical cleaning methods have to be employed and the surfaces can be protected by e.g. gold plating. The gold layer has to be sufficiently thick and non-porous to provide protection for reasonable storage time. Thick gold metallization also limits choice of soldering alloys, as tin-based solders dissolve gold and form brittle intermetallics, embrittling the joint. Thicker gold coatings are usually limited to use with indium-based solders and solders with high gold content.

Removal of the oxides from the solder preform is also troublesome. Fortunately some alloys are able to dissolve the surface oxides in their bulk when superheated by several degrees above their melting point; the Sn-Cu1 and Sn-Ag4 require superheating by 18–19 °C, the Sn-Sb5 requires as little as 10 °C, but the Sn-Pb37 alloy requires 77 °C above its melting point to dissolve its surface oxide. The self-dissolved oxide degrades the solder's properties and increases its viscosity in molten state, however, so this approach is not optimal.

Solder preforms are preferred to be with high volume-to-surface ratio, as that limits the amount of oxide being formed. Pastes have to contain smooth spherical particles, preforms are ideally made of round wire. Problems with preforms can be also sidestepped by depositing the solder alloy directly on the surfaces of the parts or substrates, by  chemical or electrochemical means for example.

A protective atmosphere with chemically reducing properties can be beneficial in some cases. Molecular hydrogen can be used to reduce surface oxides of tin and indium at temperatures above 430 and 470 °C; for zinc the temperature is above 500 °C, where zinc is already becoming volatilized. (At lower temperatures the reaction speed is too slow for practical applications.) Very low partial pressures of oxygen and water vapor have to be achieved for the reaction to proceed.

Other reactive atmospheres are also in use. Vapors of formic acid and acetic acid are the most commonly used. Carbon monoxide and halogen gases (for example carbon tetrafluoride, sulfur hexafluoride, or dichlorodifluoromethane) require fairly high temperatures for several minutes to be effective.

Atomic hydrogen is much more reactive than molecular hydrogen. In contact with surface oxides it forms hydroxides, water, or hydrogenated complexes, which are volatile at soldering temperatures. A practical dissociation method is an electrical discharge. Argon-hydrogen gas compositions with hydrogen concentration below the low flammable limit can be used, eliminating the safety issues. The operation has to be performed at low pressure, as the stability of atomic hydrogen at atmospheric pressure is insufficient. Such hydrogen plasma can be used for fluxless reflow soldering.

Active atmospheres are relatively common in furnace brazing; due to the high process temperatures the reactions are reasonably fast. The active ingredients are usually carbon monoxide (possibly in the form of combusted fuel gas) and hydrogen. Thermal dissociation of ammonia yields an inexpensive mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen.

Bombardment with atomic particle beams can remove surface layers at a rate of tens of nanometers per minute. The addition of hydrogen to the plasma augments the removal efficiency by chemical mechanisms.

Mechanical agitation is another possibility for disrupting the oxide layer. Ultrasound can be used for assisting tinning and soldering; an ultrasonic transducer can be mounted on the soldering iron, in a solder bath, or in the wave for wave soldering. The oxide disruption and removal involves cavitation effects between the molten solder and the base metal surface. A common application of ultrasound fluxing is in tinning of passive parts (active parts do not cope well with the mechanical stresses involved); even aluminium can be tinned this way. The parts can then be soldered or brazed conventionally.

Mechanical rubbing of a heated surface with molten solder can be used for coating the surface. Both surfaces to be joined can be prepared this way, then placed together and reheated. This technique was formerly used to repair small damages on aluminium aircraft skins.

A very thin layer of zinc can be used for joining aluminium parts. The parts have to be perfectly machined, or pressed together, due to the small volume of filler metal. At high temperature applied for long time, the zinc diffuses away from the joint. The resulting joint does not present a mechanical weakness and is corrosion-resistant. The technique is known as diffusion soldering.

Fluxless brazing of copper alloys can be done with self-fluxing filler metals. Such metals contain an element capable of reaction with oxygen, usually phosphorus. A good example is the family of copper-phosphorus alloys.

Properties
Fluxes have several important properties:
 Activity – the ability to dissolve existing oxides on the metal surface and promote wetting with solder. Highly active fluxes are often acidic or corrosive in nature.
 Corrosivity – the promotion of corrosion by the flux and its residues. Most active fluxes tend to be corrosive at room temperatures and require careful removal. As activity and corrosivity are linked, the preparation of surfaces to be joined should allow use of milder fluxes. Some water-soluble flux residues are hygroscopic, which causes problems with electrical resistance and contributes to corrosion. Fluxes containing halides and mineral acids are highly corrosive and require thorough removal. Some fluxes, especially those based on borax used for brazing, form very hard glass-like coatings that are difficult to remove.
 Cleanability – the difficulty of removal of flux and its residues after the soldering operation. Fluxes with higher content of solids tend to leave larger amount of residues; thermal decomposition of some vehicles also leads to formation of difficult-to-clean, polymerized and possibly even charred deposits (a problem especially for hand soldering). Some flux residues are soluble in organic solvents, others in water, some in both. Some fluxes are no-clean, as they are sufficiently volatile or undergo thermal decomposition to volatile products, that they do not require the cleaning step. Other fluxes leave non-corrosive residues that can be left in place. However, flux residues can interfere with subsequent operations; they can impair adhesion of conformal coatings, or act as undesired insulation on connectors and contact pads for test equipment.
 Residue tack – the stickiness of the surface of the flux residue. When not removed, the flux residue should have smooth, hard surface. Tacky surfaces tend to accumulate dust and particulates, which causes issues with electrical resistance; the particles themselves can be conductive or they can be hygroscopic or corrosive.
 Volatility – this property has to be balanced to facilitate easy removal of solvents during the preheating phase but to not require too frequent replenishing of solvent in the process equipment.
 Viscosity – especially important for solder pastes, which have to be easy to apply but also thick enough to stay in place without spreading to undesired locations. Solder pastes may also function as a temporary adhesive for keeping electronic parts in place before and during soldering. Fluxes applied by e.g. foam require low viscosity.
 Flammability – relevant especially for glycol-based vehicles and for organic solvents. Flux vapors tend to have low autoignition temperature and present a risk of a flash fire when the flux comes in contact with a hot surface.
 Solids – the percentage of solid material in the flux. Fluxes with low solids, sometimes as little as 1–2%, are called low solids flux, low-residue flux, or no clean flux. They are often composed of weak organic acids, with addition of small amount of rosin or other resins.
 Conductivity – some fluxes remain conductive after soldering if not cleaned properly, leading to random malfunctions on circuits with high impedances. Different types of fluxes are differently prone to cause these issues.

Composition

Fluxes for metal joining
The composition of fluxes is tailored for the required properties - the base metals and their surface preparation (which determine the composition and thickness of surface oxides), the solder (which determines the wetting properties and the soldering temperature), the corrosion resistance and ease of removal, and others.

Fluxes for soft soldering are typically of organic nature, though inorganic fluxes, usually based on halogenides or acids, are also used in non-electronics applications. Fluxes for brazing operate at significantly higher temperatures and are therefore mostly inorganic; the organic compounds tend to be of supplementary nature, e.g. to make the flux sticky at low temperature so it can be easily applied.

The surface of the tin-based solder is coated predominantly with tin oxides; even in alloys the surface layer tends to become relatively enriched by tin. Fluxes for indium and zinc based solders have different compositions than fluxes for ordinary tin-lead and tin-based solders, due to different soldering temperatures and different chemistry of the oxides involved.

Organic fluxes are unsuitable for flame soldering and flame brazing, as they tend to char and impair solder flow.

Some metals are classified as "unsolderable" in air, and have to be either coated with another metal before soldering or special fluxes or protective atmospheres have to be used. Such metals are beryllium, chromium, magnesium, titanium, and some aluminium alloys.

Fluxes for high-temperature soldering differ from the fluxes for use at lower temperatures. At higher temperatures even relatively mild chemicals have sufficient oxide-disrupting activity, but the metal oxidation rates become fairly high; the barrier function of the vehicle therefore becomes more important than the fluxing activity. High molecular weight hydrocarbons are often used for this application; a diluent with a lower molecular weight, boiling off during the preheat phase, is usually used to aid application.

Common fluxes are ammonium chloride or resin acids  (contained in rosin) for soldering copper and tin; hydrochloric acid and zinc chloride for soldering galvanized iron (and other zinc surfaces); and borax for brazing, braze-welding ferrous metals, and forge welding.

Organic fluxes
Organic fluxes typically consist of four major components:
 Activators – chemicals disrupting/dissolving the metal oxides. Their role is to expose unoxidized, easily wettable metal surface and aid soldering by other means, e.g. by exchange reactions with the base metals.
 Highly active fluxes contain chemicals that are corrosive at room temperature. The compounds used include metal halides (most often zinc chloride or ammonium chloride), hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, citric acid, and hydrobromic acid. Salts of mineral acids with amines are also used as aggressive activators. Aggressive fluxes typically facilitate corrosion, require careful removal, and are unsuitable for finer work. Activators for fluxes for soldering and brazing aluminium often contain fluorides.
 Milder activators begin to react with oxides only at elevated temperature. Typical compounds used are carboxylic acids (e.g. fatty acids (most often oleic acid and stearic acid), dicarboxylic acids) and sometimes amino acids. Some milder fluxes also contain halides or organohalides.
 Vehicles – high-temperature tolerant chemicals in the form of non-volatile liquids or solids with suitable melting point; they are generally liquid at soldering temperatures. Their role is to act as an oxygen barrier to protect the hot metal surface against oxidation, to dissolve the reaction products of activators and oxides and carry them away from the metal surface, and to facilitate heat transfer. Solid vehicles tend to be based on natural or modified rosin (mostly abietic acid, pimaric acid, and other resin acids) or natural or synthetic resins. Water-soluble organic fluxes tend to contain vehicles based on high-boiling polyols - glycols, diethylene glycol and higher polyglycols, polyglycol-based surfactants and glycerol.
 Solvents – added to facilitate processing and deposition to the joint. Solvents are typically dried out during preheating before the soldering operation; incomplete solvent removal may lead to boiling off and spattering of solder paste particles or molten solder.
 Additives – numerous other chemicals modifying the flux properties. Additives can be surfactants (especially nonionic), corrosion inhibitors, stabilizers and antioxidants, tackifiers, thickeners and other rheological modifiers (especially for solder pastes), plasticizers (especially for flux-cored solders), and dyes.

Inorganic fluxes
Inorganic fluxes contain components playing the same role as in organic fluxes. They are more often used in brazing and other high-temperature applications, where organic fluxes have insufficient thermal stability. The chemicals used often simultaneously act as both vehicles and activators; typical examples are borax, borates, fluoroborates, fluorides and chlorides. Halogenides are active at lower temperatures than borates, and are therefore used for brazing of aluminium and magnesium alloys; they are however highly corrosive.

Behavior of activators
The role of the activators is primarily disruption and removal of the oxide layer on the metal surface (and also the molten solder), to facilitate direct contact between the molten solder and metal. The reaction product is usually soluble or at least dispersible in the molten vehicle. The activators are usually either acids, or compounds that release acids at elevated temperature.

The general reaction of oxide removal is:
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Salts are ionic in nature and can cause problems from metallic leaching or dendrite growth, with possible product failure. In some cases, particularly in high-reliability applications, flux residues must be removed.

The activity of the activator generally increases with temperature, up to a certain value where activity ceases, either due to thermal decomposition or excessive volatilization. However the oxidation rate of the metals also increases with temperature.

At high temperatures, copper oxide reacts with hydrogen chloride to water-soluble and mechanically weak copper chloride, and with rosin to salts of copper and abietic acid which is soluble in molten rosin.

Some activators may also contain metal ions, capable of exchange reaction with the underlying metal; such fluxes aid soldering by chemically depositing a thin layer of easier solderable metal on the exposed base metal. An example is the group of fluxes containing zinc, tin or cadmium compounds, usually chlorides, sometimes fluorides or fluoroborates.

Inorganic activators

Common high-activity activators are mineral acids, often together with halides, amines, water or alcohols:
 hydrochloric acid, most common
 phosphoric acid, less common, use limited by its polymerization at higher temperatures

Inorganic acids are highly corrosive to metals even at room temperature, which causes issues during storage, handling and applications. As soldering involves high temperatures, compounds that decompose or react, with acids as products, are frequently used:
 zinc chloride, which at high temperatures reacts with moisture, forming oxychloride and hydrochloric acid
 ammonium chloride, thermally decomposing to ammonia and hydrochloric acid
 amine hydrochlorides, decomposing to the amine and hydrochloric acid

Rosin fluxes

The terms resin flux and rosin flux are ambiguous and somewhat interchangeable, with different vendors using different assignments. Generally, fluxes are labeled as rosin if the vehicle they are based on is primarily natural rosin. Some manufactures reserve "rosin" designation for military fluxes based on rosin (R, RMA and RA compositions) and label others as "resin".

Rosin has good flux properties. A mixture of organic acids (resin acids, predominantly abietic acid, with pimaric acid, isopimaric acid, neoabietic acid, dihydroabietic acid, and dehydroabietic acid), rosin is a glassy solid, virtually nonreactive and noncorrosive at normal temperature, but liquid, ionic and mildly reactive to metal oxides at molten state. Rosin tends to soften between 60–70 °C and is fully fluid at around 120 °C; molten rosin is weakly acidic and is able to dissolve thinner layers of surface oxides from copper without further additives. For heavier surface contamination or improved process speed, additional activators can be added.

There are several possible activator groups for rosins:
 halide activators (organic halide salts, e.g. dimethylammonium chloride and diethylammonium chloride)
 organic acids (monocarboxylic, e.g. formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, and dicarboxylic, e.g. oxalic acid, malonic acid, sebacic acid)

There are three types of rosin: gum rosin (from pine tree oleoresin), wood rosin (obtained by extraction of tree stumps), and tall oil rosin (obtained from tall oil, a byproduct of kraft paper process). Gum rosin has a milder odor and lower tendency to crystallize from solutions than wood rosin, and is therefore preferred for flux applications. Tall oil rosin finds increased use due to its higher thermal stability and therefore lower tendency to form insoluble thermal decomposition residues. The composition and quality of rosin differs by the tree type, and also by location and even by year. In Europe, rosin for fluxes is usually obtained from a specific type of Portuguese pine; in America a North Carolina variant is used.

Natural rosin can be used as is, or can be chemically modified by e.g. esterification, polymerization, or hydrogenation. The properties being altered are increased thermal stability, better cleanability, altered solution viscosity, and harder residue (or conversely, softer and more tacky residue). Rosin can be also converted to a water-soluble rosin flux, by formation of an ethoxylated rosin amine, an adduct with a polyglycol and an amine.

One of the early fluxes was a mixture of equal amounts of rosin and vaseline. A more aggressive early composition was a mixture of saturated solution of zinc chloride, alcohol, and glycerol.

Fluxes can be also prepared from synthetic resins, often based on esters of polyols and fatty acids. Such resins have improved fume odor and lower residue tack, but their fluxing activity and solubility tend to be lower than that of natural resins.

Rosin flux grades

Rosin fluxes are categorized by grades of activity: L for low, M for moderate, and H for high. There are also other abbreviations for different rosin flux grades:
 R (Rosin) – pure rosin, no activators, low activity, mildest
 WW (water-white) – purest rosin grade, no activators, low activity, sometimes synonymous with R
 RMA (rosin mildly activated) - contains mild activators, typically no halides
 RA (rosin activated) – rosin with strong activators, high activity, contains halides
 OA (organic acid) – rosin activated with organic acids, high activity, highly corrosive, aqueous cleaning
 SA (synthetically activated) – rosin with strong synthetic activators, high activity; formulated to be easily soluble in organic solvents (chlorofluorocarbons, alcohols) to facilitate cleaning
 WS (water-soluble) – usually based on inorganic or organic halides; highly corrosive residues
 SRA (superactivated rosin) – rosin with very strong activators, very high activity
 IA (inorganic acid) – rosin activated with inorganic acids (usually hydrochloric acid or phosphoric acid), highest activities, highly corrosive

R, WW, and RMA grades are used for joints that can not be easily cleaned or where there is too high corrosion risk. More active grades require thorough cleaning of the residues. Improper cleaning can actually aggravate the corrosion by releasing trapped activators from the flux residues.

Special fluxes

Fluxes for soldering certain metals
Some materials are very difficult to solder. In some cases special fluxes have to be employed.

Aluminum and its alloys
Aluminium and its alloys are difficult to solder due to the formation of the passivation layer of aluminium oxide. The flux has to be able to disrupt this layer and facilitate wetting by solder. Salts or organic complexes of some metals can be used; the salt has to be able to penetrate the cracks in the oxide layer. The metal ions, more noble than aluminium, then undergo a redox reaction, dissolve the surface layer of aluminium and form a deposit there. This intermediate layer of another metal then can be wetted with a solder.

One example of such flux is a composition of triethanolamine, fluoroboric acid, and cadmium fluoroborate. More than 1% magnesium in the alloy impairs the flux action, however, as the magnesium oxide layer is more refractory. Another possibility is an inorganic flux composed of zinc chloride or tin(II) chloride, ammonium chloride, and a fluoride (e.g. sodium fluoride). Presence of silicon in the alloy impairs the flux effectivity, as silicon does not undergo the exchange reaction aluminium does.

Magnesium alloys
Magnesium alloys. A putative flux for soldering these alloys at low temperature is molten acetamide. Acetamide dissolves surface oxides on both aluminium and magnesium; promising experiments were done with its use as a flux for a tin-indium solder on magnesium.

Stainless steel
Stainless steel is a material which is difficult to solder because of its stable, self-healing surface oxide layer and its low thermal conductivity. A solution of zinc chloride in hydrochloric acid is a common flux for stainless steels; it has however to be thoroughly removed afterwards as it would cause pitting corrosion. Another highly effective flux is phosphoric acid; its tendency to polymerize at higher temperatures however limits its applications.

Metal salts as flux in hot corrosion
Hot corrosion can affect gas turbines operating in high salt environments (e.g., near the ocean). Salts, including chlorides and sulfates, are ingested by the turbines and deposited in the hot sections of the engine; other elements present in fuels also form salts, e.g. vanadates. The heat from the engine melts these salts which then can flux the passivating oxide layers on the metal components of the engine, allowing corrosion to occur at an accelerated rate.

List of fluxes

 Borax – for brazing
 Beeswax
 Citric acid – for soldering copper/electronics
 Tallow and lead
 Paraffin wax
 Palm oil
 Zinc chloride ("killed spirits")
 Zinc chloride and ammonium chloride
 Olive oil and ammonium chloride – for iron
 Rosin, tallow, olive oil, and zinc chloride – for aluminium
 Cryolite (sodium hexafluoroaluminate)
 Cryolite and phosphoric acid
 Phosphoric acid and alcohol
 Cryolite and barium chloride
 Oleic acid
 Lithium chloride
 Magnesium chloride
 Sodium chloride
 Potassium chloride
 Unslaked lime

Flux recovery
During the submerged arc welding process, not all flux turns into slag. Depending on the welding process, 50% to 90% of the flux can be reused.

Standards
Solder fluxes are specified according to several standards.

ISO 9454-1 and DIN EN 29454-1

The most common standard in Europe is ISO 9454-1 (also known as DIN EN 29454-1).

This standard specifies each flux by a four-character code: flux type, base, activator, and form. The form is often omitted.

Therefore, 1.1.2 means rosin flux with halides.

DIN 8511

The older German DIN 8511 specification is still often in use in shops. In the table below, note that the correspondence between DIN 8511 and ISO 9454-1 codes is not one-to-one.

J-STD-004

One standard increasingly used (e.g. in the United States) is J-STD-004. It is very similar to DIN EN 61190-1-1.

Four characters (two letters, then one letter, and last a number) represent flux composition, flux activity, and whether activators include halides:

 First two letters: Base
 RO: rosin
 RE: resin
 OR: organic
 IN: inorganic
 Third letter: Activity
 L: low
 M: moderate
 H: high
 Number: Halide content
 0: less than 0.05% in weight ("halide-free")
 1: halide content depends on activity:
 less than 0.5% for low activity
 0.5% to 2.0% for moderate activity
 greater than 2.0% for high activity

Any combination is possible, e.g. ROL0, REM1 or ORH0.

J-STD-004 characterizes the flux by reliability of residue from a surface insulation resistance (SIR) and electromigration standpoint. It includes tests for electromigration and surface insulation resistance (which must be greater than 100 MΩ after 168 hours at elevated temperature and humidity with a DC bias applied).

MIL-F-14256 and QQ-S-571

The old MIL-F-14256 and QQ-S-571 standards defined fluxes as:
R (rosin)
RMA (rosin mildly activated)
RA (rosin activated)
WS (water-soluble)

Any of these categories may be no-clean, or not, depending on the chemistry selected and the standard that the manufacturer requires.

See also
 Flux-cored arc welding
 Gas metal arc welding
 Shielded metal arc welding

References

External links

 MetalShapers.Org Tips & Tricks from the Pros: ''Aluminum Welding" (includes Filler Metal chart)
 Solder Fume and You

Metallurgy
Brazing and soldering

Flux (metallurgy)


Moj mali poni: Prijateljstvo je čarolija jest kanadsko-američka animirana fantastična televizijska serija koja se bazira na Hasbrovu franšizu Moj mali poni. Emisija je poznata kao "generacija 4" (G4) franšize. Premijera serije bila je 10. listopada 2010. na kanalu The Hub (koji se preimenovao u Discovery Family 13. listopada 2014.), i zadnja epizoda se prikazala 13. listopada 2019. Hasbro je angažirao animatoricu Lauren Faust kao kreativnu redateljicu i izvršnu producenticu serije. Faust je odlučila promijeniti narav franšize, stvarajući zanimljivije likove i više pustolovna mjesta; napustila je seriju tijekom druge sezone, i Meghan McCarthy bi postala glavna urednica serije.

Serija prati antropomorfnog jednoroga (kasnije Alikorna) kojemu je ime Iskra Sumrak. Iskra je učenica Princeze Celestije, i jednog ju dana učiteljica pošalje na put u Ponijevo (Ponigrad u ranijim epizodama) da nauči više o prijateljstvu. Iskra i njen najbolji prijatelj i mentor, zmaj Piko, se sprijatelje s pet stanovnica Ponijeva: Ivkom, Ljubicom, Plahuljicom, Dugom Jurić, i Rozom. Tih pet ponija predstavljaju pet elemenata sklada, prapovijesni artefakti koji imaju moć poraziti sve zlo Equestrije, glavno mjesto radnje serije. Iskra, uz pomoć novih prijateljica, sazna da ona također predstavlja izgubljeni šesti element sklada. Iskra postane jako bliska s novim prijateljicama, i zato ostane u Ponijevu kako bi skupa širile prijateljstvo Equestrijom, dok rješavaju i svoje vlastite probleme prijateljstva.

Serija je postala velik komercijalni i kritički uspjeh. Iako je serija uglavnom namijenjena malim djevojčicama, njezina baza obožavatelja se većinom sastoji od odraslih osoba, uključujući mlade i odrasle muškarce koji se nazivaju "bronijima". Serija je također poznata po raznim internetskim memovima.

Dugometražni film o seriji zvan Moj mali poni: Film izašao je 6. listopada 2017. Spin-off franšiza My Little Pony: Equestria Girls započela je 2013. Prva dva filma franšize, Equestria Girls i Rainbow Rocks imali su ograničenu objavu u kinima.

Spin-off serija, My Little Pony: Pony Life, započela je s emitiranjem u Kanadi 21. lipnja 2020.

Premisa

Jednom davno, u čudesnoj zemlji Equestriji, živjele su dvije princeze. Sestre koje su donosile sklad cijeloj Equestriji. Starija sestra, Princeza Celestia, dizala je i spuštala Sunce, dok je mlađa sestra, Luna, dizala i spuštala Mjesec. Jednog je dana Luna postala ljubomorna na Celestiju, jer su se poniji zabavljali po danu, a spavali tijekom noći. Ljubomora je preuzela srce Lune, i pretvorila se u Crnu Princezu (engleski: Nighmare Moon, RTLK: Tamnoroga). Celestia, ne znajući što napraviti, morala je svoju vlastitu sestru protjerati na Mjesec. Od tada je sama kontrolirala Mjesec i Sunce.

Tisuću godina je prošlo od tog događaja, i saznamo da je o tom događaju čitala jednorog Iskra Sumrak (engleski, RTLK: Twilight Sparkle), koja je zapravo učenica Princeze Celestije. Iskra pošalje pismo Celestiji gdje ju obavijesti o mogućem povratku Crne Princeze. Princeza Celestia misli da nema potrebe za panikom, te ju pošalje u Ponijevo (engleski, RTLK: Ponyville) da upozna prijatelje i vidi kako ide jubilarna proslava ljetnog Sunca. U Ponijevu upozna kobile Rozu i Ivku (engleski, RTLK: Pinkie Pie i Applejack), pegaze Dugu Jurić i Plahuljicu (engleski, RTLK: Rainbow Dash i Fluttershy), i jednoroga Ljubicu (engleski, RTLK: Rarity). Iskra nije uzbuđena zbog novih ponija, i njenu situaciju pogorša povratak Crne Princeze i nestanak Celestije. Iskra sazna da bi u zaustavljanju Crne Princeze mogli pomoći prapovijesni elementi sklada koji se mogu pronači u strašnoj Slobodnoj šumi (engleski: Everfree Forest, RTLK: Zlokobna šuma). Na putu Iskri pomognu nove prijateljice, i Iskra sazna da upravo one predstavljaju pet postojučih elemenata sklada (smijeh, iskrenost, odanost, dobrotu i velikodušnost), i iskrica koja se pojavila Iskrinom oku kada shvati da su Ponigrađanke njene prijateljice stvara šesti element: element čarolije. Elementima sklada prijateljice poraze Crnu Princezu, koja se vrati u svoju pravu formu: protjeranu Princezu Lunu. Luna se vrati na prijestolje sa sestrom Celestijom, a Iskra i njen asistent Piko se usele u Ponijevo.

Ostatak serije prati glavnih šest i Pika na pustolovinama u Equestriji i nadalje, u kojima rješavaju probleme prijateljstva među sobom, i s ostalima. U drugoj sezoni se po prvi put pojavljuju: gospodar kaosa Razdor (engleski, RTLK: Discord), Mjenjolici (engleski: Changelings, bića koja mogu glumiti da su poniji i ostala stvorenja) i njihova kraljica Kristalina (engleski, RTLK: Chrysalis), Iskrin veliki brat Branimir (engleski, RTLK: Shining Armor), i njegova žena (koja ze i Iskrina stara dadilja), Princeza Kadenca (engleski, RTLK: Mi Amore Cadenza "Cadance"). U trećoj sezoni se pojavljuje nova lokacija, Kristalno Carstvo, i njihovi stanovnici Kristalni poniji, i Iskra postaje princeza s krilima u zadnjoj epizodi. U četvrtoj sezoni Iskra dobiva dvorac i porazuje zlog Lorda Tireka, koji je pobjegao iz svog zatvora u Tartaru. U petoj sezoni se grupi pridruži Starlight Glimmer, koja je prije bila zla diktatorica malog sela. U šestoj sezoni svi Mjenjolici postaju i dobri i Kraljica Kristalina im pobjegne. U sedmoj sezoni, Iskra vrati stupove stare Equestrije (grupu čarobnjaka koji se smatraju junacima Equestrije, Mage Meadowbrook, Flash Magnus, Mistmane, Rockhoof, Somnambula i Brado Repatica (engleski: Starswirl the Bearded, RTLK: Čarobnjak Bradonja)) u život nakon što su bili zarobljeni u tami tisuću godina. U osmoj sezoni Iskra i prijatelji otvaraju školu prijateljstva, gdje grupa šest stvorenja sklope grupu zvanu "The Young Six" (grifon Gallus, hipogrif Silvestream, zmaj Smolder, jak Yona, poni Sandbar i mjenjolik Ocellus). Školom prijateljstva pokuša vladati mali pegaz Cozy Glow, i zapravo uspije uvjeriti sviju da je dobra dok uništava školu, ali ju Young Six zaustave i poslana je u tartar s Tirekom. U devetoj sezoni, Equestriju napadnu i unište Kraljica Kristalina, Lord Tirek i Cozy Glow, ali magija prijateljstva svih stanovnika Equestrije ju spašava, i glavnih šest likova zauvijek pretvore tri zlice u kipove. Nakon velike borbe, Iskra preuzima prijestolje i zavlada cijelom Equestrijom, i poćne podučavati svoju učenicu Luster Dawn kako je Celestia podučavalu nju.

Važniji dijelovi serije

 Biljezi — Znakovi na boku ponija koji se pojavljuju pri otkrivanju ponijevog istinitog talenta. Mnogi poniji ga osvoje dok su još uvijek ždrijebad. Biljezi rijetko doslovno opisuju ponijev talent, već ih je potrebno bliže analizirati i interpretitrati. Neki primjeri biljega su: Iskrin biljeg (jedna velika roza iskra s malim bijelim iskricama oko nje) koji predstavlja njene istaknute čarobne moći, Ivkin biljeg (tri jabuke) koji predstavlja njenu vezu s obitelji i prikvačenost jabukama, Rozin biljeg (tri balona) koji predstavlja njenu ljubav prema zabavama, i mnogo više. U epizodi "Potraga za znakićem", učiteljica Ponijeva Veselka objasni kako se biljezi osvajaju i mogu interpretirati, te objašnjava da njen biljeg (tri cvijeta koja se smiju) predstavlja sreću koju želi donijeti učenicima, i cvjetanje njihovog znanja. Prapovijesna bolest u seriji zbog koje se tijelo ponija pokriva biljezima zove se "znakovite ospice".
Čarolija — Čarolija je vrlo važan dio serije. Lauren Faust objasnila je da sve vrste ponija imaju svoju čaroliju, ali su jednorozi jedini koji ju aktivno i očito koriste. Čarolija običnih ponija bez krila i roga jest to da su bliži prirodi, čarolija pegaza jest mijenjanje vremena i hodanje po oblacima, i čarolija kod jednoroga je najistaknutija. Jednorozi imaju rogove na glavi kojima mogu bacati čini, uključujući levitaciju i letenje. Glavni likovi serije, Iskra i Ljubica, su vrlo spretni jednorozi. Ljubica je svoj biljeg osvojila uz pomoć čari kojom je pronašla dragulje, i također koristi čaroliju u krojenju haljina. Iskra je jako vješta sa svojom čarolijom, s njom može napraviti umjetna krila, pretvoriti jabuku u kočiju, teleportirati se, i mnogo više. Alikorni su najmoćniji što se tiče čarolije, jer imaju vještine pegaza, običnih ponija, i jednoroga. Ostali jednorozi i Alikorni koji često koriste čaroliju su: Starlight Glimmer, Princeze Celestia i Luna, Branimir, Princeza Kadenca, Flurry Heart (kćer Kadence i Branimira), i Olujka (lik iz filma), čija je čarolija zanimljiva jer joj je rog slomljen.
Elementi sklada — Elementi sklada su prapovijesne relikvije koje se koriste u hitnim slučajevima, kao kada prijateljice trebaju poraziti jako moćnog protivnika. Kasnije se elementima sklada pronađe Stablo sklada, i stablo kasnije postane koliba sklada.

Epizode

Serija se sastoji od 9 sezona i jednog specijala. 8 sezona se sastoji od 26 epizoda, i treća sezona ima 13 epizoda. Sveukupno se serija sastoji od 222 epizode. Uz to je serija imala dugometražni film, još jedan specijal, kratkometražne filmiće, i clip-showove. U Hrvatskoj su prikazane 4 sezone (1. na HRT-u 2 i RTL Kockici, 2. na HRT-u 2, 4. na RTL Kockici i 5. na RTL Kockici), tj. 130 epizoda.

Pregled

Likovi

Elementi sklada

 Element čarolije: Iskra Sumrak (Twilight Sparkle) – Princeza Iskra je glavni lik serije. Ona je Alikornska (rođena jednorog) princeza prijateljstva koja je u početku anti-socijalna i bezobrazna. Ali kada se useli i Ponijevo, shvati da je prijateljstvo predivna stvar koju odluči širiti cijelom Equestrijom. Iskra je pametna i obožava čitati knjige o Equestriji, prijateljstvu, čaroliji, i više. Iskra je jako društvena i draga, iako je nadprirodne stvari, ili stvari koje ne može objasniti, znaju naljutiti. Iskra također zna poluditi pod stresom i anksioznosti. Također je sjajna mađioničarka, organizatorica, i učiteljica. Njen ljubimac je sova kojoj je ima Sovac (engleski, RTLK: Owlowiscious). Glas joj daju Tara Strong (dijalog) i Rebecca Shoichet (vokal).
 Element smijeha: Roza Slatki (Pinkie Pie) – Roza, puno ime Pinkamena Dianne Pie, jest ružičasti zemaljski poni koji živi i radi u Slatkom kutku, slastičarnici Ponijeva. Roza obožava zabave, i organizira ih kad god može. Sebe je proglasila tulum-ponijem Ponijeva. Uz to je sjajna pekarica, i njen apetit za slatkiše ne poznaje granice. Roza je poznata po jako animiranom ponašanju, jer pravi svakave grimase i zna slomiti četvrti zid. Ljubimac joj je aligator bez zubi, Zubo (engleski, RTLK: Gummy). Glas joj daju Andrea Libman (dijalog) i Shannon Chan-Kent (vokal).
 Element iskrenosti: Ivka (Applejack) – Ivka je član velike obitelji Jabuka (Apple). Ivka je marljiva farmerica koja bere jabuke i pravi pića i hranu od jabuka na Ranču Slatka jabuka (engleski: Sweet Apple Acres, RTLK: Slatki jabučnjak). Od svih glavnih likova je najsnažnija, samo s udarcem kopita može potresti stablo. Kao Roza, sjajna je pekarica. Ljubimac joj je pas Winona. Glas joj daje Ashleigh Ball.
 Element odanosti: Duga Jurić (Rainbow Dash) – Duga je pegaz koji voli letjeti. Ona je sportski poni koji uvijek pokušava dokazati da je najbolja. Voli se trkati, natjecati, i hvaliti. Također je član vremenske ophodnje Ponijeva, gdje organizira vrijeme. Također je velika obožavateljica Magičnih munja (engleski: Wonderbolts, RTLK: Leteće strijele), slavnog sportskog tima. U sedmoj sezoni im se pridruži. Ljbuimac joj je kornjača Tenk. Dugi glas daje Ashleigh Ball.
 Element velikodušnosti: Ljubica (Rarity) – Ljubica je modna dizajnerica i krojačica koja radi u butiku Vrtuljak (engleski: Carousel Boutique, RTLK: Butik Karusel). Ljubica je otmjeni jednorog koji se smatra najljepšim ponijem u Ponijevu, i u nju je zaljubljen Iskrin asistent Piko. Ljubica se često druži sa slavnim ponijima u modnoj sceni. Uz to voli dragulje. Ljubimac joj je perzijska mačka Opalesence (također zvana Mica i Opal). Glas joj daju Tabitha St. Germain (dijalog) i Kazumi Evans (vokal).
 Element dobrote: Plahuljica (Fluttershy) – Plahuljica je sramežljivi poni koji živi u kolibi s puno ljubimaca, od kojih je najistaknutiji zeko Zečić (engleski, RTLK: Angel, u demonstracijskom DVD-u je žensko). Plahuljica voli prijatelje, iako ne voli nove i nepoznate stvari. Također je jako plašljiva. Plahuljica također ima skrivenu mračnu stranu. Iako je uglavnom sramežljiva i tiha, kada je ljuta zna poluditi, biti nasilna, i prijetiti ostalima. Glas joj daje Andrea Libman.

Ostali protagonisti

 Piko (engleski, RTLK: Spike) – Iskrin asistent i najbolji prijatelj. On je beba zmaj koji je nesiguran o sebi, jer se ne ponaša kao ostali zmajevi. Također je zaljubljen u Ljubicu. Glas mu daje Cathy Weseluck.
 Kraljevska obitelj
 Princeze Celestia i Luna – Alikornske sestre koje su vladale Equestrijom sve do posljenje epizode. Prije tisuću godina je mlađa sestra, Luna, postala Crna Princeza zbog ljubomore na Celestiju, i zato ju je Celestija poslala na Mjesec. Tisuću godina kasnije se vratila, i glavnih šest su ju vratile u normalu. Od tada Celestia i Luna skupa vladaju Equestrijom u skladu. Celestiji glas daje Nicole Oliver, a Luni Tabitha St. Germain (diajalog), Kazumi Evans (vokal), i Aloma Steele (jedna pjesma).
 Princeza Kadenca, Princ Branimir i Beba Flurry Heart – Obitelj koja se sastoji od Iskrine stare dadilje, Iskrinog brata, i njihove ždrebice. Princeza Kadenca i Branimir štite Kristalno carstvo od prijetnji. Kadenci glas daje Britt McKillip, Branimiru Andrew Francis, i Flurry Heart Tabitha St. Germain.
 Osvajačice (slatkih) biljega/znakića
 Cvjetka, Bela i Skakutalo (engleski, RTLK: Apple Bloom, Sweetie Belle, Scootaloo) – Tri ždrebice koje pokušavaju dobiti biljege u raznim pustolovinama. U petoj sezoni ih napokon dobiju. Cvjetka je Ivkina sestra, Bela je Ljubičina sestra, a Skakutalo nije u obitelji glavnih likova, ali joj je Duga Jurić najbolja prijateljica. Cvjetki glas daje Michelle Creber, Beli Claire Corlett (dijalog) i Michelle Creber (vokal), i Skakutalu Madeleine Peters (dijalog) i Arielle Tuliao (vokal).

Vrste ponija
Poniji su podjeljeni po rodu i dobi: ždrijebad (mlađi poniji), kobile (odrasli ženski poniji) i pastusi (odrasli muški poniji). Po vrstama se dijele na: Zemaljske/Prve ponije (obični poniji), Pegaze (poniji s krilima), Jednoroge (poniji s čarobnim rogom), i Alikorne (poniji sa snagom zemaljskih, krilima Pegaza, i čarolijom Jednoroga).

Hrvatske sinkronizacije
Postoje tri hrvatske inačice serije. U Hrvatskoj, engleska inačica također se emitira na JimJamu, međunarodnom kanalu za djecu.

Project 6 (Demo DVD, 2011.)
Godine 2011. je studio Project 6 napravio promotivnu demosinkronizaciju koja je samo bila objavljena na DVD-u s imenom My Little Pony: Čarobno prijateljstvo. DVD nije dostupan nigdje, ali je epizoda na DVD-u dostupna na internetu. Izvor za navedene informacije je odjavna špica.

Novi Mediji (HRT2 i DVD-ovi, 2014.)
Godine 2014. se prva televizijska sinkronizacija serije, s imenom Moj mali poni: Prijateljstvo je čarobno, počela emitirati na kanalu HRT2. Neke epizode iz prve sezone su dostupne na DVD-ovima. Sinkronizacijski studio je Novi Mediji, i tonsku obradu je obavio Euroton Records. Prva sezona emitirala se kroz 2014. i 2015., a druga se sezona počela emitirati 2017. Zasad se serija ne emitira. Sve epizode su podijeljene na dva dijela, što znači da se serija zasad sastoji od 104 epizode, tj. 52 epizode podijeljene na dva dijela. Sinkronizacija nije popularna među serijinim obožavateljima zbog "neprikladnih glasova" i grešaka u zvuku, te korištenja dijelova srpske sinkronizacije. Glasovi koji nisu spomenuti u tablici ispod su: Mirko Švenda Žiga, Vinko Kraljević, Adalbert Turner Juci i Jadran Grubišić. Izvor za navedene informacije je odjavna špica.

Livada Produkcija (RTL Kockica/Play, 2017.)
Treća sinkronizacija, koja se zove My Little Pony – Prijateljstvo je čarolija, počela se emitirati na RTL Kockici 2017. Također je dostupna na RTL-ovom servisu za streaming, RTL Play. Sezone četiri i pet počele su se emitirati 2020, iako je RTL zapravo najavio treću sezonu. Sinkronizacija nema grešaka sa zvukom i dijelove srpske sinrkonizacije. Trenutno se emitiraju reprize četvrte i pete sezone. Glasovi koji nisu spomenuti u tablici ispod su: Daniel Dizdar, Nikola Marjanović, Marko Movre, Dragan Peka, Goran Vrbanić, Željko Šestić, Dora Jakobović, Dino More, Maja Kovač i Vinko Štefanac. Izvor za navedene informacije je odjavna špica.

Proizvodnja
Seriju je razvila Lauren Faust za Hasbro kao reboot franšize Moj mali poni. Faust je radila na svojoj liniji igračaka zvana Milky Way and the Galaxy Girls uz crtanu televizijsku emisiju koju je predstavljala Lisi Licht od Hasbro Studiosa, kad ju je Licht zamolila da napravi novu inačicu franšize Moj mali poni. Razvoj je započeo 2008. godine, i proizvodnja prve sezone trajala je cijelu godinu 2009. Jayson Thiessen je skicirao i animirao kratkometražnu epizodu koja je trajala dvije minute za odobrenje Faust i Hasbra. U kratkoj epizodi je Tara Strong posudila glas Rozoj. Serija je bila napravljena za djevojčice s između 4 i 12 godina, i Faust je dizajnirala seriju koju bi roditelji mogli gledati s kćerima. Serija ima puno odraslih fanova, uključujući muškarce između 15-35 godina koji se zovu broniji, i odrasle žene koje se zovu pegasisters. Fiskalni izvještaji kažu da su DHX Media možda dobili oko 6 milijuna Kanadskih dolara svaku godinu za produkciju prvih triju sezona.

Roba i igračke

Serija povezana je s ponovnim pokretanjem linije igračaka My Little Pony iz 2010. godine, s figuricama i setovima na osnovu franšize. Odjeljak web stranice Hasbra daje informacije o seriji za djecu i njihove roditelje, uključujući pozadine likova, video zapise i interaktivne igre i medije. Djelomično se zahvaljujući starijim fanovima, Hasbro je franšizu doživio kao brend životnog stila, s preko 200 licenci u 15 kategorija proizvoda, uključujući odjeću, kućni pribor i digitalne medije. Brend je prikupio preko 650 milijuna Američkih dolara prodajama u 2013. godini, te milijardu Američkih dolara godišnje prodajama u 2014. i 2015. godini.

Glazba

Većinu pjesama je napisao i stvorio Daniel Ingram. Na službenom YouTube kanalu serije se mogu pronači mnogi glazbeni spotovi pjesama iz serije.

Međunarodno emitiranje

Kanali

Nasljeđe i prijem
Serija je dobila pozitivne recenzije kritičara. Emily VanDerWerff A.V. Cluba je istakla serijinu "čistu i krajnju radost" i nedostatak cinizma, za razliku od mnogih drugih emisija koje su prikupljale kultno praćenje roditelja i odraslih. Pohvalila je stilizirani izgled likova, relativnu složenost priča za dječju televiziju i čvrste šale zbog kojih je emisija ugodna za roditelje i djecu. Dala je seriji B+. Brian Truitt iz USA Todaya pohvalio je emisiju zbog svog humora i moralnih pogleda. Genevieve Koski iz A.V. Cluba je kasnije komentirala da je serija primjer emisije koja je, iako se smatra "djevojačkom", uspjela ući u štrebersku kulturu kako bi joj omogućila šire prihvaćanje od ostalih usporedivih oblika. Emily Ashby iz organizacije Common Sense Media, organizacija koja se fokusira na roditeljski aspekt dječjih medija, dala je emisiji ocjenu četiri od pet zvijezda, naglašavajući njezine poruke prijateljstva, tolerancije i poštovanja, ali je savjetovala roditeljima da budu oprezni od "utjecaja koji bi likovi mogli imati na želje njihove djece, s obzirom na to da je ukorijenjena u dobro poznatoj liniji proizvoda knjiga, igračaka i gotovo svega između." Liz Ohanesian, za L.A. Weekly, rekla je da je emisija "apsolutno iskrena u svojim porukama o prijateljstvu, ali nikada nije pre ozbiljna". Matt Morgan, pišući za stupac "GeekDad" Wireda, pohvalio je emisiju zbog toga što je "ponovo pokrenula Hasbrovo imanje koje je pomješala sa štreberskim podtobovima" i što je jedna od rijetkih "serija usmjerenih na djevojke u kojoj štreberski može uživati s kćeri". Kritičar Los Angeles Timesa Robert Lloyd nazvao je emisiju "pametnijom i estetski sofisticiranijom" od bilo kojeg prethodnog crtanog filma franšize "My Little Pony" i pohvalio njenu sposobnost da se dopadne i djeci i njihovim roditeljima, jer je "pametna i razgovijetna i dobro inscenirana, i nikada strašno slatka". TV Guide naveo je seriju kao jednu od šezdeset najboljih animiranih emisija svih vremena na spisku septembra 2013. godine. Ostale pohvale emisiji uključivale su njen stil, priče, karakterizaciju i diskusiju o feminizmu.

Kathleen Richter magazina Ms. je vjerovala da serija nije promijenila narav starijih animacija za djevojčice, što je smatrala "tako seksističkim i rasističkim i heteronormativnim". Na primjer, sugerirala je da emisija, kroz lik Duge Jurić, promovira stereotip da su "sve feministkinje ljute, neumorne lezbijke". Također je smatrala da su jedini poniji tamnije boje prikazani do sada u položaju slušnosti prema "bijelom poniju nadmoćniku (Celestiji)". Lauren Faust odgovorila je na ove tvrdnje izjavljujući da, iako je Rainbow Dash bila tomboy, "nigdje se u emisiji ne spominje njena seksualna orijentacija" i "pretpostavljajući da su [tomboyke] lezbijke krajnje nepravedno i prema heteroseksualnim i lezbijskim tomboykama", i dalje navodeći da "Boja nikada, nikada nije bila prikazivana kao pokazatelj rase za ponije." Amid Amidi, tko piše za animacijsku web stranicu Cartoon Brew, bio je kritičniji prema konceptu emisije, nazivajući ju znakom "kraja ere koju su tvorci pokrenuli u TV animaciji". Amidijev esej izrazio je zabrinutost da je dodjela talenta poput Faust na seriju fokusiranu na igračke bila dio trenda usmjerenosti profitabilnim žanrovima animacije, poput vezanja igračaka, kako bi se pozabavio fragmentiranom gledališnom publikom i sveukupno "priznanjem poraza za cijeli pokret, trenutak koji maše bijelom zastavom za industriju TV animacije."

Unatoč Hasbrovoj ciljanoj demografiji mladih djevojčica i njihovih roditelja, serijal postao je kulturni i internetski fenomen, s mnogim obožavateljima od 13 do 35 godina. Interes u seriju je počeo rasti kad su fanovi animacija i crtića odgovorili Amidijevom eseju na 4chanu. Muški obožavatelji usvojili su ime "brony" (portmanteau riječi "bro" i "pony") kako bi se opisali. Starija obožavalačka grupa iznenadila je Hasbro i druge koji su zaposleni u programu. Oni su cijenili i prihvatili fandom dodajući reference fanovima unutar emisije i igračaka, dok su, u ranoj fazi, omogućili da kreativni elementi fandoma procvjetaju bez zakonskog uplitanja.

Fandom je bio meme nakon puštanja emisije, ali njegova je popularnost na internetu postupno propadala, usprkos nastavku emisije.

Peta generacija
Nakon kraja serije je Hasbro počeo raditi na novom filmu koji bi započeo petu generaciju franšize imena Moj mali poni: Nova generacija. Mjesto radnje novog filma je također u Equestriji ali je vrijeme radnje mnogo godina nakon četvrte generacije. Ovo je slučaj zato što je produkcijska ekipa htjela dalje istražiti svijet osnovan u generaciji 4. Film je bio objavljen 22. rujna 2021. i kritički je bio pozitivno primljen. Film služi kao prethodnik nadolazećoj animiranoj seriji.

Izvori

Bilješke

Animirane televizijske serije
Američke serije
Dječje serije


John Henry "Bonzo" Bonham (d. 31 Mayıs 1948 – ö. 25 Eylül 1980), Led Zeppelin grubunun bateristi İngiliz müzisyen. Gelmiş geçmiş en iyi bateristlerden birisi olarak kabul edilir.

Yaşamı
Redditch, Worcestershire, İngiltere'de doğdu. Bateri çalmayı beş yaşında, annesinin de eşlik ettiği teneke, kahve kutuları ve tencere kaplarıyla öğrendi. Ayrıca babası marangozdu ve atölyesinde tahta parçalarını baget yerine koyarak çalışmalar yapardı. İlk bateri setine on dört yaşında sahip oldu. 1968 yılında Jimmy Page, Robert Plant ve John Paul Jones ile Led Zeppelin'i kurdu. Bateri çalmak kadar bağımlı olduğu alkol sonunu hazırladı. Ölümüyle birlikte Led Zeppelin dağıldı.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Led Zeppelin Resmî Sitesi
 Drummerworld sitesinde John Bonham sayfası

1948 doğumlular
1980 yılında ölenler
İngiliz rock bateristleri
Led Zeppelin üyeleri
Berkshire'da ölenler

John Bonham


Slagtesvinets nærmiljø er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1983.

Handling
Filmen handler om de fysiske rammer, der omgiver slagtesvinet og påvirker dyrets trivsel. Der vises stityper, fodringssystemer og fodringsanlæg.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1983

Slagtesvinets nærmiljø


Svjetsko prvenstvo u motociklizmu u klasi 500cc za 2001. godinu je osvojio talijanski vozač Valentino Rossi na motociklu Honda NSR 500 u momčadi Nastro Azzuro Honda Racing.
Ovo je bila posljednja sezona prvenstva u klasi 500cc, koju je od 2002. godine zamijenila nova klasa MotoGP (četverotaktni motori zapremine 990cc).

Raspored utrka i osvajači postolja
2001. godine je bilo na rasporedu 16 trkaćih vikenda Svjetskog prvenstva i na svima su vožene utrke u klasi 500cc.

VN Južne Afrike - također navedena kao VN Afrike
VN Nizozemske - također navedena kao Dutch TT
VN Velike Britanije - također navedena kao VN Britanije
VN Rio de Janeira - također navedena kao VN Rija, odnosno VN Brazila

Poredak za vozače
 Sustav bodovanja
Bodove osvaja prvih 15 vozača u utrci.

 u ljestvici vozači koji su osvojili bodove u prvenstvu

Poredak za konstruktore
 Sustav bodovanja
Bodove za proizvođača osvaja najbolje plasirani motocikl proizvođača među prvih 15 u utrci.

 u ljestvici konstruktori koji su osvojili bodove u prvenstvu

Povezani članci
 Svjetsko prvenstvo u motociklizmu

Vanjske poveznice
  motogp.com
  racingmemo.free.fr, LES CHAMPIONNATS DU MONDE DE VITESSE MOTO
  motorsportstats.com, MotoGP
  pilotegpmoto.com
  jumpingjack.nl, Alle Grand-Prix uitslagen en bijzonderheden, van 1973 (het jaar dat Jack begon met racen) tot heden.
  motorsport-archive.com, World 500ccm Championship :: Overview
  the-sports.org, Moto - Moto GP - Prize list
  motorsportmagazine.com, World Motorcycle Championship / MotoGP
  en.wikipedia.org, 2001 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season
  es.wikipedia.org, Temporada 2001 del Campeonato del Mundo de Motociclismo

Izvori

  motogp.com, GP Results / 2001 / 500cc, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
   motogp.com, Championship Standings 500cc 2001, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  resources.motogp.com, 500cc / CINZANO RIO GRAND PRIX / World Championship Classification, (konačni poredak nakon posljednje utrke), preuzeto 17. svibnja 2022.
  motogp.com, Grand Prix Race Winners - 2001 - MotoGP (500cc), pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  racingmemo.free.fr, CHAMPIONNAT DU MONDE DE VITESSE MOTO - CLASSEMENTS COMPLETS - 2001 - 500cc, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  racingmemo.free.fr,  Grille de classement complète, essais et courses. - 2001 - 500cc, preuzeto 17. svibnja 2022.
  racingmemo.free.fr,  Les Championnats du Monde de Courses sur Route - L'année 2001, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  jumpingjack.nl, 2001 - GP, wayback arhiva
  pilotegpmoto.com, 2001 (GP) , preuzeto 17. svibnja 2022.
  motorsportstats.com, MotoGP - 2001 - Summary, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  motorsportstats.com, MotoGP - 2001 - Calendar, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  motorsportstats.com, MotoGP - 2001 - Standings, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  motorsportstats.com, MotoGP - 2001 - Results, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  the-sports.org, Moto - 500 cc - 2001, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  motorsportmagazine.com, 2001 World Motorcycle Championship, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  f1network.net, 500cc Grand Prix entry list for 2001, objavljeno 30. travnja 2005., pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  motorsport-archive.com, World 500ccm Championship 2001 :: Schedule and Standings, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  motorsport-archive.com, World 500ccm Championship 2001 :: Drivers, pristupljeno 17. svibnja 2022.
  yamaha-racing.com, 2001 MotoGP Calendar, wayback arhiva

2001 1 500cc

Svjetsko prvenstvo u motociklizmu 2001. – 500cc


Fremery ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Max Fremery (1859–1932), deutscher Chemiker und Unternehmer
 Nicolaas Cornelis de Fremery (1770–1844), niederländischer Mediziner, Pharmakologe, Zoologe und Chemiker
 Petrus Johannes Izaak de Fremery (1797–1855), niederländischer Mediziner und Chemiker

Siehe auch:
 Frémery

Fremery


Fissenkenkopf er en bakke nær Osterode, i Niedersachsen af Tyskland. Det ligger i Harzen og højden er 527 meter.
Bjerge i Tyskland

Fissenkenkopf


Komering é uma língua Malaio-Polinésia falada pot cerca de 470 pessoas no sul de [[Sumatra], Indonésia,

Geografia
Komering é falada em Lampung, Sumatra Meridional, ao longo do rio  Komering em . Ogan Komering Ulu Selatan, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur, Ogan Komering Ulu, Ogan Ilir

Classificação
Komering pertence ao grupo das línguas Lampung, um dos grupos dentro do ramo das línguas malaio-polinésias das família austronésia. Walker considera Komering como um mero dialeto, apresentandoa  Lampung como uma única língua em vez de um grupo de línguas; outros o tratam como um dialeto especificamente de Lampung Api.

Dialetos
Os dialetos são Alto rio Komering, baixo rio Komering, Kayu Agung Asli e Kayu Agung. .

Escritas
A língua usa a escrita árabe Jawi, e o alfabeto latino completo de 26 letras

Fonologia

Consoantes

Uma fricativa sonora  também ocorre, mas apenas como resultado de palavras estrangeiras.

Vogais

Vocabulário
Exemplos de palavras básicas do Komering:

Amostra  de texto
Paija, hurik da maranai sai golarna Serunting. Suatu harani Serunting botik rik morli ditiuh na. Morli tiyuh sina ho uwat adik golarna Arya Tebing. Arya Tebing rik Serunting ngaduh kobun sai borak, kobun sina tibagi jadi rua. Suatu harani Arya Tebing tihuwang ngaliak kulak emas di kobun na, Tapi di bagian Serunting bih ditumbuhi kulak biaso.

Árabe Jawi

ڤايجا⹁ هوريک دا ماراناي ساي ݢولارنا سرونتيڠ. سواتو هاراني سرونتيڠ بوتيک ريک مورلي ديتيوه نا. مورلي تيوه سينا هو اوات اديک ݢولارنا اريا تبيڠ. اريا تبيڠ ريک سرونتيڠ ڠادوه کوبون ساي بوراک⹁ کوبون سينا تيباݢي جادي روا. سواتو هاراني اريا تبيڠ تيهواڠ ڠالياک کولاک اماس دي کوبون نا⹁ تاڤي دي باݢيان سرونتيڠ بيه ديتومبوهي کولاک بياسو.

Português

Era uma vez um jovem chamado Serunting. Um dia Serunting se casou com uma garota da aldeia, a garota da aldeia tinha uma irmã chamada Arya Tebing. Arya Tebing e Serunting têm um grande jardim, o jardim é dividido em dois. Um dia Arya Tebing ficou surpresa ao ver o Cogumelo Dourado em seu jardim, enquanto na seção Serunting apenas cogumelos comuns cresciam.

Notas

Bibliografia
 Adelaar, Alexander, The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar: A Historical Perspective, The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar, pp. 1–42, Routledge Language Family Series, Londres, Routledge, 2005,
 Walker, Dale F., A Lexical Study of Lampung Dialects, Miscellaneous Studies in Indonesian and Languages in Indonesia, Part I (editor: John W. M. Verhaar), NUSA Linguistic Studies in Indonesian and Languages of Indonesia, Volume 1, pp. 11–21, Jakarta, Badan Penyelenggara Seri NUSA, 1975.
 Walker, Dale F., A Grammar of the Lampung Language: the Pesisir Dialect of Way Lima, NUSA Linguistic Studies in Indonesian and Languages of Indonesia, Volume 2, Jakarta, Badan Penyelenggara Seri NUSA, 1976.
 Sofjan Abdurrahman, and Colin Yallop. A Brief Outline of Komering Phonology and Morphology, Miscellaneous studies in Indonesian and languages in Indonesia, Part VI (editor: Amran Halim), NUSA Linguistic Studies in Indonesian and Languages of Indonesia, Volume 7, pp. 11-18, Jakarta, Universitas Katolik Indonesia Atma Jaya, 1979.

Ligações  externas
Komering em Omniglot.com
Komering em Ethnologue

 Komering
 Komering

Língua komering


Der Volvo V40 ist ein Pkw-Modell des schwedischen Automobilherstellers Volvo, das auf dem Genfer Auto-Salon 2012 vorgestellt wurde und ab dem 15. September 2012 erhältlich war. Es war eine fünftürige Schräghecklimousine der Kompaktklasse. Als Einstiegsmodell der Marke ersetzte er den S40 und V50, die seit Mai 2012 nicht mehr im Programm waren, und auch den kleineren C30. Seitens des Herstellers fand zur Marktpräsentation von Juli bis August 2012 ein sechswöchiges Ready for you-Event auf dem Gelände der Messe Dresden statt, das es ausgewählten Personen ermöglichte, umfangreiche Test- und Slalomfahrten mit mehreren Fahrzeugen dieser Baureihe zu machen.

Im Juli 2019 wurde die Produktion ohne direktes Nachfolgemodell eingestellt.

Modellbeschreibung
Als letzter neuer Volvo basierte der V40 noch auf einer Plattform von Ford (C1) und teilte sich die Spritzwand mit dem Ford Focus. Die Karosserie wurde von dem US-amerikanischen Designer Chris Benjamin gestaltet; er übernahm an den hinteren Türen die Linie der Türen des Volvo P1800. Volvo bot nur eine Karosserieversion an. Der Innenraum ist vorn durch eine freistehende Mittelkonsole gekennzeichnet.
Anfangs waren die Ausstattungslinien Kinetik, Momentum und Inscription erhältlich. Ab Anfang 2013 wurde das Programm um eine Offroad-Version als Volvo V40 Cross Country ergänzt. Ebenfalls zum Jahresanfang 2013 erweiterte der Hersteller seine sportliche Produktlinie R-Design auf den V40.

Der V40 wurde im belgischen Gent gebaut.

Für einige Motorvarianten ist bei Volvo das "Polestar Performance Update" verfügbar, welches die Software-Drosselung mancher Motoren aufhebt. So ist es z. B. möglich, die Motorvariante D3 (mit 5-Zylinder-Motor) freizuschalten, um somit einen D4 zu erhalten (welcher abgesehen von der Software baugleich ist).

Technik
Der V40 war mit bis zu vier Diesel- bzw. fünf Benzinmotoren erhältlich. Die Top-Version, ein aufgeladener Fünfzylinder 2,5-Liter-Benzinmotor, leistete 187 kW (254 PS). Die als "GTDi" (Gasoline Turbocharged Direct injection) bezeichneten 1,5- und 1,6-Liter-Benzinmotoren basieren auf dem Ford EcoBoost, während die 2- und 2,5-Liter-Modelle auf der Volvo-eigene Entwicklungen sind. Der 1,5-Liter-Dieselmotor im D2-Modell stammt von PSA.

Ein Start-Stopp-System sowie ein Bremsen-Energierückgewinnungssystem waren serienmäßig, die Käufer hatten zudem die Wahl zwischen Automatik- und Schaltgetriebe.

Als Besonderheit war der V40 als erstes Fahrzeug überhaupt mit einem Fußgänger-Airbag ausgestattet, der sich bei einer Kollision blitzschnell über das untere Drittel von Windschutzscheibe und A-Säule entfaltet. Gleichzeitig hebt sich automatisch die Motorhaube an, um die Verletzungsgefahr für Fußgänger zu reduzieren. Für den Fahrer gibt es einen Knieairbag. Auch ist jeder V40 serienmäßig mit einem City-Safety-System ausgestattet. Die Lehne des Beifahrersitzes ist (bei manchen Ausstattungen auf Wunsch) umklappbar.

Das Fahrwerk hat einzeln aufgehängte Räder, vorn mit MacPherson-Federbein, hinten an Mehrlenkern. Die Zahnstangenlenkung wird elektromechanisch unterstützt.

Optional war für alle Modelle ein um 10 mm tiefer gelegtes Sportfahrwerk erhältlich.

Die seit 2013 angebotene Offroad-Version V40 Cross Country ist 15 mm höher gelegt. In Verbindung mit den stärkeren Benzinmotoren T4 (optional) und T5 (serienmäßig) ist Allradantrieb erhältlich. Alle anderen Motoren sind nur mit Frontantrieb erhältlich.

Ebenfalls seit 2013 gibt es die sportliche Produktlinie R-Design. Diese Variante trägt einen modifizierten Frontgrill mit senkrecht angeordneten LED-Tagfahrlichtern. Die Heckschürze enthält einen sportlicheren Diffusor mit doppelten Abgasrohren. Zusätzlich hat diese Variante Alu-Außenspiegelkappen, Frontgrill mit schwarzem Klavierlack und R-Design-Logo sowie im Innenraum Details wie blaue Instrumentenbeleuchtung und schwarzen Dachhimmel.

Modellpflege 2016
Auf dem Genfer Auto-Salon 2016 wurde die überarbeitete Version des V40 vorgestellt, die seit April 2016 auf dem Markt ist. Die Überarbeitung betrifft in erster Linie die Frontpartie. Der V40 hat nun neue Scheinwerfer, die das Designthema "Thors Hammer" aufgreifen, also Tagfahrleuchten in Gestalt eines liegenden Hammers aufweisen. Im Zusammenhang damit wurde die Frontmaske in Details neu gestaltet. Außerdem gibt es geänderte Sitzbezüge.

Technische Daten

Ottomotoren

Dieselmotoren

Weblinks

 Offizielle V40-Website

Einzelnachweise

Fahrzeug der Kompaktklasse
Kombilimousine

sv:Volvo S40#Tredje generationen Volvo V40 (2012-)

Volvo V40 (2012)


بوهورودتشاني (Богородчани) هي مدينة في مقاطعة إفانو-فرانكيفسكا في أوكرانيا.

مراجع

مدن أوكرانيا

بوهورودتشاني


SLIPS ලෙස පොදුවේ හැඳින්වෙන ශ්‍රී ලංකා අන්තර් බැංකු ගෙවීම් පද්ධතිය යනු පරිගණක භාවිතා කරමින් බැංකු අතර සිදුවන ගණුදෙනු පියවීම් පද්ධතිය යි

අයිතිය - සීමාසහිත ලංකා ක්ලියර් (පුද්ගලික) සමාගම

පවත්වාගෙන යාම - ශ්‍රී ලංකා මහ බැංකුව

මංගත නො වන අඩු ව‍ටිනාකමක් ඇති අරමුදල් හුවමාරු ක්‍රමයක් ලෙස 1993 වර්ෂයේ දී මහ බැංකුව විසින් ශ්‍රී ලංකා අන්තර් බැංකු ගෙවීම් පද්ධතිය හඳුන්වා දෙනු ලැබී ය. ලංකාක්ලියර් (පුද්ගලික) සමාගම  පිහිටුවීමත් සමඟ, 2002 වසරේ දී ශ්‍රී ලංකා අන්තර් බැංකු ගෙවීම් පද්ධතියේ මෙහෙයුම් කටයුතු ලංකාක්ලියර් (පුද්ගලික) සමාගම වෙත පවරන ලදි. පූර්ව අනුමැතියක් සහිත අඩු වටිනාකමක් ඇති ගෙවීම් (සෘජු හර සහ බැර පැවරුම්) ශ්‍රී ලංකා අන්තර් බැංකු ගෙවීම් පද්ධතිය හරහා සිදු කරනු ලබයි. ශ්‍රී ලංකා අන්තර් බැංකු ගෙවීම් පද්ධතිය,  2010 වසරේදී, T+0 පදනම මත ගනුදෙනු පියවීමට පහසුකම් සැලසීම සඳහා මංගත අන්තර් බැංකු ගෙවීම් පද්ධතියක් ලෙස වැඩි දියුණු කරන ලදි. බහුපාර්ශ්වීය ශුද්ධ පියවීම් පදනම මත විද්‍යුත් මාධ්‍යයන් මෙහි ගනුදෙනු නිෂ්කාශනය  කරයි.  සෑම ව්‍යාපාරික දිනක දී ම දෙ වරක් තත්කාලීන දළ පියවීම් පද්ධතිය මගින් ශ්‍රී ලංකා අන්තර් බැංකු ගෙවීම් පද්ධති ගනුදෙනුවලට අදාළ අන්තර් බැංකු ශුද්ධ ශේෂයන් පියවනු ලබයි.

මේවා ද බලන්න
 ලංකාපේ
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ආර්ථිකය
 http://www.lankaclear.com/

References

ශ්‍රී ලංකා අන්තර් බැංකු ගෙවීම් පද්ධතිය


الدَاعِيَة هو الشخص الذي يدعو إلى دين محدد أو فكرة معينة. وغالبا ما يلقي الداعيةُ المواعظَ حول المواضيع الدينية إلى جمع من الناس. أقل شيوعًا هم الواعظون الذين يعظون في الشارع، أو أولئك الذين لا تكون رسالتهم بالضرورة دينية، ولكنهم يعظون بمكونات مثل النظرة الأخلاقية أو الاجتماعية أو الفلسفية.

التاريخ
الدعاة شائعون في معظم الثقافات. يمكن أن يكون الداعية كاهنا مسيحيا، أو إماما إسلاميا. ويشار إلى الواعظ المسلم بشكل عام بأنه داعية، بينما يُدعى الخطيب الذي يخطب يوم الجمعة خطيب الجمعة.

ويعتبر الأنبياء من أوائل الدعاة إلى الدين، حيث أرسلهم الله إلى أقوامهم ليدعونهم إلى عبادة الله وترك عبادة ما سواه.

كانت الخطبة أو العظة جزءًا مهمًا من الخدمات المسيحية منذ المسيحية المبكرة، ولا تزال بارزة في كل من الكاثوليكية الرومانية والبروتستانتية.

وعند المسلمين كان أول داعية إلى الإسلام هو الرسول محمد وتبعه الصحابة، ثم برز أمر الدعوة إلى الإسلام بعد صلح الحديبية، وصار المسلمون يدعون الناس إلى دين الإسلام.

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المراجع

رجال دين مسيحيون حسب الرتبة الكهنوتية
مصطلحات دينية
مهن دينية

داعية