Philipp Emanuel von Fellenberg (født 27. juni 1771 i Bern, død 21. november 1844 på Hofwil i Münchenbuchsee) var en schweizisk opdrager og landmand.

Von Fellenberg, der tilhørte en velhavende patricierfamilie, studerede jura, filosofi og politik i Tübingen, men følte sig afgjort draget til det praktiske liv. I nogle år tog han del i de politiske bevægelser i Bern og måtte flygte til Tyskland, fordi han skrev imod patriciernes forrettigheder, men 1798 blev han tilbagekaldt og sendt til Paris som gesandt for at påtale de franske agenters undertrykkelser i Schweiz. Han opgav dog snart sin politiske løbebane og vendte sig til den filantropiske virksomhed, der blev hans livs hovedgerning. Tidlig var han blevet påvirket af Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, der kom i hans forældres hus, og havde ligesom denne dyb medlidenhed med folkets, især de lavere klassers forsømte tilstand, og da han var en meget selvstændig natur, besluttede han nu at anvende sit liv og sin formue til at løfte folket ved forbedret skoleundervisning og opdragelse til arbejde, idet han heri så et hovedmiddel til ikke blot at forædle individet, men at
grundlægge nationens vel.

I 1799 købte han godset Hofwil tæt ved Bern og bragte det i en blomstrende tilstand ved indførelse af en rationel drift, der skaffede ham navn som landmand, tilmed da han 1807 fik et landvæsensinstitut i gang, der blev mønster for lignende anstalter i andre lande. På denne landejendom oprettede han 1804 en skole for fattige, forsømte og straffede børn, som han ville uddanne til nyttige samfundsmedlemmer ved landbrugs- og håndværksarbejde og en dermed jævnsides gående skoleundervisning, der meddeltes i børnenes fritid og lededes i kristelig ånd. Planen lykkedes fortrinlig, især efter at Johann Jacob Wehrli, der var som skabt til lærer og husfader for forsømte børn, 1810 blev ansat ved skolen. For sønner af højere stænder oprettede von Fellenberg 1808 en opdragelsesanstalt, der blev søgt af adel og fyrster, senere af rige industridrivende fra hele Europa og Amerika. Kløften mellem disse to skoler udfyldtes senere af en realskole. Hertil kom en kvindelig opdragelsesanstalt under hans hustrus og døtres ledelse, et asyl, en art seminarium, især for lærere ved arbejdsskoler, og endelig sommerkursus for lærere til deres videre uddannelse.

Den overensstemmelse, der fandtes mellem Pestalozzis og von Fellenbergs pædagogiske anskuelser, fremkaldte gentagne forsøg på at forene deres anstalter, og sikkert ville von Fellenbergs praktiske dygtighed, hans energi og konsekvens kunne have rådet bod på de svage sider ved Pestalozzis virksomhed; men forsøgene strandede på von Fellenbergs herskelyst og Pestalozzis pirrelighed. Men den fortjeneste tilkommer von Fellenberg, at han har virkeliggjort den tanke om fattigbørns opdragelse, som Pestalozzi havde undfanget, men ikke formået at gennemføre. Von Fellenbergs storartede virksomhed, der især for de fattige børns vedkommende gav fortrinlige resultater, vakte opsigt verden over, og mange statsmænd, videnskabsmænd og andre, der interesserede sig for folkevel og for løsningen af det sociale spørgsmål, valfartede til Hofwil eller brevvekslede med von Fellenberg og sendte lærere til ham for at uddannes. Også Danmark var med. Den danske regering sendte 1825-27 lærerne P. Møller og P. P. Schmidt til Hofwil og oprettede efter deres hjemkomst to fellenbergske anstalter: Katrinelyst ved Sorø 1827 (nedlagt 1849) og Bøggildgaard ved Silkeborg 1830.

Eftertiden har påvist von Fellenbergs overvurdering af arbejdsundervisningens evne til at omdanne mennesker, men anerkendt det legemlige arbejdes opdragende magt, og skolen på Hofwil er med lempelser blevet mønsteret for talrige opdragelsesanstalter både i og uden for von Fellenbergs fædreland. Fra 1820 deltog von Fellenberg atter i det politiske liv, dels som medlem og senere præsident i kantonets store råd og dels en kort tid som Berns landamman. Men han egnede sig ikke ret hertil, da han manglede forståelse og bøjelighed over for andres anskuelser, og da tilmed hans opdragergerning tog skade ved hans politiske virksomhed, trak han sig tilbage fra denne 1834.

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Philipp Emanuel von Fellenberg


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Caithness ( ; ; ) is a historic county, registration county and lieutenancy area of Scotland.

Caithness has a land boundary with the historic county of Sutherland to the west and is otherwise bounded by sea. The land boundary follows a watershed and is crossed by two roads (the A9 and the A836) and by one railway (the Far North Line). Across the Pentland Firth, ferries link Caithness with Orkney, and Caithness also has an airport at Wick. The Pentland Firth island of Stroma is within Caithness.

The name was also used for the earldom of Caithness ( 1334 onwards) and for the Caithness constituency of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (1708 to 1918). Boundaries are not identical in all contexts, but the Caithness area  lies entirely within the Highland council area. Until its demise in the 19th century, the Norn language was the common language of everyday communication for people in Caithness, before being gradually overtaken by Scots (and later, English).

Toponymy
The Caith element of the name Caithness comes from the name of a Pictish tribe known as the Cat or Catt people, or Catti (see Kingdom of Cat). The  element comes from Old Norse and means "headland". The Norse called the area  ("headland of the Catt people"), and over time this became Caithness.

The Gaelic name for Caithness, , means "among the strangers", referring to the Norse. The name of the Catti survives in the Gaelic name for eastern Sutherland, , and in the old Gaelic name for Shetland, .

Geography

Caithness extends about  north-south and about  east-west, with a roughly triangular-shaped area of about . The topography is generally flat, in contrast to the majority of the remainder of the North of Scotland. Until the latter part of the 20th century when large areas were planted in conifers, this level profile was rendered still more striking by the almost total absence of woodland.

It is a land of open, rolling farmland, moorland and scattered settlements. The county is fringed to the north and east by dramatic coastal scenery and is home to large, internationally important colonies of seabirds. The surrounding waters of the Pentland Firth and the North Sea hold a great diversity of marine life. Notable features of the north coast are Sandside Bay, Thurso Bay and Dunnet Bay, Dunnet Head (the northernmost point of Britain) and Duncansby Head (the north-east tip of Britain); along the east coast can be found Freswick Bay, Sinclairs Bay and Wick Bay. To the north in Pentland Firth lies Stroma, the only major island of the county. Away from the coast, the landscape is dominated by open moorland and blanket bog known as the Flow Country which is the largest expanse of blanket bog in Europe, extending into Sutherland. This is divided up along the straths (river valleys) by more fertile farm and croft land. In the far south the landscape is slightly hillier, culminating in Morven, the highest peak in the county at 706 m (2,316 ft).

The county contains a number of lochs, though these are smaller in comparison with the rest of northern Scotland. The most prominent are Loch Heilen, Loch of Wester, Loch Scarmclate, Loch Watten, Loch of Toftingall, Loch Stemster, Loch Hempriggs, Loch of Yarrows, Loch Sand, Loch Rangag, Loch Ruard, Loch an Thulachan, Loch More, Loch Caluim, Loch Tuim Ghlais, Loch Scye, Loch Shurrery, Loch Calder and Loch Mey.

The underlying geology of most of Caithness is Old Red Sandstone to an estimated depth of over . This consists of the cemented sediments of Lake Orcadie, which is believed to have stretched from Shetland to Grampian during the Devonian period, about 370 million years ago. Fossilised fish and plant remains are found between the layers of sediment. Older metamorphic rock is apparent in the Scaraben and Ord area, in the relatively high southwest area of the county. Caithness's highest point (Morven) is in this area.

Because of the ease with which the sandstone splits to form large flat slabs (flagstone) it is an especially useful building material, and has been used as such since Neolithic times.

Natural heritage

Caithness is one of the Watsonian vice-counties, subdivisions of Britain and Ireland which are used largely for the purposes of biological recording and other scientific data-gathering. The vice-counties were introduced by Hewett Cottrell Watson, who first used them in the third volume of his , published in 1852. He refined the system somewhat in later volumes, but the vice-counties remain unaffected by subsequent local government re-organisations, allowing more accurate comparisons of historical and modern data. They provide a stable basis for recording using similarly sized units, and, although grid-based reporting has grown in popularity, they remain a standard in the vast majority of ecological surveys, allowing data collected over long periods of time to be compared easily.

The underlying geology, harsh climate, and long history of human occupation have shaped the natural heritage of Caithness. Today a diverse landscape incorporates both common and rare habitats and species, and Caithness provides a stronghold for many once common breeding species that have undergone serious declines elsewhere, such as waders, water voles, and flocks of overwintering birds.

Many rare mammals, birds, and fish have been sighted or caught in and around Caithness waters. Harbour porpoises, dolphins (including Risso's, bottle-nosed, common, Atlantic white-sided, and white-beaked dolphins), and minke and long-finned pilot whales are regularly seen from the shore and boats. Both grey and common seals come close to the shore to feed, rest, and raise their pups; a significant population over-winters on small islands in the Thurso river only a short walk from the town centre. Otters can be seen close to river mouths in some of the quieter locations.

Much of the centre of Caithness is known as the Flow Country, a large, rolling expanse of peatland and wetland that is the largest expanse of blanket bog in Europe. Around  of the Flow Country is protected as both a Special Protection Area (SPA) and Special Area of Conservation (SAC) under the name Caithness and Sutherland Peatlands, and a portion is further designated as the Forsinard Flows national nature reserve.

In 2014  of the eastern coastline of Caithness between Helmsdale and Wick was declared a Nature Conservation Marine Protected Area under the title East Caithness Cliffs. The cliffs are also designated as both a Special Protection Area and a Special Area of Conservation.

Early history
The Caithness landscape is rich with the remains of pre-historic occupation. These include the Grey Cairns of Camster, the Stone Lud, the Hill O Many Stanes, a complex of sites around Loch Yarrows and over 100 brochs. A prehistoric souterrain structure at Caithness has been likened to discoveries at Midgarth and on Shapinsay. Numerous coastal castles (now mostly ruins) are Norwegian (West Norse) in their foundations. When the Norsemen arrived, probably in the tenth century, the county was inhabited by the Picts, but with its culture subject to some Goidelic influence from the Celtic Church. The name Pentland Firth can be read as meaning Pictland Fjord.

Numerous bands of Norse settlers landed in the county, and gradually established themselves around the coast. On the Latheron (south) side, they extended their settlements as far as Berriedale. Many of the names of places are Norse in origin. In addition, some Caithness surnames, such as Gunn, are Norse in origin.

For a long time, sovereignty over Caithness was disputed between Scotland and the Norwegian Earldom of Orkney. Around 1196, Earl Harald Maddadsson agreed to pay a monetary tribute for Caithness to William I. Norway has recognised Caithness as fully Scottish since the Treaty of Perth in 1266.

The study of Caithness prehistory is well represented in the county by groups including Yarrows Heritage Trust, Caithness Horizons and Caithness Broch Project.

Local government

Early civic history

Caithness originally formed part of the shire or sheriffdom of Inverness, but gradually gained independence: in 1455 the Earl of Caithness gained a grant of the justiciary and sheriffdom of the area from the Sheriff of Inverness. In 1503 an act of the Parliament of Scotland confirmed the separate jurisdiction, with Dornoch and Wick named as burghs in which the sheriff of Caithness was to hold courts. The area of the sheriffdom was declared to be identical to that of the Diocese of Caithness. The Sheriff of Inverness still retained power over important legal cases, however, until 1641. In that year, parliament declared Wick the head burgh of the shire of Caithness and the Earl of Caithness became the heritable sheriff. Following the Act of Union of 1707, the term "county" began to be applied to the shire, a process that was completed with the abolition of heritable jurisdictions in 1747.

The population by 1841 had reached 36,343.

The county began to be used as a unit of local administration, and in 1890 was given an elected county council under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889. Although officially within the county, the burghs of Wick and Thurso retained their status as autonomous local government areas; they were already well established as autonomous burghs with their own burgh councils. Ten parish councils covering rural areas were established in 1894.

Wick, a royal burgh, served as the county's administrative centre. The county council was based at the County Offices, 73, 75 and 77 High Street, Wick.

In 1930, the parish councils were abolished under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1929.

1975–96
In 1975, the Local Government council and the burgh councils were superseded under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 when Caithness became one of eight districts, each with its own "district council", within the new two-tier Highland region. When created, the district included the whole of the county plus Tongue and Farr areas of the neighbouring county of Sutherland. The boundary was soon changed, however, to correspond with that between the counties. Caithness was one of eight districts in the Highland region.

Highland region was also created in 1975, as one of nine two-tier local government regions of Scotland. Each region consisted of a number of districts and both regions and districts had their own elected councils. The creation of the Highland region and of Caithness as a district involved the abolition of the two burgh councils in Caithness, Wick and Thurso, as well as the Caithness county council.

Wick, which had been the administrative centre for the county, became the administrative centre for the district.

In 1996 local government in Scotland was again reformed, under the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994, to create 32 unitary council areas. The Highland region became the Highland unitary council area, and the functions of the district councils were absorbed by the Highland Council.

1996 to 2007

In 1996, Caithness and the other seven districts of the Highland region were merged into the unitary Highland council area, under the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994. The new Highland Council then adopted the former districts as management areas and created a system of area committees to represent the management areas.

Until 1999 the Caithness management and committee areas consisted of 8 out of the 72 Highland Council wards. Each ward elected one councillor by the first past the post system of election.

In 1999, however, ward boundaries were redrawn but management area boundaries were not. As a result, area committees were named after and made decisions for areas which they did not exactly represent. The new Caithness committee area, consisting of ten out of the 80 new Highland Council wards, did not include the village of Reay, although that village was within the Caithness management area. For area committee representation the village was within the Sutherland committee area.

New wards were created for elections this year, 2007, polling on 3 May and, as the wards became effective for representational purposes, the Highland Council's management and committee structures were reorganised. The Caithness management area and the Caithness area committee were therefore abolished.

2007 to date
In 2007 the Highland Council, which is now the local government authority, created the Caithness ward management area, which has boundaries similar to those of the historic county. It was divided between three new wards electing councillors by the single transferable vote system of election, which is designed to produce a form of proportional representation. One ward elects four councillors. Each of the other two elects three councillors. Also, the council's eight management areas were abolished, in favour of three new corporate management areas, with Caithness becoming a ward management area within the council's new Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross operational management area, which covers seven of the council's 22 new wards. The boundaries of the Caithness ward management area are not exactly those of the former Caithness management area, but they do include the village of Reay.

The ward management area is one of five within the corporate management area and until 2017 consisted of three wards, the Landward Caithness ward, the Thurso ward and the Wick ward. Each of the other ward management areas within the corporate management area consists of a single ward. In 2017 the three Caithness wards were reduced to two 'Town and County' wards, each returning four members to the Highland Council, this was a reduction of two Councillors from the last election in 2012. The new wards are Thurso and Northwest Caithness and Wick and East Caithness.

Since 4 May 2017 Caithness has been represented by four Independent Councillors, two Scottish Conservative Councillors and two Scottish National Party Councillors. The current Chairman of the Caithness Committee is Donnie Mackay (Independent) and the Civic Leader position is held by A.I Willie Mackay (Independent) both being installed on 16 June 2017 at the first Caithness Committee of the new council.

Parishes
Prior to implementation of the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, civil administration parishes were also parishes of the Church of Scotland, and one Caithness parish, Reay, straddled the boundary between the county of Caithness and the county of Sutherland, and another, Thurso had a separate fragment bounded by Reay and Halkirk. For civil administration purposes, implementation of the act redefined parish boundaries, transferring part of Reay to the Sutherland parish of Farr and the fragment of Thurso to the parish of Halkirk.

In the cases of two of the parishes, Thurso and Wick, each includes a burgh with the same name as the parish. For civil administration purposes each of these parishes was divided between the burgh and the landward (rural) area of the parish.

Civil parishes are still used for some statistical purposes, and separate census figures are published for them. As their areas have been largely unchanged since the nineteenth century this allows for comparison of population figures over an extended period of time.

Halkirk was formed at the Reformation by the merger of the ancient parishes of Halkirk and Skinnet. Watten was created from part of Bower parish in 1638.

Community councils, 1975 to 2008
Although created under local government legislation (the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973) community councils have no statutory powers or responsibilities and are not a tier of local government. They are however the most local tier of statutory representation.

Under the 1973 Act, district councils were obliged to implement community council schemes. A Caithness district scheme was adopted in 1975, dividing the area of the district between 12 community councils.

Statutory status for community councils was continued under the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994, and a Caithness scheme is now the responsibility of the Highland Council.

The area of the former district of Caithness is now covered by 12 community council areas which are numbered and described as below in the Highland Council's Scheme for the Establishment of Community Councils in Caithness, October 1997. Current community council names and contact details are given on a Highland Council website.

 1. Royal Burgh of Wick
 2. Sinclair's Bay (including Keiss, Reiss and part of Wick)
 3. Dunnet and Canisbay
 4. Bower (excluding Gelshfield area)
 5. Watten (including part of Bower i.e. Gelshfield area)
 6. Wick south-east, Wick south-west and part of Clyth (i.e. Bruan) (Tannach & District)
 7. Latheron, Lybster and remainder of Clyth (including Occumster, Roster and Camster)
 8. Berridale and Dunbeath
 9. Thurso
 13. Halkirk south, Halkirk north-east, Halkirk north-west (excluding Lieurary, Forsie and Westfield area)
 14. Castletown, Olrig, Thurso east (excluding area on west side of Thurso River)
 15. Caithness West (that part on the west side of Thurso River only), Thurso West, Reay and part of Halkirk north-west (that part comprising Lieurary, Forsie and Westfield area)

Parliamentary constituency
The Caithness constituency of the House of Commons of the Parliament of Great Britain (1708 to 1801) and the Parliament of the United Kingdom (1801 to 1918) represented essentially the county from 1708 to 1918. At the same time however, the county town of Wick was represented as a component of Tain Burghs until 1832 and of Wick Burghs until 1918.

Between 1708 and 1832 the Caithness constituency was paired with Buteshire as alternating constituencies: one constituency elected a member of parliament (MP) to one parliament and then the other elected an MP to the next. Between 1832 and 1918 Caithness elected an MP to every parliament.

In 1918 the Caithness constituency and Wick were merged into the then new constituency of Caithness and Sutherland. In 1997 Caithness and Sutherland was merged into Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross.

The Scottish Parliament constituency of Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross was created in 1999 and now has boundaries slightly different from those of the House of Commons constituency. It was replaced by the larger constituency of Caithness, Sutherland and Ross in 2011.

The modern constituencies may be seen as more sub-divisions of the Highland area than as representative of counties (and burghs). For its own purposes, however, the Highland Council uses more conservative sub-divisions, with names which refer back to the era of district councils and, in some cases, county councils.

In the Scottish Parliament Caithness is represented also as part of the Highlands and Islands electoral region.

Towns and villages

In 2011, Caithness had a resident population of 26,486 (23,866 in 2001).

There are two towns in Caithness: Thurso and Wick.

There are also a few villages large enough to have amenities such as a shop, a cafe, a post office, a hotel, a church or a bank. These include Castletown, Dunbeath, Dunnet, Halkirk, John o' Groats, Keiss, Lybster, Reay/New Reay, Scrabster and Watten.

Other, smaller settlements include:

Achingills
Achreamie
Achvarasdal
Ackergill
Altnabreac
Auckengill
Balnabruich
Berriedale
Bilbster
Borgue
Bower
Brabsterdorran
Braemore
Broubster
Brough
Bruan
Buldoo
Bullavrochan
Burnside
Caberfeidh
Canisbay
Clyth
Crosskirk
Dorrery
East May
Forss
Fresgoe
Freswick
Gillock
Gills
Ham
Harrow
Haster
Houstry
Huna
Killimster
Landhallow
Latheron
Latheronwheel
Lower Smerral
Mey
Morven (the highest point of Caithness)
Murkle
Mybster
Newlands of Geise
Newport, Caithness
Papigoe
Ramscraig
Reaster
Reiss
Roadside
Roster
Sarclet
Scarfskerry
Shebster
Sibster
Skirza
Smerral
Sordale
Spittal
Staxigoe
Swiney
Thrumster
Ulbster
Upper Camster
Upper Lybster
Westerdale
Westfield
Weydale
Whiterow

Transport

Caithness is served by the Far North railway line, which runs west–east across the middle of the county serving Altnabreac and Scotscalder before splitting in two at Georgemas Junction, from where the east branch continues to Wick whilst the north branch terminates at Thurso.

Stagecoach Group provided bus transport between the major towns, and on to Inverness via Sutherland and Ross-shire.

The ferry port at Scrabster provides a regular service to Stromness in the Orkney Islands. Ferries also run from Gills Bay to St Margaret's Hope on South Ronaldsay. A summer-only ferry runs from John o' Groats to Burwick on South Ronaldsay.

Wick Airport provided regular flights to Aberdeen and Edinburgh until 2020 when Loganair and Eastern Airways cancelled their flights. In 2021 there were no scheduled flights to and from Wick Airport. Starting on 11 April 2022, Eastern Airways started a scheduled operation to Wick from Aberdeen.

Language
At the beginning of recorded history, Caithness was inhabited by the Picts, whose language Pictish is thought to have been related to the Brythonic languages spoken by the Britons to the south. The Norn language was introduced to Caithness, Orkney, and Shetland by the Norse occupation, which is generally proposed to be c. AD 800. Although little is known of that Norn dialect, some of this linguistic influence still exists in parts of the county, particularly in place names. Norn continued to be spoken in Caithness until perhaps the fifteenth century and lingered until the late eighteenth century in the Northern Isles.

It is sometimes erroneously claimed that Gaelic has never been spoken in Caithness, but this is a result of language shift to Scots, and then towards Standard Scottish English during recent centuries. The Gaelic name for the region, Gallaibh, translates as "Land of the Gall (non-Gaels)", a name which reflects historic Norse rule. Gaelic speakers seem to first figure in the early stage of the Scandinavian colonisation of Caithness, gradually increasing in numerical significance from the 12th century onwards. Gaelic has survived, in a limited form, in western parts of the county.

Scots began supplanting Norn in the early fourteenth century at the time of the Wars of Scottish Independence. The emergent Northern Scots dialect became influenced by both Gaelic and Norn and is generally spoken in the lowlying land to the east of a line drawn from Clyth Ness to some  west of Thurso. The dialect of Scots spoken in the neighbourhood of John o' Groats resembles to some extent that of Orkney. Since the seventeenth century, Standard Scottish English has increasingly been replacing both Gaelic and Scots.

Records showing what languages were spoken apparently do not exist from before 1706, but by that time, "[I]f ye suppose a Parallel to the hypotenuse drawn from Week to Thurso, these on the Eastside of it speak most part English, and those on the Westside Irish; and the last have Ministers to preach to them in both languages." Similarly, it is stated at that time that there were "Seven parishes [out of 10 or 11] in [the Presbytery of] Caithness where the Irish language is used."

As previously indicated, the language mix or boundary changed over time, but the New Statistical Record in 1841 says: "On the eastern side of [the Burn of East Clyth] scarcely a word of Gaelic was either spoken or understood, and on the west side, English suffered the same fate". Other sources state:

 "There are Seven parishes in [the Presbytery of] Caithness where the Irish language is used, viz. Thurso, Halkrig [Halkirk], Rhae [Reay], Lathrone [Latheron], Ffar [Farr], Week [Wick], Duirness [Durness]. But the people of Week understand English also." (Presbytery of Caithness, 1706)
 "A presbytery minute of 1727 says of 1,600 people who had 'come of age', 1500 could speak Gaelic only, and a mere five could read. Gaelic at this time was the principal language in most parishes except Bower, Canisbay, Dunnet and Olrig".
 "Persons with a knowledge of Gaelic in the County of Caithness (in 1911) are found to number 1,685, and to constitute 6.7 per cent of the entire population of three years of age and upwards. Of these 1,248 were born in Caithness, 273 in Sutherland, 77 in Ross & Cromarty, and 87 elsewhere.... By an examination of the age distribution of the Gaelic speakers, it is found that only 22 of them are less than 20 years of age."

According to the 2011 Scotland Census, 282 (1.1%) residents of Caithness age three and over can speak Gaelic while 466 (1.8%) have some facility with the language. The percentage figures are almost exactly the same as for all of Scotland (1.1% and 1.7%, respectively). Nearly half of all Gaelic speakers in the county live in Thurso civil parish. The town of Thurso hosts the only Gaelic-medium primary school unit in all of Caithness (see Language in Thurso).

The bilingual road sign policy of Highland Region Council has led to some controversy in the region. In 2008, eight of the ten Caithness representatives to the Highland Council tried to prevent the introduction of bilingual English-Gaelic road signs into the county. The first bilingual sign in Caithness was erected in 2012. In 2013, a bilingual road sign on the A99 road next to Wick Airport was damaged by gunfire within 24 hours of it being placed. Gaelic-speaking Councillor Alex MacLeod, at the time representing Landward Caithness in the Highland Council, referred to it as "an extreme anti-Gaelic incident".

Local media

Newspapers

The John O'Groat Journal and The Caithness Courier are weekly newspapers published by Scottish Provincial Press Limited trading as North of Scotland Newspapers and using offices in Union Street, Wick (but with public reception via Cliff Road) and Olrig Street, Thurso.

News coverage tends to concentrate on the former counties of Caithness and Sutherland. The John O'Groat Journal is normally published on Fridays and The Caithness Courier on Wednesdays. The two papers share a website.

Historically, they have been independent newspapers, with the Groat as a Wick-centred paper and the Courier as a Thurso-centred paper. Even now, the Groat is archived in the public library in Wick, while the Courier is similarly archived in the library in Thurso. The Courier was printed, almost by hand, in a small shop in High Street, Thurso until the early 60's by Mr Docherty and his daughter. The Courier traditionally covers that week's cases at Wick Sheriff Court.

Radio
Caithness FM has been broadcasting since 1993 and the Orkney Commercial Radio, Superstation Orkney from Kirkwall from 2004 to 2014.

See also
Constituencies
 Caithness (UK Parliament constituency) (1708 to 1918)
 Tain Burghs (UK Parliament constituency) (1708 to 1832)
 Wick Burghs (UK Parliament constituency) (1832 to 1918)
 Caithness and Sutherland (UK Parliament constituency) (1918 to 1997)
 Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross (UK Parliament constituency) (1997 to present)
 Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross (Scottish Parliament constituency) (1999 to 2011)
 Caithness, Sutherland and Ross (Scottish Parliament constituency) (2011 to present)

Other
 Caithness Broch Project
 Caithness Glass
 Clan Gunn
 Clan Sinclair
 Counties of Scotland
 List of counties of Scotland 1890–1975
 Local government in Scotland
 Local government areas of Scotland 1973 to 1996
 Maiden Paps, Caithness
 Medieval Diocese of Caithness
 Politics of the Highland council area
 Subdivisions of Scotland

References

External links

Caithness Community Website
Caithness Dialect
Caithness Dialect at Scots Language Centre
 Caithness Arts website
 Castletown and District Community Council website
 Castletown Heritage Society
 Dunnet and Canisbay Community Council
 Castle of Mey website
 Castle Sinclair Girnigoe
 Caithness forum
 Caithness alternative community forum
 Caithness Broch Project

Lieutenancy areas of Scotland
Counties of Scotland
Orkneyinga saga places
Norn language
Counties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)

Caithness


Marjan Mrmić (d. 6 Mayıs 1965, Sisak, Yugoslavya), Hırvat eski millî kaleci. 1996 yılında itibaren iki yıl boyunca Beşiktaş'ta forma giyen Mrmić şu anda kaleci antrenörlüğü yapmaktadır.

Kariyeri

Futbol kariyerine 1983 yılında NK Mladost Suhopolje takımında başladı. 1988 yılında Dinamo Vinkovci'ye transfer oldu. 1993 yılına kadar bu takımda oynadıktan sonra yine Hırvatistan Ligi'nden Varteks'e gitti. 1993-1996 arasında ligin üst sıralarında yer aldılar. 1996'da Hrvatski nogometni kup'nda ikinci oldular. Bu başarı takımın tarihindeki en büyük başarı oldu.

1996 yılında Beşiktaş'a transfer olarak ilk kez yurt dışında bir ligde oynadı. İlk sezonunda yurt içinde kupalar dahil olmak üzere 41 maçta Beşiktaş kalesini korudu. Beşiktaş'ta ilk kez UEFA Kupası'nda oynayan Mrmiç, 3. turu görürken, ligde ikinci olup, Türkiye Kupası ikinciliği gördü. İki Başbakanlık Kupası'nda kalecilik yapan Mrmiç, 1997 kupasını kazanan kadroda yer aldı. Sonraki sezon, Fevzi Tuncay ile kaleyi paylaşan Mrmiç, daha az forma giydi. Ligde başarısız olsalar da Mrmiç, ilk kez UEFA Şampiyonlar Ligi'nde forma giydi. Türkiye Kupası ve Cumhurbaşkanlığı Kupası şampiyonluğu gördü, ancak iki maçın finalinde de yedek kaleci olarak yer aldı.

Oldukça başarılı geçen iki sezon sonrası Varteks ile Hırvatistan Ligi'ne geri döndü. 1998-99 sezonunda bu takımda pek başarılı olamadı. Aktif futbol hayatı kariyerinin sonlarına doğru Belçika takımı R. Charleroi SC'ye transfer olarak, kısa süre bu takımda oynadı. Ancak pek forma şansı bulamadı ve 2000 yılında futbolu bıraktı.

Millî takım kariyeri

Marjan Mrmić, 1995-1999 yılları arasında Hırvatistan millî futbol takımında forma giydi.

Mrmiç, Hırvatistan millî takımının Dražen Ladić'ten sonraki ikinci kalecisi konumundaydı. 1996 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası elemelerinde 11 Haziran 1995'te oynanan Ukrayna maçıyla ilk kez millî oldu. Kaleci Tonči Gabrić'in kırmızı kart görmesiyle 26. dakikada Dubravko Pavličić'in yerine oyuna girdi Elemelerde bir maçta daha forma giydi. 1996 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası'na giden kadroda da yer alan Mrmiç, Portekiz'e 3-0 yenildikleri maçta forma giydi.

1998 FIFA Dünya Kupası elemelerinde de 3 maçta forma giyen Mrmiç, takımının tarihinde ilk kez Dünya Kupası'na gitmesine yardım etti. Kadroda da yer almasına rağmen 7 maçta da yedek kulübesinde kaldı. Turnuva sonunda dünya üçüncüsü olma başarısı gösterdiler. 2000 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası elemelerinde de zaman zaman forma giyen Mrmiç, takımının turnuvaya katılamamasından sonra millî takımı bıraktı. Son maçı 21 Ağustos 1999'da Malta ile oynanan eleme maçı oldu.

Teknik adamlık kariyeri
Mrmiç şu an Varteks ve Hırvatistan millî futbol takımının kaleci antrenörlüğünü yapmaktadır.
Mrmiç 18.07.2016 - 31.05.2017 tarihleri arasında Beşiktaş kaleci antrenörlüğü yapmaktadır.

Başarıları

 Hırvatistan millî futbol takımı ile;
 FIFA Dünya Kupası üçüncülüğü: 1998
 Beşiktaş ile
 Türkiye Kupası: 1998
 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Kupası: 1998
 Başbakanlık Kupası: 1997

Özel hayatı
Marjan Mrmić 2 Ekim 2016'da Tweeter hesabından yaptığı açıklamada İslamiyeti seçtiğini belirtti.

Notlar

Dış bağlantılar

1965 doğumlular
Yaşayan insanlar
Hırvat futbolcular
R. Charleroi SC futbolcuları
Hırvatistan millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
1996 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası futbolcuları
1998 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
Süper Lig futbolcuları
Pro League futbolcuları
Beşiktaş JK yabancı futbolcuları
Türkiye'deki gurbetçi futbolcular
Resim aranan futbolcular
Kaleci futbolcular

Marjan Mrmić


Lancaster County kan henvise til:

 Lancaster County, Nebraska, USA
 Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, USA
 Lancaster County, South Carolina, USA
 Lancaster County, Virginia, USA

Se også
 County of Lancaster, England, nu Lancashire

Lancaster County


Polish illusions er en dokumentarfilm fra 2012 instrueret af Jacob Dammas og Helge Renner efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Den pensionerede amerikanske militærhelikopterpilot, Mark D. Buller, har slået sig ned i en fjern polsk provins ved Østersøkysten i søgen efter et nyt hjem til sin voksende samling af militærkøretøjer og den sidste manglende brik i livet ... en hustru. Han finder hjælp hos den unge lokale beundrer af 'Amerika', Michal Niewczas, der assisterer amerikaneren i hans jagt som ven, privatchauffør og oversætter. I den anden ende af byen må den aldrende tryllekunstner, Jan Konstantynow, slås for sin plads i rampelyset da det lokale kulturhus udnævner en ny direktør som har planer om at bringe kulturprogrammet ind i det 21. århundrede.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Film fra Danmark (administrationskategori)
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2012

Polish illusions


Kenny McCormick ya da tam adıyla Kenneth McCormick South Park dizisinin hayalî ve en fakir karakteridir. İlk beş sezon boyunca birkaç istisna hariç dizinin her bölümünde ölür. Dizide her zaman suratını kapatan bir kapüşon giydiğinden yüzü belli değildir.

Yüzü ilk olarak South Park'ın sinema filmi olan South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut adlı filmde görülmüştür. Daha sonra 4. sezon, 7. sezon, 8. sezon, 9. sezon, 11. sezon ve 13. sezonda gösterilmiştir. Söyledikleri neredeyse hiç anlaşılmaz ve seks düşkünüdür. 5. sezonun 13. bölümünde (Kenny Dies) ve "South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut" yayınlandıktan sonra tamamen öldürülerek (kanser olup) dizide artık gösterilmemeye başlanmış ve onun yerini bir süre Butters almıştır. Bir süre sonra, Butters'ın Kenny'nin boşluğunu dolduramadığı düşünülmüş, Butters'ın yerini Tweek almıştır. Tweek gruptan atılmamış, yavaş yavaş kendi kopmuştur. Fakat daha sonra Kenny hayranlarının büyük tepkisi üzerine "Oh my God, they killed Kenny!" tişörtleri ile protesto etmişlerdir- ve reytinglerin düşmesiyle tekrar diziye dahil olmuştur. Dizide hakkında en az şey bilinen karakterlerden biri Kenny olup, bu gizemli hali ayrı bir hayran grubu yaratmıştır. Fiziksel görünüşü, vücudunun neredeyse her yerini saran kıyafeti nedeniyle belli olmamaktadır. Ancak South Park Bigger, Longer & Uncut adlı sinema filminde saçlarının sarı olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Orta kilodadır. 66 cm boyundadır.

South Park Tema Şarkısı'na 1. sezonda  "I like girls with big fat titties, I like girls with big vaginas." diye katılır. 3. sezonda "I have got a ten inch penis; use your mouth and help me clean it." olarak değişir. 7. sezonda "Someday I'll be old enough to stick my dick in Britney's butt!" der ve 10. sezonun belirli bir yerinden sonra "I like fucking silly bitches; I know that my penis likes it." der.

Babası bir alkoliktir ve bu yüzden ailesi çok fakirdir. Annesinin üstünde 'I'm with stupid' yazan bir tişört vardır ve tişörtteki ok işareti Kenny'nin babasını gösterir. Kenny'nin Kevin adında bir erkek kardeşi ve Karen adında bir kız kardeşi vardır. Cartman onun fakirliğiyle sürekli dalga geçmektedir. Kenny hemen hemen her bölümde ölür ve öldüğü zaman fareler tarafından yenir.

Kenny geri döndükten sonra 7. sezonun sonunda Saddam tarafından ışınla öldürülmüştür. 8. sezonun 6. bölümünde Michael Jackson tarafından yanlışlıkla öldürülmüştür. 9. sezonun 3. bölümünde Çin Mafyası ile çatışırken ölmüştür. 9. sezonun 4. bölümünde PSP'de 60 levele ulaşmıştır, sevincinden yola çıkmıştır ve trafik kazasından ölmüştür. 10. sezonda hiç ölmemiştir. 11. sezonda Bebe tarafından kaza kurşunuyla öldürülmüştür. 12. sezonda öldürülmeye çok yaklaşmış fakat ölmemiş, 13. sezonun ilk bölümünde sevgilisi penisini yalayınca, 10. bölümde ringe düşen rokete tutununca ve 14. bölümde sidiğe boğularak ölmüştür. 14. sezonun ilk bölümü olan Cinsel Sağlık bölümünde ise Batman kostümüyle kendini tatmin ederken ölür. Ayrıca 14. sezonun 12. bölümünde Mysterion kılığıyla Gotik çocuklardan bilgi almaya çalışırken karanlıklar lordu Cthulhu'nun kölesi tarafından bıçaklanarak öldürülmüştür. 12 Bölümde ise yine Mysterion kılığında arkadaşlarına yardım etmek için dev dikenlerin içine atlayıp ölmüştür. Fakat aynı bölümde Kaptan Hindsight'a anlattığı gücü sayesinde yeniden yatağında doğmuştur. 15. sezon 14. bölümde ise bölümün en sonunda okula saldıran dev bir hindi Kenny'i yemiştir.

Ölümsüzlüğü
Her öldüğünde yeniden yatağında doğar ve kimse onun öldüğünü hatırlamaz. Ancak 14. sezon 13. bölümün sonunda "Ben yoruldum yatağıma gidiyorum." diyerek kendisini öldürür. Bu esnada annesi yeniden bir Kenny doğurur. Yani annesi gittikleri tarikat toplantıları yüzünden Kenny öldüğü zaman yenisini doğurmakta ve yeni Kenny bir gecede büyümektedir, ayrıca ölmeden önce bütün yaşadıklarını hatırlamaktadır. Sıkı bir South Park takipçisi bile 14. sezonun on birinci, on ikinci ve on üçüncü bölümlerini izlemeden tamamen anlayamaz (Olay 13. bölümün sonunda açığa çıkar fakat diğer bölümler serinin başlangıcıdır.) NOT: Kenny'nin ölüp yeniden doğması hakkında 4. sezon 5. bölümde bir ipucu vardır. 15. sezon 14. bölümde okulun tavanından gelen dev hindi Kenny'i bir kez daha öldürmüştür.

South Park karakterleri
Erkek film karakterleri
Komedi filmi karakterleri

Kenny McCormick


القوات الجوية الإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية رسمياً تعرف بـ القوات الجوية الإمبراطورية والملكية النمساوية المجرية  هي سلاح الجو للإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية تأسس عام 1893
حتى زوال الإمبراطورية عام 1918 شهدت القوات الجوية الإمبراطورية معارك على الجبهتين الشرقية والإيطالية خلال الحرب العالمية الأولى.

النشأة
تأسست القوات الجوية الإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية عام 1893
بفرق مشكلة من المناطيد وخلال الحرب العالمية الأولى أمتكلت القوات الجوية عدة طائرات ألمانية ونمساوية وشاركت في أعمال القتال على الجبهة الشرقية ضد الروس والجبهة الغربية ضد الإيطاليين، حل سلاح الجو بعد سقوط الإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية عام 1919.

مراجع

القوات الجوية النمساوية مجرية
تأسيسات سنة 1893 في النمسا-المجر
تاريخ المجر
تاريخ النمسا
وحدات وتشكيلات الإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية العسكرية في الحرب العالمية الأولى
وحدات وتشكيلات عسكرية انحلت في 1918
وحدات وتشكيلات عسكرية أسست في 1893


Zara Maria Larsson (; ) este o cântăreață și compozitoare suedeză. Ea a primit Premiul Feminin Național în 2008 pentru câștigarea sezonului show-ului talent Talang,versiunea suedeză a concursului . Zara a semnat cu casa de discuri TEN Music Group în 2010 și și-a realizat debutul cu albumul EP, album introdus, în ianuarie 2013. Single-lul Uncover a dominat topurile în Suedia și Norvegia. În februarie 2013 single-ul ei Uncover a fost certificat de Universal Music Sweden. În iulie 2013 albumul de debut a fost certificat cu triplă platină. Zara a semnat, de asemenea,un contract de trei ani cu Epic Records în Statele Unite în aprilie 2013.
Viața timpurie: Zara Larsson s-a născut pe 16 decembrie 1997 în Stockholm, Suedia.

Note

Nașteri în 1996
Oameni în viață
Cântăreți suedezi

Zara Larsson


Carlos Gonzales Pajuelo (Breña, Provincia de Lima, 31 de julio de 1945) es un exfutbolista peruano, podía jugar como delantero o centrocampista. Tuvo un paso importante por Sporting Cristal donde consiguió tres campeonatos nacionales. Actualmente tiene .

Trayectoria

Debutó en 1962 reemplazando a Faustino Delgado en Sporting Cristal en un partido frente a Ciclista Lima, asimismo en enero de 1963 alternó en un amistoso ante Sao Paulo siendo derrotados 3-1. Oficialmente debutó en el torneo de 1964, año donde marcó su primer gol al KDT Nacional.

Permaneció muchos años en el cuadro rimense y se convirtió en uno de los referentes y top 12 de goleadores históricos del cuadro bajopontino. Jugó con grandes jugadores de talla mundial como Alberto Gallardo, Orlando de La Torre y Ramón Mifflin; anotó 6 goles por Copa Libertadores, el último de ellos a Boca en la misma Bombonera cuando Sporting Cristal empató 2-2 y hubo una descomunal bronca a pocos minutos para finalizar el partido.

Fue goleador del cuadro rimense los años 1965, 1966 y 1969; logró tres campeonatos nacionales en 1968, 1970 y 1972 siendo goleador del equipo en 1970 con 18 goles.

En 1974 Gonzales Pajuelo jugaría por el Juan Aurich, integrando con el cuadro chiclayano un recordado equipo lleno de figuras como Pedro Pablo León, Víctor Calatayud y Roberto Elías. Tuvo también un paso destacado por Atlético Chalaco y el Colegio Nacional de Iquitos que en 1977 estuvo a punto de clasificar a la Copa Libertadores.

En el extranjero jugó por el Barcelona Sporting Club de Ecuador en 1978. Se retiró en 1979 jugando por el Colegio Nacional de Iquitos.

Selección  Peruana

Fue parte de la Selección juvenil en 1964 en el Sudamericano de Colombia bajo la DT. del brasileño Marinho de Oliveira y Rafael Castillo.

Jugó el amistoso en 1967 entre Perú y Brasil en Rio.

Contrajo nupcias con la ex-basquetbolista chilena Maria Teresa Jaque, y en 1982 emigraron a Canadá, algunas veces regresó al Perú, la última vez lo hizo el 2020 hasta el 2022.

Clubes

Palmarés

Referencias

Futbolistas de Perú
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Perú en los años 1960
Futbolistas del Club Sporting Cristal en los años 1960
Futbolistas del Club Sporting Cristal en los años 1970
Futbolistas del Club Juan Aurich
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Chalaco
Futbolistas del Colegio Nacional de Iquitos
Futbolistas del Barcelona Sporting Club

Carlos Gonzales Pajuelo


Catherine O'Hara () este o actriță și scenaristă canadiano-americană.

Biografie

Filmografie

Filme

Note

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1954
Nașteri pe 4 martie
Actrițe americaneActrițe canadieneScriitoare americaneScriitoare canadiene

Catherine O'Hara


Sebastian Rejman (født 13. januar 1978) er en finsk sanger, skuespiller, og tv-vært. Han er sanger og guitarist i bandet The Giant LEAP. Mens Giant LEAP har holdt pause, grundlagde Rejman et nyt band kaldet Sebastian & The 4th line band.

Han vil repræsentere Finland i Eurovision Song Contest 2019 sammen med Darude.

Referencer

Eksterne links

Personer fra Helsinki
Sangere fra Finland
Deltagere ved Eurovision Song Contest 2019
Finlands Eurovision Song Contest-deltagere

Sebastian Rejman


Johannes Gustav Friedrich Steudel (* 9. März 1901 in Ronneburg (Thüringen); † 31. Mai 1973 in Bonn) war ein deutscher Medizinhistoriker.

Leben
Nach dem Realgymnasium Reichenbach besuchte Johannes Steudel ab 1912 die Nikolaischule in Leipzig, die er 1920 abschloss. Anschließend studierte er Archäologie, Kunstgeschichte, Philosophie und Germanistik an den Universitäten Leipzig und Königsberg. Mit einer Dissertation über die Hadrianvilla wurde er am 14. August 1923 in Königsberg in klassischer Archäologie promoviert und erhielt daraufhin eine Assistentenstelle am dortigen Archäologischen Institut. Nach einer Ausbildung bei Koehler & Volckmar war Steudel ab 1926 als wissenschaftlicher Buchhändler im Auftrag von ausländischen Bibliotheken tätig. Im Juli 1935 absolvierte er freiwillig eine viermonatige Militärausbildung. 1936 begann er in Leipzig ein Medizinstudium, das er 1940 abschloss (Approbation am 15. März und Promotion zum Dr. med. am 26. Juni 1941). In dieser Zeit war er Mitglied der Deutschen Studentenschaft. Zwischenzeitlich war er von August 1939 bis April 1940, im Mai 1941 und  im August/September 1942 zum Sanitätsdienst der Wehrmacht eingezogen. Anschließend arbeitete er als Assistent am Karl-Sudhoff-Institut in Leipzig und habilitierte sich am 15. März 1943 für Medizingeschichte. Am 17. Dezember 1943 wurde er zum Dozenten ernannt. 1937 trat er in die NSDAP ein (Mitgliedsnummer 4.773.066), 1941 in den NSD-Ärztebund (Nr. 36006) und ab Februar 1944 in den NSD-Dozentenbund. Er war außerdem Mitglied im Kyffhäuserbund.
Als Nachfolger des pensionierten Karl Schmiz (1877–1946) übernahm Steudel ab dem Wintersemester 1943/44 einen Lehrauftrag für Medizingeschichte an der Universität Bonn, die ihn 1957 zum Ordinarius und 1958/59 zum Rektor ernannte. 1968 organisierte er den Umzug in das nach seinen Plänen errichtete Medizinhistorische Institut auf dem Venusberg. 1969 eriminierte er. Im Jahr 1952 wurde er zum Mitglied der Leopoldina gewählt.

Zu seinen Schülern gehörten Gernot Rath und Heinrich Schipperges, die gemeinsam zu Steudels 65. Geburtstag die Festschrift Medizingeschichte im Spektrum herausgaben.

Privates
1924 heiratete Steudel die Schauspielerin Luise Glau, die im Januar 1925 seinen Sohn Andreas Karl Johannes gebar. Die Ehe wurde kurz darauf geschieden. 1945 heiratete Steudel die Zahnärztin Marianne Franzke, mit der er eine Tochter hatte.

Veröffentlichungen (Auswahl)
 Zur Geschichte der Lehre von den Greisenkrankheiten. In: Sudhoffs Archiv. Band 35, 1942, S. 1–27.
 als Hrsg. mit Rudolf Creutz: Einführung in die Geschichte der Medizin in Einzeldarstellungen. Iserlohn 1948. Mit eigenen Beiträgen.
 Woher kommt der Name Krebs? In: Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. Band 78, 1953, S. 1574.
 Zwerg auf der Schulter des Riesen. In: Sudhoffs Archiv. Band 37, 1953, S. 394–399.
 Die Geschichte des Diabetes. In: Diabetiker. Band 3, 1954, S. 45 f., 61 f. und 71 f.
 Die Siebolds, ein hervorragendes Ärzte-Geschlecht aus dem Dürener Lande, zu 65jährigen Bestehen der Firma Dr. Degen & Kuth. Düren 1954.
 Johannes Müller (1801–1858). In: Edmund Strutz (Hrsg.): Rheinische Lebensbilder. Band 1, Düsseldorf 1961, S. 152–167.
 Le physiologiste Johannes Müller. Paris 1963.
 Der anatomische Terminus "Netz". In: Sudhoffs Archiv. Band 47, 1963. S. 383–386.
 Johannes Müller und die Neurophysiologie. In: Karl Eduard Rothschuh (Hrsg.): Von Boerhaave bis Berger. Die Entwicklung der kontinentalen Physiologie im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Neurophysiologie. Stuttgart 1964 (= Medizin in Geschichte und Kultur. Band 5), S. 62–70.
 Der Verbandstoff in der Geschichte der Medizin: Ein kulturhistorischer Überblick. Düren 1964.
 Der Psychiater Maximilian Jacobi. In: Heimatbuch der Stadt Siegburg II. Siegburg 1967, S. 284 f. und 776–794.

Literatur

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Medizinhistoriker
Rektor (Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn)
Mitglied der Leopoldina (20. Jahrhundert)
Person im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Deutsches Reich)
NSDAP-Mitglied
NSDÄB-Mitglied
Deutscher
Geboren 1901
Gestorben 1973
Mann

Johannes Steudel


Dans certains pays anglophones, le terme épicène freshman (ou frosh) désigne un élève ou un étudiant de première année dans l'enseignement secondaire ou supérieur (université).

Origines et évolution

D'après Merriam - Webster's, au  le terme freshman est synonyme de novice dans un ordre religieux. L'expression avait aussi le sens péjoratif de « petit nouveau » ou « bleu ».

Certaines communautés emploient des expressions alternatives, comme frosh, freshpeople, first-year, freshperson.

Angleterre et pays de Galles

En anglais britannique, les étudiants de première année à l'université sont couramment appelés les freshers, même si l'expression first years est plus courante. La première semaine du trimestre est souvent appelée fresher's week : les étudiants n'ont pas cours et participent à des activités de nature à favoriser leur intégration.

Contrairement aux usages en Écosse, l'expression n'est pas utilisée dans l'enseignement secondaire ; les lycéens de première année sont surnommés Year sevens dans l'.

États-Unis

En anglais américain, l'expression freshman est d'usage courant pour désigner un débutant ou un novice, une personne naïve, une première tentative ou action, ou un étudiant de première année dans l'enseignement secondaire ou supérieur.

Dans l'enseignement supérieur (écoles et universités), un freshman est un étudiant de première année ; ce terme est inhabituel au lycée. Certains établissements, dont ceux qui accueillaient seulement des femmes, préfèrent utiliser le terme first year.

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Sophomore
 Bizutage
 Statuts des étudiants-athlètes en NCAA

Liens externes

Enseignement par degré
Élève ou étudiant
Expression anglaise

Freshman


Stephanie Ann White est une neuroscientifique américaine qui est professeure à l'Université de Californie à Los Angeles. Ses recherches visent à comprendre l'impact des interactions sociales sur le cerveau. Elle est directrice du programme Systèmes neuronaux et comportement au Laboratoire de biologie marine.

Formation
White était étudiante de premier cycle au , où elle s'est spécialisée en biopsychologie . Elle était étudiante diplômée à l'université Stanford, où elle a étudié les neurosciences. Ses recherches portaient sur le contrôle social de l'expression des hormones de libération des gonadotrophines. Elle s'est intéressée aux approches neuropathologiques pour étudier l'impact de la socialisation sur la forme du cerveau. Elle a déménagé à l'université Duke en tant que boursière postdoctorale où elle est restée de 1997 à 2000.

Recherche et carrière
White a rejoint l'université de Californie à Los Angeles en 2000 et est titulaire de la chaire William Scheibel Endowed Chair in Neuroscience.

Elle a utilisé des oiseaux chanteurs pour mieux comprendre comment l'environnement influence la créativité et l'apprentissage. Au cours d'une période de développement critique, les oiseaux chanteurs développent un chant adapté à la parade nuptiale, principalement par essais et erreurs. En particulier, elle considère le diamant mandarin, dont le comportement et les circuits neuronaux sont sexuellement dimorphes.

White a étudié la protéine Forkhead-P2 (FOXP2), un gène lié à la parole, dans l'apprentissage des humains et des oiseaux chanteurs. White a étudié le rôle de FOXP2 pendant le chant des oiseaux ainsi que sa prévalence dans les synapses neurales. Elle a montré que la perturbation du gène FOXP2 peut entraîner des difficultés d'élocution et de chant des oiseaux. Chez les diamants mandarins, elle a identifié que le gène FOXP1 est élevé dans les parties du cerveau associées au chant des oiseaux. White a identifié plusieurs gènes associés à des difficultés de développement humain dans les ganglions de la base du diamant mandarin et a depuis utilisé les oiseaux chanteurs comme modèle pour les troubles de la parole humaine. Elle a fait valoir que cette compréhension aidera à identifier les candidats thérapeutiques pour les conditions liées à la communication telles que l'autisme.

Publications (sélection)

Références

Liens externes

 Publications de Stephanie A. White indexées par Google Scholar

Professeur à l'université de Californie à Los Angeles
Étudiant de l'université Stanford
Neuroscientifique américain
Date de naissance non renseignée (XXe siècle)

Stephanie A. White


හැදින්වීම

'ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍ය' යන්නෙහි අර්ථය එක්සත් රාජධානියේ සහ එක්සත් ජනපදය තුළ භාවිත වන ආකාරය එකිනෙකට වෙනස්ය. එක්සත් රාජධානියේ එය 70 සහ 80 දශකවල දේශීය හෝ කලාපීය ප‍්‍රජාවන්ට නාට්‍ය පෙන්වන වෘත්තීය නාට්‍ය සමාගම් හැඳින්වීමට යොදා ගත්තේ ය. මේවා එම ප‍්‍රජාවට අදාළ කරුණු පිළිබඳ ව කතාබහ කළ අතර, ප‍්‍රජා මධ්‍යස්ථානවල පෙන්වනු ලැබීය. ඒවා ඉතා ප‍්‍රගතිශීලි අදහස්වලින් සමන්විත විය. ඉන් ප‍්‍රසිද්ධතම සමාගම වූයේ 7. 84 (7%ක් වූ ජනගහනය, ධනයෙන් 84%කට හිමිකම් කියයි.* නම් වූ කම්කරු පංතිය අතර සැරිසැරූ කණ්ඩායමයි. වර්තමානයේ ප‍්‍රජා වේදිකාව යන්න එක්සත් රාජධානිය තුළ භාවිත වන්නේ, ප‍්‍රදේශීයව ප‍්‍රජාවන් අතර ගැටළු සාකච්ඡුා කරන සංචාරක නාට්‍ය සඳහා ය.

ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍ය එක්සත් රාජධානිය තුළ 'ආධුනික නාට්‍ය' සම්ප‍්‍රදායෙන් වෙන් වූ වෙනම ම නාට්‍ය සම්ප‍්‍රදායකි. එහෙත් මේවායේ රඟන සියළුම නළුවන් ගෙවීමක් නොලබන අතර, බොහෝ විට ආධුනිකයින් වෙති.

එක්සත් ජනපදයේ මේවා ඉතා ගතානුගතික වන නමුත්, එක්සත් රාජධානිය තුළ එසේ නොවේ. වෘත්තීයමය නොවන බොහෝ ස්ථානවල මෙම නාට්‍ය රඟ දක්වනු ලැබේ. එක්සත් ජනපදය වඩාත් ප‍්‍රචලිත සංගීතමය නාට්‍ය සහ ළමා නාට්‍ය නිෂ්පාදනය කිරීමට ය. වැටුප් නොලබන සාමාජිකයින්ගෙන් සමන්විත බොහෝ සමාගම් තමා 'ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍යකරුවන්' ලෙස හඳුන්වා නොදෙති. ප‍්‍රමිතිගත නාට්‍ය හා ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍ය අතර වෙනස සාමාන්‍යයෙන් තීරණය කරනු ලබන්නේ සමාගම විසිනි. වෙනත් රැුකියාවල යෙදෙන විවිධ වෘත්තිකයන්ට නාට්‍ය නිර්මාණය කිරීම තුළින් ක‍්‍රියාකාරී හා කලාත්මක ප‍්‍රජා කටයුතුවල යෙදීමේ අවස්ථාව ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍ය තුළින් සැලසේ. බොහෝ විට ඒ පිළිබඳ ව අත්දැකීම් අඩු හෝ නොමැති, එහෙත් තම හැකියාවන් වැඩි දියුණු කර ගැනීමට කැමති පුද්ගලයින් මේවාට සම්බන්ධ වේ.

එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍ය සහ එක්සත් රාජධානියේ හා  ඕස්ටේ‍්‍රලියාවේ ආධුනික නාට්‍ය සම්ප‍්‍රදායන්, වෘත්තිමය නාට්‍යවලට වඩා අඩු ප‍්‍රමිතියකින් යුතු යැයි සැලකෙති. ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍යවල වටිනාකම පිළිබඳව වෘත්තිකයන්, ආධුනිකයන්, ශාස්ත‍්‍රඥයින් හා විවේචකයින් අතර වර්තමානයේ බොහෝ විවාදයන් පවතී. මන්ද, ඔවුන්ට විධිමත් පුහුණුවක් නොලැබෙන හෙයින්, අවශ්‍ය නිපුණතා ඔපමට්ටම් කරගෙන නොමැති පුද්ගලයින් ලෙස සැලකෙන බැවිනි. එහෙත්, සමහර ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍යකරුවන්, එකී ප‍්‍රජාව තුළ ගෞරවයෙන් යුතුව සැලකුම් ලබති.

ජනප‍්‍රිය සංගීත සංදර්ශන හා නාට්‍ය මෙන් නොව, නාට්‍යමය රචනා, ක‍්‍රියාකාරකම් හා නිෂ්පාදය සඳහා වර්තමානයේ බොහෝ ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍ය සමාගම් දායකත්වය සපයයි. මේ තුළ බොහෝ විට තම ප‍්‍රජාව පිළිබඳ මනා වැටහීමක් සහිත නාට්‍ය රචකයෝ නාට්‍ය රචනා කරන අතර, ප‍්‍රජා මට්ටමේ පේ‍්‍රක්‍ෂකයින්ට ඒවා ආකර්ෂණීය වේ. ඒවා වෘත්තීය ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍ය සමාගම්වල රචනාවලට සමාන ය.

මෙම නාට්‍ය කණ්ඩායම් ප‍්‍රමාණයෙන් විවිධ වන අතර, එය ඉල්ලා ගත් තැනක රඟ දක්වන තනි පුද්ගලයකුගේ මූලිකත්වයෙන් පවත්නා කුඩා කණ්ඩායම්වල සිට, තමාගේම ආම්පන්න ඇති නාට්‍යාගාර සහිත විශාල කණ්ඩායම් දක්වා දිවේ. බොහෝ ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍ය ක‍්‍රියාකාරී සාමාජිකයන් සහිත සාර්ථක, ලාභ නොලබන ව්‍යාපාර වන අතර, සමහර අවස්ථාවලදී පූර්ණ කාලීන වෘත්තිකයන් ද සේවය කරති. බොහෝ විට මෙහි නළුවන් වෙනත් වෘත්තීන්හි ද සේවය කරති. බොහෝ විට මෙහි නළුවන් වෙනත් වෘත්තීන්හිද යෙදෙන්නන් බැවින්, වෘත්තීමය කලාවන්ට ඇල්ම නොදක්වන අයගේ පවා ආකර්ෂණය දිනා ගැනීමට ඒවාට හැකියාව ලැබේ. ඇමරිකාවේ හා  ඕස්ටේ‍්‍රලියාවේ මේවාට ඉතා විශාල සහභාගීත්වයක් දක්නට ලැබේ.

ප‍්‍රජා නාට්‍ය තුළින් සහභාගිවන්නන්ගේ දක්ෂතා, ප‍්‍රජා හැඟීම හා කලාත්මක සංවේදනයන් වැඩි දියුණු කරන හෙයින් එය සමාජයක ප‍්‍රාග්ධනය ලෙස සැලකේ. එය සමාජයක යහ පැවැත්ම සඳහා අවශ්‍ය වන සංවාද, ස්වයං ප‍්‍රකාශන හා අන්තර් ක‍්‍රියාකාරීත්වය ඉහළ නංවයි. නිදසුනක් ලෙස, මේවාට ළමුන් සහභාගී වන විට, ඒවා ළමුන්ගේ වැරදි ක‍්‍රියා අවම කරන අතර, අදහස් සහිත තරුණයින්ට ඒවා ප‍්‍රකාශ කිරීමට ඉඩ සලසා දෙයි.

සටහන්

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ප්‍රජා නාට්‍ය


Das Fotoplastikon in Warschau befindet sich in einem Hinterhofgebäude an den Aleje Jerozolimskie 51. Es ist das älteste seit seiner Aufstellung an seinem Originalplatz stehende Kaiserpanorama der Welt.

Im Jahr 1901 wurde erstmals in der Warschauer Tageszeitung Kurier Warszawski über ein Fotoplastikon berichtet. Es wurde vermutlich schon 1905 an seinem heutigen Standort aufgestellt. Das Gebäude selbst war um 1900 im neubarocken Stil errichtet worden.

Während der deutschen Besatzungszeit von 1939 bis Mitte Januar 1945 wurde der knapp 40 Quadratmeter große Raum von den deutschen Behörden nicht kontrolliert, sodass dort Treffen polnischer Widerstandskämpfer stattfinden konnten. Auch in den 1950er und 1960er Jahren trafen sich hier regimekritische Warschauer ein, die sich Bilder aus westeuropäischen Großstädten ansehen und Jazzmusik anhören konnten.

Vor dem Krieg wurde das Fotoplastikon von Józef Chudy und in der Nachkriegszeit von seinem Sohn Tadeusz betrieben. Der heutige Besitzer ist dessen Sohn Tomasz. Am 16. Juli 2008 unterzeichnete das Museum des Warschauer Aufstandes eine Vereinbarung mit Chudy, nach der das Museum die Aufsicht über den Betrieb des Fotoplastikons übernahm. Dieser Vertrag resultierte aus der Entscheidung der Einwohner der Stadt, das Fotoplastikon zu einem der historischen Denkmäler Warschaus zu machen. Die umfangreiche, aus rund 3.000 Exemplaren bestehende Stereoskopie-Fotosammlung wird seitdem in ständig wechselnden Themenblöcken präsentiert. Das Plastikon ist eines der weltweit wenigen noch betriebenen Geräte dieses Typs.

Einzelnachweise und Anmerkungen

Weblinks

 Website des Betreibers (auf Deutsch)
 Nachricht zum Fotoplastikon beim polnischen Auslandsdienst des Polskie Radio (abgerufen am 4. März 2012)

Geschichte von Warschau
Museum in Warschau
Technikmuseum in Polen
Kinemathek

Fotoplastikon


John Marshall Harlan (June 1, 1833 – October 14, 1911) was an American lawyer and politician who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1877 until his death in 1911. He is often called "The Great Dissenter" due to his many dissents in cases that restricted civil liberties, including the Civil Rights Cases, Plessy v. Ferguson, and Giles v. Harris. Many of Harlan's views expressed in his notable dissents would become the official view of the Supreme Court starting from the 1950s Warren Court and onward. His grandson John Marshall Harlan II was also a Supreme Court justice.

Born into a prominent, slave-holding family near Danville, Kentucky, Harlan experienced a quick rise to political prominence. When the American Civil War broke out, Harlan strongly supported the Union and recruited the 10th Kentucky Infantry. Despite his opposition to the Emancipation Proclamation, he served in the war until 1863, when he was elected attorney general of Kentucky. Harlan lost his re-election bid in 1867 and joined the Republican Party in the following year, quickly emerging as the leader of the Kentucky Republican Party. In 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed Harlan to the Supreme Court.

Harlan's jurisprudence was marked by his life-long belief in a strong national government, his sympathy for the economically disadvantaged, and his view that the Reconstruction Amendments had fundamentally transformed the relationship between the federal government and the state governments. He dissented in both the Civil Rights Cases (1883) and Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which permitted state and private actors to engage in segregation. He also wrote dissents in major cases such as Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895), which struck down a federal income tax; United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895), which severely limited the power of the federal government to pursue antitrust actions; Lochner v. New York (1905), which invalidated a state law setting maximum working hours on the basis of substantive due process; and Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States (1911), which established the rule of reason. He was the first Supreme Court justice to advocate the incorporation of the Bill of Rights, and his majority opinion in Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago (1897) incorporated the Takings Clause.

Harlan was largely forgotten in the decades after his death, but many scholars now consider him to be one of the greatest Supreme Court justices of his era.

Early life and education
Harlan was born in 1833 at Harlan's Station, 5 miles (8.0 km) west of Danville, Kentucky, on Salt River Road. He was born into a prominent slaveholding family whose earliest members had settled in the region in 1779. Harlan's father was James Harlan, a lawyer and prominent Whig politician who represented Kentucky in the United States House of Representatives and served as Secretary of State of Kentucky. Harlan's mother, Elizabeth, née Davenport, was the daughter of a pioneer from Virginia. Harlan grew up on the family estate near Frankfort, Kentucky. He was named after Chief Justice of the United States John Marshall, whom his father admired.

John had several older brothers, including a mixed-race half-brother, Robert James Harlan, born in 1816 into slavery, and whom his father raised in his own household and had tutored by Richard and James Harlan, two of John Marshall Harlan's older brothers. According to historian Allyson Hobbs, Robert became highly successful, making a fortune in the California Gold Rush before returning east and settling in Cincinnati, Ohio. He "remained close to the other Harlans"; she suggests this might have influenced his half-brother John Marshall Harlan, "who argued on behalf of equal rights under the law in Plessy v. Ferguson."

After attending school in Frankfort, John Harlan enrolled at Centre College. He was a member of Beta Theta Pi and graduated with honors. Though his mother wanted Harlan to become a merchant, James insisted that his son follow him into the legal profession, and Harlan joined his father's law practice in 1852. While James Harlan could have trained his son in the office, as was the norm of "reading the law" in that era, he sent John to attend law school at Transylvania University in 1850, where George Robertson and Thomas Alexander Marshall were among his instructors. Harlan finished his legal education in his father's law office and was admitted to the Kentucky Bar in 1853.

Politician and lawyer

Rise: 1851–1863

A member of the Whig Party like his father, Harlan got an early start in politics when, in 1851, he was offered the post of adjutant general of the state by governor John L. Helm. He served in the post for the next eight years, which gave him a statewide presence and familiarity with many of Kentucky's leading political figures. With the Whig Party's dissolution in the early 1850s, Harlan shifted his affiliation to the Know Nothings, despite his discomfort with their opposition to Catholicism. Harlan's personal popularity within the state was such that he was able to survive the decline of the Know Nothing movement in the late 1850s, winning election in 1858 as the county judge for Franklin County, Kentucky. The following year, he renounced his allegiance to the Know Nothings and joined the state's Opposition Party, serving as their candidate in an unsuccessful attempt to defeat Democrat William E. Simms for the seat in Kentucky's 8th congressional district.

Throughout the 1850s, Harlan criticized both abolitionists and pro-slavery radicals. Like many other anti-secession Southerners, he supported the Constitutional Union ticket of John Bell and Edward Everett in the 1860 presidential election. Harlan agreed to serve as a presidential elector for Bell, and he delivered speeches on behalf of the party throughout Kentucky during the campaign. In the secession crisis that followed Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln's victory in the 1860 election, Harlan sought to prevent Kentucky from seceding. He wrote several pro-Union editorials, represented the Union in state court, and joined a militia known as the Crittenden Union Zouaves.

After the state legislature voted to expel all Confederate forces from the state, Harlan recruited a company that was mustered into the service as the 10th Kentucky Infantry. Harlan served in the Western Theater of the American Civil War until the death of his father James in February 1863. At that time, Harlan resigned his commission as colonel and returned to Frankfort to support his family.

Party leader: 1863–1877

Weeks after leaving the army, Harlan was nominated by the Union Party to run for Attorney General of Kentucky. Campaigning on a platform of vigorous prosecution of the war, he won the election by a considerable margin. As attorney general for the state, Harlan issued legal opinions and advocated for the state in a number of court cases. Party politics, however, occupied much of his time. Though still a committed unionist, he opposed Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and supported Democratic candidate George B. McClellan's unsuccessful campaign in the 1864 presidential election. Harlan also opposed ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment, attacking it as a "direct interference, by a portion of the states, with the local concerns of other states."

After the end of the Civil War in 1865, Harlan initially refused to join either the Democratic Party, which he viewed as too accepting of former rebels, or the Republican Party, whose Reconstruction policies he opposed. He sought re-election in 1867 on a third party ticket, but lost his office in a Democratic sweep of the state. In the aftermath of his defeat, Harlan joined the Republican Party, and he supported Ulysses S. Grant's candidacy in the 1868 presidential election. Moving to Louisville, Harlan formed a successful partnership with John E. Newman, a former circuit court judge, and like Harlan, a Unionist turned Republican. In 1870, Harlan and Newman briefly took on a new partner, Benjamin Bristow, but President Grant appointed Bristow as U.S. solicitor general later that year.

While growing his legal practice, Harlan also worked to build up the Republican Party organization in the state. He served as the Republican nominee for governor of Kentucky in 1871; though he finished a distant second to incumbent Democratic Governor Preston Leslie, Harlan nonetheless established himself as the leader of the Kentucky Republican Party during the campaign. Harlan's views on Reconstruction shifted in the early 1870s, and he came to support Reconstruction measures such as the Enforcement Act of 1870, though he still opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1875 as a federal overreach. Harlan reluctantly accepted the party's gubernatorial nomination in 1875, and he once again lost by a substantial margin, this time to Democrat James B. McCreary. The following year, Harlan worked to nominate Bristow at the 1876 Republican National Convention, seeking to position Bristow as a more electable alternative to Republican front-runner James G. Blaine. When Rutherford B. Hayes instead emerged as the compromise candidate, Harlan switched his delegation's votes and subsequently campaigned on Hayes' behalf in the 1876 election.

Supreme Court Justice

Nomination

Though Harlan was considered for several positions in the new administration, most notably Attorney General, initially the only job he was offered was as a member of a commission sent to Louisiana to resolve disputed statewide elections there. Justice David Davis, however, had resigned from the Supreme Court in January 1877 after being elected to the Senate by the Illinois General Assembly. Seeking to appoint a Southerner to the Supreme Court in the aftermath of the acrimonious and disputed 1876 presidential election, Hayes settled on Harlan. Though Harlan's nomination prompted some criticism from Republican Stalwarts, he was confirmed unanimously by the Senate on November 29, 1877, and took the judicial oath of office on December 10, 1877.

Life on the Court
Harlan greatly enjoyed his time as a justice, serving until his death in 1911. From the start, he established good relationships with his fellow justices and he was close friends with a number of them. Though Harlan often disagreed with the other justices, occasionally quite vociferously, he was able to separate differences over legal matters from personal relationship. During his tenure, money problems continually plagued him, particularly as he began to put his three sons through college. Debt was a constant concern, and in the early 1880s, he considered resigning from the Court and returning to private practice. He ultimately decided to remain on the Court, but supplemented his income by teaching constitutional law at the Columbian Law School, which later became the George Washington University Law School.

When Harlan began his service, the Supreme Court faced a heavy workload that consisted primarily of diversity and removal cases, with only a few constitutional issues. Justices also rode circuit in the various federal judicial circuits; though these usually corresponded to the region from which the justice was appointed, due to his junior status, Harlan was assigned the Seventh Circuit based in Chicago. Harlan rode the Seventh Circuit until 1896, when he switched to his home circuit, the Sixth, upon the death of its previous holder, Justice Howell Edmunds Jackson. Harlan became the senior associate justice on the Court following the retirement of Stephen Johnson Field in 1897, and he served as acting chief justice after the death of Melville Fuller in 1910.

Jurisprudence

During Harlan's tenure on the Supreme Court, major Supreme Court decisions tended to address issues arising from industrialization and the Reconstruction Amendments. Beginning in the 1880s, the Supreme Court increasingly began to adopt a laissez-faire philosophy, striking down economic regulations while at the same time allowing states to curtail the rights of African Americans. Harlan differed from many of his colleagues, often voting to uphold federal regulations and to protect the civil rights of African Americans. His judicial opinions were influenced by his life-long belief in a strong national government, his sympathy for the economically disadvantaged, and his view that the Reconstruction Amendments had fundamentally transformed the relationship between the federal government and the state governments. Though Harlan believed the Court had the power to review state and federal actions on a broad array of topics, he tended to oppose judicial activism in favor of deference to legislatures.

Earlier cases, 1877–1896

Congress had passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in the waning days of Reconstruction, outlawing segregation in public accommodations such as railroads. The Supreme Court did not rule on the Civil Rights Act of 1875 until 1883, when it struck down the law in Civil Rights Cases. In his majority opinion, Justice Joseph P. Bradley held that the Thirteenth Amendment "simply abolished slavery," and that the Fourteenth Amendment did not authorize Congress to bar racial discrimination by private actors. Only Harlan dissented, vigorously, charging that the majority had subverted the Reconstruction Amendments: "The substance and spirit of the recent amendments of the constitution have been sacrificed by a subtle and ingenious verbal criticism." Harlan argued that the Fourteenth Amendment gave Congress the authority to regulate public accommodations, and further argued that the Thirteenth Amendment empowered Congress to "eradicate" the vestiges of slavery, such as restrictions on freedom of movement.

Harlan joined the Court's unanimous decision in Pace v. Alabama (1883), which ruled that anti-miscegenation laws were constitutional.

Harlan was the first justice to argue that the Fourteenth Amendment incorporated the Bill of Rights (making rights guarantees applicable to the individual states), in Hurtado v. California (1884).

Harlan was one of four justices to file a dissenting opinion in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895), which struck down a federal income tax levied by the Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act of 1894. Harlan described the majority opinion as a "disaster to the country" because it "impairs and cripples the just powers of the national government." He was the sole dissenter in another 1895 case, United States v. E. C. Knight Co., in which the Court severely curtailed the power of the federal government to pursue antitrust actions under the Sherman Antitrust Act. In his dissent, he wrote that "the common government of all the people is the only one that can adequately deal with a matter which directly and injuriously affects the entire commerce of the country." During the 1890s, he also wrote several dissents in cases where Court decisions curtailed the regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC).

Plessy v. Ferguson

In 1896, Associate Justice Henry Billings Brown delivered the majority decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, which established the doctrine of "separate but equal." Whereas the Civil Rights Cases had struck down a federal law barring segregation by private actors, the Court's opinion in Plessy allowed state governments to engage in segregation. Rejecting the argument that segregation violated the Thirteenth Amendment, Brown wrote that "a statute which implies merely a legal distinction between the white and colored races has no tendency to destroy the legal equality of the two races, or reestablish a state of involuntary servitude." In response to the plaintiff's claims regarding the Fourteenth Amendment, Brown wrote that the Fourteenth Amendment was designed to "enforce the absolute equality of the two races before the law," but added that the amendment "could not have been intended to abolish distinction based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished from political, equality, or a commingling of the two races upon terms unsatisfactory to either."

Harlan, the lone dissenting justice, strongly disapproved of the majority opinion, writing that "the judgement this day rendered, will, in time, prove to be quite as pernicious as the decision made by this tribunal in the Dred Scott Case." He accepted the appellant's argument that the Thirteenth Amendment barred segregation in public accommodations, as he believed that segregation imposed "badges of slavery or servitude" upon African Americans. He also accepted the appellant's argument that the segregation in public accommodations violated the Fourteenth Amendment on the basis that these accommodations constituted "public highway[s]." He further wrote that "our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens." Harlan rejected the idea that the law in question was race-neutral, writing that "everyone knows that the statute in question [was intended] to exclude colored people from coaches occupied by or assigned to white persons," adding that the law was "cunningly devised" to overturn the results of the Civil War.

Later cases, 1897–1911

Harlan did not embrace the idea of full social racial equality. While he had appeared to advocate for equality among those of different races and for a color-blind Constitution, in his Plessy dissent, he also stated "[t]here is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States.... I allude to the Chinese race."  In United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), Harlan joined Chief Justice Fuller's dissent proclaiming the dangers of having large numbers of Chinese immigrants in the United States. The Court's holding was that persons of Chinese descent born in the United States were citizens by birth. Fuller and Harlan argued that the principle of jus sanguinis (that is, the concept of a child inheriting their father's citizenship by descent regardless of birthplace) had been more pervasive in U.S. legal history since independence. In the view of the minority, excessive reliance on jus soli (birthplace) as the principal determiner of citizenship would lead to an untenable state of affairs in which "the children of foreigners, happening to be born to them while passing through the country, whether of royal parentage or not, or whether of the Mongolian, Malay or other race, were eligible to the presidency, while children of our citizens, born abroad, were not".

Harlan was also the most staunchly anti-imperialist justice of the Supreme Court, arguing consistently in the Insular Cases (from 1901 to 1905) that the Constitution did not permit the demarcation of different rights between citizens of the states and the residents of newly acquired territories in the Philippines, Hawaii, Guam, and Puerto Rico, a view that was consistently in the minority. In Hawaii v. Mankichi (1903) his opinion stated: "If the principles now announced should become firmly established, the time may not be far distant when, under the exactions of trade and commerce, and to gratify an ambition to become the dominant power in all the earth, the United States will acquire territories in every direction... whose inhabitants will be regarded as 'subjects' or 'dependent peoples,' to be controlled as Congress may see fit... which will engraft on our republican institutions a colonial system entirely foreign to the genius of our Government and abhorrent to the principles that underlie and pervade our Constitution."

Harlan delivered the majority opinion in Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago (1897), holding that due process required fair compensation to be given for any private property seized by the state. The decision incorporated the Fifth Amendment's Takings Clause, representing the first time that part of the Bill of Rights was applied to state governments. The Court would not incorporate another provision of the Bill of Rights until Gitlow v. New York (1925). Harlan wrote the majority opinion in Northern Securities Co. v. United States, the first time the Court upheld the use of the Sherman Antitrust Act to break up a large corporation. Harlan also wrote the majority opinion in Adair v. United States (1908), holding that Congress did not have the power to ban "yellow-dog contracts".

During his final years on the Court, Harlan continued to write dissents in major cases, such as Giles v. Harris (1903), a case challenging the use of grandfather clauses to restrict voting rolls and de facto exclude blacks. He also dissented in Lochner v. New York (1905), but he agreed with the majority "that there is a liberty of contract which cannot be violated even under the sanction of direct legislative enactment." In his dissent in Hodges v. United States (1906), Harlan reiterated his belief that the Thirteenth Amendment empowered Congress to protect African Americans from discrimination and violence. He was the lone dissenter in Ex parte Young (1908), arguing that the Eleventh Amendment prevented suits against state officials acting on behalf of the state. In his partial dissent in the 1911 case of Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States, Harlan argued against the Court's establishment of the rule of reason, which held that in some extenuating circumstances a trust should not be broken up even if it has a monopoly. In both Standard Oil and United States v. American Tobacco Co. (1911), Harlan strongly criticized the majority opinion for adopting the rule of reason; as the rule was not present in the original legislation, he believed that the Court was usurping Congress's legislative prerogatives.

Death
Harlan died on October 14, 1911, after 33 years serving on the Supreme Court, the third-longest tenure on the court up to that time and sixth-longest ever. He was the last veteran of the Waite Court to remain on the bench. He was buried in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C., where his body resides along with those of three other justices. Harlan, who suffered from financial problems throughout his tenure on the Court, left minimal assets for the support of his widow, Malvina Shanklin Harlan, and two unmarried daughters. In the months following Harlan's death, leading members of the Supreme Court Bar established a fund for the benefit of the Harlan survivors.

Personal life

Family
In December 1856, Harlan married Malvina French Shanklin, the daughter of an Indiana businessman. According to friends and Shanklin's memoirs, theirs was a happy marriage, which lasted until Harlan's death. They had six children, three sons and three daughters. Their eldest son, Richard, became a Presbyterian minister and served as president of Lake Forest College. Their second son, James S. Harlan, practiced in Chicago and served as attorney general of Puerto Rico and chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Their youngest son, John Maynard Harlan, also practiced in Chicago and served as an alderman. John Maynard's son, John Marshall Harlan II, served as a Supreme Court Associate Justice from 1955 until 1971.

Religious beliefs

Harlan was fervently religious, and legal scholar James W. Gordon argued that his faith "was the most important lens through which he viewed the people and events of his life". A conservative Presbyterian, he favored the Old School branch of that denomination, opposed higher criticism, and stridently adhered to Calvinism. During his tenure as a justice, he was an elder at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C., and there he taught a Sunday school class of middle-aged men from 1896 until his death in 1911.

Legacy

Harlan was largely forgotten in the decades after his death, but his reputation began to improve in the mid-twentieth century, and many scholars now consider him to be one of the greatest Supreme Court justices of his era. He is most known for his reputation as the "Great Dissenter," and he is especially remembered for his dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson. Historian D. Grier Stephenson writes that "more than any justice with whom he served, Harlan understood the Reconstruction Amendments to establish a nationally protected right against racial discrimination, although it is a measure of the Court that he frequently articulated those promises in dissent." Legal scholar Bernard Schwartz writes that "Harlan's key dissents have generally been affirmed in the court of history. A century later, his rejection of the narrow view toward civil rights adopted by the Court majority has been generally approved." Harlan's view that the Fourteenth Amendment made the provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states has also largely been adopted by the Supreme Court.

Harlan is commemorated by John Marshall Harlan Community Academy High School, a Chicago public high school, as well as by John Marshall Harlan High School in Texas. During World War II the Liberty ship  was built and named in his honor. Centre College, Harlan's alma mater, instituted the John Marshall Harlan Professorship in Government in 1994 in honor of Harlan's reputation as one of the Supreme Court's greatest justices. Named for Justice Harlan, the "Harlan Scholars" of the University of Louisville/Louis D. Brandeis School of Law is an undergraduate organization for students interested in attending law school. Collections of Harlan's papers are at the University of Louisville and at the Library of Congress in Washington. Other papers are collected at many other libraries.

On March 12, 1906, Harlan donated a King James Version Bible to the Supreme Court. This Bible had become known as the "Harlan Bible", and as of 2015, has been signed by every succeeding Supreme Court justice after taking the oath of office.

See also

List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 8)
List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office
United States Supreme Court cases during the Fuller Court
United States Supreme Court cases during the Waite Court
United States Supreme Court cases during the White Court

Notes

References

Citations

Works cited

Further reading

; online review

External links

Oyez Project, U.S. Supreme Court Multimedia – John M. Harlan.
John Marshall Harlan, Bibliography, Biography and location of papers, Sixth Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals.

Centre's John Marshall Harlan praised as civil rights pioneer (March 5, 2009) at Centre College.

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1833 births
1911 deaths
19th-century American judges
19th-century American politicians
20th-century American judges
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American Presbyterians
American prosecutors
Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery
Centre College alumni
County judges in Kentucky
George Washington University faculty
Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
Kentucky Attorneys General
Kentucky Know Nothings
Kentucky Oppositionists
Kentucky Republicans
Kentucky Unionists
Kentucky Whigs
People from Boyle County, Kentucky
People of Kentucky in the American Civil War
Politicians from Danville, Kentucky
Politicians from Louisville, Kentucky
Southern Unionists in the American Civil War
Transylvania University alumni
Union Army officers
United States federal judges appointed by Rutherford B. Hayes
Harlan family

John Marshall Harlan


Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm Generations, conocido en Japón como , es un videojuego perteneciente a la saga Naruto: Ultimate Ninja, desarrollado por CyberConnect2 y distribuido por Namco Bandai, lanzado exclusivamente para PlayStation 3 y Xbox 360. Está basado en la famosa serie manga Naruto  y del anime Naruto shippuden de Masashi Kishimoto. El videojuego contiene los personajes de los otros juegos de la saga; Naruto: Ultimate Ninja Storm y Naruto Shippūden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 2. Su lanzamiento al mercado ocurrió entre el 23 de febrero en Japón, 13 de marzo en Norteamérica y el 30 de marzo en Europa de 2012.

Personajes disponibles

 Asuma Sarutobi
 Chiyō
 Chōji Akimichi
 Chōji Akimichi (Shippuden)
 Danzō Shimura
 Deidara
 Gaara
 Gaara (Shippuden)
 Haku
 Hashirama Senju
 Hidan
 Hinata Hyūga
 Hinata Hyūga (Shippuden)
 Hiruzen Sarutobi
 Ino Yamanaka
 Ino Yamanaka (Shippuden)
 Itachi Uchiha
 Jiraiya
 Jūgo
 Kabuto Yakushi
 Kakashi Hatake
 Kakashi Hatake (niño)
 Kakuzu
 Kankurō
 Kankurō (Shippuden)
 Karin
 Kiba Inuzuka
 Kiba Inuzuka (Shippuden)
 Killer Bee
 Kimimaro Kaguya
 Kisame Hoshigaki
 Konan
 Kurenai Yūhi
 Mei Terumi
 Might Guy
 Minato Namikaze
 Nagato
 Naruto Uzumaki
 Naruto Uzumaki (Shippuden)
 Neji Hyūga
 Neji Hyūga (Shippuden)
 Obito Uchiha
 Orochimaru
 Rock Lee
 Rock Lee (Shippuden)
 Sai
 Sakura Haruno
 Sakura Haruno (Shippuden)
 Sasori
 Sasuke Uchiha
 Sasuke Uchiha (Shippuden)
 Tobirama Senju
 Shikamaru Nara
 Shikamaru Nara (Shippuden)
 Shino Aburame
 Shino Aburame (Shippuden)
 Suigetsu
 Temari
 Temari (Shippuden)
 Tenten
 Tenten (Shippuden)
 Tobi
 Tsunade
 Zabuza Momochi

Banda sonora

El videojuego también lanzó su propia banda sonora. Está compuesta por los siguientes temas:

01. Opening 1:33
02. Sorrowful Eyes 2:03
03. Earth-shaking Matter 2:43
04. Crimson Spiral & Black Thunder 2:53
05. A Time Of Fresh Wind 1:40
06. Battle In The Sand 2:34
07. Sakura's Good Fight 2:37
08. Acquaintance From Long Ago 3:22
09. Paces Towards Death 3:28
10. Lightless Struggle 2:59
11. White-Hot Battle At The Summit 2:36
12. Storms Of War In The Ninja World 0:36
13. Separate Paths 1:40
14. Clash Of Rivales 2:43
15. "The Tale Of Killer Bee" Opening 0:57
16. "The Tale Of Killer Bee" VS Guy 0:31
17. "The Tale Of Killer Bee" VS Sasuke 0:29
18. "The Tale Of Killer Bee" VS Kisame 0:33
19. "The Tale Of Killer Bee" Ending 0:58

Enlaces externos

 Official Japanese website (en japonés)
 Official North American website (en inglés)
 Official European website (en inglés)

Videojuegos de 2012
Videojuegos de Naruto
Videojuegos de Bandai Namco
Videojuegos para PlayStation 3
Videojuegos para Xbox 360
Videojuegos de un solo jugador y de multijugador


Natalija Guschanski  (* 24. Juni 1955) ist Professorin der Fakultät I, Elektro- und Informationstechnik sowie Leiterin des Fachgebietes Technologie an der Hochschule Hannover.

Leben
Natalija Guschanski studierte von 1973 bis 1978 an der Nationalen Polytechnischen Universität Lwiw mi dem Abschluss Dipl.-Ing. Halbleiter- und mikroelektronische Geräte; 1988 erfolgte ihre Promotion am Institut der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Moskau. 1993–1995 war sie wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin an der Universität Hannover, 1998–2008 Professorin der FH Braunschweig/Wolfenbüttel (Hochschule Ostfalia), FB Maschinenbau. Sie gab Vorlesungen in Mathematik, Physik, Oberflächentechnik, Korrosionsschutz, zerstörungsfreie Prüfverfahren sowie Werkstoffkunde.
Seit dem Wintersemester 2008 ist sie Professorin der Hochschule Hannover, Fakultät I, Elektro- und Informationstechnik und seit 2009  Leiterin des Fachgebietes Technologie.

Schwerpunkte ihrer Tätigkeit sind die Bereiche der Werkstoffprüfung, Nanotechnologie, Speichersysteme der Elektromobilität sowie der Batterieanalyse.

Weblinks
 hs-hannover.de Abgerufen am 7. März 2012

Einzelnachweise

Elektroingenieur
Hochschullehrer (Hochschule Hannover)
Deutscher
Geboren 1955
Frau

Natalija Guschanski


Rohlstorf er en by og en kommune i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i Amt Trave-Land under Kreis Segeberg. Kreis Segeberg ligger i den sydøstlige del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.

Geografi
Rohlstorf ligger på vestbredden af Wardersee 7 km øst for Bad Segeberg og ca. 27 km fra kysten til Østersøen, ved Bundesstraße B 432. Floden Trave der også løbergennem Wardersee, danner en stor del af kommunens nordgrænse. I kommunen ligger ud over Rohlstorf, landsbyerne og bebyggelserne Christianenthal, Düsternbrook, Fährkate, Hexenberg, Imrade, Krögsberg, Margarethenhof, Quaal, Gut Rohlstorf, Warder, Warderbrück og Warderfelde.

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 Kommunens websted
 Statistikamt Nord – Bevölkerung der Gemeinden in Schleswig-Holstein 4. Quartal 2014 (XLSX-Data) (Fortschreibung auf Basis des Zensus 2011)

Byer i Slesvig-Holsten
Kommuner i Slesvig-Holsten
Byer i Kreis Segeberg

Rohlstorf


Dravograd (; ) is a small town in northern Slovenia, close to the border with Austria. It is the seat of the Municipality of Dravograd. It lies on the Drava River at the confluence with the Meža and the Mislinja. It is part of the traditional Slovenian provinces of Carinthia and the larger Carinthia Statistical Region.

History

From 976 onwards the Dravograd area was part of the Duchy of Carinthia. The German name Unterdrauburg denoted the place where the Drava River left Carinthia and flowed into the neighbouring Duchy of Styria. It corresponded with Oberdrauburg up the river at Carinthia's western border with the County of Tyrol. The name Dravograd was invented during the Slovene national revival in the 19th century. Previously, the local Slovene name of the town was Traberk, a derivative of the German name Drauburg. The 19th century was a period of national awakening of the Carinthian Slovenes, and also of the rise of competing nationalisms: Slovene and German.

After the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1918, the whole area south of Dravograd was occupied by the Slovene volunteer forces of Major Franjo Malgaj, acting in the name of the newly established State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The town of Dravograd itself however remained in the hands of the volunteers acting in the name of the German-Austrian rump state. In mid-December 1918, Dravograd was seized by the volunteer forces of Slovene General Rudolf Maister. Per the 1919 Treaty of Saint Germain, Dravograd became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (the later Yugoslavia).

In the interwar period, the area of Dravograd witnessed an important process of industrialization. In the 1930s, social tensions grew as the consequence of the world economic crisis, as did the tensions between the small ethnic German minority and the Slovene-speaking majority. In the late 1930s, the Nazi movement started penetrating the German community in Dravograd, triggering the reaction of the Slovene majority. Physical violence between the pro-Nazi organization and the local section of the Sokol movement were common. In 1939 and in 1940, two mass anti-Nazi rallies were held in the municipality of Dravograd, organized by patriotic and nationalist Slovene organizations, mostly of left-wing orientation.

In April 1941, after the Invasion of Yugoslavia, Dravograd was occupied by Wehrmacht forces and incorporated into the Carinthian Reichsgau of Nazi Germany. The use of the Slovene language was prohibited, all Slovene organizations were abolished, and numerous Slovenes were deported to central Germany or to the area governed by the Military Administration in Serbia. Local Slovene political activists were either executed or deported to Nazi concentration camps. In July 1941, the local artist Franjo Golob organized an underground anti-Nazi resistance cell, which was however soon discovered. Violent repression followed, which hindered the further development of anti-German resistance in this area. In mid-1943, the Yugoslav Partisans resistance movement started taking roots in the Dravograd area, which grew stronger by 1944, despite the brutal repressions of the Nazi authorities. Upon the German Instrument of Surrender and the nearby Battle of Poljana on 14/15 May 1945, the whole area was controlled by the Partisans.

In the communist period, the Dravograd area further developed its industrial capacities. During the Ten Day War of Slovenian independence in June and July 1991, some fighting took place in the Dravograd area.

Sights

Ruins of the old Dravograd castle (also referred to as Castrum Trahburck) overlook the town from the hill above the area of old market town. The castle was built in 1161 and in possession of Ortlof Trušenjski and his heirs until 1278. Afterwards, owners of the castle frequently changed (e.g., the Habsburgs in 1355, the Counts of Celje in 1387, and again the Habsburgs in 1456).

The parish church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint John the Evangelist and belongs to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Maribor. It was first mentioned in written documents dating to the late 14th century. It was rebuilt in 1520 and in 1621. The current church is Baroque with a characteristic onion dome on its belfry. A second church in the town is dedicated to Saint Vitus and is a late 12th-century Romanesque building.

Lake Dravograd () is a reservoir upstream from the hydroelectric power plant, between Dravograd and Črneče. It is an important natural habitat included in Natura 2000.

Transportation
The Dravograd railway station is on the Drautalbahn railway line from Maribor to Innichen (San Candido) in Italy, opened in 1863. Highway No. 3 leading from Maribor to the Austrian border runs through the town, where highway No. 10-10 to Celje branches off.

Dravograd Hydroelectric Power Plant

The power plant on the Drava River was built by the Germans during the Second World War, between 1941 and 1944. It started operating in 1944 with two vertical Kaplan turbines. It was the first pier-type power plant in Europe (along with a similar plant in Lavamünd, built in the same period). In April 1945, the plant was bombed and damaged by Allied air strikes. Renovation started after the war, with the first turbine becoming operational in December 1945 and the second in January the next year. Renovation ended in 1955, when the third turbine was added.

Refurbishment commenced in 1994, increasing the net capacity to 26.2 MW. Today the power plant can generate 142 million kWh of electricity annually, with an 8.9 m available head. Four 24 m wide spillways have a total spilling capacity of up to 5400 m3/s of water. For comparison, the highest water flows since construction of the power plant, measured during the 2012 floods, were 2570 m3/s. Three turbine piers are placed among the spillways. The plant reservoir is 10.2 km long and stretches up to the higher power plant at Lavamünd, Austria. It contains 5.6 million m3 of water.

The power plant is one of eight power plants on the Drava River in Slovenia and is managed by the company Dravske Elektrarne Maribor.

Other data
Postal code: SI-2370
Area code: 02 (Maribor)
Vehicle registration plate prefix: SG (Slovenj Gradec)

Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Dravograd include:
Eva Boto, singer, represented Slovenia in the 2012 Eurovision Song Contest
Boštjan Nachbar, basketball player
Andrej Pečnik, football player
Nejc Pečnik, football player
Marijan Pušnik, football coach
brothers Ivo Polančič and Lovro Polančič, anti-Nazi resistance fighters
Anton Vogrinec, theologian

References

External links

Dravograd on Geopedia
  Dravograd Tourist Board
 Dravograd hydroelectric power station
 UL-Aero klub Aviofun Koroška

Populated places in the Municipality of Dravograd
Austria–Slovenia border crossings
Cities and towns in Carinthia (Slovenia)

Dravograd