Sven Anders Hedin, KNO1kl RVO, (19 February 1865 – 26 November 1952) was a Swedish geographer, topographer, explorer, photographer, travel writer and illustrator of his own works. During four expeditions to Central Asia, he made the Transhimalaya known in the West and located sources of the Brahmaputra, Indus and Sutlej Rivers. He also mapped lake Lop Nur, and the remains of cities, grave sites and the Great Wall of China in the deserts of the Tarim Basin. In his book Från pol till pol (From Pole to Pole), Hedin describes a journey through Asia and Europe between the late 1880s and the early 1900s. While traveling, Hedin visited Turkey, the Caucasus, Tehran, Iraq, lands of the Kyrgyz people and the Russian Far East, India, China and Japan. The posthumous publication of his Central Asia Atlas marked the conclusion of his life's work.

Overview
At 15 years of age, Hedin witnessed the triumphal return of the Arctic explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld after his first navigation of the Northern Sea Route. From that moment on, young Sven aspired to become an explorer. His studies under the German geographer and China expert, Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen, awakened a love of Germany in Hedin and strengthened his resolve to undertake expeditions to Central Asia to explore the last uncharted areas of Asia.  After obtaining a doctorate, learning several languages and dialects, and undertaking two trips through Persia, he ignored the advice of Ferdinand von Richthofen to continue his geographic studies to acquaint himself with geographical research methodology; the result was that Hedin had to leave the evaluation of his expedition results later to other scientists.

Between 1894 and 1908, in three daring expeditions through the mountains and deserts of Central Asia, he mapped and researched parts of Chinese Turkestan (officially Xinjiang) and Tibet which had been unexplored by Europeans until then. Upon his return to Stockholm in 1909 he was received as triumphantly as Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. In 1902, he became the last Swede (to date) to be raised to the untitled nobility and was considered one of Sweden's most important personalities. As a member of two scientific academies, he had a voice in the selection of Nobel Prize winners for both science and literature. Hedin never married and had no children, rendering his family line now extinct.

Hedin's expedition notes laid the foundations for a precise mapping of Central Asia. He was one of the first European scientific explorers to employ indigenous scientists and research assistants on his expeditions. Although primarily an explorer, he was also the first to unearth the ruins of ancient Buddhist cities in Chinese Central Asia. However, as his main interest in archaeology was finding ancient cities, he had little interest in gathering data thorough scientific excavations.  Of small stature, with a bookish, bespectacled appearance, Hedin nevertheless proved himself a determined explorer, surviving several close brushes with death from hostile forces and the elements over his long career. His scientific documentation and popular travelogues, illustrated with his own photographs, watercolor paintings and drawings, his adventure stories for young readers and his lecture tours abroad made him world-famous.

As a renowned expert on Turkestan and Tibet, he was able to obtain unrestricted access to European and Asian monarchs and politicians as well as to their geographical societies and scholarly associations. They all sought to purchase his exclusive knowledge about the power vacuum in Central Asia with gold medals, diamond-encrusted grand crosses, honorary doctorates and splendid receptions, as well as with logistic and financial support for his expeditions. Hedin, in addition to Nikolai Przhevalsky, Sir Francis Younghusband, and Sir Aurel Stein, was an active player in the British-Russian struggle for influence in Central Asia, known as the Great Game. Their travels were supported because they filled in the "white spaces" in contemporary maps, providing valuable information.

Hedin was honored in ceremonies in:
 1890 by King Oscar II of Sweden
 1890 by Shah Nāser ad-Dīn Schah
 1896, 1909 by Czar Nicholas II of Russia
 from 1898 frequently by Kaiser Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary
 1902 by the Viceroy of India Lord Curzon
 1903, 1914, 1917, 1926, 1936 by Kaiser Wilhelm II
 1906 by the Viceroy of India Lord Minto
 1907, 1926, 1933 by the 9th Panchen Lama Thubten Choekyi Nyima
 1908 by Emperor Mutsuhito
 1910 by Pope Pius X
 1910 by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt
 1915 and subsequently by Hindenburg
 1929 and 1935 by Chiang Kai-shek
 1935, 1939, 1940 (twice) by Adolf Hitler.

Hedin was, and remained, a figure of the 19th century who clung to its visions and methods also in the 20th century. This prevented him from discerning the fundamental social and political upheavals of the 20th century and aligning his thinking and actions accordingly.

Concerned about the security of Scandinavia, he favored the Swedish Navy's construction of the battleship . In World War I he specifically allied himself in his publications with the German Empire and its conduct of the war. Because of this political involvement, his scientific reputation was damaged among the Allied powers, along with his memberships in their geographical societies and learned associations, as well as any support for his planned expeditions.

After a less-than-successful lecture tour in 1923 through North America and Japan, he traveled on to Beijing to carry out an expedition to Chinese Turkestan (modern Xinjiang), but the region's unstable political situation thwarted this intention. He instead traveled through Mongolia by car and through Siberia aboard the Trans-Siberian Railway.

With financial support from the governments of Sweden and Germany, he led, between 1927 and 1935, an international and interdisciplinary Sino-Swedish Expedition to carry out scientific investigations in Mongolia and Chinese Turkestan, with the participation of 37 scientists from six countries. Despite Chinese counter-demonstrations and after months of negotiations in the Republic of China, was he able to make the expedition also a Chinese one by obtaining Chinese research commissions and the participation of Chinese scientists. He also concluded a contract which guaranteed freedom of travel for this expedition which, because of its arms, 300 camels, and activities in a war theater, resembled an invading army. However, the financing remained Hedin's private responsibility.

Because of failing health, the civil war in Chinese Turkestan, and a long period of captivity, Hedin, by then 70 years of age, had a difficult time after the currency depreciation of the Great Depression raising the money required for the expedition, the logistics for assuring the supplying of the expedition in an active war zone, and obtaining access for the expedition's participants to a research area intensely contested by local warlords. Nevertheless, the expedition was a scientific success. The archaeological artifacts which had been sent to Sweden were scientifically assessed for three years (or four years according to Chung-Chang Shen (C.C. Shen), who was the administrative officer for the Sino-Swedish Expedition Council, and drafted the contract), after which they were returned to China under the terms of the contract.

Starting in 1937, the scientific material assembled during the expedition was published in over 50 volumes by Hedin and other expedition participants, thereby making it available for worldwide research on eastern Asia. When he ran out of money to pay printing costs, he pawned his extensive and valuable library, which filled several rooms, making possible the publication of additional volumes.

In 1935, Hedin made his exclusive knowledge about Central Asia available, not only to the Swedish government, but also to foreign governments such as China and Germany, in lectures and personal discussions with political representatives of Chiang Kai-shek and Adolf Hitler.

Although he was not a National Socialist, Hedin's hope that Nazi Germany would protect Scandinavia from invasion by the Soviet Union, brought him in dangerous proximity to representatives of National Socialism, who exploited him as an author. This destroyed his reputation and put him into social and scientific isolation. However, in correspondence and personal conversations with leading Nazis, his successful intercessions achieved the pardoning of ten people condemned to death and the release or survival of Jews who had been deported to Nazi concentration camps.

At the end of the war, United States Army troops deliberately confiscated documents relating to Hedin's planned Central Asia Atlas. The U.S. Army Map Service later solicited Hedin's assistance and financed the printing and publication of his life's work, the Central Asia Atlas. Whoever compares this atlas with Adolf Stielers Hand Atlas of 1891 can appreciate what Hedin accomplished between 1893 and 1935.

Although Hedin's research was taboo in Germany and Sweden because of his conduct relating to Nazi Germany, and stagnated for decades in Germany, the scientific documentation of his expeditions was translated into Chinese by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and incorporated into Chinese research. Following recommendations made by Hedin to the Chinese Nationalist government in 1935, the routes he selected were used to construct streets and train tracks, as well as dams and canals to irrigate new farms being established in the Tarim and Yanji basins in Xinjiang and the deposits of iron, manganese, oil, coal and gold discovered during the Sino-Swedish Expedition were opened up for mining. Among the discoveries of this expedition should also be counted the many Asian plants and animals unheard of until that date, as well as fossil remains of dinosaurs and other extinct animals. Many were named after Hedin, the species-level scientific classification being hedini. But one discovery remained unknown to Chinese researchers until the turn of the millennium: in the Lop Nur desert, Hedin discovered in 1933 and 1934 ruins of signal towers which prove that the Great Wall of China once extended as far west as Xinjiang.

From 1931 until his death in 1952, Hedin lived in Stockholm in a modern high-rise in a preferred location, the address being Norr Mälarstrand 66. He lived with his siblings in the upper three stories and from the balcony he had a wide view over Riddarfjärden Bay and Lake Mälaren to the island of Långholmen. In the entryway to the stairwell is to be found a decorative stucco relief map of Hedin's research area in Central Asia and a relief of the Lama temple, a copy of which he had brought to Chicago for the 1933 World's Fair.

On 29 October 1952, Hedin's will granted the rights to his books and his extensive personal effects to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; the Sven Hedin Foundation established soon thereafter holds all the rights of ownership.

Hedin died at Stockholm in 1952. The memorial service was attended by representatives of the Swedish royal household, the Swedish government, the Swedish Academy, and the diplomatic service. He is buried in the cemetery of Adolf Fredrik church in Stockholm.

Biography

Childhood influences
Sven Hedin was born in Stockholm, the son of Ludwig Hedin, Chief Architect of Stockholm.
When he was 15 years old Hedin witnessed the triumphal return of the Swedish Arctic explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld after his first navigation of the Northern Sea Route.

He describes this experience in his book My Life as an Explorer as follows:
On 24 April 1880, the steamer Vega sailed into Stockholms ström. The entire city was illuminated. The buildings around the harbor glowed in the light of innumerable lamps and torches. Gas flames depicted the constellation of Vega on the castle. Amidst this sea of light the famous ship glided into the harbor. I was standing on the Södermalm heights with my parents and siblings, from which we had a superb view. I was gripped by great nervous tension. I will remember this day until I die, as it was decisive for my future. Thunderous jubilation resounded from quays, streets, windows and rooftops. "That is how I want to return home some day," I thought to myself.

First trip to Iran (Persia)
In May 1885, Hedin graduated from Beskowska secondary school in Stockholm. He then accepted an offer to accompany the student Erhard Sandgren as his private tutor to Baku, where Sandgren's father was working as an engineer in the oil fields of Robert Nobel. Afterward he attended a course in topography for general staff officers for one month in summer 1885 and took a few weeks of instruction in portrait drawing; this comprised his entire training in those areas.

On 15 August 1885, he traveled to Baku with Erhard Sandgren and instructed him there for seven months, and he himself began to learn the Latin, French, German, Persian, Russian, English and Tatar languages. He later learned several Persian dialects as well as Turkish, Kyrgyz, Mongolian, Tibetan and some Chinese.

On 6 April 1886, Hedin left Baku for Iran (then called Persia), traveling by paddle steamer over the Caspian Sea, riding through the Alborz Range to Tehran, Esfahan, Shiraz and the harbor city of Bushehr. From there he took a ship up the Tigris River to Baghdad (then in Ottoman Empire), returning to Tehran via Kermanshah, and then travelling through the Caucasus and over the Black Sea to Constantinople. Hedin then returned to Sweden, arriving on 18 September 1886.

In 1887, Hedin published a book about these travels entitled Through Persia, Mesopotamia and the Caucasus.

Studies
From 1886 to 1888, Hedin studied under the geologist Waldemar Brøgger in Stockholm and Uppsala the subjects of geology, mineralogy, zoology and Latin. In December 1888, he became a Candidate in Philosophy. From October 1889 to March 1890 he studied in Berlin under Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen.

Second trip to Iran
On 12 May 1890, he accompanied as interpreter and vice-consul a Swedish legation to Iran which was to present the Shah of Iran with the insignia of the Order of the Seraphim. As part of the Swedish legation, he was at an audience of the shah Naser al-Din Shah Qajar in Tehran. He spoke with him and later accompanied him to the Elburz Mountain Range. On 11 July 1890, he and three others climbed Mount Damavand where he collected primary material for his dissertation. Starting in September he traveled on the Silk Road via cities Mashhad, Ashgabat, Bukhara, Samarkand, Tashkent and Kashgar to the western outskirts of the Taklamakan Desert. On the trip home, he visited the grave of the Russian Asian scholar, Nikolai Przhevalsky in Karakol on the shore of Lake Issyk Kul. On 29 March 1891, he was back in Stockholm. He published the books King Oscar's Legation to the Shah of Persia in 1890 and Through Chorasan and Turkestan about this journey.

Doctorate and career path
On 27 April 1892, Hedin traveled to Berlin to continue his studies under Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen. Beginning of July he went to University of Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, attending lectures by Alfred Kirchhoff. Yet in the same month, he received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a 28-page dissertation entitled Personal Observations of Damavand. This dissertation is a summary of one part of his book, King Oscar's Legation to the Shah of Persia in 1890. Eric Wennerholm remarked on the subject: I can only come to the conclusion that Sven [Hedin] received his doctorate when he was 27 years old after studying for a grand total of only eight months and collecting primary material for one-and-a-half days on the snow-clad peak of Mount Damavand.

Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen not only encouraged Hedin to absolve cursory studies, but also to become thoroughly acquainted with all branches of geographic science and the methodologies of the salient research work, so that he could later work as an explorer. Hedin abstained from doing this with an explanation he supplied in old age: I was not up to this challenge. I had gotten out onto the wild routes of Asia too early, I had perceived too much of the splendor and magnificence of the Orient, the silence of the deserts and the loneliness of long journeys. I could not get used to the idea of spending a long period of time back in school.

Hedin had therewith decided to become an explorer. He was attracted to the idea of traveling to the last mysterious portions of Asia and filling in the gaps by mapping an area completely unknown in Europe. As an explorer, Hedin became important for the Asian and European powers, who courted him, invited him to give numerous lectures, and hoped to obtain from him in return topographic, economic and strategic information about inner Asia, which they considered part of their sphere of influence. As the era of discovery came to a close around 1920, Hedin contented himself with organizing the Sino-Swedish Expedition for qualified scientific explorers.

First expedition
Between 1893 and 1897, Hedin investigated the Pamir Mountains, travelling through the Tarim Basin in Xinjiang region, across the Taklamakan Desert, Lake Kara-Koshun and Lake Bosten, proceeding to study northern Tibet. He covered  on this journey and mapped  of them on 552 sheets. Approximately  led through previously uncharted areas.

He started out on this expedition on 16 October 1893, from Stockholm, traveling via Saint Petersburg and Tashkent to the Pamir Mountains. Several attempts to climb the  high Muztagata—called the Father of the Glaciers—in the Pamir Mountains were unsuccessful. He remained in Kashgar until April 1895 and then left on 10 April with three local escorts from the village of Merket to cross the Taklamakan Desert via Tusluk to the Khotan River. Since their water supply was insufficient, seven camels died of thirst, as did two of his escorts (according to Hedin's dramatized and probably inaccurate account). Bruno Baumann traveled on this route in April 2000 with a camel caravan and ascertained that at least one of the escorts who, according to Hedin, had died of thirst had survived, and that it is impossible for a camel caravan traveling in springtime on this route to carry enough drinking water for both camels and travelers.

According to other sources, Hedin had neglected to completely fill the drinking water containers for his caravan at the beginning of the expedition and set out for the desert with only half as much water as could actually be carried. When he noticed the mistake, it was too late to return. Obsessed by his urge to carry out his research, Hedin deserted the caravan and proceeded alone on horseback with his servant. When that escort also collapsed from thirst, Hedin left him behind as well, but managed to reach a water source at the last desperate moment. He did, however, return to his servant with water and rescued him. Nevertheless, his ruthless behavior earned him massive criticism.

In January 1896, after a stopover in Kashgar, Hedin visited the 1,500-year-old abandoned cities of Dandan Oilik and Kara Dung, which are located northeast of Khotan in the Taklamakan Desert. At the beginning of March, he discovered Lake Bosten, one of the largest inland bodies of water in Central Asia. He reported that this lake is supplied by a single mighty feeder stream, the Kaidu River. He mapped Lake Kara-Koshun and returned on 27 May to Khotan. On 29 June, he started out from there with his caravan across northern Tibet and China to Beijing, where he arrived on 2 March 1897. He returned to Stockholm via Mongolia and Russia.

Second expedition
Another expedition in Central Asia followed in 1899–1902 through the Tarim Basin, Tibet and Kashmir to Calcutta. Hedin navigated the Yarkand, Tarim and Kaidu rivers and found the dry riverbed of the Kum-darja as well as the dried out lake bed of Lop Nur. Near Lop Nur, he discovered the ruins of the  former walled royal city and later Chinese garrison town of Loulan, containing the brick building of the Imperial Chinese Army commander, a stupa, and 19 dwellings built of poplar wood. He also found a wooden wheel from a horse-drawn cart (called an arabas) as well as several hundred documents written on wood, paper and silk in the Kharosthi script. These provided information about the history of the city of Loulan, which had once been located on the shores of Lop Nur but had been abandoned around the year 330 CE because the lake had dried out, depriving the inhabitants of drinking water.

During his travels in 1900 and 1901 he attempted in vain to reach the city of Lhasa, which was forbidden to Europeans. He continued to Leh, in Ladakh district, India. From Leh, Hedin's route took him to Lahore, Delhi, Agra, Lucknow, Benares to Calcutta, meeting there with George Nathaniel Curzon, England's then Viceroy to India.

This expedition resulted in 1,149 pages of maps, on which Hedin depicted newly discovered lands. He was the first to describe yardang formations in the Lop Desert.

Third expedition
Between 1905 and 1908, Hedin investigated the Central Iranian desert basins, the western highlands of Tibet and the Transhimalaya, which for a time was afterward called the Hedin Range. He visited the 9th Panchen Lama in the cloistered city of Tashilhunpo in Shigatse. Hedin was the first European to reach the Kailash region, including the sacred Lake Manasarovar and Mount Kailash, the midpoint of the earth according to Buddhist and Hindu mythology. The most important goal of the expedition was the search for the sources of the Indus and Brahmaputra Rivers, both of which Hedin found. From India, he returned via Japan and Russia to Stockholm.

He returned from this expedition with a collection of geological samples which are kept and studied in the Bavarian State Collection of Paleontology and Geology of Munich University. These sedimentary rocks—such as breccia, conglomerate, limestone, and slate, as well as volcanic rock and granite—highlight the geological diversity of the regions visited by Hedin during this expedition.

Mongolia
In 1923, Hedin traveled to Beijing via the United States—where he visited the Grand Canyon—and the Empire of Japan. Because of political and social unrest in China, he had to abandon an expedition to Xinjiang. Instead, he traveled with Frans August Larson (called the "Duke of Mongolia") in November and December in a Dodge automobile from Peking through Mongolia via Ulan-Bator to Ulan-Ude, Russia and from there on the Trans-Siberian Railway to Moscow.

Fourth expedition
Between 1927 and 1935, Hedin led an international Sino-Swedish Expedition which investigated the meteorological, topographic and prehistoric situation in Mongolia, the Gobi Desert and Xinjiang.

Hedin described it as a peripatetic university in which the participating scientists worked almost independently, while he—like a local manager—negotiated with local authorities, made decisions, organized whatever was necessary, raised funds and recorded the route followed. He gave archaeologists, astronomers, botanists, geographers, geologists, meteorologists and zoologists from Sweden, Germany and China an opportunity to participate in the expedition and carry out research in their areas of specialty.

Hedin met Chiang Kai-shek in Nanjing, who thereupon became a patron of the expedition. The Sino-Swedish Expedition was honored with a Chinese postage stamp series which had a print run of 25,000. The four stamps show camels at a camp with the expedition flag and bear the Chinese text, "Postal Service of the Prosperous Middle Kingdom" and in Latin underneath, "Scientific Expedition to the Northwestern Province of China 1927–1933". A painting in the Beijing Palace Museum entitled Nomads in the Desert served as model for the series. Of the 25,000 sets, 4,000 were sold across the counter and 21,500 came into the possession of the expedition. Hedin used them to finance the expedition, selling them for a price of five dollars per set. The stamps were unwelcome at the time due to the high price Hedin was selling them at, but years later became valuable treasures among collectors.

The first part of the expedition, from 1927 to 1932, led from Beijing via Baotou to Mongolia, over the Gobi Desert, through Xinjiang to Ürümqi, and into the northern and eastern parts of the Tarim Basin. The expedition had a wealth of scientific results which are being published up to the present time. For example, the discovery of specific deposits of iron, manganese, oil, coal and gold reserves was of great economic relevance for China. In recognition of his achievements, the Berlin Geographical Society presented him with the Ferdinand von Richthofen Medal in 1933; the same honor was also awarded to Erich von Drygalski for his Gauss Expedition to the Antarctic; and to Alfred Philippson for his research on the Aegean Region.

From the end of 1933 to 1934, Hedin led—on behalf of the Kuomintang government under Chiang Kai-shek in Nanjing—a Chinese expedition to investigate irrigation measures and draw up plans and maps for the construction of two roads suitable for automobiles along the Silk Road from Beijing to Xinjiang. Following his plans, major irrigation facilities were constructed, settlements erected, and roads built on the Silk Road from Beijing to Kashgar, which made it possible to completely bypass the rough terrain of Tarim Basin.

One aspect of the geography of central Asia which intensively occupied Hedin for decades was what he called the "wandering lake" Lop Nur. In May 1934, he began a river expedition to this lake. For two months he navigated the Kaidu River and the Kum-Darja to Lop Nur, which had been filled with water since 1921. After the lake dried out in 1971 as a consequence of irrigation activities, the above-mentioned transportation link enabled the People's Republic of China to construct a nuclear weapon test site at Lop Nur.

His caravan of truck lorries was hijacked by the Chinese Muslim General Ma Zhongying who was retreating from northern Xinjiang along with his Kuomintang 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) from the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. While Hedin was detained by Ma Zhongying, he met General Ma Hushan, and Kemal Kaya Effendi.

Ma Zhongying's adjutant claimed to Hedin that Ma Zhongying had the entire region of Tian-shan-nan-lu (southern Xinjiang) under his control and Sven could pass through safely without any trouble. Hedin did not believe his assertions. Some of Ma Zhongying's Tungan (Chinese speaking Muslim) troops attacked Hedin's expedition by shooting at their vehicles.

For the return trip, Hedin selected the southern Silk Road route via Hotan to Xi'an, where the expedition arrived on 7 February 1935. He continued on to Beijing to meet with President Lin Sen and to Nanjing to Chiang Kai-shek. He celebrated his 70th birthday on 19 February 1935 in the presence of 250 members of the Kuomintang government, to whom he reported interesting facts about the Sino-Swedish Expedition. On this day, he was awarded the Brilliant Jade Order, Second Class.

At the end of the expedition, Hedin was in a difficult financial situation. He had considerable debts at the German-Asian Bank in Beijing, which he repaid with the royalties and fees received for his books and lectures. In the months after his return, he held 111 lectures in 91 German cities as well as 19 lectures in neighboring countries. To accomplish this lecture tour, he covered a stretch as long as the equator,  by train and  by car—in a time period of five months. He met Adolf Hitler in Berlin before his lecture on 14 April 1935.

Political views
Hedin was a monarchist. From 1905 onwards he took a stand against the move toward democracy in his Swedish homeland. He warned of the dangers he assumed to be coming from Czarist Russia, and called for an alliance with the German Empire. Therefore, he advocated a strengthened national defence, with a vigilant military preparedness. August Strindberg was one of his opponents on this issue, which divided Swedish politics at the time. In 1912 Hedin publicly supported the Swedish coastal defense ship Society. He helped collect public donations for the building of the coastal defense ship , which the Liberal and anti-militarist government of Karl Staaff had been unwilling to finance.  In early 1914, when the Liberal government enacted cutbacks to the country's defenses, Hedin wrote the Courtyard Speech, in which King Gustaf V promised to strengthen the country's defenses. The speech led to a political crisis that ended with Staaff and his government resigning and being replaced by a non-party, more conservative government.

He developed a lasting affinity for the German empire, with which he became acquainted during his formal studies. This is also shown in his admiration for Kaiser Wilhelm II, whom he even visited in exile in the Netherlands. Influenced by imperial Russian and later the Soviet union's attempts to dominate and control territories outside its borders, especially in Central Asia and Turkestan, Hedin felt that Soviet Russia posed a great threat to the West, which may be part of the reason why he supported Germany during both World Wars.

He viewed World War I as a struggle of the German race (particularly against Russia) and took sides in books like Ein Volk in Waffen. Den deutschen Soldaten gewidmet (A People in Arms. Dedicated to the German Soldier). As a consequence, he lost friends in France and England and was expelled from the British Royal Geographical Society, and from the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. Germany's defeat in World War I and the associated loss of its international reputation affected him deeply. That Sweden gave asylum to Wolfgang Kapp as a political refugee after the failure of the Kapp Putsch is said to be primarily attributable to his efforts.

Hedin and Nazi Germany
Hedin's conservative and pro-German views eventually translated into sympathy for the Third Reich, and this would draw him into increasing controversy towards the end of his life. Adolf Hitler had been an early admirer of Hedin, who was in turn impressed with Hitler's nationalism. He saw the German leader's rise to power as a revival of German fortunes, and welcomed its challenge against Soviet Communism. He was not an entirely uncritical supporter of the Nazis, however. His own views were shaped by traditionalist, Christian and conservative values, while National Socialism was in part a modern revolutionary-populist movement. Hedin objected to some aspects of National Socialist rule, and occasionally attempted to convince the German government to relent in its anti-religious and anti-Semitic campaigns.

Hedin met Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazi Party leaders repeatedly and was in regular correspondence with them. The politely-worded correspondence usually concerned scheduling matters, birthday congratulations, Hedin's planned or completed publications, and requests by Hedin for pardons for people condemned to death, and for mercy, release and permission to leave the country for people interned in prisons or concentration camps. In correspondence with Joseph Goebbels and Hans Dräger, Hedin was able to achieve the printing of the Daily Watchwords year after year. Hedin directly interviewed Hitler in October 1939, one month after the invasion of Poland, where Hitler claimed that there could be peace if the United Kingdom and France recognized the German occupation of Czechoslovakia.

On 29 October 1942, Hitler read Hedin's book entitled, America in the Battle of the Continents. In the book Hedin promoted the view that President Franklin D. Roosevelt was responsible for the outbreak of war in 1939 and that Hitler had done everything in his power to prevent war. Moreover, Hedin argued that the origins of the Second World War lay not in German belligerence but in the Treaty of Versailles. This book deeply influenced Hitler and reaffirmed his views on the origins of the war and who was responsible for it. In a letter to Hedin the following day Hitler wrote, "I thank you warmly for the attention you have shown me. I have already read the book and welcome in particular that you so explicitly detailed the offers I made to Poland at the beginning of the War". Hitler continued, "without question, the individual guilty of this war, as you correctly state at the end of your book, is exclusively the American President Roosevelt."

The Nazis attempted to achieve a close connection to Hedin by bestowing awards upon him—later scholars have noted that "honors were heaped upon this prominent sympathizer." They asked him to present an address on Sport as a Teacher at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin's Olympic Stadium. They made him an honorary member of the German-Swedish Union Berlin () In 1938, they presented him with the City of Berlin's Badge of Honor (). For his 75th birthday on 19 February 1940 they awarded him the Order of the German Eagle; shortly before that date it had been presented to Henry Ford and Charles Lindbergh. On New Year's Day 1943 they released the Oslo professor of philology and university rector Didrik Arup Seip from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp at Hedin's request to obtain Hedin's agreement to accept additional honors during the 470th anniversary of Munich University. On 15 January 1943, he received the Gold Medal of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences (Goldmedaille der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften). On 16 January 1943 he received an honorary doctorate from the faculty of natural sciences of Munich University. On the same day, the Nazis founded in his absence the Sven Hedin Institute for Inner Asian Research located at Mittersill Castle, which was supposed to serve the long-term advancement of the scientific legacy of Hedin and Wilhelm Filchner as Asian experts. However, it was instead misused by Heinrich Himmler as an institute of the Research Association for German Genealogical Inheritance (Forschungsgemeinschaft Deutsches Ahnenerbe e.V.). On 21 January 1943, he was requested to sign the Golden Book of the city of Munich.

Hedin supported the Nazis in his journalistic activities. After the collapse of Nazi Germany, he did not regret his collaboration with the Nazis because this cooperation had made it possible to rescue numerous Nazi victims from execution, or death in extermination camps.

Senior Jewish German archeologist Werner Scheimberg, sent in the expedition by the Thule Society, "had been one of the companions of the Swedish explorer Sven Hedin on his excursions in the East, with archaeological and to some extent esoteric purposes".

Hedin was trying to discover the mythological place of Agartha and reproached the Polish explorer and visiting professor Antoni Ossendowski for having been gone where the Swedish explorer wasn't able to come, and thus was personally invited by Adolf Hitler in Berlin and honoured by the Führer during his 75th birthday feast.

Criticism of National Socialism
Johannes Paul wrote in 1954 about Hedin:

Much of what happened in the early days of Nazi rule had his approval. However, he did not hesitate to criticize whenever he considered this to be necessary, particularly in cases of Jewish persecution, conflict with the churches and bars to freedom of science.

In 1937 Hedin refused to publish his book Deutschland und der Weltfrieden (Germany and World Peace) in Germany because the Reich Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda insisted on the deletion of Nazi-critical passages. In a letter Hedin wrote to State Secretary Walther Funk dated 16 April 1937, it becomes clear what his criticism of National Socialism was in this time before the establishment of extermination camps:

When we first discussed my plan to write a book, I stated that I only wanted to write objectively, scientifically, possibly critically, according to my conscience, and you considered that to be completely acceptable and natural. Now I emphasized in a very friendly and mild form that the removal of distinguished Jewish professors who have performed great services for mankind is detrimental to Germany and that this has given rise to many agitators against Germany abroad. So I took this position only in the interest of Germany.

My worry that the education of German youth, which I otherwise praise and admire everywhere, is deficient in questions of religion and the hereafter comes from my love and sympathy for the German nation, and as a Christian I consider it my duty to state this openly, and, to be sure, in the firm conviction that Luther's nation, which is religious through and through, will understand me.

So far I have never gone against my conscience and will not do it now either. Therefore, no deletions will be made.

Hedin later published this book in Sweden.

Efforts on behalf of deported Jews
After he refused to remove his criticism of National Socialism from his book Deutschland und der Weltfrieden, the Nazis confiscated the passports of Hedin's Jewish friend Alfred Philippson and his family in 1938 to prevent their intended departure to American exile and retain them in Germany as a bargaining chip when dealing with Hedin. The consequence was that Hedin expressed himself more favorably about Nazi Germany in his book Fünfzig Jahre Deutschland, subjugated himself against his conscience to the censorship of the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, and published the book in Germany.

On 8 June 1942, the Nazis increased the pressure on Hedin by deporting Alfred Philippson and his family to the Theresienstadt concentration camp. By doing so, they accomplished their goal of forcing Hedin against his conscience to write his book Amerika im Kampf der Kontinente in collaboration with the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda and other government agencies and to publish it in Germany in 1942. In return, the Nazis classified Alfred Philippson as "A-prominent" and granted his family privileges which enabled them to survive.

For a long time Hedin was in correspondence with Alfred Philippson and regularly sent food parcels to him in Theresienstadt concentration camp. On 29 May 1946, Alfred Philippson wrote to him (translation, abbreviated quotation): My dear Hedin! Now that letters can be sent abroad I have the opportunity to write to you…. We frequently think with deep gratitude of our rescuer, who alone is responsible for our being able to survive the horrible period of three years of incarceration and hunger in Theresienstadt concentration camp, at my age a veritable wonder. You will have learned that we few survivors were finally liberated just a few days before our intended gassing. We, my wife, daughter and I, were then brought on 9–10 July 1945 in a bus of the city of Bonn here to our home town, almost half of which is now destroyed….

Hedin responded on 19 July 1946 (translation, abbreviated quotation): …It was wonderful to find out that our efforts were not in vain. In these difficult years we attempted to rescue over one hundred other unfortunate people who had been deported to Poland, but in most cases without success. We were however able to help a few Norwegians. My home in Stockholm was turned into something like an information and assistance office, and I was excellently supported by Dr. Paul Grassmann, press attaché in the German embassy in Stockholm. He too undertook everything possible to further this humanitarian work. But almost no case was as fortunate as yours, dear friend! And how wonderful, that you are back in Bonn….

The names and fates of the over one hundred deported Jews whom Hedin tried to save have not yet been researched.

Efforts on behalf of deported Norwegians
Hedin supported the cause of the Norwegian author Arnulf Øverland and for the Oslo professor of philology and university director Didrik Arup Seip, who were interned in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp. He achieved the release of Didrik Arup Seip, but his efforts to free Arnulf Øverland were unsuccessful. Nevertheless, Arnulf Øverland survived the concentration camp.

Efforts on behalf of Norwegian activists
After the third senate of the highest German military court (Reichskriegsgericht) in Berlin condemned to death for alleged espionage the ten Norwegians Sigurd Jakobsen, Gunnar Hellesen, Helge Børseth, Siegmund Brommeland, Peter Andree Hjelmervik, Siegmund Rasmussen, Gunnar Carlsen, Knud Gjerstad, Christian Oftedahl and Frithiof Lund on 24 February 1941, Hedin successfully appealed via Colonel General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst to Adolf Hitler for their reprieve. Their death sentences were converted on 17 June 1941 by Adolf Hitler to ten years of forced labor. The Norwegians Carl W. Mueller, Knud Naerum, Peder Fagerland, Ottar Ryan, Tor Gerrard Rydland, Hans Bernhard Risanger and Arne Sørvag who had been condemned to forced labor under the same charge received reduced sentences at Hedin's request. Unfortunately, Hans Bernhard Risanger died in prison just a few days before his release.

Falkenhorst was condemned to death, by firing squad, by a British military court on 2 August 1946, because of his responsibility for passing on a Führerbefehl called the Commando Order. Hedin intervened on his behalf, achieving a pardon on 4 December 1946, with the argument that Falkenhorst had likewise striven to pardon the ten Norwegians condemned to death. Falkenhorst's death sentence was commuted to 20 years in prison. He was released early from Werl Prison on 13 July 1953.

Awards

Because of his outstanding services, Hedin was raised to the untitled nobility by King Oskar II in 1902, the last time any Swede was to receive a charter of nobility. Oskar II suggested that he prefix the name Hedin with one of the two common predicates of nobility in Sweden, "af" or "von", but Hedin abstained from doing so in his written response to the king. In many noble families in Sweden, it was customary to do without the title of nobility. The coat of arms of Hedin, together with those of some two thousand noble families, is to be found on a wall of the Great Hall in Riddarhuset, the assembly house of Swedish nobility in Stockholm's inner city, Gamla Stan.

In 1905, Hedin was admitted to membership in the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and in 1909 to the Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences. From 1913 to 1952 he held the sixth of 18 chairs as an elected member of the Swedish Academy. In this position, he had a vote in the selection of Nobel Prize winners.

He was an honorary member of numerous Swedish and foreign scientific societies and institutions which honored him with some 40 gold medals; 27 of these medals can be viewed in Stockholm in a display case in the Royal Coin Cabinet.

He received honorary doctorates from Oxford (1909), Cambridge (1909), Heidelberg (1928), Uppsala (1935), and Munich (1943) universities and from the Handelshochschule Berlin (1931) (all Dr. phil. h.c.), from Breslau University (1915, Dr. jur. h.c.), and from Rostock University (1919, Dr. med. h.c.).

Numerous countries presented him with medals. In Sweden he became a Commander 1st Class of the Royal Order of the North Star (KNO1kl) with a brilliant badge and Knight of the Royal Order of Vasa (RVO). In the United Kingdom he was named Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire by King Edward VII. As a foreigner, he was not authorized to use the associated title of Sir, but he could place the designation KCIE after his family name Hedin. Hedin was also a Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle.

In his honor have been named a glacier, the Sven Hedin Glacier; a lunar crater Hedin; a genus of flowering plants, Hedinia; a species of the flowering plant, Gentiana hedini (now a synonym of Comastoma falcatum ); the beetles Longitarsus hedini and Coleoptera hedini; a butterfly, Fumea hedini Caradja; a spider, Dictyna hedini; a fossil hoofed mammal, Tsaidamotherium hedini; a fossil Therapsid (a "mammal-like reptile") Lystrosaurus hedini; and streets and squares in the cities of various countries (for example, "Hedinsgatan" at Tessinparken in Stockholm).

A permanent exhibition of articles found by Hedin on his expeditions is located in the Stockholm Ethnographic Museum.

In the Adolf Frederick church can be found the Sven Hedin memorial plaque by Liss Eriksson. The plaque was installed in 1959. On it, a globe with Asia to the fore can be seen, crowned with a camel. It bears the Swedish epitaph:

The Sven Hedin Firn in North Greenland was named after him.

Research on Hedin

Source material
A survey of the extensive sources for Hedin research shows that it would be difficult at present to come to a fair assessment of the personality and achievements of Hedin. Most of the source material has not yet been subjected to scientific scrutiny. Even the DFG project Sven Hedin und die deutsche Geographie had to restrict itself to a small selection and a random examination of the source material.

The sources for Hedin research are located in numerous archives (and include primary literature, correspondence, newspaper articles, obituaries and secondary literature).

 Hedin's own publications amount to some 30,000 pages.
 There are about 2,500 drawings and watercolors, films and many photographs.
 To this should be added 25 volumes with travel and expedition notes and 145 volumes of the diaries he regularly maintained between 1930 and 1952, totaling 8,257 pages.
 The extensive holdings of the Hedin Foundation (Sven Hedins Stiftelse), which holds Hedin effects in trust, are to be found in the Ethnographic Museum and in the National Archives in Stockholm.
 Hedin's correspondence is in the archive of the German Foreign Office in Bonn, in the German Federal Archives in Koblenz, at the Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography in Leipzig, and above all in the Ethnographic Museum and in the National Archives in Stockholm. Most of the correspondence in Hedin's estate is in the National Archives and accessible to researchers and the general public. It includes about 50,000 letters organized alphabetically according to country and sender as well as some 30,000 additional unsorted letters.
 The scientific effects as well as a collection of newspaper articles about Hedin organized by year (1895–1952) in 60 bound folios can be found in the Ethnographic Museum.
 The finds from Tibet, Mongolia and Xinjiang are, among other places, in Stockholm in the Ethnographic Museum (some 8,000 individual items), in the Institutes of Geology, Minearology and Paleontology of the Uppsala University, in the depots of the Bavarian State Collection of Paleontology and Geology in Munich, and in the National Museum of China, Beijing.

Hedin's documentation
During his expeditions Hedin saw the focus of his work as being in field research. He recorded routes by plotting many thousands of kilometers of his caravan itinerary with the detail of a high resolution topographical map and supplemented them with innumerable altitude measurements and latitude and longitude data. At the same time he combined his field maps with panoramic drawings. He drafted the first precise maps of areas unresearched until that date: the Pamir mountains, the Taklamakan desert, Tibet, the Silk Road and the Himalayas. He was, as far as can be scientifically confirmed, the first European to recognize that the Himalayas were a continuous mountain range.

He systematically studied the lakes of inner Asia, made careful climatological observations over many years, and started extensive collections of rocks, plants, animals and antiquities. Underway he prepared watercolor paintings, sketches, drawings and photographs, which he later published in his works. The photographs and maps with the highest quality printing are to be found in the original Swedish publications.

Hedin prepared a scientific publication for each of his expeditions. The extent of documentation increased dramatically from expedition to expedition. His research report about the first expedition was published in 1900 as Die geographisch-wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse meiner Reisen in Zentralasien 1894–97 (Supplement 28 to Petermanns Mitteilungen), Gotha 1900. The publication about the second expedition, Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, increased to six text and two atlas volumes. Southern Tibet, the scientific publication on the third expedition, totalled twelve volumes, three of which were atlases. The results of the Sino-Swedish Expedition were published under the title of Reports from the scientific expedition to the north-western provinces of China under leadership of Dr. Sven Hedin. The sino-Swedish expedition. This publication went through 49 editions.

This documentation was splendidly produced, which made the price so high that only a few libraries and institutes were able to purchase it. The immense printing costs had to be borne for the most part by Hedin himself, as was also true for the cost of the expeditions. He used the fees and royalties which he received from his popular science books and for his lectures for the purpose.

Hedin did not himself subject his documentation to scientific evaluation, but rather handed it over to other scientists for the purpose. Since he shared his experiences during his expeditions as popular science and incorporated them in a large number of lectures, travelogues, books for young people and adventure books, he became known to the general public. He soon became famous as one of the most well-recognized personalities of his time.

D. Henze wrote the following about an exhibition at the Deutsches Museum entitled Sven Hedin, the last explorer: He was a pioneer and pathfinder in the transitional period to a century of specialized research. No other single person illuminated and represented unknown territories more extensively than he. His maps alone are a unique creation. And the artist did not take second place to the savant, who deep in the night rapidly and apparently without effort rapidly created awe inspiring works.  The discipline of geography, at least in Germany, has so far only concerned itself with his popularized reports. The consistent inclusion of the enormous, still unmined treasures in his scientific work are yet to be incorporated in the regional geography of Asia.

Current Hedin research
A scientific assessment of Hedin's character and his relationship to National Socialism was undertaken in the late 1990s and early 2000s at Bonn University by Professor Hans Böhm, Dipl.-Geogr. Astrid Mehmel and Christoph Sieker M.A. as part of the DFG Project Sven Hedin und die deutsche Geographie (Sven Hedin and German Geography).

Literature

Primary

Scientific documentation
 Sven Hedin: Die geographisch-wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse meiner Reisen in Zentralasien 1894–97. Supplementary volume 28 to Petermanns Mitteilungen. Gotha 1900.
 Sven Hedin: Scientific results of a journey in Central-Asia. 10 text and 2 map volumes. Stockholm 1904–1907. Volume 4
 Sven Hedin: Trans-Himalaya: Discoveries and Adventures in Tibet, Volume 1 1909 VOL. II
 Sven Hedin: Southern Tibet. 11 text and 3 map volumes. Stockholm 1917–1922. VOL. VIII
 Reports from the scientific expedition to the north-western provinces of China under leadership of Dr. Sven Hedin. The sino-Swedish expedition. Over 50 volumes to date, contains primary and secondary literature. Stockholm 1937 ff.
 Sven Hedin: Central Asia atlas. Maps, Statens etnografiska museum. Stockholm 1966. (appeared in the series Reports from the scientific expedition to the north-western provinces of China under the leadership of Dr. Sven Hedin. The sino-Swedish expedition; Ausgabe 47. 1. Geography; 1)

 Central Asia and Tibet: Towards the Holy City of Lassa, Volume 1
 THROUGH ASIA
 Through Asia, Volume 1

German editions
a) Biography

Verwehte Spuren. Orientfahrten des Reise-Bengt und anderer Reisenden im 17. Jahrhundert, Leipzig 1923.

b) Popular works

 Durch Asiens Wüsten. Drei Jahre auf neuen Wegen in Pamir, Lop-nor, Tibet und China, 2 vol., Leipzig 1899; neue Ausgabe Wiesbaden 1981.
 Im Herzen von Asien. Zehntausend Kilometer auf unbekannten Pfaden, 2 vol., Leipzig 1903.
 Abenteuer in Tibet, Leipzig 1904; new edition Wiesbaden 1980.
 Transhimalaja. Entdeckungen und Abenteuer in Tibet, Leipzig 1909–1912; new edition Wiesbaden 1985.
 Zu Land nach Indien durch Persien. Seistan und Bclutschistan, 2 vol., Leipzig 1910.
 Von Pol zu Pol, 3 vol., Leipzig 1911–1912; new edition Wiesbaden 1980.
 Bagdad – Babylon – Ninive, Leipzig 1918
 Jerusalem, Leipzig 1918.
 General Prschewalskij in Innerasien, Leipzig 1922.
 Meine erste Reise, Leipzig 1922.
 An der Schwelle Innerasiens, Leipzig 1923.
 Mount Everest, Leipzig 1923.
 Persien und Mesopotamien, zwei asiatische Probleme, Leipzig 1923.
 Von Peking nach Moskau, Leipzig 1924.
 Gran Canon. Mein Besuch im amerikanischen Wunderland, Leipzig 1926.
 Auf großer Fahrt. Meine Expedition mit Schweden, Deutschen und Chinesen durch die Wüste Gobi 1927– 1928, Leipzig 1929.
 Rätsel der Gobi. Die Fortsetzung der Großen Fahrt durch Innerasien in den Jahren 1928–1930, Leipzig 1931.
 Jehol, die Kaiserstadt, Leipzig 1932.
 Die Flucht des Großen Pferdes, Leipzig 1935.
 Die Seidenstraße, Leipzig 1936.
 Der wandernde See, Leipzig 1937.
 Im Verbotenen Land, Leipzig 1937

c) Political works

 Ein Warnungsruf, Leipzig 1912.
 Ein Volk in Waffen, Leipzig 1915.
 Nach Osten!, Leipzig 1916.
 Deutschland und der Weltfriede, Leipzig 1937 (unlike its translations, the original German edition of this title was printed but never delivered; only five copies were bound, one of which is in the possession of the F. A. Brockhaus Verlag, Wiesbaden).
 Amerika im Kampf der Kontinente, Leipzig 1942

d) Autobiographical works

 Mein Leben als Entdecker, Leipzig 1926.
 Eroberungszüge in Tibet, Leipzig 1940.
 Ohne Auftrag in Berlin, Buenos Aires 1949; Tübingen-Stuttgart 1950.
 Große Männer, denen ich begegnete, 2 volumes, Wiesbaden 1951.
 Meine Hunde in Asien, Wiesbaden 1953.
 Mein Leben als Zeichner, published by Gösta Montell in commemoration of Hedin's 100th birthday, Wiesbaden 1965.

e) Fiction

 Tsangpo Lamas Wallfahrt, 2 vol., Leipzig 1921–1923.

Most German publications on Hedin were translated by F.A. Brockhaus Verlag from Swedish into German. To this extent Swedish editions are the original text. Often after the first edition appeared, F.A. Brockhaus Verlag published abridged versions with the same title. Hedin had not only an important business relationship with the publisher Albert Brockhaus, but also a close friendship. Their correspondence can be found in the Riksarkivet in Stockholm. There is a publication on this subject:

 Sven Hedin, Albert Brockhaus: Sven Hedin und Albert Brockhaus. Eine Freundschaft in Briefen zwischen Autor und Verleger. F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1942.

Bibliography
 Willy Hess: Die Werke Sven Hedins. Versuch eines vollständigen Verzeichnisses. Sven Hedin – Leben und Briefe, Vol. I. Stockholm 1962. likewise.: First Supplement. Stockholm 1965
 Manfred Kleiner: Sven Anders Hedin 1865–1952 – eine Bibliografie der Sekundärliteratur. Self-published Manfred Kleinert, Princeton 2001.

Biographies
 Detlef Brennecke: Sven Hedin mit Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1986, 1991.
 Johannes Paul: Abenteuerliche Lebensreise – Sieben biografische Essays. including: Sven Hedin. Der letzte Entdeckungsreisende. Wilhelm Köhler Verlag, Minden 1954, pp. 317–378.
 Alma Hedin: Mein Bruder Sven. Nach Briefen und Erinnerungen. Brockhaus Verlag, Leipzig 1925.
 Eric Wennerholm: Sven Hedin 1865–1952. F. A. Brockhaus Verlag, Wiesbaden 1978.
 Axel Odelberg: Äventyr på Riktigt Berättelsen om Upptäckaren Sven Hedin. Norstedts, Stockholm 2008 (new biography in Swedish, 600 pages).

Hedin and National Socialism
 Mehmel, Astrid: Sven Hedin und nationalsozialistische Expansionspolitik. In: Geopolitik. Grenzgänge im Zeitgeist Bd. 1 .1 1890 bis 1945 ed. by Irene Diekmann, Peter Krüger und Julius H. Schoeps, Potsdam 2000, pp. 189–238.
 Danielsson, S.K.: The Intellectual Unmasked: Sven Hedin's Political Life from Pan-Germanism to National Socialism. Dissertation, Minnesota, 2005.

References

Further reading

 Tommy Lundmark (2014) Sven Hedin institutet. En rasbiologisk upptäcksresa i Tredje riket. ) (Swedish)

External links

 Scanned works
 Excellent bibliography, listing publications and further literature
 , article on Sven Hedin, available also as PDF

 British Indian intelligence on Sven Hedin. National Archives of India (1928)

1865 births
1952 deaths
Scientists from Stockholm
Explorers of Asia
Explorers of Central Asia
Explorers of Tibet
Geopoliticians
History of Tibet
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Swedish Academy
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences
Swedish explorers
Swedish geographers
Swedish topographers
Swedish people of Jewish descent
Swedish Christians
Swedish sinologists
Stockholm University alumni
Uppsala University alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg alumni
Recipients of the Cullum Geographical Medal
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Commanders First Class of the Order of the Polar Star
Knights of the Order of Vasa
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Swedish monarchists
Explorers of Iran
Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin
Victoria Medal recipients
Explorers of India
Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala
Himalayan studies
20th-century Swedish nobility

Sven Hedin


15139 Connormcarty este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
15139 Connormcarty este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Socorro, New Mexico, în cadrul proiectului LINEAR. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,67 ua, o excentricitate de 0,13 și o înclinație de 10,8° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 15001-16000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2000
Centura de asteroizi

15139 Connormcarty


Geotrapping (geo - geografic, trap - capcană) este un serviciu care permite colectarea și analizarea datelor referitoare la un grup de utilizatori de smartphone-uri și tablete care se află într-un anumit loc la un anumit moment. Geotrapping-ul utilizează funcția de geolocație și identifică un grup de utilizatori pe baza locației în timp și spațiu. Permite livrarea de reclame targetate, bazate pe locația dispozitivului mobil în trecut. Mesajul poate fi livrat bazat pe o locație din trecut dacă pe dispozitivul mobil s-au folosit la momentul respectiv aplicații care suporta spații de reclamă prin care s-au livrat diverse mesaje publicitare.
Serviciul este folosit pentru marketing pe dispozitive mobile, a fost creat de Selectivv în August 2015 iar marca a fost înregistrată la Oficiul Uniunii Europene pentru Proprietate Intelectuala (EUIPO) pe 16 iunie 2018

Geotrapping și geolocalizare
Geolocalizarea este procesul de determinare a locaîiei geografice a obiectelor fizice sau persoanelor, în majoritatea cazurilor prin folosirea GPS-ului sau a adresei IP a dispozitivului. Locația este determinată de obicei prin coordonate geografice, dar și prin alte tipuri de informații colectabile (cod poștal, oraș, stradă etc). Serviciul de geotrapping folosește funcționalitațile de geolocație ale dispozitivelor mobile pentru a atinge recipienții potriviți reclamelor livrate pe dispozitive mobile dintr-un loc și moment specific.

Geotrapping și geotargetare
Geotargetarea este un mod de a atinge un grup țintă determinând locația (bazată pe coordonate geografice). În marketing, geotargetarea permite livrarea unui mesaj publicitar pe o zonă specifică, pentru a atinge oameni care locuiesc în acest moment într-o anumită tară, regiune, oraș sau orice alt loc definit prin coordonate geografice specifice. Geotrappingul pe de altă parte, permite mesajului publicitar să atingă grupul țintă care a fost într-o anumită locație în trecut, bazat pe istoricul locațiilor în care s-au aflat dispozitivele mobile targetate, indiferent de locația curentă a utilizatorilor

Exemple
Exemple de folosire a geotrapping-ului în campanii publicitare rulate pe dispozitive mobile:

 Studiu de piață desfășurat pe participanții la festivalui Open'er
 Campanie adresată strainilor care au vizitat Polonia cu ocazia Zilei Mondiale a Tineretului. Prin serviciul de geotrapping a fost posibilă targetarea persoanelor care au fost în Cracovia în perioada menționată și erau înregistrați la operatori de telefonie mobilă din afara Poloniei.
 Campanie pentru medicamente rulată în sezonul gripal, care s-a adresat utizatorilor ce se găseau într-una din sutele de clinici ambulatorii de pe teritoriul Poloniei
 Campanie adresată persoanelor care au vizitat recent competitorii unui magazin cu aparate de uz casnic

Servicii web
Geolocalizare

Geotrapping


Ioan Baltog (n. 12 decembrie 1939, Piatra Neamț – d. 2 august 2016, București) a fost un fizician român, membru corespondent al Academiei Române din 24 iunie 2016.

Biografie
Ioan Baltog a urmat cursurile liceului "Petru Rareș" din localitatea natală (1953-1956), apoi Facultatea de Matematică și Fizică a Universității București, absolvită în anul 1962. În anul 1973 și-a susținut doctoratul în fizică, la Universitatea din București sub conducerea științifică a profesorului academician Margareta Giurgea.

Activitatea profesională
Imediat după absolvire Ioan Baltog și-a desfășurat activitatea în funcția de cercetător în cadrul Observatorului Astronomic al Academiei RPR (1962-1963) și apoi în cadrul Institutului de Fizică al Academiei RPR (1964-1975).

Ulterior, s-a transferat la Institutul pentru Fizica Laserilor, Plasmei și Radiației (1975-1991). Începând cu anul 1991, Ioan Baltog și‐a desfășurat activitatea științifică la Institutul Național de Cercetare și Dezvoltare pentru Fizica Materialelor (INCDFM), ca cercetător gradul I, unde a fost, pentru perioade lungi de timp, șef de laborator și președinte al Consiliului Științific.

Activitatea profesională a fost orientată spre cercetări privind Efecte de compoziție, structură și dimensionalitate asupra proprietăților materiei condensate - procese fizice, modele, tehnici experimentale.

Cercetările sale au abordat cu precădere probleme legate de proprietățile optice și electrice ale materiei în stare condensată, folosind metode de caracterizare complexe: spectroscopie de absorbție și emisie, conducție ionică și fotoconducție, precum și o gamă largă de tehnici
experimentale, unele originale, pentru studiul diferitelor aspecte ale difuziei luminii în solide și lichide: difuzie Rayleigh în lichide pure și soluții de polimeri, difuzie Rayleigh și Mie în cristale pure și dopate, difuzie Brillouin, difuzie Raman, procese optice de suprafață și interfață generate prin plasmoni de suprafață, difuzie Raman de suprafață, difuzie Raman gigant, procese optice neliniare generate în medii mesoscopice sau asistate de plasmoni de suprafață.

În domeniul proceselor optice neliniare în materiale nanostructurate, acad. Ioan Baltog a avut rezultate cu caracter de premieră științifică, precum: evidențierea pentru prima dată a unui proces Raman stimulat (RS) pompat prin plasmoni de suprafață și a unui proces de emisie anomală anti‐Stokes de tip CARS (Coherent anti‐Stokes Raman Scattering) în structuri mesoscopice, răcirea cuantică a nanotuburilor de carbon de tip semiconductor relevată prin spectre Raman anormale anti‐Stokes, relevarea unor procese de luminescență anti‐Stokes pe compozite de tip polimer conjugat/nanotuburi de carbon. În contextul acestor obiective de cercetare, în România au putut fi dezvoltate primele cercetări pe nanotuburi de carbon și compozite nanotub de carbon/polimer conductor cu aplicații în domeniul bateriilor reîncărcabile cu litiu și supercapacitorilor.

Multe dintre acestea au fost cercetările cu caracter aplicativ omologate și introduse în practică, dintre care:
 analizorul de particule ‐ granulometru, destinat determinării dimensiunii particulelor rezultate din procese de măcinare a minereurilor, cimentului etc,
 fotogoniodifuzometrul pentru determinarea maselor moleculare ale polimerilor,
 elipsometrul fotoelectric, metoda de măsurare a factorului de pierdere în transmisia optică în preforme de sticlă optică,
 fotometrul în infraroșu pentru controlul pierderilor de apă grea și cel pentru controlul cozilor de distilare la instalația de regenerare a apei grele la Unitatea 1 de la Centrala Nuclearo‐Electrică, Cernavodă, cu aport la creșterea contribuției românești la realizarea acestei centrale.

În cursul carierei sale de cercetător științific, acad. Ioan Baltog a beneficiat de mai multe specializări în centre de prestigiu din străinătate:
 1970 ‐ 1971: stagiu de specializare la Universitatea Paris ‐ Sud, Lab.Physique Cristalline, Orsay, Franta. Domeniul: proprietăți optice și electrice ale corpului;
 1975 ‐ 1976: stagiu de cercetare la Universitatea Texas din Dallas, USA, Domeniul: laseri pulsați cu azot și colorant.
 1992 ‐ stagiu de lucru la Institut des Materiaux, Nantes, Franța;
 1994 ‐ stagiu de lucru la Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble;
 1995 ‐ 1996 - profesor asociat la Institut National Polytechnique Grenoble (4 luni anual);
 1996 ‐ 2006 - profesor asociat la Universite de Nantes/Institut des Materiaux, Nantes (3-4 luni pe an).

De asemenea, a fost profesor asociat la Universitatea de Fizică din București și, începând cu anul 1994, a primit dreptul de a conduce lucrări de doctorat pentru domeniul Fizică, în Specialitatea Optică și Spectroscopie.

In plan personal, Ioan Baltog a fost casatorit din 1963 cu Alexandra-Ana Baltog ( nascuta Tataru ), fizician -cercetator stiintific principal grd I, alaturi de care au activat impreuna, pana la decesul acesteia in 2009. Impreuna au o fiica, Georgia-Alexandra Baltog ( n. 25 august 1964 ), medic primar medicina interna / gastroenterologie.

Lucrări
Rezultatele activității sale științifice au fost concretizate în peste 180 de lucrări științifice. Acestea au întrunit peste 1650 citări de la autori străini. Conform ISI Web of Science, lucrările din domeniul spectroscopiei Raman pe nanotuburi de carbon se clasează pe locul 16 pe plan mondial și pe locul 1 în România.

În domeniul cercetării aplicative, dr. Ioan Baltog este autorul a 8 brevete de invenție și coordonator în realizarea a 10 tehnici, aparate sau echipamente omologate metrologic.

 Funcționalizarea nanotuburilor de carbon pentru aplicații în domeniul stocării energiei - Mihaela Baibarac, Ioan Baltog, Market Watch, 15 octombrie - 15 noiembrie 2011, pag. 41;
 Nonlinear Optical Processes Manifesting as Anderson Localization of Light in Mesoscopic Materials - Ioan Baltog, Mihaela Baibarac, Lucian Mihuț, Ion Smaranda, Serge Lefrant, Proceedings of the Romanian Academy, Series A, Volume 13, Number 2/2012, pp. 109–117.

Recunoaștere
 Premiul pentru fizică "Constantin Miculescu" al Academiei Române - 1968, pentru grupul de lucrări "Rayleigh light scattering on polymer and copolymer solutions".
 Membru corespondent al Academiei Române la Secția de Științe Fizice - 24 iunie 2016.
 IFA Awards 2011, Diploma de Onoare și Medalia IFA.

Legături externe
 Membrii Academiei Române din 1866 până în prezent – B
Institutul Național de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Fizica Laserilor, Plasmei și Radiației
Institutul Național de Cercetare și Dezvoltare pentru Fizica Materialelor

Referințe

Nașteri pe 12 decembrie
Nașteri în 1939
Decese pe 2 august
Decese în 2016
Fizicieni români
Membri corespondenți ai Academiei Române

Ioan Baltog


Plexul brahial se formează din ramurile ventrale ale nervilor spinali  C5, C6, C7, c8, T1.

Ramurile ventrale din C5 și C6 se unesc și formeaza trunchiul superior. Ramura ventrală din C7 formează singură trunchiul mijlociu. Ramurile ventrale din C8 și T1 formează trunchiul inferior. Din fiecare trunchi se desprind diviziunile anterioare și posterioare.

Diviziunile anterioare din trunchiul superior și mijlociu se unesec și formeaza Fasciculul Lateral.

Diviziunile posterioare din aceste 3 trunchiuri se continuă ca și Fascicul Posterior. În final, diviziunea anterioară din tr. inferior se continuă cu Fasciculul Medial.

Ramurile colaterale sunt :
nervul dorsal al scapulei,
nervul suprascapular,
nervul pectoral lateral,
nervul toraco-dorsal,
nervul subscapular superior,
nervul subscapular inferior,
nervul pectoral medial.

Ramurile terminale sunt :
nervul ulnar,
nervul median,
nervul musculocutan,
nervul radial,
nervul axilar,
nervul cutanat brahial median,
nervul cutanat antebrahial median.

Neuroanatomie
Nervii membrului superior

Plexul brahial


Edwin Abbott, Düzlemler Ülkesi ya da özgün adıyla Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions adlı kitabını, 1884 yılında, üç boyutlu dünyamıza ironik bir yaklaşımla, "bir kare" takma adı ile yayınlamıştır.

Kitap gençlere matematik ve geometriyle eğlenceli bir tanışma fırsatı sunarken, toplumun sosyal, ahlaki ve dini değerlerine karşı zekice yazılmış eğlenceli bir hiciv niteliği de içerir.

Dış bağlantılar
 Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions - Feedbooks sitesindeki Life+70 telif hakkı ile ücretsiz olarak yayınlanan kitap formatı
 Flatland - Feedbooks sitesinde Life+70 telif hakkı ile ücretsiz olarak yayınlanan kitap formatı

Matematik kitapları
1884 romanları
Bilimkurgu romanları
İngiliz kitapları
İngilizce kitaplar
Totalitarizm ile ilgili romanlar

Düzlemler Ülkesi


Olga Gigurtu () a fost o scriitoare română.

Date biografice
S-a născut într-o familie de intelectuali, tatăl fiind Barbu Bălcescu, fratele mai mic al lui Nicolae Bălcescu iar mama, nepoata pictorului Theodor Aman. S-a măritat cu generalul Petre Gigurtu, cu care a avut șapte copii, dintre care cel mai cunoscut este Ion Gigurtu, care avea să devină prim-ministru al României în domnia Regelui Carol al II-lea.

Activitate
A debutat în 1913 în primul număr al revistei "Ramuri" cu povestirea Câte au dispărut de când mi-aduc aminte pe care a semnat-o cu pseudonimul "Ileana". Mai apoi a publicat, tot sub pseudonim, prozele O seară memorială (1913), Mama Bălașa (1913), Tanti Sevastița și Mama Zinca Verbiceanca (1914). În nume personal scoate în 1927 un volum de proză în care îl elogiază pe Nicolae Bălcescu.

Note

Bibliografie
 Gigurtu, Olga - Amintiri și icoane din trecut, editura Corint, 2015.

Nașteri în 1855
Nașteri pe 13 martie
Decese în 1940
Scriitoare române
Scriitoare din secolul al XX-lea

Olga Gigurtu


Football Club Eindhoven er en hollandsk fodboldklub. Klubben har hjemme i Eindhoven.

Mesterskaber
 Eredivisie
 Mester: 1954

 KNVB Cup
 Vindere: 1937

Historiske slutplaceringer

Klubfarver
 Vit og blå.

Nuværende trup
Pr. 25. juni 2022.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 FC Eindhoven
 FC Eindhoven på facebook
 FC Eindhoven på Soccerway
 FC Eindhoven på Sofasore
 FC Eindhoven på Flashscore
 FC Eindhoven på Transfermarkt

Fodboldklubber i Nederlandene

FC Eindhoven


An Chrysochloa hindsii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Charles Edward Hubbard. An Chrysochloa hindsii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Chrysochloa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Chrysochloa

Chrysochloa hindsii


Bretteville-sur-Laize () is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

The scene of heavy fighting following the Normandy landings, much of the town is of post-World War II construction.

Population

International relations
Bretteville-sur-Laize is twinned with:
  Maßbach, Germany (since 1989)
  Chagford, England (since 1975, but twinning activity lapsed in the 1990s)

See also
 Communes of the Calvados department
 Bretteville-sur-Laize Canadian War Cemetery
 Château des Riffets

References

Communes of Calvados (department)
Calvados communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia

Bretteville-sur-Laize


إلوي خوسيه أولايا برينديس , يعرف أيضا بـ إلوي (ولد في 10 يوليو 1964), لاعب كرة قدم إسباني معتزل.

لعب مع كل من سبورتنغ خيخون، نادي فالنسيا ونادي بطليوس الرياضي. وبين عام 1985 و 1990, لعب 15 مباراة وسجل خلالها 4 أهداف مع منتخب إسبانيا لكرة القدم, وكان ضمن المنتخب خلال بطولتي كأس العالم 1986 وكأس الأمم الأوروبية لكرة القدم 1988.

مسيرته الكروية
لعب إلوي أولايا خلال مسيرته الاحترافية مع 4 أندية في ثمانية عشر موسمًا وسجل خلالها 85 هدفًا ضمن 480 مباراة. ولم يفز بأي موسم بالكأس أو بالدوري.

خاض إلوي أولايا مسيرته مع نادي ريال سبورتينغ خيخون في موسم 1982–83 في المرة الأولى ليلعب معه ستة مواسم ثم في موسم 1995–96 ولمدة موسمين، مشاركًا طوالها في 226 مباراة سجل خلالها 39 هدفًا. ثم انتقل إلى نادي فالنسيا في موسم 1988–89 ليلعب معه سبعة مواسم، حيث شارك في 203 مباراة سجل خلالها 37 هدفًا. لينتقل بعدها إلى نادي بطليوس في موسم 1996–97 ولمدة موسمين، مشاركًا في 28 مباراة سجل خلالها 4 أهداف.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية إسبان
مهاجمو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون من خيخون
لاعبو الأستورية
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية ب
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 1988
لاعبو ريال سبورتينغ خيخون
لاعبو ريال سبورتينغ خيخون ب
لاعبو كأس العالم 1986
لاعبو كرة قدم إسبان
لاعبو كرة قدم من خيخون
لاعبو منتخب إسبانيا تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب إسبانيا لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب إسبانيا لكرة القدم للشباب
لاعبو نادي بطليوس
لاعبو نادي فالنسيا
مواليد 1964

إلوي أولايا


Snehøne (Lerwa lerwa) er en fasanfugl, der lever i Himalaya og det centrale Kina.

Eksterne henvisninger
  Avibase - the world bird database

Fasanfugle
Fugle fra Himalaya
Fugle fra Kina

Snehøne


Sunčanje je izlaganje tijela djelovanju Sunčevih zraka. Ubraja se među davno poznate i popularne metode prirodnoga liječenja. Uz toplinske (infracrvene zrake), Sunčevo zračenje sadrži i ultraljubičaste zrake, koje pretvaraju ergosterol u vitamin D, te bitno utječu na preradbu i iskorištavanje kalcija u organizmu, osobito u kostima. Sunčanjem se u koži stvara zaštitna tamna boja (pigment melanin), ubrzava se optok krvi, poboljšava mijena tvari i liječe neke bolesti (helioterapija). Međutim, nesustavno i naglo sunčanje može dovesti do sunčanice i toplinskog udara. Potkraj 20. stoljeća zbog klimatskih promjena i sve jačeg ultraljubičastoga zračenja prirodno sunčanje postalo je ograničenije; nasuprot njemu raširilo se takozvano umjetno sunčanje pod posebnim svjetiljkama u solarijima.

Sve do kraja 19. stoljeća od sunčanja potamnjela koža smatrala se obilježjem fizičkih radnika dok se među pripadnicima takozvanih viših slojeva više cijenila bljeđa put. Takav se obrazac promijenio početkom 20. stoljeća (napose od 1920-ih među turistima na Azurnoj obali) kada je sunčanje ušlo u modu kao rekreacija (i obilježje) bogatijih, a potom postalo atraktivnim među rastućim brojem turista.

Spektar Sunčeva zračenja

Spektar Sunčeva zračenja podijeljen je u 3 područja:
 ultraljubičasto područje valnih duljina λ = 0,2 - 0,4 μm,
 vidljivo područje valnih duljina λ = 0,4 - 0,76 μm i
 infracrveno područje valnih duljina λ = 0,8 - 4,0 μm.

Osnovni zakoni fizike opisuju i matematski određuju elektromagnetsko zračenje sa svim popratnim pojavama kao što su apsorpcija, transmisija (prijenos), refleksija i emisija zračenja.

Spektar zračenja kojemu je izložena atmosfera nalazi se unutar valnih duljina od oko 20 nm do oko 10 μm. Atmosfera ima veliku sposobnost apsorpcije, nepropusna je za kratke valne duljine λ < 0,3 μm, ali je skoro potpuno propusna za valne duljine vidljivog područja, to jest za 0,3 < λ < 1,0 μm.

Toplinsko zračenje Zemlje je u području valnih duljina oko λ = 10 μm. To je područje infracrvenog zračenja od kojega u atmosferi najveći dio apsorbira vodena para i ugljikov dioksid, pa samo manji dio Zemljina zračenja prolazi kroz atmosferu i odlazi u svemir.

Razdioba Sunčeva zračenja na vrhu atmosfere određena je astronomskim čimbenicima: kruženjem Zemlje oko Sunca, nagibom osi Zemljine vrtnje (rotacije) prema ekliptici te dnevnom Zemljinom vrtnjom. Teoriju razdiobe Sunčeva zračenja na Zemljinu kuglu kad ne bi bilo atmosfere (a to vrijedi i za vrh atmosfere) postavio je M. Milanković. On je predočio dijagram koji prikazuje godišnji raspored Sunčeva zračenja koje dopire do vodoravne površine na vrhu atmosfere prema zemljopisnoj širini. Na prvi pogled čini se nelogično da je najveća dnevna insolacija na polovima. To je ipak točno, ali ne zato što je na polovima najveće ozračenje Sunčevim zračenjem, nego zbog toga što u vrijeme maksimalne insolacije na polovima dan traje 24 sata.

Dnevno ozračenje ovisi i o upadnom kutu Sunčevih zraka na plohu. S druge strane, i zbog različite duljine dana, dnevno se ozračenje na vrhu atmosfere tokom godine bitno mijenja. Godišnje Sunčevo ozračenje smanjuje se porastom zemljopisne širine.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Sunce
Zdravstvo

Sunčanje


Aloe tororoana es una especie de planta suculenta de la familia de los aloes. Es originaria de Uganda.

Descripción
Aloe tororoana es ramificado con brotes que alcanzan una longitud de alrededor de 20 centímetros y un diámetro de 1,5 cm. Las cerca de 20 hojas son lanceoladas y estrechas formando densas rosetas. La lámina es de color verde lechoso turbio  de 15 cm de largo y 3-5 cm de ancho. Tiene dientes punzantes, blanquecinos, con punta de color marrón  en el margen de la hoja de 2-3 mm de largo y a 5 a 10 mm de distancia. La inflorescencia es simple o consta de uno o dos ramas. Alcanza una longitud de hasta 40 centímetros, densas cilíndricas cónicas.  Las flores son 20-22 mm de largo y redondeadas en su base.

Taxonomía
Aloe tororoana fue descrita por  Gilbert Westacott Reynolds y publicado en Flowering Plants of Africa 29: t. 1144, en el año 1953.
Etimología
Ver: Aloe

tororoana: epíteto

Referencias

tororoana
Flora endémica de Uganda
Plantas descritas en 1953
Plantas descritas por Reynolds

Aloe tororoana


An Chloris pilosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher ngan Peter Thonning. An Chloris pilosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Chloris, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Chloris

Chloris pilosa


අප නැණසල මධ්‍යස්ථානය 2012 -11-15 දින තොරතුරැ හා සන්නිවේදන තාක්ෂණ අමාත්‍ය ගරු රංජිත් සියඹලාපිටිය මැති තුමා විසින් ජනතා අයිතියට පත් කරන ලදී.අප නැණසල මධ්‍යස්ථානය මේ වන විට පරිගණක මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් - මුද්‍රණාලයක් හා ලිපිද්‍රව්‍ය අ‍ලෙවිසැලක් යන සේවා ස්ථාන තුනකින් සමන්විතය.

සුනන්ද නැණසල - වැලිමන්න


Daniel Šarić (Rijeka, Yugoslavia, 4 de agosto de 1972) es un exfutbolista croata que jugaba de centrocampista aunque era polivalente y, a menudo, se desempeñaba como defensa. Debutó con el HNK Rijeka, equipo de su ciudad natal, en 1989 y se retiró en el mismo club en 2007.

Trayectoria
Comenzó la práctica del fútbol a nivel profesional en el HNK Rijeka en el año 1989. Se mantuvo en el equipo yugoslavo hasta 1993, año en el que fichó por el Real Sporting de Gijón. En el club español jugó durante dos temporadas en las que disputó un total de treinta y tres encuentros, y anotó tres goles.

Tras finalizar la temporada 1994-95 abandonó la disciplina del Sporting para incorporarse al G. N. K. Dinamo Zagreb. Se mantuvo en este equipo un total de cinco años en los que disputó 102 partidos y marcó dos goles. Para la temporada 1999-2000 se incorporó al Panathinaikos F. C. de Grecia, en el que militó hasta 2003.

Una vez finalizado el curso futbolístico 2002-03 regresó nuevamente al Rijeka, en el que jugó durante las siguientes cuatro temporadas un total de setenta encuentros y anotó un gol. Decidió colgar las botas en 2007, concluyendo así una trayectoria de deciséis temporadas en el mismo lugar donde la comenzó.

Selección nacional
Fue convocado con la selección de fútbol de Croacia en un total de treinta ocasiones, entre 1997 y 2002. Su participación más destacable con dicho equipo fue en la Copa Mundial de Fútbol de 2002, en la que jugó un total de tres encuentros de la fase de grupos, partiendo de titular en dos de ellos.

Participaciones en Copas del Mundo

Clubes

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Ficha de Daniel Šarić en la web de la Federación croata de fútbol

Nacidos en Rijeka
Futbolistas de Croacia en la Copa Mundial de 2002
Futbolistas del HNK Rijeka
Futbolistas del Real Sporting de Gijón en los años 1990
Futbolistas del Dinamo Zagreb
Futbolistas del Panathinaikos

Daniel Šarić


Arthur T. "Art" Williams (Bonham, Texas; -San Diego, California; 27 de septiembre de 2018), fue un baloncestista estadounidense que disputó siete temporadas en la NBA y otra más en la ABA. Con 1,85 metros de estatura, jugaba en la posición de base.

Trayectoria deportiva

Universidad
Su etapa universitaria transcurrió en los Broncos de la Universidad Politécnica de la Estatal de California, Pomona.

Profesional
Tras no ser elegido en el Draft de la NBA de 1967, fichó como agente libre por los San Diego Rockets, donde jugó 3 temporadas como suplente, siendo la más destacada de ellas la primera, en la que promedió 8,1 puntos y 4,9 asistencias por partido. En esa etapa consiguió asomarse a los libros de récords, al conseguir en dos ocasiones repartir 22 asistencias en un partido, la primera de ellas ante Phoenix Suns en  y la segunda ante San Francisco Warriors en .

En  es traspasado a Boston Celtics a cambio de una futura ronda del draft. En los Celtics jugó cuatro temporadas como suplente de Jo Jo White, consiguiendo su único anillo de campeón de la NBA en la temporada 1973-74 tras derrotar en las Finales a los Milwaukee Bucks. Williams promedió ese año 2,6 puntos y 2,4 asistencias por partido.

En 1974 ficha por los San Diego Conquistadors de la ABA, donde sólo jugó 7 partidos antes de retirarse.

Estadísticas de su carrera en la NBA y la ABA

Temporada regular

Playoffs

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Ficha de Williams en NBA.com
 Ficha de Art Williams en ultimatenba.com

Baloncestistas de Texas
Baloncestistas de la NBA
Baloncestistas de la ABA
Baloncestistas de los  Cal Poly Pomona Broncos
Baloncestistas de los San Diego Rockets
Baloncestistas de los Boston Celtics
Baloncestistas de los San Diego Conquistadors

Art Williams


Nübye ya da Nûbe (Nübyece: Nobīn; Arapça: النُوبَة, an-Nūba), Mısır'ın güneyinde, Nil Nehri boyunca kuzey Sudan'a uzanan bir bölgedir. Bölge Asvan'ın güneyinde yer alan Nil'in ilk akanağından, Hartum yakınlarında yer alan Mavi ve Beyaz Nil'in birleşme noktasına kadar olan alanı kapsar.

Bölge Afrika'daki en eski uygarlıklardan biri olan Kerma kültürüne ev sahipliği yapmıştır. Kerma kültürü varlığını MÖ 2500'den beri sürdürmüş olup, bölge MÖ 1500 dolaylarında Mısır Yeni Krallık firavunu I. Thutmose tarafından ele geçirilmiştir. Nübye 400 sene boyunca Mısır egemenliği altında kalmıştır. MÖ 8. yüzyılda Piye egemenliği altında Nübye merkezli Kuş Krallığı, Geç Bronz Çağı Çöküşü dolayısıyla zayıflamış Mısır'ı ele geçirerek Mısır'ın yirmi beşinci hanedanını kurmuş, bu hanedan ise yaklaşık 100 yıl sonra Asurlularca yıkılmıştır. MÖ 3. yüzyıl ve MS 3. yüzyıl arasında Nübye Yunan ve Romalılar tarafından kontrol edilmiş Mısır'a bağlı bir şekilde var olmuştur. 4. yüzyılda yeniden bağımsız olan Kuş, aynı yüzyılda, Aksum Krallığı'nın Meroe'yı ele geçirmesi ve yıkmasıyla gerilemiştir. Yenilginin ardından bölgede daha sonra hristiyanlaşacak Nobatya, Mukurra ve Alodya krallıklarını kurdular. Makurra ve Alodya varlıklarını yaklaşık bin sene boyunca sürdürdüler. Daha sonra Nübye'nin kuzeyi Osmanlı, güneyi ise Func hâkimiyetine girdi. Nübyelilerin İslamlaşması ve kısmî olarak Araplaşmaları bu devletlerin yıkılmasında rol oynadı. 19. yüzyılda Mısır Hidivliği'nin Sudan'ın fethi ile Nübye tek bir politik varlık altında yönetilmeye başlandı. Günümüzde Nübye, Mısır ve Sudan devletleri arasında bölünmüştür.

Kaynakça

Nübye


Aljaksej Abromtschyk (, engl. Transkription Aliaksey Abromchyk; * 13. Februar 1991 in Minsk, Weißrussische SSR, Sowjetunion) ist ein ehemaliger belarussischer Biathlet.

Karriere
Aljaksej Abromtschyk gab sein internationales Debüt im Rahmen der Biathlon-Juniorenweltmeisterschaften 2009 in Canmore, wo er in seinem ersten Rennen, dem Einzel, hinter Ludwig Ehrhart und Antti Raatikainen die Bronzemedaille gewann. Im Sprint wurde er Neunter, im Verfolgungsrennen Elfter und verpasste mit der belarussischen Staffel als Viertplatzierter einen weiteren Medaillengewinn. Ein Jahr später erreichte er in Torsby die Ränge 19 im Einzel, sieben im Sprint, elf in der Verfolgung und fünf mit der Staffel. Es folgen die Juniorenweltmeisterschaften 2011 in Nové Město na Moravě sowie die Juniorenrennen bei den Europameisterschaften in Ridnaun. Mit Iryna Kryuko, Darja Nestertschik und Aljaksandr Daroschka gewann er dort im Mixed-Staffelrennen hinter den Vertretungen Russlands und Frankreichs die Bronzemedaille. Bei den Europameisterschaften 2012 in Osrblie wurde Abromtschyk zunächst bei den Junioren eingesetzt und belegte den Neunten Platz im Sprint, wurde 15. der Verfolgung und 22. des Einzels.

Ab der Saison 2011/12 startete Abromtschyk bei den Männern. Sein erstes Rennen im IBU-Cup bestritt er in Ridnaun und wurde 51. eines Sprints. Auf der folgenden Station in Obertilliach gewann der Belarusse als 35. eines Sprints erstmals Punkte und erreichte mit Platz 23 im darauf basierenden Verfolgungsrennen seine drittbeste Platzierung der Karriere. Erste internationale Meisterschaften bei den Männern wurden die Europameisterschaften 2012 in Osrblie, bei denen Abromtschyk nach Einsätzen bei den Junioren an der Seite von Uladsimir Aljanischka, Uladsimir Tschapelin und Aljaksandr Daroschka im Staffelrennen bei den Männern zum Einsatz kam und den neunten Platz belegte. Auch die Folgesaison bestritt der Weißrusse im IBU-Cup, außer eines 22. Ranges in Beitostølen kamen aber keine zählbaren Ergebnisse heraus. Bei den Europameisterschaften 2013 und 2014 war Abromtschyk wieder am Start, bestes Ergebnis wurde 2014 in Nové Město Rang 6 mit der Staffel sowie Position 22 in der Verfolgung. Kurz darauf stellte er in Martell mit Platz 20 im Sprint seine beste Platzierung im IBU-Cup auf.

In den Jahren 2015 bis 2017 kam Abromtschyk nur noch vereinzelt und mit wenig Erfolg im IBU-Cup zum Einsatz, nach den Bewerben in Osrblie Anfang Februar 2017 beendete er daraufhin seine Karriere.

Statistiken

Juniorenweltmeisterschaften
Ergebnisse bei den Juniorenweltmeisterschaften:

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Biathlet (Belarus)
Universiadeteilnehmer (Belarus)
Teilnehmer der Winter-Universiade 2015
Belarusse
Geboren 1991
Mann

Aljaksej Abromtschyk


Sutra, (Sanskritçe: सूत्र: sūtra; satır, dize; Pali: Sutta, sūtta; yaymak, özlü söz) Hindistan yazın geleneğinde özellikle Hinduizm, Budizm, Cainizm gibi inanç ve öğretilere ait eski metinlerde başvurulmuş bir edebî tarzın hem de bu türde yazılmış toplu metinlerin de adıdır. Vecize, özdeyiş, atasözü, özlü sözler gibi halk arasında dilden dile yayılma kolaylığı sağlamıştır.

Budizm'de Gautama Buddha'nın öğretilerinden oluşan ve doğrudan Buda'nın sözlerini aktardığı varsayılan metinler de aynı yöntem kullanılmıştır.

Samyutta-Nikaya
Samyutta-Nikaya Budist metinlerinden oluşan bir derlemedir. Sutta Pitaka'lardan oluşan, beş Nikaya'dan üçüncüsüdür. Bu derleme ortalama 2889 Sutra'dan oluşmaktadır.

Kalp Sutra
En yüce bilgelik Sutra'sı Budizm'in ünlü Mahayana Sutra'sına ait olan kutsal metindir. Diğer adı, öteki dünyanın özü, öteki dünyaya ait olan bilgeliktir. (Sutra) (Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdayasūtra), Korece: (Maha-banya-para-mida-simgyeong), Vietnamca: Kinh Ma Ha Bát Nhã Ba La Mật, Japanca: 摩訶般若波羅蜜多心經 (Maka Hannya Haramita Shingyō), Pinyin: Móhē bōrě bōluómìduō xīnjīng, Tibetçe: sNying mDo ve shes rab snying po'i mdo.
Sadece Sanskritçe olan orijinal hali değil, Çince metinler de öğretilmektedir.

Elmas Sutra
Yaklaşık olarak 1. yüzyılda kaleme alınan Elmas Sutra (Vajracchedikā-prājñāpāramitā-sūtra) Mahayana Budizmi'nin en önemli metni sayılmaktadır. Elmas Sutra çeşitli Asya ülkelerine kadar yayılmıştır. Ayrıca 'Prajnaparamita Sutra'nın' (sanskr. "prajnaparamita" = Bilgeliğin Mükemmelleştirilmesi) bir parçasıdır. Kökeni Çin'e dayanan Sutra'nın ilk versiyonu toplu bir şekilde üretilmiştir. Bu doküman, Gutenberg İncili'nden yaklaşık olarak 600 yıl önce meydana gelen insanlık tarihinin ilk kitap baskısı sayılmaktadır. 1907'de Arkeolog Aurel Stein tarafından bir Çin şehri olan Dunhuang'daki Mogao mağarasında bulunmuştur. Bu Sutra'nın tam başlığı 'Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita'dır ve 'Bilgeliğin Mükemmelleştirilmesi' anlamına gelmektedir.

Biçimi
Elmas Sutra 32 bölümden oluşmaktadır. Bütün Sutra'ların topluluk önünde yüksek sesle ve gerektiği gibi okunması 45 dakika sürmektedir. Bu Sutra 'Subhuti', yani Buda'nın öğrencisi ve kendisi arasında soru-cevap şeklinde belirlenmiş bir diyalogdur. Modern bir etki yaratan bu Sutra'nın kalitesi de biçimsel açıdan kayda değerdir. Burada Sutra'nın içeriği, başarılı etkisi ve gelecekteki alımlaması ile ilgili şeyler konuşulmaktadır. Ayrıca metin kendiliğinden sorunsallaşmaktadır.

İçeriği
Elmas Sutra, Buda'nın Sravasti'deki Jetovana Parkın'nda verdiği vaazlara dayanmaktadır. Burada Subhuti adında bir rahibin sorusunu cevaplamaktadır.

'Biçim boşluktur. Boşluk biçimdir.' Kalp Sutra'dan gelen Budist düşünce (her ne kadar var olmasa da) Elmas Sutra'nın ana temasıdır. Buda'nın öğretilerine göre 2 doğru / 2 gerçek ortaya çıkmaktadır.

1.Bir yanda biçim dünyası, tecrübe edilen olguların dünyası, gösterge ve kavramlar içinde yanıltıcı, tek taraflı doğrular,

2.Diğer yanda boşluk dünyası (Sunyata), 'Doğruluk Dünyası', biçimin ötesinde bir etki alanı, doğum ve ölümün ötesinde, başlangıç ve son, kendiliğinden ve kendiliğinden olmayan, bütün kavramların ötesinde bir dünya.

Buda, bu iki gerçekliği birbirleriyle karşılaştırmakla yetinseydi Buda olamazdı. Elmas Sutra'da geçen bu ifade çeşitli varyantlara yayılmıştır. Bu durumda Sutra'nın başlığı tam ve doğru bir şekilde şöyle çevrilmiştir: "Elmas, yanılsamayı ikiye bölmüştür." (Vajracchedika Sutra) Buda'nın öğretilerinden oluşan Elmas Sutra aslında pek çok yanılsamalarla benzerlik göstermektedir.

 İnsanın özgür bir varlık olduğu, başkalarından ayrıldığı yönündeki yanılsama
 İnsanların aynı kavramların varlığını tam olarak anlayabildiği yönündeki uzak yanılsama
 İnsanların tamamen yok olduğu, boşluğun ötesinde bir varlığın olmadığı yönündeki yanılsama. 'Biçim boşluktur. Boşluk biçimdir.'

Elmas Sutra'nın Diyalaktiği
Elmas Sutra'nın hemen hemen her bölümünde aşağıdaki fomüllere rastlamaktayız. 'Dharma diye bilinen her şey Dharma değildir. Bu yüzden her şey Dharma diye adlandırılır.' Bu birbiriyle çelişkili 3 madde şöyledir:

1)A diye bilinen şey 2) A değildir 3) Bu yüzden A'dır.
Vietnamlı Zen ustası Thich Nhat Hanh Sutra yorumlamasında bu çelişkiyi şöyle çözmüştür:

1)A'yı dikkatli bir şekilde inceliyoruz 2) A'nın A olmadığını fark ediyoruz 3) Sonra A'yı en güçlü döneminde görüyoruz (Elmas Sutra)

Ya da başka bir formül:

1)Dharma'yı ayrıntılı bir şekilde inceliyoruz 2) Ve bunların Dharma olmadığını görüyoruz 3) Sonra Dharma'yı görmeye başlıyoruz (Elmas Sutra, devamında)

Ya da "Bir gülü incelediğimizde gül olmayan unsurları fark edebiliyorsak o zaman gül kelimesini kullanmak bizim için tehlikeli değildir." (Elmas Sutra, devamında)

Bu çelişkili cümleler başlangıçta kısaca sözü edilen gerçeklikler arasında gidip geldiği anda çözülmekte ve her defasında diğer gerçekliklere, daha doğrusu gerçeklikle eşit olan diğer bakış açılarına gönderme yapmaktadır.

4 yanlış gerçeklik
Buda'nın öğretilerinin pek çok felsefi boyutu vardır. Budizm'de insana özgü algılama durumu daima çözülmesi güç bir sorun haline gelmiş, bununla ilgili pek çok sorular sorulmuştur. Ne görüyoruz? Nesnelerin gerçek boyutunu mu, yoksa kendi tasarladıklarımızı / tasvir ettiklerimizi / göstergelerimizi mi görüyoruz? Elmas Sutra'da daima sözünü ettiğimiz 4 yanlış doğru/düşünce vardır.

 Kendiliğinden oluşan düşünce (ayrılmış, kendisi için var olan)
 Bir kişiye ait düşünce (insandan ve insan olmayandan ayrılma)
 Bir canlı varlığın düşüncesi (canlı ve canlı olmayan maddeden ayrılma)
 Yaşam aralığı düşüncesi (doğum ve ölüm)
Bütün bu düşünceler olguların etkinlik alanına sıkı sıkıya bağlı kalmış, kavramsal-mantıksal farklılıklar alanında varlığını korumuş ve bununla birlikte bu düşünceleri aşan nesnelerin gerçek doğasına ulaşamamıştır.

Lotus Sutra
Asya'nın en ünlü Elmas Sutra'sının yanı sıra, Lotus Sutra, Mahayana Budizm'inin metinlerinden biridir. Ayrıca 25 bölümden oluşmaktadır.

Tarihi
Buda Shakyamuni'nin ölümünden 700 yıl sonra bu Sutra'ların Hindistan'da yazıya geçirildiğine inanılmaktadır. Kucha'da bugün en çok bilinen bu Mahayana Sutra'larının yaklaşık olarak 350 ila 380 tanesi muhtemelen Kumarajavas'ın hocası Suryasoma tarafından bir araya getirilmiştir ve bugün en çok bilinen metninde kayıtlıdır.

Lotus Sutra Hindistan'a, Nepal'e, Sanskritçe'nin hâkim olduğu Merkez Asya'ya kadar yayılmış ve ayrıca Tibetçe, Çinçe'ye çevrilmiştir.

Çoğu yorumlamalar ve çeviriler (modern dillerde de) eski Çince çevirilere göre yönünü belirlemektedir. Bu versiyonda Lotus Sutra Çinli Tiantai Zong ve Japon Tendai-shu'nun temeli sayılmaktadır.

Pali Derlemeleri'nde de yazıldığı üzere eski Buda öğretilerinin aksine esas üzerinde durulması gereken nokta, ruhun kurtulması ve kutsanması için değil, aynı zamanda insanlığın kurtulması için çaba göstermektir.

Lotus Sutra, insanların kendi yaşamlarını ve kendi kaderlerini kendilerinin belirlemesinin her insana şans getireceğini ifade etmektedir.

Kaynakça

Budizm Kutsal Metinler

Sutra


Urmar Tanda es una ciudad de la India en el distrito de Hoshiarpur, Estado de Panyab.

Geografía
Se encuentra a una altitud de 240  a 200 km de la capital estatal, Chandigarh, en la zona horaria UTC +5:30.

Demografía
Según estimación 2010 contaba con una población de 24 721 habitantes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Punyab (India)

Urmar Tanda


Joseph Sanders Pearson (né en 1975 à Edmonton, Alberta) est un essayiste, historien culturel et journaliste canadien.

Biographie

Entre 1997 et 2001, Pearson a obtenu son doctorat en histoire moderne à l'Université de Cambridge. Pearson a enseigné les sciences humaines à la Columbia University, New York University, l'Université des arts de Berlin, et l'Académie Barenboïm-Saïd, un projet de paix dirigé par le chef d'orchestre Daniel Barenboim. Il est le neveu de la romancière pour enfants .

Œuvres

Son histoire et portrait de la capitale allemande, Berlin, a été publié par Reaktion Press et University of Chicago Press en 2017. The Independent a qualifié Berlin de « dernier mot pour expliquer non seulement l'incroyable histoire de Berlin, mais aussi sa situation culturelle actuelle » et Bloomberg a rapporté que le livre « offre magistralement une lecture rapprochée de la métropole dans toute son immédiateté brutale ». Le livre a également fait l'objet d'une critique positive dans The .

My Grandfather's Knife est publié en avril 2022 par HarperCollins et , avec une traduction espagnole par Planeta en octobre 2022. Le livre raconte les histoires des témoins de la Seconde Guerre mondiale à travers les objets du quotidien qu'ils possédaient.

Son travail a été publié dans Newsweek, The New England Review, la BBC, , Monocle Magazine, Prism International et de nombreuses autres publications. Ses ouvrages non romanesques ont été traduits en allemand, en français, en arabe, en mandarin et dans d'autres langues.

Pearson est basé à Berlin, en Allemagne, où il est l'essayiste maison du théâtre de la Schaubühne  et l'éditeur de The Needle, l'un des blogs les plus populaires de Berlin. Il est membre fondateur du collectif d'artistes AGOSTO.

Prix
En 2020, il a été récompensé par le prix Jacob Zilber de la nouvelle (premier accessit), pour son récit An Iconostasis. Le récit a été nommé en 2020 pour le Pushcart Prize.

Références

Liens externes

Écrivain canadien du XXIe siècle
Naissance en octobre 1975
Naissance à Edmonton

Joseph Pearson (écrivain)


Isla María Francisca (en portugués: Ilha Maria Francisca también conocida como Ilha Garcia, Ilha das Flexas) Es el nombre que recibe una isla que se encuentra en el estado de Santa Catarina al sur del país suramericano de Brasil, justo entre la isla de Santa Catarina y el territorio continental de Brasil en la Bahía conocida como Sur (baía sul) en las coordenadas geográficas . Administrativamente hace parte del territorio del Municipio de Florianópolis.

Véase también
 Geografía de Brasil
 Geografía de América

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de localización de la isla

Archipiélagos e islas de Santa Catarina
Archipiélagos e islas del océano Atlántico de Brasil

Isla María Francisca


Don Juan de Guzmán Ixtolinque fue un noble indígena que gobernó en Coyoacán entre 1525 y 1569, ya dentro del período colonial de la historia de México. Fue hijo de Cuauhpopoca, que fue señor de Coyoacán hasta su ejecución por orden de Hernán Cortés en 1519, y de Huitzilatzin, perteneciente al linaje gobernante de Huitzilopochco (actualmente San Diego Churubusco). Por lo tanto, era tataranieto de Huitzilíhuitl, segundo tlatoani de México-Tenochtitlan.

Guzmán Ixtolinque ocupó el tlatoanazgo de Coyoacán después de la muerte de su hermano Hernando Cetochtzin, que murió durante la expedición de Cortés a Guatemala en 1525. Fue un gran aliado de Cortés, y por instancia suya se estableció en Coyoacán el segundo ayuntamiento de Nueva España y la primera sede del gobierno colonial español en ese territorio.

La esposa de Ixtolinque fue sobrina de Carlos Ometochtzin, señor de Texcoco que fue ejecutado por idolatría en 1539, pues se hizo pública su práctica de la religión prehispánica de los nahuas. A la muerte de Juan de Guzmán le sucedió como tlatoani de Coyoacán su hijo, Juan de Guzmán, el joven.

Notas

Referencias

, Domingo Francisco de San Antón Muñón (1977). Codex Chimalpahin: society and politics in Mexico Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco, Texcoco, Culhuacan, and other Nahua altepetl in central Mexico: the Nahuatl and Spanish annals and accounts collected and recorded by don Domingo de San Antón Muñón Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin. Editado y traducido por Arthur J. O. Anderson y Susan Schroeder. Norman: Oklahoma University Press. ISBN 0-8061-2921-2

, Rebeca (1997). Postconquest Coyoacán: nahua-spanish relations in Central Mexico, 1519-1560. Stanford:Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2773-2.

Personas de Ciudad de México
Historia de Coyoacán

Juan de Guzmán Ixtolinque