The International Workers' Association –  (IWA–AIT) is an international federation of anarcho-syndicalist labor unions and initiatives.

It aims to create unions capable of fighting for the economic and political interests of the working class and eventually, to directly abolish capitalism and the state through "the establishment of economic communities and administrative organs run by the workers."

At its peak the International represented millions of people worldwide. Its member unions played a central role in the social conflicts of the 1920s and 1930s. However the International was formed as many countries were entering periods of extreme repression, and many of the largest IWA unions were shattered during that period.

As a result, by the end of World War II all but one of the International's branches had ceased to function as unions, a slump which continued throughout the 1940s and 1950s. It would not be until the late 1970s, with the death of Spanish caudillo Francisco Franco, that it would see a major union, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) reform within its ranks.

After the 1970s, the International expanded and currently counts 14 member sections and 6 Friends.

Ideology

The IWA programme promotes a form of non-hierarchical unionism which seeks to unite workers to fight for economic and political advances towards the final aim of libertarian communism.

This federation is designed to both contest immediate industrial relations issues such as pay, working conditions and labor law, and pursue the reorganization of society into a global system of economic communes and administrative groups based within a system of federated free councils at local, regional, national and global levels. This reorganization would form the underlying structure of a self-managed society based on pre-planning and mutual aid—the establishment of anarchist communism.

The IWA's Principles, Goals and Statutes state its role as being: "To carry on the day-to-day revolutionary struggle for the economic, social and intellectual advancement of the working class within the limits of present-day society, and to educate the masses so that they will be ready to independently manage the processes of production and distribution when the time comes to take possession of all the elements of social life."

The IWA explicitly rejects centralism, political parties, parliamentarism and statism, including the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat, as offering the means to carry out such change, drawing heavily on anarchist critiques written both before and after the Russian revolution, most famously Mikhail Bakunin's suggestion that: "If you took the most ardent revolutionary, vested him in absolute power, within a year he would be worse than the Tsar himself."

It also rejects the concept of economic determinism from some Marxists that liberation would come about; "by virtue of some inevitable fatalism of rigid natural laws which admit no deviation; its realization will depend above all on the conscious will and the use of revolutionary action of the workers and will be determined by them."

Instead emphasis is placed on the organization of workers as the agents of social change through their ability to take direct action:

Policies
The IWA rejects all political and national frontiers; it calls for radical changes to the means of production to lessen humanity's environmental impact.

From an early stage, the IWA has taken an anti-militarist stance, reflecting the overwhelming anarchist attitude since the First World War that the working class should not engage with the power struggles between ruling classes - and certainly should not die for them. It included a commitment to anti-militarism in its core principles and in 1926 it founded an International Anti-Militarist Coalition to promote disarmament and gather information on war production.

While regarding industrial acts such as strikes, boycotts, etc. as the primary means of struggle against capitalist and state exploitation, the founding document of the IWA also states that syndicalists recognize "as valid that violence that may be used as a means of defense against the violent methods used by the ruling classes during the struggles that lead up to the revolutionary populace expropriating the lands and means of production."

It is stressed that this should occur through the formation of a democratic popular militia rather than through a traditional military hierarchy. This has been posited as an alternative to the dictatorship of the proletariat model.

Organization

The IWA admits organizations which are in full agreement with its Aims and Principles in countries where there is not already an affiliated group in existence, requiring them to pay affiliation fees to help maintain the IWA's structure.

Member groups are then able to participate in and benefit from the global community the IWA provides and can vote in its highest decision-making event, the International Congress, which is currently held once every two years. Proposals are submitted at national level at least six months before congress, to allow other national groups to consult and mandate members to vote. The agreements and resolutions adopted by the International Congresses are binding for all affiliated groups.

The sample flowchart on the right shows the relationship of the individual to the organization within Britain and Ireland IWA affiliate the Solidarity Federation. If an individual wishes to change the organization's policies, they must win agreement from their Local to formally place the idea before Federal Conference, which in turn, if other Locals agree, may place the idea before the IWA as a whole for a decision. While federal officers are mandated by the Federal Conference, they have no influence over policymaking other than through their own Locals.

No permanent positions of paid or elected authority are present at any stage within the international and its affiliates. Instead, unpaid volunteer positions are created to deal with administrative issues, and individuals are restricted to carrying out these activities within a mandate decided directly by their peers and subject to instant recall. Beyond the collective agreements of the IWA itself, all decision-making takes place within base units (such as Locals) organized by geography or trade, as most applicable (where industrial organizing is not possible due to low density, geographical units are the norm).

Administration of the IWA's functions is carried out by the Secretariat consisting of at least three people living in the country nominated by the International to take on the role. The IWA also elects a Secretary General, who acts as a liaison and representative for the International but again, does not wield any direct powers over policy. The Secretariat may only hold office for two terms concurrently. For specific tasks, such as financial audits, separate commissions are set up.

Internal communications are maintained through each member group's International Secretaries, and through wide circulation of members' own internal publications. Informal online communication is also a mainstay of this process.

History

First International and revolutionary syndicalism (1864–1917)
The early ideology of revolutionary syndicalism from which the IWA derives was formed during the International Workingmen's Association (IWMA), also known as the First International.

The First International aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing socialist, communist and anarchist political groups and Labor union that were based on the working class and class struggle.

The earlier International however was not able to withstand the differences between anarchist and Marxist currents, with the anarchists largely withdrawing after the Hague Congress of 1872 which saw the expulsion of leading libertarians Mikhail Bakunin and James Guillaume over their criticism of Karl Marx's party-political approach to social change.

This split prompted several attempts to start specifically anarchist Internationals, notably the Anarchist St. Imier International (1872-1881) and the Black International (1881–87). However heavy repression in France of the Paris Commune, as well as in Spain and Italy, alongside the rise of propaganda of the deed within the anarchist movement and a dominant strand of social-democracy on the wider left wing in Europe, meant that serious moves to establish an anarcho-syndicalist international would not begin until the early 20th century.

The 1900s saw a major leap forward for the labor movement with the adoption of a new method of organizing, industrial unionism and in 1913 there was an international syndicalist congress held in London which aimed at building stronger ties between the existing syndicalist unions and propaganda groups. Present at the congress were delegates from the FVdG (Germany), NAS (Netherlands), SAC (Sweden), USI (Italy), and ISEL (Britain). Observers attended from the Industrial Workers of the World (US), CNT (Spain), and FORA (Argentina).

The Congress' outcome was inconclusive, beyond drawing up a declaration of principles and setting up a short-lived information bureau. The burgeoning movement was to be snuffed out within a year as Europe was plunged into World War I and communications between the syndicalists became impossible.

After the end of the war however, with the workers' movement resurgent following the October Revolution and subsequent Russian Civil War, what was to become the modern IWA was formed, billing itself as the "true heir" of the original international.

Rejection of Bolshevism and founding of the IWA (1918–1922)
The success of the Bolsheviks in Russia in 1918 resulted in a wave of syndicalist successes worldwide, including the struggle of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in the USA alongside the creation of mass anarchist unions across Latin America and huge syndicalist-led strikes in Germany, Portugal, Spain, Italy and France, where it was noted that "neutral (economic, but not political) syndicalism had been swept away."

For many in this new revolutionary wave, Russia seemed to offer a successful alternative to social democratic reformism, so when in 1919 the Bolshevik Party issued an appeal for all workers to join it in building a new Red International it was met with great interest. Almost all of the syndicalist unions attended the 1920 congress of the Bolsheviks' international of communists, the Comintern, which unions in France and Italy joined immediately. In contrast, attempts to organize a conference of anarchists in February 1919 in Copenhagen had seen only the Scandinavians able to attend.

Skepticism was initially expressed by Germany's influential Free Workers' Union of Germany (FAUD) towards the Bolsheviks' concept of an international of trade unions, known as the Profintern. Such sentiments grew significantly as delegates from several countries gained access to Bolshevik Russia. Augustine Souchy of FAUD scathingly criticised the failings of "dictatorial state socialism," as concerns rose over proposals from the Bolsheviks that all unions should submit themselves to the Communist Party's leadership and reports began to arrive documenting the imprisonment of anarchists and socialists by the Bolsheviks.

At the Profintern's formal launch in July 1921, these fears proved well founded with the passing of a resolution subordinating the Profintern to the Comintern and thus tying the priorities of all member unions to those of the Russian state. While initially the syndicalist organizations present, including the largest unions from Spain (CNT), Italy (USI), Argentina (FORA), Germany (FAUD) and the USA (IWW) agreed to join on condition that organizational independence would be maintained, relations soured over the course of the year.

By 1922 relations had broken down completely and the Profintern was decisively condemned at a conference of syndicalist unions in Berlin on June 16–18, after a Russian delegate repeatedly refused calls to press for the release of independent and anarchist trade unionists from Lenin's prisons. Delegations from France, Germany, Norway and Spain resolving to establish a bureau to prepare the ground for the founding of a new international, rejecting parliamentarianism, militarism, nationalism and centralism.

The final formation of this new international, then known as the International Workingmen's Association, took place at an illegal conference in Berlin in December 1922, marking an irrevocable break between the international syndicalist movement and the Bolsheviks.

Signatories to the founding statement of the International Workingmen's Association included groups from around the world. The single largest anarcho-syndicalist union at the time, the CNT in Spain, was unable to attend when their delegates were arrested on the way to the conference, though they did join the following year, bringing 600,000 members into the international. Despite the CNT's absence, the international represented well over 1 million workers at its inauguration:

 The Italian Syndicalist Union (USI): 500,000 members
 The Regional Federation of Argentine Workers (FORA): 200,000
 The General Confederation of Labour (CGT) in Portugal: 150,000
 The Free Workers' Union of Germany (FAUD): 120,000
 The Committee for the Defense of Revolutionary Syndicalism in France: 100,000
 The Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden (SAC): 32,000
 The General Confederation of Workers (CGT) in Mexico: 30,000
 The National Labor Secretariat (NAS) in the Netherlands: 22,500
 The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in Chile: 20,000
 The Norwegian Syndicalist Federation (NSF) in Norway: 20,000
 The Union for Syndicalist Propaganda in Denmark: 600

The first secretaries of the International included the famed writer and activist Rudolph Rocker, along with Augustin Souchy and Alexander Schapiro.

Following the first congress, other groups affiliated from France, Austria, Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Poland and Romania. Later, a bloc of unions in the US, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Cuba, Costa Rica and El Salvador also shared the IWA's statutes.

The biggest syndicalist union in the US, the IWW, considered joining but eventually ruled out affiliation in 1936, citing the IWA's policies on religious and political affiliation.

Decline and repression (1923–1939)
Many of the largest members of the IWA were broken, driven underground or wiped out in the 1920s-30s as powers hostile to them came to power in states across Europe and workers switched away from anarchism towards the seeming success of the Bolshevik model of socialism.

In Argentina, the FORA had already begun a process of decline by the time it joined the IWA, having split in 1915 into pro and anti-Bolshevik factions. From 1922, the anarchist movement there lost most of its membership, exacerbated by further splits, most notably around the Severino Di Giovanni affair. It was crushed by General Uriburu's military coup in 1930.

Germany's FAUD struggled throughout the late 1920s and early 30s as the brownshirts took control of the streets. Its last national congress in Erfurt in March 1932 saw the union attempt to form an underground bureau to combat Hitler's National Socialists, a measure which was never put into practice as mass arrests decimated the conspirators' ranks. The editor of FAUD organ Der Syndikalist, Gerhard Wartenberg, was later killed in Sachsenhausen concentration camp, and Karl Windhoff, delegate to the IWA Madrid congress of 1931, was driven out of his mind and also died in a death camp. Mass trials of FAUD members were also held in Wuppertal and Rhenanie; many of those convicted did not survive the death camps.

Italian IWA union the USI, which had claimed a membership of up to 600,000 people in 1922, was warning even at that time of murders and repression from Benito Mussolini's blackshirts. It had been driven underground by 1924 and although it was still able to lead significant strikes by miners, metalworkers and marble workers, Mussolini's ascent to power in 1925 sealed its fate. By 1927 its leading activists had been arrested or exiled.

Portugal's CGT was driven underground after an unsuccessful attempt to break the newly installed President of Portugal, Gomes da Costa, with a general strike in 1927 which led to nearly 100 deaths. It survived underground with 15–20,000 members until January 1934, when it called a general revolutionary strike, which failed, against plans to replace trade unions with corporations. It was able to continue in a much reduced state until World War II, but was effectively finished as a fighting union.
Massive government repression repeated such defeats around the world, as anarcho-syndicalist unions were destroyed in Peru, Brazil, Columbia, Japan, Cuba, Bulgaria, Paraguay and Bolivia. By the end of the 1930s legal anarcho-syndicalist trade unions existed only in Chile, Bolivia, Sweden and Uruguay.

But perhaps the greatest blow was struck in the Spanish Civil War, which saw the CNT, then claiming a membership of 1.58 million, driven underground with the defeat of the Spanish Second Republic by the Nationalists. The sixth IWA congress took place in 1936, shortly after the Spanish Revolution had begun, but was unable to provide serious material support for the section.

The IWA held its last pre-war congress in Paris in 1938, months  before the German invasion of Poland that started the Second World War. It received an application from ZZZ, a syndicalist union in Poland claiming up to 130,000 workers – ZZZ members went on to form a core part of the resistance against the Nazis, and participated in the Warsaw Uprising. But the International did not meet again until 1951, years after the end of the war. During the war only one member of the IWA was able to continue to function as a revolutionary union, the SAC in Sweden.

After Hitler's defeat, much of the Spanish CNT's active membership, now operating informally in Francoist Spain, remained split, with some in exile in France and Britain and the rest driven underground. In Sweden the SAC retained a presence, while in every other country previously active members of the International had to start from scratch.

Relaunch of the International Workers Association (1951–1980)
At the seventh congress in Toulouse in 1951 a much smaller IWA was relaunched, again without the CNT, which would not be strong enough to reclaim membership until 1958 as an exiled and underground organization. Delegates attended, mostly representing very small groups, from Cuba, Argentina, Spain, Sweden, France, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Britain, Bulgaria and Portugal. A message of support was received from Uruguay.

But the situation remained difficult for the International, as it struggled to deal with the rise of state-sanctioned economic trade unionism in the West, heavy secret service intervention as Cold War anti-communism reached its height and the banning of all strikes and free trade unions in the Soviet Union bloc of countries.

At the tenth congress in 1958, the SAC's response to these pressures led it into a clash with the rest of the international. It withdrew from the IWA following its failure to amend the body's statutes to allow it to stand in municipal elections and amid concerns over its integration with the state over distribution of unemployment benefits.

For most of the next two decades, the International struggled to rebuild itself.

In 1976, at the 15th congress, the IWA had only five member groups, two of which (the Spanish and Bulgarian members) were still operating in exile (though following Franco's death in 1975, the CNT was already approaching a membership of 200,000).

In 1979 a split over representative unionism, professional unionism and state-funded schemes saw the CNT split. The part that split is known as the CGT today.

Revival and the modern period (1980s and 90s)
The IWA's 1980 congress showed much improvement, reaching ten sections and benefiting from the reorganization of the CNT, which was able to send delegates from Spain (as opposed to exiles) for the first time since the 1930s. Reformed sections in Italy (USI) and Norway (NSF), along with others from the UK (Direct Action Movement), USA (Workers Solidarity Alliance), Germany (Free Workers' Union, FAU) and Australia Anarcho-Syndicalist Federation, were among those who joined.

All existing groups reported growth, and by 1984 at its 17th congress the International had three unions as members: CNT of Spain, CNT of France, and USI of Italy. The IWA grew throughout the decade, adding two new groups from Japan and Brazil (Confederação Operária Brasileira|COB).

Further growth was recorded in the 1990s, although the Workers Solidarity Alliance along with the Japanese and Australian sections ceased to be members. However the 1996 Congress saw two sections split over the question of participation in trade union elections,  with the French section divided into the CNT-F (also known as CNT Vignoles) and CNT-AIT sections (the latter becoming the official IWA affiliate), while the Italian USI's "Roman tendency" was expelled. Czech, Slovak and Russian sections were added at the same event. Four years later, the Serbian and Brazilian sections joined.

Repression and activities

In 2018, the former IWA members met with other groups in Parma, Italy, to establish a new international organization, the International Confederation of Labor (Confederación Internacional del Trabajo).  Affiliated organisations include CNT (Spain), USI (Italy), FAU (Germany), the North American Regional Administration of the IWW, ESE (Greece), FORA (Argentina) and IP (Poland).

Member organizations
The following organizations are either Sections or Friends of the IWA.

Other anarchist internationals and international networks
 Anarchist St. Imier International (1872–1877)
 International Working People's Association (1881–1887)
 International of Anarchist Federations (1968–)
 Black Bridge International (2001–2004)
 International Libertarian Solidarity (2001–2005)
 Anarkismo.net (2005–)
International Confederation of Labour (2018-)

References

External links
International Workers' Association
Video of the IWA Congress in Madrid 1931

Anarcho-syndicalism
Left-wing internationals
Syndicalism
International and regional union federations
1922 establishments in Germany

eu:Langileen Nazioarteko Elkartea
it:Associazione Internazionale dei Lavoratori

IWA–AIT


The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is a crocodilian native to saltwater habitats, brackish wetlands and freshwater rivers from India's east coast across Southeast Asia and the Sundaic region to northern Australia and Micronesia. It has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 1996. It was hunted for its skin throughout its range up to the 1970s, and is threatened by illegal killing and habitat loss. It is regarded as dangerous to humans.

The saltwater crocodile is the largest living reptile. Males can grow up to a length of , rarely exceeding , and a weight of . Females are much smaller and rarely surpass . It is also called the estuarine crocodile, Indo-Pacific crocodile, marine crocodile, sea crocodile, and, informally, the saltie. A large and opportunistic hypercarnivorous apex predator, they ambush most of their prey and then drown or swallow it whole. They will prey on almost any animal that enters their territory, including other predators such as sharks, varieties of freshwater and saltwater fish including pelagic species, invertebrates such as crustaceans, various amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, including humans.

Taxonomy and evolution

Crocodilus porosus was the scientific name proposed by Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider who described a zoological specimen in 1801. In the 19th and 20th centuries, several saltwater crocodile specimens were described with the following names:
Crocodilus biporcatus proposed by Georges Cuvier in 1807 were 23 saltwater crocodile specimens from India, Java and Timor.
Crocodilus biporcatus raninus proposed by Salomon Müller and Hermann Schlegel in 1844 was a crocodile from Borneo.
Crocodylus porosus australis proposed by Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala in 1953 was a specimen from Australia.
Crocodylus pethericki proposed by Richard Wells and C. Ross Wellington in 1985 was a large-bodied, relatively large-headed and short-tailed crocodile specimen collected in 1979 in the Finnis River, Northern Territory. This purported species was later considered to be a misinterpretation of the physiological changes that very large male crocodiles undergo. However, Wells and Wellington's assertion that the Australian saltwater crocodiles may be distinctive enough from northern Asian saltwater crocodiles to warrant subspecies status, as could raninus from other Asian saltwater crocodiles, has been considered to possibly bear validity.

Currently, the saltwater crocodile is considered a monotypic species. However, based largely on morphological variability, it is thought possible that the taxon C. porosus comprises a species complex. Borneo crocodile C. raninus specimens can reliably be distinguished both from saltwater and Siamese crocodiles (C. siamensis) on the basis of the number of ventral scales and on the presence of four postoccipital scutes, which are often absent in true saltwater crocodiles.

Evolution
Fossil remains of a saltwater crocodile excavated in northern Queensland were dated to the Pliocene. The saltwater crocodile's closest extant (living) relatives are the Siamese crocodile and the mugger crocodile.

The genus Crocodylus likely originated in Africa and radiated outwards towards Southeast Asia and the Americas, although an Australian/Asian origin has also been considered. Phylogenetic evidence supports Crocodylus diverging from its closest recent relative, the extinct Voay of Madagascar, around 25 million years ago, near the Oligocene/Miocene boundary.

Phylogeny
Below is a cladogram based on a 2018 tip dating study by Lee & Yates simultaneously using morphological, molecular (DNA sequencing), and stratigraphic (fossil age) data, as revised by the 2021 Hekkala et al. paleogenomics study using DNA extracted from the extinct Voay.

Description

The saltwater crocodile has a wide snout compared to most crocodiles. However, it has a longer snout than the mugger crocodile (C. palustris); its length is twice its width at the base. A pair of ridges runs from the eyes along the centre of the snout. The scales are oval in shape and the scutes are either small compared to other species or commonly are entirely absent. In addition, an obvious gap is also present between the cervical and dorsal shields, and small, triangular scutes are present between the posterior edges of the large, transversely arranged scutes in the dorsal shield. The relative lack of scutes is considered an asset useful to distinguish saltwater crocodiles in captivity or in illicit leather trading, as well as in the few areas in the field where sub-adult or younger saltwater crocodiles may need to be distinguished from other crocodiles. It has fewer armour plates on its neck than other crocodilians.

The adult saltwater crocodile's broad body contrasts with that of most other lean crocodiles, leading to early unverified assumptions the reptile was an alligator.

Young saltwater crocodiles are pale yellow in colour with black stripes and spots on their bodies and tails. This colouration lasts for several years until the crocodiles mature into adults. The colour as an adult is much darker greenish-drab, with a few lighter tan or grey areas sometimes apparent. Several colour variations are known and some adults may retain fairly pale skin, whereas others may be so dark as to appear blackish. The ventral surface is white or yellow in colour in saltwater crocodiles of all ages. Stripes are present on the lower sides of their bodies, but do not extend onto their bellies. Their tails are grey with dark bands.

Size
The weight of a crocodile increases approximately cubically as length increases (see square–cube law). This explains why individuals at  weigh more than twice as much as individuals at . In crocodiles, linear growth eventually decreases and they start getting bulkier at a certain point.

Saltwater crocodiles are the largest extant riparian predators in the world. However, they start life fairly small. Newly hatched saltwater crocodiles measure about  long and weigh an average of . These sizes and ages are almost identical to those at average sexual maturity in Nile crocodiles, despite the fact that average adult male saltwater crocodiles are considerably larger than average adult male Nile crocodiles.

The largest skull of a saltwater crocodile that could be scientifically verified was of a specimen in the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, collected in Cambodia. Its skull was  long and  wide near its base, with  long mandibles. The length of this specimen is not known, but based on skull-to-total-length ratios for very large saltwater crocodiles its length was presumably somewhere in the  range. If detached from the body, the head of a very large male crocodile can reportedly weigh over  alone, including the large muscles and tendons at the base of the skull that lend the crocodile its massive biting strength. The largest tooth measured  in length.
Other crocodilians have a proportionately longer skull, like the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and the false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii), but both their skulls and their bodies are less massive than in the saltwater crocodile.

Male size
An adult male saltwater crocodile, from young adults to older individuals, typically ranges  in length and weighs . On average, adult males range  in length and weigh . However average size largely depends on the location, habitat, and human interactions and thus varies from one study to another. In 1993, in a study conducted (published in 1998), eleven saltwater crocodiles were found to have measured  and weighed between . Very large, aged males can exceed  in length and presumably weigh up to .

The largest confirmed saltwater crocodile on record drowned in a fishing net in Papua New Guinea, in 1979. Its dried skin plus head measured  in length and it was estimated to have been  when accounting for shrinkage and a missing tail tip. Projected from their skull lengths, multiple specimens from Singapore were estimated to belong in life to male crocodiles measuring more than . A large Vietnamese saltwater crocodile was reliably estimated, based on its skull after its death, at . However, according to evidence in the form of skulls coming from some of the largest crocodiles ever shot, the maximum possible size attained by the largest members of this species is considered to be . A governmental study from Australia accepts that the very largest members of the species are likely to measure  in length and weigh . Furthermore, a research paper on the morphology and physiology of crocodilians by the same organisation estimates that saltwater crocodiles reaching sizes of  would weigh around . Due to extensive poaching during the 20th century, such individuals are extremely rare today in most areas, as it takes a long time for the crocodiles to attain those sizes. Also, a possible earlier presence of particular genes may have led to such large-sized saltwater crocodiles, genes that were ultimately lost from the overall gene pool due to extensive hide and trophy hunting in the past. However, as the population recovers, the number of large crocodiles is increasing, especially in Bhitarkanika National Park, where at least one living individual is estimated to have obtained a length of around , with four other individuals estimated to reach a length of more than . This species is the only extant crocodilian regularly to reach or exceed . Due to the extreme size and highly aggressive nature of the species, weight in larger specimens is frequently poorly documented. A  long individual named "Sweetheart" was found to have weighed . Another large crocodile named "Gomek", measuring  in length weighed around . In 1992, a notorious man-eater, named "Bujang Senang" was killed in Sarawak, Malaysia. It measured  in length and weighed more than . A saltwater–siamese hybrid named "Yai" (, meaning big; born 10 June 1972) at the Samutprakarn Crocodile Farm and Zoo, Thailand was claimed to be the largest crocodile ever held in captivity. It measured  in length and weighed approximately . In 1962, a large male saltwater crocodile was shot in Adelaide River, Northern Territory. It was recorded to be  long and weighed . A large male in the Philippines, named Lolong, was one of the largest saltwater crocodile ever caught and placed in captivity. He was  long and weighed . Currently, the largest living crocodile in captivity, named "Cassius", is kept at Marineland Crocodile Park, a zoo located at Green Island, Queensland, Australia. It measures  in length and weighs approximately .

Female size
Adult females typically measure from  in total length and weigh . Large mature females reach  and weigh up to . The largest female on record measured about  in total length. Female are thus similar in size to other species of large crocodiles and average slightly smaller than females of some other species, like the Nile crocodile. The saltwater crocodile has the greatest size sexual dimorphism, by far, of any extant crocodilian, as males average about 4 to 5 times as massive as adult females and can sometimes measure twice her total length. The reason for the male skewered dimorphism in this species is not definitively known but might be correlated with sex-specific territoriality and the need for adult male saltwater crocodiles to monopolise large stretches of habitat. Due to the extreme sexual dimorphism of the species as contrasted with the more modest size dimorphism of other species, the average length of the species is only slightly more than some other extant crocodilians at .

Reported sizes

Distribution and habitat

The saltwater crocodile inhabits coastal brackish mangrove swamps, river deltas, and freshwater rivers from India's east coast, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh to Myanmar, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Philippines, East Timor, Palau, Solomon Islands, Singapore, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Australia's north coast. It is considered possibly extirpated from Cambodia, Vietnam, and Thailand, and definitively so from the Seychelles. The southernmost population in India lives in Odisha's Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary; in northern Odisha, it has not been recorded since the 1930s. It occurs along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands coasts and in the Sundarbans. In Sri Lanka, it occurs foremost in western and southern parts of the country.

In Myanmar, it inhabits the Ayeyarwady Delta.
In southern Thailand, it was recorded in Phang Nga Province.
In Singapore, it inhabits the Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve, and marshes near Kranji and Mandai. It is extirpated from Cambodia and Vietnam.

In China, it may have once inhabited coastal areas from Fujian province in the north to the border of Vietnam. References to crocodile attacks on humans and livestock during the Han and Song dynasties indicate that until the 18th century, it may have occurred in lower Pearl River and Macau, Han River, Min River, portions of coastal Guangxi province and Hainan Island. However, more recent studies indicate that these reports may have in fact referred to the now-extinct gavialid Hanyusuchus.

In Sabah, it was recorded in the (freshwater) Klias, Segama, and Kinabatangan Rivers. In Sarawak, it was recorded by a camera trap in Kuching Wetlands National Park. In the Lesser Sunda Islands, it is present along the coasts of Sumba, Lembata Island, Flores, Menipo, Rote Island, and Timor. Its status along Alor Island is unknown, where one individual was captured in the 2010s. In the Maluku Islands, it is present around the Kai Islands, the Aru Islands, and many other islands in the region, including the Torres Strait Islands. In Papua New Guinea, it is common within the coastal reaches of every river system such as the Fly River and in the Bismarck Archipelago.
In the Philippines, it occurs in a few coastal sites like eastern Luzon, Palawan, the Liguasan Marsh, and Agusan River on Mindanao.

In northern Australia, the saltwater crocodile is thriving, particularly in the multiple river systems near Darwin such as the Adelaide, Mary, and Daly Rivers, along with their adjacent billabongs and estuaries. The saltwater crocodile population in Australia is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000 adults. Its range extends from Broome, Western Australia through the entire Northern Territory coast all the way south to Rockhampton, Queensland. The Alligator Rivers in the Arnhem Land region are misnamed due to the resemblance of the saltwater crocodile to alligators as compared to freshwater crocodiles, which also inhabit the Northern Territory.

Because of its ability to swim long distances at sea, individual saltwater crocodiles appeared occasionally in areas far away from their general range, up to Fiji.
Saltwater crocodiles generally spend the tropical wet season in freshwater swamps and rivers, moving downstream to estuaries in the dry season. Crocodiles compete fiercely with each other for territory, with dominant males in particular occupying the most eligible stretches of freshwater creeks and streams. Junior crocodiles are thus forced into marginal river systems and sometimes into the ocean. This explains the large distribution of the species, as well as its being found in the odd places on occasion such as the Sea of Japan. Like all crocodiles, they can survive for prolonged periods in only warm temperatures, and crocodiles seasonally vacate parts of Australia if cold spells hit.

Behaviour and ecology

The primary behaviour to distinguish the saltwater crocodile from other crocodiles is its tendency to occupy salt water. Though other crocodiles also have salt glands that enable them to survive in saltwater, a trait that alligators do not possess, most other species do not venture out to sea except during extreme conditions.

Saltwater crocodiles use ocean currents to travel long distances. In Australia, 20 crocodiles were tagged with satellite transmitters; 8 of them ventured out into open ocean, and one of them traveled  along the coast in 25 days from the North Kennedy River on the eastern coast of Far North Queensland, around Cape York Peninsula, to the west coast in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Another individual swam  in 20 days. Without having to move around much, sometimes simply by floating, the current-riding behaviour allows for the conservation of energy. They interrupted their movements and resided in sheltered bays for a few days until the current changed direction. Sometimes, they also swam up and down river systems.
While most crocodilians are social animals sharing basking spots and food, saltwater crocodiles are more territorial and are less tolerant of their own kind; adult males will share territory with females, but drive off rival males. Saltwater crocodiles mate in the wet season, laying eggs in a nest consisting of a mound of mud and vegetation. The female guards the nest and hatchlings from predators.

Generally very lethargic, a trait that helps it survive months at a time without food, the saltwater crocodile will usually loiter in the water or bask in the sun during much of the day, preferring to hunt at night. A study of seasonal saltwater crocodile behaviour in Australia indicated that they are more active and more likely to spend time in the water during the Australian summer; conversely, they are less active and spend relatively more time basking in the sun during the winter. Saltwater crocodiles, however, are among the most active of all crocodilians, spending more time cruising and active, especially in water. They are much less terrestrial than most species of crocodiles, spending less time on land except for basking. At times, they tend to spend weeks at sea in search of land and in some cases, barnacles have been observed growing on crocodile scales, indicative of the long periods they spend at sea.

Despite their relative lethargy, saltwater crocodiles are agile predators and display surprising agility and speed when necessary, usually during strikes at prey. They can also swim at  in short bursts, around three times as fast as the fastest human swimmers, but when cruising, they usually travel at . Although stories of crocodiles being faster than a race horse for short distances across land are little more than urban legend, at the water's edge they can combine propulsion from both feet and tail to give sudden bursts of extreme speed.

While crocodilian brains are much smaller than those of mammals (as low as 0.05% of body weight in the saltwater crocodile), saltwater crocodiles are capable of learning difficult tasks with very little conditioning, learning to track the migratory route of their prey as the seasons change, and may possess a deeper communication ability than currently accepted.

Hunting and diet

Like most species in the crocodilian family, saltwater crocodiles are not fastidious in their choice of food, and readily vary their prey selection according to availability. Nor are they voracious, as they are able to survive on relatively little food for a prolonged period. Because of their size and distribution, saltwater crocodiles hunt the broadest range of prey species of any modern crocodilian. The diet of hatchling, juvenile, and subadult saltwater crocodiles has been subject to extensively greater scientific study than that of fully-grown crocodiles, in large part due to the aggression, territoriality, and size of adults that make them difficult for biologists to handle without significant risk to safety, for both humans and the crocodiles themselves. The main method used for capturing adult saltwater crocodiles is a huge pole with large hooks, meant for shark capture, that restrict the crocodile's jaws, but these can cause damage to their snouts; and even this is unproven to allow successful capture for crocodiles in excess of . While for example 20th century biological studies rigorously cataloged the stomach contents of "sacrificed" adult Nile crocodiles in Africa, few such studies were done on behalf of saltwater crocodiles despite the plethora that were slaughtered due to the leather trade during that time period. Therefore, the diet of adults is more likely to be based on reliable eye-witness accounts. Hatchlings are restricted to feeding on smaller animals, such as small fish, frogs, insects and small aquatic invertebrates. In addition to these prey, juveniles also take a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish, various amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs, such as large gastropods and cephalopods, birds, small to medium-sized mammals, and other reptiles, such as snakes and lizards. When crocodiles obtain a length of more than , the significance of small invertebrate prey fades in favour of small vertebrates, including fish and smaller mammals and birds. The larger the animal grows, the greater the variety of its diet, although relatively small prey are taken throughout its lifetime.

Among crustacean prey, large mud crabs of the genus Scylla are frequently consumed, especially in mangrove habitats. Ground-living birds, such as the emu and different kinds of water birds, especially the magpie goose, are the most commonly preyed upon birds, due to the increased chance of encounter. Even swift-flying birds and bats may be snatched if close to the surface of water, as well as wading birds while these are patrolling the shore looking for food, even down to the size of a common sandpiper. Mammalian prey of juveniles and subadults are usually as large as the smaller species of ungulates, such as the greater mouse-deer (Tragulus napu) and hog deer (Hyelaphus porcinus). Prey species recorded include primate species such as crab-eating macaques, proboscis monkeys, and gibbons. It preys on agile wallabies, golden jackals, viverrids, turtles, flying foxes, hares, rodents, badgers, otters, chevrotains and pangolins. A rare incidence of an adult, 2.6 m saltwater crocodile preying on an Indian porcupine was reported from Sri Lanka. Unlike fish, crabs and aquatic creatures, mammals and birds are usually found only sporadically in or next to water; so crocodiles seem to search for places where such prey may be concentrated, e.g. the water under a tree holding a flying fox colony, or spots where herds of water buffaloes feed, in order to capture small animals disturbed by the buffalo or (if a large adult crocodile is hunting) weaker members of the buffalo herd.

Studies have shown that, unlike freshwater crocodiles (which can easily die from eating poisonous toads), saltwater crocodiles are partially resistant to cane toad toxins and can consume them, but in only small quantities and not enough to provide effective natural control for this virulent introduced pest. Large crocodiles, even the oldest males, do not ignore small species, especially those without developed escape abilities, when the opportunity arises. On the other hand, sub-adult saltwater crocodiles weighing only  (and measuring ) have been recorded killing and eating goats weighing 50 to 92% of their own body mass in Orissa, India, and so are capable of attacking large prey from an early age. It was found that the diet of specimens in juvenile to subadult range, since they feed on any animals up to their own size practically no matter how small, was more diverse than that of adults, which often ignored all prey below a certain size limit.

Large animals taken by adult saltwater crocodiles include sambar deer, wild boar, Malayan tapirs, kangaroos, feral pigs, humans, orangutans, dingos, tigers, and large bovines, such as banteng, water buffalo, and gaur. However, larger animals are taken only sporadically because only large males typically attack very large prey, and large ungulates and other sizeable wild mammals are only sparsely distributed in this species's range, outside of a few key areas such as the Sundarbans. Off-setting this, goats, water buffalo and wild boar/pigs have been introduced to many of the areas occupied by saltwater crocodiles and returned to feral states to varying degrees, and thus can amply support large crocodiles. In Australia, the saltwater crocodile's taste for feral pigs and buffalo was a key factor in their recovery for hunting pressures over the last fifty years according to studies published in 2022 by Dr. Marianna Campbell et al.,. Isotopes taken from the bones of crocodiles collected over five decades ago when crocodiles populations were low and comparisons to specimens from modern populations suggest that initially, Australian saltwater crocodiles subsisted on a more estuarine diet, and both hunting pressures by humans and a reduction in aquatic prey in places like the Top End resulted in a dietary switch to more terrestrial prey that allowed them to grow and recover more rapidly from population declines. Any type of domestic livestock, such as chicken, sheep, pigs, horses and cattle, and domesticated animals/pets may be eaten if given the opportunity. As a seagoing species, the saltwater crocodile also preys on a variety of saltwater bony fish and other marine animals, including sea snakes, sea turtles, sea birds, dugongs, rays (including large sawfish), and small sharks. Most witnessed acts of predation on marine animals have occurred in coastal waters or within sight of land, with female sea turtles and their babies caught during mating season when the turtles are closer to shore, and bull sharks being the only largish shark with a strong propensity to patrol brackish and fresh waters. However, there is evidence that saltwater crocodiles do hunt while out in the open seas, based upon the remains of pelagic fishes that dwell only miles away from land being found in their stomachs.

The hunting methods utilised by saltwater crocodiles are indistinct from any other crocodilian, with the hunting crocodile submerging and quietly swimming over to the prey before pouncing upwards, striking suddenly. Unlike some other crocodilians, such as American alligators and even Nile crocodiles, they are not known to have hunted on dry land. Young saltwater crocodiles are capable of breaching their entire body into the air in a single upward motion while hunting prey that may be perched on low hanging branches. While hunting rhesus macaques, they have been seen to knock the monkeys off a bank by knocking them with their tail, forcing the macaque into water for easy consumption. However, whether tail use in hunting is intentional or just an accidental benefit is not definitely clear. As with other crocodilians, their sharp, peg-like teeth are well-suited to seize and tightly grip prey, but not to shear flesh. Small prey are simply swallowed whole, while larger animals are dragged into deep water and drowned or crushed. Large prey is then torn into manageable pieces by "death rolling" (the spinning of the crocodile to twist off hunks of meat) or by sudden jerks of the head. Occasionally, food items will be stored for later consumption once a crocodile eats its fill, although this can lead to scavenging by interlopers such as monitor lizards.

Bite

Saltwater crocodiles have the strongest bite of any living animal. A   saltwater crocodile has been confirmed as having the highest bite force ever recorded for an animal in a laboratory setting, with a value of  (surpassing the previous record of  made by an American alligator (Alligator mississippinesis)). Based on the regression of mean body mass and mean bite force, the bite forces of multiple crocodile species,  individuals were estimated at . The extraordinary bite of crocodilians is a result of their anatomy. The space for the jaw muscle in the skull is very large, which is easily visible from the outside as a bulge at each side. The nature of the muscle is extremely stiff, almost as hard as bone to the touch, such that it can appear to be a continuation of the skull. Another trait is that most of the muscle in a crocodile's jaw is arranged for clamping down. Despite the strong muscles to close the jaw, crocodiles have extremely small and weak muscles to open the jaw. The jaws of a crocodile can be securely shut with several layers of duct tape.

Reproduction

Males reach sexual maturity around  at around 16 years of age, while females reach sexual maturity at  and 12–14 years of age.
Saltwater crocodiles mate in the wet season, when water levels are at their highest. In Australia, the male and female engage in courtship in September and October, and the female lays eggs between November and March. It is possible the rising temperatures of the wet season provoke reproductive behaviour in this species. While crocodilians generally nest every year, there have been several recorded cases of female saltwater crocodiles nesting only every other year and also records of a female attempting to produce two broods in a single wet season. The female selects the nesting site, and both parents will defend the nesting territory, which is typically a stretch of shore along tidal rivers or freshwater areas, especially swamps. Nests are often in a surprisingly exposed location, often in mud with little to no vegetation around, and thus limited protection from the sun and wind. The nest is a mound of mud and vegetation, usually measuring  long and  high, with an entrance averaging  in diameter. Some nests in unlikely habitats have occurred, such as rocky rubble or in a damp low-grass field. The female crocodile usually scratches a layer of leaves and other debris around the nest entrance and this covering is reported to produce an "astonishing" amount of warmth for the eggs (coincidentally these nesting habits are similar to those of the birds known as megapodes that nest in upland areas of the same Australasian regions where saltwater crocodiles are found).

The female typically lays from 40 to 60 eggs, but some clutches have included up to 90. The eggs measure on average  and weigh  on average in Australia and  in India. These are relatively small, as the average female saltwater crocodile weighs around five times as much as a freshwater crocodile, but lays eggs that are only about 20% larger in measurement and 40% heavier than those of the smaller species. The average weight of a new hatchling in Australia is reportedly . Although the female guards the nest for 80 to 98 days (in extreme high and low cases from 75 to 106 days), the loss of eggs is often high due to flooding and occasionally to predation. As in all crocodilians, the sex of the hatchlings is determined by temperature. At 28–30 degrees all hatchlings will be female, at 30–32 degrees 86% of hatchlings are male, and at 33 or more degrees predominantly female (84%). In Australia, goannas (Varanus giganteus) commonly eat freshwater crocodile eggs (feeding on up to 95% of the clutch if discovered), but are relatively unlikely to eat saltwater crocodile eggs due to the vigilance of the imposing mother, with about 25% of the eggs being lost to goannas (less than half as many Nile crocodile eggs are estimated to be eaten by monitors in Africa). A majority of the loss of eggs of saltwater crocodiles occurs due to flooding of the nest hole.

As in most crocodilian species, the female saltwater crocodile exhibits a remarkable level of maternal care for a reptile. She excavates the nest in response to "yelping" calls from the hatchlings, and even gently rolls eggs in her mouth to assist hatching. The female will then carry the hatchlings to water in her mouth (as Nile crocodile and American alligator females have been observed doing when their eggs hatch) and remains with the young for several months. Despite her diligence, losses of baby crocodiles are heavy due to various predators and unrelated crocodiles of their own species. Only approximately 1% of the hatchlings will survive to adulthood. By crocodilian standards, saltwater crocodile hatchlings are exceptionally aggressive to one another and will often fight almost immediately after being transported to water by their mother. The young naturally start to disperse after around 8 months, and start to exhibit territorial behaviour at around 2.5 years old. They are the most territorial of extant crocodilians and, due to their aggressiveness to conspecifics, from the dispersed immature stage on, they are never seen in concentrations or loose groups as are most other crocodilians. However, even females will not reach proper sexual maturity for another 10 years. Saltwater crocodiles that survive to adulthood can attain a very long lifespan, with an estimated life expectancy upwards of 70 years, and some individuals possibly exceed 100 years, although no such extreme ages have been verified for any crocodilian.

While adults have no natural predators, baby saltwater crocodiles may fall prey to monitor lizards (occasionally, but not commonly, the numerous goanna in Australia, and the Asian water monitor (Varanus salvator) further north), predatory fish (especially the barramundi (Lates calcarifer)), wild boars, rats, various aquatic and raptorial birds (e.g. black-necked storks (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) and white-bellied sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster)), pythons, larger crocodiles, and many other predators. Pigs and cattle also occasionally inadvertently trample eggs and nests on occasion and degrade habitat quality where found in numbers. Juveniles may also fall prey to tigers and leopards (Panthera pardus) in certain parts of their range, although encounters between these predators are rare, and cats are likely to avoid areas with saltwater crocodiles.

Conservation status

The species is considered of minimal concern for extinction but is protected from the effects of international trade under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) as follows:
 Appendix I (prohibiting all commercial trade in the species or its parts/derivatives): All wild populations except for those of Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea;
 Appendix II (commercial trade allowed with export permit; import permits may or may not be required depending on the laws of the importing country): Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea wild populations, plus all worldwide populations bred in captivity for commercial purposes.

The saltwater crocodile was often hunted for its meat and eggs, and its skin is the most commercially valuable of any crocodilian. Unregulated hunting during the 20th century caused a dramatic decline in the species throughout its range, with the population in northern Australia reduced by 95% by 1971. The years from 1940 to 1970 were the peak of unregulated hunting and may have regionally caused irreparable damage to saltwater crocodile populations. The species currently has full legal protection in all Australian states and territories where it is found – Western Australia (since 1970), Northern Territory (since 1971) and Queensland (since 1974). Illegal hunting still persists in some areas, with protection in some countries being grossly ineffective, and trade is often difficult to monitor and control over such a vast range. However, many areas have not recovered; some population surveys have shown that although young crocodiles are present, fewer than 10% of specimens spotted are in adult size range and do not include any particularly large males, such as Sri Lanka or Palau. This is indicative of both potential continued persecution and exploitation and a non-recovered breeding population. In a more balanced population, such as those from Bhitarkanika National Park or Sabah on Borneo, 28% and 24.2% of specimens observed were in the adult size range of more than .

Habitat loss continues to be a major problem for the species. In northern Australia, much of the nesting habitat of the saltwater crocodile is susceptible to trampling by feral water buffalo, although buffalo eradication programs have now reduced this problem considerably. Even where large areas of suitable habitat remain, subtle habitat alterations can be a problem, such as in the Andaman Islands, where freshwater areas, used for nesting, are being increasingly converted to human agriculture. After the commercial value of crocodile skins waned, perhaps the greatest immediate challenge to implementing conservation efforts has been the occasional danger the species can pose to humans, and the resulting negative view of the crocodile.

Relationship with humans

Attacks on humans

Of all the crocodilians, the saltwater crocodile and Nile crocodile have the strongest tendencies to treat humans as prey. The saltwater crocodile has a long history of attacking humans who unknowingly venture into its territory. As a result of its power, intimidating size and speed, survival of a direct predatory attack is unlikely if the crocodile is able to make direct contact. In contrast to alligators where a degree of coexistence may be the policy, the only recommended policy for dealing with saltwater crocodiles is to completely avoid their habitat whenever possible, as they are exceedingly aggressive when encroached upon.

Exact data on attacks are limited outside Australia, where one or two fatal attacks are reported per year. From 1971 to 2013, the total number of fatalities reported in Australia due to saltwater crocodile attack was 106. The low level of attacks may be due to extensive efforts by wildlife officials in Australia to post crocodile warning signs at numerous at-risk billabongs, rivers, lakes and beaches. Less-publicised attacks have been reported in Borneo, Sumatra, Eastern India (Andaman Islands), and Burma. In Sarawak, Borneo, the average number of fatal attacks is reportedly 2.8 annually for the years from 2000 to 2003. In the Northern Territory in Australia, attempts have been made to relocate saltwater crocodiles who have displayed aggressive behaviour towards humans but these have proven ineffective as the problem crocodiles are apparently able to find their way back to their original territories. In the Darwin area from 2007 to 2009, 67–78% of "problem crocodiles" were identified as males.

Many attacks in areas outside Australia are believed to go unreported, with one study positing up to 20 to 30 attacks occur every year. This number may be conservative in light of several areas where humans and saltwater crocodiles co-exist in relatively undeveloped, low-economy and rural regions, where attacks are likely to go unreported. However, claims in the past that saltwater crocodiles are responsible for thousands of human fatalities annually are likely to have been exaggerations and were probably falsified to benefit leather companies, hunting organisations and other sources that may have benefited from maximising the negative perception of crocodiles for financial gain. Despite their reputations, many wild saltwater crocodiles are normally quite wary of humans and will go out of their way to submerge and swim away from them, even large adult males, if previously subject to harassment or persecution. Some attacks on humans appear to be territorial rather than predatory in nature, with crocodiles over two years in age often attacking anything that comes into their area (including boats). Humans can usually escape alive from such encounters, which comprise about half of all attacks. Non-fatal attacks usually involve crocodiles of  or less in length. Fatal attacks, more likely to be predatory in motivation, commonly involve larger crocodiles with an average estimated size of . Under normal circumstances, Nile crocodiles are believed to be responsible for a considerably greater number of fatal attacks on humans than saltwater crocodiles, but this may have more to do with the fact that many people in Africa tend to rely on riparian areas for their livelihood, which is less prevalent in most of Asia and certainly less so in Australia. In the Andaman Islands, the number of fatal attacks on humans has reportedly increased, possibly due to habitat destruction and reduction of natural prey.

During the Japanese retreat in the Battle of Ramree Island on 19 February 1945, saltwater crocodiles may have been responsible for the deaths of over 400 Japanese soldiers. British soldiers encircled the swampland through which the Japanese were retreating, condemning the Japanese to a night in the mangroves, which were home to thousands of saltwater crocodiles. Many Japanese soldiers did not survive this night, but the attribution of the majority of their deaths to crocodile attacks has been doubted. Another reported mass attack involved a cruise in eastern India where a boat accident forced 28 people into the water where they were reportedly consumed by saltwater crocodiles. Another notorious crocodile attack was in 1985, on ecofeminist Val Plumwood, who survived the attack.

In July 2018, a 600-strong mob slaughtered 292 saltwater and New Guinea crocodiles in Papua province in Indonesia in a revenge attack after a man who encroached upon the sanctuary was devoured.

Cultural references

The  saltwater crocodile is considered holy on Timor. According to legend, the island was formed by a giant crocodile. The Papuan people have a similar and very involved myth and traditionally the crocodile was described as a relative (normally a father or grandfather).

According to Wondjina, the mythology of Indigenous Australians, the saltwater crocodile was banished from the fresh water for becoming full of bad spirits and growing too large, unlike the freshwater crocodile, which was somewhat revered. Aboriginal rock art depicting the saltwater crocodile is rare, although examples of up to 3,000 years old were found in caves in Kakadu and Arnhem land, roughly matching the distribution of the species. It is however depicted in contemporary aboriginal art.
The Larrakia people think of themselves as crocodile descendants, and regard it as their totem. They respect crocodiles as protectors of harbours and do not eat crocodile meat.

The species is featured on several postage stamps, including an 1894 State of North Borneo 12-cent stamp; a 1948 Australian 2 shilling stamp depicting an aboriginal rock artwork of the species; a 1966 Republic of Indonesia stamp; a 1994 Palau 20-cent stamp; a 1997 Australian 22-cent stamp; and a 2005 1 Malaysian ringgit postage stamp.

The saltwater crocodile has featured in contemporary Australian film and television including the "Crocodile" Dundee series of films and The Crocodile Hunter television series. There are now several saltwater crocodile-themed parks in Australia.

Examples of large unconfirmed saltwater crocodiles
The largest size recorded for a saltwater crocodile has always been a subject of considerable controversy. The reason behind unverified sizes is either the case of insufficient/inconclusive data or exaggeration from a folkloric point of view. This section is dedicated to examples of the largest saltwater crocodiles recorded outside scientific norms measurement and estimation, with the aim of satisfying the public interest without creating data pollution, as well as serving an educational purpose of guiding the reader to separate fact from possible fiction. Below, in descending order starting from the largest, are some examples of large unconfirmed saltwater crocodiles, recorded throughout history.

 A crocodile shot in the Bay of Bengal in 1840 was reported at . Furthermore, this specimen was claimed to have a belly girth of  and a body mass estimated . However, the skull of this specimen was examined by Guinness Records and found to be only  in length, indicating the above size was considerably exaggerated and the animal would have probably measured no more than .
 James R. Montgomery, who ran a plantation near to the Lower Kinabatangan Segama Wetlands in Borneo from 1926 to 1932, claimed to have netted, killed, and examined numerous crocodiles well over  there, including a specimen he claims measured . However, no one scientifically confirmed any of Montgomery's specimens and no voucher specimens are known.
 A crocodile shot in Queensland in 1957, nicknamed Krys the croc (named after the woman that shot the crocodile in July 1957; Krystina Pawlowski), was reported to be  long, but no verified measurements were made and no remains of this crocodile exist. A "replica" of this crocodile has been made as a tourist attraction.
 A crocodile killed in 1823 at Jalajala on the main island of Luzon in the Philippines was reported at . However the skull of the specimen is  long indicating an animal of approximately .
 A crocodile shot in Odisha, India, was claimed to measure  in life, but its skull, when given scholarly examination, was thought to have come from a crocodile of a length no greater than .
 A reported  crocodile was killed in the Hooghly River in the Alipore District of Calcutta. However, examinations of the animal's skull, one of the largest skulls known to exist for the species at  long, actually indicating it could have measured .
 In 2006, Guinness accepted a ,  male saltwater crocodile living within Bhitarkanika Park in Odisha. Due to the difficulty of trapping and measuring a very large living crocodile, the accuracy of these dimensions is yet to be verified. These observations and estimations have been made by park officials over the course of ten years, from 2006 to 2016, however, regardless of the skill of the observers it cannot be compared to a verified tape measurement, especially considering the uncertainty inherent in visual size estimation in the wild. In addition, this region may contain up to four other specimens measuring over .
 S. Baker (1874) claimed that in Sri Lanka in the 1800s, specimens measuring  or more were commonplace. However, the largest specimen killed on the island that was considered authentic by Guinness Records was a suspected man-eater killed in the Eastern Province and measuring exactly  in length.
The record size for a crocodile from Papua New Guinea to be considered authentic by Guinness was a  specimen shot by Herb Schweighofer in May 1966 along the northeastern coast. This specimen had a belly girth of .

See also
 Crocodiles in India
 Crocodile skin

Notes

References

External links

 Fisheries Western Australia – Estuarine Crocodile Fact Sheet
 Saltwater crocodiles in freedom: Authentic pictures and descriptions
 Comprehensive Saltwater Crocodile web site unique information, plentiful images and video presentations
 Saltwater crocodile calls from Dr. Britton's crocodilian.com  site
 Brief discussion  from Dr. Britton and others discussing dromaeosaurid intelligence

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Saltwater crocodile


Kafartab est une place forte située au nord-ouest de la Syrie durant la période médiévale, au nord de Shaizar, près des pentes méridionales du Jabal Zawiya. Selon le géographe français Robert Boulanger, Kafartab se trouve à quatre kilomètres au nord-ouest de Khan Cheikhoun.

Histoire

Au cours de la deuxième Fitna, la cité de Kafartab soutient Al-Hussein ibn Ali face aux Omeyyades dirigés par Yazīd Ier. Par la suite, sous les Abbassides, Kafartab est localisée par le géographe Al-Yaqubi au centre d'une plaine désertique, dont l'approvisionnement en eau dépend des rares pluies saisonnières. En 985, elle est répertoriée parmi les cités de la province d'Homs.

Kafartab was besieged by the Banu Kilab tribe in 1012 to pressure the emir of Aleppo, Mansur ibn Lu'lu', to release Kilabi prisoners being held in the Citadel of Aleppo; the attempt failed as Kafartab's defenders repelled the Kilabi tribesmen.[6] In 1026, when the region around the town was ruled by the Kilabi Mirdasid dynasty, the emir of Aleppo, Salih ibn Mirdas, awarded Kafartab to the Banu Munqidh as a feudal territory. The Banu Munqidh were a family from the Kinanah tribe.[7] Until 1080, Kafartab served as their principal headquarters, after which Shaizar became their main fortress.[8] Kafartab's emir in 1041 was reported to be a member of the family named Muqallad.[7] In 1047, it was visited by the Persian traveler Nasir Khusraw.[5]

En 1012, la ville est assiégée par les Banu Kilab, qui font alors pression sur l'émir d'Alep, Mansour ibn Lu'lu', pour qu'il libère des prisonniers de cette tribu enfermés dans la citadelle d'Alep. Cependant, Kafartab repousse les assaillants. En 1026, la ville est cédée aux Banu Munqidh par Salah ibn Mirdas, comme fief d'Alep. Jusqu'en 1080, la cité est le centre de la tribu des Munqidh, avant d'être supplantée par Shaizar. En 1047, la ville est visitée par le voyageur Nasir e Khosraw.

En 1100, la ville est prise par Raymond de Saint-Gilles mais abandonnée par sa garnison dès 1104. En 1106, les Croisés menés par Tancrède d'Antioche reprennent la cité, qui devient au centre des guerres avec les Turcs, plus particulièrement les forces de l'émir Bursuq II qui s'en emparent brièvement en 1115. Raymond II d'Antioche doit intervenir pour la reconquérir. C'est au printemps 1135 que les Musulmans sont en mesure de durablement la réoccuper, grâce à l'offensive des Zengides qui prend plusieurs forteresses de la principauté d'Antioche, dont Zardana, Atarib et Maarrat al-Numan. En 1157, un séisme détruit une grande partie de la ville, tandis que la quasi-totalité de la famille des Banu Munqidh est tuée. Dix ans plus tard, la ville est cédée à Saladin en récompense de ses succès en Egypte. Bien vite, le chef de guerre musulman conquiert la Syrie et convient d'une trêve avec les Zengides, par laquelle il les laisse autonomes mais conserve Kafartab. En 1202, Kafartab est tenue par l'émir des Ayyoubides El-Malik ed-Zahir Ghazi. En 1241, elle est prise et mise à sac par les Khwarezmchahs.

Site archéologique en Syrie

Kafartab


Asociația Națională Germană (în ) a fost o organizație de tip partid politic, care a apărut în 1859 dintr-o fuziune de liberali și de democrați moderați și care a existat până în 1867. Scopul Asociației Naționale era crearea unui stat liberal german în formulă restrânsă, sub conducere prusacă, cu un parlament național. În caz că ar fi fost necesar, asociația era pregătită să accepte o dictatură temporară a Prusiei atâta vreme cât aceasta ar fi condus la constituirea unui stat național german. Soluția "mic-germană" însemna despărțirea de Austria.

Vezi și
 Confederația Germană
 Unificarea Germaniei

Legături externe
 Eisenacher Erklärung des Nationalvereins (1859). În Deutsche Geschichte in Dokumenten und Bildern.
 Verhandlungen der Generalversammlung des Deutschen Nationalvereins . În Münchener Digitalisierungszentrum.

Partide istorice din Germania

Asociația Națională Germană


Habsburško-turski rat (1663. – 1664.) ili Četvrti habsburško-turski rat bio je kratki rat između Habsburške Monarhije i Osmanskog Carstva. Osmanski cilj je bio napredovanje u srednjoj Europi, osvajanje Beča i pokoravanje Austrije. Međutim, habsburška vojska pod Rajmundom Montecuccolijem uspjela je u Monošterskoj bitki (ili bitki kod Saint Gottharda) zaustaviti osmansku vojsku na putu za Beč i uništiti je, dok je druga habsburška vojska pobijedila Turke kod Lévica. Unatoč ovim ozbiljnim osmanskim porazima, rat je za njih završio prilično povoljnim Vasvárskim mirom.

Rat je bio borba između Habsburške Monarhije, Ugarske i Hrvatske protiv Osmanskog Carstva, oružanom intervencijom Svetog Rimskog Carstva, Rajnske alijanse koju su osnovali sjevernonjemački knezovi, zatim Francuske, Poljske i dr. Na sultanovoj strani sudjelovala je također Kneževina Transilvanija, iako s beznačajnim silama. Svojim trupama sultana su podržavali vjerni rumunjski knezovi i Krimski Tatari.

Uvod

Moćno Osmansko Carstvo započelo je lagani pad tijekom 17. stoljeća. Vladari nakon Sulejmana Velikog su sve teže kontrolirali ogromna osvojena područja, koje su upropastili čak i osmanska pljačka i snažni porezi. S tim u vezi može se posebno istaknuti visoka razina eksploatacije na kožarnicama. Kako je stanovništvo opadalo, bilo je manje poreza, a unutarnji bljeskovi (poput pobune janjičara) umanjili su snagu carstva. Dosta poraza, poput onih kod Lepanta, natjeralo je Turke da temeljito preispitaju svoje poglede na vlastiti vojni potencijal. Njihova osvajanja na rubovima carstva, poput Mađarske, nisu se mogla čvrsto kontrolirati poput Balkana.

Osmanska vojska, koja je do tada bila najučinkovitija borbena sila, bio je jedan od razloga propadanja carstva. Masa neobrazovane, slabo opremljene pomoćne trupe srušila se u ogromnu, neformalnu masovnu vojsku, umanjivši njihovu udarnu silu. Pomoćne trupe nisu imale organiziranu zapovijed, pa je njihova neorganiziranost i bezglavost narušavala red i disciplinu čak i u redovnim postrojbama. Dok se zapadno vatreno oružje i dalje razvijalo, osmanska industrija oružja nastavila je proizvoditi staru vrstu oružja s malim oružjem. Taj nedostatak nije riješilo ni oružje dobiveno u pljačkama.

Hrvatski ban Nikola Zrinski Čakovečki pozvao je na uspostavu stalne mađarske vojske koja će se sastojati od pješaštva i konjaništva. Htio je dobiti palatinski ured kako bi lakše postigao svoj cilj, ali habsburški dvor nije volio mađarski plan ujedinjenja, pa nije doprinio tome. Osim toga, osmansko je pitanje malo brinulo Habsburgovce, koji su bili više zaokupljeni svojim zapadnjačkim poslovima. Njihovim glavnim neprijateljem smatrala se Francuska, koja nastoji upasti u njemačke i talijanske teritorije. Habsburgovci su također imali imanja na ovim prostorima. Od 1648. nadalje, od kada je sklopljen Vestfalijski mir, postalo je jasno da će carska vlast formalno prevladati nad Njemačkom, bilo manjom 360 princezom, vojvodstvom, biskupijom, nadbiskupijom ili gradskom državom, što je Habsburgovcima onemogućilo da tamo izvrše svoje napore za centralizaciju. Njihova imanja razbacana po cijeloj Europi legla su na mjestu sukoba različitih sila od kojih se očekivalo da ih iskoriste. U skladu s tim, Austrija je inzistirala spazmodalno i sigurno besmisleno, jer su se pokrajine koje pripadaju njezinom neposrednom teritoriju i Kraljevina Ugarska pokazale mnogo važnijima, prije svega s gledišta opskrbe središnjim dijelovima zemlje i drugih strateških aspekata. Mnogo bliže ovima ležao je još jedan neprijatelj Habsburgovaca, Osmansko Carstvo, što je predstavljalo izravnu prijetnju njegovom sjedištu, Beč, pa je Mađarska bila sukobljeno područje koje je štitilo sjedište. Međutim, važnost nasljednih pokrajina i Mađarske nisu prepoznali habsburški vladari do sredine 18. stoljeća.

Uzrok ovog rata bila je invazija na Poljsku 1658. godine od princa Györgya II. Rákóczyja iz Transilvanije, bez dopuštenja Porte. Transilvanija je nakon bitke kod Mohača 1526. godine priznala osmansku vlast i plaćala danak Porti, a zauzvrat su dobili političku i vjersku autonomiju. Čuvši za neovlašteni rat Rákóczyja, Osmanlije su objavile rat svom vazalu. Nedugo zatim Veliki vezir Köprülü Mehmed paša pobijedio je Rákóczyja i osvojio Transilvaniju. Novi 20-godišnji transilvanski princ János Kemény pobjegao je u Beč tražeći austrijsku pomoć. Car Leopold I., ne želeći da Transilvanija padne pod izravnu osmansku kontrolu, naređuje prisilnu ili nepoželjnu mobilizaciju, te šalje Montecuccolia u Ugarsku s malom vojskom.

U međuvremenu, radi oslobađanja Hrvatske i Mađarske, Nikola Zrinski od 1661. godine daje sve od sebe kako bi započeo novi austro-osmanski sukob organizirajući prepade na osmansko područje iz svog novog uporišta, Novog Zrina (mađarski: Zrínyiújvár). Već je 1660. godine Nikola Zrinski htio napasti Veliku Kanižu, ali to mu je zabranilo dvorsko Ratno vijeće. Dvorac je bio koristan samo zato što je štitio austrijske teritorije od osmanskih racija, blokirao veze s Kanižom i dobro se uklapao u sastavni dio obrambenog sustava, pa čak i dugoročno spriječio osmasnku invaziju na Italiju. U blizini poplave Drave bio je ugrožen obližnji Legrad, a budući da je Novi Zrin ležao u blizini, lako je mogao preuzeti svoju ulogu. Zrínski je vjerovao da bi on mogao biti važna baza za kasnije osamsnke borbe.

Napadi i prisustvo Montecuccolijeve vojske Osmanlije su prekinule status quo s Bečem, koji je između njih postojao od 1606. godine.

1663.
Rat je pogodio Habsburšku Monarhiju u najgorem trenutku. Prije osmanske ratne poruke 1662. godine, ozbiljni neredi zahvatili su nekoliko dijelova zemlje, što je na nekim mjestima dovelo do ustanka. Beč je morao prihvatiti francusku i njemačku pomoć jer se snaga carske i mađarske vojske, kao i njemački kontingenti, pokazala nedovoljnom protiv osmansko-turskog ratnog stroja. Upravo je vojska bila razoružana, smanjena za pet pukovnija koje su se nalazile u Španjolskoj ili Italiji. Španjolski monarh Filip IV., s papom Aleksandrom VII. nije pružio ni financijsku ni vojnu pomoć. Prihvaćanjem pomoći od suparnice Francuske, između ostalog je prouzročilo austrijski gubitak prestiža.

U ljeto 1663. godine, osmanska vojska jača više od 100.000 pod velikim vezirom Fazıl Ahmed-pašom Ćuprilićem ušla je u austrijski dio Mađarske i u rujnu osvojila grad Érsekújvár (Nové Zámky). Neredi su izbili u nekoliko dijelova Mađarske, jer nisu bili u stanju održavati vojsku i pokušali su pomoći dijelom ili pljačkom.

Habsburški zapovjednik Montecuccoli imao je samo svojih 12.000 ljudi i 15.000 ugarsko-hrvatskih trupa Nikole Zrinskog da se suprotstave Turcima. Podignuta je vojska od 30.000 bavarskih, brandenburških i saksonskih trupa. Čak je i Leopoldov najveći neprijatelj Luj XIV. iz Francuske poslao vojni korpus od 6000 vojnika. Osmanska i krimskotatarska konjica koja se borila na selu pokušala su zastrašiti lokalno stanovništvo svojim pljačkaškim napadima kako bi se oni ipak predali sultanu. Protunapadima Zrinskog postignut je suprotan učinak i prema njemu je odigrao veliku ulogu u činjenici da plan Velikog vezira nije postigao svoj cilj u Mađarskoj. Wesselényi ga je također opisao kao "hrvatskog bana-viteza, jedinu mađarsku zaštitu i nadu u Mađarskoj".

Padom Nové Zámkya Turci su probili jaz na obrambenoj liniji Nové Zámky – Komárom – Nitra - Győr, preko koje su mogli krenuti prema Beču. Ali borbe su trajale dovoljno dugo, pa Köprülüov pokušaj osvajanja Mađarske i postavljanje Mihaela Apafija kao kralja nije uspio, iako su osmanske i krimskotatarske vojske opustošile dolinu Váh i napale Moravsku, uzevši 12.000 zarobljenika.

Jedna od većih bitaka za utvrdu Novi Zrin odvijala se 13. kolovoza 1663. godine, kada je na nju nasrnulo oko 6.000 Osmanlija. Nikola, koji je osobno vodio hrvatske obrambene postrojbe, uspio je neprijatelja odbaciti i kasnije ga natjerati da se povuče. Tog kolovoza Turci su još u dva navrata pokušali osvojiti utvrdu, ali bez uspjeha. Do bitke za Novi Zrin ponovno je došlo 17. studenoga 1663. godine, čiji ishod je opet bio povoljan za hrvatske branitelje.

Jedan krak općeg prodora bio je usmjeren i protiv Gacke. Na nju je u listopadu s otprilike osam tisuća vojnika navalio hercegovački sandžakbeg Ali-paša Čengić, brat tadašnjeg namjesnika (valije) Bosanskog elajeta Ismail-paše Čengića, ali ga je Petar Zrinski potukao nedaleko od Otočca (Jurjeve Stijene) sa svojih 2.500 ljudi. Premda je Europa brujala o veličanstvenoj pobjedi, uskogrudnost, zavist i sitni interesi vrhovnog zapovjednika Vojne krajine generala Ivana Herberta Auersperga poništili su učinke pobjede: Zrinskog je tužio zbog neposluha, pa je Zrinski bio prisiljen predati ratni plijen i zatočenike.

1664.

Početkom 1664. godine carska je vojska podijeljena na tri korpusa: Na jugu je bilo 17.000 mađarsko-hrvatskih trupa pod zapovjedništvom Nikole Zrinskog. U središtu je glavna vojska Montecuccolija, jake 28.500 muškaraca, a na sjeveru oko 8500 ljudi pod generalom Jean-Louisom Raduitom de Souchesom. Bilo je oko 12.500 muškaraca u pričuvi za obranu tvrđava. Ova vojska od 66.500 muškaraca nije bila ujedinjena, jer su razlike u mišljenjima zapovjednika bile vrlo jake, posebno kod Zrinskih.

Dana 21. siječnja mađarske i hrvatske trupe, iskorištavajući zimu kada osmanska vojska nije mogla rasporediti veće snage, napale Južno Podunavlje pod vodstvom Zrinskoga i von Hohenlohea (ukupno 24-25 tisuća vojnika). Zauzeti su brojni dvorci, poput Berzencea i Babócse, pa je 28. siječnja osvojen Pečuh. Dva dana kasnije Zrinski i Esterházy uputili su se u Osijek na čelu hrvatsko-mađarske konjice, gdje je na Dravi stajao važan osječki most koji je povezivao mađarsku i hrvatsku okupaciju i napunio ih. Most je gotovo potpuno izgorio u prašinu u dva dana. Kampanja je završila spektakularnim uspjehom, što je priznao i Leopold, a francuski je monarh Zrinskog nagradio s 10.000 talira, dok je španjolski kralj darovao Zrinskom orden "viteza zlatnog runa".

Nastala je duža stanka u vojnim operacijama jer je Ratno vijeće oklijevalo, ne dajući dopuštenje za opsadu Kaniže. Da su krenuli što prije, možda bi je uspjeli zauzeti, jer je osmanska vojska još bila nespremna, a dvorac je bio odsječen od osvajanja u osječkoj kampanji. Dopuštenje za napad izdalo je Ratno vijeće tek u ožujku. Napad na Kanižu predvodili su Zrinski i von Hohenlohe. Kršćanska vojska od 20.600 muškaraca. Opsada je započela 21. travnja napadom von Hohenlohea sa zapada, a general Pietro Strozzi i Zrinski približili su se s istoka. Opsada je trajala do 30. svibnja. Kad je kršćansko vodstvo krenulo u odlučni napad, Ahmed Köprülü je ih pobijedio, jer je Veliki vezir uspio sagraditi pontonski most preko Drave umjesto uništenog osječkog mosta.

Opsada Novog Zrina
Dana 2. lipnja 1664. godine velika osmanska vojska, brojala je do 100.000 muškaraca (neki izvori spominju još puno više), uključujući oko 40.000 osmanskih i 30.000 krimskotatarskih boraca, koje je osobno predvodio Veliki vezir Köprülü, kretala se iz Carigrada na sjeverozapad i približavajući se Novom Zrinu (kasnije se borio u bitci kod Saint Gottharda 1. kolovoza 1664.). Branitelji Novog Zrina sastojali su se uglavnom od hrvatskih i njemačkih vojnika (ukupno oko 3.000 muškaraca), dok je glavnina habsburške vojske (30.000 muškaraca), smještena u logoru blizu Saint Gottharda, čekala rezultat bitke.

Dana 5. lipnja 1664. godine Köprülü je naredio opsadu i kontinuirane napade na dvorac. Nakon nekoliko tjedana borbe, iscrpljeni branitelji primili su samo neznatna pojačanja iz careva sjedišta, Turci su uspjeli iskopati lagume ili tunele, ispod bastiona i zapalili barut kako bi ih raznijeli. Dana 7. srpnja 1664. jake eksplozije uništile su neke dijelove zidova stvarajući velike rupe. Agresori su zbog toga požurili i prodrli u dvorac.

Preživjeli hrvatski branitelji bili su prisiljeni povući se iz dvorca i napustiti područje rijeke Mure. Osmanski zapovjednici dali su naredbu svojim vojnicima da u potpunosti sruše Novi Zrin do temelja, a zatim su s cijelom vojskom krenuli dalje prema sjeveru, prvo ka Kaniži, a zatim prema Svetom Gotthardu.

Bitka kod Saint Gottharda

Nakon osvajanja Novog Zrina, osmanska glavna vojska krenula je prema Beču, ali ga je Montecuccolijeva vojska zaustavila na rijeci Rabi između Mogersdorfa i opatije Szentgotthárd. Turci su u jednom trenutku pokušali prijeći rijeku Rabu svojom uobičajenom, ali zastarjelom taktikom iako su htjeli samo 2. kolovoza nanijeti kršćanima udarac. Nakon nekoliko protunapada, kršćani su odbili Turke bilo u sedmosatnoj borbi, koji su poraženi na pogrešnom terenu i nekim taktičkim prekršajima, ostavljajući 20.000 mrtvih na bojnom polju. Vijest o trijumfu proputovala je Europom i napunila narode pod osmanskom vlašću s velikom nadom.

Na sjeveru Mađarske vojska de Souchesa je ostvarila nekoliko manjih pobjeda protiv Küçük Mehmed-paše. Najvažnija u tim pobjedama bila je opsada Léva.

Vašvarski mir

Samo devet dana kasnije, 10. kolovoza 1664. godine, potpisan je Vašvarski mir, primirje koje će trajati 20 godina. Unatoč austrijskoj pobjedi kod Saint Gottharda, osmanska je kontrola nad Transilvanijom i Érsekújvárom priznata, a Austrijsko je Carstvo pristalo platiti 200.000 talira ratne odštete Osmanskom Carstvu, koja nikada nije dostavljena na vrijeme. Novi Zrin je trebao biti uništen. S druge strane, Osmanlije su pristale poslati godišnji 'poklon' Austrijancima.

Glavni čimbenik u odluci Habsburgovaca bila je francuska prijetnja mnogo vrijednijim imanjima u Nizozemskoj, Njemačkoj i Italiji. Štoviše, carski ratni napori izgubili su određeni zamah nakon pobjede Saint Gottharda, jer su se Francuzi povukli iz koalicije, dok su se ostali njemački knezovi oklijevali napredovati dalje na istok. Dakle, Austrijanci nisu vjerovali da mogu osloboditi cijelu Mađarsku i nisu bili voljni ostaviti francuska osvojena područja bez nadzora nekoliko mađarskih utvrda.

Posljedice
Hrvatska i Ugarska nisu priznale taj dogovor s nevjerojatno lošim uvjetima da Turci mogu zadržati sve što su do početka rata osvojili, a kako im je Beč podlom politikom onemogućio zakonito izboriti se za svoja prava, nije bilo druge hrvatskim i ugarskim vođama nego udružiti se, te ostvariti svoja prava pobunom. Istodobno, sve su više jačale centralističke i germanizatorske težnje Habsburgovaca na štetu staleškog položaja hrvatskoga i mađarskog plemstva.

Nakon sklapanja mira, Turci su još jednom skrenuli pozornost na rat s Mlečanima i njihovim saveznicima, koji je završio 1669. godine: Kreta je okupirana, a Mletačka republika više nije bila dominantna sila na Mediteranu i Jadranu. Godine 1672. Turci su krenuli u rat protiv Poljske, zauzevši Podolju i dijelove Ukrajine, dosegnuvši tako svoj najveći doseg do danas. Otada ga je karakterizirao samo gubitak teritorija; Poljaci su samo godinu dana kasnije ponovno osvojili ukrajinske teritorije.

Mir se zapravo održavao 20 godina sve dok Osmanlije nisu drugi put 1683. godine napali Beč i bili izbačeni iz Mađarske u sljedećem Velikom turskom ratu.

Vidi još

 Popis ratova
 Hrvatska pod Habsburzima
 Hrvatsko-osmanski ratovi
 Hrvatske zemlje pod osmanskom vlašću
 Habsburško-turski ratovi
 Habsburško-turski rat 1716. – 1718.

Literatura

 Ferdo Šišić, Povijest Hrvata: pregled povijesti hrvatskoga naroda, Split, 2004.

Izvori

Austrijska vojna povijest
Ratovi 17. stoljeća
Hrvatske zemlje pod osmanskom vlašću
Hrvatski ratovi
Habsburško-turski ratovi

Habsburško-turski rat 1663. – 1664.


Regionalna nogometna liga Bosne i Hercegovine – Sjeverna skupina je bila jedna od skupina "Regionalne nogometne lige BiH" (regionalni nogometni savezi Brčkog, Doboja i Tuzle) i liga petog stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1990./91.
Sudjelovalo je 16 klubova, a prvak je bilo "Podrinje" iz Janje.

Ljestvica

 U slučaju neriješenog rezultata se izvodilo raspucavanje jedanaesterca te bi pobjednik dobio 1 bod, a poraženi u raspucavanju bi ostao bez bodova

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Povezani članci

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 Iljo Dominković: 70 godina NK "Sloga", Tolisa : (1947. – 2017.), Tolisa, 2017.,  (Proventus natura), str. 184-189

1990-91 sjever
 sjever
1990-91 2 sjever

Regionalna nogometna liga BiH – Sjever 1990./91.


Herbrich ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Anne Herbrich (* 1971), deutsche Basketballspielerin
 Johannes Herbrich († 1607), deutscher Prämonstratenserabt
 Karl-Heinz Herbrich (* 1937), Oberst des Ministeriums für Staatssicherheit
 Oliver Herbrich (* 1961), deutscher Filmemacher
 Ralf Herbrich (* 1974), deutscher Informatiker

Herbrich


Dr. Mihail Moldovan (n. 1879, Călărași, județul Cluj – d. septembrie 1943, Turda, județul Cluj) a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918  .

Biografie
Se naște într-o familie de agricultori, în comuna Călărași, lângă Turda, în anul 1879. A urmat cursurile liceale la Blaj, unde va susține și examenul de bacalaureat. În clasa a VI-a, fiind coleg cu Octavian Goga, arborează împreună cu acesta drapelul românesc pe catedrala de la Blaj, ajungând să fie ambii sancționați pentru această acțiune . A absolvit Facultatea de Drept a Universității din Cluj, unde va fi mai târziu Doctor în Drept. Susține examenul de avocat în Budapesta, iar din 1910 a fost avocat la Turda, unde își va deschide propriul birou de avocatură. Tot în 1910, la Budapesta, s-a căsătorit cu văduva Ecaterina Dr. Pătăceanu fiica lui Ioan Mezei de Szathmar și a Ecaterinei, născută Rațiu de Nagylak. Aceasta a fost aleasă ca deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia ca delegată a Reuniunii Femeilor Române din Turda, desfășurând o activitate filantropică pentru cei necăjiți de-a lungul întregii sale vieți .

După stabilirea la Turda ca student jurist în 1904 s-a înscris în ASTRA și în Societatea Română de Lectură din oraș, contribuind la acțiunile culturale românești cu scopul trezirii conștiinței naționale .

La începutul Primului Război Mondial a fost mobilizat în armata austro-ungară, având la sfârșitul războiului gradul de căpitan, după ce intră în război cu gradul de sublocotenent, fiind rănit în două rânduri . Animat de puternice sentimente patriotice, a luat parte la evenimentele din toamna anului 1918 din Turda, fiind conducător și organizator al Senatului Național și al Gărzii Naționale Române din oraș. Din aceasta calitate s-a îngrijit și de menținerea ordinii până la intrarea armatei române în oraș . În acest scop, într-o ședință a Gărzii Naționale Române din Turda, Mihail Moldovan propune aducerea la în localitate a unui batalion de infanterie, avându-se în vedere prevenirea unor posibile manifestări ostile ale gărzilor maghiare și mai ales împotriva unităților militare secuiești care acționau în zona Câmpia Turzii-Poiana. De asemenea, în ședința Senatului Militar din Turda, ținută sub președenția căpitanului Mihail Moldovan în 14 noiembrie 1918 se propune înființarea la în oraș a unei armate românești, compusă dintr-un batalion cu patru companii, fiecare companie alcătuită din trei plutoane, propunere pe care Mihai Moldovan o aprobă. Potrivit protocolului acestei armate, jumătate din ea avea să staționeze la Turda, iar cealaltă jumătate urma și se împartă pentru servicii de siguranță din anumite cercuri, în funcție de necesități. În încheierea protocolului, Mihai Moldovan solicita Senatului Național Român din Cluj șă asigure în grabă atingerea acestui obiectiv, oferindu-i de asemenea sprijinul moral și material de care avea nevoie. Gărzile Naționale Române care patrulau cu câteva zile înaintea Marii Adunări Naționale de la Alba Iulia prin localitățile din jurul Turzii erau dotate cu armament procurat de la comandantul Gărzii din Turda, Mihail Moldovan. Tot el dă și ordinul ca, după 1 decembrie 1918, soldații din Gărzile Naționale Române să dezarmeze gărzile maghiare din satele ungurești, din Scaunul Arieșului, urmând ca mai apoi să preia administrarea comunelor,.

În toamna anului 1918 a fost arestat de garda maghiară compusă din soldați secui, închis la închisoarea Felecvar (Cetățuia) din Cluj, alături de secretarul Gărzii Naționale, Simion Poruțiu și de alți zece români, intelectuali ai orașului Turda . A fost condamnat la moarte, scăpând înaintea executării pedepsei .

După încheierea războiului, pe lângă activitatea politică, a făcut parte din conducerea Băncii Centrale și a Fabricii de Sticlă din Turda, fiind de asemenea, pentru un timp îndelungat, Decanul Baroului de Avocați din Cluj-Napoca . Fiind de confesiune ortodoxă, a contribuit la ridicarea Catedralei Ortodoxe din Turda, construită la inițiativa protopopului Iovian Mureșan, edificiu finalizat zece ani mai târziu, în 1934 .

La Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918 a fost trimis de locuitorii satului său natal, iar înainte de a se stinge din viață, Dr. Mihail Moldovan a participat alături de PS Nicolae Ivan la sfințirea unei biserici din Călărași. A decedat în 2 decembrie 1943 și este înmormântat în cimitirul familiei Rațiu .

Activitatea politică

Ca deputat în Adunarea Națională din 1 decembrie 1918 a fost delegat al Gărzii Naționale Române din Comitatul Turda-Arieș .

Dr. Mihail Moldovan a fost primul primpretor român al plasei Turda, iar în anul 1919 a fost ales deputat liberal al județului Turda-Arieș. A fost un membru marcant al Partidului Național Liberal și prefectul județului Turda-Arieș în anii 1922-1923 . A fost, de asemenea, ales deputat în cel dintâi Parlament al României Mari .

Recunoașteri
A fost distins cu Crucea Roșie de Ofițer a Ordinului "Steaua României" .

Note

Bibliografie
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998.
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7.
 Valentin Vișinescu, Vasile Miclăuș, Tudor Ștefănie, Dicționar de personalități turdene, Editura Casa Cărții de Știință, Cluj-Napoca, 2006, ISBN 978-973-686-910-5.
Valentin Vișinescu, Turdenii la Marea Unire, Editura Casa Cărții de Știință, Cluj-Napoca, 2008, ISBN 978-973-133-423-3.
Eugen Gergely, Turda la Marea Unire, Editura Casa Cărții de Știință, Cluj-Napoca, 2008, ISBN 978-973-133-425-7.

Lectură suplimentară
 Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voevod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1258-9 (vol. I); ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. II).
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993.
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015.

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918
 1 decembrie 1918, Marea Unire de la Alba Iulia. Mărturii, documente și semnificații
 Delegații aleși convocați la Adunarea Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918. Centenarul României. Accesat la 30 noiembrie 2018.

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1879
Decese în 1943
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Avocați români
Ofițer al Ordinului Steaua României

Mihail Moldovan (1879–1943)


Mil bir mesafe ölçüm birimidir. İsim olarak ingilizce kökenlidir, tarihte değişik yöre ve ilgi alanlarında farklı uzunlukta kullanılmış ve hâlen kullanılmaktadır. Standart kısaltması; (mi)´dir.

Kara mil´i (Statute mile) ve Deniz mil´i (Nautical mile) olarak iki farklı uzunluklara ayrılırlar.

Bir Kara mil´inin uzunluğu metrik hesaba göre  1.609,344 metre ye eşittir.

Deniz mili
Deniz mil (Nautical mile)´inin uluslararası resmî bir kısaltması olmadığından, şu kısaltmalara rastlamak mümkündür.: M, NM, nm, ve nmi.

Bir deniz mil´inin uzunluğu metrik hesaba göre tam: 1.852,2 metredir.

.

Ayrıca, bir deniz mil´inin onda birine gomina denir ve 185,22 metredir.

Uzunluk birimleri

Mil (birim)