A gene family is a set of several similar genes, formed by duplication of a single original gene, and generally with similar biochemical functions. One such family are the genes for human hemoglobin subunits; the ten genes are in two clusters on different chromosomes, called the α-globin and β-globin loci.  These two gene clusters are thought to have arisen as a result of a precursor gene being duplicated approximately 500 million years ago.

Genes are categorized into families based on shared nucleotide or protein sequences. Phylogenetic techniques can be used as a more rigorous test. The positions of exons within the coding sequence can be used to infer common ancestry. Knowing the sequence of the protein encoded by a gene can allow researchers to apply methods that find similarities among protein sequences that provide more information than similarities or differences among DNA sequences.

If the genes of a gene family encode proteins, the term protein family is often used in an analogous manner to gene family.

The expansion or contraction of gene families along a specific lineage can be due to chance, or can be the result of
natural selection. To distinguish between these two cases is often difficult in practice. Recent work uses a combination
of statistical models and algorithmic techniques to detect gene families that are under the effect of natural selection.

The HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) creates nomenclature schemes using a "stem" (or "root") symbol for members of a gene family (by homology or function), with a hierarchical numbering system to distinguish the individual members. For example, for the peroxiredoxin family, PRDX is the root symbol, and the family members are PRDX1, PRDX2, PRDX3, PRDX4, PRDX5, and PRDX6.

Basic structure
One level of genome organization is the grouping of genes into several gene families. Gene families are groups of related genes that share a common ancestor. Members of gene families may be paralogs or orthologs. Gene paralogs are genes with similar sequences from within the same species while gene orthologs are genes with similar sequences in different species. Gene families are highly variable in size, sequence diversity, and arrangement. Depending on the diversity and functions of the genes within the family, families can be classified as multigene families or superfamilies.

Multigene families typically consist of members with similar sequences and functions, though a high degree of divergence (at the sequence and/or functional level) does not lead to the removal of a gene from a gene family. Individual genes in the family may be arranged close together on the same chromosome or dispersed throughout the genome on different chromosomes. Due to the similarity of their sequences and their overlapping functions, individual genes in the family often share regulatory control elements. In some instances, gene members have identical (or nearly identical) sequences. Such families allow for massive amounts of gene product to be expressed in a short time as needed. Other families allow for similar but specific products to be expressed in different cell types or at different stages of an organism's development.

Superfamilies are much larger than single multigene families. Superfamilies contain up to hundreds of genes, including multiple multigene families as well as single, individual gene members. The large number of members allows superfamilies to be widely dispersed with some genes clustered and some spread far apart. The genes are diverse in sequence and function displaying various levels of expression and separate regulation controls.

Some gene families also contain pseudogenes, sequences of DNA that closely resemble established gene sequences but are non-functional. Different types of pseudogenes exist. Non-processed pseudogenes are genes that acquired mutations over time becoming non-functional. Processed pseudogenes are genes that have lost their function after being moved around the genome by retrotransposition. Pseudogenes that have become isolated from the gene family they originated in, are referred to as orphans.

Formation

Gene families arose from multiple duplications of an ancestral gene, followed by mutation and divergence. Duplications can occur within a lineage (e.g., humans might have two copies of a gene that is found only once in chimpanzees) or they are the result of speciation. For example, a single gene in the ancestor of humans and chimpanzees now occurs in both species and can be thought of as having been 'duplicated' via speciation. As a result of duplication by speciation, a gene family might include 15 genes, one copy in each of 15 different species.

Duplication

In the formation of gene families, four levels of duplication exist: 1) exon duplication and shuffling, 2) entire gene duplication, 3) multigene family duplication, and 4) whole genome duplication. Exon duplication and shuffling gives rise to variation and new genes. Genes are then duplicated to form multigene families which duplicate to form superfamilies spanning multiple chromosomes. Whole genome duplication doubles the number of copies of every gene and gene family. Whole genome duplication or polyploidization can be either autopolyploidization or alloploidization. Autopolyploidization is the duplication of the same genome and allopolyploidization is the duplication of two closely related genomes or hybridized genomes from different species.

Duplication occurs primarily through uneven crossing over events in meiosis of germ cells. (1,2) When two chromosomes misalign, crossing over - the exchange of gene alleles - results in one chromosome expanding or increasing in gene number and the other contracting or decreasing in gene number. The expansion of a gene cluster is the duplication of genes that leads to larger gene families.

Relocation
Gene members of a multigene family or multigene families within superfamilies exist on different chromosomes due to relocation of those genes after duplication of the ancestral gene. Transposable elements play a role in the movement of genes. Transposable elements are recognized by inverted repeats at their 5' and 3' ends. When two transposable elements are close enough in the same region on a chromosome, they can form a composite transposon. The protein transposase recognizes the outermost inverted repeats, cutting the DNA segment. Any genes between the two transposable elements are relocated as the composite transposon jumps to a new area of the genome.

Reverse transcription is another method of gene movement. An mRNA transcript of a gene is reversed transcribed, or copied, back into DNA. This new DNA copy of the mRNA is integrated into another part of the genome, resulting in gene family members being dispersed.

A special type of multigene family is implicated in the movement of gene families and gene family members. LINE (Long INterspersed Elements) and SINE (Short INterspersed Elements) families are highly repetitive DNA sequences spread all throughout the genome. The LINEs contain a sequence that encodes a reverse transcriptase protein. This protein aids in copying the RNA transcripts of LINEs and SINEs back into DNA, and integrates them into different areas of the genome. This self-perpetuates the growth of LINE and SINE families. Due to the highly repetitive nature of these elements, LINEs and SINEs when close together also trigger unequal crossing over events which result in single-gene duplications and the formation of gene families.

Divergence

Non-synonymous mutations resulting in the substitution of amino acids, increase in duplicate gene copies. Duplication gives rise to multiple copies of the same gene, giving a level of redundancy where mutations are tolerated. With one functioning copy of the gene, other copies are able to acquire mutations without being extremely detrimental to the organisms. Mutations allow duplicate genes to acquire new or different functions.

Concerted evolution

Some multigene families are extremely homogenous, with individual genes members sharing identical or almost identical sequences. The process by which gene families maintain high homogeneity is Concerted evolution. Concerted evolution occurs through repeated cycles of unequal crossing over events and repeated cycles of gene transfer and conversion. Unequal crossing over leads to the expansion and contraction of gene families. Gene families have an optimal size range that natural selection acts towards. Contraction deletes divergent gene copies and keeps gene families from becoming too large. Expansion replaces lost gene copies and prevents gene families from becoming too small. Repeat cycles of gene transfer and conversion increasingly make gene family members more similar.

In the process of gene transfer, allelic gene conversion is biased. Mutant alleles spreading in a gene family towards homogeneity is the same process of an advantageous allele spreading in a population towards fixation. Gene conversion also aids in creating genetic variation in some cases.

Evolution

Gene families, part of a hierarchy of information storage in a genome, play a large role in the evolution and diversity of multicellular organisms. Gene families are large units of information and genetic variability. Over evolutionary time, gene families have expanded and contracted with new gene families being formed and some gene families being lost. In several evolutionary lineages, genes are gained and lost at relatively same rates. Adaptive expansion of gene families occurs when natural selection would favour additional gene copies. This is the case when an environmental stressor acts on a species. Gene amplification is more common in bacteria and is a reversible process. Adaptive contraction of gene families commonly results from accumulation of loss of function mutations. A nonsense mutation which prematurely halts gene transcription becomes fixed in the population, leading to the loss of genes. This process occurs when changes in the environment render a gene redundant.

New gene families originate from orphan genes (isolated pseudogenes). These isolated genes occur by different mean. A gene duplicate accumulates enough mutations to be sufficiently divergent to no longer be recognized as part of the original gene family, horizontal transfer of new genes into a genome, or a new gene originate de novo from non-coding sequences. These orphan genes would then go through the processes of duplication, relocation and divergence to form a family. Gene family death occurs when the loss of a gene leads to the loss of the entire gene family. The continuous loss of genes eventually leads to the extinction of the gene family. Gene loss may be the deletion of genes or the complete loss of function, becoming pseudogenes.

Functional family
In addition to classification by evolution (structural gene family), the HGNC also makes "gene families" by function in their stem nomenclature. As a result, a stem can also refer to genes that have the same function, often part of the same protein complex. For example, BRCA1 and BRCA2 are unrelated genes that are both named for their role in breast cancer and RPS2 and RPS3 are unrelated ribosomal proteins found in the same small subunit.

The HGNC also maintains a "gene group" (formerly "gene family") classification. A gene can be a member of multiple groups, and all groups form a hierarchy. As with the stem classification, both structural and functional groups exist.

See also
 List of gene families
 Protein family

References

Population genetics
Phylogenetics

Gene family


Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) sau tradus în limba română, Pușca automată Browning,  reprezintă o familie de puști automate și puști-mitraliere americane utilizate de Statele Unite și numeroase alte țări în timpul secolului XX. Principala versiune a seriei BAR a fost modelul M1918, care a fost creat de John Browning în anul 1917 pentru forțele americane din Europa Primului Război Mondial.

Pușca-mitralieră Browning M1918 a fost una dintre primele puști automate utilizate efectiv în luptă. BAR a fost folosită cu succes de Armata Statelor Unite ale Americii în Primul Război Mondial, aproximativ 50.000 de astfel de arme fiind fabricate înainte de terminarea războiului. Proiectul BAR a fost inspirat de conceptul , americanii observând și modul în care francezii foloseau în ofensivă pușca-mitralieră "Chauchat" și pușca-mitralieră Hotchkiss M1909.

De asemenea, pușca-mitralieră Browning M1918 a fost folosită intens în timpul Celui De-Al Doilea Război Mondial, dar și în timpul Războiului din Coreea și din Vietnam.

Pușca-mitralieră Browning M1918 a fost creată pentru a fi transportată și folosită de un singur soldat, fiind apreciată pentru fiabilitatea sa și puterea de foc mare.

Istoric și utilizare

Proiectarea

Utilizarea inițială

În uz

Caracteristici

Variante

În uzul civililor

Utilizatori

: Adoptat în 1930, construit sub licență de Fabrique Nationale

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 Canada

: Un număr mare de arme au fost capturate de la Republica China în timpul războiului civil chinez.
: Folosit de forțele naționaliste în timpul celui de-al doilea război chino-japonez și a războiului civil chinez

:  Utilizate în special de forțele anticastriste.

: FN Mle 30 și m/21 suedez
: Livrat forțelor franceze libere în timpul celui de-al doilea război mondial și utilizate mai târziu în Primul Război din Indochina și în Războiul din Algeria. Cunoscute ca Fusil-mitrailleur 7 mm 62 (C. 30) M. 18 (B. A. R.).
: capturate în special de la polonezi și utilizate până la sfârșitul războiului sub numele de IMG 28(p): M1918A2 ca Fucile Mitragliatore Browning (B.A.R.) cal. 7,62.
: FN Model Ds.
: FN Mle 30s. Majoritatea exemplarelor au fost capturate de la chinezi și americani.

: primite de la americani în timpul războiului civil din Laos și în timpul războiului din Vietnam.

:
: furnizate de americani între anii 1932-1979.

: Utilizate de Garda Națională între anii 1950 și anii 1970.
: utilizate în timpul Celui De-Al Doilea Război Mondial.

: Utilizate de SPLA
: Capturate de la autoritățile colonialiste franceze de către Viet Cong și armată.
: primite de la americani
: majoritatea capturate de la polonezi.

: (1950–80)
: utilizate în timpul Celui De-Al Doilea Război Mondial

Galerie

 Note

 Bibliografie
 .
 .
 .
 .
 Hogg, Ian V. and Weeks, John, Military Small Arms of the 20th Century'', DBI Books Inc.
 .
 FM 23–15: Basic Field Manual — Browning Automatic Rifle, Caliber .30, M1918A2 (27 Aug 1940).
 .

Legături externe

 Modern Firearms
 The light machine guns of Sweden
 90th Infantry Division Preservation Group – Reference manual page including 4 BAR manuals
 World War II Database
 the Colt Monitor
 It Sure Is a Rugged Gun, Allen Raymond, December 1944 World War II article by combat war correspondent in Italy
 Firearms Semantics: "Battle Rifle" and "Assault Rifle".

 Arme din Primul Război Mondial
 Arme din cel de-al Doilea Război Mondial
Puști automate

Pușcă-mitralieră Browning M1918


دائرة التخطيط والاقتصاد هي دائرة محلية بإمارة أبوظبي. من أهم أعمال الدائرة اقتراح السياسة الاقتصادية والتجارية للإمارة ولتنفيذها تقوم بإعداد الخطط والبرامج لتنفيذ هذه السياسة. ومن أعملاها أيضا تنظيم الشركات والوكالات التجارية ومنح الأسماء والرخص التجارية.

توفر الدائرة العديد من الخدمات، منها توفير المؤشرات الاقتصادية لإمارة أبوظبي، وتصدر الدائرة حوالي 124 مؤشر ربع سنوي وحوالي 473 مؤشر سنوي. أيضا توفر الدائرة خدمات تطوير الأعمال والتي تعمل فيها الدائرة على توفير المعلومات اللازمة للمستثمر، تساعد هذه الخدمة المستثمر على إجراء الدراسات اللازمة لعملية الترخيص وإحتيجات السوق وبينات الأسواق المحتملة ومعلومات أخرى قد تساعد في نجاح نشاط المستثمر. أما خدمة الشخصيات المهمة فتوفر الدائرة خدمات حسب طلب الراغبين مقابل مبلغ معين.

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
الموقع الرسمي لدائرة التخطيط والاقتصاد أبوظبي

وكالات حكومية في أبو ظبي

دائرة التخطيط والاقتصاد (أبو ظبي)


.mil je generička internetska domena. koja se dodjeljuje isključivo insternetskim stranicama vojnih snaga Sjedinjenih Američkih Država. Jedna je od najstarijih najviših internet domena i u upotrebi je od 1985. godine.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Popis najviših domena, na iana.org

Internetske domene

.mil


Julia Fatton, née Alter, est une athlète allemano-suisse, née le , adepte de la course d'ultrafond. Vainqueur à deux reprises des 48 heures de Royan, elle détient le record d'Allemagne féminin des 48 heures sur route depuis 2010.

Elle est la compagne de l'athlète suisse Christian Fatton.

Biographie
Julia Fatton a commencé à courir des marathons à partir de ses 18 ans, puis a participé à son premier ultra-marathon à 21 ans.

En 2010, aux championnats du Monde des 24 heures à Brive, elle remporte la médaille de bronze chez les femmes avec 230,258 km, réalisant la meilleure performance allemande de l'année sur 24 heures. Elle détient les meilleures performances nationales sur ce format en 2008, 2009, 2010, 2015 et 2021.

Sur les courses de 48 heures, elle détient le record d'Allemagne depuis 2010 avec 367,918 km à Royan, record qu'elle améliore en 2017 avec 378.082 km établi à Balatonfüred.

Performante aussi bien sur route qu'en trail, elle a remporté à cinq reprises le Swiss Canyon Trail.

Entre 2020 et 2021, Julia Fatton a remporté cinq compétitions au classement général scratch (hommes et femmes).

Records personnels
Résultats recueillis auprès de la base de données DUV:

 100 km route : 8 h 41 min 03 s aux Championnats du Monde des 100 km à Torhout en 2002
  route :  aux 12 h de Barcelone en Espagne en
  route :  aux Championnats du monde des 24 h IAU à Belfast en Irlande du Nord en
  route :  aux 48 h Int. Run Races à Balatonfüred en Hongrie en 2017

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

 Ultrafond

Liens externes

Coureuse d'ultrafond
Naissance en avril 1972
Coureuse de fond allemande

Julia Fatton


Sebastian Mielitz (født 18. juli 1989) er en tysk fodboldspiller (målmand), som spiller for den tyske klub FC Viktoria Köln. Han har tidligere spillet for SønderjyskE i Superligaen.

Klubkarriere

Mielitz blev født i den tidligere østtyske by Zehdenick i delstaten Brandenburg og begyndte sin fodboldkarriere i klubben Eintracht Oranienburg, inden han skiftede videre til MSV Neuruppin og Energie Cottbus. I 2005 skiftede han til SV Werder Bremen, hvor han startede på klubbens ungdomshold. Den 10. november 2007 debuterede han på Werder Bremens andethold. I august 2008 forlængede Mielitz sin kontrakt med Werder Bremen, således parterne havde papir på hinanden frem til 2010. Han fik sin professionelle debut i 3. Liga den 16. august 2008 imod Jahn Regensburg.

Werder Bremen
Den 3. december 2009 debuterede Mielitz på Werder Bremens førstehold i en UEFA Europa League-hjemmekamp imod CD Nacional fra Portugal, da han erstattede en skadet Tim Wiese. Tre dage senere, den 6. december 2009, debuterede han i Bundesligaen, hvor han holdt målet rent i en 0-0-udekamp imod 1. FC Köln.  I marts 2010 skrev han under på en kontraktforlængelse, der skulle holde ham i klubben til 2012.

Mielitz forblev 3. valg på målmandsposten bag Wiese og Christian Vander forud for 2010-11-sæsonen. Den 20. oktober 2010 fik han sin debut i UEFA Champions Leagues gruppespil imod hollandske Twente, hvor han erstattede Wiese, som havde pådraget sig en skade. Tre dage senere i 9. spillerunde af Bundesligaen lavede Mielitz adskillige redninger, der hjalp sit hold til en 4-1-udesejr over Borussia Mönchengladbach, hvilket samtidig var klubbens første sejr i sæsonen. Han optrådte i sin anden Champions League-kamp imod Twente den 2. november 2010, som Werder Bremen tabte 2-0. I slutningen af sæsonen skrev Mielitz under på endnu en kontraktforlængelse, der skulle holde ham i klubben indtil 2013. Rygter begynde at sprede sig om, at Wiese var tæt på at forlade klubben, og at Mielitz var udset som nyt andetvalg i klubben.

Forud for 2011-12-sæsonen blev Mielitz udnævnt som andetvalg på målmandsposten, hvilket skubbede Vander ned som nummer 3 på målmændenes indbyrdes rangstig. Han spillede sin første kamp i sæsonen den 17. september 2011, efter at Wiese tidligt blev udvist i en 1-1-kamp imod 1. FC Nürnberg. Wiese modtog efterfølgende en straf på tre karantænedage, hvorfor Mielitz overtog posten med gode præstationer, indtil Wiese kom tilbage efter endt karantæne.

I maj 2012 skrev han under på endnu en kontrakt, som ville holde ham i klubben indtil 2014 og da Wiese forlod Werder Bremen til fordel for Hoffenheim, blev Mielitz tildelt trøjenummer 1 til den kommende sæson. I LIGA total! Cuppen 2012 blev Mielitz helten, da han reddede to skud i straffesparkskonkurrencen i en 4-2-sejr over Bayern München. Det sendte holdet i finalen, hvor de slog Borussia Dortmund i en straffesparkskonkurrence.

SC Freiburg og Greuther Fürth
I 2014 skiftede han fra Werder Bremen til Freiburg i Bundesligaen, efter han igen var blevet degraderet til andetvalg i klubben. Han fik nul bundesligakampe for Freiburg i den efterfølgende sæson og optrådte kun i to pokalkampe, hvorfor han igen i 2015 skiftede til 2. Bundesligaklubben Greuther Fürth. I sin første sæson spillede han 33 kampe, men i den anden sæson blev han degraderet til andetholdet.

SønderjyskE
Efter at kontrakten Greuther Fürth udløb ved udgangen af 2016-17-sæsonen skrev Mielitz under på en toårig kontrakt med SønderjyskE i Superligaen med option på yderligere et år. Allerede i foråret 2017 havde Mielitz været til prøvetræning i Haderslev, hvor han efterlod et godt indtryk på trænerteamet, som efterfølgende besluttede sig for, at man ville have ham på kontrakt.

Han fik sin debut for SønderjyskE den 17. juli 2017 i en 0-0-kamp hjemme mod Randers FC.

Landsholdskarriere
Han var en del af det tyske hold, som i 2009 deltog i U/20 VM i fodbold 2009.

Referencer

External links

Fodboldspillere fra Tyskland
Fodboldspillere fra SC Freiburg
Fodboldspillere fra Werder Bremen
Fodboldspillere fra Greuther Fürth
Fodboldspillere fra SønderjyskE

Sebastian Mielitz


අරුණ ද සිල්වා (උපත 1961 මාර්තු 27) යනු සිංහ ක්‍රීඩා සමාජයට ක්‍රීඩා කළ ශ්‍රී ලාංකික හිටපු පළමු පෙළ ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයෙකි.

යොමු කිරීම්

ජීවමාන ජනයා
1961 උපත්

අරුණ ද සිල්වා


Silkeborg Idrætsforening; comumente conhecido como Silkeborg IF ou SIF (abreviado) é um clube de futebol profissional da cidade de Silkeborg, na Dinamarca. O clube foi fundado em 1917 e atingiu o maior level do futebol dinamarquês em 1987, e depois disso se tornou um dos times mais bem sucedidos na Dinamarca. A equipe venceu a Superliga Dinamarquesa de 1993–94, e a Copa da Dinamarca em 2001. Silkeborg já participou de diversos campeonatos internacionais, vencendo a Copa Intertoto da UEFA de 1996..

Títulos

Ligas
Superliga Dinamarquesa (1): 1993–94
1. Division (3): 2003–04, 2013–14, 2018–19

Copas
Copa da Dinamarca (3): 2003–04, 2013–14, 2018–19

Internacionais
Taça Intertoto da UEFA (1): 1996

Clubes de futebol da Dinamarca

Silkeborg IF


A partir de la Reforma constitucional argentina de 1994, la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires tiene prevista su completa autonomía, asimilando su estatus jurídico al de una provincia, en cuanto se la considera como nuevo estado federado. En primer lugar, los Tribunales Federales, con competencia para asuntos federales en el territorio de la Ciudad; en segundo lugar, los Tribunales Nacionales, con competencia en asuntos ordinarias (criminal, civil, comercial, laboral); y, por último, la justicia propia de la Ciudad Autónoma.

El Poder Judicial es un poder del Estado que, de conformidad con el ordenamiento jurídico, es el encargado de administrar justicia en la sociedad, mediante la aplicación de las normas jurídicas en la resolución de conflictos.

Por Poder, en el sentido de poder público, se entiende a la organización, institución o conjunto de órganos del Estado, que en el caso del Poder Judicial son los órganos judiciales o jurisdiccionales: juzgados y tribunales, que ejercen la potestad jurisdiccional, que suele gozar de imparcialidad y autonomía.

El Poder judicial debe ser independiente para poder someter a los restantes poderes, en especial el ejecutivo, cuando estos contravengan el ordenamiento jurídico y convertirse en el encargado de hacer efectivo la idea del Derecho como elemento regulador de la vida social.

Sistema Judicial de la CABA
La Constitución de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires establece que el Poder Judicial está integrado por el Tribunal Superior de Justicia, el Consejo de la Magistratura, los Tribunales que la ley establezca y el Ministerio Público (fiscalías, defensorías y asesorías tutelares).

En el ámbito del Poder Ejecutivo funciona la Subsecretaria de Justicia y la Subsecretaria de Seguridad Urbana, ambas dependientes del Ministerio de Gobierno.

En la actualidad existen dos fueros en el Poder Judicial de la Ciudad: el Penal, Contravencional y de Faltas y el Contencioso Administrativo, Tributario y de Relaciones de Consumo.

Tribunal Superior de Justicia de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires

El Tribunal Superior de Justicia está compuesto por cinco magistrados propuestos por el Jefe de Gobierno con acuerdo brindado por los dos tercios del total de los miembros de la Legislatura de la Ciudad, en sesión pública especialmente convocada al efecto. Sólo son removidos por juicio político. En ningún caso podrán ser todos del mismo sexo
Este órgano colegiado dicta su reglamento interno, nombra y remueve a sus empleados y ejecuta su presupuesto.

Son competencias del Tribunal Superior de Justicia:
 Originaria y exclusivamente en los conflictos entre los Poderes de la Ciudad y en las demandas que promueva la Auditoría General de la Ciudad de acuerdo con lo que autoriza la Constitución.
 Originaria y exclusivamente en las acciones declaratorias contra la validez de leyes, decretos y cualquier otra norma de carácter general emanada de las autoridades de la Ciudad, contrarias a la Constitución Nacional o a la Constitución de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires.
 Por vía de recursos de inconstitucionalidad, en todos los casos que versen sobre la interpretación o aplicación de normas contenidas en la Constitución Nacional o en la Constitución de la Ciudad.
 En los casos de privación, denegación o retardo injustificado de justicia y en los recursos de queja por denegación de recurso.
 En instancia ordinaria de apelación en las causas en que la Ciudad sea parte, cuando el monto reclamado sea superior al que establezca la ley.
 Originariamente en materia electoral y de partidos políticos.
 De las cuestiones de competencia y los conflictos que en juicio se planteen entre jueces y juezas y tribunales de la Ciudad que no tengan un órgano superior jerárquico común que deba resolverlo (art. 26 inc. 7 de la ley 7).

Consejo de la Magistratura (Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires)

El Consejo de la Magistratura de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires es el organismo encargado de la administración del Poder Judicial y del Ministerio Público, pero no del Superior Tribunal.

Composición:
 Tres representantes elegidos por la Legislatura, con el voto de las dos terceras partes del total de sus miembros.
 Tres jueces del Poder Judicial de la Ciudad excluidos los del Tribunal Superior, elegidos por el voto directo de sus pares. En caso de que se presentare más de una lista de candidatos, dos son de la lista de la mayoría y uno de la minoría.
 Tres abogados o abogadas, elegidos por sus pares, dos en representación de la lista que obtuviere la mayor cantidad de votos y el restante de la lista que le siguiere en el número de votos, todos con domicilio electoral y matriculados en la Ciudad.
El Consejo de la Magistratura se encuentra regulado por la Ley 31º y su correctiva 1007, este organismo es el encargado de la selección, disciplina y acusación de jueces, juezas e integrantes del Ministerio Público y de la administración del Poder Judicial, excluido el Tribunal Superior de Justicia.

Los Consejeros tienen un mandato de cuatro años y no pueden ser reelegidos sin un intervalo de por lo menos un período completo. Designan su presidente y tienen las mismas incompatibilidades e inmunidades que los jueces. Son removidos por juicio político . A diferencia de otros Poderes Judiciales, la totalidad de los magistrados que integran la justicia de la CABA fueron elegidos por concurso público de antecedentes y oposición.

Comisiones
Este se divide en cuatro (4) Comisiones creadas por la Ley 31 Ley Orgánica del Consejo de la Magistratura
La coordinación de las Comisiones es ejercida por un miembro, anualmente, en forma rotativa, previa designación por sorteo del/la primera/a coordinador/a, las Comisiones se renuevan todos los años, determinándose por sorteo el integrante de la Comisión que permanece dos años

Comisión de Administración Financiera, Infraestructura y Tecnología de la Información y Telecomunicaciones
Elaborar el anteproyecto de presupuesto anual del Poder Judicial excluidos los correspondientes al Tribunal Superior y al Ministerio Público. (Conforme texto Art. 20 inc. j) de la ley Nº 2.386, BOCBA 2752 del 23/08/2007).
Funciones
 Ejecutar el presupuesto del Poder Judicial , excluidos los correspondientes al Tribunal Superior y al Ministerio Público.(Conforme texto Art. 20 inc. k) de la ley Nº 2.386, BOCBA 2752 del 23/08/2007).
 Ejecutar las resoluciones del Plenario.
 Ejecutar los procedimientos de licitación, concurso y demás procedimientos de selección del contratante, de montos superiores a los establecidos en la ley que regula el funcionamiento de la Oficina de Administración y Financiera del Poder Judicial de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, de conformidad con lo que al respecto disponga el Plenario y sujeto a la aprobación de éste, según lo dispuesto en el inciso 15 del artículo 20 de la presente ley, y proponer los respectivos adjudicatarios.
 Considerar la cuenta de inversión y la memoria anual preparada por el Administrador General, y elevarlas al Plenario.
 Diseñar la política de informática y telecomunicaciones, organizar y mantener un sistema informático que permita el acceso de todos los usuarios y agentes del servicio de Justicia a información precisa, permanente y actualizada de acuerdo a sus competencias. (Conforme texto Art. 3º de la Ley Nº 2.693, BOCBA Nº 2944 del 04/06/2008)
 Organizar y mantener la necesidad de infraestructura de los organismos que integran el servicio de Justicia de la Ciudad. (Incorporado por el Art. 3º de la Ley Nº 2.693, BOCBA Nº 2944 del 04/06/2008)
 Toda otra función que le encargue el plenario o se le atribuya por Ley o reglamento. (Incorporado por el Art. 3º de la Ley Nº 2.693, BOCBA Nº 2944 del 04/06/2008)

Comisión de Disciplina y Acusación
Funciones
 Recibir las denuncias que se formulen contra magistrados/as, empleados/as y funcionarios/as del Poder Judicial, excluidos los que fueren designados por el Tribunal Superior y el Ministerio Público.(Conforme texto Art. 20 inc. l) de la ley Nº 2.386, BOCBA 2752 del 23/08/2007).
 Sustanciar los procedimientos disciplinarios respecto de los jueces y juezas y magistrados del Ministerio Público y sustanciar el procedimiento disciplinario respecto a los funcionarios/as y empleados/as del Poder Judicial, excluidos/as los/las que se desempeñan en el Tribunal Superior y en el Ministerio Público. (Conforme texto Art. 20 inc. m) de la ley Nº 2.386, BOCBA 2752 del 23/08/2007).
 Proponer al Plenario del Consejo de la Magistratura las sanciones a los magistrados/as.(Conforme texto Art. 20 inc. n) de la ley Nº 2.386, BOCBA 2752 del 23/08/2007).
 Proponer al Plenario la formulación de acusación ante el Jurado de Enjuiciamiento.
 Toda otra función que le encomiende el Plenario o se le atribuya por ley o reglamento.

Comisión de Selección de Jueces
Sus funciones son:
 Realizar el sorteo de los miembros del jurado, para cada uno de los concursos que se realicen.
 Proponer al Plenario el reglamento para los concursos.
 Llamar a concurso público de oposición y antecedentes para cubrir las vacantes de integrantes de la magistratura y del Ministerio Público que no tengan otra forma de designación prevista en la Constitución.
 Examinar las pruebas y antecedentes de los concursantes y confeccionar el orden de mérito correspondiente, el que debe publicarse en el Boletín Oficial.
 Elevar al Plenario el proyecto de propuestas de nombramientos a ser presentado ante la Legislatura.
 Toda otra función que le encomiende el Plenario o se le atribuya por ley o reglamento.

Comisión de Fortalecimiento Institucional, Planificación Estratégica y Política Judicial

Le compete a la Comisión de Fortalecimiento Institucional, Planificación Estratégica y Política judicial:
 Intervenir en la profundización del intercambio de experiencias de gestión institucional con otros niveles de la administración pública o de administración de Justicia de orden local, nacional o internacional.
 Diseñar e implementar herramientas e instrumentos de planificación estratégica para la prestación del servicio de Justicia de la Ciudad y el Consejo de la Magistratura.
 Elaborar las políticas destinadas a la efectiva transferencia de las competencias de la Justicia Nacional a la Justicia de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires.

Comisión de Transferencia del Poder Judicial de la Nación y del Ministerio Público de la Nación

Le compete a la Comisión de Transferencia de Competencias:
 Redacción de Proyectos enlazados con la Transferencia de Competencias.
 Realizar resoluciones en el Plenario.
 Plantear razones de carácter general para la Transferencia de Competencias de la Nación a la Ciudad.
 Vigilar la composición de bienes que sean traspasados de la Nación a la Ciudad.
 Plantear cambios que necesite la Transferencia de Competencias.
 Realizar y establecer las mejores formas para avalar el traspaso de Competencias.
 Citar a las organizaciones de magistrados y trabajadores públicos de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires y a las organizaciones gremiales signatarias del Convenio Colectivo de Trabajo, a participar de las asambleas de la comisión, con voz pero sin voto, en los casos que afecten sus conveniencias van a ser juzgados.

Tribunales de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires
En la actualidad funcionan en el ámbito de la Ciudad sólo dos fueros , el Contencioso Administrativo y Tributario y el Penal, Contravencional y de Faltas; cada uno de ellos con una estructura compuesta por la Cámara de Apelaciones y los distintos juzgados de Primera Instancia.
Los jueces son los encargados de controlar el cumplimiento de las garantías constitucionales, juzgan las conductas imputadas en juicio oral y público y aprueban aquellas soluciones de conflictos alternativas al juicio a las que arriban las partes.

Fuero Penal, Contravencional y de Faltas
La Justicia en lo Penal, Contravencional y de Faltas conoce en la aplicación del Código Penal, Contravencional de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, la legislación de faltas y las leyes de aplicación de la Ciudad.

La Cámara de Apelaciones en lo Penal, Contravencional y de Faltas, se encuentra integrada, por nueve (9) jueces y funciona dividida en tres (3) Salas de tres (3) jueces cada uno. La Justicia de Primera Instancia en lo Penal, Contravencional y de Faltas termina de consolidarse en el transcurso del 2006 con la puesta en funcionamiento de 31º Juzgados de Primera Instancia.

En la actualidad, está compuesta por 31 juzgados de Primera Instancia con una secretaría cada uno; 16 fiscalías, con dos fiscales titulares y dos secretarías; 12 defensorías, con dos defensores titulares y dos secretarías.

Fuero Contencioso Administrativo y Tributario
La Justicia en lo Contencioso Administrativo y Tributario entiende en todas las cuestiones en que la Ciudad sea parte, cualquiera sea su fundamento u origen, tanto en el ámbito del derecho público como del derecho privado.

En el fuero Contencioso Administrativo y Tributario se tramitan todas aquellas causas en las que la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires es parte actora o demandada tanto en el ámbito del derecho público como del derecho privado, y en cuestiones tributarias (cobro de impuestos, tasas y contribuciones.

La Justicia de Primera Instancia en lo Contencioso Administrativo y Tributario está integrada por veinticuatro (24) Juzgados con dos (2) Secretarías cada uno de ellos, la Cámara de Apelaciones está integrada por seis (9) Jueces y funciona en tres (3) Salas de tres (3) jueces cada una, dos (6)Fiscalías y seis (6) Defensorís.

Su proceso se rige por el Código Contencioso Administrativo y Tributario. Esta es la Ley u ordenamiento jurídico que detalla el procedimiento y sus principios normativos para la resolución de las causas contencioso administrativa y Tributaria.

Ministerio Público
Por su parte, el Poder Judicial de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires cuenta con un Ministerio Público con autonomía funcional y autarquía. Está a cargo de un o una Fiscal General, un Defensor o Defensora General y un Asesor o Asesora General Tutelar, quienes ejercen sus funciones ante el Tribunal Superior de Justicia
El Ministerio Público tiene como gestión promover la actuación de la Justicia en defensa de la legalidad, de acuerdo a los intereses generales de nuestra sociedad; cuidar por la normal prestación del servicio de justicia y procurar ante los tribunales la satisfacción del interés social.
Funciones del Ministerio Público:
 Promover la actuación de la Justicia en defensa de la legalidad de los intereses generales de la sociedad, conforme a los principios de unidad de actuación y dependencia jerárquica.
 Velar por la normal prestación del servicio de justicia y procurar ante los tribunales la satisfacción del interés social y del habitante.
 Dirigir la Policía Judicial.

El Ministerio Público está integrado por tres organismos diferentes e independientes entre sí:
 La Fiscalía General de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, a cargo de un Fiscal General, dos Fiscales Generales Adjuntos y los demás fiscales de Primera y Segunda Instancia.
 La Defensoría General de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires está a cargo de una Defensora General, dos Defensores Generales Adjuntos y los demás Defensores de Primera y Segunda Instancia.
 La Asesoría General Tutelar de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, a cargo de una Asesora General Tutelar, dos Asesores Generales Adjuntos y los demás Asesores Tutelares de Primera.

Ministerio Público Fiscal

El Ministerio Público tiene autonomía funcional y libertad dentro del Poder Judicial. Está conformado por la Fiscalía General, que ejerce funciones ante el Tribunal Superior de Justicia y por los demás funcionarios que de ellos dependan. Son designados y removidos en la misma forma y con los mismos requisitos que los miembros del Tribunal Superior de Justicia.
Duran en su función siete años, pudiendo ser reelegidos con intervalo de un período completo.
El Ministerio Público Fiscal tiene como función:
 Promover la actuación de la justicia en defensa de la legalidad y de los intereses generales de la sociedad.
 Velar por la normal prestación del servicio de justicia y procurar ante los t ribunales de la Ciudad la satisfacción del interés social; mediante la investigación de las contravenciones y delitos cuya competencia fue transferida a la CABA.
 Formular su acusación ante los jueces.
 Proponer soluciones alternativas a los conflictos.
 En las cuestiones relacionadas al fuero Contencioso Administrativo y Tributario (cuando una autoridad administrativa sea parte), aporta a los jueces una opinión calificada cuando se encuentren comprometidas la observancia de las leyes o la vigencia del orden público.

Los fiscales tienen a su cargo la dirección e impulso de la investigación, que puede iniciarse de oficio o por una denuncia (denuncias), o bien como consecuencia de las actividades de prevención policial (actas).

Ministerio Público de la Defensa
El objetivo del Ministerio Público es cuidar para que el sistema de administración de justicia cumpla y garantize el legítimo e inviolable efectivizar el derecho de defensa y asegurar el derecho de libre acceso a la justicia, en tanto, la Defensoría General promueve y garantiza tanto los derechos individuales fundamentales como los colectivos, en la búsqueda de la protección del interés social.

En el marco del principio de la igualdad de las partes en el proceso, así mismo debe velar por el cumplimiento de los derechos humanos en los lugares de detención.
El Defensor General, es designado por el Jefe de Gobierno con acuerdo de dos tercios de la Legislatura., sus mandatos duran siete años.

Los defensores públicos asisten a los imputados desde el inicio del procedimiento, ejerciendo su defensa cuando éste no tuviere los medios necesarios para proveerse de un abogado particular.

Ministerio Público Tutelar
El Ministerio Público Tutelar es una institución que integra el Poder Judicial de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires.

Su misión principal es promover la justa aplicación de la ley, la legalidad de los procedimientos y el respeto, la protección y la satisfacción de los derechos y garantías de niñas, niños y adolescentes y personas con padecimiento en su salud mental.

Véase también
 Poder Judicial
 Poder Judicial de la Nación Argentina

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Poder Judicial de la Nación
 Consejo de la Magistratura de la Nación
 Ministerio Público Fiscal de la República Argentina
 Ministerio Público de la Defensa de la República Argentina
 Ministerio Público Tutelar de la República Argentina

Organización política de la ciudad de Buenos Aires
Poder Judicial de Argentina


Mircea Popa (n. 29 ianuarie 1939, Lazuri de Beiuș) este un critic și istoric literar român.

Biografie
S-a născut în familia preotului Alexandru Popa, originar din satul Lazuri de Beiuș, și al soției sale, Ana (n. Negrău), originară din Roit. Tatăl său, care a funcționat apoi ca preot în satele Bogei, Ciutelec și Varviz din zona Marghitei, i-a transmis încă din copilărie atracția către lumea cărților și plăcerea studiului. A urmat școala primară în satele bihorene Bogei și Ciutelec, studiile gimnaziale la Popești (jud. Bihor) (1950-1953), liceul la Oradea (1953-1955) și Vadu Crișului (1955-1956) și Facultatea de Filologie a Universității din Cluj, secția română-istorie (1956-1960), pe care a absolvit-o ca șef de promoție. A obținut în 1970 titlul de doctor în filologie cu o teză despre criticul literar transilvănean Ilarie Chendi, avându-l ca conducător științific pe prof. Iosif Pervain.

După absolvirea facultății a lucrat ca profesor la Săcueni-Bihor (1960-1961), muzeograf la Muzeul Banatului din Timișoara (1961-1962), profesor la Liceul din Aleșd (1962-1963). În 1963 a obținut prin concurs postul de cercetător științific la secția de istorie literară și folclor a Institutului de Lingvistică și Istorie Literară al Filialei din Cluj a Academiei Române (din 1963), condus de acad. Emil Petrovici. A fost secretar (1963-1978) și responsabil (1978-2007) al secției de istorie literară. A coordonat în această calitate redactarea unor importante lucrări științifice precum Sociologia romanului românesc (finalizată cu lucrarea De la N. Filimon la G. Călinescu, Ed. Minerva, 1982), Dicționarul cronologic al romanului românesc de la origini până în 1989 (Ed. Academiei, 2004, Premiul Uniunii Scriitorilor) și Dicționarul romanului tradus în România (Ed. Academiei, 2005, Premiul Filialei din Cluj al Uniunii
Scriitorilor) și a colaborat la elaborarea celor șapte volume ale Dicționarului general al literaturii române (2004-2008) de sub conducerea acad. Eugen Simion, precum și a altor opt dicționare: Scriitori români (1978), Dicționarul scriitorilor români, vol I-V (1994-2002), 100 cei mai mari scriitori români (2002), Dicționarul personajelor din teatrul lui I.L.Caragiale (2003), Dicționarul personajelor din teatrul lui Lucian Blaga (2005), Dicționarul biografic al literaturii române, I-II (2006),
Personalități clujene (2007), Dicționar ilustrat (2007), Elite clujene contamporane (2014). A colaborat la elaborarea a două volume de corespondență a lui George Bariț, care au fost distinse cu premiul "N.Iorga" al Academiei Române.

A predat în perioada 1991-1995 cursuri de Istoria presei, Istoria literaturii române, Istoria culturii din Transilvania și Istoria cărții și tiparului la Facultatea de Istorie și Filozofie din cadrul Universității "Babeș-Bolyai" din Cluj-Napoca. Începând din 1994 a fost angajat la catedra de Istoria Literaturii Române de la Universitatea 1 Decembrie 1918 din Alba Iulia, unde a fost și titularizat în 1995, predând aici până în anul 2009, când a ieșit la pensie. Este începând din 1994 conducător de doctorat în istoria literaturii române la Institutul de Lingvistică și Istorie Literară "Sextil Pușcariu" din Cluj-Napoca și apoi la Universitatea "1 Decembrie 1918" din Alba Iulia. A condus peste 40 de teze de doctorat.

Este membru al Uniunii Scriitorilor din România, Filiala Cluj, și președinte al Despărțământului Cluj al Astrei (din 2000), conducând în această calitate revista Astra clujeană. A fost numit președintele Federației Ortodoxe Române, vicepreședintele Asociației Române de Istorie a Presei, fiind membru în diverse jurii pentru decernarea de premii culturale.

A fost decorat cu Medalia comemorativă 150 de ani de la nașterea lui M.Eminescu (2000), Ordinul Meritul Cultural în grad de Cavaler (2004), cu Ordinul "Meritul pentru Învățământ" în grad de Comandor (2004) "pentru abnegația și devotamentul puse în slujba învățământului românesc, pentru contribuția deosebită la dezvoltarea și promovarea cercetării științifice" din România. și cu Crucea Transilvană a Arhiepiscopiei și Mitropoliei Clujului (19 februarie 2009). A fost desemnat cetățean de onoare al comunei Lazuri de Beiuș (2004) și al municipiului Blaj (2005).

Activitatea publicistică
Mircea Popa a debutat publicistic în anul 1964 în revista clujeană Steaua, colaborând ulterior cu articole și recenzii critice în revistele Familia, Limbă și literatură, Revista de istorie și teorie literară, Synthesis, Tribuna, Vatra ș.a. A publicat peste 45 de cărți  dedicate cărturarilor transilvăneni Ilarie Chendi, Ioan Molnar Piuariu, Octavian Goga, Ion Agârbiceanu, Timotei Cipariu, Lucian Blaga și Victor Papilian și a colaborat la peste 100 de volume colective,  printre care De la N. Filimon la G. Călinescu. Studii de sociologie a romanului românesc (1982), Dicționarul scriitorilor români, I-IV (1995-2002) etc. A îngrijit și prefațat ediții ale operelor lui Octavian Goga, Lucian Blaga, Ioan Slavici, Cezar Petrescu, Vasile Goldiș, Victor Eftimiu, Emil Isac, Ion Minulescu, Nicolae Oțălea, Victor Papilian, Al Ciura, George Barițiu, Vintilă Horia, Grigore Culger, Ștefan Manciulea, Gr. Nandriș etc.

A studiat istoria literară a Transilvaniei, analizând domenii distincte precum tiparul în Transilvania, Școala Ardeleană, mișcarea literară din jurul Revoluției de la 1848, istoria cărții românești din Ardeal și cântecul popular ca formă literară.

Activitatea sa a fost recunoscută prin decernarea Premiului "N. Iorga" al Academiei Române (1976) și Premiului de eseu, critică și istorie literară al Asociației Scriitorilor din Cluj-Napoca pentru cartea Tectonica genurilor literare (1980), Premiul Ministerului Culturii pentru exegeza vie și operei lui Lucian Blaga (1994), Premiul Salonului de Carte de la Timișoara (1996), Premiul Salonului de carte orădean (1996) pentru Convergențe europene, Premiul Special Festivalului Național de Poezie "Orfeu"(1998), Premiul pentru eseu al Filialei din Cluj a Uniunii Scriitorilor pentru Figuri universitare clujene (2002), Premiul Uniunii Scriitorilor pentru Dicționarul cronologic al romanului românesc (2004), Premiul Fundației "Romulus Cojocaru" din Turnu Severin (2006), premiul "Mircea Zaciu" al Asociației Scriitorilor Filiala Cluj-Napoca, premiul "N.Drăganu" al Filialei clujene a Uniunii Scriitorilor pentru volumul Ferestrele Clujului (2014), diploma de excelență a Filialei Cluj-Napoca a Academiei Române (2014), premiul pentru critică și istorie literară al revistei Nord literar (27 nov. 2015) etc.

Opera

 Ilarie Chendi, monografie, București, 1973;
 Spații literare. Studii de istorie literară, Cluj, 1974;
 Ioan Molnar Piuariu, monografie, Cluj-Napoca, 1976 (ed. a II-a revăzută și adăugită, 2015;
 Istoria presei literare românești din Transilvania de la începuturi până la 1918 (în colab. cu Valentin Tașcu), Cluj-Napoca, 1980 (ed. a II-a, 2003);
 Tectonica genurilor literare, București, 1980;
 Octavian Goga, între colectivitate și solitudine, Cluj-Napoca, 1981;
 Introducere în opera lui Ion Agîrbiceanu, București, 1982;
 De la N. Filimon la G. Călinescu (în colab.), 1982;
 Timotei Cipariu: ipostaze ale enciclopedistului, București, 1994;
 Estuar, eseuri, București, 1995;
 Convergențe europene, eseuri, Oradea, 1995;
 Aspecte și interferențe iluministe, Timișoara, 1997;
 Apropieri literare și culturale româno-maghiare, 1998;
 Reîntoarcerea la Ithaca. Scriitori români din exil, București, 1998;
 Mihai Eminescu. Contextul receptării, Reșița, 1999;
 Mihai Eminescu în Transilvania (1866-1918). Bibliografie, 2000;
 Presa și ideea națională, Alba-Iulia, 2000;
 Alba Iulia – răscruce de veghe, 2000;
 Homo militans, Cluj-Napoca, 2000;
 Figuri universitare clujene, Cluj-Napoca, 2002;
 Inserții. Contribuții și precizări documentare, București, 2003;
 Dicționarul personajelor din teatrul lui I. L. Caragiale (în colab.), 2002;

 Istoria presei românești din Transilvania (în colab.), 2003;
 Pagini bihorene, Oradea, 2003;
 Presa mehedințeană, 2004;
 Penumbre, 2004;
 Dicționarul cronologic al romanului românesc (în colab.), 2004;
 Dicționarul general al literaturii române, I-VII (colab. și coordonator), 2005;
 De la iluminism la pașoptism, 2004;
 Dicționarul personajelor din teatrul lui Lucian Blaga (în colab.), 2005;
 Andrei Veress, un bibliograf maghiar prieten al românilor, 2006;
 Sub semnul Franței, 2006;
 Presa românească și ideea națională, 2006;
 Relații culturale și literare româno-spaniole, 2007;
 Lucian Blaga și contemporanii săi, 2007;
 Spania descoperită de români, 2007;
 Victor Papilian, 2008;
 Dicționarul biografic al literaturii române, I-II, 2007;
 Incursiuni în presa românească, 2009;
 Uleiul din candelă, 2009;
 Cărți, manuscrise, biblioteci, 2010;
 Continuități, 2010;
 De la Est la Vest. Priveliști literare europene, 2010;
 Panoramic jurnalistic, 2011.

Note

Bibliografie
 Iulian Boldean, Realități românești, confluențe europene (Mircea Popa, De la Est spre Vest: Priveliști literare europene. Cluj-Napoca: Ed. Eikon, 2010) , în Apostrof, anul XXII, nr. 11 (258), 2011.
 Augustin Cozmuță, Augustin Cozmuță în dialog cu Mircea Popa. "E imposibil să urmărești fenomenul literar în totalitatea lui" , în Nord Literar, Baia Mare, nr.3 (142), martie 2015.
 Aurel Sasu (ed.), Dicționarul biografic al literaturii române, vol. II, Editura Paralela 45, Pitești, 2004, pp. 397–398. ISBN 973-697-758-7
 Răzvan Voncu, Cronica edițiilor: Transilvania e o bibliotecă , în România literară, anul XLIII, nr. 48, 17-23 decembrie 2010.

Nașteri în 1939
Critici literari români
Istorici literari români

Mircea Popa


Skuespilleren kan henvise til:

 Skuespilleren (film fra 1913) – stumfilm fra 1913 instrueret af ubekendt
 Skuespilleren (film fra 2004) – dansk kortfilm fra 2004 instrueret af Lars Pedersen
 Skuespilleren (kortfilm) – dansk kortfilm fra 1908 instrueret af ubekendt

Skuespilleren


Tepsili, Tunceli ilinin Ovacık ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün eski ismi "Mekikuşağı"dır. 1960 yılı nüfus sayımından itibaren günümüzdeki adıyla kayıtlarda yer almaya başlamıştır.

Coğrafya
Tunceli iline 76 km, Ovacık ilçesine 14 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Ovacık belde ve köyleri

Tepsili, Ovacık


Smith Westerns war eine Indie-Rock-Band aus Chicago, Illinois. Sie bestand aus Cullen Omori, Cameron Omori und Max Kakacek. Die Musik wurde von David Bowie, Marc Bolan und T. Rex beeinflusst.

Geschichte
Am 5. Juni 2009 gaben sie ihr Debüt-Album The Smith Westerns unter dem Label HoZac Records heraus. Am 4. November 2010 veröffentlichten sie die Single Weekend. Dieser Song ist auch auf dem am 18. Januar 2011 veröffentlichte Album Dye It Blonde zu finden. 2011 bis 2012 sind Smith Westerns die Vorband der englischen Indie-Rock-Band Arctic Monkeys.

Ende 2014 wurde die Band aufgelöst. Max Kakacek gründete daraufhin mit Julien Ehrlich die Band Whitney.

Diskografie

Alben
 2009: The Smith Westerns
 2011: Dye It Blonde
 2013: Soft Will

Singles
 2010: Weekend

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website

Einzelnachweise

Rockband
Alternative-Rock-Band
Britpop-Band
US-amerikanische Band
Garage-Rock-Band
Band (Chicago)

Smith Westerns


An Thrasya campylostachya in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Eduard Hackel, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Mary Agnes Chase. An Thrasya campylostachya in nahilalakip ha genus nga Thrasya, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Thrasya

Thrasya campylostachya


The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Published by Billboard magazine, the data are compiled by Nielsen SoundScan based collectively on each single's weekly physical sales and airplay. In 2004, there were 11 singles that topped the chart. Although there were 12 singles that claimed the top spot in the 52 issues of the chart, hip hop duo Outkast's "Hey Ya!" began its peak position in 2003, and is thus excluded.

In 2004, 13 acts achieved their first U.S. number-one single, either as a lead artist or featured guest, including Sleepy Brown, Twista, Kanye West, Jamie Foxx, Lil Jon, Fantasia Barrino, Juvenile, Soulja Slim, Terror Squad, Ciara, Petey Pablo, Snoop Dogg, and Pharrell. Barrino and Ciara were the only acts to have earned a number-one debut single this year. R&B singer Usher had four number-one singles that appeared in the 2004 issues, and Outkast had two. Soulja Slim became the sixth artist to have a number one song posthumously, after his death in November 2003. During the year, seven collaboration singles reached the number-one position, tying the record set in 2003.

Usher's "Yeah!" is the longest-running number-one single of 2004, remaining in that position for 12 straight weeks. It is followed by his other single "Burn", whose streak on the top spot reached eight non-consecutive weeks. Other singles with extended chart runs include Ciara's "Goodies", which features Petey Pablo, and Usher's "My Boo", a duet with Alicia Keys, each topping the chart for seven and six weeks, respectively.

Usher is the most successful act of 2004. He had four singles that topped the Billboard Hot 100: "Yeah!, "Burn", "Confessions Part II", and "My Boo"; he is the only act in 2004 to have earned multiple number-one singles. Overall, Usher had 28 weeks on top in a calendar year, becoming the first act to have achieved such an extended chart run on the Billboard Hot 100. The feat broke the record set by Glenn Miller and His Orchestra in 1940; their records spent 26 consecutive weeks at the top spot of Record Buying Guide, a jukebox chart Billboard magazine published in the late 1930s and early 1940s. "Yeah!" is the best-performing single of the calendar year, having topped the Top Hot 100 Hits of 2004.

Following periods of fluctuating success, urban music attained commercial dominance during the early 2000s, which featured massive crossover success on the Billboard charts by R&B and hip hop artists. In 2004, all 12 songs that topped the Billboard Hot 100 were performed by African-American recording artists and accounted for 80% of the number-one R&B hits that year. Along with Usher's streak of singles, Top 40 radio and both pop and R&B charts were topped by OutKast's "Hey Ya!", Snoop Dogg's "Drop It Like It's Hot", Terror Squad's "Lean Back", and Ciara's "Goodies". Chris Molanphy of The Village Voice later remarked that "by the early 2000s, urban music was pop music."

Chart history

Number-one artists

See also
2004 in music
Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2004
List of Billboard number-one singles

References

Additional sources
Fred Bronson's Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, 5th Edition ()
Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2008, 12 Edition ()
Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The 2000s ()
Additional information obtained can be verified within Billboard's online archive services and print editions of the magazine.

United States Hot 100
2004

List of Billboard Hot 100 number ones of 2004


Biserica romano-catolică din Abrud este un monument istoric aflat pe teritoriul orașului Abrud. În Repertoriul Arheologic Național, monumentul apare cu codul 1160.05.

Construcția primului lăcaș datează de la sfârșitul secolului al XIII-lea, fiind ridicat de către coloniști germani din piatră în stil gotic. Regele maghiar Ștefan al V-lea între anii 1270-1271 amintește despre aceasta ca fiind o prosperă biserică din piatră. Din anul 1569 edificiul a fost ocupat de confesiunea protestantă a unitarienilor și restituit catolicilor la 1777 printr-un ordin emis de către Maria Terezia, pentru ca anul următor biserica să fie sfințită de romano-catolici. Revoluția de la 1848 aduce arderea și distrugerea ei, astfel că din anul 1867 biserica este renovată la forma actuală. Istoria zbuciumată a acestui oraș a reușit să își lase și asupra acestui edificiu de cult o amprentă, fiind supus mereu unor transformări. Astfel, din prima perioadă a construcției regăsim în cadrul edificiului păstrat doar portalul vestic, în stil gotic flamboaiant, contraforți și un zid de incintă pe latura de nord, mai apoi interiorul este tipic baroc, cu calote boeme și arce dublouri descărcate pe pilaștrii masivi. Din secolele XIV și XV picturi murale ar fi decorat pereții până pe la 1848. În contextul revoluției de la 1848 biserica a fost incendiată și distrusă, iar protopopul Ștefan Kovacs a fost ucis.

Biserica, orientată est-vest, prezintă pe fațada vestică un turn masiv, cu secțiunea în patrulater regulat, împărțit pe trei nivele, inegale ca înălțime. La nivelul inferior intrarea în biserică realizată printr-un portal în arc frânt de culoare albă găzduiește încăperea de la baza tunului, azi tăvănită. Trecerea la nivelul doi este realizată printr-o cornișă profilată. Aici turnul prezintă o mică fereastră circulară. Nivelul trei este separat tot printr-o cornișă, însă acesta conțin camera clopotelor demarcată de ferestrele mari, câte una pe fiecare fațadă la nivelul superior și așezate central, ce se termină in semicerc și sunt protejate de obloane. Deasupra fiecărei ferestre se regăsesc mici deschideri cilindrice cu un contur subliniat, locuri în care se găseau cândva cadranele ceasornicului. Nava, dreptunghiulară, este amplă, monumentală, intrarea se face pe sub o tribună susținută de un șir de trei arce în semicerc turtit ce se descarcă pe trei stâlpi masivi. Din acest spațiu pe partea de sud se află scara ce duce spre tribună, iar pe partea nordică se găsește altarul sfântului Anton de Padova. Interiorul este acoperit de bolți boeme pictate cu medalioane așezate central și în zona de descărcare a greutății lor redau scene ale lumii celeste, amorași și ghirlande. Partea centrală a navei se axează pe o deschidere a spațiului spre formarea unui spațiu unic, în care toate conduc înspre altar. Fiecare latură a navei e luminată de câte trei ferestre ce se termină în semicerc. Câte două altare se află așezate pe fiecare latură în dreptul stâlpilor ce susțin greutatea bolților. Un amvon realizat din lemn e adosat laturii nordice între cele două altare. Trecerea din navă către altar se realizează printr-un arc dublu masiv. Sanctuarul plasat într-o absidă retrasă, semicilindrică la interior, este acoperit cu o semicalotă cu penetrații, decorată. Trei ferestre identice cu cele din navă luminează sanctuarul. Pe latura sudică la jumătatea distanței dintre absida altarului și tribuna orgii se găsește golul unei intrări secundare. Exteriorul bisericii este lipsit de decorații, doar tencuit, și a păstrat urmele primului edificiu de cult realizat în stil gotic. În primul rând merită menționată intrarea de la baza turnului în formă de arc frânt, iar mai apoi latura nordică ce e marcată de trei contraforți gotici treptați, plasați în dreptul locului de descărcare a greutății bolților. O incintă de piatră cu liant de mortar se întinde pe toată latura nordică a bisericii.

Note

Vezi și
 Biserici din Abrud

Monumente istorice din județul Alba
Biserici romano-catolice din România
Biserici cu hramul Sfântul Nicolae
Biserici din secolul al XV-lea din România
Biserici din județul Alba

Biserica romano-catolică din Abrud


Franjevačka Teologija u Makarskoj, teološka obrazovna ustanova franjevaca u Makarskoj.

Povijest
Nastala je na baštini filozofskih i bogoslovnih učilišta koja su postojala u hrvatskim franjevačkim samostanima a koja datira od 13. stoljeća.

Franjevačka teologija nastala Spajanjem učilišta u Šibeniku i Makarskoj nastala je Franjevačka teologija. Jedan predšasnik, šibensko učilište osnovano je najkasnije 1699. godine. Te godine osnovano je pravno, na provincijskom kapitulu Bosne Srebrene u Velikoj, pod predsjedanjem generalnog pohoditelja Ivana a S. Marco (Ioannes a S. Marco). Bilo je to trogodišnje filozofsko učilište. Makarsko učilište osnovano je 1708. godine. 1714. godine u Šibeniku je osnovano bogoslovno učilište s četverogodišnjim programom. Godine 1735. proglašeno je generalnim učilištem I. stupnja s pravom pripremanja lektora, odnosno profesora priznatih u Franjevačkomu redu. Godinu poslije osnovano je makarsko bogoslovno učilište s četverogodišnjim programom, ali ono je povremeno djelovalo kao generalno učilište II. stupnja. 1828. godine preustrojeno je školstvo prema austrijskomu zakonodavstvu te je filozofija izdvojena iz učilišta. Šibensko i makarsko učilište su ujedinjeni u jedno bogoslovno učilište. Bogoslovi su u Šibeniku studirali prve dvije godine, a druge dvije u Makarskoj. Naposljetku su 1907. godine ujedinjene su sve četiri godine studija koji se odvija samo u Makarskoj.

Filozofski studij vraćen je bogoslovnom studiju 1936. godne, a učilište je nazvano Franjevačka visoka bogoslovija u Makarskoj. 7. lipnja 1940. objavljena je Uredba o položaju rimokatoličkih bogoslovnih škola te je priznat fakultetom.

Prvi je put afilirano Katoličkomu bogoslovnom fakultetu u Zagrebu 1971. godine. Od 1995. su Teologija u Splitu i Franjevačka teologija u Makarskoj dio Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, kao područni studiji Katoličkoga bogoslovnog fakulteta. Republika Hrvatska i Vatikan su međusobno pregovarali i dogovorili Ugovor   o suradnji na području odgoja i kulture, koji je odobren 9. lipnja 1997. godine. Na temelju njih biskupski su Ordinariji Splitske metropolije u ime Teologije u Splitu te provincijal Franjevačke provincije Presvetoga Otkupitelja, u ime Franjevačke teologije u Makarskoj, 30. rujna 1997., potpisali Ugovor o udruživanju i o osnivanju Katoličkoga bogoslovnog fakulteta u Splitu.

Izdavač je časopisa Služba Božja.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Bogoslovi Franjevačke provincije Presvetog Otkupitelja Franjevački klerikat o. fra Ante Antića Povijesni pregled djelovanja Franjevačke teologije u Makarskoj, Priredio: ƒra Joško Kodžoman, sažetak članka fra Jure Brkana iz monografije

Makarska
Sjemeništa u Hrvatskoj
Odgoj i obrazovanje u Hrvatskoj
Franjevci u Hrvatskoj
Bogoslovije

Franjevačka teologija u Makarskoj


Bárbara Bivolt (São Paulo, 27 de novembro de 1994) é uma cantora, compositora e modelo brasileira de R&B. e teve contato com a cultura hip-hop desde os 15 anos, quando começou a participar de batalhas de rima em São Paulo. Seus singles de sucesso "Pão Com Ovo" e "Olha Pra Mim" fizeram dela um nome conhecido no Brasil.

Biografia e carreira
Estilo, rimas, alto astral e muita garra formam a persona Bivolt. Há mais de 10 anos se faz presente com respeito no cenário da música urbana expressando suas vivências através da arte e trazendo o poder feminino para discussão em suas letras. Começou a quebrar barreiras ao ser a primeira rapper mulher a se apresentar na edição de 2017 do Rock in Rio, descoberta por um olheiro quando cantava na rua.

Em 2019 assinou com a sua primeira gravadora, Som Livre, e lançou o single "Vista Loka", com clipe gravado na comunidade do Boqueirão, em São Paulo, onde a rapper nasceu e foi criada. Em 2020 lançou o primeiro álbum da carreira, intitulado "Bivolt", com direção musical do Nave. As 14 faixas autorais apresentaram ao público a dupla voltagem da artista, do lado mais pop, com estilo lovesong e um toque de R&B, ao mood vindo das batalhas de rap, com linguagem de rua, rimas mais intensas e muita dança. As composições são baseadas em suas vivências e trazem uma bagagem de reflexões sócio-políticas e relações amorosas. Entre as participações especiais estão Xenia França, Tasha & Tracie, Dada Yute, Jé Santiago e Lucas Boombeat.

Em 2020, foi indicada ao Grammy Latino na categoria internacional "Melhor Vídeo Musical Versão Curta" pelo clipe de "Cubana", faixa que integra o álbum "Bivolt". Além da indicação à maior premiação da música latina, a rapper recebeu diversos outros reconhecimentos por seu trabalho no mesmo ano. Após vencer em duas categorias no prêmio RAP SH!T (MC do Ano e Álbum Ano), Bivolt conquistou também as categorias Melhor Clipe e MC do Ano (feminino) na premiação do RAPTV, um dos maiores portais do segmento de música urbana.

Em 2021, após lançar os singles "Pimenta", ao lado de Gloria Groove, e "Eu & Tu!", com participação de Emicida, Bivolt apresenta o segundo álbum de sua carreira, "Nitro", totalizando oito faixas, sendo seis inéditas - entre elas a música de trabalho "Raspa Placa", em parceria com a artista pernambucana Duda Beat. No mesmo ano, a artista teve sua foto estampada na Times Square, em Nova York, em uma ação do Spotify, e o anúncio de sua primeira música a integrar uma trilha sonora da novela "Um Lugar Ao Sol", estreando no horário nobre da maior emissora de TV brasileira.

Em 2022, Bivolt abriu o ano se apresentando pela primeira vez em solo internacional, com três shows no South By Southwest (SXSW), um dos maiores eventos de música e inovação do mundo no Texas, Estados Unidos. Em seguida, a cantora fez sua estreia no Lollapalooza ao ser convidada por Emicida e Planet Hemp para o show de tributo a Taylor Hawkins, dividindo o palco com outros nomes como Racionais MCs, Djonga,  Criolo, Rael e Drik Barbosa.

Em 03/03/2023, Bivolt apresentou ao público o single "Tira Uma Foto" em parceria com o renomado produtor musical Nave Beatz. A faixa chega como aquecimento para o novo projeto da artista,, com previsão de lançamento para este ano.

Discografia

Álbuns de estúdio
 Bivolt (2020)
 Nitro (2021)

Ligações externas

Cantores do estado de São Paulo

Bivolt


An Fuirena simplex in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Vahl. An Fuirena simplex in nahilalakip ha genus nga Fuirena, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 F. s. aristulata
 F. s. simplex

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Fuirena

Fuirena simplex


Compressed-air energy storage (CAES) is a way to store energy for later use using compressed air. At a utility scale, energy generated during periods of low demand can be released during peak load periods.

The first utility-scale CAES project has been built in Huntorf, Germany, and is still operational. The Huntorf plant was initially developed as a load balancer for fossil fuel-generated electricity, the global shift towards renewable energy renewed interest in CAES systems, to help highly intermittent energy sources like photovoltaics and wind satisfy fluctuating electricity demands.

One ongoing challenge in large-scale design is the management of thermal energy since the compression of air leads to an unwanted temperature increase that not only reduces operational efficiency but can also lead to damage. The main difference between various architectures lies in thermal engineering. On the other hand, small-scale systems have long been used as propulsion of mine locomotives. Contrasted with traditional batteries, systems can store energy for longer periods of time and have less upkeep.

Types
Compression of air creates heat; the air is warmer after compression. Expansion removes heat. If no extra heat is added, the air will be much colder after expansion. If the heat generated during compression can be stored and used during expansion, the efficiency of the storage improves considerably. There are several ways in which a CAES system can deal with heat. Air storage can be adiabatic, diabatic, isothermal, or near-isothermal.

Adiabatic
Adiabatic storage continues to store the energy produced by compression and returns it to the air as it is expanded to generate power. This is a subject of an ongoing study, with no utility-scale plants as of 2015. The theoretical efficiency of adiabatic storage approaches 100% with perfect insulation, but in practice, round trip efficiency is expected to be 70%. Heat can be stored in a solid such as concrete or stone, or in a fluid such as hot oil (up to 300 °C) or molten salt solutions (600 °C). Storing the heat in hot water may yield an efficiency around 65%.

Packed beds have been proposed as thermal storage units for adiabatic systems. A study  numerically simulated an adiabatic compressed air energy storage system using packed bed thermal energy storage. The efficiency of the simulated system under continuous operation was calculated to be between 70.5% and 71%.

Diabatic
Diabatic storage dissipates much of the heat of compression with intercoolers (thus approaching isothermal compression) into the atmosphere as waste, essentially wasting the energy used to perform the work of compression. Upon removal from storage, the temperature of this compressed air is the one indicator of the amount of stored energy that remains in this air. Consequently, if the air temperature is too low for the energy recovery process, the air must be substantially re-heated prior to expansion in the turbine to power a generator. This reheating can be accomplished with a natural gas-fired burner for utility-grade storage or with a heated metal mass. As recovery is often most needed when renewable sources are quiescent, the fuel must be burned to make up for the wasted heat. This degrades the efficiency of the storage-recovery cycle. While this approach is relatively simple, the burning of fuel adds to the cost of the recovered electrical energy and compromises the ecological benefits associated with most renewable energy sources. Nevertheless, this is thus far the only system that has been implemented commercially.

The McIntosh, Alabama CAES plant requires 2.5 MJ of electricity and 1.2 MJ lower heating value (LHV) of gas for each MJ of energy output, corresponding to an energy recovery efficiency of about 27%. A General Electric 7FA 2x1 combined cycle plant, one of the most efficient natural gas plants in operation, uses 1.85 MJ (LHV) of gas per MJ generated, a 54% thermal efficiency.

Isothermal
Isothermal compression and expansion approaches attempt to maintain operating temperature by constant heat exchange to the environment. In a reciprocating compressor, this can be achieved by using a finned piston  and low cycle speeds. Current challenges in effective heat exchangers mean that they are only practical for low power levels. The theoretical efficiency of isothermal energy storage approaches 100% for perfect heat transfer to the environment. In practice, neither of these perfect thermodynamic cycles is obtainable, as some heat losses are unavoidable, leading to a near-isothermal process.

Near-isothermal
Near-isothermal compression (and expansion) is a process in which a gas is compressed in very close proximity to a large incompressible thermal mass such as a heat absorbing and releasing structure (HARS) or a water spray. A HARS is usually made up of a series of parallel fins. As the gas is compressed, the heat of compression is rapidly transferred to the thermal mass, so the gas temperature is stabilized. An external cooling circuit is then used to maintain the temperature of the thermal mass. The isothermal efficiency (Z) is a measure of where the process lies between an adiabatic and isothermal process. If the efficiency is 0%, then it is totally adiabatic; with an efficiency of 100%, it is totally isothermal. Typically with a near-isothermal process, an isothermal efficiency of 90–95% can be expected.

Other
One implementation of isothermal CAES uses high, medium, and low pressure pistons in series. Each stage is followed by an airblast venturi pump that draws ambient air over an air-to-air (or air-to-seawater) heat exchanger between each expansion stage. Early compressed air torpedo designs used a similar approach, substituting seawater for air. The venturi warms the exhaust of the preceding stage and admits this preheated air to the following stage. This approach was widely adopted in various compressed-air vehicles such as H. K. Porter, Inc.'s mining locomotives and trams.
Here the heat of compression is effectively stored in the atmosphere (or sea) and returned later on.

Compressors and expanders
Compression can be done with electrically powered turbo-compressors and expansion with turbo-expanders or air engines driving electrical generators to produce electricity.

Storage
Air storage vessels vary in the thermodynamic conditions of the storage and on the technology used:

 Constant volume storage (solution mined caverns, aboveground vessels, aquifers, automotive applications, etc.)
 Constant pressure storage (underwater pressure vessels, hybrid pumped hydro - compressed air storage)

Constant-volume storage
This storage system uses a chamber with specific boundaries to store large amounts of air. This means from a thermodynamic point of view that this system is a constant-volume and variable-pressure system. This causes some operational problems for the compressors and turbines, so the pressure variations have to be kept below a certain limit as do the stresses induced on the storage vessels.

The storage vessel is often a cavern created by solution mining (salt is dissolved in water for extraction) or by utilizing an abandoned mine; use of porous and permeable rock formations (rocks that have interconnected holes, through which liquid or air can pass), such as those in which reservoirs of natural gas are found, has also been studied.

In some cases, an above-ground pipeline was tested as a storage system, giving some good results. Obviously, the cost of the system is higher, but it can be placed wherever the designer chooses, whereas an underground system needs some particular geologic formations (salt domes, aquifers, depleted gas fields, etc.).

Constant-pressure storage
In this case, the storage vessel is kept at constant pressure, while the gas is contained in a variable-volume vessel. Many types of storage vessels have been proposed. However, the operating conditions follow the same principle: The storage vessel is positioned hundreds of meters underwater, and the hydrostatic pressure of the water column above the storage vessel maintains the pressure at the desired level.

This configuration allows:
 Improvement of the energy density of the storage system because all the air contained can be used (the pressure is constant in all charge conditions, full or empty, so the turbine has no problem exploiting it, while with constant-volume systems if the pressure goes below a safety limit the system needs to stop).
 Improvement of the efficiency of the turbomachinery, which will work under constant-inlet conditions.
 Use of various geographic locations for the positioning of the CAES plant (coastal lines, floating platforms, etc.).

On the other hand, the cost of this storage system is higher due to the need to position the storage vessel on the bottom of the chosen water reservoir (often the sea or the ocean) and due to the cost of the vessel itself.

A different approach consists of burying a large bag buried under several meters of sand instead of water.

Plants operate on a peak-shaving daily cycle, charging at night and discharging during the day. Heating the compressed air using natural gas or geothermal heat to increase the amount of energy being extracted has been studied by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

Compressed-air energy storage can also be employed on a smaller scale, such as exploited by air cars and air-driven locomotives, and can use high-strength (e.g., carbon-fiber) air-storage tanks. In order to retain the energy stored in compressed air, this tank should be thermally isolated from the environment; otherwise, the energy stored will escape in the form of heat, because compressing air raises its temperature.

History
Citywide compressed air energy systems have been built since 1870. Cities such as Paris; Birmingham, England; Dresden, Rixdorf and Offenbach, Germany; and Buenos Aires, installed such systems. Victor Popp constructed the first systems to power clocks by sending a pulse of air every minute to change their pointer arms. They quickly evolved to deliver power to homes and industries. As of 1896, the Paris system had 2.2 MW of generation distributed at 550 kPa in 50 km of air pipes for motors in light and heavy industry. Usage was measured by cubic meters. The systems were the main source of house-delivered energy in those days and also powered the machines of dentists, seamstresses, printing facilities and bakeries.

The first utility-scale diabatic compressed air energy storage project was the 290 megawatt Huntorf plant opened in 1978 in Germany using a salt dome with 580 MWh energy, 42% efficiency.

A 110-megawatt plant with a capacity of 26 hours (2,860 MWh energy) was built in McIntosh, Alabama (1991). The Alabama facility's $65 million cost equals $590 per kW of capacity and about $23 per kW-hr of storage capacity. It uses a 19 million cubic foot solution mined salt cavern to store air at up to 1100 psi. Although the compression phase is approximately 82% efficient, the expansion phase requires the combustion of natural gas at one-third the rate of a gas turbine producing the same amount of electricity at 54% efficiency.

The US Department of Energy awarded $24.9 million in matching funds for phase one of a 300 MW, $356 million Pacific Gas and Electric Company installation utilizing a saline porous rock formation being developed near Bakersfield in Kern County, California. The goals of the project were to build and validate an advanced design (2009).

The US Department of Energy provided $29.4 million in funding to conduct preliminary work on a 150 MW salt-based  project being developed by Iberdrola USA in Watkins Glen, New York. The goal is to incorporate smart grid technology to balance renewable intermittent energy sources (2010).

General Compression completed construction of a 2 MW near-isothermal  project in Gaines County, Texas; the world's third project (2012). The project uses no fuel. It appears to have stopped operating in 2016.

The first adiabatic project, a 200-megawatt facility called ADELE, was planned for construction in Germany (2013) with a target of 70% efficiency by using  air at 100 bar pressure. This project was delayed for undisclosed reasons until at least 2016.

Storelectric Ltd planned to build a 40 MW 100% renewable energy pilot plant in Cheshire, UK, with 800 MWh storage capacity (2017).

Hydrostor completed the first commercial A-CAES system in Goderich, Ontario, supplying service with 2.2MW / 10MWh storage to the Ontario Grid (2019). It was the first A-CAES system to achieve commercial operation in decades.

The European Union-funded RICAS (adiabatic) project in Austria was to use crushed rock to store heat from the compression process to improve efficiency (2020). The system was expected to achieve 70–80% efficiency.

Apex planned a plant for Anderson County, Texas, to go online in 2016. This project has been delayed and until at least 2020.

Canadian company Hydrostor planned to build four Advance plants in Toronto, Goderich, Angas, and Rosamond (2020). Some included partial heat storage in water, improving efficiency to 65%.

A 60 MW / 300 MWh facility with 60% efficiency opened in Jiangsu, China, using a salt cavern (2022).

A 2.5 MW / 4 MWh compressed  facility started operating in Sardinia, Italy (2022).

As of 2022 the Gem project at Rosamond in Kern County, California, was planned to provide 500 MW / 4,000 MWh of storage. The Pecho project in San Luis Obispo, California, was planned to be 400 MW / 3,200 MWh. The Broken Hill project in New South Wales, Australia was 200 MW / 1,600 MWh.

In 2022 Zhangjiakou connected the world's first 100-MW "advanced" system to the grid in north China. It uses no fossil fuels, instead adopting supercritical thermal storage, supercritical heat exchange, high-load compression and expansion technologies. The plant can store 400 MWh, with 70.4% efficiency. A 350 MW / 1.4 GWh project started construction in Shangdong.

In 2023, Alliant Energy announced plans to construct a 200 MWh compressed  facility based on the Sardinia facility in Columbia County, Wisconsin. It will be the first of its kind in the United States.

Storage thermodynamics

In order to achieve a near thermodynamically reversible process so that most of the energy is saved in the system and can be retrieved, and losses are kept negligible, a near reversible isothermal process or an isentropic process is desired.

Isothermal storage
In an isothermal compression process, the gas in the system is kept at a constant temperature throughout. This necessarily requires an exchange of heat with the gas; otherwise, the temperature would rise during charging and drop during discharge. This heat exchange can be achieved by heat exchangers (intercooling) between subsequent stages in the compressor, regulator, and tank. To avoid wasted energy, the intercoolers must be optimized for high heat transfer and low-pressure drop. Smaller compressors can approximate isothermal compression even without intercooling, due to the relatively high ratio of surface area to volume of the compression chamber and the resulting improvement in heat dissipation from the compressor body itself.

When one obtains perfect isothermal storage (and discharge), the process is said to be "reversible". This requires that the heat transfer between the surroundings and the gas occur over an infinitesimally small temperature difference. In that case, there is no exergy loss in the heat transfer process, and so the compression work can be completely recovered as expansion work: 100% storage efficiency. However, in practice, there is always a temperature difference in any heat transfer process, and so all practical energy storage obtains efficiencies lower than 100%.

To estimate the compression/expansion work in an isothermal process, it may be assumed that the compressed air obeys the ideal gas law:

From a process from an initial state A to a final state B, with absolute temperature  constant, one finds the work required for compression (negative) or done by the expansion (positive), to be

where , and so .

Here  is the absolute pressure,  is the (unknown) volume of gas compressed,  is the volume of the vessel,  is the amount of substance of gas (mol) and  is the ideal gas constant.

If there is a constant pressure outside of the vessel, which is equal to the starting pressure , the positive work of the outer pressure reduces the exploitable energy (negative value). This adds a term to the equation above:

 Example

How much energy can be stored in a 1 m3 storage vessel at a pressure of , if the ambient pressure is . In this case, the process work is

  =
 = 7.0 MPa × 1 m3 × ln(0.1 MPa/7.0 MPa) + (7.0 MPa − 0.1 MPa) × 1 m3 = −22.8 MJ.

The negative sign means that work is done on the gas by the surroundings. Process irreversibilities (such as in heat transfer) will result in less energy being recovered from the expansion process than is required for the compression process. If the environment is at a constant temperature, for example, the thermal resistance in the intercoolers will mean that the compression occurs at a temperature somewhat higher than the ambient temperature, and the expansion will occur at a temperature somewhat lower than the ambient temperature. So a perfect isothermal storage system is impossible to achieve.

Adiabatic (isentropic) storage
An adiabatic process is one where there is no heat transfer between the fluid and the surroundings: the system is insulated against heat transfer. If the process is furthermore internally reversible (frictionless, to the ideal limit), then it will additionally be isentropic.

An adiabatic storage system does away with the intercooling during the compression process and simply allows the gas to heat up during compression and likewise cool down during expansion. This is attractive since the energy losses associated with the heat transfer are avoided, but the downside is that the storage vessel must be insulated against heat loss. It should also be mentioned that real compressors and turbines are not isentropic, but instead have an isentropic efficiency of around 85%. The result is that round-trip storage efficiency for adiabatic systems is also considerably less than perfect.

Large storage system thermodynamics
Energy storage systems often use large caverns. This is the preferred system design due to the very large volume and thus the large quantity of energy that can be stored with only a small pressure change. The gas is compressed adiabatically with little temperature change (approaching a reversible isothermal system) and heat loss (approaching an isentropic system). This advantage is in addition to the low cost of constructing the gas storage system, using the underground walls to assist in containing the pressure. The cavern space can be insulated to improve efficiency.

Undersea insulated airbags that have similar thermodynamic properties to large cavern storage have been suggested.

Vehicle applications

Practical constraints in transportation
In order to use air storage in vehicles or aircraft for practical land or air transportation, the energy storage system must be compact and lightweight. Energy density and specific energy are the engineering terms that define these desired qualities.

Specific energy, energy density, and efficiency
As explained in the thermodynamics of the gas storage section above, compressing air heats it, and expanding it cools it. Therefore, practical air engines require heat exchangers in order to avoid excessively high or low temperatures, and even so don't reach ideal constant temperature conditions or ideal thermal insulation.

Nevertheless, as stated above, it is useful to describe the maximum energy storable using the isothermal case, which works out to about 100 kJ/m3 [ ln(PA/PB)].

Thus if 1.0 m3 of air from the atmosphere is very slowly compressed into a 5 L bottle at , the potential energy stored is 530 kJ. A highly efficient air motor can transfer this into kinetic energy if it runs very slowly and manages to expand the air from its initial 20 MPa pressure down to 100 kPa (bottle completely "empty" at atmospheric pressure). Achieving high efficiency is a technical challenge both due to heat loss to the ambient and to unrecoverable internal gas heat. If the bottle above is emptied to 1 MPa, the extractable energy is about 300 kJ at the motor shaft.

A standard 20 MPa, 5 L steel bottle has a mass of 7.5 kg, a superior one 5 kg. High-tensile strength fibers such as carbon fiber or Kevlar can weigh below 2 kg in this size, consistent with the legal safety codes. One cubic meter of air at 20 °C has a mass of 1.204 kg at standard temperature and pressure. Thus, theoretical specific energies are from roughly 70 kJ/kg at the motor shaft for a plain steel bottle to 180 kJ/kg for an advanced fiber-wound one, whereas practical achievable specific energies for the same containers would be from 40 to 100 kJ/kg.

Safety
As with most technologies, compressed air has safety concerns, mainly catastrophic tank rupture. Safety regulations make this a rare occurrence at the cost of higher weight and additional safety features such as pressure relief valves. Regulations may limit the legal working pressure to less than 40% of the rupture pressure for steel bottles (safety factor of 2.5) and less than 20% for fiber-wound bottles (safety factor of 5). Commercial designs adopt the ISO 11439 standard. High-pressure bottles are fairly strong so that they generally do not rupture in vehicle crashes.

Comparison with batteries
Advanced fiber-reinforced bottles are comparable to the rechargeable lead–acid battery in terms of energy density. Batteries provide nearly constant voltage over their entire charge level, whereas the pressure varies greatly while using a pressure vessel from full to empty. It is technically challenging to design air engines to maintain high efficiency and sufficient power over a wide range of pressures. Compressed air can transfer power at very high flux rates, which meets the principal acceleration and deceleration objectives of transportation systems, particularly for hybrid vehicles.

Compressed air systems have advantages over conventional batteries, including longer lifetimes of pressure vessels and lower material toxicity. Newer battery designs such as those based on lithium iron phosphate chemistry suffer from neither of these problems. Compressed air costs are potentially lower; however, advanced pressure vessels are costly to develop, and safety-test and at present are more expensive than mass-produced batteries.

As with electric storage technology, compressed air is only as "clean" as the source of the energy that it stores. Life cycle assessment addresses the question of overall emissions from a given energy storage technology combined with a given mix of generation on a power grid.

Engine

A pneumatic motor or compressed-air engine uses the expansion of compressed air to drive the pistons of an engine, turn the axle, or to drive a turbine.

The following methods can increase efficiency:
 A continuous expansion turbine at high efficiency
 Multiple expansion stages
 Use of waste heat, notably in a hybrid heat engine design
 Use of environmental heat

A highly efficient arrangement uses high, medium and low pressure pistons in series, with each stage followed by an airblast venturi that draws ambient air over an air-to-air heat exchanger. This warms the exhaust of the preceding stage and admits this preheated air to the following stage. The only exhaust gas from each stage is cold air which can be as cold as ; the cold air may be used for air conditioning in a car.

Additional heat can be supplied by burning fuel as in 1904 for the Whitehead torpedo. This improves the range and speed available for a given tank volume at the cost of the additional fuel.

Cars

Since about 1990 several companies have claimed to be developing compressed-air cars, but none is available. Typically the main claimed advantages are: no roadside pollution, low cost, use of cooking oil for lubrication, and integrated air conditioning.

The time required to refill a depleted tank is important for vehicle applications. "Volume transfer" moves pre-compressed air from a stationary tank to the vehicle tank almost instantaneously. Alternatively, a stationary or on-board compressor can compress air on demand, possibly requiring several hours.

Ships
Large marine diesel engines are started using compressed air, typically stored in large bottles between 20 and 30 bar, acting directly on the pistons via special starting valves to turn the crankshaft prior to beginning fuel injection. This arrangement is more compact and cheaper than an electric starter motor would be at such scales and able to supply the necessary burst of extremely high power without placing a prohibitive load on the ship's electrical generators and distribution system. Compressed air is commonly also used, at lower pressures, to control the engine and act as the spring force acting on the cylinder exhaust valves, and to operate other auxiliary systems and power tools on board, sometimes including pneumatic PID controllers. One advantage of this approach is that in the event of an electrical blackout, ship systems powered by stored compressed air can continue functioning uninterrupted, and generators can be restarted without an electrical supply. Another is that pneumatic tools can be used in commonly wet environments without the risk of electric shock.

Hybrid vehicles

While the air storage system offers a relatively low power density and vehicle range, its high efficiency is attractive for hybrid vehicles that use a conventional internal combustion engine as the main power source. The air storage can be used for regenerative braking and to optimize the cycle of the piston engine, which is not equally efficient at all power/RPM levels.

Bosch and PSA Peugeot Citroën have developed a hybrid system that uses hydraulics as a way to transfer energy to and from a compressed nitrogen tank. An up to 45% reduction in fuel consumption is claimed, corresponding to 2.9L/100 km (81 mpg, 69 g /km) on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) for a compact frame like Peugeot 208. The system is claimed to be much more affordable than competing electric and flywheel KERS systems and is expected on road cars by 2016.

History of air engines

Air engines have been used since the 19th century to power mine locomotives, pumps, drills and trams, via centralized, city-level distribution. Racecars use compressed air to start their internal combustion engine (ICE), and large Diesel engines may have starting pneumatic motors.

Types of systems

Hybrid systems
Brayton cycle engines compress and heat air with a fuel suitable for an internal combustion engine. For example, natural gas or biogas heat compressed air, and then a conventional gas turbine engine or the rear portion of a jet engine expands it to produce work.

Compressed air engines can recharge an electric battery. The apparently defunct Energine promoted its Pne-PHEV or Pneumatic Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle-system.

Existing hybrid systems
Huntorf, Germany in 1978, and McIntosh, Alabama, U.S. in 1991 commissioned hybrid power plants. Both systems use off-peak energy for air compression and burn natural gas in the compressed air during the power generating phase.

Future hybrid systems
The Iowa Stored Energy Park (ISEP) will use aquifer storage rather than cavern storage. The displacement of water in the aquifer results in the regulation of the air pressure by the constant hydrostatic pressure of the water. A spokesperson for ISEP claims, "you can optimize your equipment for better efficiency if you have constant pressure." The power output of the McIntosh and Iowa systems is in the range of 2–300 MW.

Additional facilities are under development in Norton, Ohio. FirstEnergy, an Akron, Ohio, electric utility, obtained development rights to the 2,700 MW Norton project in November 2009.

The RICAS2020 project attempts to use an abandoned mine for adiabatic CAES with heat recovery. The compression heat is stored in a tunnel section filled with loose stones, so the compressed air is nearly cool when entering the main pressure storage chamber. The cool compressed air regains the heat stored in the stones when released back through a surface turbine, leading to higher overall efficiency. A two-stage process has theoretical higher efficiency of around 70%.

Lake or ocean storage
Deep water in lakes and the ocean can provide pressure without requiring high-pressure vessels or drilling into salt caverns or aquifers. The air goes into inexpensive, flexible containers such as plastic bags below in deep lakes or off sea coasts with steep drop-offs. Obstacles include the limited number of suitable locations and the need for high-pressure pipelines between the surface and the containers. Since the containers would be very inexpensive, the need for great pressure (and great depth) may not be as important. A key benefit of systems built on this concept is that charge and discharge pressures are a constant function of depth. Carnot inefficiencies can thereby be reduced in the power plant. Carnot efficiency can be increased by using multiple charge and discharge stages and using inexpensive heat sources and sinks such as cold water from rivers or hot water from solar ponds. Ideally, the system must be very clever — for example, by cooling air before pumping on summer days.

A nearly isobaric solution is possible if the compressed gas is used to drive a hydroelectric system. However, this solution requires large pressure tanks located on land (as well as underwater airbags). Also, hydrogen gas is the preferred fluid since other gases suffer from substantial hydrostatic pressures at even relatively modest depths (such as 500 meters).

The European electrical utility company E.ON has provided €1.4 million (£1.1 million) in funding to develop undersea air storage bags. Hydrostor in Canada is developing a commercial system of underwater storage "accumulators" for compressed air energy storage, starting at the 1 to 4 MW scale.

There is a plan for some type of compressed air energy storage in undersea caves in Northern Ireland.

Nearly isothermal compression

A number of methods of nearly isothermal compression are being developed. Fluid Mechanics has a system with a heat absorbing and releasing structure (HARS) attached to a reciprocating piston. Light Sail injects a water spray into a reciprocating cylinder. SustainX uses an air-water foam mix inside a semi-custom, 120 rpm compressor/expander. All these systems ensure that the air is compressed with high thermal diffusivity compared to the speed of compression. Typically these compressors can run at speeds up to 1000 rpm. To ensure high thermal diffusivity, the average distance a gas molecule is from a heat-absorbing surface is about 0.5 mm. These nearly isothermal compressors can also be used as nearly isothermal expanders and are being developed to improve the round-trip efficiency of CAES.

See also

 Alternative fuel vehicle
 Fireless locomotive
 Grid energy storage
 Hydraulic accumulator
 List of energy storage power plants
 Pneumatics
 Zero-emissions vehicle
 Cryogenic energy storage

References

External links

 Compressed Air System of Paris – technical notes Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5 Part 6  (Special supplement, Scientific American, 1921)
 Solution to some of country's energy woes might be little more than hot air (Sandia National Labs, DoE).
 MSNBC article, Cities to Store Wind Power for Later Use, January 4, 2006
 Power storage: Trapped wind
 Catching The Wind In A Bottle A group of Midwest utilities is building a plant that will store excess wind power underground
 New York Times Article: Technology; Using Compressed Air To Store Up Electricity
 Compressed Air Energy Storage, Entropy and Efficiency

Energy storage

Compressed-air energy storage


En moderne Biscuit- og Honningkage-Fabrik er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1917.

Handling
Optagelser fra bageriet Reinh van Hauen på Gammel Kongevej 177, optaget 28. februar 1917.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentariske optagelser
Stumfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1917
Virksomhedsfilm fra Danmark
Danmark i 1920'erne