Félix Ugalde Irurzun (Mendigorría, Navarra, España, 6 de noviembre de 1915-Urda, provincia de Toledo, España, 25 de julio de 1936) fue un estudiante de la Congregación de la Pasión, fusilado durante la guerra civil española y beatificado por el papa Juan Pablo II en 1989.

Estudiante pasionista
Ya en 1928 quería ser misionero pasionista como su tío Constantino. Este había estado en México y en ese momento se encontraba en Cuba, donde posteriormente sería propuesto para obispo. Con trece años, Félix pensaba que "su campo tenía que ser el mundo entero" y así llegó al Colegio Pasionista de Zaragoza junto con los hermanos Oses de Peralta y un grupo de Palencia, donde permaneció cuatro años. En el curso 1932-1933 fue novicio y en Corella profesó el 29 de octubre de 1933 a los 18 años. También en Corella estudió el primero de Filosofía, pasando a Daimiel los dos cursos siguientes: 1934-1936. Se le conocían con el sobrenombre de Félix de las Cinco Llagas.

Guerra Civil y fusilamiento
Estando en Daimiel comenzó la guerra civil española el 18 de julio. Se encontraban en zona republicana y la iglesia del convento fue registrada, aislada y rodeada. El 21 de julio comenzó con un registro en el convento y a las 23:30 h. los milicianos ordenaron el desalojo en media hora. Los religiosos se vistieron de paisano y el P. Nicéforo de Jesús y María les absolvió y dio la última comunión. Inmediatamente después fueron conducidos hacia la estación. Aparentemente no les hicieron nada, les dejaron libres y continuaron carretera adelante hacia Ciudad Real. El superior indicó que se iban a dividir en tres grupos que luego se unirían en Madrid. Félix fue en el que se dirigía hacía Malagón.

Más adelante, trataron de evitar el encuentro con los revolucionarios de la primera hora que iban al santuario de las Cruces a buscar a su capellán, muerto más tarde. Pero dos serenos les reconocieron en el Puente Navarro del río Guadiana y los condujeron hasta el ayuntamiento. Eran las cinco de la tarde del 24 de julio y al día siguiente, a las seis de la mañana, los subieron al tren. En Urda les esperaban, pues ya había corrido la noticia, los revolucionarios. Los llevaron al oeste de la estación, cerca del depósito de aguas, y poco después sonó la descarga hacia las 7:15 h. de la mañana. Humillados, en medio de insultos y mofas sufridas por ellos en silencio, les obligaron a alzar el puño al estilo comunista. Los tres cadáveres permanecieron allí hasta la una o la una y media del mediodía, cuando fueron conducidos al cementerio de Los Yébenes. Posteriormente, al terminar la Guerra Civil se recuperaron los cuerpos de la fosa común y en 1941 quedaron depositados en una cripta debajo del camarín del Santo Cristo de la Luz en Daimiel.

Beatificación
Desde el primero momento se aplicó a los pasionistas de Daimiel el calificativo de mártires. Tal y como murió Jesús de Nazaret, conscientes de lo que se les avecinaba, tuvieron su última cena, se confesaron, el P. Nicéforo les dio la absolución general y recibieron la última comunión mientras los milicianos golpeaban la puerta de la iglesia, gritaban e insultaban. Movidos por su máximo ideal, se prepararon para su posterior martirio. Al salir del convento comenzó su viacrucis y calvario, que terminaría con el martirio. En vida, se atuvieron al estilo penitencial propio de los pasionistas y predicaron la Pasión de Jesucristo en la austeridad, soledad y máxima pobreza. De este modo se levantaban a medianoche, andaban descalzos, practicaban las horas reglamentarias de oración, recitaban en común todo el oficio Divino, guardaban ayuno y abstinencia tres veces por semana y todos los días en Adviento y Cuaresma, etc. Jamás se involucraron en cuestiones políticas, como señaló el papa Juan Pablo II en la beatificación, y su única acusación fue la de ser religiosos.

En 1984 fue abierta la causa para la canonización de los Beatos Mártires de Daimiel. En 1988 fueron declarados Venerables y el 1 de octubre de 1989 Beatos por el papa Juan Pablo II. Su fiesta litúrgica se celebra anualmente el 24 de julio, tal y como se recuerda en Daimiel. En Navarra y Mendigorría, la Iglesia Navarra recuerda a todos los beatos y mártires el 6 de noviembre.

Reconocimientos
En 1990 se levantó un altar en la parroquia de San Pedro Apóstol de Mendigorría y se le dedicó una calle en el barrio de la Chantrea. En 2011, Carlos Navascués Nocito, organista auxiliar de la Catedral de Santa María de la Sede de Sevilla, estrenó en Mendigorría la obra de órgano "Post mortem crudelem ad gloriam Dei" de Jesús Mª Muneta Martínez de Morentin en homenaje al beato Félix Ugalde

Referencias

Bibliografía
- CARCEL ORTI, Vicente, Mártires españoles del siglo XX, Madrid, Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1995, pp. 135-142, 150-152, 159-160.

- DIEZ MERINO, Luis, La pasión de Jesucristo y la de los Mártires Pasionistas de Daimiel, Nicéforo y XXV compañeros, Zaragoza, PP. Pasionistas, 1989, pp. 176, 188, 201-203, 235- 236.

Beatos mártires de Daimiel
Religiosos ejecutados
Mártires católicos españoles del siglo XX
Personas beatificadas por Juan Pablo II
Beatos muertos durante la guerra civil española
Nacidos en Mendigorría
Fallecidos en Urda

Félix Ugalde Irurzun


Alto do Pina, Portekiz'de Lizbon belediyesine bağlı olan, 0,82 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 10.253 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Dış bağlantılar
 Alto do Pina hükümdârlık armaları
 Alto do Pina'daki terk edilmiş yapılar listesi

Lizbon'ın bucakları

Alto do Pina


Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976), çağdaş İngiliz filozofudur. Dil felsefesi geleneği içinde yer almakla birlikte, Aristoteles'ten etkilenip, Edmund Husserl ve Meinong'la da ilgilenen Ryle'ın en önemli iki kitabı Zihin Kavramı ve İkilemler'dir.

Felsefenin en önemli görevinin, yanlış kurgu ve saçma kuramların, bu kuramlarda geçen dilsel deyimlerin sonucu olduğunu göstermekten oluştuğunu dile getiren Ryle, bir ifadenin sentaktik formu ile bu ifadelerin betimlediği olgu formlarını birbirinden ayırmış ve gündelik dilde geçen deyimlerden büyük çoğunluğunun sistematik olarak yanıltıcı olduğunu savunmuştur. Ryle filozofun, gündelik konuşmanın yanıltıcı ifadelerinden sakınmak için, tümceleri, felsefenin konu aldığı olgu formlarını açıkça gözler önüne serecek şekilde yeni baştan ifade etmeyi öğrenmesi gerektiğini söylemiş ve felsefi analizin bu tür yeni baştan tanımlamalarla başladığını iddia etmiştir.

Hayatı
Gilbert Ryle, 19 Ağustos 1900 tarihinde İngiltere'nin Sussex eyaletinin Brighton kentinde doğdu. Babası felsefe ve astronomiyle ilgilenen biriydi ve çocuklarını kütüphanelere götürüyordu. Ryle 1919'da Brighton College'dan mezun olduktan sonra, Oxford Üniversitesi'nde Queens College'da klasikleri okudu. Daha sonra burayı bırakıp felsefe okumaya başladı ve okulu yüksek onur derecesiyle bitirdi. İkinci Dünya Savaşı'na kadar Christ Church'te öğretmen olarak kaldı. Savaştan sonra Oxford felsefe de profesör olarak görev yapmaya başladı ve Aristotelian Society'nin başkanlığını ve Mind Dergisi'nin editörlüğünü yaptı. 6 Ekim 1976 tarihinde North Yorkshire'ın Whitby kasabasında öldü.

Yöntemi
Ryle, başlangıçta Husserl ve Heidegger'in etkisiyle fenomenoloji üzerine makaleler kaleme almasına rağmen, Wittgenstein felsefesiyle tanıştıktan sonra analitik felsefeye yönelmiştir. Mantıksal atomculuk akımının ortaya çıkışı ve gelişimini yakından izleme şansına sahip olmuş, ancak akımın temsilcilerinin felsefe yöntemi kendisine fazla çekici gelmemiştir. Bilindiği gibi, analitik felsefenin bir kolunu oluşturan mantıkçı pozitivizm, Wittgenstein'ın Tractatus Logico Philosophicus adlı eserinden hareketle bir olgusal felsefe, bir mantıksal olguculuk oluşturmaya çalışmıştır. Burada resim kuramı ve özel dil tartışmalarına dayanan felsefe yöntemi, önermelerin çözümlemesini bu özel dil açısından yaparak felsefeyi bu özel dilin analizine indirgeme hareketi olarak karşımıza çıkar. Oysa Ryle, özel dil karşısında günlük dilin kullanımın kendisine yöntem olarak benimser ve bu günlük dil kullanımından hareketle bir dil çözümlemesine girişir. Mantıkçı pozitivistlerin olguya karşılık gelmediği gerekçesiyle felsefeden uzaklaştırmaya çalıştığı metafizik ise, Ryle açısından bir yatkınlık yahut eğilim alanı olarak kabul edilecektir. Kendisi de bir metafizik profesörü olan filozof, metafizik karşıtı filozofların tekelci düşüncelerine mesafeli yaklaştı ve kendine özgü bir felsefe yöntemi benimsemeye çalıştı.

Ryle, mantıkçı pozitivistlerin mantıksal analizinin tersine, kavramsal analiz yoluyla felsefe yapmaya çalışmıştır. Kavramlar arasındaki farklılıkların gösterilmesi, Ryle açısından çok önemlidir. Çok soyut ve formel bulduğu modern mantığı yeri geldiğinde eleştirmekten kaçınmayan filozof, bu mantığın, önermelere içerikten koparılmış kuru bir bakış açısıyla yaklaştığını, oysa önermenin mantıksal formu olarak anılan şeyin içerik yoluyla özellik kazanıp belirlenen şey olduğunu öne sürer. Aynı mantıksal yapıya sahip olan iki önerme, eğer bağlantı içine soktukları kavramlar aynı kategoride değilse,  aynı mantıksal forma da sahip değildir. Öyleyse, kategorilerin belirlenimi, onların a priori listesini yapmakla mümkün olacaktır.

Tractatus'un etkisini daima üzerinde hissetmesine rağmen, özel dili hiçbir şekilde kabul etmeyen Ryle, bu kitabın öne sürdüğü kimi düşünceleri kabul etmemiştir. Özellikle olguların dilin sınırlarını belirlemesi ve dünyayı da olgulara indirgemesi, filozofun en başından beri karşı çıktığı özel dilin egemenliğini gösteren bir durumdu. Fenomenoloji'den dil çözümlemesine doğru bir gidiş gösteren Ryle felsefesi, aslından Wittgenstein'ın ikinci döneminde öne sürdüğü görüşlerle yani gündelik dilin felsefeye uygulanmasına olanak veren bir yöntemle biçimlenmiştir. Filozofa göre felsefenin görevi, yanlış felsefî sistemler ve saçma kuramlardaki anlatım yanlışlıklarını ortaya koymak ve onları düzeltmektir.

Kategori Yanlışı
Böylelikle Ryle, felsefesinin yöntemini dilbilimsel çözümleme yani felsefe sorunlarına gündelik dille yaklaşarak ondaki girift ve yanlış ifadeleri göstererek onları doğru bir düzleme koymak olarak belirler. Tümel gerçeklikler arasından görünen çatışmalardan doğan felsefî sorunları çözmek, felsefenin asıl görevidir. Evrensel gerçeklikler arasında görülen çatılmaların yahut ikilemlerin temel nedeni, bu evrensel gerçeklikleri dile getiren tümel kavramları anlamamaktan, yanlış anlamaktan ileri gelir. Felsefe, bu kavramları dilsel açısından derinlemesine inceleyerek, onları yanlış anlaşılmaktan kurtarabilirse, kavramlar olmaları gereken yere, kendi mantıksal düzlemlerine konularak çatışmalar önlenmiş olur.

Ryle'ın felsefeye yaptığı en önemli katkı, kuşkusuz kategori yanlışı dediği şeyin, yani kavramların yanlış kullanımından doğan yanlış kurguların ortaya konarak düzeltilmesidir. Kategori yanlışı, kavramları gerçekte olmaları gerekenin dışında, bir başka mantıksal tip ya da kategoride veya da bunların dizilerinde yer alıyormuş gibi göstermektir. Sözgelimi, bir kriket oyununu seyreden birisinin, takımların oyuncuları ve diğer oyuna ait şeylerin dışında bir takım ruhu elemanını sahada araması kategori yanlışıdır. Ona takım ruhunun topu atmak ya da yakalamak gibi bir şey olmadığı, onun başka bir kategoriye ait olan başka bir görev olduğu açıklanmalıdır. Yine Oxford Üniversitesi'ni ziyaret eden birine binalar, oyun salonları gibi üniversiteye ait mekanların gösterilmesinin ardından bu kişinin üniversitenin nerede olduğunu sorması da mantıksal açıdan bir kategorik yanlıştır. Çünkü bu kişi, binaların ait olduğu kategori içine üniversiteyi de yerleştirmektedir. Oysa üniversite, binaların tümünü içine alan bir kategoridir ve binaları kapsar.

Makinedeki Hayâlet
Ryle, zihin felsefesinin önemli bir temsilcisi olması bakımından, bu yanlışları insan zihniyle bedeni arasındaki ilişkide göstermeye çalışır. Resmî öğreti dediği Kartezyen felsefenin zihin-beden düalizmini yadsırken, bu ikiciliğin nedenlerinin zihnin durum ya da etkinliklerini yanlış anlamaktan kaynaklandığını öne sürer. Zihni bedenin içine yerleştirilmiş fazladan veya beden-dışı bir varlık olarak görme eğilimi, insanı biri soyut diğeri somut iki ayrı tözün bulunduğuna inanmaya götürür. Böylece ortaya zihin-beden birliğinin, ahenginin karşıtı olan zihin-beden ayrılığını temsil eden makinedeki hayâlet dogması çıkar. Ryle'a göre bu durum, evrensel gerçekliği temsil etmekten çok evrensel yanlışlığı simgelemektedir. Felsefe, zihinle beden arasında olduğu sanılan bu düalizm yanılgısını, bu zoraki karşıtlığı ortadan kaldırmalıdır. Bunun için de zihin kavramının ve zihin-beden ilişkisinin dilsel çözümlemesi yapılarak, ne tarzda bir yanlış kurgu yapıldığı, ne tür bir yanlış anlama içine girildiği ve kavramların nasıl kategorik olarak yanlış anlaşıldığı aydınlatılmalı ve yeni bir açıklama getirilmelidir.

Kartezyen öğretiye göre bir bireyin, makinenin içine yerleştirilmiş bir hayâlet olarak sunulması, kökten kategori yanlışlarına bağlıdır. Resmî öğreti, bedensel olanı mekanik düzlemde ele aldığı ve onun mekaniğini yasalarına göre işlediğini varsaydığı için, zihnin de aynı kategoride yer aldığını düşünmesinden dolayı onun da mekanik olmayan yasalara göre işlediğini savunmuştur. Eğer böyle bir çıkarımı haklı çıkarmaya kalkarsak, bireyin düşünce, duygulanım ve eylemlerini fiziksel, biyolojik ve fizyolojik olarak betimlememiz olanaksız olur. Bu yüzden bireye ait davranışları kopya terimlerle açıklamak gerekir. İnsan bedeni karmaşık yapıda düzenlenmiş bir bütünse, insan zihni de karmaşık yapıda düzenlenmiş başka bir bütündür ve onlar yalnızca farklı çeşit maddeden ve farklı yapıda oluşturulmuşlardır. Beden bir nedenler ve etkiler alanı olduğu gibi, zihin de başka bir nedenler ve etkiler alanıdır.
Ancak bu etki ve nedenler mekanik türden şeyler değildir. Burada Kartezyen öğretinin maddeyi tek bir töze indirgeyerek yalnızca uzamsal özniteliğe sahip olduğunu söylemesine karşın, Ryle, maddenin etkinliğinden hareketle onun uzamsal niteliğinin yanında zihinsel niteliğinin olduğunu da belirtmektedir. Böylelikle zihin bedenden ayrı ve düşünsel töz olmaktan çıkarak, maddenin bir türü hâline gelmiş olur.

Yatkınlıklar ve Oluşumlar
Ryle, felsefedeki kategori yanlışlarını gösterdikten sonra, felsefenin asıl görevine yani kavramların doğru kullanımına geçer. Bu görev, zihinlerle ilgili yeni bir öğreti koymak değil, zihin ve zihinsellik kavramlarının yerini belirlemektir. Bunun için de yine dil çözümlemesine, kavramsal analize başvurmak gerekecektir. Zihin felsefesi alanında nörofizyolojik açıklamalardan hoşlanmayan filozof, zihin ve zihinsellik olgusunu onun dilsel kullanımları bağlamında ele alır. Ryle'ın amacı, geleneksel felsefenin içine düştüğü ayrımcı yanlışa düşmemek, bu ayrımcılığı ortadan kaldırarak zihin-beden ilişkisine birliktelik açısından yaklaşmaktır.
İnsan için iki önerme grubu olduğundan bahseden Ryle, ilkini insanın bedensel durum ve yatkınlıkları, ikincisini de kişinin düşünce, duygu, korku, beklenti gibi yaşantı ve eylemleriyle, karakter özellikleriyle olan önermeler olarak açıklar. Düalizme göre bunların ikisi birbirinden anlamca farklı olduklarından birbirlerine indirgenmeleri söz konusu değildir. Bir kısım filozoflar konuya ya tamamen zihinsellik ya da tamamen fiziksellik açısından yaklaşırlar ki, Ryle bunu kabul etmemektedir. Oysa ona göre zihinsellik, gözlemlenebilen davranışlarda ve etkinliklerde aranmalıdır.  Gözlemlenebilen şeyler fiziksel alana ait olduğuna göre, zihinseli fiziksel olandan ayırt etme sorunuyla karşılaşırız. Ryle, bu sorunu, davranışları belli bir şekilde nitelemeye yarayan bir yatkınlık ya da yatkınlıklar kompleksi olarak düşünmek suretiyle çözmeye çalışır. Bir davranışı zekice, ustaca gibi niteliklerle betimlediğimizde, bu davranışta belli düzeyde bir zihinsellik olgulaşmış olur. Zihin ve akıl, özü bakımından karmaşık yapılı yatkınlıklar olmalarından dolayı, bu karmaşıklıkların bütünlüğünü anlatan bir özet terimdir. Evrendeki bütün varlıklar hakkında yatkınlık ya da oluşumdan söz edebiliriz. Yemek yemek, işe gitmek, uyumak gibi eylemlerimiz kuşkusuz oluşuma ait, olgusal durumları anlatırken, ancak birinin iki dil bilmesi olgusal olmayan eylemdir. Bu tür önermelere koşullu önerme diyen Ryle, bunu belirli durumlarda belirli şeyleri yapmaya eğilimli, yatkın olma durumu olarak tanımlar. Sözgelimi sigara içen bir tiryaki düşünürsek, bu kimsenin sigara içtiğinden söz ettiğimizde onun zaman zaman sigara içtiğinden bahsetmiş oluruz. O şimdiki bir olgu durumunu değil, sigara içme alışkanlığında içerilen yatkınlık durumunu belirtir. Yatkınlık şu andaki bir olgu durumu değil, zaman zaman ortaya çıkan ve kendini olgularla belli eden bir durumdur.

Bilmek, inanmak, istemek, onurlu, duygulu gibi sözcüklerle bireylere ve hayata dair geleceğe dönük tahminlerde bulunuruz. İnsan zihni son derece karmaşık yapılı yatkınlıkları dile getirir, yani zihin bir yatkınlıklar yumağı olarak karşımıza çıkar. Bu anlamda zihin ontolojik boyuta sahip olmadığı için bir töz de değildir. Varolan davranışı ifade etmenin ya da kavramanın başka bir mantıksal kategorisidir. Zihinsellik ve fiziksellik, bir madalyonun iki yüzü gibi iki farklı yapıda, iki farklı kategoride ele alınmaktan daha fazlası değildir.

Eserleri

Dış bağlantılar

Kitaplar
•	1949, The Concept of Mind, London: Hutchinson. (Zihin Kavramı)

•	1954, Dilemmas, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (İkilemler)

•	1966, Plato's Progress, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Platon'un Gelişimi)

•	1971a, Collected Papers, vol. 1, London: Hutchinson. (Toplu Eserler 1)

•	1971b, Collected Papers, volume 2, London: Hutchinson. (Toplu Eserler 2)

•	1979, On Thinking, ed. K. Kolenda, Oxford: Blackwell. (Düşünme Üzerine)

•	1993, Aspects of Mind, ed. R. Meyer, Oxford: Blackwell. (Zihnin Görünümleri)

Makaleler
•	1929, "Negation", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, suppl. vol. IX, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 1-11.

•	1930, "Are There Propositions", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, XXX, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 12-38.

•	1932, "Systematically Misleading Expressions", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, vol. XXXII, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 39-62.

•	1933a, "Imaginary Objects", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, suppl. vol. XII, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 63-81.

•	1933b, "About", Analysis, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 82-84.

•	1936, "Unverifiability-By-Me", Analysis, IV, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 121-130.

•	1945, "Philosophical Arguments", Inaugural Lecture as Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 194-211.

•	1946a, "Knowing How and Knowing That", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, XLVI. reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 212-225.

•	1946b, "Why are the Calculuses of Logic and Arithmetic Applicable to Reality?" Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, suppl. XX, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 226-233.

•	1949, "Discussion of Rudolf Carnap: 'Meaning and Necessity'", Philosophy, vol. XXIV,  reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 1, 225-235.

•	1950, "'If', 'So', and 'Because'", in Philosophical Analysis, ed. M. Black, Ithaca: Cornell University Press,  reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 234-249.

•	1951a, "The Verification Principle", Revue Internationale de Philosophie, V, English translation in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 287-293.

•	1951b, "Thinking and Language", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, suppl. XXV, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 258-271.

•	1953, "Ordinary Language", Philosophical Review, LXII, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 301-318.

•	1957, "Theory of Meaning", in British Philosophy in Mid-Century, ed. C.A. Mace, London: George Allen & Unwin, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 350-372.

•	1962a, "Abstractions", Dialogue: Canadian Philosophical Review, 1, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 435-445.

•	1962b, "Phenomenology versus 'The Concept of Mind'", La Philosophie Analytique, Cahiers de Royaumont Philosophie, IV, English translation in Collected Papers, vol. 1, 179-196.

•	1968, "The Thinking of Thoughts: What is 'Le Penseur' Doing?", University Lectures, The University of Saskatchewan, reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 2, 480-496.

•	1970, "Autobiographical", eds. Wood and Pitcher, in  Ryle, 1-15.

•	1979a, "Adverbial Verbs and Verbs of Thinking", in On Thinking, 17-32.

•	1979b, "Thinking and Saying", in On Thinking, 79-93.

•	1979c, "Negative 'Actions'", in On Thinking, 105-119.

•	1993a, "Privacy", in Aspects of Mind, 184-214.

•	1993b, "Avowals and Communication", in Aspects of Mind, 215-218.

Türkçede Ryle
•	Ryle, Gilbert, 2011, Zihin Kavramı, çev. Sara Çelik, İstanbul: Doruk Yayınları.

•	Ryle, Gilbert, 1995, Zihin Felsefesi, çev. Sara Çelik, İstanbul: Afa Yayıncılık.

•	Çelik, Sara, 1993, Gilbert Ryle'ın Zihin Kavramı, İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi.

İngiliz filozoflar
1900 doğumlular
1976 yılında ölenler

Gilbert Ryle


Melocanninae, je podtribus jednosupnica iz porodica trava (Poaceae), dio tribusa Bambuseae. Postoji oam rodova, a ime dolazi po rodu Melocanna.
 Rodovi
 Melocanna Trin. in Spreng. (3 spp.)
 Cephalostachyum Munro (14 spp.)
 Pseudostachyum Munro (1 sp.)
 Davidsea Soderstr. & R. P. Ellis (1 sp.)
 Ochlandra Thwaites (13 spp.)
 Schizostachyum Nees (71 spp.)
 Stapletonia P. Singh, S. S. Dash & P. Kumari (3 spp.)
 Annamocalamus'' H. N. Nguyen, N. H. Xia & V. T. Tran (1 sp.)

Izvori

Bambuseae

Melocanninae


أحمد حلمي صحفي مصري من مواليد حي الحسين بالقاهرة عام 1875، عمل إلى جوار مصطفى كامل في جريدة اللواء، وحرر مقاله الشهير «يا دافع البلاء» عن حادثة دنشواي، اتهم بالعيب في الذات الملكية إثر معارضته للخديوي عباس حلمي الثاني، وتم سجنه على أثر ذلك، أصدر صحيفة القطر المصري التي أُغلقت فيما بعد بمعرفة سلطات الاحتلال البريطاني، وتوفي عام 1936. سُمي ميدان وشارع في القاهرة باسمه. وصفه البعض بـ«أول صحفي سياسي في مصر». وهو جد الشاعر المصري صلاح جاهين.

حياته المبكرة
ولد حلمي بحي الحسين بالقاهرة عام 1875، ومات أبوه قبل ولادته بينما اهتم خاله بتربيته وساعده في إدراك قطار الوظيفة الحكومية. كانت ولادته بمنزل خاله الذي كان يعمل حينها بوزارة الأشغال كاتباً في هندسة ري الترعة الإسماعيلية. كان خاله يذهب به إلى مكتب يدعي «خان جعفر» بالحي الحسيني حيث تعلم القراءة والكتابة وحفظ القرآن وكثيراً ما كان خاله يقدم له نماذج مما اعتاد أن يكتبه في عمله، لإعداده لأن يكون كاتباً مثله في أحد دواوين الحكومة. في نحو الخامسة عشرة من عمره، هاجر إلى الإسكندرية مشياً على الأقدام وهناك عمل في إحدى الشركات الأجنبية وتعلم اللغة الفرنسية كما تلقى ثقافة إسلامية أخذها عن أئمة المساجد في الإسكندرية. نجح حلمي في امتحان وزارة المالية وعمل بها مؤقتًا، إلى أن استقال ليعود للعمل بمصلحة المساحة، اتجه بعد ذلك للكتابة وكان يراسل جريدة السلام التي صدرت في الإسكندرية في مايو سنة 1898 ويوافيها بأخبار القصر والوزارات والمصالح.

مسيرته
عندما أصدر مصطفى كامل جريدة اللواء في  يناير 1900 التحق حلمي بهيئة تحريرها، وتدرج في المناصب حتى أصبح رئيس تحرير اللواء وكان أول من نادى فيها بضرورة إنشاء وزارة للزراعة لمصر.

وفي يونيو 1906 سافر حلمي إلى دنشواي لينقل للعالم ما حدث في حادثة دنشواي على يد الاستعمار الإنجليزي وكتب مقالته الشهيرة بعنوان (يا دافع البلاء) والتي استعان بها مصطفى كامل في مقالته المنشورة بصحيفة لو فيجارو الفرنسية والتي اعتمد عليها في مساعيه لعزل اللورد كرومر. وحين تقلد المندوب السامي جورست طريقه سلفه كرومر في التعامل مع المصريين والتي اعتمدت على مبدأ فرق تسد، فهاجم الأقباط ومنع عنهم بعض الوظائف بدعوى أن المسلمين أحق بها، هاجمه حلمي في مقاله باللواء بعنوان «مصر لكل المصريين»، وبدأ حملة لرفض التفرقة بين المصريين على أساس الدين. كما دعي حلمي لتوحيد «أبناء النيل» في مصر والسودان لمقاومة الاحتلال الإنجليزي.

بعد وفاة مصطفى كامل، أنشأ حلمي مجلة القطر العربي التي تبنت القومية المصرية، رافعا شعار مصر للمصريين. كما حمل أحمد حلمي لواء الدعوة إلى توقيع آلاف العرائض للمطالبة بالدستور وتقديمها إلى الخديوي «عباس حلمي»، فكان لهذه العرائض والتي بلغت جملة التوقيعات عليها 75 ألف توقيع تأثير كبير في البلاد ودعاية كبيرة للمطالبة بدستور.

كتب حلمي أيضا في صحف أخرى مثل صحيفة وادي النيل وكتب في «العلم» العديد من المقالات عن السجون المصرية مطالبا بإصلاحها وبعد إغلاق العلم صدر بدلاً منها «الشعب» فاتجه إليها حلمي. ثم أصدر صحيفة «الشرق» في 4 يوليو سنة 1914م ومع بدء الحرب العالمية الأولى وما تبعها من تقييد الحرية وإعلان الأحكام العرفية في نوفمبر من ذات العام وفرض الرقابة على الصحف، تم اضطهاد الحزب الوطني وملاحقة رجاله ونفي بعضهم فاتجه حلمي إلى العمل في الزراعة لكنه لم ينسَ عمله الأول كاتبا صحفيا فاستمر في إرسال مقالاته إلى الصحف وأنشأ جريدة الزراعة في 25 أغسطس سنة 1919 وقد تخصصت بشؤون الزراعة. كما قام حلمي بتأليف كتاب «السجون المصرية في عهد الاحتلال الإنجليزي».

محاكمته
في العدد الـ 27 للمجلة عام 1909 انتقد حلمي في مقال بعنوان مصر للمصريين الأسرة العلوية: «إذا عرف المصرى أن شقاؤه وبلاؤه ليس له سبب سوى عائلة محمد علي فقد وجب عليه أن يتخلص منها لأن هذه العائلة سلّمت مصر للإنجليز» وأضاف: «بأي حق تأخذ عائلة محمد علي من الخزينة المصرية ٣٥٠ ألف جنيه سنويا، بأي حق، فأي شر دفعوه عنها، وأي خير جلبوه لها حتى يستحقوا هذا الثمن؟». قامت السلطة الحاكمة بتقديمه للمحاكمة بتهمه الدعوة لقلب نظام الحكم، وحكم عليه بالحبس سنة مع الأشغال الشاقة وإعدام كل ما يضبط من العدد ٣٧ وتعطيل جريدته «القطر المصري» لستة أشهر. ووفقا للكاتب مصطفى فتحي في كتابه «الشاطر مرسي»، كان حلمي ضحية أول حكم تصدره المحاكم المصرية ضد حرية الرأى والتعبير، وكان ذلك في شهر أبريل عام 1909م، حيث صدر حكم ضده بتهمة «إهانة الذات الخديوية»، أصدرته محكمة السيدة زينب الجزئية.

وفاته وإرثه
توفي أحمد حلمي عام 1936 في منزله بشبرا وسمي الميدان باسمه.

كتب عنه

 «مع الصحفي المكافح أحمد حلمي»، أحمد أحمد بدوي، مكتبة النهضة، 1957. حاز الكتاب على جائزة الإرشاد القومي عام 1957.

المصادر

 أحمد حلمي ليس شارعا، الأهرام العربي

صحفيون مصريون
مواليد 1875
وفيات 1936

أحمد حلمي (صحفي)


Eva Munthe Fog (født 16. april 1924 i København død 26. januar 2016) var en en dansk fysioterapeut  og tennisspiller medlem af KB Tennis og aktiv i slutningen af 1940'erne 1950'erne. Hun vandt seks Danmarksmesterskaber, fire mixed double, tre med Erik Bjerre og et med Kurt Nielsen samt to i damedouble med Lisa Gram Andersen og Lise Unmack.

Eva Munthe Fog blev (14. november 1957 i Asminderød) gift med arkitekten Mogens Jacobsen. Hun var datter af stabslæge Reinhold Munthe Fog og Erna Schønheyder.

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger

Tennisspillere fra Danmark
Kvindelige sportsudøvere
Personer fra København
Fysioterapeuter
Tennisspillere fra KB Tennis

Eva Munthe Fog


Actinoschoenus, biljni rod u porodici šiljovki, dio reda travolike. Postoji osam priznatih vrsta koje rastu po tropskoj Africi, Indiji, Indokini, Kini, Sumatri, Borneu, Filipinima, Australiji

Vrste
 Actinoschoenus aphyllus (Vahl) ined.
 Actinoschoenus arthrostyloides (W.Fitzg.) K.L.Clarke, K.L.Wilson & J.J.Bruhl
 Actinoschoenus glabrispiculus Rye, R.L.Barrett & M.D.Barrett
 Actinoschoenus pentagonus Rye, R.L.Barrett & M.D.Barrett
 Actinoschoenus quadricostatus Rye, R.L.Barrett & M.D.Barrett
 Actinoschoenus ramosus Rye, R.L.Barrett & M.D.Barrett
 Actinoschoenus repens J.Raynal
 Actinoschoenus yunnanensis (C.B.Clarke) Y.C.Tang

Izvori

Šiljovke

Actinoschoenus


El Duque Luis Guillermo en Baviera (Schloss Tegernsee, 17 de enero de 1884 - Wildbad Kreuth, 5 de noviembre de 1968) fue un noble bávaro.

Vida

Luis Guillermo fue el hijo menor del Duque Carlos Teodoro de Baviera y su segunda esposa la Infanta María José de Portugal.

Por orden real del rey Leopoldo II, recibió el Gran Cordón de Leopoldo como regalo de bodas de una hermana en 1900. Sin embargo, el Príncipe tenía solo 14 años y hoy sigue siendo uno de los Grandes Cordones más jóvenes de la historia belga.

Se casó el 19 de marzo de 1917 con la Princesa Leonor Ana Lucía de Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, hija del Príncipe Francisco de Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg y de su esposa, Julia Cavalcanti d'Albuquerque de Villeneuve. Leonor era la viuda del príncipe Otto Victor II von Schönburg, que cayó cerca de Reims en 1914 . El matrimonio quedó sin hijos.

El duque Luis Guillermo y su esposa emigraron de Alemania en 1938 para evitar ser arrestados por las SS. Huyeron a los Estados Unidos a través de Bélgica, donde su hermana mayor Isabel era reina.

El duque era amigo del escritor Ludwig Thoma y promovió al coleccionista de música folclórica Kiem Pauli.

Cuando su esposa muere el 20 de febrero de 1965 adoptó a su sobrino-nieto (nieto de su hermana: María Gabriela): Max Emanuel de Baviera (padre de la princesa heredera Sofía de Liechtenstein).

Luis Guillermo murió el 5 de noviembre de 1968 en Wildbad Kreuth.

Bibliografía
  Herzog Ludwig Wilhelm in Bayern, Die Jagd im Gebirg, Mayer Verlag, Munich, 1933 (reeditado en 1963).
  Ludwig Wilhelm in Bayern, academic.ru
  Genealogía de la familia de los reyes de Baviera - Casa de Wittelsbach

Nacidos en Tegernsee
Fallecidos en Baviera
Nobles de Alemania del siglo XIX
Nobles de Alemania del siglo XX
Duques en Baviera (título honorífico de los Wittelsbach)

Luis Guillermo de Baviera


O Circuito Mundial de Voleibol de Praia de 2023 é uma série de competições internacionais organizadas pela Federação Internacional de Voleibol (FIVB), atualmente  evento chamao de "Volleyball World Beach Pro Tour" (Circuito Mundial Pró Vôlei de Praia), e após o sucesso da temporada inaugural, objetivando continuar a trazer ação esportiva de classe mundial para multidões em locais novos, familiares e icônicos em quatro continentes. Com o início do ciclo de qualificação olímpica em janeiro e o Campeonato Mundial ocorrendo no México em outubro, a segunda temporada do Beach Pro Tour será inesquecível dentro e fora da areia para jogadores e fãs.

O pontapé inicial foi no evento Elite 16 em Doha inicia a nova temporada em 1 de fevereiro. Entre as novas etapas do circuito mundial, a Volleyball World  anunciou uma série de novas etapas no calendário para 2023, com eventos  antecipados  e bem planejados em Tepic (México) e Montreal (Canadá) e os locais da edição anterior, como Roland Garros, Hamburgo e Dubai. De forma análoga para o evento Challenge (Desafio)  também sediado em locais icônicos, incluindo Itapema, México, Maldivas e Espinho retornam,  e as novatas etapas em Saquarema, Hainan e Filipinas.Enquanto o evento Future (Futuro) aguardando calendário.. O Finals está previsto para ocorrer  em Doha entre 7 e 10 de dezembro no Aspire Park.

Cronograma

Eventos

Masculino

Feminino

Quadro de medalhas

Ligações externas

Circuito Mundial de Voleibol de Praia
2023 no voleibol de praia


Lajla Mišur Volarević (Metković, 10. prosinca 1950.) je hrvatska slikarica i likovni pedagog iz Metkovića.

Životopis
Rodila se je u Metkoviću 10. prosinca 1950. godine. Nakon završene gimnazije diplomirala na Pedagoškoj akademiji (kod prof. Ante Kaštelančića). Izlagala je na mnogim skupnim izložbama. Njeni radovi su u privatnim zbirkama u mnogim zemljama Europe, Amerike i Australije. Članica HULU - Split.

Godine 2013. dobila je Nagradu Grada Metkovića Narona u području kulture, umjetnosti i obrazovanja.

Izvori

Životopisi, Metković
Hrvatski slikari

Lajla Mišur Volarević


Rasul Hamzatoviç Hamzatov (Avarca: ХIамзатил Расул ya da Расул ХIамзатов; Rusça: Расу́л Гамза́тович Гамза́тов) (d. 8 Eylül 1923; Dağıstan ÖSSC, SSCB - ö. 3 Kasım 2003; Moskova, Rusya), Avarca yazan en tanınmış yazardır. Bazı şiirleri, Rusçaya çevrilmiş ve çok ünlü olmuştur.

Hayatı
8 Eylül 1923 tarihinde Dağıstan'ın bir Avar köyü olan Tsada (Av. ЦӀада) köyünde doğdu. Babası Tsadasa Hamzat (Av. ЦӀадаса ХӀамзат 'Tsadalı Hamza') da bir halk şairiydi.

1934 yılında 11 yaşında ilk şiirini yazdı. Rasul Hamzat'ın ilk hocası babasıydı. 1943'te ilk şiir kitabını yayınladı. 1945'te Moskova'daki Gorki Edebiyat Enstitüsüne kayıt yaptırmaya gitti. Moskova'da genç şairleri teşvik eden tecrübeli yazarlar topluluğunun gözetiminde Rusça, dünya edebiyatı ve şiir sanatı üzerine çalıştı.

Türkçeye de çevrilip 1984 yılında basılan "Benim Dağıstanım" adlı şiir kitabı, doğduğu yeri ve oranın insanlarını ve şairlerini samimi biçimde betimler. 1952 yılında Devlet Stalin Ödülü'nü, 1963 yılında ise "Lenin Ödülünü" kazanmış ve "Dağıstanlılar'ın Şairi" unvanını almış Rasul Hamzadov, Dağıstan yazarlar birliği başkanıydı ve çok iyi bilinen bir toplum adamı idi. Çok geniş kapsamda Avrupa - Asya ve Amerika'ya seyahatler yaptı. 1981 yılında Uluslararası Botev Ödülü'ne layık görüldü.

Rasul Hamzad şiirlerini yerel Avar dilinde yazıyordu, dünyada 500.000 kişinin konuştuğu bir dilde. Türkiye ve İstanbul sevgisi bir şiirine de yansır.

Ayrıca bakınız

 Anıtı
 Juravli

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Официальный сайт народного поэта Дагестана Расула Гамзатова
 ХIамзатил Расул ва Турция: Адабиял Бухьенал, АхIмад МуртазагIалиев (Avar dilinde)

1923 doğumlular
2003 yılında ölenler
20. yüzyıl Rus yazarları
21. yüzyıl Rus yazarları
Rus şairler
Sovyet şairler
Ekim Devrimi Nişanı sahipleri
Avar (Kafkasya) asıllı kişiler
Avarlar (Kafkasya halkı)
Sovyetler Birliği Komünist Partisi üyeleri
Sosyalist İşçi kahramanları
Lenin Barış Ödülü
Halk Kardeşliği Nişanı sahipleri
Lenin Nişanı sahipleri
Aziz Andrew Nişanı sahipleri
Kızıl Bayrak İşçi Nişanı sahipleri
Stalin Ödülü sahipleri

Resul Hamzatov


The "X Article" is an article, formally titled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct", written by George F. Kennan and published under the pseudonym "X" in the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs magazine. It widely introduced the term "containment" and advocated for its strategic use against the Soviet Union. It expanded on ideas expressed by Kennan in a confidential February 1946 telegram, formally identified by Kennan's State Department number, "511", but informally dubbed the "long telegram" for its size.

Kennan composed the long telegram to respond to inquiries about the implications of a February 1946 speech by Joseph Stalin. Though the speech was in line with previous statements by Stalin, it provoked fear in the American press and public; Time magazine called it "the most warlike pronouncement uttered by any top-rank statesman since V-J Day". The long telegram explained Soviet motivations by recounting the history of Russian rulers as well as the ideology of Marxism–Leninism. It argued that the Soviet leaders used the ideology to characterize the external world as hostile, allowing them to justify their continued hold on power despite a lack of popular support. Washington bureaucrats quickly read the confidential message and accepted it as the best explanation of Soviet behavior. The reception elevated Kennan's reputation within the State Department as one of the government's foremost Soviet experts.

After hearing Kennan speak about Soviet foreign relations at the Council on Foreign Relations in January 1947, international banker R. Gordon Wasson suggested that he share his views in an article for Foreign Affairs. Kennan revised a piece he had submitted to Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal in late-January 1947, but his role in government precluded him from publishing under his name. His superiors granted him approval to publish the piece provided it was released anonymously; Foreign Affairs attributed the article only to "X". Expressing similar sentiments to that of the long telegram, the piece was strong in its anti-communism, introducing and outlining a basic theory of containment.  The article was widely read; though it does not mention the Truman Doctrine, having mostly been written before Truman's speech, it quickly became seen as an expression of the doctrine's policy. Retrospective commentators dispute the impact of the article; Henry Kissinger referred to it as "the diplomatic doctrine of the era", while some historians write that its impact in shaping governmental policy has been overstated.

Background

Joseph Stalin, General Secretary and de facto leader of the Soviet Union, spoke at the Bolshoi Theatre on February 9, 1946, the night before the symbolic 1946 Supreme Soviet election. The speech did not discuss foreign policy, but instead made pledges to expand industry. He justified the expansion by pointing to Marxist–Leninist theory, warning that capitalism possessed a predisposition towards conflict.

Stalin's speech provoked fear in the American press and public, with Time magazine calling it "the most warlike pronouncement uttered by any top-rank statesman since V-J Day." George F. Kennan, then working for the US State Department as chargé d'affaires in Moscow, found the speech routine and reflective of previous statements from Stalin. With this in mind, he issued only a quick summary of the speech for the State Department. Despite the familiar statements from Stalin, the context in which they were made – including the Soviet Union's recent rejection of Bretton Woods and evidence of atomic espionage in the United States and Canada – alarmed officials in Washington. In a 1982 interview, former diplomat Elbridge Durbrow expressed that Stalin's speech had in effect said, "to hell with the rest of the world." US President Harry Truman was confused by the Soviet's policies, at times appearing belligerent and at others exercising self-restraint. Leaders were increasingly coming to the conclusion that the existing quid pro quo strategy was ineffective against the Soviets, but had no replacement strategy.

Durbrow and another diplomat, H. Freeman Matthews – both readers of Kennan's earlier telegrams – were confused by Kennan's relative silence about the speech. On 13 February, Matthews drafted a message, signed by Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, asking for an analysis. The message described the press and public's reaction having been, "to a degree not hitherto felt", and expressed: "We should welcome receiving from you an interpretive analysis of what we may expect in the way of future implementation of these announced policies." W. Averell Harriman, having recently returned from his ambassadorship to the Soviet Union, spoke to Kennan and encouraged him to write a thorough analysis.

The "long telegram"
Kennan probably wrote rough drafts of a message before dictating a final version to his secretary, Dorothy Hessman, on February 22, 1946. Finishing late at night, he took the message to the Mokhovaya code room in Moscow and had it telegraphed back to Washington. The message was quickly dubbed the "long telegram" because, at a little over 5,000 words, it was the longest telegram sent in the history of the State Department.

Identified as "511" by Kennan's State Department number, the message is divided into five sections, covering the Soviet Union's background, current features, future prospects and the implications these would have for the United States. It opens with an apology for its length but qualifies the necessity of responding to all the then pressing concerns at once. Kennan begins by laying out the world from the Soviet perspective, splitting it into socialist and capitalist sectors. The alliance between the United States and Great Britain was destined to fail, and would either lead to war between them or a joint attack on the Soviet Union. The Soviets believed they would ultimately prevail in such a conflict, but would need to grow their strength and exploit the capitalists' tendency towards conflict amongst one another in the meantime. Kennan described these ideas as absurd, pointing out that capitalist countries were not failing and were not always in conflict. Further, he described the idea that the United States and Great Britain would deliberately enter into a war against the Soviets as the "sheerest nonsense".

The Soviet leaders reached these illogical sentiments, he explained, because  "...at the bottom of the Kremlin's view of world affairs is a traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity." The authority of previous Russian rulers was "archaic in form, fragile and artificial in its psychological foundation, unable to stand comparison or contact with political systems of western countries." This understanding of Russian history was joined with the ideology of Marxism-Leninism. Their obstinacy in dealing with the West was born out of necessity; seeing the rest of the world as hostile provided an excuse "for the dictatorship without which they did not know how to rule, for cruelties they did not dare not to inflict, for sacrifices they felt bound to demand." Until the Soviet Union either experienced consistent failures or their leader was persuaded that they were negatively affecting their nation's interest, the West could not expect any reciprocity from the Soviets.

The Soviet government, Kennan continued, could be understood as occupying two distinct spaces: an official, visible government and another operating without any official acknowledgement. While the former would participate in international diplomacy, the latter would attempt to undermine the capitalist nations as much as possible, including efforts to "disrupt national self confidence, to hamstring measures of national defense, to increase social and industrial unrest, to stimulate all forms of disunity." He opined that the Soviets ultimately have no expectation of reconciliation with the West.

Kennan concluded not by offering specific courses of action, but instead offered more general solutions, such as the necessity of maintaining courage and self-confidence in interactions with the Soviets. Managing the threat would require "the same thoroughness and care as solution of major strategic problem in war, and if necessary, with no smaller outlay in planning effort." He wrote that, compared to Nazi Germany, the Soviets are much more patient and often risk averse. Being weaker than the West, not having regular procedures for replacing leaders, having absorbed too many territories, failing to inspire its people and being overly reliant on negative propaganda meant "we may approach calmly and with good heart [the] problem of how to deal with Russia."

Kennan emphasized the need of educating the American public about the threat of international communism. Keeping Western society strong was important to ward off the expansive tendencies of communism: "The greatest danger that can befall us in coping with this problem of Soviet communism, is that we shall allow ourselves to become like those with whom we are coping."

Impact of the "long telegram"

On American foreign policy

Matthews sent Kennan a cable praising the telegram, describing it as "magnificent", adding, "I cannot overestimate its importance to those of us here struggling with the problem." Byrnes praised it as well, writing he had read it "with the greatest interest" and describing it as "a splendid analysis". Harriman was less enthused, calling it "fairly long, and a little bit slow reading in spots." He nonetheless sent a copy to Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal. Forrestal was largely responsible for the spread of the long telegram, sending copies across Washington. It gained a larger readership than was typical for a classified document, with readers including ambassador to Cuba Henry Norweb, British diplomat Frank Roberts, General George C. Marshall and President Truman.

The long telegram was quickly read and accepted by Washington bureaucrats as the best explanation of Soviet behavior. Policymakers, military officials and intelligence analysts generally came to understand that the Soviet Union's primary foreign policy goal was world domination under a Communist state. Historian John Lewis Gaddis writes that the ultimate impact of the long telegram is that it "became the basis for United States strategy toward the Soviet Union throughout the rest of the Cold War", and that it "won [Kennan] the reputation of being the government's foremost Soviet expert". In 1967, Kennan reflected "My reputation was made. My voice now carried." In mid-April 1946, at Forrestal's insistence Kennan received an appointment in the National War College as Deputy for Foreign Affairs.

The Truman administration quickly accepted Kennan's conclusions, understanding that the Soviets had no reasonable grievances with the West and would never cooperate with capitalist states. It was therefore senseless to try and address Soviet concerns, leaving a policy of containing Soviet interests as the best response. Historian Louis Halle writes that the timing of the long telegram's appearance was important, "[coming] right at a time when the Department... was floundering about, looking for new intellectual moorings." He continues that the telegram served as "a new and realistic conception to which it might attach itself." Gaddis and historian Wilson D. Miscamble both believe that Halle overstates Kennan's impact on State Department thinking, emphasizing that the Department was already moving towards a more adversarial position against the Soviets, though Miscamble concedes, "there can be no doubt that Kennan's cable exercised a catalytic effect upon departmental thinking especially as regards the possibility of the United States achieving any non-adversary relationship with the Soviet Union."

Offering a different perspective, Matthews notes in a March 12, 1946 letter that the administration had already moved in the direction of not catering to Soviet interests before the long telegram, pointing to a speech Byrnes delivered on 28 February, drafted before Byrnes had read Kennan's message. In the speech, Byrnes explains: "We will not and we cannot stand aloof if force or threat is used contrary to the purposes of the [United Nations] Charter.... If we are to be a great power we must act as a great power, not only in order to ensure our own security but in order to preserve the peace of the world." Matthews explains that long telegram would instead serve as the administration's rationale for subsequent actions. Historian Melvyn P. Leffler points out that before the long telegram had circulated widely, the Joint Chiefs of Staff had already resolved in February 1946 that "collaboration with the Soviet Union should stop short not only of compromise of principle but also of expansion of Russian influence in Europe and in the Far East.

On the Soviet Union
Though the long telegram was a classified document, it circulated widely enough that a copy leaked out to Soviet intelligence. Stalin was among its readers and called on his American ambassador, Nikolai Novikov, to send a similar telegram from Washington to Moscow. Ghostwritten by Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, the piece was sent on September 27, 1946. Representative of Stalin's opinions, Novikov's telegram argued in part: "The foreign policy of the United States reflects the imperialistic tendencies of American monopolistic capitalism, [and] is characterized... by a striving for world supremacy." America would attempt to achieve supremacy by cooperating with Great Britain, but their cooperation was "plagued with great internal contradictions and cannot be lasting... It is quite possible that the Near East will become a center of Anglo-American contradictions that will explode the agreements now reached between the United States and England."

Kennan provided commentary on Novikov's telegram in a 1991 piece for the journal Diplomatic History. He wrote in part, "These poor people, put on the spot, produced the thing," but "it was only a way of saying to their masters in Moscow: 'How true, sir!.

Foreign Affairs article

Origins

On January 7, 1947, Kennan spoke at the Council on Foreign Relations, based at the Harold Pratt House in New York City. The theme of the meeting was "Soviet Foreign Relations", presented to a small group and designated as "not for attribution". Kennan did not prepare a written speech, having given dozens of similar talks in the years before. In his talk, he discussed the Soviet leaders' perspectives on the rest of the world, rooted in both their Marxist-Leninist ideology and Russian history. The Soviets justified their dictatorship by pointing to external enemies, most of which were imaginary. For change to occur, the United States and its allies would need to "contain" the Soviets in a "non-provocative way".

International banker R. Gordon Wasson attended the discussion and was impressed by Kennan, suggesting that the Council revise the talk for publication in their journal Foreign Affairs. Journal editor Hamilton Fish Armstrong had not attended the discussion but requested on 10 January that Kennan revise his talk into an article. Kennan responded to Armstrong in a 4 February letter, writing, "I really can not write anything of value on Russia for publication under my own name. If you would be interested in an anonymous article, or one under a pen name,... I might be able to make the necessary arrangements." Armstrong replied on 7 March, agreeing to Kennan's suggestion, writing that the "disadvantage of anonymity" was outweighed by the potential importance of the article.

Taking time off from the State Department, Kennan worked as a lecturer at the National War College. His work left him little time to write a new essay, so he searched for previous work to repurpose. In January 1946, Forrestal had asked Kennan for an analysis of a piece by Smith College professor Edward F. Willett entitled "Dialectical Materialism And Russian Objectives". Kennan was unimpressed with the work, but decided that rather than denigrating the piece he would instead publish a new analysis. The paper, titled "Psychological Background of Soviet Foreign Policy", was around six-thousand words. In late-January 1946, he sent it to Forrestal, who described it as "extremely well-done" before sending it on to General Marshall. In a 10 March letter to John T. Connor, an aide of Forrestal, Kennan inquired as to whether it would be appropriate to publish this piece anonymously in Foreign Affairs. Forrestal agreed, as did the State Department's Committee on Unofficial Publications.

Kennan made several minor corrections to the piece, along with scratching his name out and writing "X" in its place. He added a note on authorship, writing: "The author of this article is one who has had long experience with Russian affairs, both practically and academically, but whose position makes it impossible for him to write about them under his own name." Armstrong published Kennan's piece under the title "The Sources of Soviet Conduct", removing Kennan's note and leaving only the "X" as an identifier.

"The Sources of Soviet Conduct"

Kennan's piece opens with a description of how the Soviet leaders were shaped by Marxism-Leninism, serving as the "pseudo-scientific justification" for why Stalin and the other leaders ought to remain in power despite lacking popular support. At times quoting Edward Gibbon's The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, he writes that the Soviet leaders' "aggressive intransigence" against the outside world compelled them "to chastise the contumacy" which they had provoked. To maintain power, the Soviet leaders would need to maintain the illusion of external threats:

The Soviets, however, were not prepared to attempt an immediate overthrow of the West, it being implicit in their ideology that capitalism would inevitably fail. They would instead turn their focus to the long-term goal of "[filling] every nook and cranny available to it in the basin of world power." To oppose them, the United States would need long-term strategies to contain Soviet expansionary ambitions. Containment against the Soviets, Kennan explains, would require an application of "counter-force" along shifting points of geographical and political interests. This "perimeter defense" concept, wherein all geographic area were considered of equal importance, required the United States "to confront the Russians with unalterable counter-force at every point where they show signs of encroaching upon the interests of a peaceful and stable world."

Containment would prove its success in the long-term because the Soviet economy was rudimentary and the government leadership lacked procedures for orderly succession. Any disruption in Soviet politics held the possibility of "[changing the state] overnight from one of the strongest to one of the weakest and most pitiable of national societies." Containment was particularly suited for use against the Soviets, Kennan thought, because of their Marxist-Leninist ideology, which encourages a patience not evident with leaders like Napoleon or Adolf Hitler. He continues: "...the Kremlin is under no ideological compulsion to accomplish its purposes in a hurry. Like the Church, it is dealing in ideological concepts which are of long-term valididty... It has no right to risk the existing achievements of the revolution for the sake of vain baubles of the future."

The end result of containment would allow for "either the break-up or the gradual mellowing of Soviet power." The indefinite frustration the Soviets were bound to face would necessitate their adjustment to the reality of their situation. The strategy would require the United States to manage its own issues successfully, with Kennan concluding: "To avoid destruction the United States need only measure up to its own best traditions and prove itself worthy of preservation as a great nation. Surely, there was never a fairer test of national quality than this.

Impact of the Foreign Affairs article

Immediate
Armstrong wrote to Kennan in May 1947: "It's a pleasure for an editor to deal with something that needs practically no revision.... I only wish for your sake as well as for ours that it could carry your name." The long delay between its writing and publication – some five months – meant the piece did not discuss either of the recent communist uprisings in Greece and Turkey, nor did it mention the Truman Doctrine. The piece was due for inclusion in Foreign Affairs next issue, July 1947. With a little over 19,000 subscribers and an expensive cover price for the time of $1.25 (), the magazine did not circulate widely. The July issue did not deviate from regular buying trends, until journalist Arthur Krock drew attention to the "X" article in an 8 July The New York Times column. Krock suggested that the main thrust of "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" was "exactly that adopted by the American government after appeasement of the Kremlin proved a failure", and wrote that the piece's author had clearly studied the Soviet Union "at the closest range possible for a foreigner." Krock concludes that the author's views "closely resemble those marked 'Top Secret' in several official files in Washington."

Krock's column resulted in a rush for copies of Foreign Affairs. He had not identified Kennan as "X" in his column, but proved responsible for revealing Kennan's identity; Forrestal had let Krock see the draft copy sent to Foreign Affairs which still contained Kennan's name at its end. Other diplomats suspected Kennan's authorship due to the piece's distinct prose as well as the quoting of Edward Gibbon. As the rumor spread, the State Department offered no comment. The Daily Worker, the newspaper of the Communist Party of the United States, broke the story on Kennan's identity, with a headline on 9 July reading: X' Bared as State Dep't Aid : Calls for Overthrow of Soviet Government".

Kennan's role in the State Department lent the article the authority of an official policy declaration. Though he had not intended for the article to be a comprehensive statement on American foreign policy, a piece in the 21 July issue of Newsweek explained that the "X" article provided a rationale for both the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan and "[charted] the course that this country is likely to pursue for years to come." Marshall, concerned by the amount of attention both Kennan and the article were drawing, spoke with Kennan in a private meeting. Kennan's explanation that the article had been "cleared for publication by the competent official committee" satisfied Marshall, "[b]ut it was long, I suspect, before he recovered from his astonishment over the strange ways of the department he now headed."

Walter Lippmann's critique

Political commentator Walter Lippmann responded to the article, published in the New York Herald Tribune across fourteen different columns, the first which appeared on September 2, 1947. Lippmann's analysis was widely read and collected in his 1947 book, The Cold War. Lippmann critiqued the article as having presented a "strategic monstrosity", providing the Soviets with the initiative in any conflict, resulting in the United States depending on "a coalition of disorganized, disunited, feeble or disorderly nations, tribles and factions."

Lippmann incorrectly concluded that Kennan's article had inspired the Truman Doctrine, which Lippmann opposed. Kennan's article was completed in late January 1947 and Truman announced his Doctrine in a March 12, 1947 speech. Despite this chronology, Gaddis writes: "there is no evidence that it influenced the drafting of that address and abundant evidence that Kennan had sought to remove the language in it to which Lippmann later objected." For Lippmann, however, the piece was "not only an analytical interpretation of the sources of Soviet conduct. It is also a document of primary importance on the sources of American foreign policy – of at least that part of it which is known as the Truman Doctrine."

Because of the rushed nature in which Kennan had written the article, he regretted some views expressed within and agreed with some of Lippmann's critiques. Though Kennan did not send the final draft of the piece until 11 April – a month after the announcement of the Truman Doctrine – he did not revise it despite having qualms with sections of the Doctrine. Kennan's position in the State Department made him hesitant to offer any public clarification, and he would not respond until the publication of the first volume of his memoirs in 1967.

Long term
"The Sources of Soviet Conduct" widely introduced the term "containment". Reflecting on the article in his 1979 memoir, Henry Kissinger writes, "George Kennan came as close to authoring the diplomatic doctrine of his era as any diplomat in our history." Gaddis writes that Kennan's silence to Lippmann's critiques resulted in the idea of containment becoming "synonymous, in the minds of most people who knew the phrase, with Truman's doctrine." Gaddis further writes that some have misinterpreted Kennan's views by placing undue emphasis on the "conspicuous but misleading 'X' article."

In the article, Kennan uses the term "counterforce" rather than "counter-pressure" and does not explain its meaning, something he admitted in his memoirs led to confusion for readers. Kennan reassessed his views on perimeter defense after the article was published, instead shifting to the idea of "strongpoint defense", where defense was instead focused on particular areas.

In Kennan's memoirs he recalled that his "entire diplomatic experience took place in rather high northern latitudes." Thomas Borstelmann writes that Kennan's few experiences outside of Europe contributed to his detestation of the people of Africa, Asia, the Middle East and Latin America: "He tended to lump them together as impulsive, fanatical, ignorant, lazy, unhappy, and prone to mental disorders and other biological deficiencies." In the first of his memoirs, published in 1967, Kennan links Soviet despotism to its leaders "attitude of Oriental secretiveness and conspiracy." In a 1942 lecture, he explained that the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 revealed the Russians were not "westernized" but instead "17th century semi-Asiatic people." Borstelmann further writes that Kennan's perspectives on race were not unique to him but were instead common in his contemporary American policymaking circles.

See also
 "A National Strategic Narrative" by Mr. Y, also known as the Y Article, which was later inspired by the "X Article"
 Martin Malia, whose essay on the decline of the Soviet Union, "To the Stalin Mausoleum", was published under the pseudonym "Z"

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

Books

Journal and newspaper articles

Further reading

External links

 Original scan of George Kennan's 'Long Telegram' on the Wilson Center Digital Archive, retrieved on June 3, 2022
 "The Novikov Telegram. Russian response to Kennan"
 Stalin's warning for the future CNN short on Stalin's February 9, 1946 speech, featuring an interview with Kennan.

1947 in international relations
1947 documents
Academic journal articles
Cold War history of the United States
Soviet Union–United States relations
Works originally published in Foreign Affairs

X Article


Pretty Little Liars: Original Sin é uma série de televisão via streaming estadunidense de mistério e drama criada por Neil Patel para a HBO Max. A série é uma sequência de Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists e foi baseada no romance de 2014 The Perfectionists de Sara Shepard.

A Warner Bros. anunciou o desenvolvimento da série com Aguirre-Sacasa como showrunner em setembro de 2020. Recebeu um pedido direto para a série pela HBO Max no final do mesmo mês. As filmagens acontecem no Estado de Nova York e começaram durante a pandemia de COVID-19. É a primeira série da franquia a não ser transmitida pela ABC Family/Freeform e a ser transmitida em um serviço de streaming de televisão.

Elenco e personagens

Principal
Bailee Madison como Imogen Adams
Chandler Kinney como Tabby Haworthe.
Zaria como Faran Bryant.
Malia Pyles como Minnie "Mouse" Honrada.
Maia Reficco como Noa Olivar.
Mallory Bechtel como Karen e Kelly Beasley.
Carson Rowland como Chip.
Derek Klena como Wes.
Ben Cook como Henry.
Jordan Gonzalez como Ash.
Alex Aiono como Shawn.
Elias Kacavas como Greg.
Brian Altemus como Tyler.

Recorrente
Robert Stanton como Marshall Clanton
Jeffrey Bean como Mr. Smithee
Lilla Crawford como Sandy
Jennifer Ferrin como Martha Beasley

Ligações externas

Séries de televisão de drama dos Estados Unidos
Programas de televisão em língua inglesa
Programas da Freeform
Séries de televisão de drama adolescente
Séries de televisão com temática LGBT
Pretty Little Liars
Programas de televisão derivados

Pretty Little Liars: Original Sin


Der Wasserturm Rheinfelden ist ein stillgelegter, 35 Meter hoher Wasserturm in der baden-württembergischen Stadt Rheinfelden. Das Bauwerk gilt als Wahrzeichen der Stadt und beherbergt seit 1993 ein Narrenmuseum.

Geschichte
Im Zuge der Industrialisierung des aufstrebenden Ortes Rheinfelden baute die "Kraftübertragungswerke Aktiengesellschaft", die damals für die zentrale Wasserversorgung vor Ort zuständig war, in den Jahren 1898 bis 1899 den Wasserturm. Die konstruktive Planung erfolgt über das Schweizer Ingenieurbüro F. Pictet. Am 12. April 1938 kaufte die Stadt die Wasserversorgungsanlage den Kraftübertragungswerken ab. Der Turm wurde bis 1971 für die Wasserversorgung der Stadt verwendet. Fortan gewährleistete ein Hochbehälter im Stadtteil Nollingen mit 3000 Kubikmeter Fassungsvermögen die Wasserversorgung.

Nachdem ursprünglich die Sprengung des Turms erwogen worden war, wurde er Anfang der 1980er Jahre für 750.000 Mark renoviert und seither von der Rheinfelder Narrenzunft genutzt, der über 30 Cliquen angehören. In dem 1993 in den Räumlichkeiten des Wasserturms eröffneten Narrenmuseum sind in der Dauerausstellung verschiedene Fastnachtskostüme zu sehen.

Beschreibung
Der fünfgeschossige, 35 Meter hohe Wasserturm hat einen kreisförmigen Grundriss und verjüngt sich von 11,1 Meter Durchmesser zur Höhe hin auf 6,5 Meter im Durchmesser. Er wurde baulich passend im Stil des Alten Wasserkraftwerks in Rheinfelden in rohen, hellen Kalksteinblöcken erbaut. Fensterrahmen und Geschossabtrennungen wurden zur Außenfassade in roten Steinen eingefasst. Das ausgebaute Untergeschoss diente während der Betriebszeit des Wasserturms als Wohnung für den Turmwärter. Auf dem Steinbauwerk ist ein zylindrischer, dunkelgrüner Intzebehälter aus Metall mit einem Fassungsvermögen von 400 Kubikmeter aufgesetzt. Im unteren Teil befindet sich ein vom obersten Stockwerk zugänglicher Umgang mit Geländer. Den Abschluss des Wasserreservoirs bildet ein Kegeldach, auf dessen Spitze sich eine Belüftungskuppel mit kleinerem Kegeldach befindet.

In den Wintermonaten leuchtet an vier Seiten des Wasserbehälters je eine sternförmige Weihnachtsbeleuchtung, deren Trägerelement permanent angebracht ist.

Siehe auch
 Liste von Wassertürmen in Baden-Württemberg

Literatur
 Jens U. Schmidt, Günther Bosch, Albert Baur: Wassertürme in Baden-Württemberg. Land der Wassertürme. Regia-Verlag, Cottbus 2009, ISBN 978-3-86929-002-7, S. 63–66.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Rheinfelden #Baden
Museum im Landkreis Lörrach
Bauwerk in Rheinfelden (Baden)
Erbaut in den 1890er Jahren
Umgenutztes Bauwerk im Landkreis Lörrach
Turm in Europa
Gegründet 1993
Turm im Landkreis Lörrach
Organisation (Rheinfelden (Baden))
Kulturdenkmal in Rheinfelden (Baden)

Wasserturm Rheinfelden


Die römisch-katholische Filialkirche St. Leonhard an der Saualpe steht in der Ortschaft St. Leonhard an der Saualpe in der Katastralgemeinde Wölfnitz in der Marktgemeinde Griffen in Kärnten.

Die Filialkirche der Pfarrkirche Wölfnitz an der Saualpe steht gemeinsam mit einer Mesnerkeusche in einer Waldlichtung in 1218 Meter Höhe am Südhang der Saualpe.  Die erste urkundliche Erwähnung fand die Kirche 1351 anlässlich einer Schenkung der Weißenegger.

Das spätgotische Kirchenschiff wurde in der zweiten Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts errichtet, während der an der Südseite des Langhauses eingestellte Turm noch von einem gotischen Vorgängerbau stammt. Der Turm ist durch Runddienste an den Ecken des Glockengeschoßes verziert und wird von einem achtseitigen Spitzhelm bekrönt. Die Glocke wurde 1555 von Urban Fiering gegossen. Das Langhaus wird von dreistufigen Strebepfeiler, der Chor von zweistufigen Wandvorlagen gestützt. Der Chor besitzt drei Maßwerkfenster. Das West- und das Nordportal sind spätgotisch profiliert, das Nordportal weist eine eisenbeschlagene Tür mit Schießlöchern auf.

Über dem dreijochigen Langhaus erhebt sich ein Netzrippengewölbe über runden Wanddiensten. Von der Nordwand führt ein profiliertes Portal ins kreuzrippengewölbte Turmerdgeschoß. Die darüber befindliche spitzbogige Öffnung war wohl das Tor zum Dachboden des Vorgängerbaues. Von den zwei schmalen Maßwerksfenstern im Langhaus ist das südliche vermauert. Ein spitzbogiger Triumphbogen verbindet das Langhaus mit dem zweijochigen Chor mit Fünfachtelschluss. Im Chor ruht ein Netzrippengewölbe über polygonalen Diensten. Von der Chorsüdwand führt ein gotisches Portal in die Sakristei.

Der barocke Hochaltar von 1675 füllt den Chor in voller Höhe aus. Der Altar besteht aus einer Triumphbogenarchitektur über einen predellenartigen Sockel und einer kleinen Ädikula mit seitlichen Muschelnischen als Aufsatz. Im Hauptgeschoß steht die Statue des heiligen Leonhard zwischen den Bischöfen Norbert und Servatius. Das Aufsatzbild zeigt eine Kreuzigung mit einer knienden Magdalena und wird von zwei Heiligenfiguren der Maria Magdalena und Maria Salome umgeben. An der Altarrückseite ist ein Vera-Icon-Gemälde von 1849 angebracht.
Am linken Seitenaltar von 1697 wird eine Madonnenstatue von den Figuren der Heiligen Lucia und Barbara flankiert. Das Altarblatt des Dreifaltigkeitsaltars aus dem ersten Viertel des 17. Jahrhunderts stellt die Not Gottes und Engel mit Leidenswerkzeugen dar. Weiters birgt die Kirche eine um 1430 entstandene Leonhardstatue.

Literatur

 Wilhelm Deuer: Jauntaler Kulturwanderungen – Ein kunstgeschichtlicher Begleiter durch den Bezirk Völkermarkt. Verlag Johannes Heyn, Klagenfurt 2001, ISBN 3-85366-977-8, S. 753 f.
 Dehio-Handbuch. Die Kunstdenkmäler Österreichs. Kärnten. Anton Schroll, Wien 2001, ISBN 3-7031-0712-X, S. 1075 f.

Weblinks

Kirche auf Marienpilgerweg.at

Kirchengebäude in Griffen
Griffen
St. Leonhard an der Saualpe
Saualpe
St Leonhard an der Saualpe
Baudenkmal (Kärnten)


Arenarieae biljni tribus iz porodice klinčićevki. Postoje 3 priznata roda, a ime nosi po rodu Arenaria, rasprostranjenom po gotovo cijelom svijetu.

Rodovi i broj vrsta
 Arenaria Ruppius ex L., 175 vrsta
 Brachystemma D.Don, 1 vrsta
 Moehringia L., 29 vrsta

Izvori

Klinčićevke

Arenarieae


«Crime of Passion» es una canción pop rock escrita por el británico Mike Oldfield e interpretada por el británico Barry Palmer y lanzada como sencillo en 1984 y no incluida en el álbum Crises.

Análisis de la canción
La portada del álbum muestra una fotografía en blanco y negro de la madre de Mike Oldfield, que murió en enero de 1974, diez años antes del lanzamiento de este sencillo. La canción fue publicada después de la aparición del álbum Crises y antes de la de Discovery.

Formatos
 «Crime of Passion» (versión extendida) – 4:08
 «Jungle Gardenia» – 2:44

Posicionamiento en listas

Enlaces externos

Sencillos de 1984
Canciones de Mike Oldfield
Canciones de 1984

Crime of Passion


Culex pinaresis est une espèce d'insectes diptères. Ce moustique est endémique à Cuba.

Taxonomie
L'espèce est décrite par  en 2013.

Publication originale
 .

Liens externes

Notes et références

Espèce de Diptères (nom scientifique)
Culicidae
Faune endémique de Cuba

Culex pinaresis


David Tattersall (født 14. november 1960) er en britisk filmfotograf som har arbejdet med mange blockbustere gennem tidene, og som har vundet en Emmy for cinematografien i The Young Indiana Jones. Han er kendt for at have arbejdet meget med George Lucas og Frank Darabont.

Udvalgt filmografi

Film
 Radioland Murders (1994)
 The Wind in the Willows (1996)
 Con Air (1997)
 Soldier (1998)
 Star Wars Episode I: Den usynlige fjende (1999)
 Den Grønne Mil (1999)
 Vertical Limit (2000)
 The Majestic (2001)
 Star Wars Episode II: Klonernes angreb (2002)
 Die Another Day (2002)
 Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life (2003)
 XXX: State of the Union (2005)
 Star Wars Episode III: Sithfyrstens hævn (2005)
 The Hunting Party (2007)
 Next (2007)
 Speed Racer (2008)
 The Day The Earth Stood Still (2008)
 Tooth Fairy (2010)
 Seeking Justice (2011)
 Gullivers rejser (2011)
 Journey 2: The Mysterious Island (2012)
 Paranoia (2013)
 Romeo og Julie (2013)
 Flight 7500 (2014)

TV
 The Young Indiana Jones (1992-1993)
 The Walking Dead (2010)
 Mob City (2013)

Eksterne henvininger

 Starwars.com-profil

Filmfotografer
Emmy-vindere
Filmfolk fra Storbritannien

David Tattersall


Mark Jonathon Mortlock Simmonds (born 12 April 1964) is a Conservative Party politician in the United Kingdom.  He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Boston and Skegness in Lincolnshire, and was first elected in 2001, succeeding Sir Richard Body. He was re-elected in 2005 with a greatly increased majority before his subsequent re-election in 2010 – more than doubling his 2005 majority.

In September 2012 he was appointed to the Government as a Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Asia and the Pacific. On 11 August 2014 he resigned this post and confirmed that he would step down as an MP at the 2015 general election.

In October 2015, he was appointed non-executive director of the AIM-listed fertiliser company, African Potash. On 6 January 2020, Simmonds was appointed a non-executive director of the AIM-listed African oil exploration company, LEKOIL, a week before the company announced that it had been the victim of a US$184m fraud.

Early life
Born in Worksop, Simmonds went to Worksop College, then Trent Polytechnic, where he obtained a BSc (Hons) degree in urban estate surveying in 1986. He became an associate of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors in 1987. He worked as a surveyor for Savills from 1986 to 1988 and was a partner in Strutt & Parker from 1988 to 1996. He was a director of Hillier Parker from 1997 to 1999 and a chairman of Mortlock Simmonds Brown from 1999 until becoming an MP for Boston and Skegness.

Parliamentary career
He contested the Ashfield seat in 1997. Simmonds was promoted to Shadow Health Minister in 2007.

On 5 September 2012, he was appointed as a Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.  In this role, he was also responsible for the British Overseas Territories. He resigned on 11 August 2014, claiming that he cannot support his family in London on £120k + expenses. According to the Telegraph, although Simmonds legitimately received over £500k from expenses since 2001, changes in the rules following the 2009 United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal meant he was no longer able to claim mortgage relief on a house in Putney.  He subsequently sold the house at a profit of £537k and bought Swineshead Abbey but said it was impossible for "a government minister with children to have a normal family life."

He voted against the Cameron–Clegg coalition government in 2013 on the issue of British military intervention in the Syrian civil war.

Following his decision not to stand again, Simmonds defended charging expenses to the taxpayer purported to total over £10,000 on hoardings and local radio, advertising the role of the MP and promoting democracy in line with current IPSA guidelines. He claimed the money was necessary to communicate with constituents. The political campaigning website 38 Degrees set up a petition calling for him to pay it back.

In 2014 he was appointed to the Privy Council, entitling him to the style "The Right Honourable" for life.

Personal life
He married Lizbeth Hanomancin Garcia in December 1994 in London, and they have two daughters (born March 1999 and October 2000) and a son (born April 2002). He lives in his constituency in Swineshead in a house on the former site of Swineshead Abbey.

In 2012 he apologised to Parliament for failing to mention an interest in Circle Healthcare when speaking in support of the Health and Social Care Bill in Parliament.

References

External links

 Guardian Unlimited Politics - Ask Aristotle: Mark Simmonds MP
 TheyWorkForYou.com - Mark Simmonds MP
 Video: Open Road - Mark Simmonds interview, hosted by YouTube. Mark Simmonds talks about welfare reforms proposed by the coalition Government.

News items
 Concern over gangmasters in 2003

1964 births
Living people
Alumni of Nottingham Trent University
People educated at Worksop College
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
People from Worksop
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People from Swineshead, Lincolnshire

Mark Simmonds


في ساعة نحس  هي رواية للكاتب والمؤلف الكولومبي غابرييل غارثيا ماركيث، صدرت هذه الرواية عام 1962 وتم إعادة نشرها عام 1966 وترجمت أول نسخة بالإنجليزية عام 1979. وتم كتابة هذه الرواية عندما كان ماركيث يعيش في باريس، وقد فاز بجائزة أدبية عنها في كولومبيا ساهمت فيما بعد في إيصاله ليكون من الفائزين بجائزة نوبل للآداب عام 1982.

القصة
في ساعة نحس تحدث في قرية كولمبية بلا اسم. شخص ما يضع قصاصات هجائية حول البلدة، يلخص أسرار الناس المحليين المخزية. وعندما يقتل رجل حبيب زوجته المفترض بعد معرفة خيانتها، يقرر رئيس البلدية بأن ينسب الموضوع كله إليه. يعلن حكما عرفيا ويرسل الجنود للقيام بدورية في الشوارع. يستعمل أيضاً «حالة الاضطرابِ» كعذر لإتِّخاذ اجراءات صارمة ضدّ أعدائه السياسيين.

روابط خارجية

المصادر

 Juan Pablo Dabove, "Los pasquines como alegoría de la disolución de la ciudadanía en La mala hora, de Gabriel García Márquez."Revista de Crítica Literaria Latinoamericana 26 (52) (2000): 269-87. Read this article at
 Lydia Hazera, "Estructura y tematica de La mala hora de Gabriel Garcia Marquez." Thesaurus: Boletin del Instituto Caro y Cuervo 28 (1973): 471-81.
 Robert Kirsner, "Four Colombian Novels of 'La Violencia.'" Hispania 49.1 (March 1966): 70-74.

روايات كولومبية في القرن 20
روايات 1962
روايات أولى
روايات بالإسبانية
روايات تجري أحداثها في كولومبيا
روايات غابرييل غارثيا ماركيث
روايات قصيرة
روايات كولومبية 1962

في ساعة نحس


The Third Republic of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is a unitary state with a five-level hierarchy of types of administrative division.  There are nine different types of country subdivision in a new hierarchy with no new types but with two from the previous one abolished.

Under the Third Republic, established in 2006, the number of provinces has gone from ten to twenty-five.  By fits and starts the number of towns that have been, or are in the process of being, upgraded to cities has also increased greatly.

Reforms to devolve powers to the provinces were completed in 2006, but devolution to more local levels have again been delayed when elections scheduled for 2019 were not held.  Traditional authority continues to play a significant role in governance with traditional leaders leading many of the subdivisions at the lower levels.

Territorial organization
The Constitution divides the country into the capital city of Kinshasa and 25 provinces. It also gives the capital the status of a province.  The hierarchy of types of administrative division in the province, as set down in other organic law, is as follows:

 Province
 Territory
 Sector or Chiefdom
 Grouping
 Village
 Commune
 Quarter
 ⋯
 Embedded Grouping
 Village
 City
 Commune
 Quarter
 ⋯
 Embedded Grouping
 Village

So a province is divided into territories and cities; a territory into sectors, chiefdoms, and communes; a sector or chiefdom into groupings; and so on.

Remarks
 Kinshasa has the status of a province, but the subdivisions of a city.  It is often referred to as a city-province and in many contexts is counted as the 26'th province.
 The district and the cité, previously a division of a province and territory respectively, have been abolished.  The cité has been replaced by the commune.
 In the Congo a commune can now be an urban subdivision of a city, a country town, or in some cases a mostly rural area attached to a city.
 An older term, collectivity (fr. collectivité), is sometimes used for convenience to refer to both a sector and a chiefdom.
 Some collectivities are not a contiguous area of land but are made up instead of more than one unconnected area.
 The grouping (of villages) and, at a higher level, the chiefdom are subdivisions led by customary leaders of traditional polities.
 An embedded grouping is a grouping that has been absorbed into a commune.
 A quarter has divisions but these are not set down by organic law.
 There are uninhabited areas that are not part of any subdivision below a territory.

New subdivisions

New provinces
The Constitution, as before, divides the country into the city of Kinshasa and the provinces; however, it increased the number of provinces from ten to twenty-five. This was put into effect in 2015, when the six largest provinces were split into twenty-one new provinces. Together with the four unsplit provinces—Bas-Congo (renamed Kongo Central), Maniema, Nord-Kivu, and Sud-Kivu—they make up the twenty-five provinces listed in Article 2 of the Constitution.

Under the old organization the six former provinces were divided into districts and cities. The districts were further divided into territories. Each new province was created from the territories of one or two districts, adding any enclosed cities and—if necessary—making the new capital a city.  The following table gives the complete details.  So for instance, Lommami province resulted from the split of the former Kasaï-Oriental province; created from the territories of the former Kabinda district, the city of Mwene-Ditu, and by making the town of Kabinda the capital city.

New cities and communes
In June 2013 a batch of prime ministerial decrees was issued giving city and commune status to, and setting the boundaries for, a large number of former cités and other populated places.  According to the government's 2014 statistical yearbook the Congo would go from 21 cities and 227 cités in 2008 to 99 cities and 289 territorial communes in the reorganization.  However, in July 2015 the implementation of many of the decrees' articles were suspended following the failure in the National Assembly of an electoral bill based on the boundaries in the decrees.

In order to pass a modified bill allocating seats for upcoming local elections, it was decided to suspend those articles that were contentious and to revert the affected communities to their 2006 administrative configurations.  The articles granting city status to new provincial capitals—Boende, Bunia, Buta, Gemena, Inongo, Isiro, Kabinda, Kalemie, Kamina, Kenge, Lisala, and Lusambo—were not suspended and neither were those granting commune status to the administrative centers of the territories.

Ultimately the planned for local elections never occurred, but the suspensions were not lifted until mid-2018 just months before the general election.  The National Alliance of Traditional Authorities of the Congo protested this reinstatement as diminishing traditional authority and as a threat to national security.  In addition to reinstating the articles the government decided that disputes over boundaries would be resolved by an ad hoc committee and that the setting up of cities and communes would be prioritized with 18 cities in the initial phase.

In 2019 mayors for the new cities of Uvira, Baraka, Kamituga, and  Kasumbalesa were appointed.  The setting up of a city administration and those of its subdivisions can take years given the lack of local resources.  For instance the town of Buta gained city status when it became a provincial capital in 2015, had its first mayor appointed in 2018, and by June 2019 its four communes were still not operational.

Number of subdivisions

Table 2 is based on data compiled by the Independent National Electoral Commission (CENI) as part of organizing the election cycle of 2018.  The count of cities only includes those currently represented in the national and provincial assemblies and not those that became cities after the organization of the elections.  Thus, for example, the new city of Uvira is not counted as a city but as a commune in the table.  This of course also effects the counts of city subdivisions such as communes and quarters.

Governance

The Constitution of 2006 and ensuing organic laws brought reforms to the governance of the subdivisions which are not yet complete.  Table 3 sketches the envisioned governance by subdivision type and its current status.

Uncompleted devolution
These reforms devolved powers to the provinces and, more modestly, to the cities and the subdivisions at the third administrative level. They all were to have both an executive body with a leader and a deliberative body which was to elect the leader. The other subdivisions remained purely administrative in nature.

The Congolese voter would have a direct say in the affairs of the province by voting in a deputy to the provincial assembly which would then go on to elect the governor.  The voter was also to have a say in more local affairs by voting in a councilperson to the local council which was then, except in a chiefdom, to go on to elect the local leader. If the voter lived in a provincial city they were also to have a more indirect say, again through the local council, in the composition of the city government.

Devolution to the provinces was launched with the  which elected the provincial assemblies of the eleven provinces. Similar elections for local councils have yet to occur.  Thus, the effected subdivisions have no deliberative body and their leaders, as provided by law, are unelected and appointed from above.  In this way a city mayor is much like a territory administrator. For now the Congolese voter does not have a say in local affairs.

Local council elections were scheduled to occur on 22 September 2019.  In April of that year the League of Women Voters for the Elections met with the electoral commission and condemned the delay in starting candidate registration for the local elections.  In June, the League of Voters stressed the importance of these elections and asked President Tshisekedi to intervene to get the process going. In August, a petition with two million signatures demanding that the elections be held was filed at the presidential palace. The signatures were collected within two months by the Catholic and Protestant Churches.  At the end of October the outgoing electoral commission presented their final report to the National Assembly. At this time their rapporteur said that organizing the local elections required a workforce of 650,000 and the allocation of considerable funds by the government.  Finally, in December President Tshisekedi declared that the elections would be held sometime in 2020. This did not happen.

However, in February 2022 the new electoral commission published a roadmap for the next election cycle that would have the local council elections occur in December 2023 along with the elections for the president, the National Assembly, and the provincial assemblies.  But, when the electoral calendar was published in November 2022, the elections for sector and chiefdom council were pushed back to 11 July 2024 leaving only the commune elections to be run on 20 December 2023.

Traditional authority
Traditional leaders have a significant role in governing the subdivisions.  At the first administrative level, 8% of all provincial deputies are co-opted traditional leaders.  At the third and forth levels they are the leaders of 25% and 70% of the subdivisions respectively.  In 2018, 64% of the electorate lived in a grouping without counting those in embedded groupings.

Traditional authority is recognized by Article 207 of the Constitution and a law defining the legal status of traditional leaders was passed in 2015.  In addition to being official leaders of their administrative divisions, these leaders exercise customary authority – which can involve traditional advisory councils – in a way that is not contrary to the Constitution, the law, public order and decency.  The leaders are also obligated to be apolitical.

Although selected by local structures according to custom, traditional leaders can only exercise their authority if they are officially recognized and invested by the government.  Failure of the government to do so can cause great resentment.  In 2013 such a dispute over the leadership of a grouping eventually led, through an escalation of conflicts in 2016, to the Kamwina Nsapu rebellion.

Related divisions

Electoral districts

Except for the four National Assembly districts in Kinshasa, all electoral districts in Table 4 are administrative divisions.  The Carter Center expert mission report for the 2018 elections criticizes the use of these divisions for national and provincial elections as not meeting international standards for uniform allocation of voters per constituency.  As example they contrast 27,228 voters per National Assembly seat in the city of Inongo vs. 128,699 in the territory of Lomela.

See also
Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Communes of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Constituencies in the National Assembly
 Former districts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Notes and references

Cited Works

Congo
Congo, Democratic Republic of

Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo


Kurt Hennrich (* 28. August 1931 in Türmaul/Drmaly; † 28. Juli 2020) war ein tschechoslowakischer Skirennläufer und -trainer.

Biografie
Hennrich wuchs in Hohenofen/Vysoká Pec auf. Er trainierte in Klíny und erwarb seine risikofreudige Fahrtechnik autodidaktisch. Zu Beginn der 1950er Jahre gehörte er zu den wenigen erzgebirgischen Wintersportlern, die die Dominanz der Athleten aus dem Riesengebirge durchbrechen konnten. Seinen ersten nationalen Erfolg erreichte er 1953 als tschechoslowakischer Juniorenmeister, auf Grund dessen er in die Nationalmannschaft aufgenommen wurde. Zwei Jahre später wurde Hennrich tschechoslowakischer Meister im Slalom sowie Vizemeister in der Abfahrt. Im Jahre 1956 erzielte Hennrich im Abfahrtslauf erneut den zweiten Platz in der Landesmeisterschaft, im Riesenslalom wurde er Dritter und in der Dreierkombination belegte er den zweiten Platz.

1956 startete Hennrich bei den Olympischen Spielen in Cortina d'Ampezzo. Für die Abfahrt auf der 3,5 Kilometer langen Tofana benötigte er 9,3 Sekunden mehr als der Sieger Toni Sailer. Hennrich hatte den vor ihm gestarteten Briten Nigel Gardner fast eingeholt, als er 700 Meter vor dem Ziel den rechten Ski verlor. Er fuhr die restliche Strecke auf nur einem Brett und erreichte mit einer Zeit von 181,5 Sekunden schließlich den siebten Platz. Dies war zugleich die beste Platzierung eines tschechoslowakischen Sportlers bei olympischen Abfahrtswettbewerben. Später erreichten lediglich bei den Damen Olga Charvátová und Jana Gantnerová-Šoltýsová mit dem dritten und fünften Platz bei den Olympischen Spielen in Sarajevo bessere Platzierungen. Hennrich belegte in Cortina außerdem jeweils den 36. Platz im Slalom und im Riesenslalom, womit er in der Kombinationswertung aus allen drei Disziplinen Neunter wurde. Die Kombination war allerdings keine olympische Disziplin, sondern zählte nur als Weltmeisterschaftsbewerb (die Olympischen Winterspiele 1956 wurden wie damals üblich zugleich als Weltmeisterschaften gewertet).

1958 nahm Hennrich an den Weltmeisterschaften in Bad Gastein teil, wo er in der Abfahrt den 23. und im Riesenslalom den 29. Platz belegte. Eine weitere Olympiateilnahme als Aktiver blieb ihm verwehrt, da die Tschechoslowakei zu den Olympischen Winterspielen 1960 aus Kostengründen keine Skirennläufer nach Squaw Valley schickte.

1962 beendete Hennrich seine aktive sportliche Laufbahn und war danach für zwei Jahre als Trainer der Olympiamannschaft für die Spiele von 1964 tätig. Zugleich war er bis 1969 Trainer der tschechoslowakischen Nationalauswahl. Zu dieser Zeit absolvierte Hennrich an der Hochschule für Maschinenbau in Liberec ein Ingenieursstudium, das er 1965 als Industriechemiker abschloss. Beruflich war er als Ingenieur in den Chemischen Werken Litvínov tätig. An seinem Haushang in Klíny wirkte er als Trainer und beteiligte sich am Bau eines Skiliftes. Nach der samtenen Revolution gründete Hennrich in Vysoká Pec die EGAR s.r.o, ein Unternehmen, das Edelstahlprodukte vertreibt und Ingenieurleistungen erbringt.

Weblinks
 Würdigung zum 80. Geburtstag auf www.czech-ski.com
 Würdigung zum 80. Geburtstag auf www.nastup.cz (PDF-Datei; 428 kB)
 Website über Hohenofen/Vysoká Pec mit Foto von Kurt Hennrich als Schulkind
 Foto von Kurt Hennrich (2010)

Einzelnachweise

Alpiner Skirennläufer (Tschechoslowakei)
Olympiateilnehmer (Tschechoslowakei)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 1956
Teilnehmer einer Alpinen Skiweltmeisterschaft
Tschechoslowakischer Meister (Ski Alpin)
Alpinskitrainer (Tschechoslowakei)
Tschechoslowake
Tscheche
Geboren 1931
Gestorben 2020
Mann

Kurt Hennrich