Slapovi su prirodna pojava koja nastaje zbog nagle promjene visinske razlike korita rijeke ili potoka te voda ili slobodno pada ili klizi strmo po stijenama.

U Istri postoji znatan broj slapova za koje možemo reći da su neistraženi i slabo poznati. Većina ljudi zna za samo tri do četiri slapa. Ali slapova ima znatno više, ima ih preko pedest ako računamo na one više od dva metra. Od tog broja preko tridest ih je u hrvatskoj Istri a oko dvadest slapova je u slovenskoj Istri. Najčešće su teško pristupačni jer do njih ne vodi nikakav uređeni put, prilazite im na vlastitu odgovornost. Neki slapovi su lijepi i impresivni,  međutim preko ljeta gotovo svi iščeznu; oni su nestalna i privremena pojava. Jedinstveni spoj klime i geomorfologije Istre čini ovaj fenomen osobitim. Svi slapovi i pripadajuće stijene imaju zajednički i prepoznatljiv krški obrazac koji se ponavlja kao pravilo, od slapa do slapa.

Geomorfologija Istre

Geomorfološki i svojim položajem, Istra spada u krško područje gdje je tlo građeno od stijena vapnenca (kalcijev karbonat, CaCO3) ili dolomita (magnezijev karbonat, MgCO3) ili njihove kombinacije. Osnovna značajka krškog reljefa je izrazita i selektivna topljivost stijena podložnih kemijskoj eroziji, koja je odgovorna za sve tipične krške oblike kojih u Istri ima u zavidnom broju: klisuraste kanjone, vrtače, škrape, krška polja, ponornice, pećine i jame. U dijelu središnje Istre krški oblici su kombinirani s flišnim naslagama koje imaju posebna svojstva.

Tri geomorfološke cjeline
U Istri razlikujemo tri geomorfološke cjeline:

 crvena Istra – karbonatna zaravan južne i zapadne Istre gdje je znakovita zemlja crvenica,
 bijela Istra – karbonatno gorje sjeverne i sjeveroistočne Istre znakovito po bijelim karbonatnim stijenama Ćićarije i Učke,
 siva Istra – niže flišno-karbonatno pobrđe središnje Istre smješteno između crvene i bijele Istre znakovito po naslagama sivog fliša.

Hidrogeološke značajke sive Istre

Površinskih vodenih tokova i slapova ima uglavnom samo u sivoj Istri zbog vodonepropusnih naslaga fliša. U crvenoj i bijeloj Istri nema površinskih vodenih tokova jer je tlo porozno. Mali prostor pobrđa sive Istre uzdiže se do četiristo metara nadmorske visine, ali je duboko ispresijecan brojnim jarugama, vododerinama, uskim dolinama krških rijeka i potoka, udolinama i klisurastim kanjonima. Na području sive Istre možemo nabrojati nekoliko desetaka oborinskih potoka. Pretežiti dio voda ponire i nastavlja tok podzemno do nižih krških izvora i vrulja blizu obale ili uz samu obalu. Najpoznatija ponornica u Istri je Pazinčica koja ponire u Pazinskoj jami, a njene vode se pojavljuju u dolini rijeke Raše. Vode koje nisu poniknule, prikupljaju stalni riječni tokovi rijeka Mirne, Raše, Dragonje, potoka Boljunšćice s branom Letaj, kao i akumulacijsko jezero Butoniga. Nevjerojatno zvuči podatak iz austrougarskog katastra, s početka 19. stoljeća, da je u hrvatskoj i slovenskoj Istri zabilježeno 228 mlinica na potocima.

Fenomenologija istarskih slapova
Slapova nema na glavnim i stalnim vodotocima rijeka Mirne, Dragonje i Raše, jer njihova korita prolaze zaglađenim dolinama, koje su nastajale tijekom desetaka tisuća godina erozivnog djelovanja voda, vodenih naplavina i leda. Slapove u Istri zato nalazimo na privremenim i oborinskim potocima, koji zajedno s glavnim vodotocima čine hidrološku mrežu Istre, a nalaze se na nadmorskim visinama do 400 m odakle se strmo spuštaju u doline sive istre.

Zapažanja pokazuju da je fenomen istarskih slapova kombinacija dviju ili više pojavnosti - značajki:

a) Slapovi se nalaze na mjestima gdje vodonepropusne flišne naslage bivaju ispresjecane tvrdim karbonatnim grebenima i to po pravilu okomito na smjer vodotoka.

b) Neki slapovi padaju u karbonatni "polulonac" koji je s dvije ili tri strane zatvoren dok ostale nedostaju i tu voda nastavlja teći.

c) Kad voda prije slapa ubrzava gibanje zbog razlika u kemijskoj otpornosti karbonatnih slijena i zbog tubulencije vode nastaju kotli, razmjerno pravilne kotlaste udubine u živoj stijeni promjera i dubine do jednog metra.

d) Ispod slapa u pravilu se stvara jezerce.

e) Vode nekih slapova mogu toliko otopiti i podlokati karbonatnu stijenu da nastaju polupećine.

Do pojave nekih slapova moramo pričekati godinu i više dana. Najbolje je slapove posječivati u jesen ili proljeće kada je veća vjerojatnost da ima dovoljno vode. Neki su slapovi dalje od prometnica i putova, a do njih se dolazi jedino stazama. Svaki slap je lijep, poseban i osobit. Gotovo svi slapovi su na području sive Istre, osim tri slapa koja su na padinama Učke (bijela Istra) i pripadaju kvarnerskom slivu.

Popis slapova pema porječjima

Porječje rijeke Mirne:

Porječje rijeke Raše:

Porječje rijeke Dragonje i slovenski dio Istre:

Kvarnerski sliv

Ponornice

Izvori

Vodopadi u Hrvatskoj

Slapovi u Istri


මෙහෙමයි මේකෙ පෙළගැස්ම
  හැඳින්වීම
 ෂීල්ඩ්හි කැපී පෙනෙන චරිත
 ෂීල්ඩ් අවසර මට්ටම් ධූරාවලිය
 ෂීල්ඩ්හි කාර්යාංශ ගොඩනැගිලි
 ට්‍රයිස්කෙලියන් (Triskelion)
 හබ් (The Hub)
කියුබ් (The Cube)
 ෆ්‍රිජ් (The Fridge)
(The Academy)
(The Slingshoot)
(The Cocoon)
 ෂීල්ඩ්හි රහසිගත බංකර
 ප්‍රොවිඩන්ස් බංකරය (Providence)
 ප්ලේග්‍රවුන්ඩ් බංකරය (Playground)
 ෂීල්ඩ්හි අතීතය(යුද්ධෝපාය හා විද්‍යාත්මක සංචිත කාර්යාංශය-Stratergic Scientific Reserve)
 ෂීල්ඩ්හි හතුරෝ
හයිඩ්‍රා
රයිසින් ටයිඩ්
 ඇවෙන්ජර්ස් හා ෂීල්ඩ්හි සම්බන්ධය
 ෂීල්ඩ් රහසිගත ව්‍යාපෘති
පෙගසස් ව්‍යාපෘතිය
 ඉන්සයිට් ව්‍යාපෘතිය
 ටහිටි ව්‍යාපෘතිය
 ෂීල්ඩ් නියමාවලි
 වෙනත්

හැඳින්වීම

S.H.I.E.L.D. නමින් හඳුන්වන්නේ මාවල් ස්ටූඩියෝස් විසින් නිර්මාණය කළ  ආරක්ෂක ඒජන්සියකි. S.H.I.E.L.D. යන නමේ දිගු අර්ථය වන්නේ,
S - Strategic  -  යුද්ධෝපාය
H - Homeland  - දේශීය
I - Intervention  - මැදිහත්වීම
E - Enforcement - බලාත්මක කිරීම
L - Logistics  - ප්‍රවර්ධන
D - Division - කාර්යාංශය

සිංහල තේරුම අනුව දේශීය යුද්ධෝපායන් වලට මැදිහත් වීම, බලාත්මක කිරීම හා ප්‍රවර්ධනය කිරීමේ කාර්යාංශය. මාවල් ස්ටූඩියෝස් චිත්‍රපටි හා ටී.වී. කතාමාලා රැසකම ප්‍රධාන අංගය විදියට මෙම  S.H.I.E.L.D. භාවිත වේ. විශේෂයෙන්ම Avengers, Iron Man, Captain America, Thor වැනි චිත්‍රපටි වලත්, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D වැනි ටීවී කතාමාලා වලත් මේ ගැන සඳහන් වේ. මෙහි  කාර්ය වන්නේ ලෝක ආරක්ෂාව ස්ථිර කිරීමයි.

ෂීල්ඩ්හි කැපී පෙනෙන චරිත

ෂීල්ඩ් හි වඩාත්ම කැපී පෙනෙන චරිතයක් තමයි ඒකෙ ප්‍රධානී නික් ෆියුරි.

S.H.I.E.L.D


An Maxillaria guiardiana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Guy Robert Chiron. An Maxillaria guiardiana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Maxillaria, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Peru. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Maxillaria

Maxillaria guiardiana


Schloss Weinburg befindet sich auf einer Anhöhe in der Murebene in Weinburg am Saßbach, Gemeinde Sankt Veit in der Südsteiermark im Süden der Steiermark an der Grenze zu Slowenien.

Geschichte

Die erste urkundliche Erwähnung des Schlosses ist von 1278. Ursprünglich von den Wildonern erbaut, wird es 1303 als das "Haus Weinberg" erwähnt. 1550 wurde das alte, landesfürstliche Lehen durch Max Leisser ausgebaut. Im Jahr 1500 verpfändete der Habsburger Maximilian I.  das Schloss und die Herrschaft an Wolfgang von Graben, der ihm ein Darlehen geliehen hatte. Seit 1576 befand es sich im Besitz von Erzherzog Karl von Innerösterreich, der es zwischen 1578 und 1590 durch den kaiserlichen Baumeister Andrea Bertoletti weitgehend erneuern ließ. 1837 wurde das Schloss, einige Jahre nach dem gegenüberliegenden Schloss Brunnsee, von Marie Caroline, Herzogin von Berry, und deren zweitem Gemahl Ettore Graf Lucchesi-Palli erworben. Das Schloss wurde seit der Gründung des Geheimbundes "Burschenschaft Sylvania" 1837 als Hauptsitz verwendet. Nach Kriegsbeschädigungen 1945, vor allem des Südtrakts, wurde es durch Adinolfo Lucchesi Palli und Sarolta Lucchesi Palli (geb. Teleki de Szék) wiederhergestellt. Beide Schlösser befinden sich bis heute im Besitz der Lucchesi Palli.

Baubeschreibung

Das zweigeschossige Schloss mit einem unregelmäßig fünfeckigen Grundriss bildet einen Arkadenhof. Es hat drei Ecktürme, die von dem Glockenturm der Kapelle überragt werden. Seine heutige Gestalt stammt aus dem 16. Jahrhundert. Vor dem Schloss steht eine Steinfigur des heiligen Johannes Nepomuk aus dem 18. Jahrhundert.

Die Schlosskapelle im Osttrakt wurde 1608 der heiligen Katharina geweiht. Sie ist ein Renaissancebau auf spätmittelalterlichen Fundamenten. Sie ist als Ortskirche in Verwendung. Der Hochaltar im Bandelwerkstil stammt aus dem ersten Viertel des 18. Jahrhunderts. Er wurde von Kaiser Karl VI. gestiftet mit einem Bild der Beweinung Christi (Ende 16. Jh.) und dem Oberbild einer Darstellung des heiligen Karl Borromäus. Die Kanzel (19. Jh.), ein Geißelchristus und das Kruzifix (18. Jh.) komplettieren die Innenausstattung. Die zwei Glocken sind von 1498 und 1581.

Literatur

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Weinburg
Sankt Veit in der Südsteiermark
Baudenkmal (Steiermark)

Schloss Weinburg am Saßbach


Eine Alkohol-Zündschlosssperre, auch: Alkohol-Interlock oder Alkohol-Wegfahrsperre, ist die technische Verbindung eines Gerätes zur Atemalkoholbestimmung mit einer Wegfahrsperre. Zweck dieser Geräte ist es, mittels einer Zündsperre Autofahrten unter Alkoholeinfluss zu verhindern.

Technik

Eine Alkohol-Zündschlosssperre besteht aus zwei Bauteilen: einem in Reichweite des Fahrersitzes angebrachten Handgerät mit einer Messanzeige und einer Steuereinheit, die unterhalb der Armaturenabdeckung installiert ist. Der Fahrer betätigt zunächst die Zündung. Daraufhin erscheint, beispielsweise durch einen Signalton oder eine LED-Leuchte am Handgerät, die Aufforderung zur Abgabe einer Atemprobe. Das Handgerät misst die Alkoholkonzentration des eingeblasenen Atems, und nach rund fünf Sekunden wird auf einer Anzeige das Ergebnis angezeigt. Liegt der gemessene Wert des Atemalkohols nicht über einem vorher programmierten Wert (z. B. dem gesetzlichen Grenzwert), gibt das Steuergerät den Startstrom frei. Der Motor kann nun gestartet werden. Wird jedoch eine zu hohe Atemalkoholkonzentration gemessen, blockiert das Steuergerät den Anlasser und damit die Startfunktion des Motors.

Als Sensor im Handgerät wird eine Mini-Brennstoffzelle verwendet, die nur auf Ethanol anspricht. Dieser Sensor erfasst den Atemalkoholgehalt als quantitative Messgröße und formt ihn in ein elektronisch ablesbares Signal um.
Moderne Geräte speichern Ereignisprotokolle, wie Ergebnisse, Datum und Uhrzeiten der Atemtests. Die Protokolle können von einem zentralen Server eines Unternehmens, z. B. des Fuhrparkmanagements abgerufen oder lokal auf einen Computer heruntergeladen werden. Die Einstellungen können den Anforderungen der Firmen (z. B. hinsichtlich Schichtwechsel oder Tagesverlauf) angepasst werden. Erfordert der Betriebsablauf einen schnellen Fahrerwechsel, wie es etwa bei Linienbussen in Großstädten üblich ist, kann das Gerät so programmiert werden, dass ein Test innerhalb kürzester Zeit möglich ist, ohne dass das Fahrzeug neu gestartet werden muss.

Nachträglicher Einbau und Kosten
In Europa wird der Einbau ab Werk derzeit ausschließlich vom Automobilhersteller Volvo unter dem Namen Alcoguard angeboten.
Der schwedische Nutzfahrzeughersteller Scania bietet für LKW und Busse eine werksseitige Vorbereitung an, die den schnellen Einbau jedes Gerätetyps ohne Neuverkabelung ermöglicht.

Ein nachträglicher Einbau ist für nahezu alle Kraftfahrzeuge möglich. Die Kosten betragen in Deutschland zwischen 1000 und 2000 Euro, in der Schweiz rund 1500 CHF. Hinzu kommen noch die laufenden Kosten der Kalibrierung, die – je nach Modell – alle sechs bis zwölf Monate erforderlich ist.

Situation in einzelnen Ländern

Vereinigte Staaten von Amerika
In den USA werden Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren seit 1986 eingesetzt: Mit dem Farr-Davis Driver Safety Act of California wurden die ersten rechtsverbindlichen Vorschriften für den Einsatz von Alcolocks bei alkoholauffälligen Fahrern in Kalifornien geschaffen. Heute haben alle 50 Staaten der USA Gesetze zur Verwendung von Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren eingeführt. Dabei sind die Rahmenbedingungen unterschiedlich gestaltet: Einzelne Staaten schreiben den Einbau und die Nutzung von Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren für jeden wegen Trunkenheit am Steuer verurteilten Fahrer vor, andere erst für Wiederholungstäter oder ab einer bestimmten Blutalkoholmenge. Viele Staaten erlauben Auflagen zum Einbau im Rahmen von Ermessensentscheidungen des Richters.

2015 veröffentlichte der Bundesstaat Michigan eine Studie zur Evaluation des mit der dem Alkohol-Interlock verknüpften Rehabilitationsprogramms für alkoholauffällige Fahrer: Danach bewirkt der Einbau der Geräte eine erheblich niedrigere Rückfallquote im Vergleich zu den Fahrern, denen das Gericht kein Gerät vorschreibt. Die Studie ergab auch, dass nur 0,5 Prozent der Betroffenen die Geräte wieder ausbauen und 1,2 Prozent diese manipulieren.
Das kalifornische Unternehmen Autosense in Silicon Valley gilt nach eigenen Angaben als Pionier und Markteinführer der ersten Alkolocks, dieser Anspruch ist jedoch nicht belegt. In den Vereinigten Staaten gelten Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren heute als technisch ausgereift und störungsfrei. Unter dem Kürzel  (für ) sind sie in den allgemeinen Sprachgebrauch eingegangen.

Europäische Union
Alkoholmissbrauch ist in Europa für rund 25 % der Verkehrstoten verantwortlich. Die EU führt daher seit Jahren umfangreiche Studien zur Wirksamkeit von Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren durch. Diese belegen nach Angaben der Europäischen Kommission, dass die Geräte bei alkoholauffälligen Fahrern hinsichtlich der Rückfälligkeit wesentlich (40 bis 95 %) effektiver sind als herkömmliche Ahndungsmethoden (wie Führerscheinentzug oder Bußgelder). Demnach kann durch den Einsatz von Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren erreicht werden, dass wiederholt alkoholauffällige Fahrer ihre Fahrerlaubnis behalten können und gleichwohl erfolgreich davon abgehalten werden, ihr Fahrzeug in angetrunkenem Zustand zu nutzen. Die Studien unterstreichen auch die mögliche Rolle dieser Geräte im Rahmen von Rehabilitationsprogrammen: Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren selbst haben zwar keine therapeutische Wirkung, können Therapien jedoch erfolgreich unterstützen. Eine dieser Studien bestand aus einem einjährigen Feldversuch mit spanischen und norwegischen Busfahrern, deutschen LKW-Fahrern und belgischen Fahrern, die wegen Alkoholmissbrauch verurteilt waren, sowie alkoholabhängigen Menschen. Der Versuch zeigte die Praxistauglichkeit sowohl im kommerziellen als auch im privaten Bereich. Am 27. September 2011 hat das Europäische Parlament einen umfangreichen Katalog von Maßnahmen zur Verkehrssicherheit verabschiedet. Zu den über 100 Vorschlägen gehört u. a. der Einbau von Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren in allen neuen Fahrzeugen des gewerblichen Personen- und Güterverkehr in Europa sowie bei besonders alkoholauffälligen Fahrern.

Im November 2019 wurde in der EU-Verordnung EU 2019/2144 beschlossen, dass EU-Typgenehmigungen ab 6. Juli 2022 nur für Pkw, Busse, Transporter, Lkw (EG Fahrzeugklassen M1, M2, M3, N1, N2, N3) mit einer Schnittstelle für den Anschluss von Alkohol-Wegfahrsperren nach EN 50436 erteilt werden. 2 Jahre später, ab 7. Juli 2024 müssen dann alle in der EU erstzugelassenenen Fahrzeuge der oben genannten Fahrzeugklassen mit einer solchen Schnittstelle ausgestattet sein. Diese Schnittstelle erleichtert und standardisiert den Anschluss eines Atemalkohol-Kontrollgerätes in Neufahrzeugen. Das eigentliche Atemalkohol-Kontrollgerät ist aber nicht Bestandteil der Bestimmungen.

Österreich
In Österreich gibt es derzeit keine rechtlichen Vorschriften zum Einsatz von Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren.
Das Verkehrsministerium hat 2011 ein umfangreiches Verkehrssicherheitsprogramm gestartet, das auch Pilotvorhaben zu einer möglichen Einführung von Alkohol-Wegfahrsperren im Straßengüterverkehr beinhaltet.
Ein erster Pilotversuch mit Lastkraftwagen, der auch vom Fachverband Güterbeförderungsgewerbe unterstützt wurde,
konnte Anfang 2012 abgeschlossen werden: Die Ergebnisse wurden durchweg positiv bewertet; die Hälfte der beteiligten 23 Transportunternehmen befürwortet seither gesetzliche Vorschriften, 35 % plädieren für freiwillige Regelungen.

In einem weiteren Pilotprojekt hat das Kuratorium für Verkehrssicherheit in Zusammenarbeit mit der Wirtschaftskammer Salzburg mehrere Taxis und Schülertransportfahrzeuge mit Alkohol-Wegfahrsperren ausgestattet.
2012 ereigneten sich in Österreich 2.684 Unfälle mit alkoholisierten Beteiligten; dabei wurden 3425 Personen verletzt und 39 getötet.

Deutschland
In Deutschland fehlt derzeit ein gesetzlicher Rahmen für den staatlichen Einsatz von Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren. Neben ungeklärten verkehrs- und strafrechtlichen Fragen bestehen Zweifel an der Vereinbarkeit mit dem Grundgesetz, insbesondere mit dem Grundsatz der Verhältnismäßigkeit. Dieser verlangt u. a., dass jede staatliche Maßnahme, die in Grundrechte eingreift, erforderlich und angemessen ist. Eine Einführung von Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren in Deutschland erfordert daher eine sorgfältige Abwägung aller Vor- und Nachteile. Dies gilt vor allem hinsichtlich der Einschränkung des Eigentumsrechts ( GG) und der allgemeinen Handlungsfreiheit ( Abs. 1 GG). Die Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen hat daher am 1. Juli 2011 im Auftrag des Bundesverkehrsministeriums ein Pilotprojekt gestartet, bei dem zunächst die rechtlichen Voraussetzungen geklärt werden sollten. In einer zweiten Phase sollen Personen ermittelt werden, die auf freiwilliger Basis an dem Projekt teilnehmen. Danach ist die eigentliche Testphase mit anschließender Auswertung vorgesehen. Erste Ergebnisse und Handlungsempfehlungen sollten bereits 2013 vorliegen; die Veröffentlichung verzögerte sich jedoch. Der Titel des Forschungsvorhabens lautet: Verbesserung der Sicherheitswirksamkeit von Rehabilitationsmaßnahmen für alkoholauffällige Kraftfahrer durch die Nutzung von Alkohol-Interlocks.
Im März 2012 setzte sich der seinerzeitige Vorsitzende des Verkehrsausschusses des Deutschen Bundestages, Anton Hofreiter, in einem Interview in einer Automobil-Zeitung für die Einführung von Alcolocks in Schulbussen ein. Der Vorsitzende des Bundestags-Verkehrsausschusses, Martin Burkert (SPD), regte im November 2014 eine Einführung der Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren zur Eindämmung der durch Alkohol verursachten Verkehrsunfälle an.
Auch Bundesverkehrsminister Alexander Dobrindt (CSU) verkündete, man stehe dieser Maßnahme im Sinne einer freiwilligen Bewährungsauflage für Promillesünder grundsätzlich positiv gegenüber. Ende Januar 2019 sprach sich der 57. Verkehrsgerichtstag für die Einführung von Alkolocks aus. Sie sollen "als Ergänzung zu dem bestehenden Maßnahmensystem für alkoholauffällige Kraftfahrer" dienen und eine Alternative zur vorläufigen Entziehung der Fahrerlaubnis (§ 111a StPO) bzw. Sicherstellung oder Beschlagnahme (§ 94 StPO), eine Ausnahme von der Sperrfrist, die die Wiedererteilung der Fahrerlaubnis betrifft (§ 69a Abs. 2 StGB) bzw. sperrfristverkürzend (§ 69a Abs. VII StGB) und eine Alternative zum Fahrverbot (§ 44 StGB) bieten.

Frankreich
Alkoholmissbrauch am Steuer ist in Frankreich für 31 % aller Verkehrstoten verantwortlich.
Im Oktober 2009 wurde eine Verordnung erlassen, die den Einbau von Alkohol-Wegfahrsperren (französ.: éthylotest anti-demarrage (EAD)) in allen neuen Schulbussen ab 1. Januar 2010 vorschreibt. Seit 1. September 2015 müssen auch die bestehenden Schulbusse nachgerüstet sein.
Bereits im September 2011 sind Regelungen in Kraft getreten, die im Rahmen von Rehabilitationsprogrammen auch den Einbau von Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren in Fahrzeugen von Wiederholungstätern vorschreiben. Darüber hinaus setzen einige französische Speditionen Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren auf freiwilliger Basis ein.

In Frankreich sind alle Kraftfahrzeughalter seit dem 1. Juli 2012 verpflichtet, ein einfaches Gerät zur Messung des Atemalkohols mitzuführen. Laut Dekret vom 28. Februar 2013 wird das Nichtmitführen des Messgerätes allerdings nicht wie ursprünglich vorgesehen mit einer gebührenpflichtigen Verwarnung belegt, sodass das Fehlen des Gerätes de facto nicht geahndet wird. Im Fall eines Unfalls unter Alkoholeinfluss könnte dies jedoch nachteilig ausgelegt werden.

Niederlande
Seit dem 1. Dezember 2011 gelten in den Niederlanden strengere Auflagen für Autofahrer, die wegen Alkohol am Steuer auffällig geworden sind. Der Einsatz einer Zündschlosssperre im Fahrzeug des Betroffenen ist zunächst für die Dauer von zwei Jahren vorgesehen. Zeigt sich nach weiteren sechs Monaten keine Verhaltensänderung, kann die Fahrerlaubnis für fünf Jahre entzogen werden. Die Kosten für Installation und Betrieb des Gerätes trägt der Betroffene.

Polen
Seit Mai 2015 werden in Polen Autofahrer, die wegen Alkohol am Steuer auffällig geworden sind, streng bestraft. Neben der Verhängung von Geldbußen und Freiheitsstrafen ist bei straffällig gewordenen Fahrern eine Verpflichtung zum Einbau einer Alkohol-Zündschlosssperre vorgeschrieben. Auch der Entzug des Führerscheins auf Lebenszeit ist möglich.

Belgien
Seit 1. Oktober 2010 ist in Belgien ein Gesetz in Kraft getreten, das es den Richtern im Rahmen von Ermessensentscheidungen ermöglicht, alkoholauffälligen Fahrern den Einbau einer Alkohol-Zündschlosssperre vorzuschreiben.

Schweden
Derzeit ist Schweden das einzige EU-Land, in dem Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren in großer Zahl eingesetzt werden; insgesamt waren dort Anfang 2014 rund 75.000 Geräte in Kraftfahrzeugen installiert. Diese kommen nicht nur bei bereits alkoholauffälligen Fahrern (gesetzlich zulässig seit 1. Januar 2012), sondern auch präventiv in LKW, Bussen, Schulbussen und Taxen zum Einsatz.
2010 bot Volvo allen Kunden in Schweden einen Rabatt für werksseitig eingebaute Geräte in LKW an. Daraufhin wurde ein Viertel aller schweren Volvo-Lkw mit bereits installierten Alcoguards verkauft.
Zur Unterstreichung der Vorbildfunktion des Staates sind seit 2012 rund 75 % der Regierungsfahrzeuge mit Alkohol-Wegfahrsperren ausgestattet; darüber hinaus ist seit Ende 2012 der Einbau dieser Geräte in Schulbussen vorgeschrieben.

Finnland
Seit 1. August 2011 besteht in Finnland eine Verpflichtung zur Verwendung der Geräte in Schulbussen und Fahrzeugen zum Transport von Kindern zu Kindertagesstätten. Bei wegen Trunkenheit am Steuer verurteilten Autofahrern haben Richter die Möglichkeit den Einbau einer Alkohol-Zündschlosssperre für ein Jahr (höchstens bis zu 3 Jahren) anzuordnen. Gleichzeitig muss der Verurteilte sich einem medizinisch überwachten Rehabilitationsprogramm unterziehen. Ist der Verurteilte hierzu nicht bereit, wird ihm der Führerschein entzogen. Nach einer im Jahr 2013 veröffentlichten Studie beträgt die Rückfallquote bei Einbau eines Alkohol-Zündschlosssperre sechs Prozent, ohne dieses Gerät dreißig Prozent. Diese Studie wurde auf Basis von über einen Zeitraum von vier Jahren erfassten Vergleichsdaten erstellt.

Irland
Derzeit gibt es in Irland keine staatlichen Regelungen zu Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren. Einige Busunternehmen setzen die Geräte auf freiwilliger Basis ein. Die Tatsache, dass der Test vom Fahrer sichtbar vor allen Mitreisenden durchgeführt wird, wird von den Passagieren begrüßt.

Großbritannien und Nordirland
In Großbritannien und Nordirland gibt es keine staatlichen Regelungen zu Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren. Das größte europäische Busunternehmen im Linienverkehr, der britische National Express, baut die Geräte in allen neuen Bussen ein und rüstet derzeit alle 1700 Busse nach. Die Ergebnisse der Alkoholtests werden online unmittelbar in die Unternehmenszentrale in Birmingham übermittelt, sodass in Problemfällen sofort gehandelt werden und z. B. ein Ersatzfahrer eingesetzt werden kann. Sicherheitsaspekte werden vom Unternehmen gezielt im Marketing beworben. Diese Unternehmenspolitik wird auch als Folge eines spektakulären Busunfalls im Jahr 2007 mit 30 Verletzten gesehen; der angetrunkene Fahrer des Unternehmens wurde zu einer Haftstrafe verurteilt. In Europa ist Großbritannien (neben Irland und Malta) das Land mit der höchstzulässigen Promillegrenze für das Führen von Fahrzeugen (0,8 ‰).

Japan
Derzeit gibt es in Japan keine staatlichen Regelungen. Einige Busunternehmen und Speditionen nutzen das System jedoch auf freiwilliger Basis.

Kritik
Alkohol-Zündschlosssperren sind – neben den beispielsweise in Deutschland ungelösten verkehrs- und verfassungsrechtlichen Problemen – immer wieder Gegenstand kritischer Diskussion:
 Manipulationen: Die Geräte können, so die Kritik, wie jedes technische Gerät manipuliert werden. So könnte ein angetrunkener Fahrer auch eine Luftpumpe an das Mundstück des Handgerätes anschließen und die Luft langsam ins Gerät strömen lassen. Manipulationsversuchen kann dabei auf verschiedene Art entgegengewirkt werden: Grundsätzlich lassen sich Lufttemperatur, -menge, -druck und -feuchtigkeit sowie Vibrationen erfassen. So lässt sich auch vermeiden, dass Kinder mit geringerem Atemvolumen das Gerät nutzen. Auch gegen Manipulationen der Batterie (zum Starten des Fahrzeuges) sind Sicherungen möglich. Laut Untersuchungen aus den USA und Kanada sind Manipulationen sehr selten.
 Start durch Atemprobe eines Nicht-Fahrers: Das System kann umgangen werden, indem eine nüchterne Person (z. B. Beifahrer) für den angetrunkenen Fahrer die Atemprobe abgibt. Dem wird in der Diskussion bisweilen entgegengehalten, dass es nicht allgemeiner Lebenserfahrung entspricht, dass ein Beifahrer das Fahrzeug startet, um dann mit einem Betrunkenen mitzufahren. Allerdings wäre eine Atemprobe möglich, ohne anschließend mitzufahren. Darüber hinaus wäre ein angetrunkener Fahrer nicht nur zum ersten Starten, sondern auch nach jedem längeren Halt auf eine andere Person für die Atemprobe angewiesen.
 Kosten: In der Kritik steht der nicht unerhebliche Kostenaufwand (1000 bis 2000 Euro) der – z. B. bei einer generellen Vorschrift zum Einbau in allen LKW – alle Berufskraftfahrer bzw. die Unternehmen belasten würde, obwohl Alkoholfahrer unter ihnen nur eine sehr kleine Minderheit ausmachen. Dem stehen die volkswirtschaftlichen Kosten von Straßenverkehrsunfällen gegenüber, die von der Bundesanstalt für Straßenverkehr mit über 32 Mrd. Euro angegeben werden. In Deutschland waren 2014 etwa 3,6 % der gemeldeten Unfälle mit Personenschaden auf Alkoholeinfluss des Fahrers zurückzuführen.

Siehe auch
 Atemgasanalyse
 Trunkenheit im Verkehr
 Wegfahrsperre
 Europäische Normen EN 50436 zu Alkohol-Interlocks

Weblinks
 Studie der Europäischen Kommission (PDF) zur Verhütung von Alkohol am Steuer durch die Verwendung von Alkohol-Interlocks (Stand 2014).
 Studie des Europäischen Parlaments (PDF; 1,8 MB) über Alkohol-Interlocks im Hinblick auf Wirksamkeit und möglichen Beitrag zur Verkehrssicherheit. Einschließlich eines Überblicks über die technischen Voraussetzungen und eine Analyse der Kosteneffektivität (Stand 2014).

Einzelnachweise

Kraftfahrzeugtechnik
Fahrzeugsicherheit
Diagnostisches Verfahren
Zundschlosssperre
Drogen im Straßenverkehr

fr:Éthylotest#Éthylotest antidémarrage

Alkohol-Zündschlosssperre


Jaime Milans del Bosch y Núñez del Pino ( ?, 1891 - Madrid, 1983) est un militaire espagnol. Il participe en 1932 au putsch manqué de Sanjurjo et rallie le camp nationaliste après le coup d'État militaire de juillet 1936.

Biographie

En , Jaime Milans del Bosch y Núñez del Pino participa au coup d'État du général Sanjurjo (putsch manqué connu sous le nom de Sanjurjada), et se rallia à la rébellion militaire de , à l'origine de la Guerre civile.

Le , alors qu'il était colonel de garnison à Séville, il fut promu au rang de général de brigade, puis à celui de lieutenant-général. Titulaire de la médaille individuelle du mérite militaire, il se vit décerner en 1972 le titre de lieutenant-général honorifique.

Il succomba le  à une insuffisance rénale aggravée, avec paralysie intestinale, à l'hôpital militaire « Generalísimo Franco » de Madrid, et fut inhumé le onze du même mois dans la chapelle du couvent de La Moraleja, dans la banlieue nord de Madrid.

Famille

Fils du militaire catalan Joaquín León Milans del Bosch y Carrió et de María Teresa Núñez del Pino y Quiñones de León, Jaime Milans del Bosch avait pour frère Mariano Milans del Bosch y Núñez del Pino, militaire lui aussi, héritier en usufruit, en sa qualité de frère aîné, du palais du Pividal, dans la localité asturienne d'Abres (commune de Vegadeo, dans l'extrême ouest des Asturies), qui échut après sa mort à son fils aîné José Joaquín Milans del Bosch y Solano, colonel de cavalerie domicilié à Oviedo.

Jaime Milans del Bosch épousa Consuelo Ussía y Cubas, de qui il eut un fils, Milans del Bosch y Ussía, l'un des principaux protagonistes de la tentative de coup d'État du .

Références

Liens externes
 Hémérothèque du journal ABC de Séville et Madrid.
 .

Militaire de la guerre civile espagnole du camp nationaliste
Militaire espagnol
Personnalité politique espagnole du franquisme
Naissance en juillet 1891
Décès en février 1983
Décès à Madrid
Décès à 91 ans

Jaime Milans del Bosch y Núñez del Pino


Kalambur je stilska figura koja u jednom kontekstu koristi različita značenja iste riječi, ili riječi i izraze slične po izgovoru, ili njihovu kombinaciju, u cilju postizanja humorističnog ili retoričkog efekta. Kalambur se katkad smatra podvrstom igre riječima ili poistovjećuje s njom.

Etimologija
Podrijetlo riječi kalambur nije nedvojbeno ustvrđeno. Pored današnjeg calembour, u povijesti se javljaju i oblici calambour te calembourg. Krešimir Bagić navodi sljedeću povijest: "I kao pojava i kao pojam, kalambur je francuskoga podrijetla (calembour). Njegova povijest počinje 1. listopada 1768. godine kada Denis Diderot u pismu Sophie Volland prvi put upotrebljava tu riječ. O etimologiji pojma postoje čak tri pretpostavke. Prema jednoj, izveden je iz prezimena Kahlenberg koje je pripadalo njemačkome ambasadoru u Parizu koji je loše govorio francuski i tako implicitno poticao dvorjane na raznovrsne igre riječima. Prema drugoj, u riječi kalambur spojeni su nizozemski glagol kallen (govoriti) i starofrancuska imenica bourde (greška, izmišljotina). Prema trećoj, korijeni kalambura kriju se u imenici calembredaine (prazno brbljanje)."

Postoji i pretpostavka (Chasles, Littré) da riječ potječe iz talijanskog izraza calamo burlare - šala perom, te da se riječ kalambur javlja još oko 1500. godine.

Vrste
Ne postoji potpuno suglasje u određenju kalambura. Gdjekad ga se shvaća kao lokalni oblik jezičnoga ludizma, a gdjekad kao sinonim čitavome području igranja riječima te se nerijetko govori o fonetskim i smisaonim kalamburima, o kalamburima zasnovanim na polisemiji i sl. Kalambur je podvrsta igre riječima, točnije zvukovno povezivanje značenjski različitih jezičnih jedinica. Temelji se na homonimiji i homofoniji združenih jedinica. Uvijek sugerira postojanje dvostrukoga smisla iskaza. Nastaje ponavljanjem glasova ili slogova, dodavanjem, izostavljanjem, premještanjem ili promjenom glasova ili slogova, rastavljanjem riječi i sl. Ponekad se i srodna paronomazija predstavlja kao kalambur.

Kalambur, odnosno igra riječima, može se po načinu na koji izaziva akustičku sliku svrstati u sljedeće grupe:
 isti glasovni sastav i grafički oblik, s različitim značenjem (homonimija i homografija)
 zvukovna sličnost (homofonija)
 približno sličan glasovni sklop

Uporaba

U književnosti su kalamburi poznati još od Homera i antike. Mnogo je svjetskih poznatih kalamburista, među kojima su na primjer William Shakespeare, Aleksandar Puškin, Karl Kraus te Antun Gustav Matoš i Zvonimir Balog u Hrvatskoj. Narodne umotvorine također obiluju kalamburima.

Kalambur, kao i paronomazija, često se koriste u skečevima ili naslovima parodija. Tako je naslov poznate erotske revije "Oh! Calcutta!" iz 1969. godine kalambur francuskog homofonog izraza "O quel cul t'as!" (o kakvu zadnjicu imaš!, naslov slike Clovisa Trouillea koja se projicirala u pozadini revije); skladatelj glazbe te revije Peter Schickele, poznatiji pod pseudonimom P. D. Q. Bach, ima mnoge skladbe koje su parodije poznatih glazbenih djela, a često su u naslovima kalambur ili paronomazija (npr. 1712 Overture umjesto 1812 Overture Čajkovskoga, ili A Little Nightmare Music prema A Little Night Music, "Mala noćna muzika" Mozarta).

I satirički časopisi često u naslovima koriste kalambur kao sredstvo isticanja neke poruke. Na primjer, neki od naslova iz časopisa Feral Tribune: Sunčani lihvar, Igre na smeću, Trg ovci.

Osobna imena i prezimena, poglavito u polemičkim kontekstima, omiljena su tema kalambura. Matoš u polemičkome žaru T. Ujevića naziva Huljević i Pfujević, M. Ogrizovića Ogrizina, Arsena Wenzelidesa Aršin Kripelides, a pjesnika S. Parmačevića ustrajno – u više tekstova – gospođicom (ili primaljom) Spermačević.

Primjeri
 Zdenko Škreb podsjeća na lukavstvo korčulanskoga načelnika Arneria koji je za posjeta cara Franje Josipa, zaštićen općim klicanjem Živio!, sladostrasno vikao Živino!.
 homografija
 gore gore gore gore - akcentiranjem (proizvoljnim redom) riječi gore (prilog), množina od gora, 3. l. mn. od gorjeti, komparativ od loše, dobiva se značenje.
 Mare spi s dicom - jednačenjem po zvučnosti dobiva se zvučna slika sa značenjem drugačijim od napisanog.
 približno sličan glasovni sklop
 Ka-ka-pi-pi-talizam (Matoš)
 kalamburska imaginacija (Balog, Tko me što pita od jabuka)
 Publika: Pub u kojemu piju / Samo Ličani
 Lokativ: Naziv za birtiju / Kod starih Latina

Izvori
 Natuknica "kalambur" na Hrvatskom jezičnom portalu, hjp.znanje.hr (pristupljeno: 17. listopada 2019.)
 Natuknica "kalambur" na Hrvatskoj enciklopediji, www.enciklopedija.hr (pristupljeno: 17. listopada 2019.)
 Natuknica "paronomazija" na Hrvatskoj enciklopediji, www.enciklopedija.hr (pristupljeno: 17. listopada 2019.)
 Natuknica "kalambur" na Proleksis enciklopediji, www.enciklopedija.hr (pristupljeno: 17. listopada 2019.)
 "Mogu li se sresti umjetnik i imbecil", članak Krešimira Bagića u 404. broju časopisa "Vijenac" od 10. rujna 2009., www.matica.hr  (pristupljeno: 17. listopada 2019.)
 "Jezični ludizam", članak Krešimira Bagića u 426. broju časopisa "Vijenac" od 1. srpnja 2010., www.matica.hr (pristupljeno: 17. listopada 2019.)
 "Tekst – životinja koja sve upija", članak Krešimira Bagića u 540. broju časopisa "Vijenac" od 13. studenoga 2014., www.matica.hr (pristupljeno: 17. listopada 2019.)
 Krešimir Bagić, "Rječnik stilskih figura", natuknica "Kalambur" na str. 167, Školska knjiga Zagreb, 2012.,
 , u Enciklopedijskom rječniku Brockhausa i Efrona iz 1890. – 1907. godine

Enigmatika
Figure dikcije
Humor

Kalambur


OPAL (Online-Plattform für Akademisches Lehren und Lernen) ist eine hochschulübergreifende Informationstechnik-Plattform für E-Learning. OPAL wird an 21 sächsischen Bildungseinrichtungen eingesetzt und wird von mehr als 80.000 Personen genutzt. OPAL wird zentral durch die BPS Bildungsportal Sachsen GmbH verwaltet. Basis der Software ist das Open-Source-Lernmanagement-System OLAT-Campus, welches 1999 an der Universität Zürich entwickelt wurde.

Entwicklung
Im Januar 2001 startete das Verbundprojekt "Bildungsportal Sachsen", als eine Initiative der Universitäten Leipzig, Dresden und Chemnitz sowie der Fachhochschule Mittweida. Die Förderung erfolgte durch das Sächsische Staatsministerium für Wissenschaft und Kunst (SMWK). Ziel dieses Projektes war die Konzeption, der prototypische Aufbau und die Evaluation eines Bildungsportals für Sachsen. Dieses Bildungsportal sollte für die wissenschaftliche Aus- und Weiterbildung entwickelt werden und allen sächsischen Hochschulen zur freien Nutzung offenstehen. Ein Ergebnis dieser Initiative ist die Implementierung der Lernplattform OPAL an 11 sächsischen Hochschulen im Jahr 2006.
Die wichtigsten historischen Meilensteine der Lernplattform OPAL sind:

Januar 2001: Start des Verbundprojektes "Bildungsportal Sachsen"
2001–2004: Betrieb des Lernmanagement-Systems "Saba"
2004/ 2005: Evaluation etablierter Open-Source Lernmanagement-Systeme
November 2004: Gründung der Betreibergesellschaft "BPS Bildungsportal Sachsen GmbH" durch elf sächsische Hochschulen
September 2005: Pilotbetrieb des Lernmanagement-Systems "OLAT" (Online Learning And Training)
März 2006: Produktivbetrieb des Lernmanagement-Systems "OLAT" unter dem Namen "OPAL"
seit 2007: systematische Weiterentwicklung/ Anpassung von OPAL im Rahmen von landesweiten Projektinitiativen
2014–2015: Relaunch der Lernplattform OPAL mit dem Fokus auf Mobilfähigkeit, Usability und zeitgemäße Funktionalität und Design

Anwendung
OPAL wird aktuell an fünf Universitäten, vier Fachhochschulen, drei Kunsthochschulen, Teilen der Berufsakademie Sachsen, einer Berufsschule und der sächsischen Landesbibliothek von den Mitarbeitern und Studenten gemeinsam als zentrales Lernmanagement-System genutzt. Zu diesen sächsischen Bildungseinrichtungen gehören:

 Berufsakademie Sachsen – Staatliche Studienakademie Dresden
 Berufsakademie Sachsen – Staatliche Studienakademie Glauchau
 Berufsakademie Sachsen – Staatliche Studienakademie Leipzig
 Berufsakademie Sachsen – Staatliche Studienakademie Plauen
 Berufsakademie Sachsen – Staatliche Studienakademie Riesa
 Hochschule für Musik und Theater "Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy" Leipzig
 Hochschule für Musik Carl Maria von Weber Dresden
 Hochschule Mittweida
 Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz
 Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden
 Hochschule für Technik, Wirtschaft und Kultur Leipzig
 Internationales Hochschulinstitut Zittau
 SLUB Dresden
 Staatliche Studienakademie Bautzen
 Sächsische Verwaltungs- und Wirtschafts-Akademie
 Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg
 Technische Universität Chemnitz
 Technische Universität Dresden
 Universität Leipzig
 Westsächsische Hochschule Zwickau
 Palucca – Hochschule für Tanz Dresden
 VHO der BPS Bildungsportal Sachsen GmbH

Ca. 100.000 Studierende und Lehrkräfte dieser Bildungseinrichtungen setzen diese Plattform in der Lehre und im Studium ein. Die Plattform enthält ca. 35.000 Online-Kurse.

Technische Merkmale
Der technologische Kern der Lernplattform OPAL ist das von der Universität Zürich 1999 entwickelte Open-Source-Lernmanagement-System (LMS) OLAT, welches als Web-Applikation verschiedene Formen von webbasiertem Lernen, Lehren und Moderieren ohne große didaktische Einschränkungen unterstützt. Zusätzlich zu den bei OLAT und anderen E-Learning-Plattformen bekannten typischen Elementen verfügt OPAL über die Authentifizierungs- und Autorisierungskomponente "Shibboleth". Diese ermöglicht es, dass über Single-Sign-On sämtliche Nutzerdatenbanken aller beteiligten Bildungseinrichtungen miteinander verbunden, spezifische Layouts erstellt und Schnittstellen zu weiteren an den Bildungseinrichtungen eingesetzten Informationstechnologien (z. B. HISPOS, S-PLUS) gekoppelt werden können.

Funktionsbereiche
Die Funktionsbereiche von OPAL lassen sich in die Hauptaspekte Studium, Organisation und Kommunikation unterscheiden:

Studium
Mittels geeigneter Werkzeuge können Lerninhalte online bereitgestellt und deren Zugriff gesteuert werden, um so ein angeleitetes (Selbst-)Studium zu ermöglichen. Zu den Werkzeugen der Wissensvermittlung gehören:
 Web-Seiten
 Wikis
 SCORM-Inhalte
 IMS-CP-Inhalte
 Videos
 Tests
 Fragebögen
 Links
 Texte / Bilder
 Skripte

Organisation
Für die Vorbereitung, Durchführung und Nachbereitung von Lehrveranstaltungen wurden in dieser Lernplattform verschiedene Werkzeuge integriert. Die wichtigsten OPAL-Funktionen zur Unterstützung der organisatorischen Aufgaben sind:
 Gruppenverwaltung
 Kurserstellung
 Bewertungen
 Projektgruppen
 Kalender
 Datenarchivierung
 Evaluationen
 Einschreibungen

Kommunikation
Zu den in OPAL integrierten Werkzeugen zur Unterstützung kommunikativer und kollaborativer Aufgaben gehören unter anderen folgende Kommunikationsmittel:
 Dateiaustausch
 Online-Communities
 Internetforen
 Wikis
 Visitenkarten
 Mailinglisten
 E-Mail
 Chat
 Steckbrief

Literatur
 H. Fischer, T. Köhler, J. Schwendel: Effizienz durch Synergien im E-Learning. Zentrale Strukturen und einrichtungsübergreifende Kooperationen an den sächsischen Hochschulen. In: N. Apostolopoulos, H. Hoffmann, V. Mansmann, A. Schwill (Hrsg.): E-Learning 2009. Lernen im digitalen Zeitalter. Waxmann Verlag, Münster 2009, ISBN 978-3-8309-2199-8, S. 400–409.
 H. Fischer, J. Schulz, K. Brennecke, T. Köhler, V. Saupe, J. Schwendel: Die E-Learning-Länderinitiative Bildungsportal Sachsen. Zentrale Strukturen und hochschulübergreifende Kooperationen. In: C. Bremer, M. Göcks, P. Rühl, J. Stratmann (Hrsg.): Landesinitiativen für E-Learning an deutschen Hochschulen. Waxmann Verlag, Münster 2010, ISBN 978-3-8309-2393-0, S. 137–151.
 F. Richter, S. Morgner: OPAL. Die Lernplattform sächsischer Hochschulen. In: H. Fischer, J. Schwendel (Hrsg.): E-Learning an sächsischen Hochschulen. Strukturen – Projekte – Einsatzszenarien. TUDpress, Dresden 2009, ISBN 978-3-941298-04-0, S. 163–173

Weblinks
 Website der Technischen Universität Dresden, Arbeitskreis E-Learning der LRK Sachsen
 Website der BPS Bildungsportal Sachsen GmbH

E-Learning
Lernplattform

OPAL (Lernplattform)


Ján Greguš (født 29. januar 1991) er en slovakisk fodboldspiller (midtbanespiller), der spiller for den amerikanske MLS-klub Minnesota United. Han har tidligere spillet for den danske superligaklub F.C. København. Han havde indtil skiftet til FCK i sommeren 2016 spillet for den den tjekkiske klub FK Jablonec.

Klubkarriere
Ján Greguš begyndte sin karriere i FC Nitra, og skiftede i 2009 til den tjekkiske klub FC Baník Ostrava. I 2013-14 var han udlånt til engelske Bolton Wanderers F.C., men opnåede dog ingen kampe for klubben. I 2015 skiftede han til Jablonec og i sommeren 2016 til FCK.

Efter 107 kampe for FCK , hvor han scorede 7 mål, blev han i vinterpausen 18/19 solgt til Minnesota United.

Landsholdskarriere
Greguš debuterede den 31. marts 2015 for det slovakiske landshold i en kamp mod Tjekkiet.

Han blev udtaget til EM-truppen til EM i Frankrig 2016, hvor han spillede anden halvleg i 1/8-finalen mod .

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Spillerprofil på FCK.dk

Fodboldspillere fra Bolton Wanderers F.C.
Fodboldspillere fra FC København
Fodboldspillere fra Slovakiet
Deltagere ved det europæiske mesterskab i fodbold 2016
Deltagere ved det europæiske mesterskab i fodbold 2020

Ján Greguš


18. etape af Tour de France 2018 gik fra Trie-sur-Baïse til Pau 26. juli 2018.

Arnaud Démare vandt etapen, mens Geraint Thomas forsvarede den gule førertrøje.

Etaperesultater

Samlet efter etapen

Samlede stilling

Pointkonkurrencen

Bjergkonkurrencen

Ungdomskonkurrencen

Holdkonkurrencen

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

18

18. etape af Tour de France 2018


Ljubica Nenezić (n. 15 ianuarie 1997, la Podgorica) este o handbalistă muntenegreană care joacă pentru echipa SCM Gloria Buzău și pentru echipa națională a Muntenegrului pe postul de portar. Anterior Nenezić a evoluat pentru Gloria Bistrița și HC Dunărea Brăila.

Palmares
Liga Campionilor EHF
Semifinalistă: 2016

Liga Europeană:
Sfertfinalistă: 2021
Turul 3: 2022

Cupa EHF
Semifinalistă: 2018
Sfertfinalistă: 2020

Cupa României:
 Câștigătoare: 2021

Supercupa României:
 Câștigătoare: 2021

Note

Legături externe

Ljubica Nenezić pe pagina web a EHF
Ljubica Nenezić pe pagina web a Gloriei Bistrița
Ljubica Nenezić pe pagina web a Eurosport
Ljubica Nenezić pe pagina web a Kastamonu Belediyesi GSK

Jucătoare de handbal din Muntenegru
Sportivi muntenegreni în viață
Handbaliști expatriați
Muntenegreni expatriați în Ungaria
Muntenegreni expatriați în Turcia
Oameni din Podgorica

Ljubica Nenezić


Tuborg, 1873 yılında kurulmuş olan Danimarkalı bira üreticisi şirket ve ona ait olan ticari markadır. Tuborg, pilsner türü bira üretmek amacıyla kurulmuştur.

1894 yılında United Breweries ile birleşmiştir. 1903'te en güçlü rakibi ve yine bir Danimarka firması olan Carlsberg ile kâr paylaşımı anlaşması yapmış, 1970'te tamamen Carlsberg tarafından alınmıştır.

Bugün Tuborg, Carlsberg'e ait bir marka olarak dünya pazarı için malt üretmektedir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Türk Tuborg

Dış bağlantılar
 Tuborg resmi sitesi

Bira imalatçıları
Danimarka merkezli gıda şirketleri
Danimarka merkezli çok uluslu şirketler
Bira markaları
1873'te kurulan oluşumlar
Bilgi kutusu bulunmayan sayfalar

Tuborg


The Mackay Trophy is awarded yearly by the United States Air Force for the "most meritorious flight of the year" by an Air Force person, persons, or organization.  The trophy is housed in the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum. The award is administered by the U.S. National Aeronautic Association.

The award was established on 27 January 1911 by Clarence Mackay, who was then head of the Postal Telegraph-Cable Company and the Commercial Cable Company. Originally, aviators could compete for the trophy annually under rules made each year or the War Department could award the trophy for the most meritorious flight of the year.

Awardees
The following is a list of awardees:

1910s

1920s

1930s

1940s

1950s

1960s

1970s

1980s

1990s

2000s

2010s

See also

 List of aviation awards

References

Bibliography
 National Aeronautic Association Mackay Trophy Page
 ASC Award Winners; Mackay Trophy
 Smithsonian Aeronautics Division Awards and Trophies

Awards and decorations of the United States Air Force
Aviation awards

Mackay Trophy


Tropicoritus ruwenzorii es una  especie de coleóptero adéfago de la familia Carabidae y el único miembro del género monotípico Tropicoritus.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
  Tropicoritus en ION
 Nomenclator Zoologicus
 Carabidae of the World

Stenolophina

Tropicoritus


Mikolas Josef (født 4. oktober 1995) er en tjekkisk sanger, og sangskriver, som repræsenterede Tjekkiet ved Eurovision Song Contest 2018 med sangen "Lie to Me". Han opnåede en Sjetteplads i den europæiske sangkonkurrence.

Eksterne henvisninger

Sangere fra Tjekkiet
Tjekkiets Eurovision Song Contest-deltagere
Deltagere ved Eurovision Song Contest 2018

Mikolas Josef


José Francisco Rodil Lombardía (Santa Eulalia de Oscos, Asturias, España, 1953) es un periodista y escritor español.

Se licenció en Ciencias de la Información en la Universidad Complutense de Madrid donde finalizó los cursos de doctorado (octubre de 1997). Trabajó como redactor la Agencia Mencheta, en el diario Informaciones y en El Correo Gallego, encargado de la sección política. Ingresó como redactor en Televisión de Galicia (1985); Director gerente de Televisión de Galicia (1990); director de La Voz de Asturias y delegado del Grupo Zeta en Asturias (2001).
Vinculado a la Televisión de Galicia desde los comienzos de  la cadena autonómica, además de director/gerente (1990) desempeñó el cargo de Jefe de controL de Cadena de la CRTVG (1995) y programador del Canal Internacional de TVG (1998).
En televisión de Galicia dirigió y guionizó muy distintos espacios de programación tanto vinculados al área de los Informativos como a Programas:
En el área de Informativos:
"Parlamento", espacio semanal de actualidad parlamentaria
"Sen fronteiras", programa de entrevistas a relevantes personalidades del mundo de la sociedad y de la política
"Enfoques", programa semanal de reportajes informativos.
En el área de Programas de TVG, fue director y guionista de:
"Así foi se así vos parece", programa especial para celebrar el X aniversario de TVG
"Exteriores" (2004), serie documental para el Canal Internacional.
"Cadernos do aire", magazine sobre la inmigración en Galicia;
"A nosa clave", programa de debate sobre temas sociales;
"Falámolo" espacio semanal de debate y entrevistas sobre temas sociales.
"El peregrino de Asís" (2014), serie documental (42 capítulos) con motivo del 800 aniversario de la peregrinación de San Francisco de Asís a Santiago.
"Santiago para soñar" (2016/17), serie de reportajes sobre Santiago de Compostela.

Fue galardonado con el Premio Galicia de Periodismo en 1989 y es miembro electo de la Comisión de Garantías de la Federación de Asociaciones de Periodistas de España.

Como escritor, ha publicado Sin máscara: relatos del periodismo de camuflaje (Tris Tram, 1999), El señor del Senescal (Madú, 2003, y Ayuntamiento de Santa Eulalia de Oscos, 2016), Memorias del valle escondido: narraciones y leyendas de Santalla de Oscos (CH, 2008), La noche de las luminarias (Velasco, 2018), "Los prodigios de Gillingham (Velasco, 2021), Sentencia (Velasco, 2022).

Bibliografía
 Sentencia (Velasco Ediciones, 2022)
 Los prodigios de Gillingham (Velasco Ediciones, 2021)
La noche de las luminarias (Velasco Ediciones, 2018)
Memorias del valle escondido (CH, 2008).
El señor del Senescal (Madú, 2003)
Sin máscara. Relatos de periodismo de camuflaje (Tris Tram, 1999)

Enlaces externos
Conferencia realizada en setiembre de 2011 en el Centro Asturiano de La Coruña
Presentación en Lugo de La noche de las luminarias

Referencias

Periodistas de Asturias
Periodistas de España del siglo XX
Alumnos de Ciencias de la Información de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Escritores de España del siglo XX
https://www.todostuslibros.com/autor/rodil-lombardia-jose-francisco
www.biblioasturias.com/jose-francisco-rodil-lombardia-en-la-biblioteca-de-figueras/
https://hablamosdelibros.wordpress.com/2012/05/10/visitando-los-lugares-del-senor-de-nafarea/
https://www.lavozdegalicia.es/noticia/santiago/2003/10/07/el-senor-senescal-recrea-pasado-idilico-natural/0003_2054529.htm
https://www.buscalibre.es/libro-sin-mascara-relatos-de-periodismo-de-camuflaje-en-papel/9788489377219/p/47430007
https://www.mundiario.com/author/rodillombardia
http://es.classora.com/units/n230950248/jose-francisco-rodil-lombardia
https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=3793266
https://www.turismoasturias.es/web/agenda-de-asturias/ocio-infantil/-/events-week/3119102/dia-del-libro-en-castropol/20-04-2018/8yqQb3INvjw6;jsessionid=55A471EDF6FA8D2C5CC4905E79FD1E50
https://www.agapea.com/libros/Memorias-del-valle-escondido-narraciones-y-leyendas-de-Santalla-de-Oscos-9788493536282-i.htm
http://el.tesorodeoviedo.es/index.php?title=Jos%C3%A9_Francisco_Rodil_Lombard%C3%ADa
http://bibliotecadefigueras.blogspot.com/2010/12/

José Francisco Rodil Lombardía


The culture of Lithuania, dating back to 200 BC, with the settlement of the Balts and has been independent of the presence of a sovereign Lithuanian state.

Pre-Lithuanian period (before the 10th century AD)
The Lithuanian nation rose between the 7th and 9th centuries CE. Earlier, the Balts, ancestors of Lithuanians and Latvians, had arrived at the territories between the Dnepr and Daugava rivers and the Baltic Sea. An Indo-European people, the Balts are presumed to have come from a hypothetic original homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans; many scientists date this arrival to 3rd millennium BCE.

The Balts, who are believed to have arrived with the main wave of Indo-Europeans, were unconnected with the formation of later Indo-European nations in Southern and Western Europe. Thus, the Balts' culture is believed to have preserved primeval features of Indo-European culture for a longer time. When later contacts with newly formed European nations increased, differences between the Balts' primeval culture and the culture of the new European nations were so great that closer cultural interchange was difficult. This resulted in preservation of the Balts' Indo-European roots but may also have contributed to their isolation.

After the period of Gothic domination in Europe, the culture of the Balts appeared in a more restricted territory between the Wisla and Daugava rivers. Almost anything said about the Balts' cultural isolation level in these times is speculation, but it was likely decreasing. Still, the Balts conserved forms of ancient Indo-European proto-language until much later times. The most archaic language forms were preserved by the Western Balts, who lived approximately in the territory of later Prussia (today's Kaliningrad and north-west Poland). These dialects developed into Old Prussian, which became extinct by the beginning of the 18th century.

The Eastern Balts had less archaic forms of language. For example, some popular simplifications took hold, such as a decrease in the number of verb forms, which presumably happened when the ancient cultural elite lost its influence over the people. It may have taken place, for example, in times of "barbarian" invasions (not later than the 8th century). Later, eastern dialects of Balts developed into the modern Lithuanian and Latvian.

Knowledge about the Balts' cultural life in these times is scanty. It is known that Balts at the end of this period had a social structure comparable with that of Celtic people in South-West Europe during the 2nd—1st centuries BC.

In the 10th century, religious life of the Balts was not unified, with various forms of cults present. An important feature of Balt culture was willful avoidance of using material attainments in their religious life. Some more complicated forms of architecture, equipment, and literacy were disapproved of, even when these things were allowed by and were well known from neighbouring nations. Religious life was concentrated on verbal tradition, with singing and perhaps with some elements of mystery theatre. Material forms of this life were closely connected with unsophisticated wooden shrines, nature objects ( such as trees and stones), and special ornamented vestments and their accessories.

Period of the Lithuanian nation rising (10th – 14th centuries)
The Lithuanian nation began to form in about 7th – 8th centuries CE. The growing difference between Western and Eastern Balts was a result of some cultural modernization of the Eastern Balts even before this period. Differences also grew between northern and southern parts of the Eastern Balts. Lithuanians derived from the southern parts of Eastern Balts till 9th century CE. At this time, the Eastern Balts did not form any political unit. They were divided into some autonomous clans, but culturally and religiously, they were part of the Balts. The common name for them, Lithuanians, was already known.

Historians have occasionally attributed the name "Lithuania" of this period only to one of the Eastern Balts' tribes. It is not known for certain in what political circumstances Lithuanians acquired their common name, and whether it took place before the beginning of the 11th century, when the name was first mentioned in written sources, or later.

Traditionally, historians consider religion-based union of the Balts. This theory is supported by historical sources that wrote about existence of centers of religious life (named Romuva, using  the present-day variant of this word), concentrated around more significant shrines, holy and mystic areas. Servants of these religious centers have influences on other not central shrines. This influence was based more on authority than on formal structure of organization. Finally, there is some historical data about the main religious center of all Balts. The level of organization and extent of this religious cooperation are under discussion.
For example, some historians argue that union was more local and included only southern Balts (Lithuanians and Prussians), but Northern Balts (ancestors of Latvians) did not participate in it. Information concerning religious unity is influenced by later Lithuanian and Latvian myths and is not strongly based on historical sources and archaeological research.

The new point of distinguishing the Balts' nations and their cultural development was the occupation of a significant part of the land by Catholic military orders in the 13th century. The main areas of Western Balts, known under the name of Prussia, were occupied by Teutonic order. Livonian order occupied northern territories, beginning from areas around the Gulf of Riga, creating so-called Livonia.

Therefore, later cultural development of these two and the third unoccupied part of Balts' areas was different. Old Prussians (Balts) never regained a nation, but the Latvian nation was formed in Livonia. The third unoccupied part was a basis for the Lithuanian nation to form.

Outer aggression forced Baltic nations to form more strict institutions of political life. A Lithuanian state, Lithuania, was founded in 13th century and it included regions of still unoccupied Eastern Balts and remaining Western Balts' areas (These Western Balts' ethnic groups are known under names of Yotvingians and Sudovians).

In the middle of the 14th century, Lithuania emerged as a large eastern European state, with former Kievan Rus' and some Ruthenian regions to the north of it (approximately present Belarus) included. This expansion shows a great political potential of the Lithuanian ruling classes, and this potential could not be reached without respective cultural basis. Christian Ruthenian rulers became some kind of vassals of non-Christian Lithuanian rulers, but culturally the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (G.D.L.) remained bipolar. It consisted of a non-Christian Lithuanian part in North-West (later known as Lithuania Propria) and Eastern Christian Orthodox Ruthenian regions (partial Duchies).

The price of cooperation and recognition of pagan dominance by Ruthenian Orthodoxes in G.D.L. was recognition of wide cultural rights for orthodoxes. These rights included, for example, customs, that Lithuanian dukes had to be christened before taking office in a partial duchy in orthodox parts. Wives of Lithuanian dukes, if they were Ruthenians, stayed orthodox, but Grand Dukes in this case had to ensure that it was possible for his wife to perform orthodox rites and take part in orthodox services. Children of orthodox duchesses officially became observers of their father's religion, the old-Lithuanian one in that case. In reality, the religion of the mother could have some (sometimes great) influence.

In this period, both nations of G.D.L. insistently stood on their cultural basis, and the main directions of Lithuanian culture remained unchanged until Christianization. Lithuanian culture stayed far from growing significant literacy in Europe and there were no significant changes, for example, in cult architecture. However, there were some new tendencies too. Religious intolerance, hardly avoidable during religiously-based war as with crusaders, was offset by tolerance to orthodox Christians, so the Lithuanian community stayed tolerant in the cultural and religious sense. There were some attempts to modernize Lithuanian religious life too. For example, there were at least two Christian churches, Catholic and orthodox, both of brick stonework, in Vilnius town. The main shrine of the old-religion in the town was bricked, and not wooden as it was customary.

The Early Christian period (the end of the 14th to the middle of the 15th century)

Cultural changes in higher estates

The cultural background of formation and persistence of higher estates before Christianization is almost unknown. Christianization of Lithuania brought changes towards European feudalism of the 15th century. It is logical that  Lithuanian political culture had some influence of Western European and, especially, Ruthenian feudalism before Christianization, but the christening broke the isolation barrier and the influence became more direct.

Adding to this, the strengthening of Western cultural constituent by Christianization mostly affected political culture. For example, this situation caused interesting effects on jurisprudence. Presence of old Ruthenian legal norms and old Lithuanian traditions as well as coming of Western European legal norms raised various inconveniences, and, in the beginning of the 16th century, the Lithuanian law codex, the First Statute of Lithuania of 1529  was issued. Lithuanian law was exercised in the territory of G.D.L. till 1840, survived not only times of state independence before Union of Lublin of 1569, but the state itself. Thus, since its beginning, Lithuanian law became one of the factors of political integrity of G.D.L. and distinguished Lithuania from other European regions including The Crown of the Polish Kingdom.

The issuance of the codex is an illustration of two different tendencies in the political elite of G.D.L. The issuance of a written law codex shows a significant western influence on Lithuanian political culture of this time. However, the existence of a Lithuanian system of law shows that cultural differences from Western Europe existed and were acknowledged by ruling classes.

In this time, Lithuanians were getting acquainted with Western European culture and this process had interesting discoveries, which also caused later ruling political ideas. However,  the process was not trivial. To become "educated in aristocratic manner" a Lithuanian had to learn at least three languages: Ruthenian, Polish and Latin. German with variety of its dialects and Italian were also used. In reality, this educational objective could not usually be realised, so knowledge of languages (and even cultural orientation) depended on estate of person. Priests and humanitarians learned Latin, merchants learnt German. Polish was preferred by the upper classes, but Ruthenian by the lower strata of nobles.

Since the end of the 14th century, Lithuanians began to study in universities abroad, mostly in Kraków and Prague Universities and, sometimes, in Western European ones. Latin, being a church and humanitarian language, was studied by a number of Lithuanian citizens, mostly Catholics. Latin had a specific reason to be considered interesting for Lithuanian-speaking Lithuanians. Being acquainted with Latin language, Lithuanian humanitarians discovered great similarities between a large number of Lithuanian and Latin words, such as (Lithuanian words are given in their modern form) aušra – aurora (a dawn), dūmas – fumus (fume, smoke), mėnesis – mensis (a month), senis – senex (an old man) and so on. This paradoxical similarity was explained by raising an idea that Lithuanian was directly derived from Latin.

This idea, joined with one, maybe earlier, myth about modernized cultural hero Palemon, treating him as a Latin language pioneer in earlier pre-Christian Lithuania, has a great influence to the political mindset of noble Lithuanians. It constricted an area of Lithuanian cultural independence, prescribing to Lithuanians affinity with Italics and showing Lithuanian culture as secondary, derivative and mixed. On the other hand, it stimulated patriotism, arguing that Lithuanian popular culture is more "Latin" than Polish and German cultures, so more cultured according to the thinking of that time. This theory raised the prestige of old Lithuania (thought of by neighbors as "pagan" and "barbarian") firstly in the eyes of Lithuanians themselves, and had the same effect on foreign people (especially Poles, who often treated their mediating in Lithuania's Christianization as their own cultural achievement against "eastern" or "pagan" "barbarism").

Despite using the existence of Lithuanian as a patriotic argument, the usage of the language itself became more and more narrow among the higher strata of nobles. Ruthenian became official after the Christianization, for it had more developed written tradition and, maybe, because of negative attitude of Orthodox nobles towards Lithuanian. During the 15th century, Ruthenian became anchored more in all machinery of the state. As it was common European tendency of the 15th to 17th centuries to make the transition from feudalism to bigger state dominance, the role of the state grew, and prestige of Lithuanian decreased. Documents of Lithuanian law were written in Ruthenian, and it looked normal. Usage of Ruthenian however never reached amounts of official language usage in modern sense, and stayed comparable with usage of Latin in Medieval Europe.

On the other hand, not only Ruthenian, but Latin and Polish also narrowed the use of Lithuanian. The Great Duke of Lithuania (later, also the king of Poland) Alexander (as the Great Duke reigned 1492–1506) was taught "Lithuanian". Even if "Lithuanian" does not mean "Ruthenian", Alexander would have been the last Great Duke who knew Lithuanian.

The loss of ethnic basis did not reduce patriotism among nobles. The variegate Lithuanian mythology of this time (legend about emigration of Palemon from Rome to Lithuania, legend about the founding of the capital of Lithuania Vilnius by Duke Gediminas, and other pieces) had been presented in a spirit of high lucid and virtuous patriotism.

Original architectural style (with Western-European and Byzantine tendencies fused in it) and other manifestations of material culture of this time prove Lithuania as a distinctive cultural unit. However, Lithuania was too little known to Western Europeans in these times.

The Middle Christian period (The mid 16th – 17th century)

The Protestant Reformation in Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Protestant Reformation was met differently by different strata of Lithuanians. Ruling classes entered into the Reformation struggles both on pro and contra sides. Urban people in the biggest towns, especially in the Catholic part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania (G.D.L.), were involved in these struggles too, mostly as clients of some persons of influence in the highest stratum. Ordinary  people of towns  played a role of believers in both Catholic and Protestant churches. From the mid 16th century until the end of the Reformation, sporadic street scuffles between Catholic and Protestant hotheads were often found in these towns. However even in the time of the religious struggle, some partial tolerance existed, and both involved sides proclaimed their abstinence from solving the question in the form of violence. The scuffles always were restricted by officials and they never grew into military conflicts or massacre.

The answer of ordinary country people to the Reformation was their return to "paganism". After some stabilization, both Catholic Jesuits in G.D.L. and Protestant priests in Prussia describe the situation such, as if Lithuania was christened not before 250 years, but still before the events. It seems likely that both sources described this situation so emphatically in order to simulate bigger merits in rechristening. But it also points out that "pagan" tendencies still existed not only in a subconscious form, but also in performing rites. Besides to it, Christian life had to remain in some forms in country-regions too.

It must also be emphasized that the eastern part of G.D.L. stayed orthodox and orthodox culture had its broad cultural life. The same can be said about Jewish, Tatar and Karait minorities in G.D.L. And all these facts show how variegated and different-sided the cultural situation in Lithuania was.

Adding to this, there were some tendencies in cultural life of G.D.L. not directly connected with religious problems on Reformation background. In the first place, absorption of ideas of Western cultural development in 13th – 16th centuries by nobles (especially, urban ones).  Italian cultural ideas of Rinascemento had an especially big influence. They were reflected on literature (written mostly in Latin or Polish, or, in case of orthodox, in Ruthenian).

The main reasons for such exceptional thoughts of Italy were conservatism of Lithuanians and position of the Royal court. All facts showed Italy to Lithuanians as a country of ancient and high culture. Additionally, the Queen of Poland wife of Sigismund I Bona was Italian. Thus despite the growth of Reformation, the cultural orientation hadn't changed.

The Reformation in Lithuania remained on the level of political and religious regulating ideas and didn't turn into a cultural movement as it did in West European countries. disputes about the Reformation were in the form of peaceful verbal discussion among the highest estate of the country. And in these discussions, the Latin language, eloquence, citation and knowledge of ancient philosophers referred more to Italy than to any other country of Western Europe.

In this atmosphere Catholics decided to use this cultural attachment to improve their position. Their leaders decided to found a unit of Jesuit order in Lithuania (Jesuits were known as masters of discussion and providers of a modernized Latin-based scholastic education). In their turn Jesuits founded the University of Vilnius (officially 1579). Students and graduates of the University soon became true supporters of the Catholic Church.

These events caused the wave of Reformation to fall. With the decrees of Reformation aspirations in the higher strata, activity of reformers among the rest of the urban population was more and more restricted by officials.  Thus after the middle of the 17th century, the non-Orthodox part of Lithuania became firmly Catholic (with a Protestant minorities in some towns like Vilnius, Kėdainiai, and Biržai).

Printing of books
Another cultural factor, not connected with the reformation directly, was printing of books. The first printed books reached Lithuania before the beginning of the Reformation. But multiplied religious discussions and the increase of printing in Western Europe both activated interest in printing books in Lithuania. The first book in Lithuanian was printed in 1547  in Königsberg (it was a Protestant Catechism by Martynas Mažvydas). The first typography in G.D.L. was opened in approx. 1575 in Vilnius.

Presence of printed books became the signal factor to change ancient Lithuanian cultural attitude against literacy. The necessity of literacy became evident. But in G.D.L. at the same time the growing of literacy coincided with refusal of Lithuanian culture among the nobility.

Lithuanian-language culture

Background

Lithuanian-language culture derived directly from old Lithuanian culture, among lower strata prevalently.  The language barrier  caused it to remain isolated from innovations in culture in the 15th century. However the Christianity of higher estates and presence of Christian parishes even in country regions weakened a base of old religion and induced some non direct changes towards culture, based on common European values.

The higher strata in Lithuania for unknown reasons accepted innovations in culture directly, without any attempts at inculturation or adaptation to local cultural thinking. It meant accepting of extraneous culture in all its complexity, with using new language and so on. So, old Lithuanian culture (or, as a later form, Lithuanian-language culture) was negated and rejected by a part of the population in Lithuanian part of G.D.L., especially by the highest estates since approx. middle 15th century. This situation became a serious impediment to Lithuanian-language culture. Lithuanians of lower estates could not become acquainted with European Christian culture, but their peculiar cultural life was strongly slowed too. So all later facts of Lithuanian cultural life till the middle of the 19th century were more or less sporadic.

National Lithuanian culture did not become a factor of unification of Lithuanian elite during this period. Christianity was declared then as such a factor, but different European cultural influences made this idea complex. There were followers of Polish, German, Italian cultures, and Protestants and Catholics contested  in Lithuania in that time. And both orthodoxes and Jews, even if they stayed a bit in a side, contributed to all this variety.  - But this situation saved Lithuanian-language culture as well. Being strictly negated, it also did not have clear directions of change and stayed original. In its turn this having no direction was dangerous for self-isolation and remaining stagnate without creative flight.

When the Catholic Church (or the Lutheran one, if we speak about Lithuanians in Prussia) became a provider of new ideas for Lithuanian people, it became something like a window to the extraneous world. It's a question how much this role was accepted voluntary by the church. Some historians argue that it was made by pressure of rivalry between Catholics and Protestants and it weakened when Reformation struggles decreased.

At any rate, the other, opposite to negating Lithuanian culture, tendency had its supporters too. Even more, these two tendencies, the inculturating and the negating one, remained as two main components in Lithuanian culture till the beginning of the 19th century and have their evident consequences now.

The development
Changes of old Lithuanian culture became mostly evident in a sphere of religion. We know only approximately what new elements had been introduced into (old) Lithuanian culture, clothing and so on in the beginning of this period. But the popular-kind simplifying   (or becoming more rustic) of old Lithuanian religion is an unquestioned thing. The ritual became strictly connected with the calendar of rural works and other factors of this kind; witnesses of that time found a multitude of sacred objects (they simply described them as "gods"), which were connected totally with all material life, but didn't refer to more philosophically common or abstract ideas (in opposition to descriptions of religion in the 14th century). It allows us to think about some form of pantheism, as if all the world was holy for Lithuanians.

This old vision of the world retreated slowly and finally was extinguished  in the end of the 18th century. There were two stages of this process. Firstly the extinguishing of original attributes of the old religion, as names, forms of rite, details of clothing, and especially words of holy prayers, songs and poems. All these traditional forms still had some existence in the 16th century, but they became less and less known a century later. And we can date the beginning of the new stage approximately to the last quarter of the 16th century.

Two other processes started in this time. The first was stabilization of some old cultural forms, maybe less confronting to Christian requirements. Later, some of them survived the time of the very understanding old culture values and became known by neighboring nations as Lithuanian popular traditions  since the middle of the 19th century or sporadically even earlier. The traditional popular songs (dainos) and Lithuanian woven sashes (juostos) are among them. Lithuanians began to create the songs in these times instead of forgotten or forbidden old holy songs and prayers. The melodic base of dainos, especially in the very beginning, was the same as in these songs. Juostos had been woven by women since old times. During this period they became the main ware, in which traditional Lithuanian ornaments still were used. The ornaments may have had some conventional symbolic significance, but during this period they began  to be   seen only as forms of art, which later developed into a standard of Lithuanian popular art.

The second process, which took place after the end of the 16th century, was introduction of ideas of Christianity into the Lithuanian environment, using Lithuanian culture's symbols and traditions. This program was initiated by Jesuits (in G.D.L. only). The worship of various old religion holy essences was changed into cult of saints. On the other hand, traditional Catholic art forms of sacred objects were supplemented in Lithuania by some forms, which were comparable with ones, taken from old Lithuanian art ware. As the best example, traditional (both iron and wooden) crosses in present Lithuania, West Belarus and Northern Poland with raying sun and moon could be noted. In this case we can see old symbols still having symbolic (maybe different from pre-Christian times) sense too.
During this period, new forms were added to country art. Local craftsmen made (mostly wooden) statues of saints, chapels, wooden an iron crosses (statues and chapels often had well-seen prototypes, made by famous European artists, but there were also original ones). Till the 19th century it became a significant branch of Lithuanian country art, known and used also by urban people.

This program of inculturation required a good knowledge of Lithuanian. The superiors of Jesuits in Lithuania always paid some (though not very big) attention to it. The time after founding Jesuits in Lithuania was exceptional in this point. The rivalry with Reformers and, maybe, more direct survey from Rome caused, that attention, paid to Lithuanian by Jesuits was greater, than before or after it. Jesuit Lithuanian Daukša even wrote a manifesto (printed in his Postil, a collection of sermons in Lithuanian, in 1599), in which he exhorted Lithuanian nobles to regard and to use Lithuanian. Twenty years later the first dictionary with Lithuanian words was published (Polish–Latin–Lithuanian dictionary by Jesuit priest  Konstantinas Sirvydas, in approx. 1620) and it became a significant fact of Lithuanian cultural life. The dictionary had a big influence to the development of Lithuanian, especially to its standardization and modernization. Adding to this, Lithuanian was presented in a satisfactory form in the dictionary, with borrowings forming only a small part of the entire word corpus. And it meant not only a difference of Lithuanian-language culture from others, but also a big potential of this culture.

So the short period during which Lithuanian-language culture was fostered by the Society of Jesus had positive effects.

After the middle of the 17th century, a moderate rise of Lithuanian-speaking culture took place. Politically it was the time of turmoils and wars. Despite of it towns were growing in Lithuania and various new realities came into life. The number of urban people increased and newcomers (in much cases Lithuanian-speaking) had significant input to it. The degree of communication between state and town officials and ordinary inhabitants increased as well. This development caused necessary changes in language policy. In non-orthodox regions of G.D.L. the middle and lower strata of urban people used Lithuanian. And only some regions in the South of G.D.L. as Grodna, Augustów regions and Vilnius town (not region) were exceptions to it, having however Lithuanian-speaking population parts, mostly in lower strata. This situation caused it to be necessary for the highest stratum of nobles to know Lithuanian too. The prestige of Lithuanian was increasing at this time and we can speak about some relative expansion and renovation of Lithuanian-speaking culture.

Lithuanian didn't gain official status then. Among various causes of it, some more significant must be emphasized. Firstly, the two biggest towns in G.D.L. were polonized earlier and more than other towns. Secondly, position of Catholic church in G.D.L. was favorable to Polish. Adding to this, whereas publishing of books was sponsored by the highest nobles and by Catholic and Orthodox churches, publishing of books in Lithuanian did not increase. Lithuanian-language books became more and more inconspicuous among Polish and Latin publications.

As a result, the Lithuanian-speaking culture did not expand among the highest nobles. But some positive changes took place in this time too. The language was modernized, it was no longer a language of mere country people. Style of courtesy re-appeared in the language (some style of this kind had to exist in pre-Christian Lithuania). All this contributed to the existence of a Lithuanian-speaking culture among further generations of nobles and urban people. And these processes, going on only on a part of the territory of G.D.L., were a sign of a growing modern Lithuania.

Lithuanian-language culture in the Duchy of Prussia
Lithuanians, mostly villagers, lived in the North and North-East regions of the Duchy of Prussia. This fact was confirmed later in administrative way, and administrative unit, called Lithuanian counties was created. Unofficially it was called Lithuania, Prussian Lithuania, or, in later times, also Lithuania Minor. In the beginning of the 16th century, Lithuanians in Prussia had the same cultural traditions as neighboring Lithuanians in G.D.L., and some inessential differences are not worth mentioning here.

But later the cultural difference between Prussian Lithuania and Lithuanian part of G.D.L. increased. The main points of this process were: In 1530, Prussia became a secular Protestant state. So Prussian Lithuanians became Protestants (Lutherans), while Lithuanians in G.D.L. stayed Catholics. The next point was presence of some official attention to religious education in the native language in Prussia. At the beginning, after 1530, for this purpose the first secular ruler of Prussia, the duke Albert invited a number of educated Lithuanians Protestants from G.D.L. They became senior priests in Prussian Lithuania and authors of church texts, holy songs in Lithuanian and their translations into Lithuanian, but one of them, Martynas Mažvydas, wrote a catechism, which was published in 1547  in Königsberg, becoming the first printed book in Lithuanian.

Since this time priests of Lithuanian parishes were obliged to know Lithuanian and they did this obligation more or less. There were talented persons among them, and sometimes books in Lithuanian with new translations of religious texts, new holy songs and so on were published. In 1653 the first Lithuanian grammar, Grammatica Litvanica by Daniel Klein, was issued in  Königsberg. And unpublished material on Lithuanian language and culture, collected by them, was big too.

The interest of Lutheran priests of Prussian Lithuanian parishes in Lithuanian was deeper than the interest of their Catholic colleagues in G.D.L., and they managed to print more books for a relatively small Lithuanian population in Prussia, than Catholic editors for all Lithuanian population in G.D.L.

Catholic priests paid less attention towards Lithuanian popular traditions than Lutheran ones. Also the existence of G.D.L. had some influence to Prussian ruling persons and even put some pressure on them, and it did not allow disregarding of existing Lithuanians and their cultural needs. And the situation of Lithuanians was better, than, for example, the Old Prussian population, whose language was called "barbarian" and attained only minimal attention.

Despite good attention to Lithuanian, Lithuanians were not admitted to the Prussian ruling class, which remained German. And the church career was the only one available for Lithuanians. Concentration of Lithuanian intellectuals in priest estate had some significant consequences. Lithuanian remained in use in Prussian Lithuania till the beginning of the 20th century and later. Besides this, Lithuanians became loyal and faithful to Evangelical Church in Prussia and Protestantism, their faith assumed some forms of pietism. And, in its turn, they became loyal and devoted subjects and patriots of Prussia. Thus, in fact, this part of the Lithuanian nation was separated from the main part in G.D.L. during this period.

The later part of Middle Christian period from the end of the 17th century to the mid-19th century suffered a period of decline for the Grand duchy of Lithuania.

List of cultural events of the 18th to the 20th centuries
The table below contains the main historical events connected with cultural life in Lithuania in the 18th to 20th centuries.

See also
History of Lithuania
Lithuania
Central Lithuania
Baltic region
Baltic Germans
Architecture of Lithuania
Lithuanian name

References

pt:Cultura da Lituânia
simple:Culture of Lithuania

History of Lithuanian culture


Afera Zabern  bila je kriza unutarnjepolitička koja se dogodila u Njemačkom carstvu koncem 1913. godine. Kriza je uzrokovana političkim nemirima u Zabernu (sada Saverne), Elzas-Lotaringija, gdje su bila dva bataljona pruske 99. (2. gornjorajnske) pješačke pukovnije u garnizonu, nakon što je mladi poručnik uvrijedio elzaško stanovništvo. Vojska je na prosvjede reagirala proizvoljnim nezakonitim radnjama. Ta kršenja dovela su do rasprave u njemačkom Reichstagu o militarističkim strukturama njemačkog društva, kao i položaju vodstva carstva u odnosu na cara Vilima II. Afera je ne samo ozbiljno narušila odnos carskog teritorija Elzas-Lotaringija i ostatka Njemačkog carstva, već je dovela i do značajnog gubitka ugleda samog cara.

Uzroci

Forstnerovo vrijeđanje domaćeg stanovništva

Dvadesetdvogodišnji drugi poručnik Günter Freiherr von Forstner (rođen 15. travnja 1893 .; umro 29. kolovoza 1915. ubijen u Kobrynu) govorio je omalovažavajuće o stanovnicima Zaberna 28. listopada tijekom smotre trupa. Rekao je svojim vojnicima: "Ako ste napadnuti, upotrijebite oružje; ako ubodete neke wackes u procesu, tada ćete dobiti deset maraka od mene." (Napomena: "wackes" je njemački pogrdni izraz za Elzašane i smatrao se dovoljno uvredljivim i zapaljivim da su njemački vojni propisi zabranjivali njegovu upotrebu.)

Pored toga, upozoravao je svoje ljude očigledno agresivnim tonom protiv francuskih agenata, koji su ih htjeli navodno unovačiti za Legiju stranaca.

Odjek u javnosti i reakcija lokalnih ljudi

6. studenoga dvije su lokalne novine, Elsässer i Zaberner Anzeiger, obavijestili javnost o tim događajima. Stanovništvo je snažno prosvjedovalo protiv takvog postupanja pruske vojske u sljedećih nekoliko dana. Statthalter (guverner) Elzas-Lotaringije, Karl von Wedel, pozvao je zapovjednika pukovnije Adolfa von Reutera, kao i zapovjednog generala Bertholda von Deimlinga da premjeste drugog poručnika. S gledišta vojske, međutim, to nije bilo u skladu s čašću i ugledom njemačke carske vojske. Poručnik von Forstner osuđen je na samo šest dana kućnog pritvora (a javnost nije bila obaviještena ni o ovoj mjeri, što je stvorilo dojam da je Forstner prošao potpuno nekažnjeno). Službena izjava vlasti u Strasburgu 11. studenoga umanjila je incident i protumačila je "Wackes" kao općeniti opis svađalački raspoložene osobe.  Jedanaest dana kasnije, deset članova Pete čete pješačke pukovnije 99 uhićeno je i optuženo za odavanje podataka novinarima.

Neimpresionirana tim akcijama, elzaška javnost nastavila je prosvjedovati. Kao dodatnu provokaciju, poručnik Forstner pokazao se javnosti ponovo nakon kućnog pritvora, u pratnji četvero naoružanih vojnika, po naredbi garnizonske komande. Poručnika Forstnera nekoliko su puta vrijeđali, prije svega mlađi prosvjednici, za vrijeme svog nastupa ispred vojarne, a da ih lokalne policijske vlasti nisu uspjele spriječiti. Pukovnik von Reuter tražio je od vođe lokalne civilne uprave, direktora Mahla, uspostavljanje reda uz pomoć policije, ili će u protivnom morati sam poduzeti mjere. Kao Elzašanin, Mahl se suosjećao sa stanovništvom i odbio njegov zahtjev, jer su se prosvjednici ponašali mirno i nisu kršili nikakav zakon.

Eskalacija sukoba

28. studenoga pred vojarnom se ponovo okupila ogromna gomila ljudi, što je ovaj put dovelo do neprimjerene protu-reakcije trupa. Von Reuter je naložio drugom poručniku Schadtu, koji je u to vrijeme zapovijedao stražarima, da rasprši gomilu. Schadt je pozvao stražare na oružje i naredio im tri puta da se raziđu. Vojnici su izgurali gomilu po dvorištu vojarne u sporednu ulicu, pod prijetnjom oružja, i uhitili velik broj ljudi bez ikakve zakonske osnove. Među zatvorenicima su bili predsjednik, dva suca i odvjetnik suda u Zabernu, koji su se slučajno uvukli u masu prilikom izlaska iz zgrade suda. Dvadeset i šest uhićenih osoba bilo je preko noći zatvoreno u spremištu ugljena. Redakcije jedne od lokalnih novina koje su objavljivile vijest o Forstneru, vojnici su također nezakonito pretražili, po nagovještaju doušnika. Nad gradom je visila sjena opsadnog stanja, a na ulicama su bili izloženi mitraljezi.

Razvoj događanja

Prva reakcija cara
Car Vilim II. u to je vrijeme lovio na imanju Maxa Egona, kneza od Fürstenberga u Donaueschingenu. Iako je ovo putovanje organizirano mnogo prije događaja u Zabernu, Vilimov nedostatak zanimanja ostavio je loš dojam. Prema glasinama, carica, Augusta Victoria iz Schleswig-Holsteina, čak je naručia vlak da je odvede svom suprugu kako bi ga ona nagovorila da se vrati u Berlin. Prema povjesničaru Wolfgangu Mommsenu, Vilim II.  podcjenjivao je političku dimenziju incidenta toga trenutku. Na izvješća na koja je Statthalter (guverner) Elzasa-Lotaringije, Karl von Wedel, slao Donaueschingenu, u kojima je opisao incidente kao pretjerane i nezakonite, odgovoreno je kako bi se dobilo na vremenu. Vilim II. htio je najprije pričekati izvješće iz vojnog stožera u Strasbourgu.

30. studenoga pruski ratni ministar Erich von Falkenhayn, general Berthold Deimling i neki drugi visoki časnici stigli su u Donaueschingen i započele su šestodnevnu raspru. Javnost je zbog toga postala još ogorčenija jer je Kaiser očito želio čuti samo gledište vojske. Kancelar Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg,   koji je bio pod sve većim pritiskom, pridružio se konferenciji malo prije nego što je završila. Rezultat je bio razočaranje iz stava kritičnih slojeva stanovništva; kaiser je odobrio ponašanje vojnih časnika i nije vidio razloga da vjeruje da su prekoračili svoje ovlasti. Deimling je poslao brigadnog generala u Zabern, koji je 1. prosinca obnovio civilnu vlast.

Forstnerov drugi prijestup
2. prosinca održana je vojna vježba u Zabernu. Prizor je s ulice promatrao Karl Blank, obućar putnik, koji je puknuo od smijeha kad je vidio mladog, lijepo obučenog Forstnera a neki mještani koji su stajali oko njega, pridružili su mu se. Kao rezultat toga, Forstner je izgubio kontrolu i oborio ga sabljom i zadao mu teške ozljede glave. Taj novi čin agresije još je više pojačao aferu.

Forstner je u prvom suđenju vojni sud osuđen na 43 dana zatvora, a na prizivnom sudu presuda je u potpunosti izmijenjena. Iako ga je pratilo pet naoružanih vojnika, a Blank bio nenaoružan, kao i paraliziran na jednoj strani, sudac je njegove postupke protumačio kao "samoobranu", jer je postolar bio kriv za "vrijeđanje krune". U vojnim krugovima Forstner je bio ohrabren jer je svojim nasilnim činom branio čast vojske.

Prosvjedi diljem carstva

28. studenog okružni vijećnik iz Zaberna napisao je brzojav Wilhelmu II., Bethmannu Hollwegu i Falkenhaynu, u kojem je prosvjedovao protiv proizvoljnih uhićenja svojih građana. Dva dana kasnije u Mülhausenu se održala skupština SPD-a s 3000 sudionika, koja je demonstrirala protiv vojničkog kršenja zakona. U rezoluciji, sudionici su državu opisali kao vojnu diktaturu i zatražili otpor protiv prevladavajućih uvjeta - po potrebi čak i štrajkovima.

U Strasbourgu, gradonačelnici nekoliko gradova Elzasa-Lotaringije apelirali su 2. prosinca na Kaisera da poduzme mjere kako bi se zajamčila zaštita njihovih stanovnika od vojnog despotizma.

Val ogorčenja širio se cijelim carstvom. Mnogi su bili zgroženi zbog načina na koji vojska postupa, posebno u SPD-u. 3. prosinca predsjednik stranke SPD pozvao je sve organizacije stranke na prosvjedne skupove.

Četiri dana kasnije, skupovi su održani u 17 njemačkih gradova – u Berlinu, Breslauu, Chemnitzu, Duisburgu, Düsseldorfu, Elberfeldu, Kölnu, Leipzigu, Mülheimu an der Ruhr, Münchenu, Solingenu i Strasbourgu, na kojem su socijaldemokrati demonstrirali protiv despotske vladavine vojske i zahtijevali ostavke Bethmanna Hollwega i Falkenhayna. Narodni pokret zapalio se protiv militarizma i radi obrane prava nacionalnih manjina u njemačkom Reichu.

Međutim, vlada kaisera nije popustila. Da bi privremeno izbjegao daljnje probleme, kaiser je 5. prosinca naredio privremeni premještaj postrojbi iz Zaberna. U sljedeća dva dana vojnici su se preselili na poligon za obuku vojnika u Oberhofenu (u blizini Haguenaua) i Bitcheu.

Daljnja pobuna bila je ugušena. 11. prosinca, vojni sud u Strasbourgu osudio je dvojicu regruta iz Savernea na tri, odnosno šest tjedana vojnog uhićenja, jer su javno potvrdili Forstnerove uvredljive izjave.

Na zahtjev tamošnjeg generalnog zapovjedništva XV. vojnog korpusa, policija u Strasbourgu zaplijenila je snimku koji je napravila gramofonska tvrtka Cromer i Schrack 17. prosinca. Snimka je otkrila događaje iz afere Zabern kroz dijaloge sa svirkom bubnjeva u pozadini. Pored toga, vojska je pokrenula sudski postupak zbog uvrede njemačkih časnika. Protesti su potom jenjali.

Posljedice

Suđenje von Reuteru i Schadtu

Suđenje pred vojnim sudom u Strasbourgu od 5. siječnja do 10. siječnja oslobodilo je glavne odgovorne ljude, pukovnika von Reutera i poručnika Schadta, optužbi za nezakonito prisvajanje vlasti od civilne policije. Sud se ispričao zbog prekršaja vojnika, ali je svalio krivnju na civilne vlasti čiji je zadatak trebao biti održavanje reda. Pozivao se na naredbu pruskog kabineta iz 1820. Prema naredbi, najviši vojni dužnosnik grada mora oduzeti zakonske ovlasti ako civilna vlast zanemari održavanje reda. Budući da su optuženici postupili po snazi ovih propisa, nisu mogli biti osuđeni.

Iako su mnogi liberalni građani koji su sa zanimanjem pratili suđenje sada bili očajno razočarani, velika se radost zbog presude raširila među prisutnim vojnim osobljem. Čestitali su optuženima dok su još bili u sudnici. Wilhelm II. također je bio vidno zadovoljan i čak je povratnom poštom dodijelio medalju von Reuteru. Vojska je napustila pozornicu kao snažan i samopouzdan pobjednik, čak joj je potvrđena nepovredivost u Carstvu.

Posljedice za Elzas-Lotaringiju

Odnos između Elzasa-Lotaringije i ostatka Njemačkog Carstva bio je osjetno pogoršan. Elzašani i Lotarinžani osjećali su se još bespomoćnije u milosti samovolje njemačke vojske nego ikad. Drugo vijeće parlamenta Elzasa-Lotaringije osvrnulo se na incidente 14. siječnja u rezoluciji. Dok su branili ponašanje civilnih vlasti, osuđivali su akciju vojske, kao i oslobađajuću presudu zapovjedniku von Reuteru. Predstavnici Landtaga različitih stranaka osnovali su Ligu za obranu Elzasa i Lorene u Strasbourgu 26. veljače. Osim toga, parlament je 16. lipnja donio dekret prema kojem su sve osobe regrutirane ubuduće mogle obavljati svoju službu izvan Njemačka država (odnosno Elzas-Lotaringija).

Kroz aferu Zabern došlo je i do promjena u osoblju, zbog čega su dva najvažnija mjesta u Elzas-Lotaringiji novo popunjena. 31. siječnja državnog tajnika u Ministarstvu za Elzas-Lotaringiju, Huga Zorna von Bulacha, zamijenio je savjetnik gornjeg predsjedništva Potsdama, Siegfried von Roedern. Reichsstatthalter, Karl von Wedel, dao je ostavku 18. travnja, nakon čega je Kaiser pruskog ministra unutarnjih poslova Johanna von Dallwitza stavio na razočaranje Elzašana. Dallwitz je bio odlučni zagovornik autoritarne države i odbacivao ustav koji je dodijeljen pokrajini 1911.

Međutim, Prvi svjetski rat spriječio je daljnje ozbiljne sukobe između Njemačkog Carstva i pokrajine. Poručnik Forstner bit će ubijen u borbi 1915. godine u Kobrynu na istočnom bojištu (današnja Bjelorusija). Njemačka će se naći na gubitničkoj strani te izgubiti Elzas-Lotaringiju (pored još nekih teritorija).

Izvori

Povijest Njemačke (1871. – 1914.)

Afera Zabern


Agrilus saltensis é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Kerremans, 1903.

Referências

saltensis

Agrilus saltensis


Les élections législatives japonaises à la Chambre des représentants se déroulent au Japon le .

Résultats

1952 au Japon
1952
Japon
Octobre 1952

Élections législatives japonaises de 1952


باتريك فابيانو، لاعب كرة قدم برازيلي يلعب مع نادي النصر الكويتي منذ 2009، وفي يوم 2 ديسمبر 2009 سجل هدفين في مرمى نادي الكويت في المباراة الأولى لهم في الدوري الكويتي 2009/2010.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في الإمارات العربية المتحدة
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في بوليفيا
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في الكويت
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في قطر
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في المكسيك
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية برازيليون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة القدم البرازيليون
مهاجمو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون برازيليون مغتربون في الإمارات العربية المتحدة
رياضيون برازيليون مغتربون في الكويت
رياضيون برازيليون مغتربون في المكسيك
رياضيون برازيليون مغتربون في بوليفيا
رياضيون برازيليون مغتربون في قطر
رياضيون من مدينة ساو باولو
لاعبو أتلتيكو بارانيس
لاعبو الدوري الإماراتي
لاعبو الدوري البوليفي لكرة القدم
لاعبو الدوري الكويتي
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى الإماراتي
لاعبو دوري نجوم قطر
لاعبو كرة قدم برازيليون
لاعبو كرة قدم تيموريون شرقيون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون برازيليون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في الإمارات العربية المتحدة
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في الكويت
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في المكسيك
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في بوليفيا
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في قطر
لاعبو كرة قدم من ساو باولو
لاعبو كلوب ديسترويرس
لاعبو منتخب تيمور الشرقية لكرة القدم
لاعبو نادي السالمية
لاعبو نادي الفجيرة
لاعبو نادي الكويت
لاعبو نادي النصر (الكويت)
لاعبو نادي تيكوس
لاعبو نادي حتا
لاعبو نادي خورفكان
لاعبو نادي قطر
لاعبو نادي كاظمة
مواليد 1408 هـ
مواليد 1987
مواليد في ساو باولو

باتريك فابيانو


Manhole (jap. , Manhōru, dt. "Gullyloch") ist ein von Tsutsui Tetsuya geschriebener und gezeichneter Manga. Er wurde von Carlsen Manga in Deutschland veröffentlicht.

Handlung
In dem Manga geht es um eine plötzlich aufgetauchte Seuche. Diese Seuche basiert auf einer unbekannten Parasitenart. Hauptkommissar Ken Mizoguchi () und seine Kollegin Nao Inoue () finden heraus, dass diese Parasiten wohl absichtlich nach Tokyo gebracht wurden, um Verbrecher zu infizieren und diese damit zu bestrafen. Durch eine Verkettung unglücklicher Umstände greift die Infektion allerdings auf die Bevölkerung über und droht, sich zu einer schlimmen Epidemie auszuweiten.

Veröffentlichung
Der Manga erschien erstmals in Japan von 2004 bis 2006 beim Verlag Square Enix im Magazin Young Gangan. Es folgten Übersetzungen ins Französische, Chinesische und Italienische. Seit Januar 2012 erschienen drei Bände des Mangas auf Deutsch beim Carlsen Verlag.

Weblinks
 Offizielle Homepage des Carlsen-Verlags zur deutschen Manga-Fassung
 Eintrag bei Anime News Network (englisch)

Manga (Werk)

Manhole (Manga)


Malarhornsviti er 3 metra hár rauðgulur brúarlaga viti sem stendur á kambinum fyrir ofan Malarhorn á Drangsnesi við Steingrímsfjörð á Ströndum. Ljóseinkenni vitans er Fl(2)WRG 15s (2 blikkljós í þrískiptum geisla á 15 sekúndna fresti).

Upphaflega var reistur viti á Malarhorni með húsi úr stáli árið 1916, líkt og á Hólmavík á sama tíma. Vitinn skemmdist í bruna árið 1934. Nýr steinsteyptur viti var reistur 1947 og tekinn í notkun árið eftir.

Vitar á Íslandi
Kaldrananeshreppur

Malarhornsviti


Sodd, içinde koyun eti bulunan geleneksel bir Norveç çorbasıdır. Genellikle içine patates veya havuç gibi sebzeler de katılır. Sodd ayrıca Norveç'in orta bölgelerindeki şenliklerin bir parçasıdır.

Çorbalar
Norveç mutfağı

Sodd