In digital image processing and computer vision, image segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into multiple image segments, also known as image regions or image objects (sets of pixels). The goal of segmentation is to simplify and/or change the representation of an image into something that is more meaningful and easier to analyze. Image segmentation is typically used to locate objects and boundaries (lines, curves, etc.) in images. More precisely, image segmentation is the process of assigning a label to every pixel in an image such that pixels with the same label share certain characteristics.

The result of image segmentation is a set of segments that collectively cover the entire image, or a set of contours extracted from the image (see edge detection). Each of the pixels in a region are similar with respect to some characteristic or computed property
, such as color, intensity, or texture. Adjacent regions are significantly different color respect to the same characteristic(s). When applied to a stack of images, typical in medical imaging, the resulting contours after image segmentation can be used to create 3D reconstructions with the help of geometry reconstruction algorithms like marching cubes.

Applications

Some of the practical applications of image segmentation are:

 Content-based image retrieval
 Machine vision
 Medical imaging, including volume rendered images from computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging.
 Locate tumors and other pathologies
 Measure tissue volumes
 Diagnosis, study of anatomical structure
 Surgery planning
 Virtual surgery simulation
 Intra-surgery navigation
 Radiotherapy
 Object detection
 Pedestrian detection
 Face detection
 Brake light detection
 Locate objects in satellite images (roads, forests, crops, etc.)
 Recognition Tasks
 Face recognition
 Fingerprint recognition
 Iris recognition
 Prohibited Item at Airport security checkpoints
 Traffic control systems
 Video surveillance
Video object co-segmentation and action localization

Several general-purpose algorithms and techniques have been developed for image segmentation. To be useful, these techniques must typically be combined with a domain's specific knowledge in order to effectively solve the domain's segmentation problems.

Classes of segmentation techniques
There are two classes of segmentation techniques.
 Classical computer vision approaches
  AI based techniques

Groups of image segmentation

 Semantic segmentation is an approach detecting, for every pixel, the belonging class. For example, in a figure with many people, all the pixels belonging to persons will have the same class id and the pixels in the background will be classified as background.
 Instance segmentation is an approach that identifies, for every pixel, the specific belonging instance of the object. It detects each distinct object of interest in the image. For example, when each person in a figure is segmented as an individual object.
 Panoptic segmentation combines both semantic and instance segmentation. Like semantic segmentation, panoptic segmentation is an approach that identifies, for every pixel, the belonging class. Moreover, like in instance segmentation, panoptic segmentation distinguishes different instances of the same class.

Thresholding

The simplest method of image segmentation is called the thresholding method. This method is based on a clip-level (or a threshold value) to turn a gray-scale image into a binary image.

The key of this method is to select the threshold value (or values when multiple-levels are selected). Several popular methods are used in industry including the maximum entropy method, balanced histogram thresholding, Otsu's method (maximum variance), and k-means clustering.

Recently, methods have been developed for thresholding computed tomography (CT) images. The key idea is that, unlike Otsu's method, the thresholds are derived from the radiographs instead of the (reconstructed) image.

New methods suggested the usage of multi-dimensional fuzzy rule-based non-linear thresholds. In these works decision over each pixel's membership to a segment is based on multi-dimensional rules derived from fuzzy logic and evolutionary algorithms based on image lighting environment and application.

Clustering methods

The K-means algorithm is an iterative technique that is used to partition an image into K clusters. The basic algorithm is

 Pick K cluster centers, either randomly or based on some heuristic method, for example K-means++
 Assign each pixel in the image to the cluster that minimizes the distance between the pixel and the cluster center
 Re-compute the cluster centers by averaging all of the pixels in the cluster
 Repeat steps 2 and 3 until convergence is attained (i.e. no pixels change clusters)

In this case, distance is the squared or absolute difference between a pixel and a cluster center. The difference is typically based on pixel color, intensity, texture, and location, or a weighted combination of these factors. K can be selected manually, randomly, or by a heuristic. This algorithm is guaranteed to converge, but it may not return the optimal solution. The quality of the solution depends on the initial set of clusters and the value of K.

The Mean Shift algorithm is a technique that is used to partition an image into an unknown apriori number of clusters. This has the advantage of not having to start with an initial guess of such parameter which makes it a better general solution for more diverse cases.

Motion and interactive segmentation

Motion based segmentation is a technique that relies on motion in the image to perform segmentation.

The idea is simple: look at the differences between a pair of images. Assuming the object of interest is moving, the difference will be exactly that object.

Improving on this idea, Kenney et al. proposed interactive segmentation . They use a robot to poke objects in order to generate the motion signal necessary for motion-based segmentation.

Interactive segmentation follows the interactive perception framework proposed by Dov Katz  and Oliver Brock .

Another technique that is based on motion is rigid motion segmentation.

Compression-based methods

Compression based methods postulate that the optimal segmentation is the one that minimizes, over all possible segmentations, the coding length of the data. The connection between these two concepts is that segmentation tries to find patterns in an image and any regularity in the image can be used to compress it. The method describes each segment by its texture and boundary shape. Each of these components is modeled by a probability distribution function and its coding length is computed as follows:

 The boundary encoding leverages the fact that regions in natural images tend to have a smooth contour. This prior is used by Huffman coding to encode the difference chain code of the contours in an image. Thus, the smoother a boundary is, the shorter coding length it attains.
 Texture is encoded by lossy compression in a way similar to minimum description length (MDL) principle, but here the length of the data given the model is approximated by the number of samples times the entropy of the model. The texture in each region is modeled by a multivariate normal distribution whose entropy has a closed form expression. An interesting property of this model is that the estimated entropy bounds the true entropy of the data from above. This is because among all distributions with a given mean and covariance, normal distribution has the largest entropy. Thus, the true coding length cannot be more than what the algorithm tries to minimize.

For any given segmentation of an image, this scheme yields the number of bits required to encode that image based on the given segmentation. Thus, among all possible segmentations of an image, the goal is to find the segmentation which produces the shortest coding length. This can be achieved by a simple agglomerative clustering method. The distortion in the lossy compression determines the coarseness of the segmentation and its optimal value may differ for each image. This parameter can be estimated heuristically from the contrast of textures in an image. For example, when the textures in an image are similar, such as in camouflage images, stronger sensitivity and thus lower quantization is required.

Histogram-based methods

Histogram-based methods are very efficient compared to other image segmentation methods because they typically require only one pass through the pixels. In this technique, a histogram is computed from all of the pixels in the image, and the peaks and valleys in the histogram are used to locate the clusters in the image. Color or intensity can be used as the measure.

A refinement of this technique is to recursively apply the histogram-seeking method to clusters in the image in order to divide them into smaller clusters. This operation is repeated with smaller and smaller clusters until no more clusters are formed.

One disadvantage of the histogram-seeking method is that it may be difficult to identify significant peaks and valleys in the image.

Histogram-based approaches can also be quickly adapted to apply to multiple frames, while maintaining their single pass efficiency. The histogram can be done in multiple fashions when multiple frames are considered. The same approach that is taken with one frame can be applied to multiple, and after the results are merged, peaks and valleys that were previously difficult to identify are more likely to be distinguishable. The histogram can also be applied on a per-pixel basis where the resulting information is used to determine the most frequent color for the pixel location. This approach segments based on active objects and a static environment, resulting in a different type of segmentation useful in video tracking.

Edge detection

Edge detection is a well-developed field on its own within image processing. Region boundaries and edges are closely related,
since there is often a sharp adjustment in intensity at the region boundaries. Edge detection techniques have therefore been used as the base of another segmentation technique.

The edges identified by edge detection are often disconnected. To segment an object from an image however, one needs closed region boundaries. The desired edges are the boundaries between such objects or spatial-taxons.

Spatial-taxons are information granules, consisting of a crisp pixel region, stationed at abstraction levels within a hierarchical nested scene architecture. They are similar to the Gestalt psychological designation of figure-ground, but are extended to include foreground, object groups, objects and salient object parts. Edge detection methods can be applied to the spatial-taxon region, in the same manner they would be applied to a silhouette. This method is particularly useful when the disconnected edge is part of an illusory contour

Segmentation methods can also be applied to edges obtained from edge detectors. Lindeberg and Li developed an integrated method that segments edges into straight and curved edge segments for parts-based object recognition, based on a minimum description length (MDL) criterion that was optimized by a split-and-merge-like method with candidate breakpoints obtained from complementary junction cues to obtain more likely points at which to consider partitions into different segments.

Dual clustering method

This method is a combination of three characteristics of the image: partition of the image based on histogram analysis is checked by high compactness of the clusters (objects), and high gradients of their borders. For that purpose two spaces have to be introduced: one space is the one-dimensional histogram of brightness H = H(B); the second space is the dual 3-dimensional space of the original image itself B = B(x, y). The first space allows to measure how compactly the brightness of the image is distributed by calculating a minimal clustering kmin. Threshold brightness T corresponding to kmin defines the binary (black-and-white) image – bitmap b = φ(x, y), where φ(x, y) = 0, if B(x, y) < T, and φ(x, y) = 1, if B(x, y) ≥ T. The bitmap b is an object in dual space. On that bitmap a measure has to be defined reflecting how compact distributed black (or white) pixels are. So, the goal is to find objects with good borders. For all T the measure MDC = G/(k × L) has to be calculated (where k is difference in brightness between the object and the background, L is length of all borders, and G is mean gradient on the borders). Maximum of MDC defines the segmentation.

Region-growing methods

Region-growing methods rely mainly on the assumption that the neighboring pixels within one region have similar values. The common procedure is to compare one pixel with its neighbors. If a similarity criterion is satisfied, the pixel can be set to belong to the same cluster as one or more of its neighbors. The selection of the similarity criterion is significant and the results are influenced by noise in all instances.

The method of Statistical Region Merging (SRM) starts by building the graph of pixels using 4-connectedness with edges weighted by the absolute value of the intensity difference. Initially each pixel forms a single pixel region. SRM then sorts those edges in a priority queue and decides whether or not to merge the current regions belonging to the edge pixels using a statistical predicate.

One region-growing method is the seeded region growing method. This method takes a set of seeds as input along with the image. The seeds mark each of the objects to be segmented. The regions are iteratively grown by comparison of all unallocated neighboring pixels to the regions. The difference between a pixel's intensity value and the region's mean, , is used as a measure of similarity. The pixel with the smallest difference measured in this way is assigned to the respective region. This process continues until all pixels are assigned to a region. Because seeded region growing requires seeds as additional input, the segmentation results are dependent on the choice of seeds, and noise in the image can cause the seeds to be poorly placed.

Another region-growing method is the unseeded region growing method. It is a modified algorithm that does not require explicit seeds. It starts with a single region —the pixel chosen here does not markedly influence the final segmentation. At each iteration it considers the neighboring pixels in the same way as seeded region growing. It differs from seeded region growing in that if the minimum  is less than a predefined threshold  then it is added to the respective region . If not, then the pixel is considered different from all current regions  and a new region  is created with this pixel.

One variant of this technique, proposed by Haralick and Shapiro (1985), is based on pixel intensities. The mean and scatter of the region and the intensity of the candidate pixel are used to compute a test statistic. If the test statistic is sufficiently small, the pixel is added to the region, and the region's mean and scatter are recomputed. Otherwise, the pixel is rejected, and is used to form a new region.

A special region-growing method is called -connected segmentation (see also lambda-connectedness). It is based on pixel intensities and neighborhood-linking paths. A degree of connectivity (connectedness) is calculated based on a path that is formed by pixels. For a certain value of , two pixels are called -connected if there is a path linking those two pixels and the connectedness of this path is at least . -connectedness is an equivalence relation.

Split-and-merge segmentation is based on a quadtree partition of an image. It is sometimes called quadtree segmentation.

This method starts at the root of the tree that represents the whole image. If it is found non-uniform (not homogeneous), then it is split into four child squares (the splitting process), and so on. If, in contrast, four child squares are homogeneous, they are merged as several connected components (the merging process). The node in the tree is a segmented node. This process continues recursively until no further splits or merges are possible. When a special data structure is involved in the implementation of the algorithm of the method, its time complexity can reach , an optimal algorithm of the method.

Partial differential equation-based methods
Using a partial differential equation (PDE)-based method and solving the PDE equation by a numerical scheme, one can segment the image. Curve propagation is a popular technique in this category, with numerous applications to object extraction, object tracking, stereo reconstruction, etc. The central idea is to evolve an initial curve towards the lowest potential of a cost function, where its definition reflects the task to be addressed. As for most inverse problems, the minimization of the cost functional is non-trivial and imposes certain smoothness constraints on the solution, which in the present case can be expressed as geometrical constraints on the evolving curve.

Parametric methods
Lagrangian techniques are based on parameterizing the contour according to some sampling strategy and then evolving each element according to image and internal terms. Such techniques are fast and efficient, however the original "purely parametric" formulation (due to Kass, Witkin and Terzopoulos in 1987 and known as "snakes"), is generally criticized for its limitations regarding the choice of sampling strategy, the internal geometric properties of the curve, topology changes (curve splitting and merging), addressing problems in higher dimensions, etc.. Nowadays, efficient "discretized" formulations have been developed to address these limitations while maintaining high efficiency. In both cases, energy minimization is generally conducted using a steepest-gradient descent, whereby derivatives are computed using, e.g., finite differences.

Level-set methods
The level-set method was initially proposed to track moving interfaces by Dervieux and Thomasset in 1979 and 1981 and was later reinvented by Osher and Sethian in 1988. This has spread across various imaging domains in the late 1990s. It can be used to efficiently address the problem of curve/surface/etc. propagation in an implicit manner. The central idea is to represent the evolving contour using a signed function whose zero corresponds to the actual contour. Then, according to the motion equation of the contour, one can easily derive a similar flow for the implicit surface that when applied to the zero level will reflect the propagation of the contour. The level-set method affords numerous advantages: it is implicit, is parameter-free, provides a direct way to estimate the geometric properties of the evolving structure, allows for change of topology, and is intrinsic. It can be used to define an optimization framework, as proposed by Zhao, Merriman and Osher in 1996. One can conclude that it is a very convenient framework for addressing numerous applications of computer vision and medical image analysis. Research into various level-set data structures has led to very efficient implementations of this method.

Fast marching methods
The fast marching method has been used in image segmentation, and this model has been improved (permitting both positive and negative propagation speeds) in an approach called the generalized fast marching method.

Variational methods
The goal of variational methods is to find a segmentation
which is optimal with respect to a specific energy functional. The functionals consist of a data fitting term and a regularizing terms. A classical representative is the Potts model defined for an image  by

A minimizer  is a piecewise constant image which has an optimal tradeoff between the squared L2 distance to the given image  and the total length of its jump set. The jump set of  defines a segmentation. The relative weight of the energies is tuned by the parameter . The binary variant of the Potts model, i.e., if the range of  is restricted to two values, is often called Chan-Vese model. An important generalization is the Mumford-Shah model given by

The functional value is the sum of the total length of the segmentation curve , the smoothness of the approximation , and its distance to the original image . The weight of the smoothness penalty is adjusted by . The Potts model is often called piecewise constant Mumford-Shah model as it can be seen as the degenerate case . The optimization problems are known to be NP-hard in general but near-minimizing strategies work well in practice. Classical algorithms are graduated non-convexity and Ambrosio-Tortorelli approximation.

Graph partitioning methods
Graph partitioning methods are an effective tools for image segmentation since they model the impact of pixel neighborhoods on a given cluster of pixels or pixel, under the assumption of homogeneity in images. In these methods, the image is modeled as a weighted, undirected graph. Usually a pixel or a group of pixels are associated with nodes and edge weights define the (dis)similarity between the neighborhood pixels. The graph (image) is then partitioned according to a criterion designed to model "good" clusters. Each partition of the nodes (pixels) output from these algorithms are considered an object segment in the image; see Segmentation-based object categorization. Some popular algorithms of this category are normalized cuts, random walker, minimum cut, isoperimetric partitioning, minimum spanning tree-based segmentation, and segmentation-based object categorization.

Markov random fields

The application of Markov random fields (MRF) for images was suggested in early 1984 by Geman and Geman. Their strong mathematical foundation and ability to provide a global optimum even when defined on local features proved to be the foundation for novel research in the domain of image analysis, de-noising and segmentation. MRFs are completely characterized by their prior probability distributions, marginal probability distributions, cliques, smoothing constraint as well as criterion for updating values. The criterion for image segmentation using MRFs is restated as finding the labelling scheme which has maximum probability for a given set of features. The broad categories of image segmentation using MRFs are supervised and unsupervised segmentation.

Supervised image segmentation using MRF and MAP
In terms of image segmentation, the function that MRFs seek to maximize is the probability of identifying a labelling scheme given a particular set of features are detected in the image. This is a restatement of the maximum a posteriori estimation method.

The generic algorithm for image segmentation using MAP is given below:

Optimization algorithms
Each optimization algorithm is an adaptation of models from a variety of fields and they are set apart by their unique cost functions. The common trait of cost functions is to penalize change in pixel value as well as difference in pixel label when compared to labels of neighboring pixels.

Iterated conditional modes/gradient descent

The iterated conditional modes (ICM) algorithm tries to reconstruct the ideal labeling scheme by changing the values of each pixel over each iteration and evaluating the energy of the new labeling scheme using the cost function given below,

where  is the penalty for change in pixel label and  is the penalty for difference in label between
neighboring pixels and chosen pixel. Here  is neighborhood of pixel i and  is the Kronecker delta function. A major issue with ICM is that, similar to gradient descent, it has a tendency to rest over local maxima and thus not obtain a globally optimal labeling scheme.

Simulated annealing (SA)

Derived as an analogue of annealing in metallurgy, simulated annealing (SA) uses change in pixel label over iterations and estimates the difference in energy of each newly formed graph to the initial data. If the newly formed graph is more profitable, in terms of low energy cost, given by:

the algorithm selects the newly formed graph. Simulated annealing requires the input of temperature schedules which directly affects the speed of convergence of the system, as well as energy threshold for minimization to occur.

Alternative algorithms

A range of other methods exist for solving simple as well as higher order MRFs. They include Maximization of Posterior Marginal, Multi-scale MAP estimation, Multiple Resolution segmentation and more. Apart from likelihood estimates, graph-cut using maximum flow and other highly constrained graph based methods exist for solving MRFs.

Image segmentation using MRF and expectation–maximization

The expectation–maximization algorithm is utilized to iteratively estimate the a posterior probabilities and distributions of labeling when no training data is available and no estimate of segmentation model can be formed. A general approach is to use histograms to represent the features of an image and proceed as outlined briefly in this three-step algorithm:

1. A random estimate of the model parameters is utilized.

2. E step: Estimate class statistics based on the random segmentation model defined. Using these, compute the conditional probability of belonging to a label given the feature set is calculated using naive Bayes' theorem.

Here , the set of all possible labels.

3. M step: The established relevance of a given feature set to a labeling scheme is now used to compute the a priori estimate of a given label in the second part of the algorithm. Since the actual number of total labels is unknown (from a training data set), a hidden estimate of the number of labels given by the user is utilized in computations.

where  is the set of all possible features.

Disadvantages of MAP and EM based image segmentation
 Exact MAP estimates cannot be easily computed.
 Approximate MAP estimates are computationally expensive to calculate.
 Extension to multi-class labeling degrades performance and increases storage required.
 Reliable estimation of parameters for EM is required for global optima to be achieved.
 Based on method of optimization, segmentation may cluster to local minima.

Watershed transformation

The watershed transformation considers the gradient magnitude of an image as a topographic surface. Pixels having the highest gradient magnitude intensities (GMIs) correspond to watershed lines, which represent the region boundaries. Water placed on any pixel enclosed by a common watershed line flows downhill to a common local intensity minimum (LIM). Pixels draining to a common minimum form a catch basin, which represents a segment.

Model-based segmentation

The central assumption of model-based approaches is that the structures of interest have a tendency towards a particular shape. Therefore, one can seek a probabilistic model that characterizes the shape and its variation. When segmenting an image, constraints can be imposed using this model as a prior. Such a task may involve (i) registration of the training examples to a common pose, (ii) probabilistic representation of the variation of the registered samples, and (iii) statistical inference between the model and the image. Other important methods in the literature for model-based segmentation include active shape models and active appearance models.

Multi-scale segmentation

Image segmentations are computed at multiple scales in scale space and sometimes propagated from coarse to fine scales; see scale-space segmentation.

Segmentation criteria can be arbitrarily complex and may take into account global as well as local criteria. A common requirement is that each region must be connected in some sense.

One-dimensional hierarchical signal segmentation

Witkin's seminal work in scale space included the notion that a one-dimensional signal could be unambiguously segmented into regions, with one scale parameter controlling the scale of segmentation.

A key observation is that the zero-crossings of the second derivatives (minima and maxima of the first derivative or slope) of multi-scale-smoothed versions of a signal form a nesting tree, which defines hierarchical relations between segments at different scales. Specifically, slope extrema at coarse scales can be traced back to corresponding features at fine scales. When a slope maximum and slope minimum annihilate each other at a larger scale, the three segments that they separated merge into one segment, thus defining the hierarchy of segments.

Image segmentation and primal sketch

There have been numerous research works in this area, out of which a few have now reached a state where they can be applied either with interactive manual intervention (usually with application to medical imaging) or fully automatically. The following is a brief overview of some of the main research ideas that current approaches are based upon.

The nesting structure that Witkin described is, however, specific for one-dimensional signals and does not trivially transfer to higher-dimensional images. Nevertheless, this general idea has inspired several other authors to investigate coarse-to-fine schemes for image segmentation. Koenderink proposed to study how iso-intensity contours evolve over scales and this approach was investigated in more detail by Lifshitz and Pizer. Unfortunately, however, the intensity of image features changes over scales, which implies that it is hard to trace coarse-scale image features to finer scales using iso-intensity information.

Lindeberg studied the problem of linking local extrema and saddle points over scales, and proposed an image representation called the scale-space primal sketch which makes explicit the relations between structures at different scales, and also makes explicit which image features are stable over large ranges of scale including locally appropriate scales for those. Bergholm proposed to detect edges at coarse scales in scale-space and then trace them back to finer scales with manual choice of both the coarse detection scale and the fine localization scale.

Gauch and Pizer studied the complementary problem of ridges and valleys at multiple scales and developed a tool for interactive image segmentation based on multi-scale watersheds. The use of multi-scale watershed with application to the gradient map has also been investigated by Olsen and Nielsen and been carried over to clinical use by Dam. Vincken et al. proposed a hyperstack for defining probabilistic relations between image structures at different scales. The use of stable image structures over scales has been furthered by Ahuja and his co-workers into a fully automated system. A fully automatic brain segmentation algorithm based on closely related ideas of multi-scale watersheds has been presented by Undeman and Lindeberg and been extensively tested in brain databases.

These ideas for multi-scale image segmentation by linking image structures over scales have also been picked up by Florack and Kuijper. Bijaoui and Rué associate structures detected in scale-space above a minimum noise threshold into an object tree which spans multiple scales and corresponds to a kind of feature in the original signal. Extracted features are accurately reconstructed using an iterative conjugate gradient matrix method.

Semi-automatic segmentation

In one kind of segmentation, the user outlines the region of interest with the mouse clicks and algorithms are applied so that the path that best fits the edge of the image is shown.

Techniques like SIOX, Livewire, Intelligent Scissors or IT-SNAPS are used in this kind of segmentation. In an alternative kind of semi-automatic segmentation, the algorithms return a spatial-taxon (i.e. foreground, object-group, object or object-part) selected by the user or designated via prior probabilities.

Trainable segmentation
Most of the aforementioned segmentation methods are based only on color information of pixels in the image. Humans use much more knowledge when performing image segmentation, but implementing this knowledge would cost considerable human engineering and computational time, and would require a huge domain knowledge database which does not currently exist. Trainable segmentation methods, such as neural network segmentation, overcome these issues by modeling the domain knowledge from a dataset of labeled pixels.

An image segmentation neural network can process small areas of an image to extract simple features such as edges. Another neural network, or any decision-making mechanism, can then combine these features to label the areas of an image accordingly. A type of network designed this way is the Kohonen map.

Pulse-coupled neural networks (PCNNs) are neural models proposed by modeling a cat's visual cortex and developed for high-performance biomimetic image processing. In 1989, Reinhard Eckhorn introduced a neural model to emulate the mechanism of a cat's visual cortex. The Eckhorn model provided a simple and effective tool for studying the visual cortex of small mammals, and was soon recognized as having significant application potential in image processing. In 1994, the Eckhorn model was adapted to be an image processing algorithm by John L. Johnson, who termed this algorithm Pulse-Coupled Neural Network. Over the past decade, PCNNs have been utilized for a variety of image processing applications, including: image segmentation, feature generation, face extraction, motion detection, region growing, noise reduction, and so on. A PCNN is a two-dimensional neural network. Each neuron in the network corresponds to one pixel in an input image, receiving its corresponding pixel's color information (e.g. intensity) as an external stimulus. Each neuron also connects with its neighboring neurons, receiving local stimuli from them. The external and local stimuli are combined in an internal activation system, which accumulates the stimuli until it exceeds a dynamic threshold, resulting in a pulse output. Through iterative computation, PCNN neurons produce temporal series of pulse outputs. The temporal series of pulse outputs contain information of input images and can be utilized for various image processing applications, such as image segmentation and feature generation. Compared with conventional image processing means, PCNNs have several significant merits, including robustness against noise, independence of geometric variations in input patterns, capability of bridging minor intensity variations in input patterns, etc.

U-Net is a convolutional neural network which takes as input an image and outputs a label for each pixel. U-Net initially was developed to detect cell boundaries in biomedical images. U-Net follows classical autoencoder architecture, as such it contains two sub-structures. The encoder structure follows the traditional stack of convolutional and max pooling layers to increase the receptive field as it goes through the layers. It is used to capture the context in the image. The decoder structure utilizes transposed convolution layers for upsampling so that the end dimensions are close to that of the input image. Skip connections are placed between convolution and transposed convolution layers of the same shape in order to preserve details that would have been lost otherwise.

In addition to pixel-level semantic segmentation tasks which assign a given category to each pixel, modern segmentation applications include instance-level semantic segmentation tasks in which each individual in a given category must be uniquely identified, as well as panoptic segmentation tasks which combines these two tasks to provide a more complete scene segmentation.

Segmentation of related images and videos

Related images such as a photo album or a sequence of video frames often contain semantically similar objects and scenes, therefore it is often beneficial to exploit such correlations. The task of simultaneously segmenting scenes from related images or video frames is termed co-segmentation, which is typically used in human action localization. Unlike conventional bounding box-based object detection, human action localization methods provide finer-grained results, typically per-image segmentation masks delineating the human object of interest and its action category (e.g., Segment-Tube). Techniques such as dynamic Markov Networks, CNN and LSTM are often employed to exploit the inter-frame correlations.

Other methods

There are many other methods of segmentation like multispectral segmentation or connectivity-based segmentation based on DTI images.

See also

 Object co-segmentation
 Computer vision
 Image-based meshing
 Range image segmentation
 Vector quantization
 Image quantization
 Color quantization
 Object-based image analysis
 List of manual image annotation tools
 Rigid motion segmentation

Notes

References

 3D Entropy Based Image Segmentation

External links
 Some sample code that performs basic segmentation, by Syed Zainudeen. University Technology of Malaysia.
 Generalized Fast Marching method by Forcadel et al. [2008] for applications in image segmentation.
 Image Processing Research Group  An Online Open Image Processing Research Community.
 Segmentation methods in image processing and analysis and Minimizing energy to segment images by Mathworks
 More image segmentation methods with detailed algorithms by Yu-Hsiang Wang (王昱翔), National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
 Online demonstration of piecewise linear image segmentation by IPOL Journal

Digital imaging

Image segmentation


John Kincaid (* 15. Februar 1791 bei Danville, Kentucky; † 7. Februar 1873 in Gallatin, Tennessee) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1829 und 1831 vertrat er den Bundesstaat Kentucky im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Werdegang
John Kincaid besuchte die öffentlichen Schulen seiner Heimat. Nach einem anschließenden Jurastudium und seiner Zulassung als Rechtsanwalt begann er in Stanford in diesem Beruf zu arbeiten. Außerdem war er als Staatsanwalt tätig. Im Jahr 1819 wurde er in das Repräsentantenhaus von Kentucky gewählt. In den 1820er Jahren schloss er sich der Bewegung um den späteren Präsidenten Andrew Jackson an und wurde Mitglied der von diesem 1828 gegründeten Demokratischen Partei.

Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1828 wurde Kincaid im siebten Wahlbezirk von Kentucky in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington, D.C. gewählt, wo er am 4. März 1829 die Nachfolge von Thomas Patrick Moore antrat. Bis zum 3. März 1831 absolvierte er eine Legislaturperiode im Kongress. Seit dem Amtsantritt von Präsident Jackson im Jahr 1829 wurde innerhalb und außerhalb des Kongresses heftig über dessen Politik diskutiert. Dabei ging es um die umstrittene Durchsetzung des Indian Removal Act, den Konflikt mit dem Staat South Carolina, der in der Nullifikationskrise gipfelte, und die Bankenpolitik des Präsidenten.

Zwischen 1836 und 1837 war Kincaid erneut Abgeordneter im Repräsentantenhaus von Kentucky. In dieser Zeit war er auch als Bezirksrichter tätig. Danach praktizierte er wieder als Anwalt und begann in der Landwirtschaft zu arbeiten. Im Jahr 1870 zog er nach Gallatin in Tennessee, wo er am 7. Februar 1873 verstarb. Er wurde in Danville beigesetzt.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für Kentucky
Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses von Kentucky
Mitglied der Demokratischen Partei (Vereinigte Staaten)
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Rechtsanwalt (Vereinigte Staaten)
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Geboren 1791
Gestorben 1873
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John Kincaid


Agrilus thevadensis é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Baudon, 1968.

Referências

thevadensis

Agrilus thevadensis


مدينة معدان مدينة سورية ومركز ناحية في محافظة الرقة وتابعة لها، تقع بين مدينتي الرقة ودير الزور وتبعد عن كلا المدينتين حوالي 70 كم. تشتهر معدان بالزراعة وأصبحت مدينة في نهاية 2009.

يوجد فيها مركز صوامع حبوب ومركز إنشاءات (مؤسسة عمران) ومعمل سجاد يدوي ومركز اتصالات ومجمع تربوي ومشفى وطني ومستوصف ومخفر ومحكمة معدان و مركز ناحية ومركز أمانة معدان و تتبع لمدينة معدان عدة قرى منها السويدة و الطعس و الخميسية الجنوبية و الخميسية الشمالية و قرية الحميد و قرية الحدادة و الجابر و النميصة و المغلة الكبيرة و الصغيرة و البوحمد و الخاتلة و تتبع لها بادية معدان من الجنوب. ويقع جسر معدان في قرية مغلة كبيرة على نهر الفرات.

ويسكنها خليط عشائري واسع يتمثل بعشائر البوسبيع والسبخة والبورمضان والحديديين والكليزات والبوجابر والبوحميد والبوعيسى والبوسرايا والديريين والحماصنة والكثير من العشائر الاخرى...

ويعد معظم أبنائها من حمل الشهادات العلمية حيث خرجت هذه المدينة العديد من الاطباء والمهندسيين والصناعيين والتجار ....

وموقع مدينة معدان جعلها مقصد القرى التي تحيط بها ما أكسبها أهمية أقتصادية في المنطقة الشرقية

مراجع وهوامش

أماكن مأهولة في منطقة الرقة
محافظة الرقة
مدن سوريا

معدان (مدينة)


دَوْرَق المُخْتَبًر  هي قارورة تستخدم في المختبرات هي أحد أنواع المعدات المخبرية الزجاجية،  تصنع في العادة من الزجاج أو البلاستيك، وتعرف في المختبرات بمجرد «قارورة» أو «دورق».

تستخدم القوارير في تحضير وحفظ وقياس المواد الكيميائية والمحاليل.

الأنواع
هناك أنواع كثيرة لدوارق المختبر، من أشهرها:

مراجع

حاويات
معدات مخبرية زجاجية

دورق


Ryanggang (coreeană: 량강도, Ryanggang-do; Provincia Ryanggang) este o provincie a R.P.D. Coreea. Reședința este aflată la Hyesan. Provincia s-a ivit în 1954, după ce a fost separată de provincia Hamgyong de Sud.

Județe
 Kapsan-gun (갑산군; 甲山郡)
 Kimjŏngsuk-gun (김정숙군; 金貞淑郡) înainte Sinpa-gun (신파군; 新坡郡)
 Kimhyŏnggwŏn-gun (김형권군; 金亨權郡) Pungsan-gun înainte (풍산군; 豊山郡)
 Kimhyŏngjik-gun (김형직군; 金亨稷郡) înainte Huch'ang-gun (후창군; 厚昌郡)
 Paegam-gun (백암군; 白岩郡)
 Poch'ŏn-gun (보천군; 普天郡)
 P'ungsŏ-gun (풍서군; 豊西郡)
 Samjiyŏn-gun (삼지연군; 三池淵郡)
 Samsu-gun (삼수군; 三水郡)
 Taehongdan-gun (대홍단군; 大紅湍郡)
 Unhŭng-gun (운흥군; 雲興郡)

Legături externe

 (în coreeană)행정 구역 현황 (Haengjeong Guyeok Hyeonhwang)

Provinciile Coreei de Nord

Provincia Ryanggang


APOEL (Yunanca: ΑΠΟΕΛ; Aθλητικός Ποδοσφαιρικός Όμιλος Eλλήνων Λευκωσίας, Atlitikos Podosferikos Omilos Ellinon Lefkosias, Lefkoşa Rum Atletik Futbol Kulübü), bir Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti ve Lefkoşa futbol takımıdır.

Tarihçe
Kulüp,8 Kasım 1926 yılında POEL (Lefkoşalı Yunanların Futbol Kulübü) olarak kurulmuştur; Kıbrıs Futbol Federasyon'nunun kurucu üyesidir. Kulüp, Lefkoşa'da Yunan işadamlarınin oluşturduğu 40 kişilik bir grup tarafından Ledra Sokağı'nda(Uzun Yol'da) kurulmuştur. Adını da bu sebepten dolayı böyle almıştır. Kulübün ilk başkanı Yorgos Pulyas olmuştur.

Kulübün 1927'de İskender, Mısır'a yaptığı yolculuk sırasında 1928 Genel Kongresi'nde karar verilerek oyuncuların yalnız iyi bir futbolcu olmadıklarını, iyi bir atlet olduklarını da gösterdiler. Ve karar verilerek futbola eklenti olarak bu kulübün atletizm de olmasına karar verilerek kulübün adını APOEL (Lefkoşalı Yunanların Atletik Futbol Kulübü) olarak değiştirdiler.

1934 yılında APOEL, Kıbrıs Futbol Federasyon'unun kurulmasında büyük rol oynamıştır. Ve iki yıl sonra Kıbrıs Birinci Ligi başladı, ilk kupaların çoğunu APOEL kazandı.

Politik olayların neden olarak başlayan Yunan İç Savaşı, 1948 yılında kulübün ikiye ayrılmasına neden oldu. Kendine güvenen ve solcu olan atletler Omonia Lefkoşa Futbol Kulübü'nü kurdular. Bu yeni kurulan takım APOEL'in büyük bir rakibi durumundadır ve şimdi bile iki takımın taraftarları biribirlerine karşı düşmanlıkları vardır.

Daha sonraki yıllarda da APOEL'i bekleyen sorunlar vardır. APOEL atletlerinin milliyetçilik düşünceleri vardı. 1955-1959 yılları sırasında İngilizler'e karşı olarak kurulan aktif örgüt EOKA (Kıbrıs Savaşçıları Millî Mücadele Örgütü)'ne katılmışlardır, Mihalakis Karaolis, İngiliz Otoriter Askerleri tarafından tutuklanmıştır. Bu dönem içinde APOEL'in bütün oyuncuları eleştirilmiştir.

Futbol Takımı güçlenerek geri döndüler. Ve ilk Avrupa tecrübelerini 1963 yılında Norveç takımı Gjovik Lyn'i Avrupa Şampiyon Kulüpler Kupası'nda (6-0,1-0) lık skorlarla yenerek Kıbrıs takımları adına bir ilki gerçekleştirmiştir.

APOEL 1970 li yıllarda da birçok başarıya imza atmıştır. 1973 yılında teknik direktörü Panos Markoviç olarak değişti. Kıbrıs Şampiyonu'nun bir seneliğine Yunanistan Ligi'nde oynaması kararından sonra ilk APOEL Yunanistan Ligi'ne gitmeye hak kazandı. Bu karar 1970'li yılların yarısında kaldırıldı.

1973 yılında APOEL, basketboldaki ilk başarısını Kıbrıs Kupası'nı kazanarak yaptı. 3 yıl sonra da ilk Kıbrıs Şampiyonluğu'nu yaşadı. Voleybolda ise 1979-1985 yılları arasında çok başarılı bir dönem yaşayarak 6 şampiyonluk yaşadı. 1995-1996 yılları arasında, 70. yılında, millî şampiyonluk yaşadı. 2002 yılında APOEL, Avrupa'da 10 maç yaparak bir Kıbrıs takımı için büyük bir başarı yakaladı.

Kadro

Teknik direktör geçmişi

Son güncelleme:9 Mayıs 2008

 1931-1933 Antone Jean
 1933-1951  József Künsztler
 1951-1952  Pambos AvraamidIs
 1952-1953  Béla Guttmann
 1953-1954  Pambos Avraamidis
 1954-1955 Schwartz
 1955-1956 Hanz
 1956-1958  Kostas Talyanos
 1958-1959  Takis Çigis
 1959-1961 Vangelis Humis
 1961-1962  Andreas Lazaridis
 1962-1963  Jesse Carver
 1963-1964  Neil Franklin
 1964-1965  Kostas Talyanos
 1965-1966  Gyula Zsengellér
 1966-1967  Lajos Szendrödi
 1967-1967  Likurgos Arhondidis
 1967-1969  Pambos Avraamidis
 1969-1970  Jesse Carver
 1970-1971  Andreas Lazaridis

 1971-1972  Ray Wood
 1972-1974  Panos Markoviç
 1974-1975  Andreas Lazaridis
 1975-1975  Panos Markoviç
 1975-1976  Andreas Lazaridis
 1976-1977  Savvas Partakis
 1977-1978  Keith Spurgeon
 1978-1981  Andreas Lazaridis
 1981-1983  Mike Ferguson
 1983-1985  Panos Markoviç
 1985-1989  Tommy Cassidy
 1989-1990  İoannis Macurakis
 1990-1991  Stanko Poklepović
 1991-1993  Jacek Gmoch
 1993-1994  Takis Andoniu
 1994-1995  İoannis Macurakis
 1995-1996  Hristo Bonev
 1996-1996  Svetozar Šapurić
 1996-1997  Jacek Gmoch
 1997-1997  Nikos Alefandos

 1997-1998  Kurt Jara
 1998-1998  Andreas Muskallis
 1998-1998  Kostas Yeoryiu
 1998-1999  Yeoryos Parashos
 1999-1999  Slobodan Vuceković
 1999-2000  Andreas Mihailidis
 2000-2000  Svetozar Šapurić
 2000-2000  Markos Marku
 2000-2001  Mike Walker
 2001-2002  Eugène Gerards
 2002-2003  Takis Lemonis
 2003-2003  Dušan Uhrin
 2003-2004  Ivan Jovanović
 2004-2004  Lukas Hacilukas
 2005-2005  Werner Lorant
 2005-2005  Marios Konstandinu
 2005-2006  Jerzy Engel
 2006-2008  Marinos Uzunidis
 2008-2013  Ivan Jovanović
 2013  Paulo Sérgio
 2013-2015  Yorgos Donis
 2015  Thorsten Fink
 2015  Domingos Paciência
 2015-2016  Temur Ketsbaia
 2016-günümüz  Yeoryos Kostis

Başkanlık geçmişi
Aşağıda APOEL takımını yönetmiş kişilerin listesi yer almaktadır.

Başkanlar:

 1926-1958 - Yeoryos Pulyas
 1958-1967 - Eftivolos Antullis
 1967-1968 - Mihalakis Triandafillidis
 1968-1969 - Takis Skarparis
 1969-1971 - Konstandinos Lukos
 1971-1974 - Mihalakis Zivanaris
 1974-1975 - Kikis Lazaridis
 1975-1983 - İakovos Filippu
 1983-1988 - Mihalakis Zivanaris
 1988-1991 - Andreas Papaellinas
 1991-1992 - Kikkos Fotiadis
 1992-1994 - Maik Ioannidis
 1994-1996 - Hristos Triandafillidis
 1996-1999 - Uranios İoannidis
 1999-2000 - Dinos Palmas
 2002-2004 - Dinos Fisencidis
 2004-2007 - Yannos İoannu
 2007-2008 - Kostas Shizas
 2008-2009 - Hristodulos Ellinas
 2009-günümüz - Prodromos Petridis

Yardımcılar:

 1997-1998 - Maik İoannidis
 1998-2000 - Hristos Triandafillidis
 2000-2001 - Haris Papanastasiu
 2001-2006 - Prodromos Petridis
 2006-2008 - Kyriakos Zivanaris
 2008-günümüz - Fivos Erotokritu

Başarıları
Futbol

 Kıbrıs Şampiyonluğu (28 kere): 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1952, 1965, 1973, 1980, 1986, 1990, 1992, 1996, 2002, 2004, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
 Kıbrıs Kupası (21 kere): in 1937, 1941, 1947, 1951, 1963, 1968, 1969, 1973, 1976, 1978, 1979, 1984, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2006, 2008, 2014, 2015
 Kıbrıs FA Şildi (13 kere): 1963, 1984, 1986, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013

Basketbol

 Kıbrıs Şampiyonluğu (8 kere): 1976, 1979, 1981, 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2002
 Kıbrıs Kupası (11 kere): 1973, 1979, 1984, 1986, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 2002, 2003
 Kıbrıs Süperkupası (7 kere): 1972, 1976, 1986, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998

Voleybol

 Kıbrıs Şampiyonluğu (6 kere): 1979, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984, 1985
 Kıbrıs Kupası (5 kere): 1979, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1985

Avrupa kupalarında durumu
Son güncelleme: 16 Nisan 2012

 #Q = #eleme, #PO = #play-off, #G = #Grup aşaması, #R = #tur, 1/8 = çeyrek final

UEFA takım katsayısı

Son güncelleme: 16 Nisan 2012
 Kaynak: xs4all.nl

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 APOEL HELLAS
 Ultras APOEL

APOEL (futbol takımı)


Sega Meganet, also known as the Net Work System, was an online service for the Mega Drive in Japan and later Brazil.  Utilizing dial-up Internet access, Meganet was Sega's first online multiplayer gaming service, and functioned on a pay to play basis.  The system functioned through the use of a peripheral called the Mega Modem and offered several unique titles that could be downloaded, and a few could be played competitively with friends. In addition, it shared technology and equipment with more serious services such as the Mega Anser, used for banking purposes.  Though the system was announced for North America under the rebranded name "Tele-Genesis", it was never released for that region.  Ultimately, the Meganet service would be short-lived, lasting approximately a year before it was discontinued, but would serve as a precursor to the Sega Channel and XBAND services, as well as a predecessor to online gaming services for video game consoles. Retrospective feedback praises the attempt by Sega to introduce online gaming, but criticizes the service for its logistical issues and lack of titles.

History

Sega's 16-bit console, the Mega Drive was released in Japan on October 29, 1988, though the launch was overshadowed by Nintendo's release of Super Mario Bros. 3 a week earlier.  Positive coverage from magazines Famitsu and Beep! helped to establish a following, but Sega only managed to ship 400,000 units in the first year.  In order to draw a larger audience, Sega began work on an Internet service, similar to what Nintendo had attempted with the Famicom Modem for the NES.

Released in Japan on November 3, 1990, at a cost of JP¥12,800 (approximately US$100) for the equipment, as well as an additional ¥800 monthly, access began to the Meganet service by way of the Mega Modem, a peripheral which attaches to the rear EXT 9-pin port on the rear of the console.  From the modem, a cable runs to a dual-port connector, which connects into a telephone line.  The Mega Modem also came packaged with a cartridge which allowed for access to the Meganet game library, and approximately six titles were available at launch.  It was capable of connection speeds of up to 1200bit/s. The service had also been announced in North America under the name "Tele-Genesis" at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show (Winter CES) in January 1990, and advertised in publications such as Electronic Gaming Monthly, but it was never released for the region.

As another way of attempting to expand the audience for the Mega Drive in Japan, Sega introduced the Mega Anser, a system designed for use with Nagoya Bank in Japan, in 1990.  Packaged as an all-in-one system including a Mega Drive, Mega Modem, Mega Anser cartridge and keypad, the system allowed for transactions such as balance inquiries, transfers, and loan information.  It initially retailed at a cost of JP¥34,000 including the home console, and a version with an additional printer retailed for ¥72,800.

Due to the system's low number of titles, prohibitively high price, and the Mega Drive's lack of success in Japan, the Meganet system proved to be a commercial failure.  By 1992, the Mega Modem peripheral could be found in bargain bins at a reduced price, and a remodeled version of the Mega Drive released in 1993 removed the EXT 9-pin port altogether, preventing the newer model from being connected to the Meganet service.

In 1995, the Meganet internet service launched in Brazil.  Its main focus in the region was e-mail, although by 1996 the service was capable of online multiplayer, along with chat features.  Similar to the Mega Anser, a home banking product was also released for the region.  Meganet hardware and services were provided through Sega's distributor in the region, Tectoy.

Game library

The Meganet service utilized its own library of titles, independent of the Genesis library.  Most of these games never received a cartridge release; however, Columns, Flicky, Fatal Labyrinth, and Teddy Boy Blues each later saw cartridge versions.  Several Meganet games would also later appear in the Game no Kanzume series, released for the Mega-CD exclusively in Japan.  Most games for the service were small, at around 128kB per game, due to the limits of Internet connection speeds at the time.  Downloads were estimated to take about five to eight minutes to complete.

All of the Meganet games were available through the Sega Game Library, accessed through the Meganet modem.  Due to issues with long-distance charges through the use of telephone lines, as well as seconds of lag time between commands, only two games featured competitive play: Tel-Tel Stadium and Tel-Tel Mahjong, with the remainder of the games available for single players via download.  Due to Sega's reluctance to commit to releasing the service in North America, third-party developers in that region were unwilling to invest in developing games specifically for Meganet.  This resulted in a low number of titles created for the service.

Reception and legacy
Retrospective feedback on the Sega Meganet service is mixed, praising the early initiative to develop online gaming for video consoles, but criticizing its implementation via use of telephone lines and issues with Sega's lack of developers for the service.  Adam Redsell of IGN commented on the basic features of the service, and despite noting that Meganet received only a few games, stated "[T]hat's pretty damn impressive for 1990".  He also notes the influence of Sega in the development of online gaming, with the Meganet service as their first attempt, and credits the Meganet's successor, Sega Channel, with helping to spread broadband Internet.

The telephone line network which the Meganet ran on has been criticized for its logistical issues in online gaming.  According to Electronic Gaming Monthly, "Even though the TeleGenesis modem has been announced, it has yet to appear and the real usefulness of a device that is used only to play games with friends over the phone lines remains questionable (both have to have the modem, the phone lines must be clear, the phone bills will be a problem if it's a long-distance call, etc.)"  The same issues that plagued the Meganet over the use of phone lines for Internet connectivity would later resurface when Catapult Entertainment launched the XBAND service in 1994.

Ken Horowitz of Sega-16 took note of Sega's reluctance to commit to releasing the service in North America as part of the reason for its lack of titles, noting, "Companies were most likely waiting for confirmation of the modem's release before they began to commit themselves, and as time has attested, few were waiting to go ahead with development in light of Sega's 'wait and see' attitude."  Horowitz went on to criticize this issue as a problem Sega would have again with the 32X in 1994, stating, "History would repeat itself in the harshest of manners only five years later. Sega's expectations of third party support for something it showed little enthusiasm for were entirely unrealistic and ultimately meant that no games would be in the pipeline."  Former Sega console hardware research and development head Hideki Sato stated that Sega made very little money on sales of the Mega Modem, but that Sega learned from the experience to develop future network opportunities for the Sega Saturn.

See also

 David Auerbach, who writes about meganets as a sociotechnical phenomena
 Dreamarena
 Sega Net Link
 SegaNet
 XBAND

References

Online video game services
Meganet
Meganet

Sega Meganet


Francisco Hernández Girón, né à Cáceres (Espagne) en 1510 et mort à Lima le , est un conquistador espagnol.

Biographie

Hernández Girón arrive au Pérou en 1535 avec, entre autres, le futur gouverneur Blasco Núñez Vela. Dans la lutte pour le pouvoir qui a suivi entre les frères Pizarro et les partisans de Diego de Almagro, il ne soutient ni l'un ni l'autre. Almagro est exécuté en 1538 et Francisco Pizarro, gouverneur du Pérou, est assassiné par le fils d'Almagro en 1541.

Cristóbal Vaca de Castro élimine les partisans de Almagro à la bataille de Chupas mais est capturé par Blasco Núñez Vela, qui devient alors vice-roi ; Hernández Girón se montre partisan de ce dernier.

Il combat à la bataille d'Añaquito et parvient à échapper à la mort dans la défaite. A la bataille de Jaquijahuana, il prend de nouveau le parti des forces royales sous Pedro de la Gasca. Le 13 novembre 1553, il mène cependant une rébellion contre le nouveau régime à cause de charges inégales proclamées par Melchor Bravo de Saravia, le nouveau vice-roi. Vaincu le 7 décembre 1554, il est aussitôt exécuté à Lima.

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 Anonyme, Relación de las personas que se hallaron con Francisco Hernández Girón en el valle de Xauxa, 1800
 Anonyme, Rebelion de Francisco Hernandez Giron en El Perú en 1553, 1879
 Héctor López Martínez, Una reseña durante la rebelión de Francisco Hernández Girón, 1961
 Héctor López Martínez, Francisco Hernández Girón, el último de los caudillos, 1962

Liens externes

Conquête espagnole de l'Amérique
Conquistador ou explorateur espagnol
Naissance en 1501
Naissance à Cáceres (Espagne)
Décès en décembre 1554
Décès à Lima
Mort exécuté

Francisco Hernández Girón


Laurene Landon, née Laurene Landon Coughlin, née le  à Toronto en Ontario, est une actrice canadienne. Elle a notamment jouée dans Maniac Cop, Maniac Cop 2, J'aurai ta peau et Y a-t-il enfin un pilote dans l'avion ?.

Biographie
Après avoir fait des études au California State University, Laurene se prédestinait à entrer dans les forces de l'ordre après avoir suivi le programme de l'école de police de Californie mais elle prit conscience qu'elle ne continuerait pas le jour où elle a utilisé un revolver. Elle changea d'orientation et décida de se reconvertir dans le cinéma en devenant figurante.

Carrière
Elle commence à avoir de petits rôles en 1979 dans des comédies comme Roller Boogie, Scoring ou Better Heritage. Son premier grand rôle sur le grand écran, elle le doit au scénariste et réalisateur Larry Cohen dans Full Moon High aux côtés de Adam Arkin en 1981 mais aussi dans le film Deux Filles au tapis de Robert Aldrich aux côtés de Peter Falk et Burt Young. Elle confirme sa notoriété en incarnant la séduisante secrétaire de Mike Hammer dans J'aurai ta peau de Richard T. Heffron aux côtés d'Armand Assante.

Après le succès d'Y a-t-il enfin un pilote dans l'avion ? en 1982, elle poursuit une carrière en dent-de-scie en jouant dans des séries B ou Z. Le succès revient avec Maniac Cop en 1988 et sa suite en 1990. Ensuite, ce sont à nouveaux des petits rôles et des apparitions dans des budgets modestes ou des nanars. Elle continue toujours sa carrière d'actrice en enchaînant les productions.

Filmographie partielle

 1981 : Full Moon High de Larry Cohen : Blondie
 1981 : Deux Filles au tapis (...All the Marbles) de Robert Aldrich : Molly
 1982 : Y a-t-il enfin un pilote dans l'avion ? (Airplane II: The Sequel) de Ken Finkleman : Testa
 1982 : J'aurai ta peau (I, the Jury) de Richard T. Heffron : Velda
 1983 : Hundra de Matt Cimber : Hundra
 1984 : A la poursuite du soleil d'or (Yellow Hair and the Fortress of Gold) de Matt Cimber : Yellow Hair
 1985 : The Stuff de Larry Cohen : Caméo
 1986 : Armés pour répondre (Armed Response) de Fred Olen Ray : Deborah Silverstein
 1986 : America 3000 de David Engelbach : Vena
 1987 : La Vengeance des monstres (It's Alive III: Island of the Alive) de Larry Cohen : Sally
 1988 : Maniac Cop de William Lustig : Theresa Mallory
 1989 : Ma belle-mère est une sorcière (Wicked Stepmother) de Larry Cohen : Vanilla
 1990 : L'Ambulance (The Ambulance) de Larry Cohen : Patty
 1990 : Maniac Cop 2 de William Lustig : Theresa Mallory

Liens externes

Actrice canadienne
Naissance en mars 1957
Naissance à Toronto

Laurene Landon


South Union Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 South Union Township (Arkansas)
 South Union Township (Pennsylvania)

South Union Township


Márta Kormos () a fost o actriță și traducătoare maghiară.

Biografie
Márta Kormos a absolvit cursurile Academiei de Teatru din Budapesta în 1937. După terminarea studiilor, s-a alăturat trupei Teatrului Maghiar din Budapesta. În anul următor a obținut primul rol principal. Între 1938-1940 a făcut parte din trupa Teatrului de Comedie din Budapesta, apoi a jucat între 1941-1944 la Teatrul Maghiar din Cluj, în anul 1946 la Teatrul Belváros din Budapesta și între anii 1950-1952 la Teatrul Sindicatului. În 1952 a renunțat la cariera de actriță pe motiv de boală și a lucrat ca traducătoare. A fost căsătorită.

Filmografie
 Az aranyember (1936) – Timea (rol principal)
 Sárga rózsa (1940) – țiganca

Note

Legături externe
 Biografie
 Biografie cu fotografie

Nașteri în 1915
Decese în 1988
Actrițe maghiare
Oameni din Budapesta

Márta Kormos


El término tango argentino puede referirse, en esta enciclopedia:

 al tango, el género musical característico de Argentina y Uruguay;
 a Tango Argentino (espectáculo), el espectáculo de música y baile creado por Claudio Segovia estrenado en 1983, o
 a Tango argentino, documental de 1969 dirigido por Simón Feldman.

Tango argentino


José Victoriano González-Pérez veya bilinen adıyla Juan Gris (d. 23 Mart 1887, Madrid – ö. 11 Mayıs 1927, Sur Seine), hayatının büyük bölümünü Fransa'da geçirmiş olan ünlü İspanyol ressam ve heykeltıraş. Eserleri, devrinde yeni ortaya çıkmaya başlayan kübizm çizgisindedir.

Hayatı
Önce Madrid'de Zanaat ve Sanayi okulunda öğrenim gördü. O tarihten sonra ressam olarak pergel, cetvel ve gönye gibi araçları yanından ayırmadı. 1906'da Paris'te Assiet te Au Beurre ve Chavari dergilerinde desenler yayımladı. 1911 yılını Braque ve Picasso ile birlikte Céret'te geçirdi.

Yalın ve ciddi bir sanat anlayışı içinde ilk kübist tablolarını yaptı. Paris Çağdaş Sanat müzesinde eserleri vardır. Max Jacob, Raymond Radiguet, Armand Salacrou'nun çeşitli eserlerine litografi veya ofort resimler yaptı. 1924'te Diaghilev yönetimindeki Rus Balesi'nin Çoban Kızının Baştan Çıkışı, Güvercin, Eksik Kalmış Bir Eğitim adlı eserlerinin dekorlarını ve kostümlerini hazırladı. Ömrünün son zamanlarında İtalya'da bulundu.

Resim galerisi

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Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Juan Gris, "Joconde", Fransa müzeleri portali
 Juan Gris, "Culture.gouv.fr" Fransa Kültr Bakanlığı websitesi
 "Artcyclopedia2 websitesi
 "The Athenaeum" websitesi
 Juan Gris  "Artfacts.Net" websitesi

Kübist sanatçılar
20. yüzyıl İspanyol ressamları
1887 doğumlular
1927 yılında ölenler
Madrid doğumlular

Juan Gris


A whiteboard (also known by the terms marker board, dry-erase board, dry-wipe board, and pen-board) is a glossy, usually white surface for making non-permanent markings. Whiteboards are analogous to blackboards, but with a smoother surface allowing for rapid marking and erasing of markings on their surface. The popularity of whiteboards increased rapidly in the mid-1990s and they have become a fixture in many offices, meeting rooms, school classrooms, public events and other work environments.

The term whiteboard is also used metaphorically in reference to features of computer software applications that simulate whiteboards. Such "virtual tech whiteboards" allow one or more people to write or draw images on a simulated canvas. This is a common feature of many virtual meeting, collaboration, and instant messaging applications. The term whiteboard is also used to refer to interactive whiteboards.

History

Photographer Martin Heit and Alliance employee Albert Stallion have been credited with the invention of the whiteboard.

Whiteboards became commercially available in the early 1960s, but did not become widely used until 30 years later. Early whiteboards needed to be wiped with a damp cloth and markers had a tendency to leave marks behind, even after erasing the board. Dry-erase markers for whiteboards were invented in 1975.

Whiteboards began being commonly used by businesses in the early 1990s. They became more common in classrooms during the 1990s due to concerns over health problems in children with dust allergies and the potential for chalk dust to damage computers. By the late 1990s, about 21% of American classrooms had converted from chalkboards to whiteboards.

Types

The first whiteboards were very expensive and were made of an enameled steel. Cheaper versions were then produced, including laminated chipboard, high-pressure laminates and steel boards with a matte-finished or glossy white, usually polyester or acrylic, coating. Enameled whiteboards, also referred to as porcelain and sometimes glass boards, have the advantage that markings can be erased completely; other materials tend to become stained over time. Enameled boards are more expensive and less used in commercial environments, but in more demanding environments with heavier use, such as educational establishments, porcelain boards are considered superior.

Other types of dry marker boards are also available, such as high gloss vinyl and coated paper, which can be rolled up, high-density two-part high gloss paints, glass and coated acrylics and polypropylene magic whiteboards which use static electricity to cling to walls, windows, and doors.

Clear marker surfaces, made of glass (matte or glossy) or specially coated acrylic, became available around the mid-2000s. They are generally manufactured from technical glass, e.g. for monitor screen filters, which is optically coated.

Adhesive whiteboards
Whiteboard material can be bought in rolls, sheets, and pre-formed boards. Adhesive whiteboards come in either a sheet or a roll and feature a stick back enabling the user to create a custom size board or project with the material. Although adhesive whiteboard material does not come in a thick, hard glass or painted steel plate, the melamine allows for a flexible material while preserving the high-quality whiteboard attributes of other surface materials. Adhesive whiteboards allow for custom projects such as dry erase wall calendars, whiteboard tables, cupboard grocery lists, indoor games for kids, and more.

Erasable marker
One type of whiteboard pen (also called a whiteboard marker or dry erase marker) was invented by Jerry Woolf of Techform Laboratories and later patented by Pilot Pen in 1975. It is a non-permanent marker and uses an erasable ink that adheres to the writing surface without binding to or being absorbed by it. Applications range from temporary writing with acetate sheets (for use with overhead projectors) to whiteboards and similar glossy surfaces. The erasable ink does not contain the toxic chemical compounds xylene and/or toluene, unlike permanent markers.

Surface materials
There are six types of materials commonly used for whiteboard surfaces:

 Melamine
 A resin-infused paper which is typically used over a substrate that can range from particle board to MDF (medium density fiberboard).  Melamine boards range in quality primarily because of the amount of resin deposited on the base material.  Some melamine boards remain clean (no ghosting) for a long time, others less so.  Generally, this least expensive type of whiteboard is most commonly found in use in non-institutional applications.  They are available in any office supply store. Performance varies widely. These boards are not suitable for heavy use, as in many educational cases, with time the paint erodes and the original surface reappears.

 Steel or aluminum
 Painted steel and aluminum dry erase also have a wide range of quality.  Painted surfaces tend to be smoother, which leads to better methods of erasing.  The painted surface is generally a multiple layer of coatings made up of a base coat in color (most commonly white) and a clear performance coating that is the dry erase component.  Paint varies from electron beam cured coatings to UV and other coating systems.  Good commercial grade painted steel or aluminum has excellent dry erase properties and many will be able to have permanent marker cleaned from the surface.  Any coated surface is susceptible to scratching.  Painted steel surfaces are magnetic and allow the use of magnets. Painted aluminum surfaces are rarely used as a base for whiteboards as they are not magnetic and are more expensive than steel.  Painted steel whiteboards are most commonly used for custom printed whiteboards.  These products are used as tracking boards, patient information boards and tournament and training boards.

 Hardcoat laminate
 Here again the performance varies over a wide range depending on the amount of resin used in the manufacturer.  This category primarily uses melamine as its dry erase performance coat.  Depending on the manufacturer (and the price) these laminates often are less porous and highly resistant to staining. Less common than other whiteboard surfaces, because they usually are used in combination with something else (a cabinet, doors or table tops for example). (This statement applies to Porcelain steel which is the only lifetime warranty available on the market)

 Porcelain, enamel-on-steel
 Ceramic fired onto a steel surface in a kiln.  They are the most durable surfaces, and most carry a lifetime warranty.  They are very common in heavy-use industrial settings. They are highly scratch-resistant, although materials harder than glass, such as diamond, can scratch them. They do not absorb dry erase or permanent marker ink.  They allow the use of magnets.  The surface can be cleaned with any non-abrasive cleaner suitable for porcelain, then rinsed off with water to prevent smearing.  Permanent marker can be removed using a polar solvent such as ethanol, isopropanol or acetone, or by writing over it with a dry-erase marker and erasing it.

 Tempered glass
 Tempered glass is easier to erase.  Most tempered glass white boards have no frame.

 Polypropylene film
 Polypropylene film is temporary and uses static electricity to cling to existing surfaces. It works with dry whiteboard markers and wipes. Whiteboards are reusable and materials are recyclable.

See also
Display board
Interactive whiteboard
Grease pencil
Flip chart
Album (Ancient Rome), a board chalked or painted white, on which public notices were inscribed in black

References

External links

Educational devices
Office equipment
Writing media

Whiteboard


Biserica de lemn din Albulești, comuna Dumbrava, județul Mehedinți, a fost construită în secolul XIX. Are hramul "Sfântul Ierarh Nicolae". Biserica se află pe lista monumentelor istorice sub codul LMI: .

Istoric și trăsături

Note

Bibliografie
Studii regionale
C.Boteanu, V.Oprenescu - Bisericile din Plaiul Cloșani, vol.I, Editura TipoRadical (2007)

Vezi și
 Albulești, Mehedinți

Albulești
Monumente istorice din județul Mehedinți
Biserici din secolul al XIX-lea din România
Biserici cu hramul Sfântul Nicolae

Biserica de lemn din Albulești


Ulla Alma Vestergaard (født 21. oktober 1958) er en dansk kommunalpolitiker og nuværende borgmester i Thisted Kommune fra 2018. Hun er medlem af Socialdemokratiet.

Ved kommunalvalget i 2017 gik Socialdemokratiet frem med 4,7 procentpoint til 34,3 procent af stemmerne, og skønt Det Konservative Folkeparti med borgmester Lene Kjelgaard Jensen gik endnu mere frem, måtte hun dog indse, at en konstituering med Venstre, der var gået kraftigt tilbage, ikke var mulig. Med opbakning fra Venstre kunne den socialdemokratiske spidskandidat, Ulla Vestergaard, derpå overtage borgmesterposten.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Borgmesterens side på kommunens website

Borgmestre fra Socialdemokraterne
Borgmestre i Danmark 2018-2021

Ulla Vestergaard


شعب الكازاخ أو القازاق (بالكازاخية:Қазақтар) هو أحد الشعوب التركية الموجودة بالجزء الشمالي من آسيا الوسطى، ويتركزون في كازاخستان، ولكن يوجد منهم في أوزبكستان، الصين وروسيا ومنغوليا. يرجع الكازاخ إلى أصول تركية ممثلة بقبائل القبجاق والكومان والنوغاي وقارلوق والخانكليز التركية. ومجموعات منغولية كالكيات والمنغود والجلاير والدغلات وغيرهم. ومن قبائل هندو-إيرانية كالووسون والسرمت والسكيثيين وغيرهم، وسكنوا بالمناطق الممتدة ما بين سيبيريا والبحر الأسود وقد بقوا في آسيا الوسطى عندما بدأ المغول والترك بحملاتهم العسكرية ما بين القرنين الخامس وحتى الثالث عشر.

الأصل اللغوي لكلمة كازاخ
بدأ الكازاخ باستخدام هذا المسمى ما بين القرنين 15 أو 16. هناك العديد من النظريات التي تحدثت عن مصدر كلمة قازاق أو كازاخ. فهي كانت موجودة بالقواميس العربية والتركية خلال القرن 13م، وتعني كلمة كازاخستان إلى كلمة «كازاخ» ومعناها في اللغة التركية القديمة مستقل أو حر. حيث أتت من كلمة كاز وتعني (طواف) حيث أن الكازاخ هم رجال السهوب الطوافين، وقد يكون مقتبسة من الكلمة المغولية خازاق: (العربة ذات العجلات التي يستخدمها الكازاخ لنقل خيامهم المسماة يارت مع الأمتعة.

في القرن ال19، ظهر شرح لغوي بأصل الكلمة على أنها أتت من التراث الكازاخي للإوز الأبيض (قاز وتعني إوز، وآق يعني أبيض). وتقول الإسطورة بأن إوز السهوب الأبيض قد تحول إلى أمير والذي بدوره أعطى الحياة لأول كازاخي. تلك القصة الاشتقاقية تعتبر مختلة بسبب أن في اللغة التركية فإن الصفة تكون قبل الاسم، لذلك فإن الإوز الأبيض يكون آق قاز وليس قازآق.

وهناك نظرية أخرى عن أصل كلمة (قازاق أو كازاخ) بأنها قادمة من كلمة تركية قديمة، وهي قازكاز، وقد تم ذكرها للمرة الأولى على نصب تركي من القرن الثامن، وحسب علماء اللغة التركية فإن اسم قازكاز قادمة من نفس الأصل الذي أتى منه الفعل «قازكان» ويعني ليحصل عليه أو ليأخذه. لذا فتعريف كلمة قازكاز هو الشخص الذي يبحث عن الفائدة والمصلحة.

الثقافة

بسبب التاريخ المعقد للكازاخ، فإنهم يعرضون أشكال من التنوع بالنمط الظاهري، وإن كانت تميل في الغالب لعرض الميزات المنغولية. لكن من الإنصاف القول أن اللون البني الخفيف يكاد أن يكون هو القاعدة. ومن بين السمات الجسدية: الأنف المعقوف كمنقار النسر، طوية العين وارتفاع في عظام الوجنة. أما لون الشعر فيختلف عند الكازاخيين من أسود قاتم كالفحم إلى الأحمر والبني الرملي. أما لون الأعين، فليس بالغريب أن ترى هناك أعين لونها بني أو أخضر أو حتى لونها أزرق.

هناك العديد من الكازاخ لديهم المهارة في أداء الأغاني الكازاخية التقليدية، وأحد أهم الآلات الموسيقية التي تستخدم هناك تسمى دومبرا وهو عبارة عن عود به وترين. ويستخدم مفردا أو مع فرقة موسيقية. وهناك آلة موسيقية أخرى تسمى كوبيز وهي تشبه الربابة، تلك الآلتين هما عماد الفرقة الموسيقية الكازاخية التقليدية. أشهر الملحنين هو كرمان غازي، والذي عاش بالقرن التاسع عشر. وأشهر المطربين بالحقبة السوفييتية كانت روزا ريمبافا، وقد كانت النجمة عبر النطاق السوفييتي. والتي تقارن بموسيقى الروك ولكن بموسيقى كازاخية تقليدية.

اللغة

تتبع اللغة الكازاخية لعائلة اللغات التركية، مثلها مثل اللغة الأوزبكية والقيرغيزية والتترية والأويغورية والتركية والأذرية والتركمانية وغيرها العديد من اللغات الحية أو التاريخية الموجودة في أوروبا الشرقية وآسيا الوسطى وتركستان الشرقية وسيبيريا.

كانت الكازاخية تكتب بالأحرف العربية حتى القرن ال19، حيث كان عدد من الشعراء الذي تتلمذوا بالمدارس الإسلامية يحرضون على الثورة ضد الروس. فجاءت ردة الفعل الروسية بأن أنشئوا المدارس العلمانية، واوجدوا طريقة للكتابة الكازاخستانية بالأبجدية السيريلية، ولم يتم قبول ذلك بشكل عام. فعادت الأبجدية العربية للاستخدام في المدارس والحكومات المحلية سنة 1917.

وفي عام 1927 انطلقت الحركة القومية الكازاخية والتي سرعان ما تم قمعها، ومنعت معها الكتابة بالأحرف العربية واستخدمت الأحرف اللاتينية بدلا عنها. وبعدها بفترة قصيرة أي عام 1940 استبدلت الأبجدية اللاتينية بالسيريلية.

وتعتبر الكازاخية اللغة الرئيسية المستخدمة في كازاخستان جنبا إلى جنب مع الروسية. وتستخدم تلك اللغة أيضا في مقاطعة لي ذاتية الحكم الموجودة بشمال ولاية تركستان الشرقية الموجودة في الصين، حيث لا تزال تكتب بالأحرف العربية وفي أجزاء من منغوليا أيضا.

القبلية الكازاخية

نظرا لنمط الحياة القبلية الرعوية، فإن الكازاخ احتفظوا بملاحمهم القبلية من خلال النقل الشفوي. لذا كان لزاما عليهم تنمية كم هائل من الذكريات لأجل المحافظة على رصيد كاف من تاريخ تلك القبائل. فوطنهم الذي دمج القبائل الرحل الكازاخستانية من مختلف الأصول، نجح في الحفاظ على ذاكرة أصول تلك العشائر. فالكازاخي سواء ذكرا كان أم انثى يجب عليه أن يحافظ على شجرة النسب بما لا يقل عن سبعة اجيال ويمسى هذا النظام سجري وهي مأخوذة من العربية شجرة، ونظام الزواج الكازاخي هو تباعدي، أي يحرم الزواج بين الأفراد ذوو القرابة الواحدة حتى سبعة أجيال. فالزواج القبلي، يحسمه أصل الأب.

حاليا تتلاشى القبلية في كازاخستان الحديثة سواء خلال العمل الحكومي أو التجارة، وإن كان شيء طبيعي بينهم السؤال عن أصل الشخص ومن أي القبائل عند التعارف مع بعضهم البعض. وإن أضحى حاليا ضرورة أكثر من تقليد، فلا يوجد حاليا عداء بين القبائل. وبغض النظر عن الأصل فأنهم يعتبرون أنفسم أبناء وطن واحد.

أغلبية الكازاخ يرجعون إلى واحدة من ثلاث قبائل وتسمى جوز وهي: جوز الكبرى (Ulı juz) وجوز الوسطى (Orta juz) وجوز الصغرى (Kişi juz). وكل جوز تحتوي على قبائل (taypa) وعشائر (ruw). أما الكازاخ الذين هم خارج تلك المنظومة فينتمون إلى التالي: تور (أصولهم تعود مباشرة إلى جنكيز خان)، وخوجا (أصولهم تعود إلى العرب الأوائل الذين أتوا مع الفتوحات)، وتولنجت (تعود أصولهم إلى الأسرى الأويرات)، وسوناك (أصولهم مثل الخوجا- يرجعون إلى العرب القدماء)، وكولجن (تعود أصولهم إلى السكان السيراميين القدماء)

الديانة

دخل الإسلام إلى أسلاف الكازاخ خلال القرن الثاني الهجري / الثامن ميلادي عندما وصلت الجيوش الإسلامية إلى أواسط آسيا. وقد بدأ انتشاره في المناطق الجنوبية لتركستان ومن ثم اتجه شمالا. وقد تعمقت جذور الدعوة الإسلامية خلال حكم السامانيين، خصوصا في المناطق المحيطة بتاراز حيث دخل في الإسلام أعداد ضخمة من الترك. وأيضا في أواخر القرن الثامن هجري/الرابع عشر ميلادي انتشر الإسلام من خلال قبائل الكازاخ وقبائل آسيا الوسطى عن طريق حكام القبيلة الذهبية. وفي القرن الثاني عشر هجري/الثامن عشر ميلادي، بدأ النفوذ الروسي يتجه بسرعة نحو تلك المنطقة والمناطق الأخرى لآسيا الوسطى، وقادته الإمبراطورة كاترين الروسية. وقد أبدى الروس رغبتهم بالسماح للمسلمين بأداء شعائرهم حيث وجهت الدعوات لرجال الدين المسلمين لوعظ الكازاخ الذين يُنظر إليهم بأنهم شعب همج وليست لديه أي آداب أخلاقية. ولكن بدأت تلك السياسة تتغير نحو إضعاف الإسلام وذلك بإدخال العصبيات القبلية التي كانت رائجة قبل الإسلام، مثل محاولات إضافة طرق التمجيد التاريخية التي كانت موجودة في ماقبل الإسلام وفرض الشعور بالنقص والدونية وذلك بإرسال الكازاخ إلى المعاهد العسكرية المختصة لطبقة الصفوة من الروس ولكن بالمقابل ردت القيادات الدينية للكازاخ بإثارة الحماس الديني بتبنيها نظام التتركة، ونتيجة لذلك فقد جرى الكثير من عمليات الاضطهاد لتلك الشعوب. وخلال الحقبة السوفيتية لم تنج من المراكز الإسلامية إلا التي يوجد حولها من السكان الكازاخ المسلمين مايفوق غير المسلمين وذلك من خلال أدائهم الشعائر الدينية اليومية. وفي محاولة لإدماج الكازاخ داخل المنظومة الشيوعية، فقد كانت الأهداف الرئيسية للتغيير الاجتماعي هي العلاقات بين الجنسين وأشكال الثقافة الكازاخية الأخرى.

الملاحظ في الآونة الأخيرة بأن الكازاخ بدؤوا بالعمل تدريجيا في تنشيط المؤسسات الدينية الإسلامية بعد سقوط الاتحاد السوفييتي. فبدأ الكازاخ بالاقتران مع عقيدتهم الإسلامية. بل وتفانوا أكثر في مناطق الريف. فالذين يدعون بأنهم من أصول المسلمين الفاتحين الآتين في القرن الثاني الهجري/ الثامن ميلادي، فإنهم يلقون الاحترام الكبير في تلك المجتمعات. فالشخصيات السياسية الكازاخية تولي اهتماما برعاية الوعي الإسلامي. فعلى سبيل المثال، وزير الشؤون الخارجية (مرات تزين) أكد قبل فترة بتعليق كازاخستان الأهمية الكبرى في استخدام «إمكانيات الإسلام الإيجابية، مستفيدة من التاريخ والثقافة وإرث البلاد».

السكان الكازاخ في كازاخستان
الجدول المرفق يظهر النسبة المئوية لتعداد العرق الكازاخي في كازاخستان طبقا لعدة إحصاءات

الأقليات الكازاخية

في روسيا
تقطن الأقلية الكازاخية في روسيا في المناطق الحدودية مع كازاخستان. وطبقا لأقوال وزير القافة والإعلام الكازاخي فإن عددهم 1,310,000 كازاخي موزعون على المناطق التالية: أستراخان وفولغوغراد وسمارا وأورنبرغ وتشيليابينسك وكورغان وتيومين وأومسك ونوفوسيبيرسك وألطاي كراي. فهؤلاء الكازاخ قد نالوا الجنسية الروسية بعد انهيار الاتحاد السوفييتي.

في الصين

يسمى الكازاخ بالصينية هاسيكي زو (哈萨克族; وتعني حرفيا «شعب الكازاخ» أو «قبائل الكازاخ») وهم إحدى العرقيات ال56 المعترف بها رسميا في جمهورية الصين الشعبية. ويوجد للكازاخ منطقة ذاتية واحدة وهي منطقة الكازاخ ذاتية الحكم الموجودة في منطقة سنجان أويغور ذاتية الحكم، وثلاث مقاطعات ذاتية الحكم وهي: مقاطعة أقصاي ذاتية الحكم في قانسو ومقاطعة باركول كازاخ الذاتية الحكم ومقاطعة موري كازاخ الذاتية الحكم في منطقة سنجان أويغور ذاتية الحكم. هناك العديد من الكازاخ الموجودون في الصين لا يتكلمون اللغة المندرينية بطلاقة، وعوضا عن ذلك فهم يتكلمون اللغة الكازاخية. ظهر مطرب كازاخي شاب في بداية القرن الحالي واسمه مامور رايسكان وهو من قيتاي في سنجان، ويعيش حاليا في بكين وقد حقق بعض الشهرة من إعادة استخدام الأغاني الشعبية الكازاخية مع فرقته الموسيقية، وذلك باستخدام الجيتار والدمبرا مع قيثارة اليهود.

بلدان أخرى
 منغوليا: يعيش الأغلبية من الكازاخ في محافظة أولجي. وينحدر معظم الكازاخ المنغوليون إلى عرق الجوز الوسطى (Orta juz) وهي الأكبر من بين الجوز الثلاث.
 أوزبكستان: يعيش معظم الشعب الكازاخي في مقاطعتي كاراكالباكستان وطشقند. وقد عادت الغالبية العظمي من الكازاخ إلى موطنهم الأصلي كازاخستان وخصوصا إلى أوبليس مانكيستاو وذلك بعيد سقوط الاتحاد السوفييتي. ينحدر معظم الكازاخ الموجودين في كاراكالباكستان من فروع قبيلة جوز الصغرى
 إيران: يعيش الكازاخ الإيرانيون بشكل رئيسي في محافظة كلستان بشمال إيران. وطبقا ل (ethnologue.org) فقد كان هناك حوالي 3000 كازاخي يعيشون في إيران عام 1982 داخل مدينة جرجان. وقد يكون ازداد عدد الكازاخ الإيرانيون قليلا، بسبب عودة الكثير منهم إلى كازاخستان بعد تفكك الاتحاد السوفيتي، إلى حيث أماكنهم التي هاجروا منها إلى إيران بعد الثورة البلشفية".

المصادر

ترك آسيا
كازاخستانيون
متنقلون حديثون
مجتمعات إسلامية في الصين
مجتمعات إسلامية في روسيا
مجموعات عرقية في أوزبكستان
مجموعات عرقية في إيران
مجموعات عرقية في تركمانستان
مجموعات عرقية في روسيا
مجموعات عرقية في طاجيكستان
مجموعات عرقية في قيرغيزستان
مجموعات عرقية في كازاخستان
مجموعات عرقية في منغوليا
مجموعات مترحلة في أوراسيا

كازاخ


Toyota Blizzard var en offroader, som Toyotas datterselskab Daihatsu mellem marts 1980 og 1990 fremstillede i to generationer for Toyota Motor. Blizzard var kun tilegnet det japanske marked, men enkelte eksemplarer blev dog parallelimporteret til Nordamerika.

Alle versioner af bilen, som var udført som 3-dørs stationcar, var udstyret med firecylindrede dieselmotorer fra Toyota.

Blizzard (LD10, 1980−1984)

Den første generation med typekoden LD10 var baseret på Daihatsu Taft, men var udstyret med en sugedieselmotor på 2188 cm³ med 53 kW (72 hk). Frem til 1983 fandtes modellen kun med 4 gear, men efterfølgende også med 5 gear.

Blizzard (LD20, 1984−1990)

I tredje kvartal af 1984 kom den anden generation på basis af Daihatsu Rugger på markedet. Modellen kunne leveres med enten en 2,4-liters sugediesel med 61 kW (83 hk) eller en 2,0-liters turbodiesel med 71 kW (97 hk). LD20 var udstyret med tilkobleligt firehjulstræk, en femtrins gearkasse samt en totrins reduktionsgearkasse.

I 1987 gennemgik LD20 et let facelift. Denne version kan kendes på de rektangulære forlygter samt større kofangere.

Eksterne henvisninger

Blizzard
Offroadere
Biler introduceret i 1980
Biler fra 1980'erne
Biler fra 1990'erne

Toyota Blizzard


El regionalismo de Andalucía Oriental es un movimiento político y social que persigue el reconocimiento de Andalucía Oriental (formada en su mayor extensión por las provincias de Almería, Granada, Jaén, Málaga y la actual Ciudad Autónoma de Melilla) como región y su constitución como comunidad autónoma de España, separada del resto de la actual Andalucía. Asimismo, también defiende la identidad histórica y cultural propia de Andalucía Oriental y de los altoandaluces.

Denominación
A lo largo de la historia, la región formada por las provincias de Almería, Granada, Jaén y Málaga ha recibido diferentes denominaciones: Andalucía Oriental, Alta Andalucía o Región de Granada; como consecuencia, el regionalismo también ha recibido varias denominaciones: regionalismo de Andalucía Oriental, regionalismo de la Alta Andalucía, regionalismo altoandaluz o regionalismo granadino.

Territorio

Según los regionalistas de Andalucía Oriental, el territorio que conforma Andalucía Oriental es el correspondiente a las provincias de Almería, Granada, Jaén y Málaga, si bien, y desde tiempos muy recientes, algunos no consideran a esta última parte de Andalucía Oriental. Así mismo, tradicionalmente ha formado parte de esta región la Ciudad Autónoma de Melilla que, aunque lejana geográficamente, ha estado muy vinculada administrativamente a esta región, y muy especialmente a la provincia de Málaga, de la que formó parte hasta 1995.

La extensión de Andalucía Oriental coincide con la Alta Andalucía.

Historia

Algunos hitos del regionalismo fueron:
 En 1897, tuvo lugar una asamblea regionalista en el ayuntamiento de Granada promovida por los granadinos Juan Echevarría y Paco Seco de Lucena. Este último pronunció una conferencia sobre El Regionalismo, donde se refería a la "Región granadina";
 En 1924, la Diputación Provincial de Granada aprobó un proyecto de bases para la creación de una Mancomunidad de Andalucía Oriental, a la manera de la Mancomunidad de Cataluña, que no llegó a prosperar;
 En 1933, en la Asamblea de Córdoba, los representantes políticos, económicos y sociales de Almería, Granada y Jaén (también los de Huelva) abandonaron la asamblea, según ellos debido a la hostilidad con que fueron recibidas sus propuestas y por la parcialidad de la presidencia de la Asamblea; Los cinco representantes de Málaga (2% del total) permanecieron en la asamblea, fieles al acuerdo que habían tomado de asistir "en calidad de oyentes sin pretender asumir los acuerdos que se pudieran tomar".
 En junio de 1936, poco antes del comienzo de la Guerra Civil, los políticos de Granada mantenían sus aspiraciones de autogobierno, de forma paralela a la reactivación por parte de la Diputación de Sevilla de la aspiración autonomista para el conjunto de Andalucía.
 En la Transición la UCD de Granada defendió la creación de una comunidad autónoma para Andalucía Oriental, llegando a crear una bandera que simbolizaba esa reivindicación.
 En los años 90, sugieron fuerzas políticas de carácter provincial, fuertemente inspiradas por los principios rectores del Regionalismo de Andalucía Oriental, promovidas, en algunos casos, incluso por líderes regionalistas de la Transición Española, como Unidad Granadina (UG) o Unión Regionalista Almeriense (URAL).

Asociaciones regionalistas de Andalucía Oriental
En la actualidad, existen dos fuerzas regionalistas de Andalucía Oriental: la Plataforma por Andalucía Oriental (PAO) y el Partido Regionalista por Andalucía Oriental (PRAO), los cuales, sin embargo, circunscriben sus peticiones de autonomía a las provincias de Almería, Granada y Jaén, excluyendo a la Provincia de Málaga.

Plataforma por Andalucía Oriental

La Plataforma por Andalucía Oriental (PAO) se constituyó jurídicamente como asociación el 29 de marzo de 2008 en Guadix (Granada). Su propósito es impulsar la constitución de una comunidad autónoma para las provincias de Almería, Granada y Jaén, no incluyendo a la provincia de Málaga en su ámbito de actuación. La PAO está presidida por Francisco García. Se define a sí misma de este modo:

Partido Regionalista por Andalucía Oriental

El Partido Regionalista por Andalucía Oriental (PRAO) fue un partido político extraparlamentario, que surgió como evolución de la Plataforma por Andalucía Oriental (PAO) hacia el mundo de la política. Se inscribió en el Registro de partidos políticos del Ministerio del Interior el 6 de octubre de 2010. Tres días después tuvo lugar el primer congreso del partido, que eligió al primer Consejo de Dirección, y el 3 de noviembre se presentó a la sociedad almeriense, granadina y jiennense en una rueda de prensa. Tenía su sede principal en Linares (Jaén). Se define a sí mismo de este modo:

Además de la creación de la comunidad autónoma de Andalucía Oriental, los regionalistas altoandaluces proponen la delegación de competencias en las diputaciones provinciales por parte de la Junta de Andalucía, con el consecuente fortalecimiento de las provincias. La PAO y el PRAO también piden más atención a las infraestructuras de Andalucía Oriental, ya que consideran que están olvidadas, y la intervención de la Junta de Andalucía en la mejora de las mismas; el impulso de la cultura propia de Andalucía Oriental; una mayor atención al patrimonio histórico y monumental de Andalucía Oriental por parte de la nombrada administración autonómica; y un mayor cuidado de las zonas con especial interés medioambiental. En lo referente a la educación, la PAO y el PRAO se oponen a la utilización de la educación como medio para difundir la ideología andalucista (ya sea a modo de regionalismo andaluz o de nacionalismo andaluz), criticando la manipulación de la historia de Andalucía Oriental por parte de la Consejería de Educación de la Junta de Andalucía, según ellos.

A su vez, la PAO organiza conferencias, charlas y reuniones en las provincias de Almería y de Jaén y tertulias periódicamente en Granada.

El partido se ha presentado a varios procesos electorales con unos resultados completamente testimoniales. Se presentó a las autonómicas de 2012, las autonómicas de 2015 y a las generales de 2011, donde obtuvo sus mejores resultados con 1.784 votos. En las municipales de 2015 se presentó en coalición junto a Unión Vecinal Almeriense en una coalición llamada UpAL a las municipales de la capital obteniendo únicamente 192 votos.

Regionalismos uniprovinciales en Andalucía Oriental

Regionalismo malagueño

El regionalismo malagueño o malagueñismo es un movimiento social que propone la secesión de la provincia de Málaga con respecto de la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía y su posterior constitución en comunidad autónoma uniprovincial, bajo la denominación de Región de Málaga.
 Denominación. Numerosos regionalistas malagueños se autodenominan malagueñistas y, a su regionalismo, malagueñismo. Además, proponen el nombre de Región de Málaga para la comunidad autónoma que plantean.
 Territorio. Según los regionalistas malagueños o malagueñistas, el territorio que compondría la Región de Málaga sería el de la actual provincia de Málaga.
 Historia. Entre sus antecedentes se encuentra la campaña llevada a cabo en Málaga a finales del  con objeto de segregarse del Reino de Granada, logrando la creación de la provincia marítima de Málaga en 1799. El malagueñismo actual surgió recientemente, si bien algunos regionalistas malagueños relacionan la Región de Málaga con la Taifa de Málaga y el Cantón de Málaga.
 Asociaciones malagueñistas. En la actualidad, hay tres asociaciones y un partido político malagueñistas: la Asociación Rayya, la Plataforma Pro Autonomía de la Región de Málaga (PAURMA) y la Unión Democrática Región de Málaga y Málaga Por Sí,  está fundada recientemente. Ambas son asociaciones políticas de la provincia de Málaga, cuya intención es la secesión de la comunidad autónoma de Andalucía y la constitución de la provincia malagueña como comunidad autónoma independiente; se oponen al centralismo sevillano.
 Propuestas y actividades malagueñistas. La PAURMA y la Asociación Rayya abogan por una mayor descentralización en la comunidad autónoma de Andalucía hacia las diputaciones provinciales y, como meta final, el establecimiento como comunidad autónoma uniprovincial. Además, denuncian el olvido de la provincia de Málaga por parte de la Junta de Andalucía, publican artículos de opinión en algunos periódicos y elaboran informes para respaldar sus ideales.

Regionalismo almeriense

El regionalismo almeriense es un movimiento político y social que propone la conversión de la provincia de Almería en comunidad autónoma propia, bajo el nombre de Región de Almería e independiente de Andalucía.

 Denominación: Comúnmente es denominado regionalismo almeriense. Además, los regionalistas almerienses proponen el nombre de Región de Almería para la comunidad autónoma que plantean.

 Territorio: Según los regionalistas almerienses, el territorio que compondría la Región de Almería sería el de la actual provincia de Almería.

 Historia: Durante la Transición Española, algunos líderes de la UCD de Almería, como Juan Antonio Gómez Angulo, defendieron la creación de una comunidad autónoma del Sureste, incluyendo a Murcia y Almería.

 Partidos regionalistas almerienses: Existe un partido político, la Unión Regionalista Almeriense (URAL), fundado en 1995, que promueve la constitución de esta provincia como una nueva comunidad autónoma al margen de Andalucía. En junio de 2022 se funda el partido Almerienses, cuyo principal objetivo es la constitución de Almería como una autonomía uniprovincial.

 Resultados electorales del regionalismo almeriense: La URAL se presentó a las elecciones generales de 2000, obteniendo 838 votos que la convirtieron en la quinta fuerza política en la provincia con un 0'3% de los votos. En las elecciones al parlamento de Andalucía del mismo año consiguió 1.520 votos. También se presentó a las elecciones municipales de 2011 en Huércal de Almería, obteniendo 128 votos.

 Propuestas y actividades regionalistas almerienses: El regionalismo almeriense ha estado inactivo hasta el año 2010, con la aparición de diversas páginas, blogs y grupos en redes sociales al respecto, de las cuales destaca el grupo "Almerienses que no se sienten andaluces", creado en 2010. Dicho grupo, se convierte en el año 2013 en una asociación cultural y regionalista cuyas principales reinvindicaciones son una autonomía uniprovincial de Almería y la defensa y recuperación de la cultura almeriense. Entre los diversos logros de esta asociación es la recuperación de la bandera de Almería con la Cruz de San Jorge, propuesta enviada a la Diputación de Almería en 2014 y aprobada en 2017. Desde el año 2013 Acción por Almería convoca una concentración cada 28 de febrero bajo el lema "Almería No es Andalucía" pidiendo la segregación de Andalucía.

Personajes de referencia en el regionalismo altoandaluz

 Joaquín Corral Almagro
 Juan Echevarría
 Luis Fajardo Fernández
 Manuel Fernández Montesinos
 Antonio Gallego Burín
 Ángel Ganivet
 Francisco Lumbreras Sáez
 Ramón Maurell
 Constantino Ruiz Carnero
 Paco Seco de Lucena
 Ramón Ferri
 José Sánchez Faba
 Antonio Jiménez Blanco
 Antonio José Iglesias Casado
 Ángel Casares Jiménez
 Pedro Montañés Escobar
 José Pablo Serrano Carrasco
 José Cuevas Pérez
 Joaquín García-Romanillos Valverde
 Fernando Arenas del Buey
 Juan Antonio Gómez Angulo
 Jesús Durbán Remón
 Francisco Soler Valero
 Fausto Romero-Miura

Véase también

 Historia del regionalismo de Andalucía Oriental
 Regionalismo y nacionalismo en España
 Andalucía Oriental
 Alta Andalucía
 Reino de Granada (Corona de Castilla)
 Unión de Centro Democrático de Granada
 Unión de Centro Democrático de Almería
 Unidad Granadina

Referencias

Historia de Andalucía
Regionalismo andaluz
Andalucía Oriental
Regionalismo de Andalucía Oriental

Regionalismo de Andalucía Oriental


عمارة الحاج لخضر 2 مسلسل تلفزيوني جزائري ذو طابع كوميدي.

بطاقة تقنية
 سيناريو : لخضر بوخرص ومحمد ناصر تايب
 مدير التصوير : احمد مسعد
 أغنية الجنيريك : الشاب رضا الوهراني
 إخراج : محمود زموري
 المنتج المنفذ : studio lak

الممثلون
 لخضر بوخرص الحاج لخضر
 هشام مصباح لطفي
 مراد شعبان سفيان
 أنيسة زروفي نسرين
 ليندة سلام حنان
 كمال بوعكاز سعيد
 عمر ثايري عمار
 احمد بن بوزيد تواتي
 ليندة ياسمين الصحافية
 ياسين بن جملين الأستاذ
 جمال بوناب سماتي
 فريدة كريم أم الأستاذ
 بختة بن ويس خيرة
 أمين عبدالي لمين
 عزالدين بورغدة عزالدين
 صالح تيرة شرطي
 بوعلام بليلي
 أبو جمال المريض
 نورالدين علان المغني
 ضيوف الشرف :
 لخضر بلومي لاعب
 زوبير باشي لاعب
 عمر بتروني لاعب
 علي بن شيخ لاعب
 عتيقة طوبال السحارة
 عزيز دقة السحار
 كمال قادري
 مدني مسلم حكم المباراة
 طارق لعزيزي المدرب
 محمد طالبي رئيس الرابطة

برامج المؤسسة العمومية للتلفزيون
مسلسلات تلفزيونية جزائرية

عمارة الحاج لخضر 2


Chathamalbatros () er en stormfugl, der lever ved Chatham Øerne.

Noter
 Avibase - the world bird database

Eksterne henvisninger

Fugle fra New Zealand
Stormfugle

Chathamalbatros


Putujući bloger (eng. travel blogger) je općeprihvaćeni naziv za osobe koje putuju svijetom i to bilježe na svojim blogovima, i na taj način dijele sa svijetom.
Njihovi blogovi su javno dostupni, a nerijetko su to profili na različitim društvenim mrežama. Danas su najviše zastupljeni profili na Facebooku, Instagramu ili besplatnim platformama za osobni blog.

Neki putujući blogeri idu i korak dalje, pa svoje objave rade na uređenim internet stranicama, koje održavaju ili sami ili uz pomoć neke druge osobe.

Pojam je relativno nov, ali se u kratko vrijeme proširio i takve osobe dobivaju sve više na značaju. Najveći utjecaj imaju na turizam pojedinih svjetskih odredišta. Dijele svoje doživljaje dajući tako iskrene recenzije, koje će poslije pomoći drugima odlučiti se na neko putovanje ili ne. Među najpoznatijim putujućim blogerima današnjice je svakako i Kanađanka Andrea, koja živi na Havajima, ali zapravo putuje po svijetu sa svojom obitelji.

Svako mjesto koje posjeti ona dokumentira fotografijama i odgovarajućim tekstom. Svojim putovanjima potaknut će i druge osobe posjetiti neko odredište, ili će ih odgovoriti od toga. Zapravo je snaga putujućih blogera u njihovoj iskrenosti. Neka su vrsta "antireklame", ali ne u smislu da reklamiraju nedolazak, nego će reklamu nekog mjesta podići na razinu koju klasična brošura ne poznaje. Blogeri će napisati svoje iskreno iskustvo, bez skrivenih činjenica ili lažnih obećanja.

Vanjske poveznice
Slavna blogerica posjetila Hrvatsku - Primjer recenzije posjećenog mjesta s doživljajem osobe (ili više njih) koja su boravile u Hrvatskoj

Društvene mreže
Turizam

Putujući bloger