Friedrich Eugen Hahn (* 11. Januar 1907 in Berlin; † 27. Januar 1982 in Hildesheim) war ein deutscher SA-Führer.

Leben und Wirken

Jugend und Ausbildung
Fritz Hahn war der Sohn des Majors Eugen Paul Georg Heinrich Hahn und seiner Ehefrau Pauline Hahn, geb. Drabinski. In seiner Jugend besuchte er ein Realgymnasium, an dem er die Primareife erwarb. Nach dem Schulbesuch durchlief Hahn eine Ausbildung im Bankfach. Seit dem 5. April 1923 war er als Bankangestellter bei der Commerzbank in Berlin angestellt.

Politische Aktivitäten in der Weimarer Republik
In den Jahren nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg gehörte Hahn verschiedenen rechtsnationalistischen Wehrverbänden an, in der er eine nachhaltige paramilitärische Prägung erfuhr: Von 1919 bis 1920 gehörte er dem Deutschnationalen Jugendbund an, dann war er vom 2. Juni 1922 an Mitglied des Deutschnationalen Schutz- und Trutzbunds; von Juli bis August 1923 gehörte er einer Ersatzformation der Schwarzen Reichswehr im Fort Hahneberg an, während er von Anfang 1923 bis Mitte 1924 im nationalen Wehrverband der Turnerschaft Ulrich von Hutten aktiv war; in der Zeit vom Januar bis August 1924 betätigte Hahn sich im Bismarckorden.

Von Mitte 1924 bis Anfang 1926 tat Hahn in dem als Auffangorganisation für die nach dem Hitler-Putsch verbotene SA fungierenden Frontbann – bzw. in dessen Berliner Sektion Frontbann-Nord – Dienst, zuletzt in der Funktion eines Kompanieführers. In späteren Jahren gehörte er, seit dem 1. Januar 1928, auch dem Deutschnationalen Handlungsgehilfenverband an.

Anfang 1926 schloss Hahn sich mit dem Gros der Berliner Frontbann-Leute der zu diesem Zeitpunkt erstmals in Berlin aufgestellten SA an, zu deren Gründungsmitgliedern er zählte. Sein offizielles Eintrittsdatum in die SA wurde als 1. Februar 1926 verzeichnet. In die NSDAP trat er am 23. September 1926 ein (Mitgliedsnummer 44.384).

Zum 1. Februar 1928 wurde Hahn durch Gau-SA-Führerbefehl zum Führer der Charlottenburger SA im Rang eines SA-Sturmführers ernannt, die zu dieser Zeit im Sturm 33 zusammengefasst war. Zusammen mit seinem Adlatus Hans Maikowski gelang es Hahn in den folgenden Jahren, die Charlottenburger SA in starkem Maße auszubauen: Von 20 Mitgliedern 1928 stieg die Zahl der Charlottenburger SA-Angehörigen bis 1931 auf über 300. In den Reihen seiner Leute genoss Hahn nach dem Urteil von Reichard aufgrund seiner ungewöhnlich hohen Bildung und beruflichen Stellung sowie seiner engen Beziehungskorps von NSDAP und SA große Autorität. Das organisatorische Zentrum des Sturms etablierte Hahn dabei in den Sturmlokalen Zur Altstadt in der Hebbelstraße, dem Lokal des Wirtes Krösler in der Röntgenstraße und in einem SA-Heim am Tegeler Weg. Das überaus gewalttätige und brutale Vorgehen, das Hahns SA-Leute bei ihren Einsätzen an den Tag legten, brachte dem Charlottenburger Sturm in der Berliner Bevölkerung und Presse ab 1931 den Spitznamen "Mördersturm" ein und machten auch Hahn zu einer in der Hauptstadt berüchtigten Figur. Aufgrund seiner markanten Haarfarbe wurde er von politischen Gegnern oft "Der rote Hahn" genannt.

In den späten 1920er und frühen 1930er Jahren galt Hahn als eine der wichtigsten Figuren der NS-Bewegung in Berlin: So stand er unter anderem in enger Fühlung mit Kurt Daluege – der ihn als "einen meiner ältesten und besten SA-Führer" bezeichnete – und Joseph Goebbels. Mindestens einmal wurde er von Adolf Hitler persönlich zu einer Geheimbesprechung aufgesucht.

Als energischer Aktivist führte Hahn die Anschläge seiner SA-Leute auf politisch Andersdenkende häufig selbst an: Öffentliches Aufsehen erregten die von Hahn kommandierten Angriffe des Sturms 33 auf die sozialdemokratischen Brüder Erich und Robert Riemenschneider am 1. Januar 1931, bei dem beide durch Messerstiche und Schläge (Hahn schlug mit einem schweren eichenen Gehstock auf die Männer ein) schwer verletzt wurden, sowie der Angriff auf den Kommunisten Otto Grüneberg, der – angeblich von Hahn selbst – am 1. Februar 1931 erschossen wurde. Nachdem Hahn am 2. Februar 1931 wegen des Falls Riemenschneider wegen Landfriedensbruchs kurzzeitig in Untersuchungshaft genommen worden war, ging er nach seiner Freilassung Ende Februar 1931 in den Untergrund. Noch während seiner Haft war er am 10. Februar 1931 zum Sturmbannführer des Sturmbannes II/1 ernannt worden.

Nachdem er sich im April 1931 an der Niederschlagung der Stennes-Revolte beteiligt hatte, floh Hahn in die Niederlande. Als im August 1931 ein Schwurgerichtsverfahren wegen des Angriffs auf die Brüder Riemenschneider eröffnet wurde, wurde das Verfahren gegen Hahn wegen dessen Unauffindbarkeit vom Verfahren abgetrennt. Hahn blieb vom Juni 1931 bis zur Weihnachtsamnestie vom Dezember 1932, mit der das Verfahren gegen ihn niedergeschlagen wurde, auf der Flucht.

Zeit des Nationalsozialismus
Nach dem Machtantritt der Nationalsozialisten wurde Hahn, der nach dem Urteil Sven Reichardts "von und für die SA" lebte, am 9. November 1933 zum SA-Standartenführer befördert. Nach der Röhm-Affäre im Sommer 1934 wurde er im August 1934 mit dem Kommando über die SA-Standarte 1 ("Hans Eberhard Maikowski Standarte 1") betraut.

Zum Jahreswechsel 1936/37 wurde Hahn seiner Dienststellung aufgrund einer Unterschlagungs- und Veruntreuungsaffäre enthoben und 1938 durch ein Urteil des SA-Disziplinargerichts aus der SA ausgeschlossen. Hintergrund war, dass der Beschaffungsreferent seiner Standarte unerlaubt eine schwarze Kasse geführt und Standarten-Gelder in die eigene Tasche geleitet hatte. Hahn wurde zugutegehalten, dies nicht gewusst zu haben – weswegen er in der NSDAP bleiben durfte –, doch wurde ihm zum Vorwurf gemacht, nicht ausreichende Gründlichkeit bei der Beaufsichtigung seines Untergebenen geübt und damit seiner Sorgfaltspflicht nicht genügt zu haben.

Nachkriegszeit

Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde Hahn zeitweise in Internierungslagern in Darmstadt und Recklinghausen festgehalten. Anschließend arbeitete er als Bauarbeiter in Hildesheim und Torfarbeiter in Sandbostel. 1949 betätigte er sich als Bauarbeiter in Hamburg und ab 1950 war er Textilkaufmann.

1966 wurde Hahn von der Berliner Staatsanwaltschaft als Zeuge in den Verfahren zur Aufklärung der Ermordung von Erik Jan Hanussen und Hans Maikowski im Jahr 1933 als Zeuge vernommen.

Ehe und Familie
Hahn heiratete am 17. Mai 1971 in Hamburg.

Literatur
 Knut Bergbauer, Sabine Fröhlich, Stefanie Schüler-Springorum: Denkmalfigur. Biographische Annäherung an Hans Litten, Wallstein, Göttingen 2008. ISBN 978-3835302686
 Sven Reichardt: Das Beispiel Friedrich Eugen Hahn, in: Ders.: Faschistische Kampfbünde. Gewalt und Gemeinschaft im italienischen Squadrismus und in der deutschen SA, 2009, S. 490–493.

Einzelnachweise

Frontbann-Mitglied
SA-Mitglied
NSDAP-Mitglied
Mitglied im Deutschnationalen Handlungsgehilfen-Verband
Person (Schwarze Reichswehr)
Deutscher
Geboren 1907
Gestorben 1982
Mann

Fritz Hahn (SA-Mitglied)


سيرفلتس (Servlets) هي عناصر في لغة الجافا البرمجية تقوم بتحويل الطلبات وبناءالإستجابات بفعالية. واجهة البرمجة التطبيقية للجافا سيرفلتJava Servlet API تسمح لمطور الويب بإضافة محتوى فعال إلى خادوم الويب باستخدام قاعدة الجافا. من المألوف ان يكون المحتوى الناتج بصيغة الإتش تي ام ال HTML ولكن قد تكون هناك بيانات أخرى بصيغة اكس ام ال XML. سيرفلتس تقوم مقام الجافا في تقنيات الويب التي لا تحتوي عليها مثل البي اتش بي PHP، سي جي أي CGI واي اس بي نت ASP.NET ويرى البعض انه من السهل ان نصنفها كجافا سكريبت (وينبغي عدم الخلط بينها وبين النصوص البرمجية للجافا JavaScript) والسيرفلتس تقوم بالحفاظ على الوضع عبر العديد من تعاملات السيرفر وذلك باستخدام الملفات المؤقتة للإتش تي تي بيHTTP ومتغيرات الوضع أو إعادة كتابة العنوان URL.

واجهة البرمجة التطبيقية للجافا سيرفلتJava Servlet API المتوفرة في سلسلة حزمة الجافا تقدم تعريف للتفاعلات المتوقعة لما يحتويه الويب والسرفلت servlet. حيث ان ما يحتويه صندوق الويب (الشبكة العالمية) هو أساساً مايتكون منه الويب سيرفر الذي يتفاعل مع السيرفلتس. وصندوق الويب بكل ما يحتويه هو المسؤول عن إدارة عمل السيرفلتس، ورسم خرائط لعناوين المواقع في سرفلت servlet خاص والتأكد من أن الطالب للعنوان لديه حق للسماح له بالوصول اليه.

 هو العنصر الذي يتلقى الطلب ويقوم بتوفير الاستجابة بناء على الطلب. وتعمل الحزمة الأساسية للسيرفلت على تحديد عناصر الجافا التي تقدم طلبات واستجابات السيرفلت، وكذلك عناصر أخرى لتعكس تكوين السيرفلت المعلمي وطريقة تطبيق بيئتها. حزمة  تحدد الإتش تي تي بي HTTP - كأقسام فرعية محددة من عناصر السيرفلت العامة، بمافي ذلك من عناصر الجهة المسؤولة عن تعقب الطالبات والاستجابات المتعددة بين الويب سيرفر والعميل. والسيرفلتس قد تكون محفوظة في ملف WAR كتطبيق ويب.

السيرفلتس يمكن أن تنتج تلقائيا من صفحات الجافا سيرفر البرمجي، أو بالتناوب تستخدم محركات قوالب مثل WebMacro اوأباتشي لإنتاج أتش تي أم أل HTML. السيرفلتس غالبا ما تستخدم جنبا إلى جنب مع الجي اس بي اس JSPs في نمط يسمى "النموذج 2"، وهو صفة مميزة من نموذج عرض للتحكم.

التاريخ

ان مجموعة السيرفلت الكاملة قد تم إنشاؤها بواسطة شركة صن مايكروسيستمزSun Microsystems، مع الإصدار 1.0 مع وضع اللمسات الأخيرة في حزيران / يونيو 1997. وبدءاً من الإصدار 2.3، تم تطوير السيرفلت تحت مجموعة الجافا الموحدة. جي اس ار JSR 53 تُحدد كل من السيرفلت 2.3 ومواصفات صفحة الجافا سيرفر 1.2. جي اس ار 154 JSR تُحدد مواصفات السيرفلتس 2.4 و 2.5. واعتبارا من مايو 10، 2006، الإصدار الحالي من مجموعة السيرفلت هو 2.5.

وفي مدونته على الجافا نت، واصل Sun veteran و GlassFish تفاصيل Jim Driscoll عن تاريخ تكنولوجيا السيرفلت. James Gosling قد بدأ في التفكير في السيرفلت منذ بدايات الجافا، ولكن المفهوم لم يتحول إلى إنتاج حتى قام Sun بشحن إنتاج الجافا ويب سيرفر. وقد كان هذا قبل ما يعرف الآن بقاعدة الجافا، حيث أصبحت منشورة كمجموعة مخصصة.

دائرة عمل السيرفلت

دائرة عمل السيرفلت تتكون من الخطوات التالية:

 يتم تحميل نظام السيرفلت بواسطة الصندوق أثناء بدء التشغيل.
 يقوم الصندوق باستدعاء نظام init. هذا النظام يقوم بتهيئة السيرفلت ويجب أن يتم استدعائه قبل أن تقوم السيرفلت بخدمة الطلبات. وطوال فترة استخدام السيرفلت لا يتم استدعاء نظام init سوى مرة واحدة.
 بعد التهيئة، يمكن للسيرفلت خدمة طلبات العميل. حيث ان كل طلب يتم تنفيذه في موضوع منفصل. والصندوق يقوم باستدعاء نظام الخدمة للسيرفلت لكل طلب. حيث ان نظام الخدمة يقوم بتحديد نوع الطلب الموجود وارساله للنظام المناسب له في التعامل.والمطور للسيرفلت لا بد ان يوفر تطبيق لجميع هذه الأنظمة. وإذا تم تقديم طلب لا يتوفر تطبيق له من السيرفلت، يتم استدعاء فئة النظام الأصلي وينتج عن ذلك خطأ يتم اعادته لمقدم الطلب.
 أخيرا، يقوم الصندوق باستدعاء نظام destroy لإيقاف السيرفلت وجعلها خارج الخدمة. والدستروي destroy مثل نظام init يتم استدعائه مرة واحدة فقط خلال فرتة استخدام السيرفلت.
هنا سيرفلت مبسطة تقوم يإنتاج HTML فقط.
علما بأن HttpServlet هي فئة فرعية من GenericServlet، كتطبيق لواجهة السيرفلت.
نظام The service() يقوم بإرسال الطلبات إلى أنظمة doGet(), doPost(), doPut(), doDelete(), تبعاً لطلب الإتش تي تي بي HTTP.
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.PrintWriter;
import javax.servletServletException;
import javax.servlet.http.HttpServlet;
import javax.servlet.http.HttpServletRequest;
import javax.servlet.http.HttpServletResponse;

public class HelloWorld extends HttpServlet {
   public void doGet(HttpServletRequest request, HttpServletResponse response) throws ServletException, IOException {
      PrintWriter out = response.getWriter();
      out.println("<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC \"-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 " +
                  "Transitional//EN\">\n" +
                  "\n" +
                  "<title>Hello WWW</title>\n" +
                  "\n" +
                  "
مرحبا شبكة الاتصالات العالمية
\n" +
                  "");
   }
}

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

برمجيات

سيرفلت


An Sporobolus albicans in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck ngan Carl Bernhard von Trinius, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck. An Sporobolus albicans in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sporobolus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Sporobolus

Sporobolus albicans


Holger Henrik Herholdt Drachmann (9 October 1846 – 14 January 1908) was a Danish poet, dramatist and painter. He was a member of the  Skagen artistic colony and became a figure of the Scandinavian Modern Breakthrough Movement.

Early years
Drachmann was born in Copenhagen, Denmark. He was the son of Andreas Georg Drachmann (1810-1892) and Wilhelmine Marie Stæhr (1820-1857). His father was a surgeon with the Royal Danish Navy. The family belonged to the German-speaking congregation at St. Peter's Church (Sankt Petri Kirke) in Copenhagen.

Owing to the early death of his mother, he was left much to his own devices and developed a fondness for semi-poetical performances, organising his companions in heroic games, in which he himself took such roles as those of Royal Danish Naval heroes Peder Tordenskjold and Niels Juel.

Skagen
Drachmann first visited Skagen in 1872 with the Norwegian painter Frits Thaulow. He frequently returned, associating with the growing colony of artists known as the Skagen Painters (Skagensmalerne) although his painting took second place to his writing. In 1903, he and his third wife Soffi settled in Skagen's Vesterby in their Villa Pax.  Later in life, Drachmann returned to art, often painting pictures of ships and the sea.

Personal life
Holger was sent to Bornholm to learn to paint. There he met his first wife Vilhelmine Erichsen (1852-1935), whom he married in 1871 in Gentofte. They had one daughter, Eva. In 1874 his marriage ended. He was then involved with a married woman named Polly for a short while. Shortly after she gave birth to a daughter, she broke contact with him. He then met with a young girl in Hamburg by the name of Emmy. They fell in love and got married. They adopted Polly's daughter  and had four more children of their own. In 1887 she became seriously ill, and one of their daughters died the same year. Perhaps suffering from stress, he fled into a relation with cabaret singer Amanda Nielsen (1866–1953), whom he called Edith and who became his biggest muse. He would have many muses in his life, but on his deathbed he said that his two biggest muses were Vilhelmine and Edith. He died in Copenhagen and is buried in the sand dunes at Grenen, near Skagen.
After his death his Skagen home, Drachmanns Hus, became a museum.

Career

Behind in his studies, he did not enter university until 1865, leaving it in 1866 to become a student at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. From 1866 to 1870 he learned, under Professor C F Sørensen, to become a marine painter, with some success. In about 1870 he came under the influence of Danish critic and scholar Georg Brandes (1842–1927) and without abandoning art, began to devote most of his time more to literature. At various periods he travelled very extensively in England, Scotland, France, Spain and Italy, and his literary career began by his sending letters about his journeys to the Danish newspapers.

After returning home, he settled for some time on the island of Bornholm, painting seascapes. He now issued his earliest volume of poems, Digte (1872), and joined the group of young Radical writers who followed Brandes. Drachmann was unsettled, and still doubted whether his real strength lay in the pencil or in the pen. By this time he had enjoyed a surprising experience of life, especially among sailors, fishermen, students and artists, and the issues of the Franco-German War and the Paris Commune had persuaded him that a new and glorious era was at hand.

His volume of lyrics, Dæmpede Melodier (Muffled Melodies, 1875), proved that Drachmann was a poet with a real vocation, and he began to produce books in prose and verse with great rapidity. Ungt Blod (Young Blood, 1876) contained three realistic stories of contemporary life. But he returned to his true field in his magnificent Sange ved Havet; Venezia (Songs of the Sea; Venice, 1877), and won the passionate admiration of his countrymen by his prose work, with interludes in verse, called Derovre fra grænsen (Over the Frontier there, 1877), a series of impressions made on Drachmann by a visit to the scenes of the war with Germany.  Drachman's novel En Overkomplet (1876) was followed by Tannhäuser (1877), which despite reference to the medieval legend and Wagner's opera from 1845, is a contemporary love story set in Fredensborg. The poems from the novel were set by various Danish composers, including Peter Heise's cycle "Farlige Drømme".

During the succeeding years he visited most of the principal countries of the world, but particularly familiarizing himself, by protracted voyages, with the sea and with the life of man in maritime places. In 1879 he published Ranker og Roser (Tendrils and Roses), amatory lyrics of a very high order of melody, in which he showed a great advance in technical art. To the same period belongs Paa sømands tro og love (On the Faith and Honor of a Sailor, 1878), a volume of short stories in prose.

It was about this time that Drachmann broke with Brandes and the Radicals, and set himself at the head of a sort of nationalist or popular-Conservative movement in Denmark. He continued to celebrate the life of the fishermen and sailors in books, whether in prose or verse, which were the most popular of their day. Paul og Virginie and Lars Kruse (both 1879); Østen for sol og vesten for maane (East of the Sun and West of the Moon, 1880); Puppe og Sommerfugl (Chrysalis and Butterfly, 1882); and Strandby Folk (1883) were among these. At the beginning of the 1890s he again joined the Brandes fraction without giving up his national motives. His many changing sides has often been regarded as opportunism but were probably caused by his eternal enthusiasm and longing for a positive fundament of his art.

In 1882 Drachmann published his fine translation, or paraphrase, of Byron's Don Juan. In 1885 his romantic play Der var engang (Once upon a Time) had a great success on the boards of the Royal Danish Theatre in Copenhagen, and has remained a classic. His tragedies Vølund Smed (Wayland the Smith, 1894) and Brav-karl (1897) established him as the most popular playwright of Denmark. In 1894 he published a volume of fantastic Melodramas in rhymed verse, a collection which contains some of Drachmann's best work.

His novel Med den brede Pensel (With a Broad Brush, 1887) was followed in 1890 by Forskrevet, the history of a young painter, Henrik Gerhard, and his revolt against his bourgeois surroundings. Closely connected to this novel is Den hellige Ild (The Sacred Fire, 1899), in which Drachmann speaks in his own person. There is practically no story in this autobiographical volume, which abounds in lyrical passages. In 1899 he produced his romantic play Gurre; in 1900 a brilliant lyrical drama, Hallfred Vandraadeskjald; and in 1903, Det grønne Haab.

Legacy
Drachmann is one of the most popular Danish poets of modern time though much of his work is now forgotten. He unites modern rebellionist attitudes and a really romantic view of women and history. His personal appearance often almost overshadowed his literary merits and in many ways he played the role of the "typical" bohemian poet with a turbulent private life. His relationship with various women (his "muses") often made a great scandal but it was the fuel of his inspiration. Especially "Edith", a cabaret singer who was his mistress during the 1890s and inspired much of his best love poetry. His often rhetorical approach to poetry and occasional "wordiness" has led some critics to compare him with
English poet, playwright and  novelist Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909).

References

Other sources

See an article by Karl Gjellerup in Dansk Biografisk Lexikon vol. iv (Copenhagen, 1890).

Further reading

External links

1846 births
1908 deaths
Artists from Copenhagen
Writers from Copenhagen
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts alumni
Danish male poets
Danish marine artists
Skagen Painters
Danish male dramatists and playwrights
19th-century Danish poets
19th-century Danish dramatists and playwrights
19th-century male writers

Holger Drachmann


Dracula este un film de groază americano-britanic  din 1979 regizat de John Badham. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Frank Langella ca Dracula și Laurence Olivier ca Van Helsing. A primit Premiul Saturn pentru cel mai bun film de groază.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Frank Langella - Contele Dracula
Laurence Olivier - Profesor Abraham van Helsing
Donald Pleasence - Dr. Jack Seward
Kate Nelligan - Lucy Seward
Trevor Eve - Jonathan Harker
Tony Haygarth - Milo Renfield
Jan Francis - Mina van Helsing

Primire
Filmul a primit "Licorne d'or (Unicornul de Aur)" la Festival international du film fantastique et de science-fiction de Paris.

Note

Legături externe

Filme din 1979
Filme americaneFilme britanice
Filme în limba engleză
Filme regizate de John Badham
Filme de groază din anii 1970
Premiul Saturn pentru cel mai bun film de groază
Filme cu Dracula
Filme Universal Pictures

Dracula (film din 1979)


Armor Wars (Br: Guerra de Armaduras) é um arco de história em quadrinhos de sete edições do Homem de Ferro escrito por David Michelinie e Bob Layton, com arte de Mark D. Bright e Barry Windsor-Smith, e publicado pela Marvel Comics. O arco aparece pela primeira vez em Iron Man # 225–232.

Histórico de publicação
Enquanto "Armor Wars" é o nome popular para o enredo e é o nome usado para a coleção de brochuras comerciais, a história real é referida como "Stark Wars" nas próprias edições. A origem do nome "Armor Wars" decorre do fato de que o enredo foi anunciado em outros títulos da Marvel com anúncios de página inteira dizendo: "TEMPO PARA O VINGADOR COMEÇAR A VINGANÇA. A GUERRA DE ARMADURAS COMEÇA EM IRON MAN # 225". O enredo aconteceu de Iron Man (Vol. 1) # 225 (dezembro de 1987) a # 231 (junho de 1988), escrito por David Michelinie e Bob Layton com arte de Mark Bright, embora grande parte do trabalho de base para a história em si tenha ocorrido durante Iron Man nº 219-224. O Homem de Ferro encontra o Espião Mestre, que rouba a tecnologia Stark. O Homem de Ferro também encontra a Força, que estabelece o enredo de "Armor Wars" nas edições seguintes.

Um epílogo para o enredo foi publicado em Iron Man (Vol. 1) # 232 (julho de 1988), co-escrito por Michelinie e Barry Windsor-Smith com arte de Windsor-Smith.

"Armor Wars II" seguiu nas edições Iron Man (Vol. 1) # 258 (julho de 1990) a # 266 (março de 1991).

Sinopse
"O Homem de Ferro lutou contra o criminoso chamado Força, o recrutou e ajudou. Tony Stark estava examinando a armadura da Força e percebeu que muito da tecnologia se assemelhava à tecnologia de armadura do Homem de Ferro. Foi então revelado que o Espião Mestre roubou alguns segredos da armadura do Homem de Ferro e os vendeu para Justin Hammer, que os vendeu para criminosos e heróis. Tony Stark então inventou o "Negator Packs" que poderia destruir sua tecnologia em contato".

Edições de colecionador
O enredo foi colecionado em uma brochura comercial em 1990. O livro rapidamente saiu de catálogo e não seria relançado até 2007, quando a Marvel lançou uma nova impressão (com uma nova capa) (ISBN 0-7851-2506-X). O livro reúne as edições #225-#231, bem como o epílogo da história apresentada na edição #232.

A história do Prólogo (# 215-224) foi publicada em uma brochura comercial em março de 2010 (ISBN 978-0-7851-4257-7). Uma coleção da história da sequencia, Armor Wars II (# 258-266), foi lançada em maio de 2010 (ISBN 978-0-7851-4557-8).

Referências

Links externos

__NÃOEDITARSEÇÃO__
Marvel Comics
Eventos Marvel Comics
Publicações da Marvel Comics

Armor Wars (Marvel Comics)


An Cypringlea analecta in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Alan Ackerman Beetle, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Mark T. Strong. An Cypringlea analecta in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cypringlea, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cypringlea

Cypringlea analecta


Akdoğan, Sakarya ilinin Geyve ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Sakarya il merkezine 51 km, Geyve ilçesine 14 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Geyve'nin mahalleleri

Akdoğan, Geyve


The School Board for London, commonly known as the London School Board (LSB), was an institution of local government and the first directly elected body covering the whole of London.

The Elementary Education Act 1870 was the first to provide for education for the whole population of England and Wales. It created elected school boards, which had power to build and run elementary schools where there were insufficient voluntary school places; they could also compel attendance. In most places, the school boards were based on borough districts or civil parishes, but in London the board covered the whole area of the Metropolitan Board of Works – the area today known as Inner London.

Between 1870 and 1904, the LSB was the single largest educational provider in London and the infrastructure and policies it developed were an important influence on London schooling long after the body was abolished.

School board members

The entire board was elected every three years, with the first elections held in November 1870. The LSB originally consisted of forty-nine members elected from ten divisions, based around London's constituencies or the Districts formed under the Metropolis Management Act 1855. Four divisions, representing the City, Southwark, Chelsea and Greenwich returned four members each. The divisions of Lambeth, Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Westminster returned five members each. Finally, Finsbury and Marylebone returned six and seven members respectively. The membership increased over time: to 50 in 1876 when Lambeth was given an extra member, to 51 in 1882 when the representation of Chelsea increased to five members and to 55 in 1885 when Lambeth was sub-divided into two smaller divisions: Lambeth East and Lambeth West with four and six members respectively.

The electoral system of the LSB contained several innovations. Firstly, the board's election of 1870 was polled by secret ballot, being the first large-scale election to use this approach in Britain. Secondly, the cumulative voting system gave electors a number of votes equal to the number of seats in the division in which they were voting. The elector could use up as many of their votes on a single candidate as they wished, which meant that minority interests often found representation.

The LSB, at the time of its creation had one of the broadest mandates of any elected body in Britain. Unusually, women were permitted to vote on the same terms as men for the school boards and also to stand for election. Three women stood in the first board election in 1870: Elizabeth Garrett, who topped the poll, Emily Davies, who also won election, and Maria Georgina Grey.  When the second elections were held, in 1873, Garrett and Davies stood down, to be replaced by Jane Agnes Chessar and Alice Cowell, while in 1876, Florence Fenwick Miller, Elizabeth Surr, Helen Taylor and Alice Westlake all won election.

One measure of the LSB's importance can be seen in the number of notable figures who stood for election to the board. The board attracted a number of the leading figures of the day, including the scientist Thomas Huxley, Helen Taylor, stepdaughter of John Stuart Mill, and Lord Lawrence, who served as the LSB's first chairman. The board was also responsible for launching a number of political careers, including those of Charles Reed, Benjamin Waugh, and the Conservative cabinet minister, William Henry Smith.

Work of the school board

The original intention of the board was to provide a sufficient number of school places for the poorest children in London, which were originally estimated at little more than 100,000. The policy adopted by the LSB was to provide London with modern, high-quality schools, whilst compelling parents, by law, to educate their children. Although education would not be compulsory on a national level until 1880, the board passed a by-law in 1871 that compelled parents to have their children schooled between the ages of five and thirteen.

The LSB was largely successful in their aims and often struggled to keep up with the demand for their services. For instance, by the end of the 1880s, the board was providing school places for more than 350,000 children. This growth was frequently attributed to the quality of school premises, which were often far superior to those of private or charity schools.

The board was responsible for constructing over four hundred schools across London. An important figure in this process was Edward Robert Robson, the board's first chief architect. Robson was responsible for designing many of the school buildings erected by the board. The board's policy was to construct schools which would be attractive, and would serve to improve the general appearance of the districts in which they were constructed.  Although school board architecture drew a considerable amount of criticism at the time, the schools were often sturdy and practical structures, and many schools constructed during this period are still in use.

Abolition of the board

Although the school boards had been largely successful in increasing the number of children attending school in Britain, they were perceived as bureaucratic and expensive. As a response to this, the boards were abolished by the Education Act 1902, which replaced them with local education authorities.

In London, the London County Council had been created in 1889 to replace the Metropolitan Board of Works and in 1904 the responsibility for education in London was transferred to the LCC.  The LSB held its final meeting on 28 April 1904, with the county council taking over on 1 May. The LCC itself was abolished in 1965, with education for the former School Board area passing to the Inner London Education Authority, a committee of the Greater London Council.  The ILEA was abolished in 1990, with the inner London borough councils becoming education authorities.

See also
 Birmingham School Board
List of former board schools in Brighton and Hove

References

Further reading
Education in Britain 1750–1914, W B Stephens, 1998,
Educational Documents, England and Wales 1816 to the present day, J Stuart MacLure, 1965, 1979,  370.942
Powerful and Splendid: The London School Board 1870–1904, Robin Betts, 2015,

London School Board
 01
London School Board
London School Board
History of education in England
History of local government in London
1870 establishments in England
1904 disestablishments in England
Organizations established in 1870
Organizations disestablished in 1904

London School Board


The Buddhas of Bamiyan (or Bamyan) were two 6th-century monumental statues carved into the side of a cliff in the Bamyan valley of central Afghanistan,  northwest of Kabul at an elevation of . Carbon dating of the structural components of the Buddhas has determined that the smaller  "Eastern Buddha" was built around 570 CE, and the larger  "Western Buddha" was built around 618 CE, which would date both to the time when the Hephthalites ruled the region. It was a holy site for Buddhists on the ancient Silk Road. On orders from Taliban founder Mullah Omar, the statues were destroyed in March 2001, after the Taliban government declared that they were idols. International and local opinion strongly condemned the destruction of the Buddhas.

The statues represented a later evolution of the classic blended style of Gandhara art. The larger statue was named "Salsal" ("the light shines through the universe") and was referred as a male. The smaller statue is called "Shah Mama" ("Queen Mother"), identified as a female figure.

Technically, both were reliefs: at the rear, they each merged into the cliff wall. The main bodies were hewn directly from the sandstone cliffs, but details were modeled in mud mixed with straw, coated with stucco. This coating, the majority of which wore away long ago, was painted to enhance the expressions of the faces, hands, and folds of the robes; the larger one was painted carmine red, and the smaller one was painted multiple colors. The lower parts of the statues' arms were constructed from the same mud-straw mix, supported on wooden armatures. It is believed that the upper parts of their faces consisted of huge wooden masks. Rows of holes held wooden pegs that stabilised the outer stucco.

The Buddhas were surrounded by numerous caves and surfaces decorated with paintings. It is thought that these mostly dated from the 6th to 8th centuries CE, ending with the Muslim conquests of Afghanistan. The smaller works of art are considered as an artistic synthesis of Buddhist art and Gupta art from India, with influences from the Sasanian Empire and the Byzantine Empire, as well as the Tokhara Yabghus.

History

Commissioning

Bamyan lies on the Silk Road, which runs through the Hindu Kush mountain region in the Bamyan Valley. The Silk Road has been historically a caravan route linking the markets of China with those of the Western world. It was the site of several Buddhist monasteries, and a thriving center for religion, philosophy, and art. Monks at the monasteries lived as hermits in small caves carved into the side of the Bamyan cliffs. Most of these monks embellished their caves with religious statuary and elaborate, brightly colored frescoes, sharing the culture of Gandhara.

The Great Buddhas of Bamiyan were built circa 600 CE under the Hephthalites, who at the time ruled as principalities in the areas of Tokharistan and northern Afghanistan. Bamyan had been a Buddhist religious site from the 2nd century CE under the Kushans, and remained so up to the time of the Muslim conquest of the Abbasid Caliphate under Al-Mahdi in 770 CE. It became again Buddhist from 870 CE until the final Islamic conquest of 977 CE under the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty. Murals in the adjoining caves have been carbon dated from 438 to 980 CE, suggesting that Buddhist artistic activity continued down to the final occupation by the Muslims.

The two most prominent statues were the giant standing sculptures of the Buddhas Vairocana and Sakyamuni (Gautama Buddha), identified by the different mudras performed. The Buddha popularly called "Solsol" measured 55 meters tall, and "Shahmama" 38 meters. The niches in which the figures stood are 58 and 38 meters respectively from bottom to top. Before being blown up in 2001, they were the largest examples of standing Buddha carvings in the world (the 8th century Leshan Giant Buddha is taller, but is sitting).

Following the destruction of the statues in 2001, carbon dating of organic internal structural components found in the rubble has determined that the two Buddhas were built , with narrow dates of between 544 and 595 CE for the 38-meter Eastern Buddha, and between 591 and 644 CE for the larger Western Buddha. Recent scholarship has also been giving broadly similar dates based on stylistic and historical analysis, although the similarities with the Art of Gandhara had generally encouraged an earlier dating in older literature.

Historic documentation refers to celebrations held every year attracting numerous pilgrims, with offers being made to the monumental statues. They were perhaps the most famous cultural landmarks of the region, and the site was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the surrounding cultural landscape and archaeological remains of the Bamyan Valley. Their colour faded through time.

Pre-modern times
Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang visited the site on 30 April 630, and described Bamyan in the Da Tang Xiyu Ji as a flourishing Buddhist center "with more than ten monasteries and more than a thousand monks". He also noted that both Buddha figures were "decorated with gold and fine jewels" (Wriggins, 1995). Intriguingly, Xuanzang mentions a third, even larger, reclining statue of the Buddha. A monumental seated Buddha, similar in style to those at Bamyan, still exists in the Bingling Temple caves in China's Gansu province.

Mural paintings
The Buddhas are surrounded by numerous caves and surfaces decorated with paintings. It is thought that the period of florescence was from the 6th to 8th century CE, until the onset of Islamic invasions. These works of art are considered as an artistic synthesis of Buddhist art and Gupta art from India, with influences from the Sasanian Empire and the Byzantine Empire, as well as the country of Tokharistan. The later paintings are attributable to the "Turk period" (7th–9th century CE).

Smaller Eastern Buddha (built in 544 to 595 CE)

Most of the surfaces in the niche housing the Buddha must have been decorated with colourful murals, surrounding the Buddha with many paintings, but only fragments were remaining in modern times. For the 38 meter Eastern Buddha, built between 544 and 595 CE, the main remaining murals were the ones on the ceiling, right above the head of the Buddha. Recent dating based on stylistic and historical analysis confirms dates for these mural which follow the carbon-rated dates for the construction of the Buddhas themselves: the murals of the Eastern Buddha have been dated to the 6th to 8th century CE by Klimburg-Salter (1989), and post 635/645 CE by Tanabe (2004). As late as 2002, Marylin Martin Rhie argued a 3rd–4th century date for the Eastern Buddha, based on artistic criteria.

Sun God
Among the most famous paintings of the Buddhas of Bamyan, the ceiling of the smaller Eastern Buddha represents a solar deity on a chariot pulled by horses, as well as ceremonial scenes with royal figures and devotees. The god is wearing a caftan in the style of Tokhara, boots, and is holding a lance. His representation is derived from the iconography of the Iranian god Mithra, as revered in Sogdia. He is riding a two-wheeled golden chariot, pulled by four horses. Two winged attendants are standing to the side of the charriot, wearing a Corinthian helmet with a feather, and holding a shield. In the top portion are wind gods, flying with a scarf held in both hands. This composition is unique, and has no equivalent in Gandhara or India, but there are some similarities with the paintings of Kizil and Dunhuang.

The central image of the Sun God on his golden chariot is framed by two lateral rows of individuals: kings and dignitaries mingling with Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. One of the personages, standing behind a monk in profile, is likely the King of Bamyan. He wears a crenulated crown with single crescent and korymbos, a round-neck tunic and a Sasanian headband.

Hephthalite donors
The Bamiyan Buddhas were built at the time of the Hephthalites. Several of the figures have the characteristic appearance of the Hephthalites of Tokharistan, with belted jackets with a unique lapel of their tunic being folded on the right side, the cropped hair, the hair accessories, their distinctive physiognomy and their round beardless faces. These figures must represent the donors and potentates who supported the building of the monumental giant Buddha. The individuals in this painting are very similar to the individuals depicted in Balalyk Tepe, and they may be related to the Hepthalites. They participate "to the artistic tradition of the Hephthalite ruling classes of Tukharestan".

These murals disappeared with the destructions of 2001.

Larger Western Buddha (built between 591 and 644 CE)
A few murals also remained around the taller 55 meter Western Buddha on the ceiling and on the sides. Many are more conventionally Buddhist in character. Some of the later mural paintings show male devotees in double-lapel caftans.

Adjoining caves
Later mural paintings of Bamyan, dated to the 7th–8th centuries CE, display a variety of male devotees in double-lapel caftans. The works of art show a sophistication and cosmopolitanism comparable to other works of art of the Silk Road, such as those of Kizil, are attributable to the sponsorship of the Western Turks (Yabghus of Tokharistan). The nearby Kakrak caves also have some works of art.

After the destruction of the Buddhas, 50 more caves were revealed. In 12 of the caves, wall paintings were discovered. In December 2004, an international team of researchers stated that the wall paintings at Bamyan were painted between the 5th and the 9th centuries, rather than the 6th to 8th centuries, citing their analysis of radioactive isotopes contained in straw fibers found beneath the paintings. It is believed that the paintings were done by artists travelling on the Silk Road.

Scientists from the Tokyo Research Institute for Cultural Properties in Japan, the Centre of Research and Restoration of the French Museums in France, the Getty Conservation Institute in the United States, and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France, analysed samples from the paintings, typically less than 1 mm across. They discovered that the paint contained pigments such as vermilion (red mercury sulfide) and lead white (lead carbonate). These were mixed with a range of binders, including natural resins, gums (possibly animal skin glue or egg), and oils, probably derived from walnuts or poppies. Specifically, researchers identified drying oils from murals showing Buddhas in vermilion robes sitting cross-legged amid palm leaves and mythical creatures as being painted in the middle of the 7th century. It is believed that they are the oldest known surviving examples of oil painting, possibly predating oil painting in Europe by as much as six centuries. The discovery may lead to a reassessment of works in ancient ruins in Iran, China, Pakistan, Turkey, and India.

Initial suspicion that the oils might be attributable to contamination from fingers, as the touching of the painting is encouraged in Buddhist tradition, was dispelled by spectroscopy and chromatography giving an unambiguous signal for the intentional use of drying oils rather than contaminants. Oils were discovered underneath layers of paint, unlike surface contaminants.

Scientists also found the translation of the beginning section of the original Sanskrit Pratītyasamutpāda Sutra translated by Xuanzang that spelled out the basic belief of Buddhism and said all things are transient.

Attacks on the Buddha's statue
In 1221, with the advent of Genghis Khan, "a terrible disaster befell Bamiyan". Nevertheless, the statues were spared. The Mughal founder Babur wrote in September 1528 that he ordered both be destroyed. Later, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb tried to use heavy artillery to destroy the statues. The legs of the Buddhas were broken because of Aurangzeb's action. Another attempt to destroy the Bamiyan statues was made by the 18th century Persian king Nader Afshar, directing cannon fire at them.

The Afghan king Abdur Rahman Khan in the 19th century destroyed the upper part of the face of the larger figure during a military campaign against a Hazara rebellion in the area.

1998 to 2001 – Taliban

During the Afghan Civil War, the area around the Buddhas was initially under the control of the Hezbe Wahdat—part of the Northern Alliance—who were against the Taliban. However, Mazar-i-Sharif fell in August 1998, and the Bamyan valley was entirely surrounded by Taliban. The town was captured on 13 September 1998 after a successful blockade.

Abdul Wahed, a local Taliban commander who had long before announced his intentions to obliterate the Buddhas, drilled holes in the Buddhas' heads into which he planned to load explosives. He was prevented from proceeding by Mohammed Omar, the de facto leader of the Taliban: According to United Nations representative Michael Semple: Other people blew off the head of the smaller Buddha using dynamite, aimed rockets at the larger Buddha's groin, and burnt tires at the latter's head. In July 1999, Omar decreed in favour of preserving the statues, and described plans to establish a tourism circuit. In early 2000, local Taliban authorities asked for the UN's assistance to rebuild drainage ditches around the tops of the alcoves where the Buddhas were set.

Destruction

The statues were destroyed by dynamite over several weeks, starting on 2 March 2001.

The destruction was carried out in stages. Initially, the statues were fired at for several days using anti-aircraft guns and artillery. This caused severe damage, but did not obliterate them. During the destruction, Taliban Information Minister Qudratullah Jamal said that, "The destruction work is not as easy as people would think. You can't knock down the statues by dynamite or shelling as both of them have been carved in a cliff. They are firmly attached to the mountain." Later, the Taliban placed anti-tank mines at the bottom of the niches, so that when fragments of rock broke off from artillery fire, the statues would receive additional destruction from particles that set off the mines. In the end, the Taliban lowered men down the cliff face and placed explosives into holes in the Buddhas. After one of the explosions failed to obliterate the face of one of the Buddhas, a rocket was launched that left a hole in the remains of the stone head.

A local civilian, speaking to Voice of America in 2002, said that he and some other locals were forced to help destroy the statues. He also claimed that Pakistani and Arab engineers were involved in the destruction. Mullah Omar, during the destruction, was quoted as saying, "What are you complaining about? We are only waging war on stones".

On 6 March 2001, The Times quoted Omar as stating:

In an interview, Omar provided an ostensible explanation for his order to destroy the statues:

During a 13 March interview for Japan's Mainichi Shimbun, Afghan Foreign Minister Wakil Ahmad Mutawakel stated that the destruction was anything but a retaliation against the international community for economic sanctions: "We are destroying the statues in accordance with Islamic law and it is purely a religious issue." A statement issued by the ministry of religious affairs of the Taliban regime justified the destruction as being in accordance with Islamic law.

On 18 March 2001, The New York Times reported that a Taliban envoy said the Islamic government made its decision in a rage after a foreign delegation offered money to preserve the ancient works. The report also added, however, that other reports "have said the religious leaders were debating the move for months, and ultimately decided that the statues were idolatrous and should be obliterated".

Then Taliban ambassador-at-large Sayed Rahmatullah Hashemi said that the destruction of the statues was carried out by the Head Council of Scholars after a Swedish monuments expert proposed to restore the statues' heads. Rahmatullah Hashemi is reported as saying: "When the Afghan head council asked them to provide the money to feed the children instead of fixing the statues, they refused and said, 'No, the money is just for the statues, not for the children'. Herein, they made the decision to destroy the statues"; however, he did not comment on the claim that a foreign museum offered to "buy the Buddhist statues, the money from which could have been used to feed children". Rahmatullah Hashemi added: "If we had wanted to destroy those statues, we could have done it three years ago," referring to the start of U.S. sanctions. "In our religion, if anything is harmless, we just leave it. If money is going to statues while children are dying of malnutrition next door, then that makes it harmful, and we destroy it."

There is speculation that the destruction may have been influenced by al-Qaeda in order to further isolate the Taliban from the international community, thus tightening relations between the two; however, the evidence is circumstantial. Abdul Salam Zaeef held that the destruction of the Buddhas was finally ordered by Abdul Wali, the Minister for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice.

International reaction
The Taliban's intention to destroy the statues, declared on 27 February 2001, caused a wave of international horror and protest. According to UNESCO Director-General Kōichirō Matsuura, a meeting of ambassadors from the 54 member states of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) was conducted. All OIC states—including Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, three countries that officially recognised the Taliban government—joined the protest to spare the monuments. Saudi Arabia and the UAE later condemned the destruction as "savage". Although India never recognised the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, New Delhi offered to arrange for the transfer of all the artifacts in question to India, "where they would be kept safely and preserved for all mankind". These overtures were rejected by the Taliban. Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf sent a delegation led by Pakistan's interior minister Moinuddin Haider to Kabul to meet with Omar and try to prevent the destruction, arguing that it was un-Islamic and unprecedented. As recounted by Steve Coll:

According to Taliban minister, Abdul Salam Zaeef, UNESCO sent the Taliban government 36 letters objecting to the proposed destruction. He asserted that the Chinese, Japanese, and Sri Lankan delegates were the most strident advocates for preserving the Buddhas. The Japanese in particular proposed a variety of different solutions to the issue, including moving the statues to Japan, covering the statues from view, and the payment of money. The second edition of the Turkistan Islamic Party's magazine Islamic Turkistan contained an article on Buddhism, and described the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamyan despite attempts by the Japanese government of "infidels" to preserve the remains of the statues. The exiled Dalai Lama said he was "deeply concerned".

The destruction of the Bamyan Buddhas despite protests from the international community has been described by Michael Falser, a heritage expert at the Center for Transcultural Studies in Germany, as an attack by the Taliban against the globalising concept of "cultural heritage". The UNESCO Director-General Kōichirō Matsuura called the destruction a "...crime against culture. It is abominable to witness the cold and calculated destruction of cultural properties which were the heritage of the Afghan people, and, indeed, of the whole of humanity." Ahmad Shah Massoud, leader of the anti-Taliban resistance force, also condemned the destruction.

In Rome, the former Afghan King, Mohammed Zahir Shah, denounced the declaration in a rare press statement, calling it "against the national and historic interests of the Afghan people". Zemaryalai Tarzi, who was Afghanistan's chief archeologist in the 1970s, called it an "unacceptable decision".

2002 to present

Though the figures of the two large Buddhas have been destroyed, their outlines and some features are still recognisable within the recesses. It is also still possible for visitors to explore the monks' caves and passages that connect them. As part of the international effort to rebuild Afghanistan after the Taliban war, the Japanese government and several other organisations—among them the Afghanistan Institute in Bubendorf, Switzerland, along with the ETH in Zurich—have committed to rebuilding, perhaps by anastylosis, the two larger Buddhas. The local residents of Bamyan have also expressed their favour in restoring the structures.

In April 2002, Afghanistan's post-Taliban leader Hamid Karzai called the destruction a "national tragedy" and pledged the Buddhas to be rebuilt. He later called the reconstruction a "cultural imperative".

In September 2005, Mawlawi Mohammed Islam Mohammadi, Taliban governor of Bamyan province at the time of the destruction and widely seen as responsible for its occurrence, was elected to the Afghan Parliament. He blamed the decision to destroy the Buddhas on Al-Qaeda's influence on the Taliban. In January 2007, he was assassinated in Kabul.

Swiss filmmaker Christian Frei made a 95-minute documentary titled The Giant Buddhas on the statues, the international reactions to their destruction, and an overview of the controversy, released in March 2006. Testimony by local Afghans validates that Osama bin Laden ordered the destruction and that, initially, Mullah Omar and the Afghans in Bamyan opposed it.

Since 2002, international funding has supported recovery and stabilisation efforts at the site. Fragments of the statues are documented and stored with special attention given to securing the structure of the statue still in place. It is hoped that, in the future, partial anastylosis can be conducted with the remaining fragments. In 2009, ICOMOS constructed scaffolding within the niche to further conservation and stabilization. Nonetheless, several serious conservation and safety issues exist and the Buddhas are still listed as World Heritage in Danger.

In the summer of 2006, Afghan officials were deciding on the timetable for the re-construction of the statues. As they waited for the Afghan government and international community to decide when to rebuild them, a $1.3 million UNESCO-funded project was sorting out the chunks of clay and plaster—ranging from boulders weighing several tons to fragments the size of tennis balls—and sheltering them from the elements.

The Buddhist remnants at Bamyan were included on the 2008 World Monuments Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites by the World Monuments Fund.

In 2013, the foot section of the smaller Buddha was rebuilt with iron rods, bricks and concrete by the German branch of ICOMOS. Further constructions were halted by order of UNESCO, on the grounds that the work was conducted without the organisation's knowledge or approval. The effort was contrary to UNESCO's policy of using original material for reconstructions, and it has been pointed out that it was done based on assumptions.

In 2015, a wealthy Chinese couple, Janson Hu and Liyan Yu, financed the creation of a Statue of Liberty-size 3D light projection of an artist's view of what the larger Buddha, known as Solsol to locals, might have looked like in its prime. The image was beamed into the niche one night in 2015; later the couple donated their $120,000 projector to the culture ministry.

As of November 2021, after the 2021 Taliban offensive that saw the overthrow of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the return of Taliban to the government, tourists are being accepted at the site, with the Taliban promising to preserve the Bamyan valley. However, preservation work has ceased and there are no indications that reconstruction will occur in the foreseeable future.

Restoration

The UNESCO Expert Working Group on Afghan cultural projects convened to discuss what to do about the two statues between 3–4 March 2011 in Paris. Researcher Erwin Emmerling of Technical University Munich announced he believed it would be possible to restore the smaller statue using an organic silicon compound. The Paris conference issued a list of 39 recommendations for the safeguarding of the Bamyan site. These included leaving the larger Western niche empty as a monument to the destruction of the Buddhas, a feasibility study into the rebuilding of the Eastern Buddha, and the construction of a central museum and several smaller site museums. Work has since begun on restoring the Buddhas using the process of anastylosis, where original elements are combined with modern material. It is estimated that roughly half the pieces of the Buddhas can be put back together according to Bert Praxenthaler, a German art historian and sculptor involved in the restoration. The restoration of the caves and Buddhas has also involved training and employing local people as stone carvers. The project, which also aims to encourage tourism to the area, is being organised by UNESCO and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS).

The work has come under some criticism. It is felt by some, such as human rights activist Abdullah Hamadi, that the empty niches should be left as monuments to the fanaticism of the Taliban, while others believe the money could be better spent on housing and electricity for the region. Some people, including Habiba Sarabi, the provincial governor, believe that rebuilding the Buddhas would increase tourism, which would aid the surrounding communities.

Rise of Buddhas with 3D light projection
After fourteen years, on 7 June 2015, a Chinese adventurist couple Xinyu Zhang and Hong Liang filled the empty cavities where the Buddhas once stood with 3D laser light projection technology. The projector used for the installation, worth approximately $120,000, was donated by Zhang and Liang, who were saddened by the destruction of the statues. With the desire of paying tribute, they requested permission from UNESCO and the Afghan government to do the project. About 150 local people came out to see the unveiling of the holographic statues.

Replicas

The destruction of the Buddhas of Bamyan inspired attempts to construct replicas of the Bamyan Buddhas. These include the following.

 In 2001 in China, carving of a  high Buddha was initiated in Sichuan, which is the same height as the smaller of the two Bamiyan Buddhas. It was funded by a Chinese businessman, Liang Simian. The project appears to have been given up for unknown reasons.
 In Sri Lanka, a full-scale replica has been created, which is now known as the Tsunami Honganji Viharaya at Pareliya. It is dedicated to the victims of the 2005 tsunami in the presence of Mahinda Rajapaksha. It was funded by Japan's Hongan-ji Temple of Kyoto and was inaugurated in 2006.
 In Poland, the Arkady Fiedler Museum of Tolerance has a replica of a Bamiyan Buddha.
 An  stone Buddha was inaugurated at Sarnath in India in 2011. It stands within the Thai Buddhist Vihara.

Gallery

In popular culture
Despite the Buddhas's destruction, the ruins continue to be a popular culture landmark, bolstered by increasing domestic and international tourism to the Bamyan Valley. The area around the ruins has since been used for the traditional game of buzkashi, and other events. The music video of pop singer Aryana Sayeed's hit 2015 song "Yaar-e Bamyani" was also shot by the ruins.The statues inspired Islamic writers in historical times. The larger statue appears as the malevolent giant Salsal in medieval Turkish tales.

In June 1971, the Japanese Empress Michiko visited the Buddhas during a royal state visit to Afghanistan with her husband. Upon her return to Japan, she composed a waka poem.

A 2012 novel by Rajesh Talwar titled An Afghan Winter provides a fictional backdrop to the destruction of the Buddhas and its impact on the global Buddhist community.

The 2022 Indian film Ram Setu shows the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan and an archaeological team's subsequent attempts to salvage the remains where they discover a fictional treasure belonging to Raja Dahir and a colossal reclining Buddha (which has been described in the writings of Xuanzang but has not actually been discovered).

See also

 Buddha Collapsed out of Shame
 Destruction of art in Afghanistan
 Buddhism in Afghanistan
 Buddhism in Central Asia
 Aniconism
 Aniconism in Islam
 Iconoclasm
 Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State
 Greco-Buddhism
 Index of Buddhism-related articles
 Islamist destruction of Timbuktu heritage sites
 List of colossal sculptures in situ
 List of destroyed heritage
 Ancient history of Afghanistan
 Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
 List of World Heritage in Danger

References

Further reading

 Cloonan, Michele V. "The Paradox of Preservation", Library Trends, Summer 2007.
 Braj Basi Lal; R. Sengupta (2008). A Report on the Preservation of Buddhist Monuments at Bamiyan in Afghanistan. Islamic Wonders Bureau. .
 Kassaimah, Sahar. "Afghani Ambassador Speaks At USC", IslamOnline, 12 March 2001.
 Maniscalco, Fabio. World Heritage and War, monographic series "Mediterraneum", vol. 6, Naples 2007, Massa Publisher
 Noyes, James. "Bamiyan Ten Years On: What this Anniversary tells us about the New Global Iconoclasm", "Telos", 1 March 2010.
 Tarzi, Zemaryala. L'architecture et le décors rupestre des grottes de Bamiyan
 Weber, Olivier, The Assassinated Memory (Mille et Une Nuits, 2001)
 Weber, Olivier, Tha Afghan Hawk: travel in the country of talibans (Robert Laffont, 2001)
 Weber, Olivier, On the Silk Roads (with Reza, , 2007)
 Wriggins, Sally Hovey. Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road. Boulder: Westview Press, 1996

 "Afghanistan 1969–1974: February 2001"
 "Artist to recreate Afghan Buddhas". BBC News, 9 August 2005.
 "Bamian Buddha Statues and Theosophy"
 "Pakistani, Saudi engineers helped destroy Buddhas" Daily Times, Sunday, 19 March 2006.
 "The Rediff Interview/Mullah Omar, 12 April 2004"

External links

 Japan offered to hide Bamiyan statues, but Taliban asked Japan to convert to Islam instead
 News articles about the Buddhas of Bamyan
 Photos of the Buddhas of Bamyan
 Bamyan Afghanistan Laser Project
 World Heritage Tour: 360 degree image (after destruction)
 Bamyan Development Community Portal for cultural heritage management of Bamyan
 The World Monuments Fund's Watch List 2008 listing for Bamyan

 The Valley of Bamiyan A tourist pamphlet from 1967
 Researchers Say They Can Restore 1 of Destroyed Bamiyan Buddhas
 Secrets of the Bamiyan Buddhas, CNRS
 Bamiyan photo gallery, UNESCO
 Secrets of Bamiyan Buddhist murals. ESRF
 Photo Feature Covering Bamiyan Site

6th-century religious buildings and structures
Colossal Buddha statues
Arts in Afghanistan
Central Asian Buddhist sites
2001 in religion
2001 in Afghanistan
6th-century Buddhism
Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)
Anti-Buddhism
Archaeological sites in Afghanistan
Bamyan Province
Buddha statues
Buddhism in Afghanistan
Buddhist art
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Afghanistan
Buildings and structures demolished in 2001
Demolished buildings and structures in Afghanistan
Destroyed sculptures
Hazarajat
Iconoclasm
Mountain monuments and memorials
Rock art in Asia
Silk Road
Taliban
Tourist attractions in Afghanistan
Vandalized works of art
World Heritage Sites in Afghanistan
World Heritage Sites in Danger
Removed statues
Persecution of Buddhists by Muslims
Stone Buddha statues

Buddhas of Bamiyan


Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (also Chatterjee) CIE (26 or 27 June 1838 – 8 April 1894) was an Indian novelist, poet, essayist and journalist. He was the author of the 1882 Bengali language novel Anandamath, which is  one of the landmarks of modern Bengali and Indian literature.  He was the composer of Vande Mataram, written in highly sanskritized Bengali, personifying Bengal as a mother goddess and inspiring activists during the Indian Independence Movement. Chattopadhayay wrote fourteen novels and many serious, serio-comic, satirical, scientific and critical treatises in Bengali. He is known as Sahitya Samrat (Emperor of Literature) in Bengali.

Biography
Chattopadhayay is widely regarded as a key figure in literary renaissance of Bengal as well as the broader Indian subcontinent. Some of his writings, including novels, essays and commentaries, broke away from traditional verse-oriented Indian writings,
and provided an inspiration for authors across India.

Chattopadhayay was born in the village of Kanthalpara in the town of North 24 Parganas, Naihati, in an orthodox Bengali Brahmin family, the youngest of three brothers, to Yadav Chandra Chattopadhayay and Durgadebi. His ancestors hailed from Deshmukho village in Hooghly District. His father, a government official, went on to become the Deputy Collector of Midnapur. One of his brothers, Sanjib Chandra Chattopadhyay was also a novelist and is known for his book "Palamau". Bankim Chandra and his elder brother both went to Hooghly Collegiate School (then Governmental Zilla School), where he wrote his first poem. He was educated at the Hooghly Mohsin College and later at Presidency College, Kolkata, graduating with a degree in arts in 1859. He later attended the University of Calcutta and was one of two candidates who passed the final exam to become the school's first graduates. He later obtained a degree in law in 1869. Following his father's footsteps, Bankimchandra joined the Subordinate Executive Service. In 1858, he was appointed a Deputy Magistrate (the same type of position held by his father) of Jessore. After merging of the services in 1863, he went on to become Deputy Magistrate & Deputy Collector, retiring from government service in 1891. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was the first in-charge (Sub-divisional magistrate) of the Arambag subdivision in its earlier days. The ruins of a fort at Gar Mandaran provided the setting for Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel Durgeshnandini, published in 1865. His years at work were replete with incidents that brought him into conflict with the colonial government. He was, however, made a Companion of the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire (CMEOIE) in 1894. He also received the title of Rai Bahadur in 1891.

Literary career

Chattopadhyay's earliest publications were in Ishwar Chandra Gupta's weekly newspaper Sangbad Prabhakar. He began his literary career as a writer of verse before turning to fiction. His first attempt was a novel in Bengali submitted for a declared prize. He did not win and the novelette was never published. His first fiction to appear in print was the English novel Rajmohan's Wife. Durgeshnandini, his first Bengali romance and the first ever novel in Bengali, was published in 1865. His essay 'Shakuntala, Miranda ebong Desdemona' (1873) is considered as the first attempt of comparative analysis of different literatures in Bengali and is studied closely in school of comparative literature of Jadavpur University.

One of the many novels of Chattopadhyay that are entitled to be termed as historical fiction is Rajsimha (1881, rewritten and enlarged 1893). Anandamath (The Abbey of Bliss, 1882) is a political novel which depicts a Sannyasi (Hindu ascetic) army fighting a British force. The book calls for the rise of Indian nationalism. The novel was also the source of the song Vande Mataram (I worship my Motherland for she truly is my mother) which, set to music by Rabindranath Tagore, was taken up by many Indian nationalists, and is now the National Song of India. The plot of the novel is loosely set on the Sannyasi Rebellion. He imagined untrained Sannyasi soldiers fighting and defeating the British East India Company; ultimately, however, he accepted that the British Empire could not be defeated. The novel first appeared in serial form in Bangadarshan, the literary magazine that Chattopadhyay founded in 1872. Vande Mataram became prominent during the Swadeshi movement, which was sparked by Lord Curzon's attempt to partition Bengal into a Hindu majority West and Muslim majority East. Drawing from the Shakti tradition of Bengali Hindus, Chattopadhyay personified India as a Mother Goddess known as Bharat Mata, which gave the song a Hindu undertone.

Bankim was particularly impressed by the historical Gaudiya Vaishnava cultural efflorescence of the 14th and 15th centuries in Bengal. Chattopadhyay's commentary on the Bhagavad Gita was published eight years after his death and contained his comments up to the 19th Verse of Chapter 4.
In a long essay on Sankhya philosophy, he argues that the central philosophical foundation of the overwhelming part of religious beliefs in India, including even Buddhism, lies in the philosophy of Sankhya. He was a critique of the philosophy in the sense of its emphasis on personal vairagya (renunciation) rather than political and social power.

Meeting with Ramakrishna
Bankim was highly educated and influenced by Oriental thoughts and ideas. Ramakrishna in contrast, did not have knowledge of English. Yet they had a nice relation between them. Once Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa, playing on the meaning of Bankim (Bent A Little), asked him what it was that had bent him. Bankim Chandra jokingly replied that it was the kick from the Englishman's shoe for he was a well-known critic of the British government.

Legacy
Tagore penned in the memory of his mentor:
"Bankim Chandra had equal strength in both his hands, he was a true sabyasachi (ambidextrous). With one hand, he created literary works of excellence; and with the other, he guided young and aspiring authors. With one hand, he ignited the light of literary enlightenment; and with the other, he blew away the smoke and ash of ignorance and ill conceived notions"

Sri Aurobindo wrote in his memory:
"The earlier Bankim was only a poet and stylist, the later Bankim was a seer and nation-builder"

After the Vishabriksha (The Poison Tree) was published in 1873, the magazine, Punch wrote:

"You ought to read the Poison Tree
of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee."

His novel Anushilan-Tattva inspired Pramathanath Mitra to start Anushilan Samiti.
Bankim Puraskar (Bankim Memorial Award) is the highest award given by the Government of West Bengal for contribution to Bengali fiction.

Bibliography

Fiction
Durgeshnandini (March 1865)
Kapalkundala (1866)
Mrinalini (1869)
Vishabriksha (The Poison Tree, 1873)
Indira (1873, revised 1893)
Jugalanguriya (1874)
Radharani (1876, enlarged 1893)
Chandrasekhar (1875)
Kamalakanter Daptar (From the Desk of Kamlakanta, 1875)
Rajani(1877)
Krishnakanter Uil (Krishnakanta's Will, 1878)
Rajsimha (1882)
Anandamath (1882), Orient Paperbacks,
Devi Chaudhurani (1884)
Kamalakanta (1885)
Sitaram (March 1887)
Muchiram Gurer Jivancharita (The Life of Muchiram Gur)

Religious Commentaries
Krishna Charitra (Life of Krishna, 1886)
Dharmatattva (Principles of Religion, 1888)
Devatattva (Principles of Divinity, Published Posthumously)
Srimadvagavat Gita, a Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita (1902 – Published Posthumously)

Poetry Collections
Lalita O Manas (1858)

Essays
Lok Rahasya (Essays on Society, 1874, enlarged 1888)
Bijnan Rahasya (Essays on Science, 1875)
Bichitra Prabandha (Assorted Essays), Vol 1 (1876) and Vol 2 (1892)
Samya (Equality, 1879)

Chattopadhyay's debut novel was an English one, Rajmohan's Wife (1864) and he also started writing his religious and philosophical essays in English.

See also
 List of Indian writers
 Sadhu Bhasha

References

Further reading
 Ujjal Kumar Majumdar: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay: His Contribution to Indian Life and Culture. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, 2000. .
 Walter Ruben: Indische Romane. Eine ideologische Untersuchung. Vol. 1: Einige Romane Bankim Chattopadhyays iund Ranbindranath Tagore. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1964. (German)
 Bhabatosh Chatterjee, Editor: Bankimchandra Chatterjee: Essays in Perspective (Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi) 1994.

External links

 https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Chattopadhyay,_Bankimchandra

1838 births
1894 deaths

Bengali writers
Bengali-language writers
Bengali novelists
Bengali Hindus
19th-century Bengalis
Bengali-language lyricists

Presidency University, Kolkata alumni
University of Calcutta alumni
Hooghly Mohsin College alumni

Indian civil servants
Indian lyricists
Indian historical novelists
Indian literary critics
Indian magazine editors
Indian newspaper editors

People from North 24 Parganas district
Writers from Kolkata
Writers of historical romances

19th-century Indian novelists
19th-century Indian male writers
19th-century Indian poets
19th-century Indian essayists
19th-century Indian composers
19th-century Indian journalists

Neo-Vedanta
People from the Bengal Presidency
Poets from British India
Journalists from British India

Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire
Novelists from British India

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee


Josiah Cleaveland Cady (January 1837 – April 17, 1919) or J. Cleaveland Cady, was an American architect known for his designs in Romanesque and Rundbogenstil styles. He was also a founder of the American Institute of Architects.

Cady started his career as a draftsman for Town & Davis in New York City. He opened his Manhattan practice, J. Cleaveland Cady, Architect, in 1864. The firm became J. C. Cady & Company in 1882 and Cady, Berg & See in 1890. Cady's work was diverse, including residences, churches, colleges, libraries and museums, and railroad depots. His first major project was designing the Brooklyn Art Association's Brooklyn Academy of Design in 1869, with architect Henry M. Cougdon. Although much of his work centered around New York and New England, he also was main architectural advisor for Berea College in Kentucky.

More than fifteen of Cady's buildings are listed in the National Register of Historic Places. His best-known surviving design is the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, although his contemporaries knew him for the Metropolitan Opera House and fifteen buildings at Yale University, now demolished. In 1920, Alexander Dana Noyes wrote, "In his professional career, J. Cleveland Cady was perhaps the embodiment of the effort of American architecture, fifty years ago, to find itself while cutting loose from the false and meretricious standards of the Second Empire."

Early life
Cady was born in Providence, Rhode Island in January 1837, to Lydia Smith Platner and Josiah Cady, a deacon who was president of the Rhode Island State Anti-Slavery Society. His father died in 1853.

Cady attended Bacon Academy and Plainfield Academy, both in Connecticut. He attended Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut for one year in 1857, and took additional classes in 1860. At Trinity, he was a member of the Fraternity of Delta Psi (St. Anthony Hall). However, he did not officially graduate.

Between 1857 and 1864, Cady pursued his studies in architecture with a German professor of architecture who was living in New York City. He also studied watercolor painting with Alfred Fredericks.

Career
Cady worked as a draftsman for Town & Davis in New York City. By 1864, he opened his practice, J. Cleaveland Cady, Architect. He advertised that he could provide designs and plans for churches, cottages, public buildings, residences, schools, stores, and warehouses. The Brooklyn Union described Cady as "a young man of fine talents, of refined and cultivated taste, and profoundly zealous in his profession."

From 1864 to 1881, his offices were in the Trinity Building at 111 Broadway in Manhattan which served as a studio for dozens of architects, providing opportunities for many collaborations. In 1864, he worked with associates Rider & Alden in Hartford, Connecticut. In May 1869, he was associated with architect Henry M. Cougdon.

In 1871 Milton See (1854–1920) joined his practice, followed by Louis DeCoppet Berg (1856–1945) in 1873. Both were just seventeen years old when they began working with Cady. In 1872, Bradford L. Gilbert began training under Cady; he later formed a successful national practice.

In 1882, Cady formed the firm J. C. Cady & Company. In 1890, the firm became known as Cady, Berg & See. With formal training in Germany, Berg was the structural and mechanical engineer for the firm. See was the chief technician, while Cady was the chief designer. Their offices were located at 31 East 17th Street in New York City. They were joined by student draftsman William S. Gregory (1865–1945) in 1892. The firm dissolved in 1909.

Cady and Gregory formed a partnership known as Cady & Gregory in 1909. They had offices at 40 West 32nd Street in New York City.

Projects

Cultural buildings

Brooklyn Academy of Design
In 1869, Cady received his big break with the commission to build the Brooklyn Art Association's Brooklyn Academy of Design. For this project, he worked with architect Henry M. Cougdon in what appears to be their only collaboration. They executed the stone building in high Victorian Gothic style in tones of brown, grey and pink. Opening in 1872, the Brooklyn Academy of Design included exhibition space and studios for artists. The building was pictured in The American Architect and Building News in January 1876.

Although this is not the style Cady is known for, architect Montgomery Schuyler said the Brooklyn Academy of Design is "one of the few successful secular Gothic designs."

Peabody Museum

Cady designed the original Peabody Museum of Natural History to house Yale University's mineral collection, fossils, and exhibits on zoology and geology. The Gothic style building was constructed between 1873 and 1876 from brown and Nova Scotia stone, as well as Philadelphia-pressed brick. However, only a portion of Cady's design was ever constructed. The museum was located at the corner of Elm and High Streets but was demolished in 1917.

Barron Library

Cady designed the Barron Library in Middlesex, New Jersey in 1878. This brownstone in Romanesque style has a Roman arch, a three-story tower, and stained-glass windows. It was built of Belleville stone. Inside, the reading room's fireplace is outlined in Delft tiles depicting Biblical scenes.

Metropolitan Opera House

Cady was the architect of the original Metropolitan Opera House which opened in October 1883. To get this contract, the firm won a design contest, gaining the advantage because of its inexpensive construction costs, functionality, and fireproofing. It also incorporated the newest engineering technologies, including electric lights, elevators, an iron cage for structural support, a sprinkler system for fire suppression, and a simple air conditioning system. The latter made the designer "a true architectural pioneer."

When completed, it seated 3,700 people and was the largest opera house in the world. Its four-story façade had matching seven-story towers with commercial establishments on the ground level, restaurants and ballrooms above, and apartments for bachelors in the upper levels—making this "an early and excellent example of a multi-use project." Its plans were published in The American Architect, February 16, 1884.

Cady described the building as, "a simple dignity that will not be tiresome or uninteresting as the years go by." Although its yellow brick and terracotta exterior was not particularly noteworthy, the Historic American Buildings Survey noted, "its interior placed it among the great opera houses of the world." Cady's original auditorium was destroyed by a fire on August 27, 1892; it was rebuilt by the architectural firm of Carrère and Hastings and was used until 1966. However, in 1936, it was noted, "The opera house was designed by J. C. Cady, a prominent architect of the day. That Mr. Cady was without experience in theater construction seemed to matter little; audiences ever since have paid for his mistakes, as but half the stage can be seen from the side seats of the balcony and family circle." The opera house was razed in 1967.

American Museum of Natural History

Cady, Berg & See designed the main building of the American Museum of Natural History (1899) in New York City. The firm was selected through a design contest held in 1887. The museum's Romanesque design was very open because of iron supports beneath the red granite façade. Running   along the museum's West 77th Street entrance, this was the longest public building façade in New York City. It included black cherry window frames, elaborate cornices, cartouches, eagles, finials, wreaths, and a  wideporte-cochère. It "has been hailed as one of the finest examples of Romanesque Revival architecture in New York City." Inside, the building reflected a new approach to museum design; it included spaces for both public exhibitions and scholarly study.

Colleges
Cady, Berg & See designed buildings for many college including Bellevue Medical School, Berea College, Trinity College, Wesleyan University, Williams College, and Yale University.

Trinity College
At Trinity College, Cady designed Saint Anthony Hall (1878), a chapter house for the Fraternity of Delta Psi (St. Anthony Hall). Robert Habersham Coleman, a former classmate and fraternity brother of Cady, donated the funds to construct the chapter house. Cady's design departed "from the traditional 'tomb-like' structures of fraternities at other schools." Instead, his Romanesque fraternity house "was more a cross between a house and fortress." The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in November 1985.

He also designed the Jarvis Hall of Science (1899) at Trinity, which was demolished in the 1960s.

Yale University
Cady designed more than fifteen buildings for Yale University, including Berkeley Hall (1893–1894, demolished), Chittenden Memorial Library (1889–1890), Dwight Hall which included the YMCA (1885–1886, demolished 1926) Fayerweather Hall (1900–1901, demolished), Hendrie Hall (1894–1897), Lampson Hall (1903, demolished), Lyceum Hall (1903, demolished), North Sheffield School (1873), Pierson Hall (1896, demolished), Sheffield Chemical Laboratory (1894–1895), White Hall (1893–1894, demolished), Winchester Hall (1892–1893, demolished), and the Yale Infirmary (1892).

George Brush, head of the engineering department at Yale's Sheffield Scientific School praised North Sheffield Hall, saying, "The building is considered a complete success; great surprise is expressed that with so simple an external form—a mere cube—such an admirable architectural effect has been produced, and the interior arrangements are so simple, complete and substantial, that everyone is impressed with the fact, that nothing has been sacrificed to mere decoration, but everything is for use. …[Cady has] furnished a substantial, common sense building, massive, but elegant in design, and pleasingly artistic in its general appearance, while it is thoroughly well adapted for the uses of our institution."

Although only part of the Chittenden Library design was constructed, it is Cady's "most overtly Richardsonian building." However, "the best remaining example of the craftsmanship of Cady's buildings" is probably Sheffield Chemical Laboratory.

Williams College
In 1883, Cady designed the Morgan Hall dormitory for Williams Collage. This was followed by a Lasell Gymnasium in 1886. Both buildings are a mix of Romanesque and Dutch styles and were executed in Kentucky and Williamstown limestone.

Wesleyan University
Cady's work at Wesleyan University started with a boiler plant in 1891. His next commission was Fayerweather Gymnasium in 1889. Cady's Romanesque interpretation of a gym started a trend of Romanesque buildings on the Wesleyan campus. However, Berg's expertise in engineering was also essential in the wide spans of the gymnasium. The firm also designed additions to Memorial Chapel in 1898. In 1904, construction started on Wilbur Fisk Hall, another of their designs.

Bellevue Medical School
Cady designed the Bellevue Medical School (1897), later known as the New York University Medical School. The Beaux-Arts style building is located at the southwest corner of 26th Street in New York City. Its first floor has arched windows outlined with wedge-shaped bricks.

Berea College
Cady was the main architectural advisor for the Berea College Square. He was also the uncle of William Goodell Frost, president of Berea College. Cady, along with landscape architect John Charles Olmsted, convinced Frost to select Colonial Revival style for the campus' architectural theme, rather than the obvious choice of rustic style for Appalachia. In 1906, Cady wrote to Frost:Such buildings would be proper for the forest reserves, farms, and farm laborers and even some men's dormitories, but not on the main campus…If the College's buildings seem merely to repeat the student's old mountain environments, they will not be in line with the work their studies are doing for them. As they acquire education and a knowledge of the world, though they live in the mountains, they will hardly be content to live in the same cabins, and their regard and veneration for the College that helped them, will not likely be increased by the recollection of it as mainly a cluster of cabins… A College of log cabins would be a nightmare!Cady designed Fairfield Hall (1873), also known as Ladies Hall, which was the first brick building on campus. Its eclectic design combines Italianate and Second Empire styles in a three-story structure. He also designed the brick and wood Berea College Hospital (1908, razed 1954) which was turned into a dormitory called Morningside Cottage in 1925. Cady designed the Colonial Revival style Boone Tavern in 1909 as a hotel for Berea College. The three-story hotel has Neoclassical porticos with columns that are two-stories tall. It was constructed by Berea students in three phases.

Around 1912, Frost asked his uncle to design a new teacher education building. As a gift to the college, Cady donated much of his time working on the project. Knapp Hall was dedicated on December 16, 1913. The small building housed 200 students, but Cady had designed it to use every space efficiently. To give the classrooms the best light possible, he extended the windows to the ceiling and placed the building on a true north axis. He also developed adjacent playgrounds.

Churches
Cady with credited with designing 25 church buildings using a variety of styles. A Presbyterian, Cady avoided the traditional Anglican and Catholic cruciform plan but instead used the English "dissenting chapel" arrangement.

He designed two churches in Norwood, New Jersey in the Gothic revival style: the Alpine Community Church (1867) and the Church of the Holy Communion (1886-88). He used Stick style or Carpenter Gothic style for the Church in the Adirondacks in Racquette Lake, New York; the First Presbyterian Church of Oyster Bay (1873) in Oyster Bay, New York; and the Plantsville Congregational Church (1866) in Southington, Connecticut. St. William's Catholic Church (1890) in Long Lake, New York was designed by Cady in the shingle style. This one-story building has a two-story round tower with a cone-shaped roof. On the interior, the entire ceiling is hand-stenciled.

Cady used a traditional Byzantine church plan for the First Presbyterian Church (1889) in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania and the Hampton Memorial Church (1886) at the Hampton Institute in Hampton, Virginia. The latter features a square tower that is  tall and has a clock on all four sides. Inside, the wood trim is adorned with carved African American faces, and the yellow pine pews were built by students from the Hampton trade school.

Cady's preferred style for churches was Romanesque, including the Church of the Redeemer in Paterson, New Jersey; First Church Congregational in Fairfield, Connecticut; First Presbyterian Church in Albany, New York; First Presbyterian Church (1901) in Ithaca, New York; Good Shepherd–Faith Presbyterian Church (1887–1893) in New York City; Presbyterian Church in Greenwich, Connecticut; South Street Presbyterian Church of Morristown, New Jersey; and the Webb Memorial Church in Madison, New Jersey.

Some of his many churches in New York City include the Broome Street Tabernacle (1884–1885), First Presbyterian Church on Brownell Street, Forsyth Street Synagogue (1890) which is now the Seventh Day Adventist Church, Grace Methodist Episcopal Church (1895; demolished), Gustavus Adolphus Swedish Lutheran Church (1887), New York Avenue Methodist Episcopal Church (1889–92) which is now Union United Methodist Church, Olivet Memorial Church, the Pilgrim Chapel for the Church of the Pilgrims (1878), the Presbyterian Church of the Covenant at the Mission (1871), St. Andrew's Methodist Church (1889–90) which is now West Side Institutional Synagogue, and St. Paul's German Lutheran Church of Williamsburgh.

One of his designs was replicated several times. In 1880, he designed the Church of the Good Shepherd at Raquette Lake, New York. In 1881, those plans were modified at the request of Harriet Beecher Stowe for the Church of Our Saviour in Mandarin, Florida. The plans were used again in 1883 for the Church of the Good Shepherd in Beattystown, New Jersey.

Health and welfare
The New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor (AICP) hired Cady, Berg & See to design the People's Bath at 9 Centre Market Place in the Lower East Side. This became "one of the most successful and well-publicized public baths in nineteenth-century America." As a result, the firm became the official architect for future designs of municipal baths in New York City.

In 1895, they were asked to submit a design for a grander bath facility for Tompkins Square Park—it was to include eighty showers. This was to be the first of a series of five bathhouses. However, the community protested against having such a facility in their park, and it was never built. A reworked version of their design was eventually used by New York City for the Rivington Street Baths. The AICP criticized both New York City and the architects for what they called "a pretentious brick structure," finding it too grand, too large, and too expensive for the bathhouse scheme they had in mind.

Cady designed the Hudson Street Hospital (1893), Presbyterian Hospital (1886), and the New York Skin and Cancer Hospital (1898). His firm also designed a House of Relief (1894) on Hudson Street near the Hudson Street Hospital, both of which were operated by the New York Hospital. This five-story House of Relief with its distinctive twin stairway was used for clinical and emergency services.

Cady, Berg & See also designed the Christian Home for Intemperate Men (1881) on Madison Avenue, a Home for Old Men and Aged Couples (1897, demolished 1973) at Morningside Heights, and the Protestant Half Orphan Asylum (1893) on Manhattan Avenue.

Residential
In 1866, Cady designed the Nordhoff estate for Mr. and Mrs. Charles Nordhoff in Alpine, New Jersey. In the February 1874 edition of The New–York Sketch–Book of Architecture, Cady shared a design for a Country-Home, which is a highly ornate mansion. The client's name and the building location is unknown.

Cady, Berg & See designed around fifteen residential projects in New York City including those at 57–65 East 90th Street in Manhattan which are now in the Carnegie Hill Historic District and 16 and 8–4 Pierrepont Street in the Brooklyn Heights Historic District.

Designed by Cady, the Romanesque style Othniel C. Marsh House was built from 1875 to 1880 in New Haven. At the time, this "fortress-like mansion" was quite different from the Queen Anne style that was popular in New Haven. It is built of rough-cut red sandstone that is, perhaps, Cady's nod to Marsh's profession as the first professor of paleontology in the United States, with a stick-style wooden tower. The interior, which was finished three years after the exterior, featured dark, heavy woodwork and carved and polished fireplaces. The first floor featured The Wigwam, an octagonal room to showcase Marsh's collections. Marsh bequeathed the house to Yale University in 1899. It is now called Marsh Hall and contains classrooms and offices for the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies.

In 1876, Cady designed Cliffside, a stone mansion in Palisades, New York. This Dutch Colonial Revival style house is also known as the H. E. Lawrence Estate. Another country house with the similar use of a gambrel roof is Willelyn, built in 1883–1884 for Edward A. and Mary Wickes in Balmville, New York. Designed in the Shingle Style, it uses colonial motifs. The house was later owned by Senator Thomas Desmond and Alice Curtis Desmond, who donated it to Mount Saint Mary College as the Desmond Center upon her death.

The Charles H. Farnam Residence at 28 Hillhouse Avenue in New Haven was built in 1884 for attorney Charles Henry Farnam. Its design is eclectic but has similarities to Dutch Colonial style. The red brick house has arched windows and an octagonal corner tower, Yale University has owned the structure since 1920 and uses it for the Department of Economics.

Commercial
In 1872, Cady designed the Demarest Railroad Depot in Bergen County, New Jersey. In 1878, he designed an office in Dutch Colonial style for Harper Brother's Publishing House. American Architect and Building News said, "The whole room is the quaintest of quaint—a place to linger in."

Cady designed four commercial buildings that were considered skyscrapers in their day—the nine-story Gallatin Bank Building (1886, demolished) in New York City, the ten-story Lancashire Fire Insurance Company (1889) in New York City, the twelve-story Shoe and Leather Bank (1893) in New York City, and the Phoenix Mutual Life Insurance Company (1897, demolished) in Hartford, Connecticut. The seven-story retail and residential towers of the Metropolitan Opera House were also considered skyscrapers.

Cady was Richard Morris Hunt's biggest rival for the Tribune Tower competition; although the latter eventually won and designed the building in New York. However, Cady published his design in the July 1874 edition of The New–York Sketch–Book of Architecture.

Professional affiliations
In 1857, Cady was a founder of the American Institute of Architects (AIA). However, Cady did not become an AIA member until he was working professionally in 1864. He was made an AIA Fellow in 1865.

Cady gave a presentation on old Dutch farmhouses of colonial New Jersey to the AIA New York City chapter. He also published a paper on opera houses in the AIA journal.

Honors
 Trinity College presented Cady with an honorary M.A. in 1880, followed by an honorary LL.D. in 1905.
 Cady's architectural library of more than 400 volumes is housed in Watkinson Library at Trinity College. This is "one of the few intact architectural libraries of nineteenth-century America, allowing a rare glimpse into the working method of one of the era's major architectural firms.'
 In 1993 Trinity College hosted the exhibition "Forgotten Architect of the Gilded Age: Josiah Cleaveland Cady's Legacy" with a catalog by Kathleen A. Curran

Personal
In 1859, Cady married Julia Bulkley, daughter of the pioneering dermatologist Dr. Henry D. Bulkley of New York. They had one daughter, Alice Cleaveland Cady, before Julia died in 1869. In 1881, he married Emma Matilda Bulkley of Orange, New Jersey. She was the second daughter of Dr. Bulkley and sister of his first wife. They had three children, including Julia Bulkley Cady, Cleaveland Cady, and Lyndon Bulkley Cady.

Cady was a devoted Presbyterian who served as head of the Sunday school at the Presbyterian Church of the Covenant for 53 years. He was president of the National Federation of Churches and a member of the Religious Education Association. Cady also ran weekly prayer meetings at the Covenant Mission at the Presbyterian Church of the Covenant. He was vice–president of the New York City Mission for ten years, serving on the board for seventeen years. He was a trustee of Berea College, governor of the Presbyterian Hospital, and president of the New York Skin and Cancer Hospital.

He was a member of the Alpine Club, the American Library Association, the Century Association, the Quill Club, and the St. Anthony Club of New York. He built a summer home in Alpine, New Jersey in 1876.

On April 17, 1919, Cady died in his home at 214 Riverside Drive after two months of illness. He was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York.

Selected projects
Following is a list of some of the surviving buildings that Cady designed. Many of these structures are listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), are part of a National Register Historic District (NRHD) or a Local Historic District (LHD), or are a National Historic Landmark (NHL).

Notes

References

Further reading
Schuyler, Montgomery. "The Works of Cady, Berg & See."  The Architectural Record VI (July 1896–June 1897): pp. 516–553.

External links

1837 births
1919 deaths
People from Providence, Rhode Island
American Presbyterians
Bacon Academy alumni
Trinity College (Connecticut) alumni
St. Anthony Hall
19th-century American architects
20th-century American architects
Architects from New York City
Architects of Roman Catholic churches
Architects of Presbyterian churches
Romanesque Revival architects

J. Cleaveland Cady


Òscar Dalmau Alcaine (Barcelona, 21 de enero de 1974) es un locutor, guionista y presentador de radio y televisión español.

Biografía

Aunque empezó a estudiar periodismo, abandonó al poco tiempo esa carrera y se licenció en comunicación audiovisual en la Pompeu Fabra. Comenzó a trabajar como becario en El Terrat, y después pasó por varias cadenas de radio y televisión catalanas, donde ha desarrollado la mayor parte de su carrera. Bajo las órdenes de Manel Fuentes trabajó en programas como La noche... con Fuentes y cía (Telecinco), Amb Manel Fuentes (TV3) y Problemes Domèstics (Catalunya Ràdio). Después fue guionista en los programas satíricos Polònia y Crackòvia (TV3), e hizo la voz en off del programa documental Caçadors de bolets. En radio, colaboró en Julia en la Onda (Onda Cero) y en Minoria Absoluta (RAC1) a través de espacios humorísticos junto a Òscar Andreu, a quien conoció en la universidad y con el que ha trabajado en varios proyectos.

En septiembre de 2009 comenzó a presentar en TV3 El gran dictat, un concurso cultural que premia el uso correcto del idioma catalán. Ese mismo año, comenzó a presentar junto a Òscar Andreu el programa de radio La competència, que se emite en  RAC1. La Competència  continúa emitiéndose y en 2013 fue galardonado con el Premio Ondas. Además, Andreu y él han realizado para Televisió de Catalunya la serie de animación Jokebox, estrenada en octubre de 2011, y la versión televisiva de su programa de radio, La competència en color, para 8tv.

Además de su labor en radio y televisión, Dalmau es aficionado a la música y ha trabajado en la recuperación de grupos del pop catalán de las décadas de los 60 y los 70.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Phil Musical Lounge Corner, blog sobre música de Òscar Dalmau (en catalán, español e inglés)

Nacidos en Barcelona
Locutores de radio de Cataluña
Locutores de RAC1
Guionistas de televisión de España
Guionistas de radio de España
Presentadores de televisión de Cataluña
Presentadores de TV3 (Cataluña)
Independentistas catalanes

Òscar Dalmau


My Babysitter's a Vampire es una película de televisión canadiense de vampiro-aventuras y comedia de terror protagonizada por Vanessa Morgan y Matthew Knight. La trama de la película se centra en torno a un grupo de adolescentes, uno de ellos una vampira sin querer contratada por una pareja para cuidar a su hija en lugar de su hijo algo indigno de confianza, y sus esfuerzos para frustrar un complot para resucitar a un grupo de culto de vampiros muertos.

La película salió al aire el 9 de octubre de 2010, en el canal de televisión canadiense Teletoon. La versión francesa de la película fue presentada en franco-canadiense contraparte de Teletoon, Télétoon, el 16 de octubre de 2010. El estreno en Estados Unidos fue en Disney Channel el 10 de junio de 2011.

Reparto

 Matthew Knight como Ethan Morgan.
 Vanessa Morgan como Sarah Fox.
 Atticus Mitchell como Benny.
 Cameron Kennedy como Rory.
 Kate Todd como Erica.
 Joe Dinicol como Jesse.
 Ella Jonas Farlinger como Jane.
 Ari Cohen como Papá de Ethan.
 Laura DeCarteret como Mamá de Ethan.
 Hrant Alianak como Director Hicks.
 Joan Gregson como Abuela.
 Cassie Steele como Rochelle.
 Richard Ravest como James.
Del resto del reparto incluye a: Nathan Stephenson como Gord, Kaitlin Howell como Sydney y Laurie Ma como Keana

Recepción
En su emisión original, el 10 de junio de 2011 en Disney Channel Estados Unidos; la película de televisión sacó unos 4,18 millones de televidentes totales y un 0,6 de rating en la edad 18-49 demográfico; el ranking en el séptimo lugar en esa edad demográfica — aunque conduce esa noche en los principales televidentes.

Premios y honores

Estreno internacional

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Películas de Canadá
Películas cómicas
Vampiros en cine y televisión
Películas de Disney

My Babysitter's a Vampire (película)