Radarul P-10 (în rusă "Волга А", după clasificarea NATO "Knife Rest B") a fost o stație de radiolocație terestră, sovietică, de descoperire îndepărtată care lucra în gama de unde metrice. Radarul a apărut ca modernizare a predecesorului său P-8. În anul 1953 a trecut testele în teren, după care a fost introdus în înzestrarea Armatei Sovietice și s-a folosit în Trupele de Apărare Antiaeriană, Forțele Aeriene și Marina Militară. În continuare a fost înlocuit cu radarul P-12. Acest radar a fost și în înzestrarea țărilor fostului Tratat de la Varșovia, inclusiv în Armata României, până în anul 1973.

Scurt istoric
În Institutul de Cercetări Ștințifice (NII) al Industriei Radio, în perioada 1951-1953, s-a creat un nou radar, P-10 care a înglobat toate realizările bune care au fost în radarul P-8, și a fost îmbunătățit cu o serie de noi posibilități tactice și tehnice.
În anul 1953, radarul P-10 a trecut cu succes testele de teren și a fost pus în înzestrarea trupelor. Acesta a fost utilizat, în principal, în Trupele de Apărare Antiaeriană, Forțele Aeriene și Marina Militară. Radarul a fost, de asemenea, utilizat la o serie de puncte de comandă ale regimentelor și diviziilor de artilerie antiaeriană ale Trupelor de Apărare Antiaeriană ca stații de cercetare și indicare a țintelor.

Destinație
Radarul a fost folosit pentru cercetarea spațiului aerian, descoperirea și urmărirea mijloacelor aeriene de zbor, determinarea apartenenței de stat a acestora și transmiterea datelor despre situația aeriană la punctele de comandă ale unităților militare beneficiare.

Scurtă prezentare
Principalele deosebiri constructive ale radarului P-10 față de P-8 au fost:
 instalația de antenă a fost realizată sub forma a patru antene singulare de tip "canal de undă", dispuse sub formă de pătrat 2x2 cu o lărgime a diagramei de directivitate de 20 - 24 grade în plan orizontal; antena lucra atât la emisie cât și la recepție;
 s-a introdus un bloc de protecție la bruiaj;
 a fost dotat cu interogatorul terestru prin radiolocație NRZ-1, în sistemul "Kremnîi-1" , pentru determinarea apartenenței de stat a aeronavelor;
 a avut un indicator de observare circulară;
 un indicator de înălțime care lucra în complex cu goniometrul pentru măsurarea unghiului de înălțare al țintei; înălțimea țintei se determina cu ajutorul unei nomograme.
O deosebire în ce privește funcționarea a fost
realizarea, pentru prima dată, a măsurilor de contraacțiune radioelectronică; în cazul apariției bruiajului activ de zgomot se asigura trecerea pe o altă frecvență de lucru.
In anii 1956 - 1957 radarele P-8 și P-10 au fost echipate cu aparatura perfecționată "Baikal-18" de protecție împotriva  bruiajului pasiv, elaborat de Biroul Special de Proiectări (SKB) din uzina 197 a Comitetului de Stat  pentru Radioelectronică (GKRE). În aparatură  s-a utilizat metoda coerentă de compensare cu scăderea impulsurilor după o perioadă de repetiție, cu potențialoscoape, s-a prevăzut compensarea vitezei de mișcare a norilor de bruiaj pentru viteze până la 30 m/s. Echipamentele "Baikal-18", asigurau conducerea țintei prin bruiajul pasiv mărind semanalul de la țintă de peste 5 ori.
A crescut foarte mult mobilitatea radarului prin faptul că antena stației se afla pe același șasiu cu aparatura stației și se putea trece rapid din poziția de marș în poziția de luptă.

Date tehnico-tactice
 frecvența de lucru, gama metrică: banda VHF;
 frecvența de repetiție a impulsurilor: 100 Hz;
 durata impulsului de sondaj: 4 sau 12 microsecunde;
 puterea emițătorului în impuls: 55 - 100 kw;
 distanța de descoperire: 180 - 200 km;
 înălțimea maximă de descoperire: 16.000 m;
 lățimea diagramei de directivitate în plan orizontal: 21 grade;
 viteza de rotire a antenei: de la 1 la 6 rotații pe minut.

Bibliografie
 Вестник ПВО Radarul P-10 (Knife Rest B)
Echipament militar
Radar

P-10 (radar)


Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the third largest state by population, the 12th largest by area, and the 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West Bengal to the east, and Jharkhand to the south. The Bihar plain is split by the river Ganges, which flows from west to east.

On 15 November 2000, southern Bihar was ceded to form the new state of Jharkhand. Only 11.27% of the population of Bihar lives in urban areas as per a 2020 report. Additionally, almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, giving Bihar the highest proportion of young people of any Indian state. The official language is Hindi and additional official language is Urdu, although other languages are common, including Maithili, Magahi,  Bhojpuri, and other Languages of Bihar.

In Ancient and Classical India, the area that is now Bihar was considered the centre of political and cultural power and as a haven of learning. From Magadha arose India's first empire, the Maurya empire, as well as one of the world's most widely adhered-to religions: Buddhism. Magadha empires, notably under the Maurya and Gupta dynasties, unified large parts of South Asia under a central rule. Another region of Bihar, Mithila, was an early centre of learning and the centre of the Videha kingdom.

However, since the late 1970s, Bihar has lagged far behind other Indian states in terms of social and economic development. Many economists and social scientists claim that this is a direct result of the policies of the central government, such as the freight equalisation policy, its apathy towards Bihar, lack of Bihari sub-nationalism, and the Permanent Settlement of 1793 by the British East India Company. The state government has, however, made significant strides in developing the state. Improved governance has led to an economic revival in the state through increased investment in infrastructure, better healthcare facilities, greater emphasis on education, and a reduction in crime and corruption.

Etymology
The name Bihar derives from the Sanskrit and Pali word vihāra (Devanagari: विहार), meaning "abode". The region roughly encompassing the present state had many Buddhist vihāras, the abodes of Buddhist monks in the ancient and medieval periods. Medieval writer Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani records in the Tabaqat-i Nasiri that in 1198 Bakhtiyar Khalji committed a massacre in a town identified with the word, later known as Bihar Sharif, about 70 km (43 mi) away from Bodh Gaya.

History

Ancient period
Chirand, on the northern bank of the Ganga River, in Saran district, has an archaeological record from the Neolithic age . Regions of Bihar – such as Magadha, Mithila, and Anga – are mentioned in religious texts and epics of ancient India.

Mithila gained prominence after the establishment of the Videha Kingdom.  During the late Vedic period  Videha became one of the major political and cultural centers of South Asia, along with Kuru and Pañcāla. The kings of the Videha Kingdom were called Janakas. Sita, a daughter of one of the Janaks of Mithila is mentioned as the consort of Lord Rama, in the Hindu epic Ramayana, written by Valmiki. The Videha Kingdom later became incorporated into the Vajjika League which had its capital in the city of Vaishali, which is also in Mithila. Vajji had a republican form of government where the head of state was elected from the rajas. Based on the information found in texts pertaining to Jainism and Buddhism, Vajji was established as a republic by the sixth century BCE, before the birth of Gautama Buddha in 563 BCE, making it the first known republic in India.

The Haryanka dynasty, founded in 684 BCE, ruled Magadha from the city of Rajgriha (modern Rajgir). The two well-known kings from this dynasty were Bimbisara and his son Ajatashatru, who imprisoned his father to ascend the throne. Ajatashatru founded the city of Pataliputra which later became the capital of Magadha. He declared war and conquered the Vajjika League. The Haryanka dynasty was followed by the Shishunaga dynasty. Later, the Nanda Dynasty ruled a vast tract stretching from Bengal to Punjab.

The Nanda dynasty was replaced by the Maurya Empire, India's first empire. The Maurya Empire and the religion of Buddhism arose in the region that now makes up modern Bihar. The Mauryan Empire, which originated from Magadha in 325 BCE, was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who was born in Magadha. It had its capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna). Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, who was born in Pataliputra (Patna), is often considered to be among the most accomplished rulers in world history.

The Gupta Empire, which originated in Magadha in 240 CE, is referred to as the Golden Age of India in science, mathematics, astronomy, commerce, religion, and Indian philosophy. Bihar and Bengal were invaded by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty in the 11th century.

Medieval period
Buddhism in Magadha went into decline due to the invasion of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, during which many of the viharas were destroyed along with the universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. Some historians believe that thousands of Buddhist monks were massacred during the 12th century. D. N. Jha suggests, instead, that these incidents were the result of Buddhist–Brahmin skirmishes in a fight for supremacy. After the fall of the Pala Empire, the Chero dynasty ruled some parts of Bihar from the 12th century until Mughal rule in the 16th century. In 1540, the great Pathan chieftain, Sher Shah Suri, took northern India from the Mughals and declared Delhi his capital.

From the 11th century to the 20th century, Mithila was ruled by various indigenous dynasties. The first of these were the Karnatas, followed by the Oiniwar dynasty and Raj Darbhanga.
It was during this period that the capital of Mithila was shifted to Darbhanga.

The tenth and the last guru of Sikhism, Guru Gobind Singh, was born in Patna in 1666. With political instability in the Mughal Empire following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, Murshid Quli Khan declared Bengal's independence and named himself Nawab of Bengal.

Colonial era
After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the British East India Company obtained the diwani rights (rights to administer and collect tax revenue) for Bihar, Bengal, and Odisha. The rich resources of fertile land, water, and skilled labour had attracted the foreign imperialists, particularly the Dutch and British, in the 18th century. A number of agriculture-based industries had been started in Bihar by foreign entrepreneurs. Bihar remained a part of the Bengal Presidency of British India until 1912, when Bihar and Orissa were carved out as separate provinces.

Pre- and post-Independence

Farmers in Champaran had revolted against indigo cultivation in 1914 (at Pipra) and 1916 (Turkaulia). In April 1917, Mahatma Gandhi visited Champaran, where Raj Kumar Shukla had drawn his attention to the exploitation of the peasants by European indigo planters. The Champaran Satyagraha that followed received support from many Bihari nationalists, such as Rajendra Prasad, Shri Krishna Sinha and Anugrah Narayan Sinha.

In the northern and central regions of Bihar, the Kisan Sabha (peasant movement) was an important consequence of the independence movement. It began in 1929 under the leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati who formed the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS), to mobilise peasant grievances against the zamindari attacks on their occupancy rights. The movement intensified and spread from Bihar across the rest of India, culminating in the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress in April 1936, where Saraswati was elected as its first president.

Following independence, Bihari migrant workers have faced violence and prejudice in many parts of India, such as Maharashtra, Punjab, and Assam.

Geography

Bihar covers a total area of , with an average elevation above sea level of . It is land locked by Nepal in the north, Jharkhand in the south West Bengal in the east and Uttar Pradesh to the west. It has three parts on the basis of physical and structural conditions: the Southern Plateau, the Shivalik Region, and Bihar's Gangetic Plain. Furthermore, the vast stretch of fertile Bihar Plain is divided by the Ganges River into two unequal parts – North Bihar and South Bihar. The Ganges flows west–east and, along with its tributaries, regularly floods parts of the Bihar plain. The main northern tributaries are the Gandak and Koshi, which originate in the Nepalese Himalayas, and the Bagmati, which originates in the Kathmandu Valley. Other tributaries are the Son, Budhi Gandak, Chandan, Orhani and Phalgu. Bihar has some small hills, such as the Rajgir hills in center, Kaimur Range in south-west and Shivalik Range in North. Bihar has notified forest area of 6,764.14 km2, which is 7.1 percent of its geographical area. The sub-Himalayan foothills of Shivalik ranges, primary Someshwar and Dun mountain, in West Champaran district are clad in a belt of moist deciduous forest. As well as trees, this consists of scrub, grass and reeds.

Bihar lies completely in the Subtropical region of the Temperate Zone, and its climatic type is humid subtropical. Its temperature is subtropical in general, with hot summers and cold winters. Bihar has an average daily high temperature of only 26 °C with a yearly average of 26 °C. The climate is very warm, but has only a very few tropical and humid months. Several months of the year it is warm to hot at temperatures continuously above 25 °C, sometimes up to 29 °C. Due to less rain the best time for traveling is from October to April. The most rainy days occur from May to September.

Flora and fauna

Bihar has reserved Forest area of , which is 7.27% of its geographical area. The sub-Himalayan foothill of Someshwar and the Dun ranges in the Champaran district have belts of moist deciduous forests, mixed with shrubs, grass and reeds. High rainfall (above 1,600 mm [63 in]) promotes forests of Sal (Shorea robusta) in these areas. Other important trees are Sal Cedrela Toona, Khair, and Semal. Deciduous forests also occur in the Saharsa and Purnia districts, with common trees including Shorea robusta (), Diospyros melanoxylon (), Boswellia serrata (), Terminalia tomentose (), Terminalia bellerica (), Terminalia arjuna (), Pterocarpus marsupium (), and Madhuca indica ().

Valmiki National Park covers about  of forest and is the 18th Tiger Reserve of India, ranked fourth in terms of density of tiger population. It has a diverse landscape and biodiversity in addition to sheltering the protected carnivores. Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary in Bhagalpur region is a reserve for the endangered South Asian river dolphin. Other species in Bihar include leopard, bear, hyena, bison, chital and barking deer. Crocodilians including gharials and muggers as well as Gangetic turtles can be found in the river systems. Karkatgarh Waterfall on Karmanasa River is a natural habitat of the crocodilians. In 2016, the government of Bihar has accepted the proposal of the forest authorities to turn the place into a Crocodile Conservation Reserve (CCR). Other notable wildlife sanctuaries include Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary and Gautam Buddha Wildlife Sanctuary. Many varieties of local and migratory bird species can be seen in natural wetland of Kanwar Lake Bird Sanctuary, Asia's largest oxbow lake and only Ramsar site in Bihar, and other notable wetlands of Baraila lake, Kusheshwar Nath Lake, Udaypur lake.

Natural resource
Bihar is the principal holder of the country's pyrite resources and possesses 95% of the resources.

In May 2022, a gold mine was found in the district of Jamui. It accounts for more than 44% of country's gold reserve, approximately 223 million tons.

Demographics

At the 2011 Census, Bihar was the third most populous state of India with a total population of 104,099,452. It was also India's most densely populated state, with 1,106 persons per square kilometre. The sex ratio was 1090 females per 1000 males in the year 2020. Almost 58% of Bihar's population was below 25 years age, which is the highest in India. In 2021, Bihar has had an urbanisation rate of 20%.  Bihar has an adult literacy rate of 68.15% (78.5% for males and 57.8% for females) in 2020. This increased to 130,725,310 as per the Bihar caste survey conducted in 2023.

According to the 2011 census, 82.7% of Bihar's population practised Hinduism, while 16.9% followed Islam. Christianity (0.12%), Buddhism (0.02%) and Sikhism (0.02%) is minority in religion in Bihar. Most of Bihar's population belongs to Indo-Aryan-speaking ethnic groups. It also attracted Punjabi Hindu refugees during the Partition of British India in 1947.

Hindi is the official language of the state and spoken by 25.54% of the total population. At 8.42%, Urdu is the second official language in 15 districts of the state. However, the majority of the people speak one of the Bihari languages, most of which as classified as dialects of Hindi during the census. The major ones are Bhojpuri (24.86%), Maithili (12.55%) and Magahi (10.87%) Angika and Bajjika, two other Bihari languages, are classified under Other dialects of Hindi in the census. Maithili is a recognised regional language of India under the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India. Proponents have called Bhojpuri, Magahi, Angika and Bajjika to receive the same status. Smaller communities of Bengali and Surjapuri speakers are found in the parts of the state, especially in the eastern districts and urban areas.

Government and administration

Governor is the constitutional head of the government of Bihar, who is appointed by the President of India. Chief minister is the executive head of the government who with its cabinet ministers makes all important decisions. The political party or coalition of political parties having a majority in the Bihar Legislative Assembly forms the government.

Chief secretary is the head of the bureaucracy of the state, under whom a hierarchy of officials is drawn from the Indian Administrative Service, Indian Police Service, Indian Forest Service, and different wings of the state civil services. The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice of the High Court. Bihar has a high court in Patna, which has been functioning since 1916. All the branches of the government are located in the state capital, Patna.

The state is administratively divided into 9 divisions and 38 districts. For the administration of urban areas, Bihar has 19 municipal corporations, 89 nagar parishads (city councils), and 154 nagar panchayats (town councils).

Politics

Politics of Bihar has been based on caste, since Indian independence. The important castes with political presence in Bihar includes: Yadav, Koeri, Kurmi, Rajput, Bhumihar and Brahmin. Before 1990, the politics was dominated by Forward Castes– Brahmin, Rajput, Bhumihar and Kayastha. The numerous Other Backward Class group was only given a token representation in the government. This over representation of upper castes was due to their dominance in the Indian National Congress, which dominated the politics of state for three decades after independence of India. According to political scientist, Sanjay Kumar: "using their dominant role in state's government, in the period before 1990, the Forward Castes deliberately subverted the 'land reforms', which could have helped Backward Castes and the Scheduled Castes". The upper backwards relied on Lok Dal and later Janata Dal political party for increasing their political representation. The year of 1989-90 saw the implementation of Mandal Commission's recommendation by Vishwanath Pratap Singh's government, which reserved 27% percent seats in government jobs and educational institutions for the members of Other Backward Class. This event mobilised them against the "politics of religion" of Bhartiya Janata Party, which was backed by the Forward Castes. The leaders like Lalu Prasad Yadav and Nitish Kumar took lead in this mobilisation, and by 1990, the upper backwards– Koeri, Kurmi, Yadav became the new political elites of state.

However, the tipping point of this Backward Caste unity came in 1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election, when the dominant OBC castes, who were at forefront in the collective struggle against the Forward Castes, were divided into two rival political camps. While one of these camps was led by Yadavs under Janata Dal, other camp was led by Koeri and Kurmis, who assembled under Samata Party. According to Sanjay Kumar, this was the election in which the caste divide in the state was witnessed not between the Forward and Backward Castes, but between two groups of Backward Castes itself. It was this election, from which, the Forward Castes felt completely marginalised in Bihar's electoral politics and from then onwards, they didn't remain in a position to play any significant role in state's politics.

By 2004, The Economist magazine said that "Bihar [had] become a byword for the worst of India, of widespread and inescapable poverty, of corrupt politicians indistinguishable from mafia-dons they patronise, caste-ridden social order that has retained the worst feudal cruelties". In 2005, the World Bank believed that issues faced by the state were "enormous" because of "persistent poverty, complex social stratification, unsatisfactory infrastructure and weak governance".
 there are two main political formations: the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) which comprises Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Rashtriya Lok Janshakti Party (RLJP); and the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) between Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Hindustani Awam Morcha, Rashtriya Lok Samta Party, Janata Dal (United) (JDU) and Indian National Congress (INC). There are many other political formations. The Communist Party of India had a strong presence in Bihar at one time, which has since weakened. The Communist Party of India (Marxist) CPI(M) and CPM and All India Forward Bloc (AIFB) have a minor presence, along with the other extreme leftist parties.

Nitish Kumar has been chief minister of Bihar for 13 years between 2005 and 2020. In contrast to prior governments, which emphasised divisions of caste and religion, his political platform was based on economic development, reduction of crime and corruption, and greater social equality. Since 2010, the government confiscated the properties of corrupt officials and redeployed them as school buildings. They also introduced Bihar Special Court Act to curb crime. It also legislated a two-hour lunch break on Fridays, to enable Muslim employees to pray and thereby reduce absenteeism. The government has prohibited the sale and consumption of alcohol in the state since March 2016, which has been linked to a drop in tourism and a rise in substance abuse.

Public health
Bihar generally ranks weakest in health outcomes in comparison to other Indian states because it lacks health care facilities. While the National Health Mission, the Clinical Establishments Act of 2010, and the formation of the Empowered Action Group (EAG) provide federal funds to expand and improve healthcare services, Bihar's ability to fully utilise this funding is lacking.

Research indicates that Bihar relies on privatised hospitals to provide healthcare to the masses, with the second-highest ratio among Indian states for private to public spending and high levels of corruption. These factors are associated with slower healthcare delivery and steep healthcare costs. Corruption is enabled as Bihar lacks continuity and transparency of health reporting as required by the Clinical Establishments Act of 2010. In turn, this prevents the government from making evidence-based conclusions about policy changes and hospital effectiveness, resulting in patterns of ill-informed spending and inconsistent hiring.

When comparing Bihar to Kerala, the number of healthcare professionals (including registered nurses, auxiliary nurses, physicians and health supervisors) at each hospital are significantly lower, and remain constant over time while they steadily increase in number in Kerala. According to Ministry of Health statistics, the greatest shortfalls are for physicians and specialists at 75%. Bihar has only 50% of the sub-health centres, 60% of the primary health centres, and 9% of the community health centres required by the national supply-to-population standards. The number of public hospital beds in Bihar decreased between 2008 and 2015. Given the high population density of the state, Bihar is significantly behind in the number of healthcare professionals that should be employed. Despite these shortcomings, Bihar has shown gradual signs of improvement for female health workers, death rate, and infant, neo-natal, child and maternal mortality rates.

Economy

Bihar's gross state domestic product (GSDP) for the fiscal year (FY) 2013–14 was around  billion. By sectors, its composition is 22% agriculture, 5% industry and 73% services. Bihar has the fastest-growing state economy in terms of GSDP, with a growth rate of 17.06% in FY 2014–15. The economy of Bihar was projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13.4% during 2012–2017 (the 12th Five-Year Plan). Bihar has experienced strong growth in per capita net state domestic product (NSDP). At current prices, per capita NSDP of the state grew at a CAGR of 12.91% from 2004 to 2005 to 2014–15. Bihar's per capita income went up by 40.6% in FY 2014–15. The state's debt was estimated at 77% of GDP by 2007.

While bihar's GDP growth rate has consistently been lower than national average, reports suggest that it may improve in future due to economic efficiency.

Agriculture
Among the states of India, Bihar is the fourth-largest producer of vegetables and the eighth-largest producer of fruits. About 80% of the state's population is employed in agriculture, which is above the national average. The main agricultural products are litchi, guava, mango, pineapple, brinjal, lady's finger, cauliflower, cabbage, rice, wheat, sugarcane, and sunflower. Though good soil and favourable climatic conditions favour agriculture, this can be hampered by floods and soil erosion. The southern parts of the state endure annual droughts, which affect crops such as paddy.

Industry

Begusarai is the industrial and financial capital of Bihar. It has major industries like Barauni Refinery, NTPC, Barauni (BTPS), Barauni Fertiliser Plant (HURL, Barauni), Sudha Dairy Plant, Pepsi Bottling Plant.

Hajipur, Dalmianagar, Munger and Barauni are the major industrial cities in Bihar  The capital city, Patna, is one of the better-off cities in India when measured by per capita income.

The Finance Ministry has sought to create investment opportunities for big industrial houses like Reliance Industries. Further developments have taken place in the growth of small industries, improvements in IT infrastructure, a software park in Patna, Darbhanga, Bhagalpur, and the completion of the expressway from the Purvanchal border through Bihar to Jharkhand. In August 2008, a Patna-registered company called the Security and Intelligence Services took over the Australian guard and mobile patrol services business of American conglomerate, United Technologies Corporation (UTC). SIS is registered and taxed in Bihar.

Prior to prohibition, Bihar emerged as a brewery hub with numerous production units. In August 2018, United Breweries Limited announced it would begin production of non-alcoholic beer at its previously defunct brewery in Bihar.

Income distribution
In terms of income, the districts of Patna, Munger, and Begusarai placed highest among the 38 districts in the state, recording the highest per capita gross district domestic product of 31,441, 10,087 and 9,312, respectively, in FY 2004–05.

Bihar also ranks very low in per capital income in comparison to other cities in India. Patna has per capital income of 1.15L, which is much lower than other cities like Gurugram (7.41L), Noida (6.13), Bengaluru (6.21L), Hyderabad (6.58L) and Mumbai (6.43).

Income disparity among social groups
Rumela Sen outlines the inequalities and backwardness prevalent in Bihar in post-independence period as a consequence of the "delaying tactics" in implementation of land reform and utilisation of kinship ties by the upper-caste landlords, who were having obstructionist attitude towards the land reform poliy. The upper-caste not only dominated the administration, but also the politics in the post-independence period; they utilised the caste ties to keep  about 9000 acres of land undisturbed to the poor. Since the landlords primarily belonged to upper-caste like the politicians and administrators in early decades after independence, they were successful in grabbing large holdings amidst the passage of Zamindari abolition act of 1952.

Culture

Paintings

There are several traditional styles of painting practised in Bihar. One is Mithila painting, a style used in the Mithila region of Bihar. Traditionally, this form was practised mainly by women, passed down generation to generation. Painting was usually done on walls during festivals, religious events, births, marriages, and other cultural milestones. It was traditionally done on the plastered walls of mud huts, and is also done on cloth, handmade paper and canvas. Famous Mithila painters include Smt Bharti Dayal, Mahasundari Devi, the late Ganga Devi, and Sita Devi.

Mithila painting is also called Madhubani art. It mostly depicts human beings and their association with nature.  Common scenes illustrate deities and Saraswati from ancient epics, celestial objects, and religious plants like Tulsi, and scenes from the royal court and social events. Generally, no space is left empty.

Bhojpuri painting is a folk painting style that has flourished in the Bhojpuri region of Bihar thousands of years ago. This painting style is a type of wall painting primarily done on temple walls or on walls of the rooms of newly married couples and the main motifs are that of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati. Although in recent times motifs of natural objects and life and struggles of village people are also depicted to make the painting more acceptable among the common people and bring the style close to reality.

The Patna School of Painting (Patna Kalam), sometimes called "Company Painting", flourished in Bihar during the early 18th to mid-20th centuries. It was an offshoot of the Mughal Miniature School of Painting. Those who practised this art form were descendants of Hindu artisans of Mughal painting. Facing persecution from the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb, these artisans found refuge, via Murshidabad, in Patna during the late 18th century. Their art shared the characteristics of the Mughal painters, expanded subject matter from court scenes to bazaar scenes, daily life and ceremonies. They used watercolours on paper and on mica. This school of painting formed the basis for the formation of the Patna Art School under the leadership of Shri Radha Mohan. The school is an important centre of the fine arts in Bihar.

Performing arts

Bihar has produced musicians like Bharat Ratna, Ustad Bismillah Khan and dhrupad singers like the Malliks (Darbhanga Gharana) and the Mishras (Bettiah Gharana), along with poets like Vidyapati Thakur who contributed to Maithili music. The classical music in Bihar is a form of Hindustani classical music.

Gaya is another centre of classical music, particularly of the Tappa and Thumri varieties. Pandit Govardhan Mishra – son of the Ram Prasad Mishra, himself an accomplished singer – is perhaps the finest living exponent of Tappa singing in India, according to Padma Shri Gajendra Narayan Singh, founding secretary of the Sangeet Natak Academi of Bihar.

Gajendra Narayan Singh also writes, in his memoir, that Champanagar, Banaili, was another major centre of classical music. Rajkumar Shyamanand Sinha of Champanagar, Banaili princely state, was a great patron of music and was himself one of the finest exponents of classical vocal music in Bihar in his time. Singh, in another book on Indian classical music, wrote that "Kumar Shyamanand Singh of Banaili estate had such expertise in singing that many great singers including Kesarbai Kerkar acknowledged his ability. After listening to bandishes from Kumar Sahib, Pandit Jasraj was moved to tears and lamented that, alas, he did not have such ability himself." [free translation of Hindi text].

During the 19th century, many Biharis emigrated as indentured labourers to the West Indies, Fiji, and Mauritius. During this time many sad plays and songs called birha became popular in the Bhojpur region, as Bhojpuri Birha. Dramas incorporating this theme continue to be popular in the theatres of Patna.

Cinema

Bihar has a robust Bhojpuri-language film industry. There is also a smaller production of Magadhi-, Maithili language films. The first film with Bhojpuri dialogue was Ganga Jamuna, released in 1961.
Bhaiyaa, the first Magadhi film, was released in 1961.
The first Maithili movie was Kanyadan released in 1965.
Maithili film Mithila Makhaan won the
National Film Award for Best Maithili Film in 2016.
The history of films entirely in Bhojpuri begins in 1962 with the well-received film Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo ("Mother Ganges, I will offer you a yellow sari"), which was directed by Kundan Kumar.
1963's Lagi nahin chute ram was the all-time hit Bhojpuri film, and had higher attendance than Mughal-e-Azam in the eastern and northern regions of India. Bollywood's Nadiya Ke Paar is another well-known Bhojpuri-language movie. Films such as Bidesiya ("Foreigner", 1963, directed by S. N. Tripathi) and Ganga ("Ganges", 1965, directed by Kundan Kumar) were profitable and popular, but in general Bhojpuri films were not commonly produced in the 1960s and 1970s.

In the 1980s, enough Bhojpuri films were produced to support a dedicated industry. Films such as Mai ("Mom", 1989, directed by Rajkumar Sharma) and Hamar Bhauji ("My Brother's Wife", 1983, directed by Kalpataru) had success at the box office. However, this trend faded during the 1990s.

In 2001, Bhojpuri films regained popularity with Saiyyan Hamar ("My Sweetheart", directed by Mohan Prasad), which raised actor Ravi Kishan to prominence. Several other commercially successful films followed, including Panditji Batai Na Biyah Kab Hoi ("Priest, tell me when I will marry", 2005, directed by Mohan Prasad) and Sasura Bada Paisa Wala ("My father-in-law, the rich guy", 2005). These films did much better business in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar than mainstream Bollywood hits at the time, and were both made on extremely tight budgets. Sasura Bada Paisa Wala also introduced Manoj Tiwari, formerly a well-loved folk singer, to the wider audiences of Bhojpuri cinema. The success of Ravi Kishan and Manoj Tiwari's films led to a revival in Bhojpuri cinema, and the industry began to support an awards show and trade magazine Bhojpuri City. The industry produces over one hundred films per year.

In 2019, Maithili film Mithila Makhaan won Best Maithili Film in the 63rd National Film Awards.

Mass media

Biharbandhu was the first Hindi newspaper published in Bihar. It was started in 1872 by Madan Mohan Bhatta, a Marathi Brahman who settled in Bihar Sharif. Hindi journalism often failed until it became an official language in the state. Hindi was introduced in the law courts in Bihar in 1880.

Urdu journalism and poetry have a long history in Bihar, with many poets such as Shaad Azimabadi, Kaif Azimabadi, Kalim Ajiz and Bismil Azimabadi. Bihar publishes many Urdu dailies, such as Qomi Tanzim and Sahara, and the monthly Voice of Bihar.

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by a number of notable new publications. A monthly magazine named Bharat Ratna was started in Patna, in 1901. It was followed by Ksahtriya Hitaishi, Aryavarta from Dinapure, Udyoga, and Chaitanya Chandrika. Udyog was edited by Vijyaanand Tripathy, a famous poet of the time, and Chaitanya Chandrika by Krishna Chaitanya Goswami, a literary figure of that time. The literary activity was not confined to Patna alone but to other districts of Bihar.

Festivals

Chhath Puja is the biggest and most popular festival in Bihar. The four-day-long holy Hindu festival includes intense celebration across the state. Chhath Puja are done in various cities, towns, and villages throughout Bihar. All Bihar involves itself in devotion to Chhath Puja. It is decked up in lighting decorations and thousands of colourful ghats are set up where effigies of the goddess Chhath Maiya and her brother God Surya are displayed and worshipped while sunset and sunrise. The people of each and every religion goes to the bank of any river or near by the pond or lake for giving arghya to the Sun. They carry Fruits and thekuaa along with them in Soop and Daura(a bowl like structure made up of bamboo) for the worship. Nowadays it's widely spread all over the world where Bihari community lives.

Durga Puja is also the biggest, most popular and widely celebrated festival in Bihar. The ten-day-long colourful Hindu festival includes intense celebration across the state. Pandals are erected in various cities, towns, and villages throughout Bihar. The cities of Bihar transforms Durga Puja. It is decked up in lighting decorations and thousands of colourful pandals are set up where effigies of the goddess Durga and her four children are displayed and worshipped. The idols of the goddess are brought in from Kumortuli, where idol-makers work throughout the year fashioning clay models of the goddess. Since independence in 1947, Durga Puja has slowly changed into more of a glamorous carnival than a religious festival. Today people of diverse religious and ethnic backgrounds partake in the festivities. On Vijayadashami, the last day of the festival, the effigies are paraded through the streets with riotous pageantry before being immersed into the rivers.

Tourism

Bihar is visited by many tourists from around the world, In 2019, 33 million tourists visited Bihar, including more than 1 million foreign tourists. Bihar is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as well as many other ancient monuments. The Mahabodhi Temple (literally: "Great Awakening Temple"), a UNESCO World Heritage site, is an ancient Buddhist temple in Bodh Gaya, marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. The Khuda Bakhsh Library, which has one of the world's largest collection of books, rare manuscripts and paintings is located in Patna. Bodh Gaya (in Gaya district) is about 96 km (60 mi) from Patna. Nalanda Mahavihara, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is among the oldest universities in the world, situated in Nalanda, Bihar. It comprises the archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating from the third century BCE to the 13th century CE. It includes stupas, shrines, viharas (residential and educational buildings) and important art works in stucco, stone and metal. Nalanda stands out as the most ancient university of the Indian subcontinent. Archaeological Survey of India has recognized 72 monuments in Bihar as Monuments of National Importance. Furthermore, Archaeological Survey of India has recognized 30 additional monument as protected monuments in Bihar.

Bihar has many places for ecotourism, which includes Valmiki National Park is famous national park and tiger reserve. Vikramshila Dolphin Sanctuary is home of endangered Gangetic Dolphin. Bihar has many wildlife sanctuary such  Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary, Gautam Buddha Wildlife Sanctuary, Kaimur Sanctuary, Udaypur Wildlife Sanctuary and Pant Wildlife Sanctuary. Bihar invites many species of migratory birds at bird sanctuary like  Kanwar Lake Bird Sanctuary and Nagi Dam Bird Sanctuary.

Many tourists visit Bihar because of religious significance of the Bihar. Hindu Goddess Sita, the consort of Lord Rama, is believed to have been born in Sitamarhi in the Mithila region of modern-day Bihar. Gautama Buddha attained Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, a town located in the modern day district of Gaya in Bihar. Vasupujya, the 12th Jain Tirthankara was born in Champapuri, Bhagalpur. Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism, was born in Vaishali around the sixth century BCE. Śrāddha ritual performed in Pitru Paksha period considered as fruitful in the holy city of Gaya, which is seen as a special place to perform the rite, and hosts a fair during the Pitri Paksha period.

Transport

Airports

Bihar has a total of three operational airports as of 2020: Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Airport in Patna, Gaya Airport in Gaya, and Darbhanga Airport in Darbhanga. All three airports have scheduled flights to major cities around India. Gaya Airport is the only international airport in Bihar, having seasonal flights to countries like Thailand, Bhutan, and Myanmar.

Railways
Bihar has a rail network length of  in 2020. All major cities, districts and towns are well connected. Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor, after completion, will pass through Kaimur, Rohtas, Aurangabad, and Gaya with a total length of  in Bihar.

Expressways
Gaya-Darbhanga Expressway (access controlled highway) will be Bihar's first expressway of length 189 km, expected to be completed by 2024.

State highways

Bihar has state highways with total length of 4,006 km (2,489 mi)  and national highways with total length of 5,358 km (3,329 mi).

Metro transit
Patna will be the first city in Bihar to have mass rapid transit system. Patna Metro with network of  length is under construction as of 2022. However, it is currently delayed due to land acquisition process.

Bus transit
Bihar State Road Transport Corporation (BSRTC) runs interstate, intrastate, and international route buses. BSRTC has daily ridership of around 100,000. Its fleet includes non-electric and electric buses, AC and non-AC buses. Delhi, Ranchi, and Kathmandu in Nepal are some of the destinations served outside Bihar. Patliputra Inter-State Bus Terminal is a major bus transit hub in Bihar.

Inland Waterways
National Waterways-1 runs along Ganges river. Gaighat in Patna has a permanent terminal of inland waterways for handling cargo vessels. The Ganges is navigable throughout the year, and was the principal river highway across the vast Indo-Gangetic Plain. Vessels capable of accommodating five hundred merchants were known to ply this river in the ancient period, when it served as a conduit for overseas trade. The role of the Ganges as a channel for trade was enhanced by its natural links to major rivers and streams in north and south Bihar.

Education

 Historically, Bihar has been a major centre of learning, home to the ancient universities of Nalanda (est. 450 CE), Odantapurā (est. 550 CE) and Vikramashila (est. 783 CE). Nalanda and Vikramshila universities were destroyed by Islamic invader Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1200 CE. Bihar saw a revival of its education system during the later part of the British rule, when Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library was established in 1891 by Sir Khan Bahadur Khuda Bakhsh which is currently one of the world's largest functioning library and boast 5 Million items. It is known for its paintings and rare manuscripts. Patna University, the seventh oldest university of the Indian subcontinent, was established in 1917. Some other centres of high learning established under British rule are Patna College (est. 1839), Bihar School of Engineering (est. 1900; now known as National Institute of Technology, Patna), Prince of Wales Medical College (est. 1925; now Patna Medical College and Hospital), Science College, Patna (est. 1928), Patna Women's College, Bihar Veterinary College (est. 1927), and Imperial Agriculture Research Institute (est. 1905; now Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University, Pusa). The Patna University, one of the oldest universities in Bihar, was established in 1917, and is the seventh oldest university of the Indian subcontinent. Second oldest engineering college of India known as NIT Patna was established as survey training school in 1886 and later renamed as Bihar College of Engineering in 1932.

Today, Bihar is home of 8 Institutes of National Importance: IIT Patna, IIM Bodh Gaya, AIIMS, Patna, NIT Patna, IIIT Bhagalpur, NIPER Hajipur, Khuda bakhsh Oriental Library and Nalanda International University. In 2008, Indian Institutes of Technology Patna was inaugurated with students from all over India and same year National Institute of Fashion Technology Patna was established as the ninth such institute in India.  The Indian Institute of Management Bodh Gaya was established in 2015. In March 2019, the government of Bihar has sent a proposal to centre Government to upgrade Darbhanga Medical College and Hospital into an AIIMS-like institution. Bihar is home of four Central universities which includes Central University of South Bihar, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University and Nalanda University. In 2015, the central government had proposed re-establishment of Vikramshila in Bhagalpur and had designated 500 crores (5 billion) for it.  Bihar also has the National Institute of Fashion Technology Patna, National Law University, Patna  Institute of Hotel Management (IHM), Footwear Design and Development Institute, Bihta and  Central Institute of Plastic Engineering & Technology (CIPET) Center.  CIPET and IHM was established in Hajipur in 1994 and 1998 respectively. Bihar Engineering University was established under Bihar Engineering University Act, 2021 of  Bihar Government with purpose of the development and management of educational infrastructure related to technical education, medical, management and allied professional education in Bihar. Based on 2020–21 data, Bihar Engineering University has 56 http://www.beu-bih.ac.in/BEUP/Affiliated_Colleges.aspx and Bihar medical science University under Bihar medical science University act, 2021.In this university under Pharmacy colleges, 15 Medical colleges,36 Nursing colleges in after establishing this university. Aryabhatta knowledge University 33 Educational colleges, 8 community colleg11 Vocational colleges. Chanakya National Law University and Chandragupt Institute of Management were established in the later half of 2008 and  now attracts students from not just within Bihar but also students from far flung states. Nalanda International University is established in 2014 with active investment from countries such as Japan, Korea, and China.  The A.N. Sinha Institute of Social Studies is a premier research institute in the state. Bihar has eight medical colleges which are funded by the government, namely Patna Medical College and Hospital, Nalanda Medical College and Hospital, Vardhman Institute of Medical Sciences, Indira Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Darbhanga Medical College and Hospital, Anugrah Narayan Magadh Medical College and Hospital Gaya, Sri Krishna Medical College and Hospital, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Bhagalpur, Government Medical College, Bettiah and five private medical colleges Bihar has seven oldest Government Engineering colleges Muzaffarpur institute of technology , Bhagalpur college of Engineering, Gaya college of Engineering, Nalanda College of Engineering Darbhanga college of Engineering, Motihari college of Engineering, Loknayak Jai Prakash Institute of Technology

Bihta, a suburb of state capital Patna, is home of institutes like IIT Patna, AIIMS, Patna, BIT, Patna and is now emerging as an education hub. With institute like Super 30, Patna has emerged as a major center for engineering and civil services coaching. The major private IIT-JEE coaching institutes have opened up their branches in Bihar and this has reduced the number of students who go to, for example, Kota and Delhi for engineering/medical coaching.

Bihar e-Governance Services & Technologies (BeST) and the government of Bihar have initiated a unique program to establish a centre of excellence called Bihar Knowledge Center, a finishing school to equip students with the latest skills and customised short-term training programs at an affordable cost. The centre aims to attract the youth of the state to improve their technical, professional, and soft skills, to meet the current requirements of the industrial job market. The National Employability Report of Engineering Graduates, 2014, puts graduates from Bihar in the top 25 percent of the country, and rates Bihar as one of the three top states at producing engineering graduates in terms of quality and employability.

See also
 Bihar Diwas
 Outline of Bihar
 Timeline of Bihar
 Bihari culture
 Cuisine of Bihar
 Chhotanagpur Front
 Chhotanagpur Plateau Praja Parishad
 List of people from Bihar

References

Further reading

 Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Rachnawali (Selected works of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati), Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi, 2003.
 Christopher Alan Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770–1870, Cambridge University Press, 1983.
 Anand A. Yang, Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Bihar, University of California Press, 1999.
 Acharya Hazari Prasad Dwivedi Rachnawali, Rajkamal Prakashan, Delhi.
 Swami Sahajanand and the Peasants of Jharkhand: A View from 1941 translated and edited by Walter Hauser along with the unedited Hindi original (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005).
 Sahajanand on Agricultural Labour and the Rural Poor translated and edited by Walter Hauser (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005).
 Religion, Politics, and the Peasants: A Memoir of India's Freedom Movement translated and edited by Walter Hauser (Manohar Publishers, hardbound, 2003).
 Pandit Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma, 1947, Bakasht Mahamari Aur Uska Achook Ilaaz (Bakasht Epidemic and its Infalliable Remedy) in Hindi, Allahabad.
 Jagannath Sarkar, "Many Streams" Selected Essays by Jagannath Sarkar and Reminiscing Sketches" Compiled by Gautam Sarkar Edited by Mitali Sarkar, First Published May 2010, Navakarnataka Publications Private Limited, Bangalore.
 Indradeep Sinha, 1969, Sathi ke Kisanon ka Aitihasic Sangharsha (Historic Struggle of Sathi Peasants), in Hindi, Patna.
 Indradeep Sinha, Real face of JP's total revolution, Communist Party of India (1974).
 Indradeep Sinha, Some features of current agrarian situation in India, All India Kisan Sabha, (1987).
 Indradeep Sinha, The changing agrarian scene: Problems and tasks, Peoples Publishing House (1980).
 Indradeep Sinha, Some questions concerning Marxism and the peasantry, Communist Party of India (1982).

 Nand Kishore Shukla, The Trial of Baikunth Sukul: A Revolutionary Patriot, Har-Anand, 1999, 403 pages, .
 Shramikon Ke Hitaishi Neta, Itihas Purush: Basawon Singh published by the Bihar Hindi Granth Academy (1st Edition, April 2000).
 Ramchandra Prasad, Ashok Kumar Sinha, Sri Krishna Singh in Adhunik Bharat ke Nirmata Series, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
 Walter Hauser, 1961, Peasant Organisation in India: A Case Study of the Bihar Kisan Sabha, 1929–1942, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago, (Forthcoming publication).
 Rai, Algu, 1946, A Move for the Formation of an All-Indian Organisation for the Kisans, Azamgrah.
 N. G. Ranga, 1949, Revolutionary Peasants, New Delhi.
 N. G. Ranga, 1968, Fight For Freedom, New Delhi.
 Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, 1943, Naye Bharet ke Naye Neta (New Leaders of New India), in Hindi, Allahabad.
 Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, 1957, Dimagi Gulami (Mental Slavery), in Hindi, Allahabad.
 Manmath Nath Gupta, Apane samaya ka surya Dinkar, Alekha Prakasana (1981).
 Khagendra Thakur, Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar': Vyaktitva aur Krititva, Publications Division, 2008 Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
 Vijendra Narayan Singh, Bharatiya Sahitya ke Nirmata: Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2005, .
 Kumar Vimal, Ramdhari Singh Dinkar Rachna – Sanchayan, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2008, .
 Mishra Shree Govind, History Of Bihar 1740–1772, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1970
 Verma B S, Socio-religious Economic And Literary Condition Of Bihar (From ca. 319 A.D. to 1000 A.D.), Munshiram Manoharlal, 1962
 Maitra A,Magahi Culture, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1983
 Naipaul V S, India: A Wounded Civilization, Picador, 1977
 Trevithick Alan, The Revival Of Buddhist Pilgrimage At Bodh Gaya (1811–1949): Anagarika Dharmapala And The Mahabodhi Temple
 Jannuzi F. Tomasson,  Agrarian Crisis In India: The Case Of Bihar, University of Texas Press, 1974, ,
 Omalley L S S, History of Magadh, Veena Publication, 2005,
 Shukla Prabhat Kumar, Indigo And The Raj: Peasant Protests In Bihar 1780–1917, Pragati Publications, 1993,
 Ahmad Qeyamuddin, Patna Through The Ages: Glimpses of History, Society & Economy, Commonwealth Publishers, 1988
 Jain B D, Ardha Magadhi Reader, Sri Satguru Publications, Lahore, 1923
 Patra C, Life in Ancient India: As Depicted In The Digha Nikaya, Punthi Pustak, 1996,
 Hazra Kanai Lal, Buddhism in India As Described by the Chinese Pilgrims AD 399–689, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1983,
 McCrindle John W., Ancient India As Described By Megasthenes And Arrian, Munshiram Manoharlal
 McCrindle John W., Ancient India As Described By Ptolemy, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1927,
 Sastry Harprasad, Magadhan Literature, Sri Satguru Publications, Calcutta, 1923
 Rai Alok, Hindi Nationalism, Orient Longman, 2000,
 Waddell Austine L., Report on the Excavations at Pataliputra (Patna) – The Palibothra of the Greeks, Asian Publicational Services, Calcutta, 1903
 Das Arvind N., The State of Bihar: an economic history without footnotes, Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1992
 Brass Paul R., The politics of India since Independence, Cambridge University Press, 1990
 Askari S. H., Mediaeval Bihar: Sultante and Mughal Period, Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 1990
 Tayler William, Three Months at Patna during the Insurrection of 1857, Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 2007
 Taylor P.J.O., "What really happened during the Mutiny: A day by day account of the major events of 1857–1859 in India", Oxford University Press, 1997,
 Pathak Prabhu Nath, Society and Culture in Early Bihar (C.A.D. 200 – 600), Commonwealth Publishers, 1988
 Basham A. L., The Wonder that was India, Picador, 1954,
 Nambisan Vijay, Bihar in the eye of the beholder, Penguin Books, 2000,
 Pathak Mohan, Flood plains and Agricultural occupance, Deep & Deep Publication, 1991,
 D'Souza Rohan, Drowned and Dammed:Colonial Capitalism and Flood Control in Eastern India, Oxford University Press, 2006,
 Radhakanta Barik – Land & Caste Politics in Bihar (Shipra Publications, Delhi, 2006)

External links

 Government
 Official site of Bihar
 Bihar State Tourism Development Corporation

 General information

1912 establishments in India
Countries and territories where Hindi is an official language
States and territories established in 1912
States and union territories of India
Countries and territories where Urdu is an official language

Bihar


Mergellus is a genus of duck. The smew (Mergellus albellus) is the only living species, but an extinct species known as Mergellus mochanovi has also been described from Late Pleistocene deposits in the Yakutia region of Russia.

References

Bird genera
Bird genera with one living species
Taxa named by Prideaux John Selby
Anatinae

Mergellus


Vila Smodlaka nalazi se u Splitu, Hrvatska, na adresi Kliška 13.

Secesijska vila Smodlaka s vrtom izgrađena je  za splitskog odvjetnika dr. Jozu Smodlaku koji je u njoj imao i svoj odvjetnički ured. Projektant je splitski arhitekt Petar Senjanović. Vila Smodlaka primjer je izrazito kvalitetne primjene načela secesije, kako u prostornoj organizaciji i dekoraciji pročelja građevine tako i u oblikovanju ogradnog zida i danas zapuštenog vrta.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-5842 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificiranog kao profana graditeljska baština, stambene građevine.

Galerija

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Zgrade u Splitu
Zaštićene stambene građevine u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Secesijske građevine u Hrvatskoj

Vila Smodlaka u Splitu


Marcel Fontaine () a fost un profesor francez care a devenit în timpul Primului Război Mondial ofițer de rezervă. Ca militar, a luptat pe Frontul de Vest la Marna, Artois și Verdun și a devenit în ultima parte a anului 1916, în mod voluntar unul dintre componenții Misiunii Militare Franceze trimisă în Regatul României.

După război, a revenit în cadrul Misiunii Universitare Franceze în România în perioada 1919-1948, ca profesor la licee din Turnu Severin, Craiova și București, iar în perioada 1949-1956 a fost redactor șef al secției române a Radiodifuziunii Franceze.

Fragmente din jurnalul său de război din timpul Primei Conflagrații Mondiale au fost publicate în limba română în anul 2016, sub titlul Jurnal de război. Misiune în România. Noiembrie 1916-Aprilie 1918.

Viața personală
S-a căsătorit în anul 1930 la Turnu Severin cu profesoare Alexandra Zaharia. Cuplul nu a avut copii.

În perioada în care s-a aflat la București ca director al Liceului Francez, a locuit în aceeași clădire în care se afla acesta.

A fost un filoromân și un mare prieten al României, care, în perioada de după Al Doilea Război Mondial a strâns la Paris în jurul lui pe unii membri ai exilului românesc. După deces, ceremonia sa funerară a fost oficiată la biserica română de pe strada Jean de Beauvais, din Paris, păstorită în acea vreme de preotul Vasile Boldeanu, aflat în exil.

Cariera

Profesor în Franța
A predat ca profesor în Franța la Școala Normală de Institutori din Foix, din munții Pirinei.

Pe Frontul de Vest
În august 1914, a fost mobilizat cu gradul de locotenent în Armata Franceză ca ofițer de rezervă și a luptat pe Frontul de Vest la Marna, Artois și Verdun.

Pe Frontul de Răsărit
A devenit unul dintre componenții Misiunii Militare Franceze trimisă în Regatul României în perioada 1916-1918, aceasta fiind percepută de Fontaine ca fiind marea șansă de a scăpa din coșmarul de la Verdun. Ca atare, Fontaine s-a oferit voluntar cu scopul de a participa la misiune și la 17 septembrie 1916 a fost anunțat că a fost desemnat să facă parte din aceasta. După un instructaj la Paris, pentru a nu trezi suspiciuni, a călătorit spre România pe o rută ocolitoare (Franța-Marea Britanie-Norvegia-Suedia-Rusia) îmbrăcat în civil și cu pașaport diplomatic.

A ajuns în Moldova în luna ianuarie 1917, în a doua serie de ofițeri solicitați de către generalul Berthelot și a contribuit aici la instruirea și refacerea armatei române, luptând de asemenea alături de militarii români, pe front. În acest timp, a dovedit compasiune pentru suferințele soldaților și admirație pentru vitejia acestora. Contactul cu Armata României l-a șocat, datorită mizeriei materiale în care se afla soldatul român după retragerea din campania anului 1916. În jurnalul său a consemnat de asemenea prăpastia imensă care exista între soldații români și ofițerii lor, precum și brutalitatea de care dădeau dovadă acești ofițeri, în ceea ce privește corecțiile fizice aplicate soldaților.

Fiind martor al mizeriei în care se zbăteau refugiații în Moldova, suprapopulată, înfometată și plină de trupe ruse, a depus eforturi semnificative pentru îmbunătățirea condițiilor igienice, cu toate că s-a lovit de o mare inerție. Pentru a avea autoritate asupra subordonaților, a ales să fie el însuși un model. Deși în calitate de instructor rolul său se limita la o activitatea desfășurată în spatele frontului, nu a ezitat să fie aproape de soldați în tranșee, pentru a fi aproape de oamenii pe care îi instruise și a-i sprijini. A fost preocupat de bunăstarea materială a soldaților și a pledat pentru un caracter superior al alimentației și al îmbrăcăminții acestora. De asemenea, a luptat pentru îndepărtarea din rândul comandanților a cadrelor militare cu rol nefast.

A activat în Moldova până la 9 martie 1918 și dat fiind că Misiunea Militară Franceză a fost nevoită să părăsească România, s-a întors în Franța în primăvara anului 1918. În timpul drumului de întoarcere a traversat Rusia aflată în plină anarhie și de la Murmansk a ajuns în Franța via Marea Britanie.
A fost demobilizat din armată în august 1919.

Profesor în România
Conform Monicăi Lovinescu, Fontaine s-a situat în tradiția trasată de Jules Ferry a institutorilor francezi, predând nu numai știință de carte, ci și atitudine.

În anul 1919, a revenit în cadrul Misiunii Universitare Franceze în România și a predat ca profesor la licee din Turnu Severin și Craiova, devenind ulterior director al Liceului Francez din București. În 1948 activitățile și cursurile sale au fost interzise și el a fost expulzat, alături de ceilalți profesori francezi ai misiunii.

Ca efect al corespondenței pe care a întreținut-o ulterior cu unele dintre elevele sale și profesoarele acestora din România, după instaurarea regimului comunist acestea vor fi arestate, anchetate și condamnate la închisoare în cadrul unui proces celebru în epocă, alcătuind în anul 1952, "Lotul francez", format din circa 100 de persoane (printre care multe eleve și profesoare).

La Radio Paris
Marcel Fontaine era din punct de vedere al poziției politice, anticomunist. Reajuns în Franța, a păstrat legături cu exilul românesc și în 1949, fostul ofițer a înființat secția română a Radiodifuziunii Franceze. A fost redactor-șef al acesteia până în anul 1956 și a asigurat emisiunilor un profil combativ în perioada 1951-1952, până în momentul în care a acest profil a trebuit schimbat pe fondul destinderii politice. Duminică de duminică, fostul profesor și ofițer a transmis astfel fie în limba franceză fie în limba română, un editorial despre transformările pe care le avea România sub guvernarea comunistă. De asemenea, a luat de multe ori cuvântul și la Europa Liberă și a continuat lupta sa alături de români prin scrierea cărții RPR contre la culture française în 1962, prin articole, prin cuvântări și prin sprijinul acordat românilor, în exil.

Aflată în subordinea lui la Radiodifuziunea Franceză, Monica Lovinescu a afirmat că în acele vremuri s-a dovedit a fi din punct de vedere intelectual modest și cu un orizont strâmt, uzând în același timp de o severitate programată. Naiv în ale politicii fiind, în perioada în care Fontaine conducea Secția Română a acceptat, la sugestia redactorului Mugur Valahu să difuzeze mesaje cifrate de tipul celor de la BBC destinate Rezistenței Franceze, în timpul celui de-Al Doilea Război Mondial. Persoanele destinatare ale respectivelor mesaje în realitate însă nu existau, scopul real al difuzării lor fiind acela de a de impresia autorităților din România comunistă, că Occidentul avea legături cu rezistența anticomunistă din România. Mesajele așadar nu aveau acoperire în plan militar și politic, dar au determinat totuși arestarea în țară a unora care le luaseră prea în serios, precum și o reclamație oficială a autorităților de la București. Episodul s-a finalizat prin darea afară a redactorilor care difuzaseră mesajele false, Mugur Valahu și Ghorghe Bumbești.

Recunoașteri
A fost decorat pentru meritele deosebite în luptă, cu:
  Ordinul Steaua României
  Legiunea de Onoare a Franței
  Crucea de Război a Franței

A primit de asemenea și  Crucea de Război a României.

In memoriam
Experiența avută în cadrul "Lotului francez", arestat, anchetat și condamnat la închisoare în anul 1952, a fost relatată de Micaela Ghițescu, fostă elevă a sa, în cartea Între uitare și memorie.

În anul 2009, jurnalul său de război din timpul Primei Conflagrații Mondiale a apărut în limba franceză într-un număr redus de exemplare, sub egida Academiei Române, având titlul Journal de Guerre: mission en Roumanie: novembre 1916-avril 1918. Ulterior, fragmente din acesta au a fost publicat în limba română în anul 2016, sub titlul Jurnal de război. Misiune în România. Noiembrie 1916-Aprilie 1918. De asemenea, o colecție impresionantă de fotografii din Primul Război Mondial și de memorii aparținând lui Marcel Fontaine a intrat în patrimoniul Muzeului Militar Național "Regele Ferdinand I", ca urmare a donației făcute de către Alain Legoux, legatarul testamentar al defunctului.

La 30 martie 2017, în memoria sa a fost organizată la Palatul Cercului Militar Național o masă rotundă cu titlul Reorganizarea armatei române (1917) în relatarea căpitanului Marcel Fontaine din Misiunea Militară Franceză, precum și o expoziție de fotografii și obiecte personale ale acestuia, intitulată Pe fronturile "Marelui Război" Marcel Fontaine de la Verdun la Mărășești.

Note

Lectură suplimentară
 Ghițescu, Micaela; Marcel Fontaine, 22 de ani de luptă anticomunistă; România Literară, Nr. 30-31/2017

Legături externe

 Bena, Romulus-Andrei; Un ofițer francez în războiul românesc; muzeulmemoriei.ro

Nașteri în 1888
Decese în 1973
Profesori francezi
Ofițeri francezi
Militari străini pe frontul românesc (1916-1918)
Filoromâni
Decorați cu Ordinul Steaua României
Decorați cu Crucea Comemorativă a Războiului 1916-1918
Decorați cu Legiunea de Onoare
Decorați cu Croix de guerre 1914–1918 (Franța)

Marcel Fontaine


Thomas William Hamilton (born December 31, 1951) is an American musician and songwriter who serves as the bassist for the hard rock band Aerosmith.

Hamilton has regularly co-written songs for Aerosmith, including two of the band's biggest successes: "Sweet Emotion" (1975) and  "Janie's Got a Gun" (1989). Hamilton occasionally plays guitar (e.g. "Uncle Salty", "Sick as a Dog"), sings backing vocals (e.g. "Love in an Elevator") and on rare occasions, lead vocals ("Up On the Mountain").  He was a 2001 inductee in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Aerosmith.

Early years
Hamilton was born to George and Betty Hamilton in Colorado Springs, Colorado. He has an older brother named Scott, an older sister named Perry, and a younger sister named Cecily. His father was a United States Air Force pilot in World War II and his mother was a housewife.

Hamilton initially played guitar and was taught at age 12 by his older brother Scott. He switched to bass when he was 14 due to an open position in a local band. Later, Hamilton was in several bands with future Aerosmith guitarist Joe Perry and David "Pudge" Scott. One of the bands was simply called "The Jam Band." It was at a Jam Band gig in the summer of 1970 at a venue named "The Barn" in Sunapee, New Hampshire that the group met Steven Tyler. Next, the four of them agreed to move to Boston in order to start a band (not yet named Aerosmith). Scott left the group shortly thereafter and was replaced by Tyler on drums. The three became a power trio with Hamilton on bass, Perry on guitar, and Tyler doubling as both the vocalist and drummer. Guitarist Ray Tabano and drummer Joey Kramer would join shortly thereafter; Kramer replaced Tyler on drums so he could focus on vocals and also named the band "Aerosmith." Tabano would be replaced by Brad Whitford in 1971.

Personal life

According to Aerosmith's official website, Hamilton's favorite song by the band is "The Farm" (from the 1997 album Nine Lives). He married Terry Cohen in 1975 and they have two children, Julian and Sage.

Prior to becoming a musician, Hamilton worked as a nursing home orderly and had embarked on a journey to become an actor; he was accepted into two different acting schools but declined in order to pursue a career in music. Eventually, however, Hamilton would fulfill his acting goal by joining the cast of Banned in Boston in 1996; he has been performing with them yearly since.

Additionally, he has created and currently owns a line of adult-themed plush toys and merchandise called Obscenies.

In August 2006, he announced that he was diagnosed with throat and tongue cancer and completed a seven-week course of radiation and chemotherapy.  As a result, he missed Aerosmith's Route of All Evil Tour. David Hull (who played in the Joe Perry Project) filled in. Prior to this, Hamilton had never missed an Aerosmith show. He sat in with the band on "Sweet Emotion" at their September 2006 Boston show and played an entire performance at a private show at the Beacon Theatre in New York, on December 3, 2006. On December 20, 2006, Hamilton reported on Aero Force One that he is cancer-free after a recent PET scan. He underwent further surgery, causing him to sit out some of the Aerosmith/ZZ Top Tour. David Hull covered for him again during his absence. His cancer returned in 2011, but he is now cancer-free.

Hamilton left the band's April 2013 Australian tour after two shows due to a chest infection. David Hull was flown in from the US to fill in.

In April 2016, Thin Lizzy announced that Hamilton was joining them for their 2016 and 2017 reunion shows.

Hamilton's favorite bassists are John Paul Jones, John Entwistle and Paul McCartney.

Aerosmith songs written
The following Aerosmith songs have a writing credit given to Tom Hamilton
 "Sweet Emotion" from Toys in the Attic
 "Uncle Salty" from Toys in the Attic
 "Sick as a Dog" from Rocks
 "Critical Mass" from Draw the Line
 "Kings and Queens" from Draw the Line
 "The Hand That Feeds" from Draw the Line
 "The Reason a Dog" from Done with Mirrors
 "The Hop" from Done with Mirrors
 "Janie's Got a Gun" from Pump
 "The Movie" from Permanent Vacation
 "Krawhitham" from Pandora's Box
 "Beautiful" from Music From Another Dimension!
 "Tell Me" from Music From Another Dimension!
 "Lover Alot" from Music From Another Dimension!
 "Can't Stop Lovin' You" from Music From Another Dimension!
 "Up on the Mountain" from Music From Another Dimension! (Deluxe Version) [Also provides lead vocals]

Awards
2007 – Boston Music Award – Personal Achievement

Instruments & Equipment

Hamilton has used a wide variety of basses over Aerosmith's career. He has stated in several interviews that his first bass was a Fender Precision Bass that he borrowed and later bought from a friend. He would use a Fender Precision Bass in the early years of Aerosmith, and used one to record the bass lines for their first two albums; he would return to using one on the Rock in a Hard Place and Done With Mirrors albums.

Since 2000, Hamilton has primarily played G&L basses. He purchased his first metal-flake G&L ASAT Bass around that time at 48th Street Guitars in New York City. Hamilton now has his own G&L ASAT Bass signature model line, which is made from a unique reduced-weight Western Sugar Pine body. It also comes with specially developed "Hamiltone" pickups and is available for sale in three different metal-flake colors. Hamilton says that he enjoys playing his G&L signature basses as they are an evolution of the Fender Jazz Bass sound and feel, and discusses his signature basses in rig rundowns (most notably in 2012 on the Global Warming Tour).

Hamilton also frequently plays Sadowsky basses, and has said that Roger Sadowsky makes "unbelievably nice basses."  For the recording of the album Honkin' On Bobo and subsequent tours, he used a butterscotch Sadowsky '51 Fender Precision Bass replica modified with a second pickup. It has been one of his main basses for quite some time, and he appeared as playing this bass in Guitar Hero: Aerosmith. Additionally, Hamilton used a five-string Sadowsky to record the hits "Pink", "I Don't Wanna Miss a Thing", and "Full Circle." As of June 2009, he was touring with five Sadowsky basses.

During Aerosmith's 1970's heyday, Hamilton primarily used an early model stack-knob Fender Jazz Bass to record bass lines. This bass was used to record the bass lines for "Sweet Emotion" and "Walk This Way." Furthermore, it was also used to record the rest of Toys in the Attic, Rocks, and some of Draw the Line. Hamilton stated that he enjoys the feel of the slender Jazz Bass neck as well as it's unique sounding pickups. Though he rarely tours with a Jazz Bass anymore, band mate Steven Tyler surprised Hamilton with a custom-shop Fender Jazz Bass while the two were at a music store in Vancouver, Canada in 2011; it was used to record most of the songs on Music From Another Dimension!

Notably, Hamilton was one of the earliest and most well-known players of the Music Man StingRay Bass. He first used a StingRay Bass to record most of Draw the Line in 1977. Since then, he used a StingRay Bass to record the albums Permanent Vacation, Pump, Nine Lives, and some of Just Push Play. Additionally, he even used a StingRay Bass to record the demo tracks for Get a Grip, before switching to an F Bass. He toured with StingRay basses throughout the late 1970s, and has once again begun touring with various StingRay Bass models during the 2022 "Deuces are Wild" residency and the current "Peace Out!" tour. In an interview, Hamilton noted that he was very proud of the tone he got from his early model StingRay Bass on the Pump album.

In the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, Hamilton often played a Gibson Thunderbird Bass on tour.

On the album Night in the Ruts, he used a Music Man Sabre Bass to record his bass lines. He can be seen playing one in the music videos for "No Surprize" and "Chiquita."

For the Get a Grip album, Hamilton recorded all of his bass lines with an F Bass that featured a P/J pickup configuration; he bought it during the album sessions in 1992.

During the "Dude Looks Like A Lady" sequence of Wayne's World 2, he is seen playing a Gibson Les Paul Bass; it was occasionally used on the 1993-94 Get a Grip Tour.

He has also used a 1960's Höfner Violin Bass to record some of the Just Push Play album, but most notably it was used to record the songs What It Takes and Jaded.  Additionally, it was played during the Super Bowl XXXV halftime show. During the Just Push Play sessions, he also used a double bass.

During the 2000's, he toured with several Parker basses. Hamilton worked closely with Parker to develop the Fly Bass and was gifted a prototype version in 2002, which he donated to VH1's Save the Music charity; it raised funds for schools with inadequate music programs. Hamilton had frequently played the bass for six months prior on tour, and it was signed by all five members of Aerosmith as well as employees of Parker Guitars. He was also gifted the first production Fly Bass in April 2003. Lastly, he primarily played a red Fly Bass on the 2004 Honkin' On Bobo Tour.

Other basses played on tour by Hamilton include a Duesenberg Starplayer semi-hollow bass strung with flatwound strings, a Visionary Instruments Video Bass, an Australian-built Tomkins Kimberely 1 Bass, an acoustic Kramer USA bass, a neon-blue colored ESP bass, as well as various four and five string F-Bass models.

In 2023, Hamilton sent a sizeable portion of his instrument and equipment collection to Donn's Drum Vault in Bellevue, MA to be offered for public sale. Notable items available for sale were three early-model Music Man StingRay basses, the 1960's Höfner Violin Bass used during the recording of Just Push Play and the Super Bowl XXXV Halftime Show, a '62 American Vintage Re-issue Fender Jazz Bass used in the "Sweet Emotion" 1991 music video, various Sadowsky basses, and two Parker Fly basses fitted with EMG pickups.

Over the course of his career, Hamilton has used an array of different amplifiers and effects. He has been a large proponent of Gallien-Krueger heads and amplifiers. Currently, he uses their Neo 410 and 412 cabinets paired to their Fusion 550 head. During the recording of the Toys in the Attic album, he used an Ampeg B-15 amplifier and an Electro-Voice RE20 microphone. From the 1990's to the early 2010's, Hamilton primarily used Hartke 4.5XL Module cabinets paired with Gallien-Krueger heads.

Hamilton primarily uses TC Electronic effects, namely their Corona Chrous, Mojomojo Overdrive, and G-Major Overdrive Rack Processor. Other effects used by Hamilton include a Pigtronix BASS Fat Drive pedal, a Soundbox Pro multi-wave distortion box, and a Mojo Hand FX Rook Overdrive pedal.

Lastly, Hamilton has been a long-time user of D'Addario 45-100 and 45-130 strings.

Playing Style
Hamilton commonly employs pauses in his bass lines to help define the rhythm pattern of the song. He also often uses descending arpeggios, upbeat accents, and pentatonic scales in his playing. Additionally, he frequently uses slides in his bass lines (e.g. "Pink" and "Falling in Love"). Apart from this, Hamilton plays with suspended chords (e.g. "Sweet Emotion"), and also uses open strings to form a low drone sound; he frequently jumps to higher registers so that his notes can ring out.  Moreover, he also occasionally plays slap bass (e.g. "Love in an Elevator"). Notably, Hamilton has alternated between playing finger-style and with a pick. Lastly, on "Taste of India", he used a percussion mallet.

References

External links

Aerosmith.com
Tom Hamilton's letter to the fans about his cancer and the tour
Hamilton's back in the saddle again
Hamilton treated for throat cancer
Tom Hamilton on The Emily Rooney Show on WGBH Radio
Tom Hamilton Signature ASAT Bass

1951 births
Aerosmith members
American rock musicians
Living people
American rock bass guitarists
American heavy metal bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
Musicians from Colorado Springs, Colorado
Guitarists from Colorado
20th-century American bass guitarists
Glam metal musicians
Blues rock musicians

Tom Hamilton (musician)


Der Kantonsrat Schwyz ist das Parlament des Kantons Schwyz. Er tagt im Kantonsratssaal im Rathaus von Schwyz und ist die gesetzgebende und oberste aufsichtführende Behörde des Kantons. Seine 100 Mitglieder werden, verteilt nach Proporzverfahren, für vier Jahre gewählt. Der Kantonsrat erlässt alle grundlegenden und wichtigen Bestimmungen in Form von Gesetzen. Am 22. März 2020 fand die letzte Gesamterneuerungswahl statt.

Aufgaben
Der Kantonsrat tritt nach einer Gesamterneuerungswahl zwischen dem 20. und 30. Juni des Wahljahres zur konstituierenden Sitzung zusammen.

Die Verfassung schreibt zur Anzahl der weiteren Versammlungen lediglich eine Sommer- und eine Wintersitzung vor; weitere Versammlungen sind auf Anordnung des Präsidenten, des Regierungsrates oder auf Verlangen von 15 Ratsmitgliedern möglich. In der Geschäftsordnung des Kantonsrats wird dies dahingehend konkretisiert, dass der Kantonsrat einmal monatlich zusammentritt, ausser in den Monaten Januar, Juli und August.

Der Kantonsrat ist beschlussfähig, wenn mindestens die Hälfte seiner Mitglieder anwesend ist. Andernfalls wird die Sitzung aufgehoben.

Der Kantonsrat wählt aus seiner Mitte jeweils für ein Jahr den Präsidenten, den Vizepräsidenten und zwei Stimmenzähler; diese stellen zusammen mit den Fraktionspräsidenten das Präsidium des Kantonsrats dar. Aus den Mitgliedern des Regierungsrates wählt der Rat den Landammann und seinen Stellvertreter, den Landesstatthalter, für zwei Jahre. Ausserdem wählt der Kantonsrat für die Dauer von vier Jahren die Mitglieder und Präsidenten der kantonalen Gerichte, den Oberstaatsanwalt und den Staatsschreiber.

Der Kantonsrat erlässt Rechtsakte in der Form des Gesetzes, besonders wenn sie Rechte und Pflichten von natürlichen und juristischen Personen begründen oder Grundzüge der Organisation von Kanton, Bezirken und Gemeinden festlegen. Der Erlass von Gesetzen kann auch an die Stimmbürger oder an die Regierung delegiert werden.

Der Beschluss einer Teil- oder Totalrevision der Verfassung muss dem Volk zur Abstimmung vorgelegt werden. Ebenso unterstehen sämtliche Beschlüsse, welche einmalige Ausgaben von mehr als 250'000 Franken oder jährlich wiederkehrende Ausgaben von 50'000 Franken zur Folge haben, der zwingenden Volksabstimmung.

Gegen sämtliche vom Kantonsrat beschlossenen Staatsverträge, Dekrete oder Verordnungen kann das Referendum ergriffen werden. Stimmen diesem 2000 Stimmbürger innerhalb von 30 Tagen zu, muss die Vorlage dem Volk zur Abstimmung vorgelegt werden.

Ebenfalls können 2000 Stimmberechtigte das Referendum gegen Gesetzesbeschlüsse erheben. In der Verfassung ist hierzu keine Frist genannt.

Parteien – Wahlergebnisse seit 1900

In den Wahlen seit 1900 ergaben sich im Schwyzer Kantonsrat folgende Sitzverteilungen:

Mitglieder
Für den Schwyzer Kantonsrat existiert keine Amtsdauerbegrenzung. Jedes Mitglied kann also immer wiedergewählt werden.

Mandatszuteilung auf die Gemeinden
Im Gegensatz zu vielen anderen Kantonen, in denen die Gemeinden zu Wahlkreisen zusammengefasst werden, in deren Bereichen dann die Mandate verteilt werden, kennt der Kanton Schwyz keine solche Regelung.

Die Wahl der 100 Mitglieder erfolgt in den einzelnen Gemeinden: jede Gemeinde des Kantons Schwyz stellt also ein für sich abgeschlossenes Wahlgebiet dar. Dabei gilt, dass jede Gemeinde – und sei sie auch noch so klein – Anspruch auf mindestens einen Vertreter im Kantonsrat hat.

Die Anzahl der Mandate pro Gemeinde hängt von der jeweiligen Einwohnerzahl gemäss dem Ergebnis der letzten eidgenössischen Volkszählung ab. Zur Ermittlung der Mandatsverteilung wird ein sogenannter Teilungsquotient gebildet. Dieser ergibt sich, indem die Einwohnerzahl des Kantons Schwyz auf den nächsten 1000er abgerundet und dann durch 100 geteilt wird.

Bei der Wahl 2011 ergab sich – ausgehend von einer Einwohnerzahl von 146'730, abgerundet auf 146'000 und durch 100 geteilt – ein Teilungsquotient von 1460.

Nun werden jeder Gemeinde zunächst so viele Mandate zugeteilt, wie sich ihre Einwohnerzahl durch den Teilungsquotienten vollständig dividieren lässt. 87 Sitze werden so aktuell zugeteilt.

Gemeinden, die hierbei leer ausgehen, erhalten nun einen Sitz, womit weitere 9 Mandate verteilt wurden.

Die noch verbleibenden Mandate werden nun in Abhängigkeit von den jeweiligen Teilungsresten an die übrigen Gemeinden verteilt.

Hierzu wird stets im Jahr vor der Gesamterneuerungswahl ein Regierungsratsbeschluss über die Vertretung der Gemeinden im Kantonsrat publiziert, letztmals am 6. September 2011

Proporzwahl
Seit 2016 wird im Kanton Schwyz der Kantonsrat nach dem Verhältniswahlverfahren (Proporz) gewählt.

Die Wahlvorschläge (Listen) aus den einzelnen Gemeinden (Wahlkreise) dürfen höchstens so viele Namen wählbarer Personen enthalten, als die Gemeinde Sitze im Kantonsrat zugeteilt erhalten hat. Ein Name darf dabei nicht mehr als zweimal aufgeführt sein. Die Listen aus mehreren Gemeinden, welche die gleiche Listenbezeichnung verwenden, bilden eine Listengruppe. Listenverbindungen, wie z. B. bei Regierungsratswahlen, sind nicht möglich.

Jeder Stimmberechtigte verfügt über so viele Einzelstimmen, wie in seiner Gemeinde Kantonsräte zu wählen sind. Der Wähler hat die Möglichkeit, einem Kandidaten maximal zwei Stimmen zu geben (Kumulieren) oder Namensvorschläge auf einer Liste zu streichen bzw. durch einen anderen Kandidaten zu ersetzen (Panaschieren). Es besteht auch die Möglichkeit, selbst geschriebene Wahlzettel einzulegen, welche Vorgeschlagene aus allen Listen enthalten.

Zur Ermittlung des Ergebnisses werden zuerst die Kandidaten- und Parteistimmen ermittelt. Anschliessend findet eine Mandatszuteilung auf die Listengruppe (Oberzuteilung) statt, d. h., es wird ermittelt, wie viele Mandate eine Partei bzw. Listengruppe erreicht hat. Anschliessend wird die Mandatszuteilung auf die Listen der Wahlkreise (Unterzuteilung) ermittelt. Mit dem ermittelten Wert für den Wahlkreisdivisor und den Listengruppendivisor werden nun die Mandate aufgrund der Kandidatenstimmen in den einzelnen Gemeinden ermittelt.

Dieses Verfahren wird als doppeltproportionales Zuteilungsverfahren oder, umgangssprachlich, als Doppelter Pukelsheim bezeichnet. Die Änderung des Wahlsystems wurde notwendig, da der Nationalrat im Jahr 2013 feststellte, dass das bis dahin gültige Wahlverfahren im Kanton Schwyz verfassungswidrig ist.

Für die Wahl gilt eine kantonsweite explizite Sperrklausel von 1 %.

Entschädigung der Abgeordneten
Die Entschädigung der Abgeordneten ist in der Geschäftsordnung des Kantonsrats geregelt.

Jedes Mitglied erhält pro vollem Sitzungstag ein Sitzungsgeld von 300 Franken, für einen halben Sitzungstag werden 200 Franken bezahlt. Der Kantonsratspräsident sowie die Kommissionspräsidenten und Leiter von Sitzungen erhalten das doppelte Sitzungsgeld.

Ausserdem erhält der Kantonsratspräsident eine Zulage von nominell 17'000 Franken. Im Gegensatz zum Sitzungsgeld wird diese jedoch automatisch der Teuerung angepasst gemäss dem Landesindex der Konsumentenpreise.

Für die An- und Abreise zu den Sitzungen werden die Kosten der öffentlichen Verkehrsmittel 1. Klasse ersetzt. Wenn dies nicht möglich oder unwirtschaftlich ist, werden Fahrten mit dem Privatfahrzeug analog den Regelungen für kantonale Verwaltungsangestellte erstattet.

Zudem werden 50 Franken pro Sitzungstag und 35 Franken pro halbem Sitzungstag für die auswärtige Verpflegung gezahlt.

Siehe auch
 Liste der Regierungsräte des Kantons Schwyz

Weblinks
 Der Kantonsrat auf der Website des Kantons Schwyz

Einzelnachweise

Schwyz
Organisation (Schwyz)

Kantonsrat (Schwyz)


The Legend of Vox Machina é uma série animada americana produzida pela Critical Role Productions, Titmouse, Inc., e Amazon Studios, com lançamento previsto na Amazon Prime Video. Baseada na primeira campanha da websérie de Dungeons & Dragons Critical Role. A série é estrelada por Matthew Mercer, Ashley Johnson, Travis Willingham, Laura Bailey, Liam O'Brien, Taliesin Jaffe, Marisha Ray, e Sam Riegel reprisando seus papéis na primeira campanha de Critical Role.

A série é distribuída através de streaming na Amazon Prime Video, com a primeira temporada estreando em 28 de janeiro de 2022, e a segunda estreando em 20 de janeiro de 2023.
Em 6 de outubro de 2022, a Amazon renovou a série para uma terceira temporada.

Premissa

Ambientação
A série se passa em Exandria, um mundo fictício criado por Matthew Mercer em 2012 para sua campanha de Dungeons & Dragons que foi posteriormente lançada como a websérie Critical Role em 2015. A maior parte da história se passa no continente de Tal'Dorei, em locais como a metrópole Emon e a cidade-estado Whitestone.

Sinopse
Os primeiros dois episódios da série "serão uma nova história sobre o time de sete membros Vox Machina, no nível 7 de D&D, em sua primeira 'grande' missão, que ocorre antes do primeiro show de Critical Role". A série então adaptará o arco Briarwood da websérie original, "no qual Vox Machina busca vingança contra o assassinato dos líderes da cidade de Whitestone pelas mãos do Lord & Lady Briarwood". A série então adaptará "outros arcos clássicos da história de Vox Machina".

Elenco

Principal
 Laura Bailey como Vex'ahlia "Vex" Vessar, membro de Vox Machina, irmã gêmea de Vax. Meio-elfa ranger / ladina
 Taliesin Jaffe como Percival "Percy" Fredrickstein Von Musel Klossowski de Rolo III, membro de Vox Machina, sua família era governante de Whitestone. Humano gunslinger
 Ashley Johnson como Pike Trickfoot, membro de Vox Machina, gnomo clériga da divindade Sarenrae, a "Everlight"
 Matthew Mercer como Sylas Briarwood, atual governante de Whitestone. Mercer também interpreta outros personagens de menor relevância
 Liam O'Brien como Vax'ildan "Vax" Vessar, membro de Vox Machina, irmão gêmeo de Vex'ahlia. Meio-elfo ladino / paladino / druida
 Marisha Ray como Keyleth do Ashari do Ar, membro de Vox Machina, meio-elfa druida
 Sam Riegel como Scanlan Shorthalt, membro de Vox Machina, gnomo bardo
 Travis Willingham como Grog Strongjaw, membro de Vox Machina, goliath bárbaro / guerreiro

Convidados
Uma semana antes da estreia da série, foram revelados alguns dos intérpretes dos personagens secundários da série:

Desenvolvimento

Kickstarter
Em 4 de março de 2019, o elenco de Critical Role lançou uma campanha no Kickstarter para arrecadar fundos para uma animação de 22 minutos chamada Critical Role: The Legend of Vox Machina Animated Special. A história animada seria ambientada logo antes da parte da campanha transmitida, quando os jogadores ainda eram nível sete, em uma época em que, canônicamente, há um período de seis meses onde os membros de Vox Machina não estavam todos juntos. O elenco projetou um custo de U$750.000 para um curta animado de 22 minutos, considerando outras recompensas da campanha, e as taxas associadas. Não sabendo quanto demorariam para arrecadar a quantia, definiram um prazo de 45 dias.

Em menos de uma hora após o lançamento, a campanha já havia arrecadado mais de U$1 milhão. Ao final do primeiro dia, todos os objetivos adicionais haviam sido desbloqueados, e o total acumulado alcançou U$4,3 milhões. Com quatro episódios de 22 minutos financiados nas primeiras 24 horas, objetivos adicionais foram criados, expandindo o escopo do projeto para uma série animada. Os primeiros dois episódios cobririam o arco da história antes da transmissão iniciar, e os episódios seguintes adaptariam o arco Briarwood, também da campanha de Vox Machina. Até 18 de março de 2019, oito episódios de 22 minutos haviam sido financiados. Finalmente, em 4 de abril de 2019, o último objetivo de U$8,8 milhões foi alcançado durante a transmissão do episódio 57 da segunda campanha, incrementando a duração total da série para dez episódios. A soma final arrecadada quando a campanha foi fechada em 19 de abril de 2019 foi U$11.385.449, com 88.887 financiadores. Quando a campanha foi fechada, havia sido uma das mais rápidas a serem financiadas na história do Kickstarter, e o projeto mais bem financiado na categoria "TV e Filme".

Produção
O elenco de Critical Role reprisa seus respectivos papéis em Vox Machina, com a exceção de Orion Acaba. A série animada tem Brandon Auman como showrunner, com Jennifer Muro dentre os escritores. A animação foi feita por Titmouse, Inc., com o design de personagens por Phil Bourassa. Willingham disse à Inverse que "foi necessário uma perspectiva de fora para tornar as histórias contadas em jogos de mesa em algo compreensível para novos fãs, e mantê-la nova para os fãs existentes"; Willingham afirmou que "a primeira campanha teve quase 400 horas, e o arco Briarwood quase 35 horas. Nós tivemos que encolher isso para cerca de seis horas".

Em novembro de 2019, a Amazon Studios anunciou que haviam adquirido os direitos de transmissão de The Legend of Vox Machina, comissionando 14 episódios adicionais (dois para a primeira temporada, e uma segunda temporada de outros 12 episódios). O projeto foi originalmente programado para lançamento no final de 2020, entretanto, em junho de 2020, foi anunciado que a estreia seria postergada devido à pandemia COVID-19, com nova data sendo definida para início de 2022. Em novembro de 2019, a série foi renovada pela Amazon para uma segunda temporada.

Transmissão

Uma atualização na campanha do Kickstarter em 2019 afirmou que os financiadores teriam acesso gratuito à primeira temporada. Em janeiro de 2022, Critical Role anunciou que os financiadores teriam acesso antecipado aos primeiros dois episódios, entre 25 e 27 de janeiro. Para acessar a primeira temporada, os financiadores precisaram de uma assinatura na Amazon Prime ou registro de uma conta de teste gratuita da Amazon Prime.

A primeira temporada estreou oficialmente em 28 de janeiro de 2022, com a segunda estreando no ano seguinte, em 20 de janeiro de 2023.

Recepção

A primeira temporada de The Legend of Vox Machina recebeu críticas geralmente positivas. No agregador de críticas Rotten Tomatoes, a primeira temporada foi recebida positivamente por 100% de 30 críticas, com uma nota média de 8.6/10. Várias análises focaram nos desafios de adaptar um material original de longa duração, e nas dificuldades com o ritmo, entretanto, concordam que o show melhora consideravelmente após chegar no arco Briarwood.

Em comparação com a primeira temporada da campanha original, Glen Weldon da NPR afirmou que "The Legend of Vox Machina é o que restou, após todo o caos ser transformado em uma história pura. Distilada, e altamente condensada: histórias que se delongam por horas e horas na websérie, aqui se resolvem no curso de um ou dois episódios de meia hora. [...] A série animada não pode ser tudo que a websérie é, entretanto, o público alvo é mais amplo. E neste quesito, pelo menos, ela certamente possui tudo que precisa para alcançar seus objetivos." Kevin Johnson, da The A.V. Club, afirmou que "o show funciona, absolutamente" e que "a ação é bem animada, e apesar de ser um show adulto, com muitos xingamentos, inuendos sexuais, e violência brutal, nada parece ser um exagero desnecessário ou gratuito. Quando as coisas realmente ficam feias, é porque é importante. Em particular, o quarto episódio é um bom exemplo de nuância de personagens, tensão extrema, e visuais pútridos horripilantes. É muito bom, e talvez mais importante, Vox Machina sabe aproveitar seus momentos, sejam dramáticos, cômicos, ou de ação."

Eric Francisco, da Inverse, comparou o show com Avatar: The Last Airbender e Voltron: Legendary Defender na maneira em que apresentra suas ideias; ele afirmou que The Legend of Vox Machina "sem nenhum dificuldade transforma história complexa em ideias altamente acessíveis. Uma pequena consequência é que Tal'Dorei não tem originalidade suficiente [...]. Isso não quer dizer que não há importância em Vox Machina, a história de Percy, que luta contra sua sede de vingança, é impressionante de experienciar. Mas as linhas que separam comédia e paródia se misturam muito, especialmente quando o show muda de tom. Apesar de ser originado em um show do Twitch de longa duração, The Legend of Vox Machina se mantém por si só. No fundo, a série é de ação e fantasia, um casamento estranho de uma ambientação semelhante às de Tolkien e um tom de comédia lúgubre semelhante a Deadpool." Cass Marshall, da Polygon, descreveu o show como "uma história altamente indulgente", "estranhamente divertida", e em alguns momentos "sinceramente, demais". Marshall escreveu que "a alma e as boas intenções de Critical Role venceram vários dos problemas iniciais de The Legend of Vox Machina, e no momento que o arco mais importante da primeira temporada iniciou eu já estava investida. A animação segue a história muito bem, apesar de alguns defeitos. [...] Isso é D&D em seu melhor e, por sorte, você não precisa se especializar no material original e projetos relacionados.

Outras mídias
 The legend of Vox Machina é uma adaptação da primeira campanha da websérie Critical Role. "A primeira campanha teve 115 episódios, com cada transmissão durando entre três e seis horas."
 A série de comics Critical Role: Vox Machina Origins é uma adaptação da história do grupo antes do show.
 A novela Critical Role: Vox Machina - Kith & Kin (2021) é uma prequela que foca na história de fundo dos gêmeos Vex e Vax, três anos antes de se juntarem ao grupo Vox Machina.
 O livro Critical Role: Tal'Dorei Campaign Setting (2017) é um guia para o cenário da primeira campanha. Foi publicado pela Critical Role Productions e Green Ronin Publishing sob licença (Open Game License) da Wizards of the Coast, e não é considerado material "oficial" de Dungeons & Dragons. O livro não está mais em publicação, e uma edição revisada, Tal'Dorei Campaign Setting Reborn (2022), foi lançada pela Darringon Press. A edição revisada reflete os vinte anos de diferença entre a primeira e segunda campanha.

Ligações externas

 The Legend of The Legend of Vox Machina série de vídeos no canal oficial de Critical Role no YouTube

Critical Role
Dungeons & Dragons
RPG
Programas da Prime Video
Programas de televisão em língua inglesa

The Legend of Vox Machina