The Munich Pact (; ; ; ; ) was an agreement permitting Nazi German annexation of Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland. The Sudetenland were areas along Czech borders, mainly inhabited by ethnic Germans. The agreement was negotiated at a conference held in Munich, Germany, among the major powers of Europe without the presence of Czechoslovakia. Today, it is widely regarded as a failed act of appeasement toward Nazi Germany. The agreement was signed in the early hours of 30 September 1938 (but dated 29 September). The purpose of the conference was to discuss the future of the Sudetenland in the face of territorial demands made by Adolf Hitler. The agreement was signed by Nazi Germany, France, Britain, and Italy. The Sudetenland was of immense strategic importance to Czechoslovakia, as most of its border defenses were situated there, and many of its banks were located there as well. Thus, when Britain and France gave the Sudentenland to Germany, it was implied that they allowed Germany to take over all of Czechoslovakia as well.

Because the state of Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference, Czechs and Slovaks sometimes call the Munich Agreement the Munich Dictate (; ). The phrase Munich Betrayal (; ) is also used because military alliances between Czechoslovakia and France were not honoured. However, today the document is typically referred to simply as the Munich Pact (Mnichovská dohoda) even in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

Resolution

A deal was reached on 29 September, and at about 1:30am on 30 September 1938, Adolf Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Benito Mussolini and Édouard Daladier signed the Munich Agreement. The agreement was officially introduced by Mussolini although in fact the so-called Italian plan had been prepared in the German Foreign Office. It was nearly identical to the Godesberg proposal: the German army was to complete the occupation of the Sudetenland by 10 October, and an international commission would decide the future of other disputed areas.

Czechoslovakia was informed by Britain and France that it could either resist Nazi Germany alone or submit to the prescribed annexations. The Czechoslovak government, realizing the hopelessness of fighting the Nazis alone, reluctantly capitulated (30 September) and agreed to abide by the agreement. The settlement gave Germany the Sudetenland starting 10 October, and de facto control over the rest of Czechoslovakia as long as Hitler promised to go no further. On September 30 after some rest, Chamberlain went to Hitler and asked him to sign a peace treaty between the United Kingdom and Germany. After Hitler's interpreter translated it for him, he happily agreed.

On 30 September, upon his return to Britain, Chamberlain delivered his famous "peace for our time" speech to delighted crowds in London.

Reactions
Though the British and French were pleased, as were the Nazi military and German diplomatic leadership, Hitler was furious. He felt as though he had been forced into acting like a bourgeois politician by his diplomats and generals. He exclaimed furiously soon after the meeting with Chamberlain: "Gentlemen, this has been my first international conference and I can assure you that it will be my last". Hitler now regarded Chamberlain with utter contempt. A British diplomat in Berlin was informed by reliable sources that Hitler viewed Chamberlain as "an impertinent busybody who spoke the ridiculous jargon of an outmoded democracy. The umbrella, which to the ordinary German was the symbol of peace, was in Hitler's view only a subject of derision". Also, Hitler had been heard saying: "If ever that silly old man comes interfering here again with his umbrella, I'll kick him downstairs and jump on his stomach in front of the photographers". In one of his public speeches after Munich, Hitler declared: "Thank God we have no umbrella politicians in this country".

Although the initial British reaction was generally positive, it was seen by many in parliament as a "statesman like gesture", as the population had expected war, it quickly turned sour. Despite royal patronage - Chamberlain was greeted as a hero by the royal family and invited on the balcony at Buckingham Palace before he had presented the agreement to Parliament - opposition was present from the start and Clement Attlee and the Labour Party opposed the agreement in alliance with what had been seen, up to then, as the die hard and reactionary element of the Conservative Party.

In later years Chamberlain was excoriated for his role as one of the Men of Munich - perhaps most famously in the 1940 book Guilty Men. A rare wartime defence of the Munich Agreement came in 1944 from Viscount Maugham, who had been Lord Chancellor at the time. Maugham viewed the decision to establish a Czechoslovak state including substantial German and Polish minorities as a "dangerous experiment" in the light of previous disputes, and ascribed the Munich Agreement largely to France's need to extricate itself from its treaty obligations in the light of its unpreparedness for war.

Daladier believed he saw Hitler's ultimate goals, but as a threat. He told the British in a late April 1938 meeting that Hitler's real aim was to eventually secure "a domination of the Continent in comparison with which the ambitions of Napoleon were feeble."  He went on to say "Today it is the turn of Czechoslovakia.  Tomorrow it will be the turn of Poland and Romania.  When Germany has obtained the oil and wheat it needs, she will turn on the West. Certainly we must multiply our efforts to avoid war. But that will not be obtained unless Great Britain and France stick together, intervening in Prague for new concessions but declaring at the same time that they will safeguard the independence of Czechoslovakia. If, on the contrary, the Western Powers capitulate again they will only precipitate the war they wish to avoid." .  Perhaps discouraged by the arguments of the military and civilian members of the French government regarding their unprepared military and weak financial situation, as well as traumatised by France's bloodbath in the First World War that he was personally a witness to, Daladier ultimately let Chamberlain have his way. On his return to Paris, Daladier, who was expecting a hostile crowd, was acclaimed. He then told his aide, Alexis Léger: "Ah, les cons!" (Ah, the fools!).

Joseph Stalin was also upset by the results of the Munich conference. The Soviets, who had a mutual military assistance treaty with Czechoslovakia, felt betrayed by France, which also had a mutual military assistance treaty with Czechoslovakia. The British and French, however, mostly used the Soviets as a threat to dangle over the Germans.  Stalin concluded that the West had actively colluded with Hitler to hand over a Central European country to the Nazis, causing concern that they might do the same to the Soviet Union in the future, allowing the partition of the USSR between the western powers and the fascist Axis. This belief led the Soviet Union to reorient its foreign policy towards a rapprochement with Germany, which eventually led to the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1939.

The Czechoslovaks were greatly dismayed with the Munich settlement. With Sudetenland gone to Germany, Czecho-Slovakia (as the state was now renamed) lost its defensible border with Germany and its fortifications. Without them its independence became more nominal than real. In fact, Edvard Beneš, the President of Czechoslovakia, had the military print the march orders for his army and put the press on standby for a declaration of war. Czechoslovakia also lost 70% of its iron/steel, 70% of its electrical power, 3.5 million citizens and the famous Škoda Works to Germany as a result of the settlement.

The Sudeten Germans celebrated what they saw as their liberation. The imminent war, it seemed, had been avoided.

Hitler's determination to go through with his plan for the invasion of all Czechoslovakia in 1938 provoked a major crisis in the German command structure. The Chief of the General Staff, General Ludwig Beck, protested in a lengthy series of memos that it would start a world war that Germany would lose, and urged Hitler to put off the projected war. Hitler called Beck's arguments against war "kindische Kräfteberechnugen" ("childish calculations"). On August 4, 1938, a secret Army meeting was held. Beck read his lengthy report to the assembled officers. They all agreed something had to be done to prevent certain disaster. Beck hoped they would all resign together but no one resigned except Beck. However his replacement, General Franz Halder, sympathised with Beck and together they conspired with several top generals, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris (Chief of German Intelligence), and Graf von Helldorf (Berlin's Police Chief) to arrest Hitler the moment he gave the invasion order. However, the plan would only work if both Britain and France made it known to the world that they would fight to preserve Czechoslovakia. This would help to convince the German people that certain defeat awaited Germany. Agents were therefore sent to England to tell Chamberlain that an attack on Czechoslovakia was planned and their intentions to overthrow Hitler if this occurred. However, the messengers were not taken seriously by the British. In September, Chamberlain and Daladier decided not to threaten a war over Czechoslovakia and so the planned removal of Hitler could not be justified. The Munich Agreement therefore preserved Hitler in power.

Invasion of the remainder of Czechoslovakia

Germany stated that the incorporation of Austria into the Reich resulted in borders with Czechoslovakia that were a great danger to German security, and that this allowed Germany to be encircled by the Western Powers. In 1937, the Wehrmacht had formulated a plan called Operation Green (Fall Grün) for the invasion of Czechoslovakia which was implemented as Operation Southeast on 15 March 1939.

On 14 March Slovakia seceded from Czechoslovakia and became a separate pro-Nazi state. On the following day, Carpathian Ruthenia proclaimed independence as well, but after three days was completely occupied by Hungary.  Czechoslovak president Emil Hácha traveled to Berlin and was forced to sign his acceptance of German occupation of the remainder of Bohemia and Moravia. Churchill's prediction was fulfilled as German armies entered Prague and proceeded to occupy the rest of the country, which was transformed into a protectorate of the Reich.

Meanwhile concerns arose in Great Britain that Poland (now substantially encircled by German possessions) would become the next target of Nazi expansionism, which was made apparent by the dispute over the Polish Corridor and the Free City of Danzig. This resulted in the signing of an Anglo-Polish military alliance, and consequent refusal of the Polish government to German negotiation proposals over the Polish Corridor and the status of Danzig.

Prime Minister Chamberlain felt betrayed by the Nazi seizure of Czechoslovakia, realising his policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed, and began to take a much harder line against the Nazis. Among other things he immediately began to mobilize the British Empire's armed forces on a war footing. France did the same. Italy saw itself threatened by the British and French fleets  and started its own invasion of Albania in April 1939. Although no immediate action followed, Hitler's invasion on Poland on September 1 officially began දෙවන ලෝක යුද්ධය.

Quotations from key participants

Neville Chamberlain, announcing the deal at the Heston Aerodrome:

Chamberlain in a letter to his sister Hilda, on 2 October 1938:

Winston Churchill, denouncing the Agreement in the House of Commons:

Adolf Hitler, in his speech to his generals on 22 August 1939, a week before the invasion of Poland:

Legal nullification of the Munich Agreement
During the Second World War, British Prime Minister Churchill, who opposed the agreement when it was signed, became determined that the terms of the agreement shall not be upheld after the war, and that the Sudeten territories shall be returned to postwar Czechoslovakia. On August 5, 1942, Foreign Minister Anthony Eden sent the following note to Jan Masaryk:

To which Masaryk replied as follows:

Following Allied victory and the surrender of the Third Reich in 1945, the Sudetenland was returned to Czechoslovakia, while the German speaking minority was expelled.

See also
 Appeasement of Hitler
 Concentration camps Lety and Hodonín in the Czech republic
 German occupation of Czechoslovakia
 Lesson of Munich
 Neville Chamberlain's European Policy
 Treaty of Prague (1973)
 Western betrayal

Notes

External links

 The Munich Agreement  - Text of the Munich Agreement on-line
 The Munich Agreement in contemporary radio news broadcasts - Actual radio news broadcasts documenting evolution of the crisis
 The Munich Agreement Original reports from The Times
 British Pathe newsreel (includes Chamberlain's speech at Heston aerodrome) (Adobe Flash)
 Peace: And the Crisis Begins from a broadcast by Dorothy Thompson, October 1, 1938
 Post-blogging the Sudeten Crisis - A day by day summary of the crisis

1938 in the United Kingdom
History of Czechoslovakia
Politics of දෙවන ලෝක යුද්ධය
History of Munich
Treaties of the United Kingdom
Treaties concluded in 1938
Partition
Military history of Czechoslovakia during දෙවන ලෝක යුද්ධය
1938 in Italy
1938 in France
Treaties of Nazi Germany
Treaties of the French Third Republic
Treaties of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)

මියුනික් එකඟතාව


الهينوثية أو الوحدانية المشوبة (باليونانية: εἷς θεός وتعني «لإله واحد»)، هي عبادة إله واحد أساسي، دون إنكار وجود أو احتمالية وجود آلهة أخرى أدنى منه. صاغ فريدريك شيلن (1775-1854) هذا المصطلح، ثم استخدمه فريدريك فيلكر (1784-1868) لتصوير الوحدانية البدائية في أوساط الإغريق القدماء.

وسع عالم فقه اللغة والمستشرق الألماني ماكس مولر (1823-1900) نطاق استخدام هذا المصطلح في دراسته عن الديانات الهندية، ولا سيما الهندوسية التي تذكر نصوصها المقدسة العديد من الآلهة وتمجدهم، كما لو كانت هذه الآلهة جوهرًا إلهيًا وحدويًا واحدًا. اعتمد مولر على هذا المصطلح في نقده لللاهوتية الغربية والاستثنائية الدينية (القريبة من الأديان الشرقية)، إذ ركز على الدوغماتية الثقافية التي اعتبرت «الوحدانية» واضحة المعالم في جوهرها ومتفوقةً على المفاهيم المختلفة حول الله بطبيعتها.

الزرادشتية
يُعتبر أهورامزدا بمثابة الإله الأعلى في الزرادشتية، لكن الزرادشتيون لا ينكرون وجود آلهة أخرى. يمتلك أهورامزدا ما يُسمى بالايزدان (القوى الخيرة)، بما في ذلك أناهيتا وساروشا وميثرا وراشنو وتريترزي. قدم ريتشارد فولتس أدلةً على عبادة الإيرانيين لهذه الشخصيات في عصر ما قبل الإسلام، ولا سيما ميثرا وأناهيتا. يعتقد برودوس اوكتور سكغايرفو أن الزرادشتية هينوثية، إذ يقول إنها «دين ثنائي وتعددي، لكنه ينطوي على إله أعلى واحد، وهو أب الكون المنظم». ينظر بعض الباحثون الآخرون إلى هذا الأمر باعتباره مبهمًا، إذ تقدم النصوص التاريخية صورةً متضاربةً عن الإيمان الزرادشتي «بإله واحد، أو إلهين، أو إله واحد متفوق على آلهة أخرى».

الهندوسية
استخدم بعض الباحثون مثل ماكس مولر مصطلح الهينوثية للإشارة إلى لاهوت الديانة الفيدية. أشار مولر إلى ترانيم ريجفدا التي تُعتبر بمثابة أقدم كتاب هندوسي مقدس، إذ ذكرت هذه الترانيم عددًا من الآلهة ومجدتهم على التوالي بصفتهم «الإله الأسمى الواحد الموحد» بدلًا من اعتبارهم «الإلهة السامية الواحدة». وبالتالي، يثبت هذا الأمر الجوهر الوحدوي للآلهة (إيكام)، ويؤكد على أن هذه الآلهة ليست سوى مظاهر تعددية لمفهوم الإله (الله) ذاته.

أشارت جانين فاولر إلى تصور العصر الفيدي للإله أو الواحد باعتباره تصورًا أكثر تجردًا من مفهوم الإله التوحيدي، فهو الحقيقة التي تختبأ خلف الكون العجيب. تصف الترانيم الفيدية الإله على أنه «مبدأ مطلق، لا حدود له، ولا يمكن وصفه». وبالتالي، يمكن وصف الإله الفيدي بأنه أقرب لما يُسمى بوحدة الموجود وليس الهينوثية. ظهرت التكهنات الثيوصوفية في أواخر العصر الفيدي وبدايات العصر الأوبنشادي (~ 800 قبل الميلاد)، إذ طورت هذه التكهنات المفاهيم التي أسماها بعض الباحثون باللاثنائية أو الأحادية، بينما اعتبرها البعض الآخر شكلًا من أشكال التوحيد أو الواحدية. بالإضافة إلى الترانيم الهينوثانية الموجودة في ريجفدا، تحتوي هذه الترانيم في القسم الأخير منها على أمثلة أخرى على التشكيك في مفهوم الله، مثل ناساديا سوكتا (ترنيمة الخلق). تدعو الهندوسية المفهوم الميتافيزيقي المطلق باسم براهمان، إذ ينطوي هذا المفهوم على الواقع المتعالي والواقع المحايث. تصف المدارس الفكرية المختلفة مفهوم براهمان على أنه شخصي أو غير شخصي أو عبر شخصي، بينما يصفه إيشوار شاندرا شارما بأنه «الحقيقة المطلقة، التي تتجاوز كل ثنائيات الوجود والعدم، والنور والظلام، والزمان والمكان والسبب».

الديانة الهلنستية
تبنت الديانات اليونانية والرومانية الإيمان بتعددية الآلهة خلال نشأتها، في حين بدأت العديد من المفاهيم المختلفة بالظهور خلال الفترة الكلاسيكية تحت تأثير الفلسفة. اعُتبر زيوس (أو جوبيتير) في الكثير من الأحيان بمثابة الملك والأب الأعلى والأقوى والأسمى للآلهة الأولمبية. تقول ماياستينا كالوس: «انتشر التوحيد في أوساط المثقفين في أواخر العصور القديمة» و«فُسر وجود العديد من الآلهة من خلال اعتبارها جوانب أو جزيئات أو ألقاب لإله واحد أعلى». قال ماكسيموس تيريوس (القرن الثاني الميلادي): «في منافسة قوية أو فتنة أو خلاف كهذا، سترى قانونًا وتأكيدًا واحدًا في كل الأرض، وهو وجود إله واحد، ملكًا وأبًا لكل شيء، ووجود العديد من الآلهة، أي أبناء الله الذين يحكمون معه».

أشار الفيلسوف الأفلاطوني الحديث أفلوطين إلى وجود «الواحد» فوق جميع آلهة الإيمان التقليدي، أما النحوي ماكسيموس من مادوروس المؤمن بتعددية الآلهة فأشار إلى أنه ما من أحد ينكر وجود الله الأسمى سوى المجنون.

الديانة الكنعانية واليهودية المبكرة
تُعتبر اليهودية الحاخامية التي تطورت في العصور القديمة المتأخرة توحيديةً بشكل قاطع، إلا أن سابقتها -أي المدارس المختلفة لليهودية الهلنستية والهيكل اليهودي الثاني، ولا سيما عقيدة يهوه التي انتشرت في مملكتي إسرائيل ويهوذا القديمتين خلال القرنين الثامن والسابع قبل الميلاد- فوُصفت بأنها هينوثية.

على سبيل المثال، عبد الموآبيون الإله كموش بينما عبد الإدوميون الإله قوس، وكان كلا الإلهين جزءًا من مجمع آلهة الكنعانيين بقيادة الإله الأسمى أيل. ضم مجمع الآلهة الكنعانيين الإله أيل والإلهة عشيره بوصفهما الإلهين الأسميين، بالإضافة إلى أبنائهم السبعين الذين اعتُقد أنهم يحكمون كل أمم الأرض، إذ عُبد كل منهم في منطقة معينة. يقول كيرت نول: «جاء في الكتاب المقدس أن يهوه إله إسرائيل الأصلي الذي [عاش] في الجنوب أو في أرض أدوم هو أيل شداي».

تشير العديد من القصص التوراتية إلى الاعتقاد الذي ساد حول وجود الآلهة الكنعانية والسلطة الكبرى التي امتلكتها في الأراضي من خلال الناس الذين عبدوها وقدسوا كل ما يتعلق بها، إذ اعتقد المؤمنون بهم أن قوتهم حقيقيةً فعلًا. ورد في العديد من الروايات حول الأمم المجاورة لإسرائيل خوف الناس وتقديسهم لإله إسرائيل على الرغم من إيمانهم بتعددية الآلهة. على سبيل المثال، أشار الإصحاح الرابع في سفر صموئيل الأول إلى قلق الفلستيين قبل معركة أفيق الثانية، وذلك عندما علموا أن بني إسرائيل يحملون تابوت العهد -أي يهوه- إلى المعركة. مُنع بني إسرائيل من عبادة أي إله آخر، لكنهم لم يكونوا موحدين بالكامل قبل الأسر البابلي بحسب ما جاء في تفسيرات الإنجيل. يعتبر مارك إس. سميث هذه المرحلة شكلًا من أشكال الأحادية، إذ يعتقد أيضًا أن أيل ويهوه قد دُمجا معًا، وأنه قد ساد تقبل الطوائف حينها لعشيره في فترة القضاة (الفترة القبلية). فُسر سفر الملوك الثاني 3 : 27 باعتباره وصفًا لأحداث ذبيحة بشرية في موآب، إذ أسفرت عن خوف جيش بني إسرائيل الغازي من قوة كموش.

المراجع

الإيمان بالله
تاريخ بني إسرائيل
تعدد الآلهة
توحيدية
لاهوت مسيحي

هينوثية


Westfalenstadion eða opinberlega Signal Iduna Park er knattspyrnuvöllur í Dortmund, Norður-Rín-Vestfalíu, Þýskalandi. Völlurinn er heimavöllur Borussia Dortmund og tekur rúmlega 81.000. Hann er rómaður fyrir mikla stemningu áhorfenda, er þriðji stærsti leikvangur Evrópu á eftir Camp Nou og Santiago Bernabéu og er með mestan áhorfendafjölda að meðaltali.

Þýsk margnota íþróttamannvirki

Westfalenstadion


Magyar Jégkorong Szövetség (Ungarischer Eishockeyverband) ist der nationale Eishockeyverband Ungarns.

Geschichte
Der Verband wurde am 24. Januar 1927 in die Internationale Eishockey-Föderation aufgenommen. Die Nationalmannschaft nahm schon an den Olympischen Winterspielen von 1928 teil.

Der Verband gehört zu den IIHF-Vollmitgliedern. Aktueller Präsident ist Miklos Nemeth.

Der Verband kümmert sich überwiegend um die Durchführung der Spiele der ungarischen Eishockeynationalmannschaft sowie der Frauen-Nationalmannschaft und der Junioren-Mannschaften. Zudem organisiert der Verband den Spielbetrieb auf Vereinsebene, unter anderem in der ungarischen Eishockeyliga.

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website (ungarisch/englisch)
 Ungarn auf der Webseite der IIHF (englisch)

Ungarn
Eishockey (Ungarn)
Nationaler Sportverband (Ungarn)
Sportverband (Ungarn)

Magyar Jégkorong Szövetség


Tatsuya Tanaka (født 27. november 1982) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Japans fodboldlandshold

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Eksterne henvisninger

Japan National Football Team Database

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Tatsuya Tanaka


Lonsdale est un village situé dans l'État américain de l'Arkansas, dans le comté de Garland.

Histoire

Économie

Géographie

Démographie

Notes et références

Comté de Garland
Town en Arkansas

Lonsdale (Arkansas)


The 2002 Karachi bus bombing was one of a series of deadly strikes on Westerners in Pakistan in 2002. The blast killed 14 people and wounded another 40. The attack took place in Karachi, Sindh.

Details
On May 8, 2002, a man driving a car bomb stopped next to a bus in Karachi outside the Sheraton Hotel. He detonated the car, ripping the bus apart, and killing himself, 11 Frenchmen, and two Pakistanis. The Frenchmen were engineers working with Pakistan to design an Agosta 90B-class submarine for the Pakistani Navy. About 40 others were wounded.

The bombing occurred close to the Pearl-Continental Hotel where the New Zealand national cricket team were staying as part of their tour of 2002. The team's physiotherapist Dayle Shackel received a minor cut to his forearm from flying glass. The tour was abandoned immediately with the team returning to New Zealand on the first available flight.

Al-Qaeda was blamed for the blast. On September 18, 2002, a man named Sharib Zubair, who was believed to have masterminded the attack, was arrested. In 2003, two men were sentenced to death for the bombing by a Karachi court. The suspected bombmaker, Mufti Mohammad Sabir, was arrested in Karachi on September 8, 2005. There were several convictions in the case, though Pakistani courts acquitted three defendants by 2009.

Karachigate

Contrary to official announcements by the Pakistani and the French governments at the time, it is now thought to be unlikely that those responsible for the attack had links to al-Qaeda. In 2007, anti-terrorism judge Jean-Louis Bruguiere, assigned to lead the investigation into the bombing, was replaced by two investigating magistrates, Marc Trevidic and Renaud Van Ruymbeke. The former opened a new line in the investigation: that the attack was linked to the halting of kickback. The resulting scandal has been dubbed "Karachigate".

An investigation is currently underway in France to establish the extent to which former French Prime Minister Édouard Balladur and former French President Nicolas Sarkozy were implicated in the sale of kickbacks to Pakistani officials. Sarkozy was allegedly involved in accepting kickbacks from Pakistan to fund the presidential campaign of Balladur. When Jacques Chirac came to power, he cancelled the Pakistani officials' kickbacks, angering many people in Pakistan.

See also
 Karachi affair
 2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team

References

External links
Suicide bomber kills 11 French engineers at Karachi hotel (The Guardian)
Timeline: The Karachi bombing and kickback allegations France 24.

2002 murders in Pakistan
2002 in international relations
2002 bus bombing
21st-century mass murder in Pakistan
Bus bombings in Asia
France–Pakistan relations
French terrorism victims
Mass murder in 2002
2002 bus bombing
May 2002 crimes
May 2002 events in Asia
Suicide bombings in 2002
2002 bus bombing
Suicide car and truck bombings in Pakistan
Terrorist incidents in Pakistan in 2002

2002 Karachi bus bombing


كانت عين كارم تعد من ضواحي القدس، وكانت طريق مرصوفة بالحجارة تربطها بالطريق العام الذي يصل القدس بيافا، والذي يمر على بعد ثلاثة كيلومترات شمالي القرية. وتشير الأدلة الأثرية إلى أن هذا الموقع كان آهلا منذ الألف الثاني قبل الميلاد. وتقول إحدى الروايات إن عين كارم هي مسقط رأس يوحنا المعمدان، حسب المعتقدات المسيحية زار كل من يسوع ومريم العذراء زارا عين كارم مرات عدة. وثمة اعتقاد أن الخليفة الثاني عمر بن الخطاب مر بها ذات مرة خلال الفتح الإسلامي، وصلى فيها. تبين السجلات العثمانية أن عين كارم كانت في سنة 1596 قرية في ناحية القدس(لواء القدس), لا يتجاوز عدد سكانها 160 نسمة. وكانت عين كارم تؤدي الضرائب على عدد من الغلال والثمار.

في أوائل القرن التاسع عشر، ذكر الرحالة البريطاني جيمس بكنغهام أن ثمة مسيحيين في هذه القرية الصغيرة، وأن شجر الزيتون يكثر في الأودية المتاخمة لها. وأشار غيره من الرحالة، في وقت لاحق من ذلك القرن، إلى وجود كنيسة مار يوحنا الفرنسيسكانية ضمن دير في الجهة الشرقية، ودير آخر (راهبات صهيون) وكنيسة حديثة البناء. ويشير كتاب (مسح فلسطين الغربية) إلى أن مأوى روسياً كان في طور البناء سنة 1882، في أقصى غربي القرية، وإلى أن الفرنسيسكان أنشؤوا مدرسة للبٍنين، وأن راهبات صهيون يشرفن على مدرسة ودار أيتام للبنات.

ومع بداية القرن العشرين، توصل نفر غير قليل من أبناء هذه القرية إلى احتلال مناصب بارزة، كالشيخ عيسى منون الذي تبوأ في الأزهر الشريف في مصر منصب عميد كلية أصول الدين في سنة 1944, وعميد كلية الشريعة في سنة 1946. وقيل إن عين كارم كانت مقر القيادة السري الذي أدار منه الزعيم الفلسطيني الشهير عبد القادر الحسيني عملياته في الفترة 1936- 1939.

كانت عين كارم كبرى قرى قضاء القدس، سواء من حيث المساحة أو من حيث عدد السكان. وكانت منازلها مبنية بالحجر الكلسي والطبشوري وتعلو أبوابها ونوافذها قناطر مميزة. وكان عدد سكانها عام 1945 2510 من المسلمين و670 من المسيحيين. وكان السكان يتألفون من خمس حمائل، لكل منها حوش يجتمع فيه أبناء الحمولة للسمر والاحتفال بالمناسبات الخاصة. وكانت عيون كثيرة توفر للقرية مياه الشرب. وكان في القرية مدرستان ابتدائيتان (أحداهما للينين والأخرى للبنات) ومكتبة وصيدلية، وكان فيها أيضا نواد رياضية واجتماعية عدة وجمعية كشافة للبنين. وكان سكان القرية يشهدون عروضا مسرحية، وكان من جملة وسائل الترفيه وسبل الإعلام الأخرى مسرح في الهواء الطلق، ومذياع في مقهى القرية موصول بمكبرات صوت لتمكين عدد كثير من الناس من الاستماع إليه.

كان لعين كارم مجلس بلدي يدير شؤونها الإدارية. وكان فيها على الرغم من وقوعها في منطقة جبلية، بعض الأراضي المستوية في الشمال (ولا سيما في منطقة تدعى المرج) تستنبت فيها الخضروات والأشجار المثمرة. وقد زرع الزيتون وسواه من الأشجار المثمرة والكرمة على المنحدرات الجبلية. في سنة 1944, كان ما مجموعه 1175 دونما مخصصاً للحبوب، و7953 دونماً مرويا أو مستخدما للبساتين. وكان سكان عين كارم يعملون فضلاً عن الزراعة، في الصناعات الحرفية وفي صناعات خفيفة أخرى كمصنع تعبئة المياه المعدنية الذي كان في القرية، على سبيل المثال. وكان في القرية عدة كنائس وأديرة، أبرزها كنيسة يوحنا المعمدان (وتسمى أيضا كنيسة مار يوحنا), التي يقال إنها شيدت فوق الكهف الذي ولد فيه. ومن جملة المؤسسات المسيحية الأخرى: دير الفرنسيسكان، وكنيسة الزيارة، ودير مار زكريا، وكنيسة راهبات صهيون والقبور التابعة للكنيسة. كما يوجد في جوار نبع يسمى عين مريم مسجد ذو مئذنة، سمي المسجد العمري تيمنا بعمر بن الخطاب ثاني الخلفاء الراشدين.

القرى والمدن المحيطة بالقرية
من الشمال (لفتا. قالونيا. دير ياسين) من الجنوب (الجورة. الولجة. بيت جالا. بتير) من الشرق (القدس الشريف. المالحة) من الغرب (القسطل. صوبا. ساطاف)

التركيبة السكانية للقرية
من أربع حمائل وهم أربعة أخوة
الحارث، وعلي، وضرار (الضوار)، وزغب. وكذلك حمولة أال الشيخ الذين يعودون إلى جدهم الحاج عبيد المنشاوي الذي لجأ إلى عين كارم من قريته عراق المنشية الواقع بين الخليل وغزة
كما تضم بضع عائلات من المسيحيين ومنهم عائلة جعنينة وطنوس وبشارة ونجيب وزكرياداود وروك وغيرها والتي سكنت عين كارم على مر السنين كونها أرضا كرمت بمرور السيدة مريم العذراء وأقام بها سيدنا زكريا وشهدت مولد يحيى.

احتلالها وتهجير سكانها

طوقت عين كارم على يد وحدة عسكرية تم تشكيلها من قوى متعددة، منها منظمة الإيتسل والجدناع (وهي كتائب شبيبة الهجاناه), وذلك في الأيام العشرة التي فصلت بين هدنتي الحرب (9-18 تموز1948), ويذكر كتاب «تاريخ حرب الاستقلال» الإسرائيلي أن القرية قصفت أول الأمر من هضبتين مجاورتين مشرفتين عليها، سميت أحدهما- لاحقا- جبل هرتسل. بينما يزعم المؤرخ الإسرائيلي بني موريس أن سكان القرية (هجروها) يوم 11 تموز، تشير رواية الهجناه إلى أن ذلك حدث بعد أسبوع تقريبا. وكان ناطق إسرائيلي أعلن في 13 تموز أن القوات الإسرائيلية احتلت عين كارم بينما أشار تقرير لاحق نشرته صحيفة (نيورك تايمز) إلى أن القرية احتلت خلال الأسبوع التالي وفي صبيحة 18 تموز. وقد نقل عن لسان قائد منطقة القدس الإسرائيلي، في 22 تموز، قوله (إن قلعة عين كارم الصليبية) احتلت بين الهدنتين. ووصف مسئولون رسميون عرب الهجوم بأنه خرق ل هدنة القدس، بينما قيل إن الجيش الإسرائيلي توصل إلى اتفاق مع لجنة الهدنة تستثنى بموجبه عين كارم من القرى التي يشملها وقف إطلاق النار الخاص بالمدينة المقدسة.

بدأ الهجوم على عين كارم في الساعة الثانية من فجر 18 تموز، إذ اقتحم الإسرائيليون أعالي جبل رب، المشرف على القرية. وفي الساعة التاسعة صباحا سقطت القرية (من دون مقاومة), بحسب ما ذكر مراسل صحيفة (نيورك تايمز) الذي يمضي في تقريره قائلاً إن الجيش العربي والجيش المصري المتمركزين في المنطقة «لم يبديا مقاومة تذكر». لكن من المستبعد جدا أن تكون وحدات أي من الجيشين - فكم بالحري كليهما - موجودة في القرية آنذاك. ومع ذلك فقد أشار المراسل إلى أن سكان القرية، المعتبرة تقليدياً مسقط رأس يوحنا المعمدان، كانوا هجروها ولم يطلق سوى بعض الطلقات النارية على جندي عربي وحيد وهو يفر. ويقول موريس إن بعض سكان القرية كان قد هرب في نيسان 1948, عقب مجزرة دير ياسين التي تبعد عن عين كارم 2,5 كلم فقط في اتجاه الشمال الشرقي.

في نهاية كانون الأول 1948, بدأت حركة هجرة اليهود الجماعية باتجاه القدس، فاستقر نحو 150 عائلة في قرية عين كارم التي باتت تابعة لبلدية القدس الغربية الإسرائيلية.

ويعيش غالبية اهالي عين كارم في الأردن وعددهم يصل 350000 وهناك جمعية باسمها ونادي كرة قدم في الدرجة الأولى وصعد للدرجة الثانية بعد انتكاسة النادي في 2017

المستعمرات الإسرائيلية على أراضي القرية
في سنة 1949, أنشأ الإسرائيليون مستعمرتي بيت زايت وإيفن سبير على أراضي القرية. كما أنشئت عليها في سنة 1950 مدرسة عين كارم الزراعية. وضمّت أراضيها إلى بلدية القدس الإسرائيلية.

القرية اليوم
عين كارم من القرى القليلة جدا التي سلمت أبنيتها، على الرغم من تهجير سكانها. ويقيم اليوم في منازل عين كارم عائلات يهودية، إضافة إلى عائلة عربية مسيحية واحدة كانت أبعدت في سنة 1949 عن قرية إقرت (قضاء عكا), وتعيش الآن في مبنى مدرسة قديم تابع لدير الفرنسيسكان. وثمة بين المنازل الكبرى أبنية حجرية جميلة مؤلفة من طبقتين أو ثلاث طبقات ولها نوافذ مقنطرة وأبواب محفوفة بقنطرة كبرى تتخلف قليلا (كجواف المحراب) عن واجهة البناء. وفي القرية اليوم سبعة من الأديرة والكنائس، فضلا عن مقبرة للمسيحيين مجاورة للدير الروسي، وأخرى للمسلمين وسط القرية تغطيها النفايات والتراب، وتتعرض مؤخراً لمحاولات طمس معالمها وشق طرق فيها من قبل بعض المستوطنين الساكنين في البيوت المجاورة للمقبرة. وهي تضم قبرين بارزين يرتفعان عن باقي القبور.
أحد القبور هو للشهيد إسماعيل الصوباني الذي سقط برصاص جنود بريطانيين قبيل ثورة 1936 منحوت على قبره أبيات شعر قيلت في رثائه. ولا يزال مسجد القرية قائماً ولكنه مغلق مهجور، وكذلك لا زالت مئذنته قائمة. وتتدفق مياه عين مريم تحت المسجد. وقد بني مستشفى هداسا الإسرائيلي على أراضي القرية على جبل راس التوتة.

المصادر

- www.group194.net
- www.einkarem.info
- وليد الخالدي، كي لا ننسى

أحياء القدس
أماكن في العهد الجديد
تاريخ إسرائيل حسب الموقع
قرى فلسطينية أخليت من سكانها في الحرب العربية الإسرائيلية 1948
قضاء القدس
مدن مقدسة
مستعمرات يهودية قديمة في يهودا
مواقع تاريخية في القدس
مواقع مؤقتة في قائمة التراث العالمي لليونسكو

عين كارم


Nezavisna lista mladih je politička stranka registrirana sa sjedištem u Solinu, no najviše aktivna i uspješna u nekoliko općina južnog djela Splitsko-dalmatinska županija. Određuje ju fokus na razvoj, politike promjena u općoj kvaliteti lokalnog života i sprječavanje iseljavanja mladih. U 9. sazivu Sabora ima li su klub od 3 zastupnika koju je predvodio, tada saborski zastupnik i gradonačelnik Vrgorca Ante Pranić.

Među ključnim načelima ističu:
 Eko i samoodrživi razvoj (podizanje stručnosti u vođenju investicija)
 Mladi za mlade (zaustavljanje iseljavanje mladih)
 Obitelj je temelj svakog društva (populacijska politika)
 Demokracija i transparentnost (sudjelovanje građana)
 Borba protiv korupcije
 Javno dobro (protiv privatnih interesa)

Na lokalnim izborima 2021. su polučili uspjeh i u novo-organiziranim stranačkim ograncima, poput općine Podgora.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 https://nlm.hr/

Hrvatske političke stranke od 1989.

Nezavisna lista mladih


Philippe de Vitry (Vitry-en-Artois, 31. listopada 1291. – Meaux, 9. lipnja 1361.) je bio francuski skladatelj, glazbeni teoretičar, pjesnik i biskup. Pretpostavlja se da je bio sin kraljevskoga notara te je tako od početka bio povezan s francuskim dvorom. Nekoliko je puta bio na političkim, diplomatskim i upravnim funkcijama, a služio je nekolicini francuskih kraljeva. Godine 1351. postavljen je za biskupa Meauxa, a to će mjesto zadržati do smrti. Bio je vodeća intelektualna ličnost svojega doba, o čem svjedoče i dva Petrarkina pisma u kojima ga je nazvao »jedinim istinskim pjesnikom među Francuzima«. Vitryjevo stvaralaštvo djelovalo je revolucionarno na tijek povijesti glazbe te je otvorilo put novom razdoblju, nazvanom ars nova. Njegova istoimena rasprava (Nova umjetnost – Ars nova, oko 1322.), u kojoj tumači teoriju tadašnje menzuralne notacije, sačuvana je u više različitih verzija. Vitryjeva je glazba bila posve nepoznata sve do 1921., kada je u Ivrei u Italiji pronađen kodeks sa sedam njegovih moteta. Od njegovih balada i rondeaua ništa nije sačuvano.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Francuski skladatelji
Skladatelji srednjovjekovne glazbe
Srednjovjekovni glazbeni teoretičari
Francuski glazbeni teoretičari

Philippe de Vitry


Julio Daniel Losada (født 16. juni 1950) er en uruguayansk tidligere fodboldspiller (angriber).

Losada spillede gennem sin karriere seks kampe for Uruguays landshold. Han var en del af landets trup til VM 1970 i Mexico, og spillede to af uruguayanernes seks kampe i turneringen.

På klubplan spillede Losada fire år for Montevideo-storklubben Peñarol. Efterfølgende skiftede han til græske Olympiakos, hvor han var tilknyttet de følgende 8 sæsoner. Han var her med til at vinde fire græske mesterskaber.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Uruguay
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 1970
Fodboldspillere fra Club Atlético Peñarol
Fodboldspillere fra Olympiakos

Julio Losada


Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum (; 11 June 1912 – 7 October 1990) was an Emirati royal, politician and a founder of the United Arab Emirates. Al Maktoum was the first vice president and second prime minister of the United Arab Emirates, and was the ruler of Dubai. He ruled Dubai for 32 years from 1958 until his death in 1990. He was the vice president from the founding of the UAE until his death. Al Maktoum was the first vice president to serve as prime minister concurrently, when he became prime minister on 30 April 1979. Every prime minister after him was de facto also vice president.

Development of Dubai
Sheikh Rashid was responsible for the transformation of Dubai from a small cluster of settlements near the Dubai Creek to a modern port city and commercial hub.

A quote commonly attributed to Sheikh Rashid reflected his concern that Dubai's oil, which was discovered in 1966 and which began production in 1969, would run out within a few generations.

"My grandfather rode a camel, my father rode a camel, I drive a Mercedes, my son drives a Land Rover, his son will drive a Land Rover, but his son will ride a camel",

He therefore worked to develop the economy of Dubai so that it could survive after the end of oil production, and was a driving force behind a number of major infrastructure projects to promote Dubai as a regional hub for trade, such as:

Port Rashid (opened in 1972)
Al Shindagha Tunnel (opened in 1975)
Jebel Ali Port (opened in 1979)
Dubai World Trade Centre (built in 1978)
The second major dredging and widening of the Dubai Creek (early 1970s)
Dubai Drydocks (opened in 1983)

Relationship with other emirates
There had been an armed border dispute between Dubai and Abu Dhabi in 1946, and when Sheikh Rashid became ruler of Dubai, there was still a state of stand-off between the two emirates. Sheikh Rashid's accession did not serve to improve the situation because of a delicate family relationship. The ruling emir of Abu Dhabi, Shakhbut, was a first cousin of Sheikh Rashid's only wife, Latifah. Their fathers had been brothers. However, Shakhbut's father had killed Latifah's father and seized the throne of Abu Dhabi in 1922, causing Latifah's family to flee to Dubai where, many years later, the two families arranged for Sheikh Rashid to marry Latifah. Given this history, there was little love lost between the cousins and relations between the two emirates did not improve until much later.

Instead, Sheikh Rashid established a close relationship with Qatar, who was a rival of Abu Dhabi on the other (western) border. Sheikh Rashid's daughter married the new emir of Qatar in 1961 and a warm relationship was established. Thus, when India devalued the Gulf Rupee in 1966, both Qatar and Dubai adopted the Qatar-Dubai Riyal as a common currency, whereas Abu Dhabi adopted the Bahraini dinar.

Sheikh Rashid also established close relations with Kuwait and other royal families in the region. The Emir of Kuwait assisted in the financing of the dredging of Dubai creek. Dubai also raised funds for the dredging by issuing bonds, known as the 'creek bonds,' which proved popular with investors. Revenue derived from land reclamation made possible by the dredging proved crucial for funding Dubai's future growth. The dredging and land reclamation project, regarded at first as a folly, resulted in Dubai's rising prominence as an entrepôt, a position cemented by the visionary construction of a 15-berth deep-water port, Port Rashid, starting in 1969.

Despite the rather fraught relationship between the two emirates, Sheikh Rashid brought Dubai to join Abu Dhabi and other northern emirates to create the United Arab Emirates in 1971. In 1973, Dubai joined the other emirates to adopt a uniform currency, the UAE dirham.

Jebel Ali port was established in 1979, and the customs free zone Jebel Ali Free Zone (JAFZ) was built around the port in 1985. By the late 1990s, JAFZ developed into a commercial free zone.

Family
Sheikh Rashid's father was Sheikh Saeed bin Maktoum Al Maktoum, while his mother was Sheikha Hessa bint Al Mur bin Hureiz Al Falasi.

Sheikh Rashid Al Maktoum married only once. His wife, Sheikha Latifa bint Hamdan Al Nahyan, is the daughter of Sheikh Hamdan bin Zayed Al Nahyan, who had ruled Abu Dhabi for 10 years (1912-22). After her father was murdered by family members, Sheikha Latifa (along with other family members) fled Abu Dhabi and was taken in at her mother's home in Dubai. Many years later, Sheikha Latifa was married to Rashid in a match arranged by their families. Rashid and Latifa had nine children, being four sons and five daughters:

 Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum (1943–2006), who succeeded his father as ruler of Dubai (ruled 1990-2006)
 Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum (1945–2021)
 Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum (born 1949), who succeeded his elder brother as ruler of Dubai (ruling 2006-)
 Ahmed bin Rashid Al Maktoum (born 1956)
 Maryam bint Rashid Al Maktoum married the first Qatari emir, Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani, who was deposed in 1972 by a cousin.
 Fatima bint Rashid Al Maktoum.
 Hassa bint Rashid Al Maktoum married to Ahmad bin Maktoum bin Juma Al Maktoum. Their children are Latifa bint Ahmed Al Maktoum and Rashid.
 Maitha bint Rashid Al Maktoum.
 Shaikha bint Rashid Al Maktoum married the Saudi Prince Abdulaziz bin Saud bin Mohammed Al Saud, known as Al Samer, a very famous poet. They have 3 sons: Rashid (born 1996), Saud, and Mohammed.

Both his predecessor and successor as Prime Minister of the UAE was his son, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum. Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid was the prime minister of United Arab Emirates from 1971 to 1979, and acceded as ruler of Dubai on his father's death on 7 October 1990, until his death on 4 January 2006. Following Maktoum's death in 2006, another of Sheikh Rashid's sons, Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, acceded to these positions and is the current vice president and prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai.

Sheikh Rashid was half-brother—46 years older—to Sheikh Ahmed bin Saeed Al Maktoum, presently the Chairman of Emirates Airline.

See also
 Hazza bin Sultan Al Nahyan, friend and relative by marriage
 Timeline of Dubai

Notes

References

External links
Shaikh Mohammad: A role model for world leaders

1912 births
1990 deaths
Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum
Prime Ministers of the United Arab Emirates
Vice presidents of the United Arab Emirates
Rulers of Dubai
20th-century Emirati people
20th-century monarchs in the Middle East
Founders of the United Arab Emirates

Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum


Mark Neil Brown (born November 18, 1951) is an American engineer, retired colonel in the United States Air Force and former NASA astronaut. Brown spent a total of ten days in space, over two Space Shuttle missions.

Personal life
Brown was born November 18, 1951, in Valparaiso, Indiana, to Mr. and Mrs. Richard S. Brown. His recreational interests include fishing, hiking, jogging, all sports and chess. He married the former Lynne A. Anderson of River Grove, Illinois; they have two daughters: Kristin Elizabeth (born October 21, 1981) and Karin Alison (born May 18, 1986).

Education
 1969: Graduated from Valparaiso High School, Valparaiso, Indiana
 1973: Received a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical and astronautical engineering from Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
 1980: Received a Master of Science degree in astronautical engineering from the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology, Dayton, Ohio

Air Force experience
Following graduation from Purdue in 1973, Brown was commissioned in the U.S. Air Force and received his pilot wings at Laughlin Air Force Base, Texas, in 1974. He was then assigned to the 87th Fighter Interceptor Squadron at K.I. Sawyer Air Force Base, Michigan, where he flew both T-33 and F-106 aircraft. Brown graduated from the Squadron Officer School at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, in 1975. He was transferred to the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, and earned his master's degree in astronautical engineering in 1980. Two years later, he graduated from the Air Command and Staff College at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama.

NASA career
Brown was assigned to the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1980. Assigned as an engineer in the Flight Activities Section, he participated in the development of contingency procedures for use aboard the Space Shuttle and served as an attitude and pointing officer. Brown supported STS-2, STS-3, STS-4, STS-6, STS-8 and STS-41-C in the Flight Activity Officer/Staff Support Room of the Mission Control Center.

Brown became an astronaut in June 1985 after being selected in May 1984, and qualified for assignment as a mission specialist on future Space Shuttle flight crews. In December 1985, he was assigned to the crew of STS-61-N, a Department of Defense mission which was canceled due to the Challenger disaster. During 1986 and 1987, he was an astronaut member of the solid rocket booster redesign team. In February 1988, Brown was assigned to STS-28, flying on 8 August 1989, after which he served as astronaut member on the Space Station Freedom program, which was later canceled. He next flew on STS-48 on 12 September 1991. Brown had logged over 249 hours in space after flying two missions.

On his first space flight, Brown was a mission specialist on the crew of STS-28. The orbiter Columbia was launched from Kennedy Space Center on August 8, 1989. The mission carried Department of Defense payloads and a number of secondary payloads. After 80 orbits of the Earth, this five-day mission concluded with a dry lakebed landing on Runway 17 at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

Brown also flew on STS-48 aboard Discovery on 12 September 1991. This was a five-day mission during which the crew deployed the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) which is designed to provide scientists with their first complete data set on the upper atmosphere's chemistry, winds and energy inputs. The crew also conducted numerous secondary experiments ranging from growing protein crystals to studying how fluids and structures react in weightlessness. The mission was accomplished in 81 orbits of the Earth and concluded with a landing at Edwards Air Force Base on September 18, 1991.

Brown left NASA in July 1993 and retired from the U.S. Air Force to head the Space Division office of General Research Corporation in Dayton, Ohio.

Special honors
 Air Force Command Pilot
 Senior Space Badge
 Defense Superior Service Medal
 Air Force Commendation Medals (2)
 Air Force Outstanding Unit Award
 Combat Readiness Medal
 National Defense Service Medal
 Small Arms Expert Marksmanship Ribbon
 NASA Space Flight Medal
 Distinguished Graduate from Air Force ROTC
 Aerospace Defense Command "We Point With Pride" Award

References

External links

Brown's official NASA biography
Astronautix biography of Mark N. Brown
Spacefacts biography of Mark N. Brown

1951 births
Living people
1989 in spaceflight
1991 in spaceflight
Aviators from Indiana
United States Air Force astronauts
People from Valparaiso, Indiana
Businesspeople from Dayton, Ohio
Purdue University School of Aeronautics and Astronautics alumni
American aerospace engineers
Air Command and Staff College alumni
Air Force Institute of Technology alumni
United States Air Force officers
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
Engineers from Ohio
Space Shuttle program astronauts

Mark N. Brown


Die Terroristen steht für:

 Die Terroristen (Roman), Roman von Maj Sjöwall und Per Wahlöö (1975)
 Die Terroristen!, eine Film-Groteske von Philip Gröning aus dem Jahr 1992
 Die Terroristen, Alternativname des Rappers Alligatoah

Die Terroristen


Yeongju (en coreano:영주시 Romanización revisada:yeongjusi, léase:Yóngchu) es una ciudad en la provincia de Gyeongsang del Norte en el suroeste de la república de Corea del Sur. Está ubicada al sureste de Seúl a unos 160 km y a 107 km al norte del corazón de Daegu. La extensión de su término municipal es de 669,05 km² y su población total en 2008 era de 113 000 habitantes.

Administración
Yeongju se divide en 9 dong, 1 eup y 9 myeon.
 Yeongju-1-don (영주1동)
 Yeongju-2-dong (영주2동)
 Gaheung-1-dong (가흥1동)
 Gaheung-2-dong (가흥2동)
 Hyucheon-1-dong (휴천1동)
 Hyucheon-2-dong (휴천2동)
 Hyucheon-3-dong (휴천3동)
 Sangmang-dong (상망동)
 Hamang-dong (하망동)
 Punggi-eup (풍기읍)
 Buseok-myeon (부석면)
 Munsu-myeon (문수면)
 Pyeongeun-myeon (평은면)
 Isan-myeon (이산면)
 Bongheon-myeon (봉현면)
 Sunheung-myeon (순흥면)
 Jangsu-myeon (장수면)
 Anjeong-myeon (안정면)
 Dansan-myeon (단산면)

El eup y los myeons se dividen en zonas más pequeñas llamadas (ri).
 -Punggi-eup- (풍기읍) - Seongnae-ri (성내리), Dongbu-ri (동부리), Sanbeop-ri (산법리), Migok-ri (미곡리), Samga-ri (삼가리), Ukgeum-ri (욱금리), Geumgye-ri (금계리), Gyochon-ri (교촌리), Seobu-ri (서부리), Baek-ri (백리), Baeksin-ri (백신리), Changrak-ri (창락리), Sucheol-ri (수철리), Jeongu-ri (전구리)
 -Isan-myeon- (이산면) - Won-ri (원리), Sinam-ri (신암리), Jidong-ri (지동리), Seokpo-ri (석포리), Yongsang-ri (용상리), Sincheon-ri (신천리), Unmun-ri (운문리), Duwol-ri (두월리), Naerim-ri (내림리)
 -Pyeongeun-myeon- (평은면) - Pyeongeun-ri (평은리), Gangdong-ri (강동리), Jigok-ri (지곡리), Oun-ri (오운리), Cheonbon-ri (천본리), Geumgwang-ri (금광리), Yongheol-ri (용혈리)
 -Munsu-myeon- (문수면) - Seungmun-ri (승문리), Manbang-ri (만방리), Jeokdong-ri (적동리), Gwonseon-ri (권선리), Wolho-ri (월호리), Daeyang-ri (대양리), Tansan-ri (탄산리), Sudo-ri (수도리), Joje-ri (조제리)
 -Jangsu-myeon- (장수면) - Bangu-ri (반구리), Dujeon-ri (두전리), Galsan-ri (갈산리), Paji-ri (파지리), Seonggok-ri (성곡리), Hwagi-ri (화기리), Soryong-ri (소룡리), Homun-ri (호문리)
 -Anjeong-myeon- (안정면) - Sinjeon-ri (신전리), Saenghyeon-ri (생현리), Bongam-ri (봉암리), Yongsan-ri (용산리), Yeoreuk-ri (여륵리), Muk-ri (묵리), Naejul-ri (내줄리), Irwon-ri (일원리), Ansim-ri (안심리), Ongam-ri (옹암리), Danchon-ri (단촌리), Daepyeong-ri (대평리), Ogye-ri (오계리)
 -Bongheon-myeon- (봉현면) - Dusan-ri (두산리), Ohyeon-ri (오현리), Daechon-ri (대촌리), Hancheon-ri (한천리), Yujeon-ri (유전리), Nojwa-ri (노좌리), Hachon-ri (하촌리)
 -Sunheung-myeon- (순흥면) - Taejang-ri (태장리), Jidong-ri (지동리), Seokgyo-ri (석교리), Eupnae-ri (읍내리), Naejuk-ri (내죽리), Cheonggu-ri (청구리), Baejeom-ri (배점리), Deokhyeon-ri (덕현리)
 -Dansan-myeon- (단산면) - Dongwon-ri (동원리), Sacheon-ri (사천리), Gugu-ri (구구리), Byeongsan-ri (병산리), Okdae-ri (옥대리), Dangok-ri (단곡리), Jwaseok-ri (좌석리), Marak-ri (마락리)
 -Buseok-myeon- (부석면) - Namdae-ri (남대리), Bukji-ri (북지리), Imgok-ri (임곡리), Socheon-ri (소천리), Nogok-ri (노곡리), Yongam-ri (용암리), Ugok-ri (우곡리), Sangseok-ri (상석리), Gamgok-ri (감곡리), Bogye-ri 보계리)

Clima

Ciudades hermanas
  Suzhou.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Yeongju.com

Localidades de Gyeongsang del Norte

Yeongju


Atara (Atare) ist ein osttimoresischer Suco im Verwaltungsamt Atsabe (Gemeinde Ermera).

Geographie

Der Suco liegt im Südosten des Verwaltungsamts Atsabe. Nördlich liegen die Sucos Tiarlelo, Malabe, Laclo und Parami. Westlich befinden sich die Sucos Batu Mano und Lacao. Im Südosten grenzt Atara an das zur Gemeinde Ainaro gehörende Verwaltungsamt Ainaro mit seinem Suco Mau-Ulo und im Süden an das zur Gemeinde Bobonaro gehörende Verwaltungsamt Bobonaro mit seinen Sucos Colimau und Maliubu. In Atara entspringt der Fluss Baluani, der dann nach Westen fließt. Er gehört zum System des Lóis.

Den Südwesten von Atara durchquert die Überlandstraße, die vom Ort Atsabe nach Bobonaro im Süden führt. An ihr liegen die meisten Ortschaften des Sucos. Dies sind Uabe (Waabe), Dadubere, Airae, Tapoabe, Batubala (Batubata) und Mania. Etwas nordöstlich davon liegt das Dorf Biahoro. Nachdem die Überlandstraße kurz durch den Nachbarsuco Lacao führt, durchquert er Atara nochmal im Nordwesten. Hier liegen die Dörfer Malimea (Mali Mea) und Aifro. Grundschulen gibt es jeweils eine im Nordwesten und im Südwesten, die Escola Primaria No. 173 Atara.

Im Suco befinden sich die sieben Aldeias Airae, Batubala, Dadubere, Malimea/Uabe, Mania, Tapoabe und Uabe-Nc.

Von Atara wurde 2002 Malimea als eigenständiger Suco abgetrennt, 2003 aber wieder zurück angegliedert. Bei der Gebietsreform 2015 wurde die Grenze nach Norden neu gezogen. Im Westen ging ein kleines Gebiet an Batu Mano, während Atara von Tiarlrlo ein Territorium im Nordwesten erhielt. Vor der Reform hatte Atara eine Fläche von 24,93 km². Nun sind es 23,85 km².

Einwohner
In Atara leben 2.486 Einwohner (2022), davon sind 1.273 Männer und 1.213 Frauen. Im Suco gibt es 620 Haushalte. Über 98 % der Einwohner geben Kemak als ihre Muttersprache an. Eine Minderheit spricht Tetum Prasa.

Geschichte

1963 rebellierten etwa 70 Bewohner von Atara gegen die harten Arbeitsbedingungen, die der Liurai Guilherme Gonçalves einforderte und klagten daher vor dem portugiesischen Kolonialgericht. 1970 wurde ihnen Recht gegeben und Atara wurde zum eigenständigen Suco. In ihm hatte der Vater des späteren Politikers Elizário Ferreira eine führende Rolle. Dessen Cousin sagte der FALINTIL 1986 zu, die Guerilla mit Nahrungsmittel zu versorgen.

Am 23. August 2009 beendeten die Sucos Lacao und Atara eine jahrzehntelange Feindschaft durch eine offizielle Friedenszeremonie.

Politik

Bei den Wahlen von 2004/2005 wurde Francisco A. Aráujo zum Chefe de Suco gewählt. Bei den Wahlen 2009 gewann Lourenço de Jesus und 2016 Angelo Pereira.

Persönlichkeiten
 Mateus de Jesus (1959–2015), Politiker
 Elizário Ferreira (* 1973), Politiker

Weblinks

 Ergebnisse des Zensus 2010 für den Suco Atara (tetum; PDF; 8,5 MB)
 Ergebnisse des Zensus 2015 für den Suco Atara (tetum; PDF)
 Seeds of Life: Suco information sheets Atsabe (tetum)

Einzelnachweise

Suco in Ermera (Gemeinde)

Atara (Atsabe)


La classification des voiries en Belgique est la répartition des voiries selon leur fonction et l'entité responsable de leur gestion.

Classification globale
Depuis la fédéralisation de la Belgique, les Régions ont autorité sur les voiries situées sur leur territoire, notamment pour déterminer quelles voiries relèvent ou non de leur responsabilité. Chaque région gère et exploite son propre réseau principalement constitué de :

 voiries à flux important de véhicules :
 autoroutes, "rings" et bretelles ;
 routes pour automobiles, aussi désignées routes ou voies express ;
 routes ou voies rapides ;
 routes régionales ou "Nationales" ;
 voies navigables, dont les cours d'eau navigables et les canaux navigables ;
 certaines voies vertes, dont le réseau RAVeL en Wallonie.

Les Communes ont à leur charge les autres voiries situées sur leur territoire à l'exception des voiries privées. On y retrouve des :
 rues, ruelles, impasses ;
 pistes forestières et agricoles publiques ;
 routes mineures et non-classifiées ;
 accès aux bâtiments publics.

Les voiries privées sont gérées par leur propriétaire, qu'il s'agisse d'un individu, une entreprise ou encore une association. Il s'agit essentiellement de voiries nécessaires pour accéder à leur propriété ou pour mener leurs activités.

Les parkings et leurs accès constituent un cas particulier au sens où ils peuvent être gérés par n'importe laquelle de ces entités.

Gabarits et contraintes
Le gabarit et le contraintes propres à chaque type de voirie sont directement liés à l'usage qui leur est destiné:

 Une voirie favorisant la circulation verra généralement une plus grande largeur, moins d'intersections et plus d'aménagements de sécurité.
 Une voirie favorisant l'accès sera généralement d'un gabarit plus réduit avec une réduction de la limitation de vitesse et connaîtra plus d'intersections.

Autoroutes et rings
Les autoroutes et les "rings" autoroutiers (ceintures périphériques) sont constitués d'au moins deux voies dans chaque direction séparées par une "berme centrale" (terre-plein central) le plus souvent boisée. Le tout est bordé de part et d'autre d'une bande d'arrêt d'urgence équipée d'une glissière de sécurité.

L'accès est réservé aux véhicules automoteurs suffisamment rapides qui ne peuvent y pénétrer ni en sortir qu'en des endroits spécialement destinés à cet effet. Les entrées sont signalées par un panneau F bleu ou vert.

Bretelles
Les bretelles, au sens de la classification belge, sont des voiries destinées à relier les autoroutes aux routes moins importantes. Leur gabarit est intermédiaire entre celui d'une autoroute et celui de la route qu'elle doit desservir.

Lorsque leur longueur dépasse celle d'un simple échangeur, elles deviennent des routes à part entière et reçoivent leur propre numéro.

Routes pour automobiles ou routes / voies express

Les routes pour automobiles, aussi désignées par routes ou voies express (à ne pas confondre avec les routes ou voies rapides), sont similaires aux autoroutes et sont définies par les panneaux F9 et F11 du Code de la Route. Elles sont constituées de deux chaussées séparées par une "berme centrale" et comportent en général au moins deux voies dans chaque direction, mais ne nécessitent pas tous les aménagements requis pour les autoroutes dont elle ne partagent pas non plus le statut juridique.

L'accès y est également limité aux véhicules automoteurs suffisamment rapides qui ne peuvent y accéder qu'en des endroits spécialement aménagés. Au contraire des autoroutes, elles peuvent s'interrompre ou se terminer par une intersection ou un "rond-point" (carrefour giratoire), auquel cas on considère qu'il ne s'agit plus d'une route express (usage du panneau F11).

Routes ou voies rapides
Les routes ou voies rapides (à ne pas confondre avec les routes ou voies express), possèdent en général deux chaussées séparées à plusieurs voies, permettant un grand flux de véhicule, mais peuvent connaître des carrefours à niveau. L'accès des riverains est possible, quoique limité aux habitations préexistantes.

Routes régionales ou Nationales
Les routes régionales ou "Nationales" sont généralement constituées d'une voie pour chaque direction. Elles sont la plupart du temps séparées par un simple marquage au sol autorisant ou non selon la situation son franchissement.

RAVeL

Limitations de vitesse

En Belgique, comme dans la plupart des pays, les limites de vitesse sont plus élevées sur les routes plus larges et mieux sécurisées, et plus faibles sur les routes plus étroites ou présentant plus de risques (obstacles, piétons, intersections, pente importante...).

Ainsi, on trouve les limites suivantes en conditions normales:

  120 km/h sur les autoroutes et les routes pour automobiles ou voies express;
  90 km/h sur les autres routes dont l'état le permet hors agglomération indiquée par les panneaux F1 et F3. Il s'agit de la vitesse maximale autorisée par défaut par le code de la route belge;
  50 km/h en agglomération sauf spécifié;
  30 km/h dans les zones signalées, notamment autour d'écoles et dans certains quartiers.

En plus de ces limites, on peut également trouver tout un éventail de limitations utilisées ponctuellement lorsque la configuration de la voirie l'exige ou le permet.

Il convient de rappeler que ces limitations s'abaissent en cas de danger, qu'il s'agisse de pluie, brouillard, obstacle, travaux, accident ou tout autre perturbation temporaire.

Numérotation
Les routes régionales ("nationales"), les autoroutes, les bretelles et les "rings" autoroutiers possèdent leur propre système de numérotation et leur propre cartouche.

Ces systèmes de numérotations ont été instaurés avant le transfert des compétences routières aux Régions mais ont été conservés et étendus, évitant ainsi de nombreuses confusions. De même, les routes régionales étaient appelées "Nationales" et cet usage s'est perpétué; leur numérotation commence toujours par un "N".

Un grand nombre de routes majeures belges dont 95% des autoroutes sont également des routes européennes. Elles comportent un numéro européen blanc sur fond vert  en plus de leur numérotation nationale.

Les indicatifs provinciaux correspondent à :

Province d'Anvers
 Ancienne province du Brabant : provinces de Brabant flamand et Brabant wallon, et Région de Bruxelles-Capitale
 Province de Flandre-Occidentale
 Province de Flandre-Orientale
 Province de Hainaut
 Province de Liège
 Province de Limbourg
 Province de Luxembourg
 Province de Namur

Cas des autre routes
 Les voies express (routes pour automobiles) et voies rapides partagent la numérotation de la route qu'elle prolonge. Ainsi la plupart sont numérotées comme des nationales et certaines sont numérotées comme des autoroutes (surtout des bretelles).
 Il existait auparavant des routes provinciales "P" qui étaient similaires aux routes régionales et gérées par les Provinces. Elles ont été  et renumérotées en conséquence, telle la P19  Troine - Houffalize devenue .
 Les rues ne faisant pas partie d'une route régionale sont des routes communales et ne possèdent pas de numérotation. En revanche toutes les rues se voient attribuer un nom postal.
 Les voiries privées peuvent recevoir une nomenclature par leur propriétaire ou si les services anti-incendie l'exigent mais elle n'a de valeur qu'en usage interne.

Historique

Historique commun

En région de Bruxelles-Capitale

En Flandre

En Wallonie
L'arrêté ministériel du  répartit les voies publiques de la Région wallonne en catégories fonctionnelles comme tel :

 Le réseau à grand gabarit (RGG) qui se subdivise en:
 RGG I: autoroutes;
 RGG II: routes pour automobiles, aussi nommées routes express;
 RGG III: autres voies rapides.
 Les autres voies publiques sont réputées faire partie du réseau interurbain (RESI):
 RESI 1: liaisons régionales;
 RESI 2: réseau périurbain;
 RESI 3: réseau urbain.

Fin 2009, le Gouvernement wallon a réparti les voiries régionales en deux réseaux différents : le réseau structurant et le réseau non-structurant.

L'arrêté du Gouvernement wallon du  abroge l'arrêté ministériel de 1994 tout en reprenant les types prédéfinis dans sa nouvelle classification:

 Les autoroutes, réservées exclusivement à la circulation des véhicules automoteurs;
 Les routes régionales, comprenant:
 les routes pour automobiles;
 les autres voies rapides;
 les voies publiques faisant partie du réseau interurbain.
 voies ouvertes exclusivement aux usagers non motorisés.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Route en Belgique
Conception routière

Classification des voiries en Belgique


Le Polar Research Institute of China (PRIC) est le principal institut de recherche chinois pour l'étude des régions polaires de la Terre. Il est basé à Shanghai, en Chine.

L'Institut gère cinq stations de recherche polaire (quatre en Antarctique et une en Arctique), ainsi que les navires de recherche brise-glace Xue Long et Xuě Lóng 2.

Stations

Références

Liens externes

Astronomie en Antarctique
Centre ou institut de recherche en géologie
Laboratoire de recherche en Chine

Polar Research Institute of China


Süreç sanatı (process art), yaratım sürecinin saklı olmadığı, tam aksine eserin temel niteliklerinden birisi olduğu; hatta kimi zaman eserin tüm konusunu kapsadığı sanat türüne denir. Özellikle 1960'ların sonunda ve 1970'lerde yaygınlaşmış olup kökleri soyut dışavurumcu ressam Jackson Pollock'a kadar gider. Pollock sonrası; resimlerinde boyayı dökme sürecinin açıkça görüldüğü Morris Louis, çalıştığı odanın köşelerine eritilmiş kurşun fırlatan Richard Serra, uzun keçe parçaları üzerinde kesikler açarak duvara çivileyen veya yerde bırakan ve keçenin kendi özellikleri, dış etkenler ve sanatçının hareketleri arasındaki etkileşimi baskın kılan Robert Morris örnekleri sayılabilir.

Kaynakça
 Tate Online

Sanat akımları
Modern sanat

Süreç sanatı


එය හරහා ධ්‍රැවිත විදුලි උපකරණයක් තුලට ධන විද්‍යුත් ආරෝපණ ගමන් කරවීමට භාවිතා කරන  ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝඩයක්  ඇනෝඩයක් නම් වෙයි. ආරෝපණ ගැලීම  විද්‍යුත් ධාරාවක් වෙයි. මෙය ධාරණය කරගැනුමට, "ඇනෝඩ ධාරාව උපකරණය තුලට"  යන අර්ථය දෙන ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්  "Anode Current Into Device" "ඇනෝඩ් කරන්ට් ඉන්ටු ඩිවයිස්" යන්නෙහි ඉංග්‍රීසි මුලකුරු ගෙන භාවිතා වන ඉංග්‍රීසි ACID යන ස්මෘති උපක්‍රමයක් පොදු වහරෙහි භාවිතයෙහි පවතියි; මෙහිදී ප්‍රධාන සංකල්පය වන්නේ ධන ධාරාව උපකරණය තුලට ගැලීම යන්නයි; එනම් ඇනෝඩය හරහා ධන ආරෝපණ උපකරණය තුලට ඇතුළුවන බවයි. බොහෝ විට ධාරාවක් යනු චලනය වන ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝන නිසාත්, ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝනයක ආරෝපණය සෘණ නිසාත් සංකූලතාවයක් පවතියි. ඇනෝඩය තුලට ධන ආරෝපණ ගැලීම යන්න සහ (සෘණ) ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝන ඇනෝඩය වෙතින් පිටතට ගැලීම යන දෙකෙන්ම එකම දෙයක් අදහස් වෙයි. මෙය ප්‍රකාර, විද්‍යුත් ධාරාවෙහි දිශාව සහ ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝන ගැලීමෙහි දිශාව ප්‍රතිවිරුද්ධ වෙති: ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝන ගලන්නේ ඇනෝඩයෙන් පිටතට හා පරිපථය තුලටය.

ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝඩ

ඇනෝඩය


Nenad Stanković ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Nenad Stanković (Boxer) (* 1976), serbischer Boxer
 Nenad Stanković (Handballspieler) (* 1976), serbischer Handballspieler
 Nenad Stanković (Fußballspieler) (* 1977), jugoslawischer Fußballspieler

Nenad Stanković


Sir George Henry Martin (3. janúar 1926 – 8. mars 2016) var enskur upptökustjóri, tónskáld, og tónlistarmaður. Hann var almennt kallaður "fimmti Bítillinn" vegna mikillar aðildar hans að fyrstu hljómplötum Bítlanna. Þekking Martin í tónlist hjálpaði hljómsveitinni í upphafi. Mest af hljóðfæraútsetningu þeirra var samin eða flutt af Martin þar sem hann spilaði á píanó eða hljómborð á mörgum lögunum þeirra. Samstarf þeirra leiddi af sér vinsælar plötur með nýstárlegum hljómum, eins og Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967) sem varð fyrsta rokkplatan til að vinna Grammy-verðlaun fyrir plötu ársins.

Ferill Martin spannaði yfir sex áratugi í tónlist, kvikmyndum, sjónvarpi og sýningum. Áður en hann vann með Bítlunum og öðru popp tónlistarfólki var hann yfir EMI útgáfunni Parlophone. Verk hans ásamt öðrum rokk hópum úr Liverpool á miðjum 7. áratugnum hjálpuðu Merseybeat stefnunni að ná vinsældum. Árið 1965 hætti hann störfum hjá EMI og stofnaði sitt eigið framleiðslufyrirtæki, Associated Independent Recording.

AllMusic hefur lýst Martin sem "frægasta upptökustjóra heims". Á ferlinum hans framleiddi Martin 30 smáskífur sem komust efst á vinsældalista í Bretlandi og 23 í Bandaríkjunum, ásamt þess að hafa unnið sex Grammy-verðlaun.

Útgefið efni
 Off the Beatle Track (1964 Parlophone PCS 3057)
 By Popular Demand, A Hard Day's Night: Instrumental Versions of the Motion Picture Score (19. febrúar 1964, United Artists)
 George Martin Scores Instrumental Versions of the Hits (1965)
 Help! (1965, Columbia TWO 102)
 ..and I Love Her (1966, Columbia TWO 141)
 George Martin Instrumentally Salutes The Beatle Girls (1966)
 The Family Way (1967)
 British Maid (1968, United Artists SULP 1196, gefin út í Bandaríkjunum sem London by George)
 Yellow Submarine (hlið eitt: The Beatles, hlið tvö: The George Martin Orchestra, 1969)
 By George! (1970, Sunset SLS 50182, endurútgáfa af British Maid)
 Live and Let Die (framleiðandi fyrir lag Paul McCartney, 1973)
 Beatles to Bond and Bach (1974)
 In My Life (1998)
 Produced by George Martin (2001)
 The Family Way (2003)

Tilvísanir

Enskir upptökustjórar
Enskir tónlistarmenn
Bítlarnir

George Martin


På sporet af den nye jernalder er en dansk dokumentarfilm instrueret af Flemming Arnholm.

Medvirkende

 Claus Toksvig, Studievært

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

På sporet af den nye jernalder


Svijet

Događaji

Osnivanja i gašenja

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Događaji

Osnivanja i gašenja

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

 2. veljače – Branislav Bimbašić, hrvatski tiskovni, radijski i televizijski novinar, snimatelj i urednik, pokretač tjednog TV magazina Hrvatske televizije More. († )

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Televizija u 2019.


Görükle, Bursa ilinin Nilüfer ilçesine bağlı bir semttir.

Cumhuriyet öncesinde bir Rum köyü olan Görükle, Cumhuriyet yıllarında bir mübadele köyü olmuş; Uludağ Üniversitesi'nin ana yerleşkesinin, köyün merası üzerinde inşa edilmesinden sonra ağırlıklı olarak öğrencilerin yaşadığı bir kentsel alan haline gelmiştir.

Konum
Bursa-İzmir karayolunun hemen yanında yer alır. Bursa şehrinin batı çıkışındaki son yerleşim alanlarından biridir. Bursa şehir merkezine 23 km. uzaklıktadır.

Kuzeyinde  Mudanya, Tirilye semtleri ve Marmara Denizi, güneyinde Hasanağa ve Kayapa konut yerleşim bölgeleri, doğusunda merkez ilçeler olan Nilüfer ve Osmangazi, batısında Gölyazı Köyü ve Uluabat Gölü gibi turistik yerleşim bölgeleri yer alır.

Tarihçe
Görükle, 16. yüzyıl Osmanlı kayıtlarında Kite Kazası'na bağlı 'Görüklü' Köyü olarak geçmektedir. Adının  Bizans kaynaklarında Kouboukleia, Osmanlı tahrir defterlerinde de Kübüliye biçimiyle yazıldığı görülmüştür.

Burada 11. yüzyıldaki Türk akınları sırasında veya Bursa'nın Osmanlılar tarafından kuşatıldığı yıllarda inşa edilmiş bir kale bulunmakta idi. Bizans tarihçisi Yoeryos Pahimeris'in kayıtlarına göre Görükle Kalesi 1308 yılında Osmanlılar tarafından fethedilmiş, ve Bursa'nın fethi sürecindeki ilk basamaklardan birisi olmuştur.

Sultan Murad ile I. Mehmet'ın vakıf köyü olan Görükle, Ağustos 1922 tarihinden önce Rumca konuşan yaklaşık 400 haneden oluşmaktaydı. Dini olarak Gölyazı (Apollanias) Kilisesi'ne bağlı idi. Köy sakinleri tahıl çiftçiliği, hayvancılık, bağcılık ve ipekböcekçiliği ile uğraşırdı.

Türkiye-Yunanistan Nüfus Mübadesi sonucu köyün Rum halkı Görükle'den ayrılmış ve 1924 yılında Yunanistan'ın Langaza kazasının Sufa, Kaval, Evca, Beyran köylerinden gelen göçmenler köye yerleştirilmiştir. Ayrıca Kavala'dan gelen Pomaklar da köye yerleştirilmiştir.. Mübadele'den önce Rumlar'ın bıraktığı arazilerin çoğu  zeytinlik, dutluk ve bağlık idi. Göçmenler zeytinciliği ve kozacılığı öğrenmişler; gelmiş oldukları yerde tütüncülük ile uğraşan bazıları Bursa'daki tütüncülüğün gelişmesine katkı sağlamışlardır. Özellikle 1940'lı yıllardan itibaren kozacılık Görükle'de tekrar önemli hale geldi. 1971 yılında köyün kuzey kısmında "Görükle Tohum İstihsal Kooperatifi" kuruldu ve İpekböcekçiliği Enstitüsü ile iş birliği halinde çalışıldı.

1955 yılında 16 köyün bağlı olduğu bir bucak merkezi olan Görükle'de 27 Şubat 1957 tarihinde bir belediye örgütü kuruldu. Yanında Uludağ Üniversitesi'nin kurulmasıyla Görükle'nin önemi gitgide arttı. Öğrenci yurtlarının, eğlence ve kültür mekanlarının bulunduğu bir yerleşim haline geldi. Görükle Belediyesi 2009 yılında yeni bir düzenleme ile kapatıldı ve Görükle, Nilüfer ilçesine bağlı bir mahalle haline geldi.

Köye ait 3 bin dönümlük mera istimlak edilerek üzerine Uludağ Üniversitesi yerleşkesi kurulmuştur. Üniversitenin kurulmasının Görükle üzerindeki etkisi 1990'lardan itibaren hissedildi. Köy, yerleşim yeri ihtiyacından ötürü bir kentsel alana dönüştü; daha çok doğu ve güney yönlerinde gelişti. 2018 yılında  40.683 olan Görükle nüfusunun  çoğunluğunu üniversite öğrencileri oluşturmakta idi.

Coğrafya

Sakarya Mahallesi ve Dumlupınar Mahallesi olmak üzere iki mahallesi vardır. Atatürk Caddesi'nin kuzeyi Sakarya Mahallesi, güneyi Dumlupınar Mahallesi olarak isimlendirilmiştir.

Ayrıca bakınız

Kaynakça

Nilüfer'in mahalleleri
6360 sayılı yasaya göre kaldırılan belediyeler

Görükle, Nilüfer


Allocative efficiency is a state of the economy in which production is aligned with consumer preferences; in particular, the set of outputs is chosen so as to maximize the wellbeing of society. This is achieved if every good or service is produced up until the last unit provides a marginal benefit to consumers equal to the marginal cost of production.

Description

In economics, allocative efficiency entails production at the point on the production possibilities frontier that is optimal for society.

In contract theory, allocative efficiency is achieved in a contract in which the skill demanded by the offering party and the skill of the agreeing party are the same.

Resource allocation efficiency includes two aspects:
 At the macro aspect, it is the allocation efficiency of social resources, which is achieved through the economic system arrangements of the entire society.
 The micro aspect is the efficient use of resources, which can be understood as the production efficiency of the organization, which can be improved through innovation and progress within the organizations.

Although there are different standards of evaluation for the concept of allocative efficiency, the basic principle asserts that in any economic system, choices in resource allocation produce both "winners" and "losers" relative to the choice being evaluated. The principles of rational choice, individual maximization, utilitarianism and market theory further suppose that the outcomes for winners and losers can be identified, compared, and measured. Under these basic premises, the goal of attaining allocative efficiency can be defined according to some principles where some allocations are subjectively better than others. For example, an economist might say that a policy change is an allocative improvement as long as those who benefit from the change (winners) gain more than the losers lose (see Kaldor–Hicks efficiency).

An allocatively efficient economy produces an "optimal mix" of commodities. A firm is allocatively efficient when its price is equal to its marginal costs (that is, P = MC) in a perfect market. The demand curve coincides with the marginal utility curve, which measures the (private) benefit of the additional unit, while the supply curve coincides with the marginal cost curve, which measures the (private) cost of the additional unit. In a perfect market, there are no externalities, implying that the demand curve is also equal to the social benefit of the additional unit, while the supply curve measures the social cost of the additional unit. Therefore, the market equilibrium, where demand meets supply, is also where the marginal social benefit equals the marginal social costs. At this point, the net social benefit is maximized, meaning this is the allocative efficient outcome. When a market fails to allocate resources efficiently, there is said to be market failure. Market failure may occur because of imperfect knowledge, differentiated goods, concentrated market power (e.g., monopoly or oligopoly), or externalities.

In the single-price model, at the point of allocative efficiency price is equal to marginal cost.   At this point the social surplus is maximized with no deadweight loss (the latter being the value society puts on that level of output produced minus the value of resources used to achieve that level). Allocative efficiency is the main tool of welfare analysis to measure the impact of markets and public policy upon society and subgroups being made better or worse off.

It is possible to have Pareto efficiency without allocative efficiency: in such a situation, it is impossible to reallocate resources in such a way that someone gains and no one loses (hence we have Pareto efficiency), yet it would be possible to reallocate in such a way that gainers gain more than losers lose (hence with such a reallocation, we do not have allocative efficiency).

Also, for an extensive discussion of various types of allocative efficiency in a production context and their estimations see Sickles and Zelenyuk (2019, Chapter 3, etc).
In view of the Pareto efficiency measurement method, it is difficult to use in actual operation, including the use of human and material resources, which is hard to achieve a full range of efficiency allocation, and it is mainly to make judgments from the allocation of funds; therefore, analyzing the funds in the stock market. Allocation efficiency is used to determine the efficiency of resource allocation in the capital market.

In a perfectly competitive market, capital market resources should be allocated among capital markets under the principle of the highest marginal benefit. Therefore, the most important measurement standard in the capital market is to observe whether capital flows into the enterprise with the best operating efficiency. The most efficient companies should also get a large amount of capital investment, and the less efficient companies should get less capital investment.
There are three conditions that come with Pareto efficiency
 Best trade outcome
 Even if you trade again, individuals cannot get greater benefits from it. At this time, for any two consumers, the marginal substitution rate of any two commodities is the same, and the utility of the two consumers is maximized at the same time.
 Optimal production
 This economy must be on the boundary of its own production possibilities. At this time, for any two producers who produce different products, the marginal technology substitution rate of the two production factors that need to be input is the same, and the output of the two consumers is maximized at the same time.
 Optimal product mix
 The combination of products produced by the economy must reflect consumer preferences. At this time, the marginal rate of substitution between any two commodities must be the same as the marginal product conversion rate of any producer between these two commodities.

Examples

A numerical example of allocative efficiency

Allocation efficiency occurs when there is an optimal distribution of goods and services, considering consumer's preference. When the price equals marginal cost of production, the allocation efficiency is at the output level. This is because the optimal distribution is achieved when the marginal utility of good equals the marginal cost. The price that consumer is willing to pay is same as the marginal utility of the consumer.

From the graph we can see that at the output of 40, the marginal cost of good is $6 while the price that consumer is willing to pay is $15. It means the marginal utility of the consumer is higher than the marginal cost. The optimal level of the output is 70, where the marginal cost equals to marginal utility. At the output of 40, this product or service is under-consumed by the society. By increasing the output to 70, the price will fall to $11. Meanwhile, the society would benefit from consuming more of the good or service.

An example of allocation inefficiency

With the market power, the monopoly can increase the price to gain the super normal profit. The monopolies can set the price above the marginal cost of the production. In this case, the allocation is not efficient. It results in the dead weight welfare loss to the society as a whole. In real life, the government's intervention policy to monopoly enterprises will affect the allocation efficiency. Large-scale downstream companies with more efficient or better products are generally more competitive than other companies. The wholesale prices they get are much lower than those of their competitors. It is conducive to improving the efficiency of allocation. Ind erst and Shaffer (2009) found that banning prices would reduce allocation efficiency and lead to higher wholesale prices for all enterprises. More importantly, social welfare, industry profits, and consumer surplus will all be reduced.

See also

Financial market efficiency
Pareto efficiency
Production-possibility frontier
Productive efficiency
X-inefficiency

References

6. Inderst, Roman, and Greg Shaffer. "Market Power, Price Discrimination, and Allocative Efficiency in Intermediate-Goods Markets." The RAND Journal of Economics 40, no. 4 (2009): 658-72. Accessed April 27, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25593732

Pareto efficiency
Price controls
Corporate development

Allocative efficiency


Benjamin Crowninshield Bradlee (, 1921 – , 2014) was an American journalist who served as managing editor and later as executive editor of The Washington Post, from 1965 to 1991. He became a public figure when the Post joined The New York Times in publishing the Pentagon Papers and gave the go-ahead for the paper's extensive coverage of the Watergate scandal. He was also criticized for editorial lapses when the Post had to return a Pulitzer Prize in 1981 after it discovered its award-winning story was false.

After his retirement, Bradlee continued to be associated with the Post, holding the position of Vice President at-large until his death. In retirement, Bradlee was an advocate for education and the study of history, including his role as a trustee on the boards of several major educational, historical, and archaeological research institutions.

Early life and education
Ben Bradlee was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Frederick Josiah Bradlee, Jr., who was from the Boston Brahmin Bradlee family and who was an investment banker, and Josephine de Gersdorff, daughter of a Wall Street lawyer. His great uncle was Frank Crowninshield, founder and first editor of Vanity Fair.

Bradlee was the second of three children; his siblings were older brother Frederick, a writer and Broadway stage actor, and younger sister Constance. The children grew up in a wealthy family with domestic staff. They learned French from governesses, took piano and riding lessons, and went to the symphony and the opera; but the stock market crash of 1929 cost Bradlee's father his job, and he took on whatever work he could find to support his family, from selling deodorants to supervising janitors at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.

With the help of wealthy relatives, Bradlee was able to continue his education at Dexter School, and to finish high school at St. Mark's School, where he played varsity baseball. At St. Mark's he contracted polio, but sufficiently recovered to walk without limping. He attended Harvard College, where his father had been a star football player, and graduated in 1942 with a combined Greek–English major.

World War II service
Like many of his classmates, Bradlee anticipated the United States would eventually enter World War II and enrolled in the Naval ROTC at Harvard. As a result, he received his naval commission on the same day he graduated. He was assigned to the Office of Naval Intelligence, and served as a communications officer in the Pacific. He was assigned to the destroyer USS Philip based off the shore of Guam and arriving at Guadalcanal with the Second Transport Group, part of Task Group 62.4, commanded by Rear Admiral Norman Scott. Bradlee's main battles were Vella Lavella, Saipan, Tinian, and Bougainville. He also fought in the biggest naval battle ever fought, the Battle of Leyte Gulf in the Philippines Campaign, in the Borneo Campaign, and made every landing in the Solomon Islands campaign.

Early career in journalism
At loose ends after the war, Bradlee was recruited by a high school classmate in 1946 to work at the New Hampshire Sunday News, a new Sunday paper in Manchester, New Hampshire. The paper struggled to develop advertising revenue and circulation for two years, but was finally sold to the Manchester Union-Leader, the competing daily newspaper.  Bradlee appealed to family friends for job leads, and gained interviews at both The Baltimore Sun and The Washington Post. According to Bradlee, when the train arrived in Baltimore it was raining, so he stayed on the train to Washington and was hired by The Washington Post as a reporter. He got to know associate publisher Phil Graham, who was the son-in-law of the publisher, Eugene Meyer. On , 1950, Bradlee was alighting from a streetcar in front of the White House just as two Puerto Rican nationalists attempted to shoot their way into Blair House in an attempt to kill President Harry S. Truman. In 1951, Bradlee become assistant press attaché in the American embassy in Paris. In 1954, Bradlee took on a new job as European correspondent for Newsweek. He remained overseas for another four years until he was transferred to Newsweek's Washington D.C. bureau.

As a reporter in the 1950s, Bradlee became close friends with then-senator John F. Kennedy, who had graduated from Harvard two years before Bradlee, and lived nearby. In 1960, Bradlee toured with both Kennedy and Richard Nixon in their presidential campaigns. He later wrote a book, Conversations With Kennedy (W.W. Norton, 1975), recounting their relationship during those years. Bradlee was, at this point, Washington Bureau chief for Newsweek, a position from which he helped negotiate the sale of the magazine to The Washington Post holding company.

Career at The Washington Post
Bradlee remained with Newsweek until he was promoted to managing editor at the Post in 1965. He became executive editor in 1968.

Under Bradlee's leadership, The Washington Post took on major challenges during the Nixon administration. In 1971 he hid a team of lawyers, editors and writers led by him and Ben Bagdikian in Bradlee's own Georgetown home, and supervised the team's resulting publication of the Pentagon Papers. The New York Times and the Post successfully challenged the government over the right to publish the Papers.

One year later, Bradlee backed reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein as they probed the break-in at the Democratic National Committee Headquarters in the Watergate Hotel. According to Bradlee:
You had a lot of Cuban or Spanish-speaking guys in masks and rubber gloves, with walkie-talkies, arrested in the Democratic National Committee Headquarters at 2 in the morning. What the hell were they in there for? What were they doing? The follow-up story was based primarily on their arraignment in court, and it was based on information given our police reporter, Al Lewis, by the cops, showing them an address book that one of the burglars had in his pocket, and in the address book was the name 'Hunt,' H-u-n-t, and the phone number was the White House phone number, which Al Lewis and every reporter worth his salt knew. And when, the next day, Woodward—this is probably Sunday or maybe Monday, because the burglary was Saturday morning early—called the number and asked to speak to Mr. Hunt, and the operator said, 'Well, he's not here now; he's over at' such-and-such a place, gave him another number, and Woodward called him up, and Hunt answered the phone, and Woodward said, 'We want to know why your name was in the address book of the Watergate burglars.' And there is this long, deathly hush, and Hunt said, 'Oh my God!' and hung up. So you had the White House. You have Hunt saying 'Oh my God!' At a later arraignment, one of the guys whispered to a judge. The judge said, 'What do you do?' and Woodward overheard the words 'CIA.' So if your interest isn't whetted by this time, you're not a journalist.

Ensuing investigations of suspected cover-ups led inexorably to congressional committees, conflicting testimonies, and ultimately to the resignation of Richard Nixon in 1974. For decades, Bradlee was one of only four publicly known people who knew the true identity of press informant Deep Throat, the other three being Woodward, Bernstein, and Deep Throat himself, who later revealed himself to be Nixon's FBI associate director Mark Felt.

In 1981, Post reporter Janet Cooke won a Pulitzer Prize for "Jimmy's World", a profile of an 8-year-old heroin addict. Cooke's article turned out to be fiction: there was no such addict. As executive editor, Bradlee was roundly criticized in many circles for failing to ensure the article's accuracy. After questions about the story's veracity arose, Bradlee (along with publisher Donald Graham) ordered a "full disclosure" investigation to ascertain the truth. Bradlee personally apologized to Mayor Marion Barry and the chief of police of Washington, D.C., for the Posts fictitious article. Cooke, meanwhile, was forced to resign and relinquish the Pulitzer.

Activities and awards after retirement
Bradlee retired as the executive editor of The Washington Post in September 1991 but continued to serve as vice president at large until his death. He was succeeded as executive editor at the Post by Leonard Downie Jr., whom Bradlee had appointed as managing editor seven years earlier.

In 1991, he was persuaded by then–governor of Maryland William Donald Schaefer to accept the chairmanship of the Historic St. Mary's City Commission and continued in that position through 2003. He also served for many years as a member of the board of trustees at St. Mary's College of Maryland, and endowed the Benjamin C. Bradlee Annual Lecture in Journalism there. He continued to serve as vice chairman of the school's board of trustees.

In 1991, Bradlee delivered the Theodore H. White lecture at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. His message: Lying in Washington, whether in the White House or the Congress, is wrong, immoral, tearing at the fiber of our national instincts and institutions — and must stop. He said, "Lying has reached such epidemic proportions in our culture and among our institutions in recent years,  that we've all become immunized to it." He suggested that the deceit was degrading the respect for the truth.

Bradlee had an acting role in Born Yesterday, the 1993 remake of the 1950 romantic comedy.

In 1988, Bradlee received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

His autobiography, A Good Life: Newspapering and Other Adventures, was published in 1995.

In recognition of his work as editor of The Washington Post, Bradlee won the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism in 1998.

In the fall of 2005, Jim Lehrer interviewed Bradlee for six hours on topics from the responsibilities of the press to Watergate to the Valerie Plame affair. The interviews were edited for an hour-long documentary, Free Speech: Jim Lehrer and Ben Bradlee, which premiered on PBS on , 2006.

On , 2006, Bradlee received a Doctor of Humane Letters from Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. Prior to receiving the honorary degree, he taught occasional journalism courses at Georgetown. Bradlee received the French Legion of Honor, the highest award given by the French government, at a ceremony in 2007 in Paris.

Bradlee was named as a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama on , 2013, and was presented the medal at a White House ceremony on , 2013.

Marriages and children
Bradlee was married three times. His first marriage was to Jean Saltonstall. Like Bradlee, Saltonstall also came from a wealthy and prominent Boston family. They married on , 1942, the same day Bradlee graduated from Harvard and entered the Navy. They had one son, Ben Bradlee Jr., who later became first a reporter, then a deputy managing editor at The Boston Globe.

Bradlee and his first wife divorced while he was an overseas correspondent for Newsweek. In 1957, he married Antoinette 'Tony' Pinchot Pittman. Together, they had a son, Dominic, and a daughter, Marina. This marriage also ended in divorce.

Bradlee's final marriage was to The Washington Post reporter Sally Quinn in 1978. Quinn and Bradlee had one child, Quinn Bradlee (born 1982) when Quinn was 40 and Bradlee was 60.

Death

Bradlee suffered from Alzheimer's disease in his final years. In late September 2014, he entered hospice care due to declining health. He died , 2014, at his home in Washington, D.C., at the age of 93. His funeral was held at the Washington National Cathedral. He was buried at the Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington, D.C.

In popular culture
Actor Jason Robards portrayed Bradlee in the 1976 film All the President's Men, winning a Best Supporting Actor Oscar for his performance.
Henderson Forsythe played Bradlee in the 1989 romantic comedy Chances Are.
G. D. Spradlin played the role of Bradlee in Dick, a 1999 spoof of Watergate.
Éric Soubelet portrayed Bradlee in the 2016 historical drama Jackie.
Tom Hanks portrayed Bradlee in director Steven Spielberg's 2017 historical drama The Post.
Alfred Molina played Bradlee in the 2018 historical drama The Front Runner.

Books
Bradlee, Ben. Conversations With Kennedy (W W Norton & Co Inc, , 1984)
Bradlee, Ben. A Good Life: Newspapering and Other Adventures (Simon & Schuster, October, 1995)

References

External links

"The legacy and legend of Ben Bradlee" - The Washington Post (2012)

 Fresh Air interview of Bradlee in 1995 -
FBI file on Ben Bradlee at the Internet Archive

1921 births
2014 deaths
20th-century American memoirists
United States Navy personnel of World War II
American newspaper editors
American newspaper reporters and correspondents
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
Burials at Oak Hill Cemetery (Washington, D.C.)
Choate family
Crowninshield family
Gardiner family
Harvard College alumni
Managing editors
People of the Office of Naval Intelligence
People from Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)
People with Alzheimer's disease
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
St. Mark's School (Massachusetts) alumni
St. Mary's College of Maryland
The Washington Post people
United States Navy officers
Watergate scandal investigators

Ben Bradlee


François Élie Roudaire (Guéret, Creuse, 6 de agosto de 1836—ibidem, 14 de enero de 1885) fue un oficial y geógrafo francés recordado por su idea de 1874 de crear un mar interior subsahariana, idea a la que Ferdinand de Lesseps, el triunfador constructor del canal de Suez (1859-69) unió temporalmente su renombre antes de abordar su siguiente gran proyecto, el Canal de Panamá.

Biografía

Nacido en el seno una familia burguesa de provincias, de ideas nuevas y científicas (su padre, François Joseph, había dirigido el Museo de Historia Natural de Gueret) Roudaire, después de los estudios clásicos en su ciudad natal, se licención como teniente en la Écoles militaires de Saint-Cyr Coëtquidan (1 de octubre de 1855 ) y después teniente de la École militaire d'application (13 de enero de 1858). Se orientó hacia una carrera científica en el ejército. Asignado al Depósito de la guerra en calidad de oficial geodésico, el 28 de marzo de 1862, fue enviado a Argelia, donde llegó el 10 de abril de 1864, para cartografiar la colonia por medios geodésicos y topográficos. Operando al sur de Biskra, en la provincia de Constantina, el oficial descubrió la región de los chotts donde midió en el primero con precisión la profundidad.

Obteniendo resultados muy por debajo del nivel del mar (hasta - 40 m), y sin conocer la parte tunecina, Roudaire quedó convencido de que la vasta depresión geográfica salada que se extendía hasta el golfo de Gabes era el lecho de un antiguo mar desecado conocido en la época de Heródoto como la bahía de Triton. En un artículo escrito el 15 de mayo de 1874 para la Revue des Deux Mondes, «Une mer intérieure en Algérie», el oficial consolidó su hipótesis y propuso recuperar ese mar mediante la excavación de un canal excavado desde el umbral de Gabes. Entre otros beneficios, la masa de agua introducida alteraría materialmente el clima local y ayudaría a convertir la región en un «granero de trigo». Ferdinand de Lesseps, que acababa de triunfar en el canal de Suez, adoptó la idea. Y con él muchos escritores, científicos y políticos.

En el entusiasmo general, el gobierno encargó a Roudaire una serie de misiones de reconocimiento y de levantamientos. El 1 de diciembre de 1874 hizo una primera misión, partiendo de Biskra, al chott Melrhir (Argelia). Roudaire dejó Gabes el 1 de marzo de 1876 para el chott el-Jerid y el 27 de noviembre de 1878 para  el chott el-Gharsa (Túnez), exploraciones que demostraron que la depresión era discontinua, que estaba cortada en varios lugares por "umbrales" «seuils», y, aún más importante, que el chott el Jerid estaba situado totalmente por encima del nivel del mar (+ 15 m). Esa reducción de la superficie inundable (entre 6 y 8.000 km²) y el costo de un canal de 240 km de largo desalentaron al gobierno que decidió tomar consejo de una comisión superior, llamada de la mar interior, que se celebró en París del 5 de mayo al 7 de julio de 1882. El 28 de julio el ministro de Trabajos Públicos se manifestó desfavorable al proyecto de mar interior.

Dirigiéndose entonces a la iniciativa privada, Roudaire y Ferdinand de Lesseps fundaron en diciembre de 1882 la «Sociedad de estudios del mar interior africana» (Société d'études de la mer intérieure africaine). Con el presupuesto de la sociedad, pero separado por el ministerio, el oficial llevó a cabo una cuarta misión partiendo de Tozeur el 22 de enero de 1883. A su regreso, seriamente cuestionado por la comunidad científica y cuestionado por sus superiores, Roudaire murió de agotamiento el 14 de enero de 1885 con el rango de teniente coronel. Su compromiso republicano y fourierista le habían atraído tenaces enemigos. En cuanto a la Sociedad de estudios del mar interior africana, después de ser reconvertida para explotar una colonia agrícola cerca de Gabes, desapareció en 1892.

Condecoraciones
 Medalla de primera clase otorgada por el Congreso Geográfico Internacional por su exploración de los chotts ( 11 de agosto de 1875).
 Grado de Oficial de la Legión de Honor (6 de octubre de 1875).
 Grado de Oficial de Instrucción Pública (28 de agosto de 1876).
 Medalla de Oro de la Sociedad de Geografía (marzo de 1877).
 Gran Medalla de Honor de la Sociedad de topografía por sus trabajos de levantamientos topográficos (marzo de 1877).

Publicaciones
 Premier rapport sur la mission des chotts, publicada por la Instrucción Pública (enero de 1877).
 Deuxième rapport sur les missions des chotts, publicada por la Instrucción Pública (enero de 1881).
La mer intérieure africaine (septiembre de 1883).

Literatura
La obra de  Jules Verne, L'Invasion de la mer (1905), es una versión novelada de la propuesta de Roudaire.

Referencias
 El artículo de la Wikipedia en francés recoge la siguiente bibliografía:
 Gérard Dubost, Le colonel Roudaire et son projet de mer saharienne, éd. Société des sciences naturelles et archéologiques de la Creuse, Guéret, 1998.
 René Létolle et Hocine Bendjoudi, Histoires d'une mer au Sahara : utopies et politiques, coll. Écologie et agronomie appliquée, éd. L'Harmattan, París, 1997.
 Jean-Louis Marçot, Une mer au Sahara, éd. La Différence, París, 2003.

Enlaces externos

(en francés) Photos de la mission des chotts du commandant Roudaire (1878-1879).

Geógrafos de Francia del siglo XIX
Geografía de Argelia
Geografía de Túnez
Oficiales de la Legión de Honor
Agrimensores de Francia
Nacidos en Guéret
Fallecidos en Guéret

François Élie Roudaire


Luiz Fernando Carvalho est un réalisateur brésilien né à Rio de Janeiro le .

Biographie
Luiz Fernando Carvalho a surtout travaillé en tant que réalisateur pour la télévision.

Son premier long métrage, À la gauche du père, qui « reprend la trame de la parabole du fils prodigue dans une famille d'émigrés libanais des années 30 », est sorti en France en 2003.

Filmographie

Court métrage
 1986 :

Longs métrages
 1998 :  — documentaire
 2001 : À la gauche du père (Lavoura arcaica)
 2020 :

Télévision

 2005 : Aujourd'hui c'est le jour de Marie (Hoje é Dia de Maria)
 2007 : La Pierre du royaume

Notes et références

Liens externes

Réalisateur brésilien
Naissance en juillet 1960
Naissance à Rio de Janeiro

Luiz Fernando Carvalho


Čardak planina je planina u BiH, u regiji Tropolju (Završju).

Zemljopisni položaj
Tušnica, Cincar, Krug-planina, Slovinj, Vitorog, Hrbljina, Čemernica-Paripovac, Čardak planina i Ljubuša tvore planinsku skupinu Cincara. Najviši vrh je visok 1604 metra. Po drugim mjerenjima visok je 1611 metara. Nalazi se u blizini Šipova, kod sela Čardaka.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Dinarsko gorje  Čardak planina

Planine u Bosni i Hercegovini

Čardak planina


Hunsur (en canarés: ಹುಣಸೂರು ) es una ciudad de la India en el distrito de Mysore, estado de Karnataka.

Geografía
Se encuentra a una altitud de 803  a 184 km de la capital estatal, Bangalore, en la zona horaria UTC +5:30.

Demografía
Según estimación 2011 contaba con una población de 52 516 habitantes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth.

Localidades de Karnataka

Hunsur


ATS je bivša njemačka momčad Formule 1.

Momčad je u osam sezona osvojila osam bodova. Günther Schmidt je 1977. kupio Penskeovu šasiju i Cosworthov motor, a njihov vozač Jean-Pierre Jarier je već na prvoj utrci osvojio prvi i jedini bod te sezone. Za 1978. Schmidt je angažirao dizajnera Robina Herda i napravio vlastiti bolid. ATS je promijenio čak šest vozača te sezone. Schmidt je bio poznat kao čovjek teškog karaktera i često je mijenjao vozače. Hans-Joachim Stuck je 1979. osvojio dva boda na VN SAD-a i time kod Schmidta zaradio otkaz.

Za momčad je 1981. vozio i Šveđanin Slim Borgudd, bubnjar grupe ABBA, te na VN Velike Britanije osvojio jedini bod za momčad te sezone. Sezona 1982. bila je najuspješnija sezona ATS-a u Formuli 1. Nijemac Manfred Winkelhock i Čileanac Eliseo Salazar su 5. mjestima na VN Brazila i VN San Marina, donijeli momčadi 4 boda i 11. mjesto u konstruktorskom poretku. Bili su to i posljednji bodovi za ATS u Formuli 1, iako je Gerhard Berger osvojio 6. mjesto na VN Italije 1984. No kako je momčad prijavila samo jednog vozača na početku sezone, drugi vozač (u ovom slučaju Berger) nije mogao osvajati bodove bez obzira na plasman u utrci.

Nakon neuspjeha u zadnje dvije sezone, Schmidt i ATS su se povukli iz Formule 1. No to nije bio kraj Schmidtovog angažmana u Formuli 1, jer se 1988. vratio s novom momčadi Rial.

Rezultati

Vanjske poveznice
statsf1.com
atswheels (ger.)

Momčadi Formule 1
Automobilizam u Njemačkoj

ATS