The American Library Association (ALA) is a nonprofit organization based in the United States that promotes libraries and library education internationally. It is the oldest and largest library association in the world, with 49,727 members as of 2021.

History

19th century
During the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, 103 librarians, 90 men and 13 women, responded to a call for a "Convention of Librarians" to be held October 4–6, 1876, at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. At the end of the meeting, according to Ed Holley in his essay "ALA at 100", "the register was passed around for all to sign who wished to become charter members", making October 6, 1876, the date of the ALA's founding.

Among the 103 librarians in attendance were Justin Winsor (Boston Public Library and Harvard University), William Frederick Poole (Chicago Public Library and Newberry College), Charles Ammi Cutter (Boston Athenæum), Melvil Dewey, Charles Evans (Indianapolis Public Library) and Richard Rogers Bowker. Attendees came from as far west as Chicago and from England. The ALA was chartered in 1879 in Massachusetts. Its head office is now in Chicago.

Justin Winsor was the first president of the ALA, serving from 1876 until 1885.

20th century
In 1911, Theresa Elmendorf became ALA's first female president. An analysis of the writings of the first fifteen women presidents gives more insight into the expanded role of women in the association.

During World War I the ALA Executive Board established the Library War Service Committee to supply books and periodicals to military personnel at home and overseas.  The American Library in Paris was founded as part of this effort.

In the 1930s, library activists pressured the American Library Association to be more responsive to issues put forth by young members involved with issues such as peace, segregation, library unions, and intellectual freedom. In 1931, the Junior Members Round Table (JMRT) was formed to provide a voice for the younger members of the ALA, but much of what they had to say resurfaced in the social responsibility movement to come years later. During this period, the first Library Bill of Rights (LBR) was drafted by Forrest Spaulding to set a standard against censorship and was adopted by the ALA in 1939. This has been recognized as the moment defining modern librarianship as a profession committed to intellectual freedom and the right to read over government dictates. ALA formed the Staff Organization's Round Table in 1936 and the Library Unions Round Table in 1940.

ALA appointed a committee to study censorship and recommend policy after the banning of The Grapes of Wrath and the implementation of the LBR. The committee reported in 1940 that intellectual freedom and professionalism were linked and recommended a permanent committee – Committee on Intellectual Freedom. The ALA made revisions to strengthen the LBR in June 1948, approved the Statement on Labeling in 1951 to discourage labeling material as subversive, and adopted the Freedom to Read Statement and the Overseas Library Statement in 1953.

The ALA has worked throughout its history to define, extend, protect and advocate for equity of access to information. In 1961, the ALA took a stand regarding service to African Americans and others, advocating for equal library service for all. An amendment to the LBR was passed in 1961 that made clear that an individual's library use should not be denied or abridged because of race, religion, national origin, or political views. Some communities decided to close their doors rather than desegregate. In 1963, the ALA commissioned a study, Access to Public Libraries, which found direct and indirect discrimination in American libraries.

In 1967, some librarians protested against a pro-Vietnam War speech given by General Maxwell D. Taylor at the annual ALA conference in San Francisco; the former president of Sarah Lawrence College, Harold Taylor, spoke to the Middle-Atlantic Regional Library Conference about socially responsible professionalism; and less than one year later a group of librarians proposed that the ALA schedule a new round table program discussion on the social responsibilities of librarians at its next annual conference in Kansas City. This group called themselves the Organizing Committee for the ALA Round Table on Social Responsibilities of Libraries.  This group drew in many other under-represented groups in the ALA who lacked power, including the Congress for Change in 1969. This formation of the committee was approved in 1969 and would change its name to the Social Responsibilities Round Table (SRRT) in 1971. After its inception, the Round Table of Social Responsibilities began to press ALA leadership to address issues such as library unions, working conditions, wages, and intellectual freedom.

The Freedom to Read Foundation was created by ALA's executive board in 1969.

The Black Caucus of the ALA and the Office for Literacy and Outreach were established in 1970.

In 1971, Barbara Gittings staffed a kissing booth at the ALA Conference underneath the banner "Hug a Homosexual," with a "women only" side and a "men only" side. In describing its success, despite most of the reaction being negative, Gittings said, "We needed to get an audience. So we decided, let's show gay love live. We were offering free—mind you, free—same-sex kisses and hugs. Let me tell you, the aisles were mobbed, but no one came into the booth to get a free hug. So we hugged and kissed each other. It was shown twice on the evening news, once again in the morning. It put us on the map."

The American Library Association celebrated its Centennial in 1976. In commemoration the association published Libraries and the Life of the Mind in America.   Peggy Sullivan chaired the Centennial Celebration.

Clara Stanton Jones was the first African American president of the ALA, serving as its acting president from April 11 to July 22 in 1976 and then its president from July 22, 1976 to 1977.

In 1979 and 1991 the ALA collaborated with the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science on two White House Conferences.

In June 1990, the ALA approved "Policy on Library Services to the Poor" and in 1996 the Task Force on Hunger, Homelessness, and Poverty was formed to resurrect and promote the ALA guidelines on library services to the poor.

The Office for Information Technology Policy was established in 1995  to act as a public policy advocate for libraries in the area
of information technology.

The "Congress on Professional Education" took place, April 30-May 1, 1999 in Washington, D.C. with over 100 participating. The purpose was to reach consensus among stakeholder groups on the values and core competencies of the profession and on strategies for action to address common issues and concerns.

21st century
At the beginning of the century The Congress on Professional Education recommended that the Association develop a set of Core Values.

In 2007, Loriene Roy became the first Native American President of the ALA.

In 2009, Camila Alire became the first Hispanic president of the ALA.

In 2014, Courtney Young, president of the association, commented on the background and implications of a racist joke author Daniel Handler made as African American writer Jacqueline Woodson received a National Book Award for Brown Girl Dreaming. "His comments were inappropriate and fell far short of the association's commitment to diversity," said Young. "Handler's remarks come at a time when the publishing world has little diversity. Works from authors and illustrators of color make up less than 8 percent of children's titles produced in 2013. The ALA hopes this regrettable incident will be used to open a dialogue on the need for diversity in the publishing industry, particularly in regards to books for young people."

In 2020 Wanda Kay Brown was the first president from a historically black college or university. She also was president during COVID-19 and the live annual conference was cancelled and delivered virtually. Brown characterized her presidency as one of "change, loss, and hope."

In 2021, Patty Wong became the first Asian-American president of the ALA.

In 2022 Lessa Kananiʻopua Pelayo-Lozada was the first Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander American president.

In 2023 the Public Library Association of ALA published the Public Library Services for Strong Communities Report addressing the myriad ways libraries nationwide serve and sustain their
communities.<ref>Public Library Association. Public Library Services for Strong Communities Report: Results from the 2022 PLA Annual Survey. Chicago: Public Library Association, 2023</ref> The "Expanding Information Access for Incarcerated People Initiative" developed "New Standards for Library Services for the Incarcerated and Detained," coordinated by the Office for Diversity, Literacy and Outreach Services.
Idaho withdrew from the ALA because of the fees associated with membership. The Montana State Library Commission also withdrew from the ALA, citing comments made by an ALA officer with whom they disagreed politically. Texas House of Representatives member Brian Harrison said Texas should also withdraw from the ALA, writing, "Texas should fight Marxist ideology, not subsidize it." Elected officials in Illinois, Arizona, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Alabama, and Florida have also advocated withdrawal.

Archives of the American Library Association
The ALA Archives, including historical documents, non-current records, and digital records, are held at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign archives. The establishment of the archives and the roles of David Horace Clift, Robert Wedgeworth, Beta Phi Mu, and the Library History Round Table has been documented by the first archivist, Maynard Britchford.

Membership
ALA membership is open to any person or organization, though most of its members are libraries or librarians. Most members live and work in the United States, with international members comprising 3.5% of total membership.

Governing structure
The ALA is governed by an elected council and an executive board. Policies and programs are administered by committees and round tables. One of the organization's most visible tasks is overseen by the Office for Accreditation, which formally reviews and authorizes American and Canadian academic institutions that offer degree programs in library and information science.

ALA's President for the 2023–2024 term is Emily Drabinski. Past presidents of the ALA include Justin Winsor, John Cotton Dana, Melvil Dewey, and Herbert Putnam.  Theresa Elmendorf, was the first female president (1911–1912), Clara Stanton Jones, was the first Black president (acting president from April 11 to July 22 in 1976 and then president from July 22, 1976, to 1977,McCook, Kathleen de la Peña.  Women of Color in Librarianship, Chicago: American Library Association, 1998 Loriene Roy was the first Native American president (2007–2008). Camila A. Alire was the first Hispanic/Latina American president (2009-2010). Recent presidents include Michael Gorman (2005–2007), Roberta A. Stevens, and Carla Hayden (2003–2004), now Librarian of Congress  (see List of presidents of the American Library Association).

The Executive Director of the American Library Association delegates authority within ALA headquarters to ALA's department heads, who, in carrying out their assigned duties, are called upon to use ALA's name, and, in that name, to commit the Association to programs, activities, and binding agreements.  Tracie D. Hall served as executive director from 2020-2023.
Previous Executive Directors have been Mary W. Ghikas (2017-2020; 1997–98); Keith Michael Fiels (2002-17); William R. Gordon (1998 –2002); Elizabeth Martinez (1994–97); Peggy Sullivan (1992–94); Linda F. Crismond (1989–92); Thomas J. Galvin (1985–89); Robert Wedgeworth 1972–85; and David Horace Clift (1958–72).

Activities
The official purpose of the association is "to promote library service and librarianship." Members may join one or more of eight membership divisions that deal with specialized topics such as academic, school, or public libraries, technical or reference services, and library administration. Members may also join any of the twenty-two round tables that are grouped around more specific interests and issues than the broader set of ALA divisions.

Divisions
 American Association of School Librarians (AASL)
 Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC)
 Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL)
 Core: Leadership, Infrastructure, Futures- advances the profession of librarians and information providers in central roles of leadership and management, collections and technical services, and technology. Formed from former ALA divisions: Association for Library Collections and Technical Services  (ALCTS); Library Information Technology Association (LITA) and the Library Leadership and Management Association (LLAMA).
 Public Library Association (PLA)
 Reference and User Services Association (RUSA)
 United for Libraries.  The mission of United for Libraries is to support those who govern, promote, advocate, and fundraise for all types of libraries.
 Young Adult Library Services Association (YALSA)

Offices
 Office for Intellectual Freedom (OIF)
 Office for Accreditation (OA)
 Office for Diversity, Literacy and Outreach Services
 Office for Information Technology Policy (OITP)
 ALA Editions (book publishing)

Round Tables

 Coretta Scott King Book Award Round Table
 Ethnic & Multicultural Information Exchange RT (EMIERT)
 Exhibits Round Table (ERT)
 Film and Media Round (FMRT)
 Games and Gaming (GAMERT)
 Government Documents (GODORT)
 Graphic Novel and Comics Round Table (GNCRT)
 Intellectual Freedom Round Table (IFRT)
 International Relations (IRRT)
 Learning RT (LearnRT)
 Library History (LHRT)
 Library Instruction Round Table (LIRT)
 Library Research (LRRT)
 Library Support Staff Interests Round Table (LSSIRT)
 Map and Geospatial Information (MAGIRT)
 New Members Round Table (NMRT)
Rainbow Round Table (RRT)
 Retired Members Round Table (RMRT)
 Social Responsibilities Round Table (SRRT)- Established in 1969, the Social Responsibilities Round Table currently oversees task forces such as the 'Feminist Task Force'; the 'Hunger, Homelessness, and Poverty Task Force (HHPTF)'; the 'International Responsibilities Task Force'; the 'Martin Luther King Jr. Holiday Task Force (MLKTF)'; 'The Rainbow Project Task Force'; and the 'Task Force on the Environment'.
Staff Organization (SORT)
Sustainability (SustainRT)
Round Table Coordinating Assembly (RTCA)

Notable Committees

In 1970, the ALA founded the first lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender professional organization, called the "Task Force on Gay Liberation," later known as the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Round Table (GLBTRT), and now as the Rainbow Round Table. The first leader was Israel David Fishman. Barbara Gittings became its coordinator in 1971. In the early 1970s, the Task Force on Gay Liberation campaigned to have books about the gay liberation movement at the Library of Congress reclassified from HQ 71–471 ("Abnormal Sexual Relations, Including Sexual Crimes"). In 1972, after receiving a letter requesting the reclassification, the Library of Congress agreed to make the shift, reclassifying those books into a newly created category, HQ 76.5 ("Homosexuality, Lesbianism—Gay Liberation Movement, Homophile Movement"). In 1971, the GLBTRT created the first award for GLBT books, the Stonewall Book Award, which celebrates books of exceptional merit that relate to LGBT issues. Patience and Sarah by Alma Routsong (pen name Isabel Miller) was the first winner. In 1992, American Libraries published a photo of the GLBTRT (then called the Gay and Lesbian Task Force) on the cover of its July/August issue, drawing both criticism and praise from the library world. Some commenters called the cover "in poor taste" and accused American Libraries of "glorifying homosexuality," while others were supportive of the move. Christine Williams, who wrote an essay about the controversy surrounding the cover, concluded that in the mid-90s, the library world was "not an especially welcoming place to gays and lesbians." In 2010, the GLBTRT announced a new committee, the Over the Rainbow Committee. This committee annually compiles a bibliography of books that show the GLBT community in a favorable light and reflects the interests of adults. The bibliographies provide guidance to libraries in the selection of positive GLBT materials.

On July 23, 1976, the committee on the Status of Women in Librarianship was established as a Council Committee of the ALA on recommendation of the Ad Hoc Committee with the same name (which had been appointed by the President of the ALA in December 1975) and of the Committee on Organization. The committee on the Status of Women in Librarianship works to "officially represent the diversity of women's interest within ALA and to ensure that the Association considers the rights of the majority (women) in the library field; to promote and initiate the collection, analysis, dissemination, and coordination of information on the status of women in librarianship; to coordinate the activities of ALA units which consider questions of special relevance for women; to identify lags, gaps, and possible discrimination in resources and programs relating to women; in cooperation with other ALA units, to help develop and evaluate tools, guidelines, and programs designed to enhance the opportunities and the image of women in the library profession, thus raising the level of consciousness concerning women; to establish contacts with committees on women within other professional groups and to officially represent ALA concerns at interdisciplinary meetings on women's equality; and to provide Council and Membership with reports needed for establishment of policies and actions related to the status of women in librarianship; and to monitor ALA units to ensure consideration of the rights of women." In 1979, the committee on the Status of Women in Librarianship received the Bailey K. Howard – World Book Encyclopedia – ALA Goal Award to develop a profile of ALA personal members, Career Profiles and Sex Discrimination in the Library Profession.  In 1980, the committee on the Status of Women in Librarianship was awarded the J. Morris Jones – World Book Encyclopedia – ALA Goals Award with the OLPR Advisory Committee to undertake a special project on equal pay for work of equal value.Affiliates

American Association of Law Libraries
American Indian Library Association
Association for Information Science and Technology
American Theological Library Association
Art Libraries Society of North America (ARLIS/NA)
Asian/Pacific American Librarians Association
Association for Library and Information Science Education
Association for Rural and Small Libraries
Association of Bookmobile and Outreach Services
Association of Jewish Libraries
Association of Research Libraries
Beta Phi Mu
The Black Caucus of the American Library Association was formed in 1970. "The Black Caucus of the American Library Association serves as an advocate for the development, promotion, and improvement of library services and resources to the nation's African American community; and provides leadership for the recruitment and professional development of African American librarians." The current president of the Black Caucus of the American Library Association is Richard E. Ashby, Jr.
Catholic Library Association
Chinese American Librarians Association
The Joint Council of Librarians of Color
Latino Literacy Now
Library and Information Association of New Zealand Aotearoa
Medical Library Association
Music Library Association
National Storytelling Network
Online Audiovisual Catalogers
Patent and Trademark Resource Center Association
Polish American Librarians Association
ProLiteracy Worldwide
REFORMA is the National Association to Promote Library and Information Services to Latinos and the Spanish-speaking.
Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials
Theatre Library Association

 National outreach

The ALA is affiliated with regional, state, and student chapters (SCALA) across the country. It organizes conferences, participates in library standards development, and publishes a number of books and periodicals. The ALA publishes the magazines American Libraries and Booklist. The Graphics Program creates and distributes products that promote libraries, literacy and reading. Along with other organizations, it sponsors the annual Banned Books Week the last week of September. Young Adult Library Services Association (YALSA) also sponsors Teen Read Week, the third week of each October, and Teen Tech Week, the second week of each March. In addition, the ALA helps to promote diversity in the library profession with various outreach activities, including the Spectrum Scholarship program, which awards academic scholarships to minority library students each year. Additionally, the ALA's Office for Library Advocacy has an initiative called I Love Libraries, also known as ilovelibraries, which attempts to "spread the world about the value of today's libraries," promotes value of librarians and libraries, explains key library issues, and "urges readers to support and take action for their libraries."

The ALA helps to provide a total of 29 scholarships (over $300,000 annually), a list of which can be found on their website. National Library Week, the second week of each April, is a national observance sponsored by the ALA since 1958. Libraries across the country celebrate library resources, library champions and promote public outreach.

Awards

The American Library Association confers several professional recognition awards.  Its highest award is Honorary Membership.

The ALA annually confers numerous book and media awards, primarily through its children's and young adult divisions (others are the Dartmouth Medal, Coretta Scott King Awards, Schneider Book Awards, and Stonewall Book Award).

The children's division ALSC administers the Caldecott Medal, Newbery Medal, Batchelder Award, Belpré Awards, Geisel Award, and Sibert Medal, all annual book awards; the Odyssey Award for best audiobook (joint with YALSA), and the (U.S.) Carnegie Medal and for best video. There are also two ALSC lifetime recognitions, the Children's Literature Legacy Award and the Arbuthnot Lecture.

The young-adult division YALSA administers the Margaret Edwards Award for significant and lasting contribution to YA literature, a lifetime recognition of one author annually, and some annual awards that recognize particular works: the Michael L. Printz Award for a YA book judged on literary merit alone, the William C. Morris Award for an author's first YA book, the new "YALSA Award for Excellence in Nonfiction for Young Adults," and the "Alex Award" list of ten adult books having special appeal for teens. Jointly with the children's division ALSC there is the Odyssey Award for excellence in audiobook production.

The award for YA nonfiction was inaugurated in 2012, defined by ages 12 to 18 and publication year November 2010 to October 2011. The first winner was The Notorious Benedict Arnold: A True Story of Adventure, Heroism & Treachery by Steve Sheinkin (Roaring Brook Press, November 2010) and four other finalists were named.

The Reference and User Services Association awards include annual lists of "Notable" and "Best" books and other media.

The annual awards roster includes the John Cotton Dana Award for excellence in library public relations, and the I Love My Librarian award in concert with the philanthropic foundation Carnegie Corporation of New York and the New York Public Library.

In 2000, the Office for Literacy and Outreach Services (OLOS) launched the Jean E. Coleman Library Outreach Lecture in tribute to the work of the first OLOS director, Jean E. Coleman.  Barbara J. Ford gave the inaugural lecture, "Libraries, Literacy, Outreach and the Digital Divide."

Since 2006, the ALA has selected a class of Emerging Leaders, typically comprising about 100 librarians and library school students. This minor distinction is a form of organizational outreach to new librarians. The Emerging Leaders are allocated to project groups tasked with developing solutions to specified problems within ALA divisions. The class meets at the ALA Midwinter and Annual Meetings, commonly January and June. Project teams may present posters of their completed projects at the Annual.

Conferences

The ALA and its divisions hold numerous conferences throughout the year. The two largest conferences are the annual conference and the midwinter meeting, now called LibLearnX.  The latter is typically held in January and focuses on innovative session design concepts, while the annual conference is typically held in June and focuses on programs,exhibits and presentations. The ALA annual conference is notable for being one of the largest professional conferences in existence, typically drawing over 25,000 attendees.

In 2020, Wanda Kay Brown was the first president in 75 years under whom the Annual Conference, scheduled for Chicago in June 2020, was cancelled because of the COVID-19 pandemic. In a press release about cancellation of the conference, Brown stated: "ALA's priority is the health and safety of the library community, including our members, staff, supporters, vendors and volunteers."

Notable members
 Virginia Cleaver Bacon, member
 Inez Mabel Crawford, member
 Essae Martha Culver, first State Librarian of Louisiana
 Emily Drabinski, ALA President 2023–2024.
 M. Winnifred Feighner, Assistant librarian at University of Montana
 Barbara J. Ford, president 1997-1998, member of the U.S. National Commission for UNESCO
 Helen E. Haines, member of the Council of American Library Association and editor of its proceedings for ten years
 Wilhelmina Harper, Supervisor of children's work for the Kern County Free Library, since 1921
 Carla Hayden, the 14th Librarian of Congress. Appointed in September 2016, Hayden is the first woman and the first African American to hold the post.  She is the first professional librarian appointed to the post in over 60 years.
Carleton B. Joeckel, National Plan for Public Library Service, honorary membership
 Abigail Scofield Kellogg, San Luis Obispo City Librarian
 Jacqueline Noel, vice-president of the Pacific Northwest Library Association and a member of the American Library Association
 Lessa Kananiʻopua Pelayo-Lozada, President, ALA, 2022-2023
 Edith Allen Phelps, twice president of the Oklahoma Library Association, the first professional in the Library Science field in the Oklahoma City system
 Ida M. Reagan, first vice-president of the California Librarians Association
 E. Ruth Rockwood, charter member of the Subscription Books Committee, a group to provide evaluations and advice on encyclopedias, subscription sets, and allied compends, newly founded by the ALA
Loriene Roy, Anishinabe, first Native American president of the ALA, 2007-2008. American scholar of Indigenous librarianship
Patricia G. Schuman, president,1991-1992, honorary membership
 Faith Edith Smith, on the Education Committee of the American Library Association and was a member of the California Library Association
 Peggy Sullivan, ALA President and Honorary Membership
Betty J. Turock, president,1995-1996, honorary membership
 Robert Wedgeworth, former executive director of the American Library Association, Honorary Membership
 Patty Wong, President 2021-2022

Political positions

The ALA advocates positions on United States political issues that it believes are related to libraries and librarianship. For court cases that touch on issues about which the organization holds positions, the ALA often files amici curiae briefs, voluntarily offering information on some aspect of the case to assist the court in deciding a matter before it. The ALA has an office in Washington, D.C., that lobbies Congress on issues relating to libraries, information and communication. It also provides materials to libraries that may include information on how to apply for grants, how to comply with the law, and how to oppose a law.

Intellectual freedom

The primary documented expressions of the ALA's intellectual freedom principles are the Freedom to Read Statement and the Library Bill of Rights; the Library Bill of Rights urges libraries to "challenge censorship in the fulfillment of their responsibility to provide information and enlightenment." The ALA Code of Ethics also calls on librarians to "uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library resources."

The ALA maintains an Office for Intellectual Freedom (OIF), which is charged with "implementing ALA policies concerning the concept of intellectual freedom," defined as "the right of every individual to both seek and receive information from all points of view without restriction. It provides for free access to all expressions of ideas through which any and all sides of a question, cause or movement may be explored." Its goal is "to educate librarians and the general public about the nature and importance of intellectual freedom in libraries." The OIF compiles lists of challenged books as reported in the media and submitted to them by librarians across the country.

The first director, Judith Krug, headed the office for four decades, until her death in April 2009.

In 1950, the Intellectual Freedom Committee, the forerunner of the OIF, investigated the termination of Ruth W. Brown as librarian of the Bartlesville Public Library, a position she held in the Oklahoma town for 30 years.  Brown's termination was based on the false allegation that she was a communist and that she had as part of the library's serials collection two left wing publications, The New Republic and The Nation.  The ALA support for her and the subsequent legal case was the first such investigation undertaken by the ALA or one of its state chapters.

In 1999, radio personality Laura Schlessinger campaigned publicly against the ALA's intellectual freedom policy, specifically in regard to the ALA's refusal to remove a link on its web site to a specific sex-education site for teens. Sharon Priestly said, however, that Schlessinger "distorted and misrepresented the ALA stand to make it sound like the ALA was saying porno for 'children' is O.K."

In 2002, the ALA filed suit with library users and the ACLU against the United States Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA), which required libraries receiving federal E-rate discounts for Internet access to install a "technology protection measure" to prevent children from accessing "visual depictions that are obscene, child pornography, or harmful to minors." At trial, the federal district court struck down the law as unconstitutional. The government appealed this decision, and on June 23, 2003, the Supreme Court of the United States upheld the law as constitutional as a condition imposed on institutions in exchange for government funding. In upholding the law, the Supreme Court, adopting the interpretation urged by the U.S. Solicitor General at oral argument, made it clear that the constitutionality of CIPA would be upheld only "if, as the Government represents, a librarian will unblock filtered material or disable the Internet software filter without significant delay on an adult user's request."

Privacy

 1970s
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) attempted to use librarians as possible informants in the conspiracy case of the Harrisburg Seven in 1971. The Harrisburg Seven, a group of religious anti-war activists, were primarily accused of conspiring to kidnap National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger. The supposed leader of the group, Philip Berrigan, was serving time at the Lewisburg penitentiary. The FBI sought "to use library surveillance and librarian informants" at Bucknell University as evidence of the Harrisburg Seven's "characters and intentions." Boyd Douglas became one such informant for the FBI: he was a prisoner at the same penitentiary with a work-release position at the library. Boyd presented himself as an anti-war activist and offered to smuggle letters he collected while at work to Philip Berrigan at the prison.

The FBI also attempted to use Zoia Horn, a librarian at the Bucknell library, and interviewed other library workers. The FBI met with Horn in her home to debrief her, but Horn refused to answer their questions. She refused to testify, even after she was given immunity from self-incrimination. Horn stated, "To me it stands on: Freedom of thought" and for the government to practice "spying in homes, in libraries and universities inhibits and destroys this freedom." Zoia Horn was charged with contempt of the court and served 20 days in jail. She was "the first librarian who spent time in jail for a value of our profession" according to Judith Krug of the American Library Association's Office for Intellectual Freedom. Horn continued to fight for intellectual freedom in libraries and beyond. The Intellectual Freedom Committee of the California Library Association now awards the Zoia Horn Intellectual Freedom Award in honor of those who make contributions to intellectual freedom.

In the 1970s, United States Department of the Treasury agents also pressured public libraries across the country to "release circulation records recording the names and identifying information of people who checked out books on bomb making." The ALA believed this to be an "unconscionable and unconstitutional invasion of library patrons' privacy."

As a result of these two situations and many others, the ALA affirmed the confidential status of all records which held patron names in a Policy on the Confidentiality of Library Records. The ALA also released the ALA Statement on Professional Ethics in 1975 which advocated for the protection of the "confidential relationship" between a library user and a library.

 1980s
The FBI tried to use surveillance in library settings as part of its Library Awareness Program of the 1980s; it aimed to use librarians "as partners in surveillance." The program was known to the FBI as "The Development of Counterintelligence Among Librarians," indicating that the FBI believed that librarians might be supportive in its counterintelligence investigations. The FBI attempted to profile "Russian or Slavic-sounding last names" of library patrons to look for possible "national security threats." The FBI wanted libraries to help it trace "the reading habits of patrons with those names."

The ALA responded by writing to the FBI director. The Intellectual Freedom Committee also created "an advisory statement to warn libraries" of the Library Awareness Program, including ways to help librarians "avoid breaking their ethical obligations if faced with FBI surveillance."

 USA PATRIOT Act
In 2003, the ALA passed a resolution opposing the USA PATRIOT Act, which called sections of the law "a present danger to the constitutional rights and privacy rights of library users." Since then, the ALA and its members have sought to change the law by working with members of Congress and educating their communities and the press about the law's potential to violate the privacy rights of library users. ALA has also participated as an amicus curiae in lawsuits filed by individuals challenging the constitutionality of the USA PATRIOT Act, including a lawsuit filed by four Connecticut librarians after the library consortium they managed was served with a national security letter seeking information about library users. After several months of litigation, the lawsuit was dismissed when the FBI decided to withdraw the National Security Letter. In 2007, the "Connecticut Four" were honored by the ALA with the Paul Howard Award for Courage for their challenge to the National Security Letter and gag order provision of the USA PATRIOT Act.

In 2006, the ALA sold humorous "radical militant librarian" buttons for librarians to wear in support of the ALA's stances on intellectual freedom, privacy, and civil liberties. Inspiration for the button's design came from documents obtained from the FBI by the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) through a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request. The request revealed a series of e-mails in which FBI agents complained about the "radical, militant librarians" while criticizing the reluctance of FBI management to use the secret warrants authorized under Section 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act.

Renaming of Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal
In 2018, the organization changed the name of the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal to the Children's Literature Legacy Award. According to The New York Times, the name change was made "in order to distance the honor" from what the ALA described as "culturally insensitive portrayals" in Wilder's books.

Copyright
The ALA "supports efforts to amend the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) and urges the courts to restore the balance in copyright law, ensure fair use and protect and extend the public domain." It supports changing copyright law to eliminate damages when using orphan works without permission; is wary of digital rights management; and, in ALA v. FCC, successfully sued the Federal Communications Commission to prevent regulation that would enforce next-generation digital televisions to contain rights-management hardware. It has joined the Information Access Alliance to promote open access to research. The Copyright Advisory Network of the association's Office for Information Technology Policy provides copyright resources to libraries and the communities they serve. The ALA is a member of the Library Copyright Alliance, along with the Association of Research Libraries and the Association of College and Research Libraries, which provides a unified voice for over 300,000 information professionals in the United States.
Currently, the ALA supports bill H.R. 905, also known as the You Own Devices Act, stating "to foster the social and commercial evolution of the "Internet of Things" by codifying the right of the owner of a device containing 'essential software' intrinsic to its function to transfer both the and the device."

ALA-Accredited Programs in Library and Information Studies

ALA-Accredited programs can be found at schools in the U.S., Puerto Rico, and Canada. Theses programs offer degrees with names such as Master of Library Science (MLS), Master of Arts, Master of Librarianship, Master of Library and Information Studies (MLIS), and Master of Science. To be accredited, the program must undergo an external review and meet the Standards for Accreditation of Master's Programs in Library and Information Studies. There are currently 62 accredited programs, and two that are candidates seeking accreditation.

See also

 American Indian Library Association and American Indian Youth Literature Awards
 ANSEL American National Standard for Extended Latin Alphabet Coded Character Set for Bibliographic Use
 Book Links, an ALA magazine that helps teachers, librarians, school library media specialists, and parents connect children with high-quality books
 Booklist'', an ALA publication that provides critical reviews of books and audiovisual materials, geared toward libraries and booksellers
 Challenge (literature), an attempt to have books removed from a library
 History of public library advocacy
 International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA)
 Library Bill of Rights
 Library Hall of Fame
 Library War Service
 Librarianship and human rights in the United States
 List of American Library Association accredited library schools
 List of presidents of the American Library Association
 Neal-Schuman Publishers, an imprint of the ALA
 Public library advocacy

References

External links

Professional associations based in the United States
Library-related professional associations
Non-profit organizations based in Chicago
Political advocacy groups in the United States
Organizations established in 1876
Library associations based in Chicago
1876 establishments in Pennsylvania
American librarianship and human rights
Professional associations based in Chicago

American Library Association


طلحت حمدي (25 مارس  1936 - 8 يونيو 2013 )، مخرج وممثل سوري من أصل كردي من مواليد ركن الدين دمشق متزوج من الممثلة الراحلة سلوى سعيد .

في 1 مارس 1968 انضم إلى نقابة الفنانين السوريين، عمل في مجال التلفزيون منذ فترة طويلة، وكان له تجربة في الإنتاج لم تدم طويلا بسبب سيطرة الشركات الكبيرة على الإنتاج التلفزيوني. ومن ضمن إنتاجاته الهامة مسلسل طرابيش الذي طرح فيه قضية محاربة الفساد، وحين أنتج مسلسل المكافأة وطرح من خلاله قضايا لنصرة المعلم ثارت ضده نقابة المعلمين، ورفعت دعوى ضده ، لكنه لم يتمكن من منافسة الشركات الكبيرة صاحبة رؤوس الأموال الضخمة.

من أعماله

الحسن و الحسين
دائرة النار
أنشودة المطر
خلف الجدران
حمام القيشاني
نمر العدوان
الزاحفون
سفر
نساء بلا أجنحة
حارة الجوري
تل اللوز
طرابيش
المستجير
ساري
سنوات العجاف
المكافأة
شاري الهم.
صراع على الرمال.
الشام العدية.
زمن البرغوت ج1
 اسعد الوراق
 وحوش وسبايا
 غضب الصحراء (مسلسل)
حسيبة - فيلم سينمائي.
مقلب حب - فيلم سينمائي.
 مسلسل الانهيار
 مسلسل الشبيهة
 عذراء الرمال [مسلسل]
متعب الشقاوي [مسلسل]
بيت جدي ٢ بدور أبو رسلان

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أكراد سوريا
مخرجو أفلام سوريون
ممثلون وممثلات سوريون
مواليد 1355 هـ
مواليد 1936
وفيات 1434 هـ
وفيات 2013

طلحت حمدي


Senaryo (Fransızca: Scénario, İngilizce: Screenplay, Almanca: Szenarium) Tiyatro oyunu, piyes, dizi, film, video oyunu gibi eserlerin sahnelerini ve akışını gösteren yazılı metinlere verilen isimdir.

Tiyatro ve film senaryoları bu genel tanımın dışında, birbirlerinden ayrı özellikleri olan metinlerdir. Bu ayrımın en belirleyici unsuru sinema ve tiyatronun oluşum biçimleridir. Tiyatroda olay örgüsü sahnede, seyirci önünde gerçekleşirken sinemada, seyirci ile oyuncu arasında kamera vardır. Tiyatroda esas olan senaryo iken sinemada bu durum yönetmenin tasarrufu söz konusudur. Bu sebeple tiyatro eserleri senaristleriyle, sinema çalışmaları ise yönetmenleri ile anılır, çünkü bir filmde asıl anlamı olay örgüsünün yanı sıra görüntüyü de düzenleyen kişi verir. Yönetmen senaryo üzerinde istediği gibi oynayabilir.

Senaryo, görüntü ve sese dönüşecek bir düşüncenin, bir olayın metinleştirilmiş halidir. Bu tür bir metni oluşturabilmek için görüntü bilgisi, sahne deneyimi, kamera açıları, görüntüsel geçişler ve harekete dair terminolojiye hakimiyet ve anlatıya ilişkin bilgi birikimi gereklidir.

Senaryo türleri
Senaryo yazımı Amerikan ve Fransız tarzı olarak iki farklı biçimde gerçekleştirilir. Amerikan tarzında her sahne için altı çizili biçimde bir künye (üstbaşlık) oluşturulur. Künyede sahne numarası, karakterler, mekân, iç-dış ve gece-gündüz ayrımları belirtilir. Fransız tarzı senaryonun sahneler ikiye ayrılmış sayfada solda görünecekler, sağda repliklerin yazılmasıyla oluşturulur.

Senaryoda sadece eylemler ve diyaloglar bulunur. Teknik detaylara yer verilmez. Evrensel senaryo formatında bir sayfa 1- 1,5 dakikaya denk gelmektedir.

Senaryonun evreleri

Sinopsis

Bir filmin ön çalışmasında ilk aşamasını oluşturur. Hikâyeyi ilk olarak yazıya dökmek, genel hatlarıyla konsepti belirlemek için kullanılır.

Tretman

Bir filmde, hangi sahnenin nasıl anlatılması gerektiğini anlatan ayrıntıların yazıldığı senaryonun ilk aşamalarından biridir.

Ayrımlama Senaryo
Ayrımlama senaryo, Tretman ile çekim senaryosu arasında yer alan, senaristin bireysel çalışmasının bittiği, her şeyin sonuçlandığı üçüncü aşamadır. Ayrımlama senaryo, senaryonun geliştirme evresinde genişletilen öykünün, birçok biçimsel öğenin bileşimi ile sinema tekniğine ve gereklerine göre, dış yapısı oluşturularak, çekim senaryosu olmaya hazır metin durumuna getirilmesidir.

Ortaya çıkışı
Ayrımlama senaryo ilk defa James Cameron tarafından, Örümcek Adam serisinin geliştirildiği dönemde ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Cameron, 1984 yılındaki Terminatör filmindeki başarısından sonra Örümcek Adam için senarist David Koepp ile birlikte 57 sayfalık ilk ayrımlama senaryoyu yazdı.

Cameron, Titanik filmi için 131 sayfa ayrımlama senaryo yazmıştır.

Biçimsel bölümleri
Ayrımlama senaryo hazırlık aşamasında biçimsel parçalara bölünür.

Bölüm
Bölüm, öykünün dramatik gelişiminin başı ve sonu olan bölümlerin birleşmesiyle öykünün tümü ortaya çıkar. 90 dakikalık olağan uzunluktaki bir filmde ortalama 7-8 bölüm bulunur. Filmdeki her bir bölüm, bir romanın, bir tiyatro oyununun bir bölümüne veya perdesine eşdeğerdir.

Sahne
Tiyatrodan sinemaya aktarılan sahnenin iki tanımı vardır. Birincisi, oyun alanına bir oyuncunun her bir girişi yeni bir sahnenin başlangıcı ve her bir çıkışı o sahnenin sonudur. Buna Fransız sahnesi denilir. Bir diğeri ise olayların gerçekleşeceği yeri ya da dekoru tanımlar. Bu nedenle tiyatro oyunları; günlük hayattan farklı olay akışı, seçilmiş ve ayıklanmış olaylar, bölünmüş çeşitli sahneler, değişik ortam ve zamanlardan oluşur.

Sinemada sahne, film içinde, dekorun ve kamera açılarının değiştiği yerlerdeki tamamlanan bir durumu belirtir. Buna Çekim Sahnesi denir. Başka bir deyişle sahne, aynı kişiler ve aynı dekor içinde geçen, sürekli bir olayı gösteren bir ya da daha çok çekimden oluşan görüntüler dizisidir. Kısaca sahne, aynı kişilerin aynı dekor veya mekan içinde, aynı anda yer aldıkları çekimler bütünüdür ve tamamlanan bir durumu belirtir. Sinemada sahne, yazarı rahatlatan "vurgu" olarak adlandırılır. Sahne içinde olay örgüsünü ortaya koyan devinimin, birbirini izleyen çekimler boyunca uyumlu olması gerekir.

Ayrım
Bölümler içinde yer alan ayrım, öykülemeyi oluşturan, olayın içinde gelişip sonuçlandığı kendi içinde bir bütünlüğü olan sahneler dizisidir. Ayrım tek ya da değişik yerlerde geçebilir. Olağan uzunluktaki filmde ortalama 25-30 ayrım bulunur.

Çekim
Çekim, filmi oluşturan dramatik yapının en küçük birimidir. Kameranın hiç ara vermeksizin, durduruluncaya değin, sürekli olarak bir görüntüyü filme kaydetmesidir. Çekim, bir sahne içindeki belirli kişi ya da nesneye odağın değiştiğini gösteren bildirimdir. Çekimlerin, kurguyla bir araya getirilmesiyle sahne oluşur.

Biçimsel öğeleri
Sahne başlığı
Görsel anlatım (oyuncu hareketleri)
Kişi adı
Ayraç
Konuşma örgüsü (diyalog); ikili konuşma örgüsü (ikili diyalog)
Genişleme
Çekim
Geçişler

Çekim Senaryosu
Çekim senaryosu, senaryonun son aşamasıdır. Yönetmen tarafından alınmış teknik notlar, çekim detayları, üzerinde yapılacak değişikler ile film öyküsünün planlara ve kameranın çekim açılarına bölünmüş, diyalog ve mizansenlerin belirginleşmiş, en detaylı halidir.

Ayrımlamanın hazırlanmasından sonra, yazar ile yönetmen ya da yalnızca yönetmen, çekim senaryosunu oluşturmaya başlar. Filme dönüşecek metnin çekilmesine temel olacak tüm bilgiler, bu evrede çekim senaryosunda yer alır. Çekim senaryosu henüz çekilmeyen filmin, bittiği zaman alacağı biçimin, önceden en küçük ayrıntılarına kadar kâğıt üzerinde belirtildiği, senaryonun film çevirmeye hazır durumdaki en son aşaması ve biçimidir.

Şekil özellikleri
Çekim, sahne, ayrım ve bölüm bilgileri
Bu bilgiler şunlardır;

Çekim numarası: Hem sinemada, hem de televizyonda çekim senaryosu en küçük birim olan çekimlere ayrılır. Bu çekimler her iki senaryoda da 1'den başlayarak numaralanır. Numaralama filmin sonuna kadar sürdürülür.
Çekim ölçekleri: Çekimi yapılacak sahnenin genel, baş, göğüs, ayrıntı gibi planlarının yazıldığı bölümdür.
Kamera hareketi: Çekim sırasında kameranın yapacağı sağ, sol, veya zoom gibi hareketlerin ve kameranın alacağı göz düzeyi dışında kalan alt, üst, tepe açılarının yazıldığı bölümdür.
Oyuncu hareketi: Çekim sırasında oyuncuların gerçekleştireceği hareketlerin yazıldığı bölümdür.
Geçişler: Sahneler arası geçişlerde kesme dışında kalan zincirleme, açılma, kararma ve silinme gibi geçişlerin yazıldığı bölümdür.

Kamera optik ve mekanik hareket bilgileri
Kamera devinimleri ile konunun beklenmedik yönleri, değişik açılardan, farklı görüş noktalarından izleyiciye gösterilir. Kamera devinimi durağan doğayı, devinimsiz varlıkları devinime geçirir, canlılık kazandırır. Görüntünün yalnız fizikî canlılığını artırmakla kalmaz, değişik görüş noktalarına ve kamera açılarına geçerek, konu ile uzaklığı değiştirerek, konuyu izleyiciye başka bir görünüşte sunar.

Kullanılacak kurgu ve geçiş yöntemi bilgileri
Geçişlerden amaç, bir bütünlük oluşturmak için filmin parçalarını birbirine bağlamak, izleyicinin dikkat ve ilgisinin çekilmesi gereken noktaları en kısa zamanda ve en kısa yoldan vurgulamak, filme estetik bir bütünlük kazandırmaktır. Geçiş yöntemi seçilirken; "Bir sahneden başka öykü anlatan, diğer bir sahneye geçmek durumundayım. Bu geçişi nasıl yapmalıyım?" sorusu sorulmalıdır. Geçiş yöntemi gelişigüzel seçilmemeli; istenilen etkiyi elde etmeye yardımcı olmasına dikkat edilmelidir. Senaryoda tüm yaşam akışı bire bir verilmez; zamanda sıçramalar yapılarak ileriye veya geriye gidilebilir. Bu akış içinde, farklı sahneler geçiş yöntemleriyle birleştirilir. Geçişlerle izleyiciye başka bir sahneye veya çekime gidildiği belirtilir. Geçişler senaryoda büyük harflerle yazılır.

Kaynakça

Tiyatro
Sinema ve video terminolojisi
Film teknikleri

Senaryo


Camera Magnaților (în , în ) a fost până în 1918 prima cameră a Dietei regale a Ungariei, principalul for legislativ din jumătatea maghiară a Dublei Monarhii austro-ungare create în 1867. Camera inferioară a dietei regale (Camera reprezentanților, în ), era constituită de reprezentanți aleși prin scrutin electoral.

Această cameră funcționa între 1867 și 1918 și, în consecință, între 1927 și 1945. Parlamentul modern al Ungariei, Adunarea Națională, este unicameral și se întâlnește în casa inferioară, în timp ce vechea casă superioară este folosită ca o sală de conferințe și ședințe și pentru turism.

Formarea Camerei Parlamentului s-a dezvoltat din alegerile conștiente ale simbolismului și poartă mesaje importante istorice și politice. Privind dinspre Dunăre, vedem că sălile caselor inferioare și superioare se ridică pe ambele laturi ale cupolei, înconjurate de turnulețe, care evocă memoria parlamentului bicameral, care era în funcțiune când clădirea era construită. Cele două săli sunt complet identice în mărime și formă, exprimând astfel egalitatea dintre casa inferioară reprezentativă și casa superioară istorică. Cupola care se ridică între ele semnifică unitatea legislativului, precum și locul de desfășurare a ședințelor comune ale celor două camere.

Membrii Camerei Magnaților
 Contele Alexander Apponyi
 Edmund Fürst Batthyany-Strattmann
 István Bittó
 Contele Dániel Esterházy de Galántha
 Contele Mihály Antal Károly Mária Esterházy de Galántha
 Géza Fejérváry
 Ignaz von Fratricsevics
 János Hadik (1808 - 1899), politician conservator maghiar
 Benjámin Kállay
 Menyhért Lónyay
 György Mailáth von Székhely
 Belá Baron Orczy von Orczi (1822 - 1917)
 Simeon de Sina
 Gyula Károlyi (1871 - 1947), om politic, prim-ministru
 Ioan Mețianu (1828 - 1916), mitropolit
 Nicolae Popea (1826 - 1898), episcop, istoric
 Miron Romanul (1828 - 1898), cleric ortodox, episcop, mitropolit
 Mihály Horváth (1809 - 1878), preot catolic, istoric
 György Apponyi (1808 - 1899), politician conservator maghiar

Galerie

Vezi și
 Camera Domnilor (Cisleithania)

Note

Politica Transleithaniei
Dieta Ungariei

Camera Magnaților


L'Aquila ( , ; ) is a city and comune in central Italy. It is the capital city of both the Abruzzo region and of the Province of L'Aquila. , it has a population of 69,558 inhabitants. Laid out within medieval walls on a hill in the wide valley of the Aterno river, it is surrounded by the Apennine Mountains, with the Gran Sasso d'Italia to the north-east.

L'Aquila sits upon a hillside in the middle of a narrow valley; tall snow-capped mountains of the Gran Sasso massif flank the town. A maze of narrow streets, lined with Baroque and Renaissance buildings and churches, open onto elegant piazzas. Home to the University of L'Aquila, it is a lively college town and, as such, has many cultural institutions: a repertory theatre, a symphony orchestra, a fine-arts academy, a state conservatory, a film institute. There are several ski resorts in the surrounding province (Campo Imperatore, Ovindoli, Pescasseroli, Roccaraso, Scanno).

Geography
Close to the highest of the Apennine summits, L'Aquila is positioned at an elevation of  in the Valley of the Aterno-Pescara, situated between four mountain peaks above .

The mountains block the city off from warm humid air currents from the Mediterranean, and give rise to a climate that is cool in comparison to most of central Italy, and dry. It's common to say between locals that the city enjoys each year 11 cold months and one cool one ("Undici misi de friddu e unu de friscu").

L'Aquila is approximately  east-northeast of Rome, with which it is connected by an autostrada through the mountains.

History

Middle Ages
The city's construction was begun by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily, out of several already existing villages (ninety-nine, according to local tradition; see Amiternum), as a bulwark against the power of the papacy. The name of Aquila means "Eagle" in Italian. Construction was completed in 1254 under Frederick's son, Conrad IV of Germany. The name was switched to Aquila degli Abruzzi in 1861, and L'Aquila in 1939. After the death of Conrad, the city was destroyed by his brother Manfred in 1259, but soon rebuilt by Charles I of Anjou, his successor as king of Sicily. The walls were completed in 1316.

It quickly became the second city of the Kingdom of Naples. It was an autonomous city, ruled by a diarchy composed of the City Council (which had varying names and composition over the centuries) and the King's Captain. It fell initially under the lordship of Niccolò dell'Isola, appointed by the people as the People's Knight, but he was then killed when he became a tyrant. Later, it fell under Pietro "Lalle" Camponeschi, Count of Montorio, who became the third side of a new triarchy, with the Council and the King's Captain. Camponeschi, who was also Great Chancellor of the kingdom of Naples, became too powerful, and was killed by order of Prince Louis of Taranto. His descendants fought with the Pretatti family for power for several generations, but never again attained the power of their ancestor. The last, and the one true "lord" of L'Aquila, was Ludovico Franchi, who challenged the power of the pope by giving refuge to Alfonso I d'Este, former duke of Ferrara, and the children of Giampaolo Baglioni, deposed lord of Perugia. In the end, however, the Aquilans had him deposed and imprisoned by the king of Naples.

The power of L'Aquila was based on the close connection between the city and its mother-villages, which had established the city as a federation, each of them building a borough and considering it as a part of the mother-village. The Fountain of the 99 Spouts (Fontana delle 99 Cannelle), was given its name to celebrate the ancient origin of the town. The City Council was originally composed of the Mayors of the villages, and the city had no legal existence until King Charles II of Naples appointed a "Camerlengo", responsible for city tributes (previously paid separately by each of its mother-villages). Later, the Camerlengo also took political power, as President of the City Council.

From its beginnings the city constituted an important market for the surrounding countryside, which provided it with a regular supply of food: from the fertile valleys came the precious saffron; the surrounding mountain pastures provided summer grazing for numerous transhumant flocks of sheep, which in turn supplied abundant raw materials for export and, to a lesser extent, small local industries, which in time brought craftsmen and merchants from outside the area.

Within a few decades L'Aquila became a crossroads in communications between cities within and beyond the Kingdom, thanks to the so-called "via degli Abruzzi", which ran from Florence to Naples by way of Perugia, Rieti, L'Aquila, Sulmona, Isernia, Venafro, Teano and Capua.

Negotiations for the succession of Edmund, son of Henry III of England, to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily involved L'Aquila in the web of interests linking the Roman Curia to the English court. On December 23, 1256, Pope Alexander IV elevated the churches of Saints Massimo and Giorgio to the status of cathedrals as a reward to the citizens of L'Aquila for their opposition to King Manfred who, in July 1259, had the city razed to the ground in an attempt to destroy the negotiations. On August 29, 1294, the hermit Pietro del Morrone was consecrated as pope Celestine V in the church of Santa Maria di Collemaggio, in commemoration of which the new pope decreed the annual religious rite of the Pardon (nowadays known as Celestinian Forgiveness, Perdonanza Celestiniana), still observed today in the city on August 28 and 29: it is the immediate ancestor of the Jubilee Year.

The pontificate of Celestine V gave a new impulse to building development, as can be seen from the city statutes. In 1311, moreover, King Robert of Anjou granted privileges which had a decisive influence on the development of trade. These privileges protected all activities related to sheep-farming, exempting them from customs duties on imports and exports. This was the period in which merchants from Tuscany (Scale, Bonaccorsi) and Rieti purchased houses in the city. Hence the conditions for radical political renewal: in 1355 the trade guilds of leather-workers, metal-workers, merchants and learned men were brought into the government of the city, and these together with the Camerario and the Cinque constituted the new Camera Aquilana. Eleven years earlier, in 1344, the King had granted the city its own mint.

In the middle of the 14th century the city was struck by plague epidemics (1348, 1363) and earthquakes (1349). Reconstruction began soon, however. In the 14th–15th century Jewish families came to live in the city, while the generals of the Franciscan Order chose the city as the seat of the Order's general chapters (1376, 1408, 1411, 1450, 1452, 1495). Bernardino of Siena, of the Franciscan order of the Observance, visited L'Aquila twice, the first time to preach in the presence of King René of Naples, and in 1444, on his second visit, he died in the city. In 1481 Adam of Rottweil, a pupil and collaborator of Johann Gutenberg, obtained permission to establish a printing press in L'Aquila.

The Osservanti branch of the Franciscan order had a decisive influence on L'Aquila. As a result of initiatives by Friar Giovanni da Capistrano and Friar Giacomo della Marca, Lombard masters undertook, in the relatively underdeveloped north-east of the city, an imposing series of buildings centring on the hospital of Saint Salvatore (1446) and the convent and the Basilica of San Bernardino. The construction work was long and difficult, mainly because of the earthquake of 1461, which caused the buildings to collapse, and the translation of the body of San Bernardino did not take place until May 14, 1472. The whole city suffered serious damage on the occasion of the earthquake, and two years went by before repairs on the churches and convents began.

In a strategy finalised to increasing their political and economic autonomy, the Aquilani took a series of political gambles, siding sometimes with the Roman Papacy, sometimes with the Kingdom of Naples. When the Pope excommunicated Joanna II, Queen of Naples, appointing Louis III of Anjou as heir to the crown in her stead, L'Aquila sided with the Angevines. Joanna hired the condottiero Braccio da Montone. In exchange for his services, Braccio obtained the lordship of Teramo, as well as the fiefdoms of Capua and Foggia: he started a 13-month-long siege of L'Aquila, that resisted bravely. Facing Braccio, at the head of the Angevine army was Muzio Attendolo Sforza and his son Francesco. The final clash between the two contenders was just below the walls of Aquila, near the hamlet today called Bazzano. In the battle fought on June 2, 1424, Braccio, mortally wounded in the neck, was made prisoner and transported to Aquila, where he died three days later, on June 5, 1424. The Pope had him buried in deconsecrated earth. The citizens of L'Aquila honoured the bravery of their enemy Braccio by dedicating one of the main streets of the city to his name.

Modern era
This period of freedom and prosperity ended in the 16th century, when Spanish viceroy Philibert van Oranje partially destroyed L'Aquila and established Spanish feudalism in its countryside. The city, separated from its roots, never developed again. Ancient privileges were revoked. L'Aquila was again destroyed by an earthquake in 1703. Successive earthquakes have repeatedly damaged the city's large cathedral, and destroyed the original dome of the Basilica of San Bernardino, designed along the lines of the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. The city was also sacked two times by French troops in 1799.

L'Aquila, like so much of Italy, is a city of political contrasts. In the 1970s a novel by Alberto Moravia was seized because it was considered obscene, a local Catholic Archbishop protested the nudity of a centuries-old statue of a young man, and a group of local reactionaries even asked for the seizure of the £50 coin because it showed a naked man. In October 2003, however, a liberal judge in l'Aquila ordered the small town of Ofena to remove a crucifix from its elementary school so as to not to offend the religious sensibilities of two young Muslim students. After a national outcry, the judge's decision was overturned. In May 2007 Massimo Cialente, a physician and medical researcher, was elected mayor of L'Aquila with a centre-left coalition.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes mark the history of L'Aquila, as the city is partly built on an ancient lake-bed which amplifies seismic activity.

On December 3, 1315, the city was struck by an earthquake which seriously damaged the San Francesco Church. Another earthquake struck on September 9, 1349, killing about 800 people. Other earthquakes struck in 1452, then on November 26, 1461, and again in 1501 and 1646. On February 3, 1703, a major earthquake struck the town. More than 3,000 people died and almost all the churches collapsed; Rocca Calascio, the highest fortress in Europe was also ruined by this event, yet the town survived. L'Aquila was then repopulated by decision of Pope Clement XI. The town was rocked by earthquake again in 1706. On June 26, 1958, an earthquake of 5.0 magnitude struck the town.

On April 6, 2009, at 01:32 GMT (03:32 CEST) an earthquake of 6.3 magnitude struck central Italy with its epicentre near L'Aquila, at . Initial reports said the earthquake caused damage to between 3,000 and 10,000 buildings in L'Aquila.  Several buildings also collapsed. 308 people were killed by the earthquake, and approximately 1,500 people were injured. Twenty of the victims were children. Around 65,000 people were made homeless.  There were many students trapped in a partially collapsed dormitory. The April 6 earthquake was felt throughout Abruzzo; as far away as Rome, other parts of Lazio, Marche, Molise, Umbria, and Campania.

G8 summit

Because of the 2009 earthquake, the Berlusconi government decided to move that year's G8 summit from its scheduled Sardinian host of La Maddalena to L'Aquila, so that disaster funds would be distributed to the affected region and to show solidarity with the city's inhabitants. World leaders converged on L'Aquila on July 8 and many of them were given tours of the devastated city by the host Prime Minister.

Climate
L'Aquila has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), influenced by its high altitude.

Main sights

Although less than an hour-and-a-half drive from Rome, and popular with Romans for summer hiking and winter skiing in surrounding mountains, the city is sparsely visited by tourists. Among the sights are:

Religious buildings
L'Aquila Cathedral: main church dedicated to Saint Maximus of Aveia (San Massimo), was built in the 13th century, but razed after the 1703 earthquake. The most recent façade dated from the 19th century, but the earthquake of 2009 and subsequent aftershocks collapsed parts of the transept and possibly more of the cathedral.
Basilica of San Bernardino (1472): church has a fine Renaissance façade by Nicola Filotesio (commonly called Cola dell'Amatrice), and contains the monumental tomb of the saint (1480), decorated with sculptures, and executed by Silvestro Ariscola.
Santa Maria di Collemaggio: church just outside the town, has a very fine, but simple, Romanesque façade (1270–1280) in red and white marble, with three decorated portals and a rose-window above each. The two side doors are also fine. The interior contains the mausoleum of Pope Celestine V erected in 1517.
Santa Giusta: Romanesque façade with Gothic rose window
San Silvestro: 14th-century Romanesque façade with Gothic rose window

Secular buildings
Spanish fort (Forte Spagnolo): massive castle in the highest part of the town, erected in 1534 by the Spanish viceroy Don Pedro de Toledo. In 2016, home to the National Museum of Abruzzo.
Fontana Luminosa ("Luminous Fountain"): a 1930s sculpture of two women bearing large jars.
Fontana delle novantanove cannelle (1272): a fountain with ninety-nine jets distributed along three walls. The source of the fountain is still unknown.
L'Aquila cemetery: includes grave of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, 19th‑century German gay rights pioneer who lived in L'Aquila; every year, gay people from all over the world meet at the cemetery to honour his memory.
 Palace of Nobles
Roman ruins of Amiternum: ruins of an Ancient Roman city

Also nearby are several ski resorts like Gran Sasso d'Italia, the highest of the Apennines where in its valley the movie The Name of the Rose was filmed in the end of the 1980s. The town also contains some fine palaces: the municipality has a museum, with a collection of Roman inscriptions and some illuminated service books. The Palazzi Dragonetti and Persichetti contain private collections of pictures.

Culture

Cinematographic activities
The first step of L'Aquila in the cinematographic activities was the Cineforum Primo Piano founded by Gabriele Lucci in the middle of the 1970s. As a work of Lucci, in 1981 saw the establishment of l'Istituto Cinematografico dell'Aquila, an institute for the production and diffusion of the cinematographic culture in Italia and abroad.

The Teatro Stabile d'Abruzzo is based in the city and was formed in 2000.

Sport
The city is the home of five-time Italian champions L'Aquila Rugby. The football squad, L'Aquila Calcio, played 3 times in serie B.

Frazioni
The following is a list of the frazioni in the comune of L'Aquila: Aquilio, Aragno, Arischia, Assergi, Bagno, Bazzano, Camarda, Cansatessa, Casaline, Cermone, Cese di Preturo, Civita di Bagno, Colle di Preturo, Colle di Sassa, Colle Roio – Poggio di Roio, Collebrincioni, Collefracido di Sassa, Collemare di Sassa, Coppito, Filetto, Foce di Sassa, Forcelle, Genzano di Sassa, Gignano, Monticchio, Onna, Paganica, Pagliare di Sassa, Pescomaggiore, Pettino, Pianola, Pile, Pizzutillo, Poggio di Roio, Poggio Santa Maria, Pozza di Preturo, Pratelle, Preturo, Ripa, Roio Piano, San Giacomo Alto, San Giuliano, San Gregorio, San Leonardo, San Marco Di Preturo, San Martino di Sassa, Santa Rufina di Roio, Sant'Angelo, Sant'Elia, Santi, San Vittorino, Sassa, Tempera, Torretta, Vallesindola, Vasche.

International relations

L'Aquila is twinned with:

  Baalbek, Lebanon
  Bernalda, Italy
  Bistrița, Romania
  Cuenca, Spain
  Foggia, Italy
  Haining, China
  Hobart, Australia
  Rottweil, Germany
  San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina
  Sant'Angelo d'Alife, Italy
  Siena, Italy
  Washington, United States
  York, Toronto, Canada
  Zielona Góra, Poland

Transport
L'Aquila railway station, on the Terni–Sulmona railway, is the main train station of the city, with trains to Terni, Rieti and Sulmona.

Notable people
 Mariangelo Accorso, (Aquila, 1489 – Aquila, 1546), Humanist
 Amico Agnifili, (Rocca di Mezzo, 1398 – Aquila, 1476), Cardinal
 Antonia of Florence (1402–1472), saint
 Corrado Bafile (1903–2005), Cardinal
 Bernardino da Siena, (Massa Marittima, 1380 – Aquila, 1444), saint.
 Braccio da Montone, (Perugia, 1368 – Aquila, 1424), condottiero
 Giovanbattista Branconio dell'Aquila, (Aquila, 1473 – 1522), papal protonotary, friend of Raphael
 Buccio di Ranallo, (Aquila 1294 – Aquila 1363), epic poet, historian, Count of Pettino
 Raffaele Cappelli (1848–1921)
 John of Capistrano, (Capestrano, 1386 – Ilok, 1456), saint
 Celestine V, (?, 1215 – Fumone, 1296), saint
 Pompeo Cesura, (Aquila, ? – Rome, 1571), painter
 Appius Claudius Caecus, (Amiternum, 350 a.C. – ?, 271 a.C.), Roman Politician
 Marco Dall'Aquila (c.1480-after 1538), lutenist and composer
 Nazzareno De Angelis (1881–1962), opera singer
 Nicola Di Francia (born 1985), footballer
 Carlo Franchi (1938–2021), racing driver
 Nestore Leoni (1862–1947), painter
 Mario Magnotta (1942–2009), janitor and internet phenomena
 Lorenzo Natali, (Florence, 1922  – Rome, 1989), vice-president of the European Commission.
 Paul Piccone (1940–2004), founder and editor of TELOS.
 Roberto Ruscitti (b. 1941), composer
 Sallustius (4th century), historian
 Karl Heinrich Ulrichs (1825–1895), writer
 Trebisonda Valla, (Bologna 1916 – L'Aquila 2006), Olympic gold medal
 Amleto Vespa (1888–1940), spy for Japan
 Bruno Vespa (b. 1944), journalist
 Claudia Romani (b. 1982), modelù
 Ferdinando Bologna (1925–2019), Art historian

See also
 Orazio di Santis
 Santa Giusta (Bazzano, L'Aquila)
 2009 L'Aquila earthquake
 L'Aquila Cathedral

References

Sources

External links

 Gran Sasso Images, news
 Spanish Fortress
 The fountain of 99 spouts
The images 9 years later 2009 Earthquake (2018)
 In the Land of Bears and Castles, The Financial Times, June 29, 2007

Cities and towns in Abruzzo
Populated places destroyed by earthquakes
Populated places established in the 13th century

L'Aquila


Victims of Death je drugi demoalbum njemačkog thrash metal sastava Sodom objavljen 1984. godine.

Popis pjesama

 "Witchhammer" - 3:41
 "Devil's Attack" - 3:21
 "Let's Fight" - 3:10
 "Victims of Death" - 4:51
 "Life from Hell" - 3:04
 "Poisoned Blood" - 3:24
 "Satan's Conjuration" - 2:51
 "Witching Metal" - 3:04

Osoblje

 Tom Angelripper - vokali, bas-gitara
 Aggressor - gitara
 Witchhunter - bubnjevi

Izvori

Albumi sastava Sodom
Albumi iz 1984.

Victims of Death


Augustus McCloskey (* 23. September 1877 in San Antonio, Texas; † 21. Juli 1950 ebenda) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. In den Jahren 1929 und 1930 vertrat er den Bundesstaat Texas im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Werdegang
Augustus McCloskey besuchte die öffentlichen Schulen seiner Heimat und arbeitete in den Jahren 1903 bis 1907 als Stenograph. Nach einem Jurastudium und seiner 1907 erfolgten Zulassung als Rechtsanwalt begann er in San Antonio in diesem Beruf zu arbeiten. Zwischen 1920 und 1928 war er Richter im Bexar County. Gleichzeitig schlug er als Mitglied der Demokratischen Partei eine politische Laufbahn ein. Im Juni 1928 war er Delegierter zur Democratic National Convention in Houston, auf der Al Smith als Präsidentschaftskandidat nominiert wurde.

Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1928 wurde McCloskey im 14. Wahlbezirk von Texas in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington, D.C. gewählt, wo er am 4. März 1929 die Nachfolge von Harry M. Wurzbach antrat, den er zuvor besiegt hatte. Dieser legte aber gegen den Ausgang der Wahl Widerspruch ein. Als diesem entsprochen wurde, musste McCloskey sein Mandat im Kongress am 10. Februar 1930 an Wurzbach abtreten. Nach dem Ende seiner Zeit im US-Repräsentantenhaus praktizierte er wieder als Anwalt. Zwischen 1943 und 1947 amtierte er in San Antonio als Richter; danach war er wieder als Rechtsanwalt tätig. Augustus McCloskey starb am 21. Juli 1950 in San Antonio.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für Texas
Mitglied der Demokratischen Partei (Vereinigte Staaten)
Richter (Texas)
Rechtsanwalt (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1877
Gestorben 1950
Mann

Augustus McCloskey


Olaylar

Doğumlar

Ölümler
 6 Aralık – Jan van Scorel, Hollandalı ressam (d. 1495)

1562


Kuyubeli, Adana ilinin Kozan ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Mahallenin adının, çevrede akarsuyun olmaması nedeni ile ie suyu ve diğer ihtiyaçların
karşılanması için açılan kuyulardan geldiği söylenmektedir. Şu an dahi her hanenin en az 2'den fazla kuyusu bulunmaktadır.

Coğrafya
Adana iline 100 km, Kozan ilçesine 36 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kozan'ın mahalleleri

Kuyubeli, Kozan


In Greek mythology, Clio ( ,  ; ), also spelled Kleio, is the muse of history, or in a few mythological accounts, the muse of lyre playing.

Etymology
Clio's name is etymologically derived from the Greek root κλέω/κλείω (meaning "to recount", "to make famous" or "to celebrate"). The name's traditional Latinisation is Clio, but some modern systems such as the American Library Association-Library of Congress system use K to represent the original Greek kappa, and ei to represent the diphthong ει (epsilon iota), thus Kleio.

Depiction
Clio, sometimes referred to as "the Proclaimer", is often represented with an open parchment scroll, a book, or a set of tablets. She is also shown with the heroic trumpet and the clepsydra (water clock). Cesare Ripa's Iconologia, an important source book for artists of the Baroque period, stated that Clio should be depicted with a crown of laurels, a trumpet and an open book.

Mythology
Like all the muses, Clio is a daughter of Zeus and the Titaness Mnemosyne, goddess of memory. Along with her sister Muses, she is considered to dwell at either Mount Helicon or Mount Parnassos. Other common locations for the Muses are Pieria in Thessaly, near to Mount Olympus.

She had one son, Hyacinth, with one of several kings, in various mythswith Pierus or with king Oebalus of Sparta, or with king Amyclas, progenitor of the people of Amyclae, dwellers about Sparta. In a scholium to Euripides' Rhesus, she is also the mother of Hymenaeus and Rhesus. According to Apollodorus, Clio was made to fall in love with Pierus by Aphrodite, for Clio had derided her for her love affair with Adonis. Other accounts credit her as the mother of Linus by Magnes, a poet who was buried at Argos, although Linus has a number of differing parents depending upon the account, including several accounts in which he is the son of Clio's sisters Urania or Calliope.

Legacy
In her capacity as "the proclaimer, glorifier and celebrator of history, great deeds and accomplishments,"

Clio is used in the name of various modern brands, including the Clio Awards for excellence in advertising. The Cambridge University History Society is informally referred to as Clio; the Cleo of Alpha Chi society at Trinity College, Connecticut is named after the muse.  Likewise, the undergraduate student outreach group for the Penn Museum at the University of Pennsylvania is known as the Clio Society and Geneseo College's oldest society is 'Clio'. 'Clio' also represents history in some coined words in academic usage: cliometrics, cliodynamics.

Clio Bay in Antarctica is named after the muse.

Gallery

See also
 Muses in popular culture

Notes

References
 Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
 Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity, Volume 3, Cat-Cyp, editors: Hubert Cancik, Helmuth Schneider, Brill, 2003. . Online version at Brill.
 Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
 Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903.  Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.

Further reading
 Bartelink, Dr. G. J. M. (1988). Prisma van de mythologie. Utrecht: Het Spectrum.
 van Aken, Dr. A. R. A. (1961). Elseviers Mythologische Encyclopedie. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

External links

 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database
 KLEIO from The Theoi Project

Children of Zeus
Deeds of Aphrodite
Greek Muses
Greek goddesses
Historiography of Greece
Metamorphoses characters
Music and singing goddesses
Pierian mythology
Wisdom goddesses

Clio


(, literally Mouth of the Warnow) is a seaside resort and a district of the city of Rostock in Mecklenburg, Germany. It is located on the Baltic Sea and, as the name implies, at the estuary of the river Warnow.  is one of the world's busiest cruise ports.

History

Founded in about 1200,  was for centuries a small fishing village with minor importance for the economic and cultural development of the region. In 1323  lost its autonomous status as it was purchased by the city of Rostock in order to safeguard the city's access to the Baltic Sea. It was not until the 19th century that  began to develop into an important seaside resort. Today  has approximately 8,400 inhabitants.

Economy

Once completely dependent on the fishing industry, 's economic alignment has shifted inevitably from the primary to the secondary and tertiary sector. Besides the Nordic Yards Warnemünde ship yard (the former ), the economy largely depends on tourism. The construction of a modern cruise line centre in 2005 has contributed crucially to 's establishment as the most important harbour for cruise line ships in Germany.

 was formerly the site of the original LFG aircraft factories during World War I. Prior to World War II a number of other companies, mostly related in some way to the now bankrupt LFG, started operations in the area. These included  and . The factories and surrounding living areas were bombed several times during the war. Many of these factories were used to form .

Sights

Being a centre of maritime traffic, the district of  comprises numerous navigational aids, the oldest being the lighthouse, built in 1897, and still currently in use. In the summer, the tower, approximately  high, allows visitors to enjoy an impressive view over the Baltic Sea and the northern districts of Rostock. Warnemünde's other famous landmark, the nearby  (Teapot in German) with its  curved roof, is an interesting living example of East German architecture. Built in  and opened for the first time in 1926, it burned down at the end of World War II. Rebuilt in the 1960s with a curved roof and renovated in 2002, it today houses various restaurants.

In the vicinity of the canal called  (Old Channel), with its various restaurants, pubs and traditional fishing boats, regional specialities are offered in a fish market. Edvard Munch House, where the Norwegian painter of The Scream lived from 1907 to 1908, is at . The Warnemünde Church was built on the western edge of the town in 1866 and consecrated in 1871.

's large, sandy beaches are the broadest on the German Baltic Sea coast and stretch out over a length of .

There is a simple 1:1 billion scale model of the Solar System, the , with a 1.4m diameter sphere as a model of the Sun installed near the light house, and signs with true scale depictions of the planets at the appropriate distances of their orbits along a coastal walking trail westwards. Some of these signs are over a kilometre apart, and the total length of the  is close to 6 km (5,870m). The model includes Pluto and has not been updated since Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet. Walking along the  allows hikers to get an intuitive idea of the relative distances between the orbits of the planets and the Sun.

Climate
The district of  has a Baltic-influenced oceanic climate (Cfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system.

Culture and sport

There are a lot of musicians and bands in  who are involved in cultural events.

Irish Coffee
Heide Mundo

Sport

Because of the weak current and good sailing conditions,  is a major sailing area in Germany. The beach is especially good for kitesurfing, windsurfing, underwater diving, swimming and nordic walking. In the summertime there are a lot of international competitions like the yearly sailing event  Week in July. Many people flock to  to witness these competitions.

Personalities

 Stephan Jantzen (1827–1913), seaman, commander of the Pilots and Rescue Team
 Ernst Heinkel (1888–1958) he established the Heinkel-Flugzeugwerke company at Warnemünde in 1922, a prominent Nazi.
 Karl Heinz Robrahn (1913–1987), lyricist
 Maria Hasse (1921 in Warnemünde – 2014), a German mathematician who became the first female professor in the faculty of mathematics and science at TU Dresden .
 Klaus Lass (born 1950), singer and songwriter, city-guide
 Matthias Hahn (born 1965), former handball player and currently coach.
 Kirsten Emmelmann (born 1961), former world champion sprinter

References

Notes and inline references

External links

 Warnemünde official page
 Warnemünde Panoramas
 Cruiseline port of Warnemünde
 Warnemünde Week
 Edvard Munch House

Rostock
Seaside resorts in Germany
Spa towns in Germany
Tourism in Germany
Marinas in Germany
Populated coastal places in Germany (Baltic Sea)
Rostock-Warnemunde
Tourist attractions in Rostock

Warnemünde


Treći rang nogometnog prvenstva Herceg-Bosne za sezonu 1997./98. su činile županijske lige.

1. ŽNL Posavine

Istok

 Izvori:
Slobodna Dalmacija

Zapad

 Izvori:
 65 žutih ljeta : NK "Bok" od 1950. do 2015.

Županijska nogometna liga ŽNS Središnje Bosne

Igralo se četverokružno.

 Izvori:
Slobodna Dalmacija
Slobodna Dalmacija

Nogometna liga RNS Ramsko-neretvansko-humskog

 Izvori:
Slobodna Dalmacija

Hercegobosanska županijska nogometna liga

 Izvori:
Slobodna Dalmacija

Povezani članci

 Prva nogometna liga Herceg-Bosne 1997./98.
 Druga nogometna liga Herceg-Bosne 1997./98.

Izvori

3-1997-98
1997-98
 HB 3

Nogometno prvenstvo Herceg-Bosne – 3. ligaški rang 1997./98.


An insertion device (ID) is a component in modern synchrotron light sources, so called because they are "inserted" into accelerator tracks. They are periodic magnetic structures that stimulate highly brilliant, forward-directed synchrotron radiation emission by forcing a stored charged particle beam to perform wiggles, or undulations, as they pass through the device. This motion is caused by the Lorentz force, and it is from this oscillatory motion that we get the names for the two classes of device, which are known as wigglers and undulators.
As well as creating a brighter light, some insertion devices enable tuning of the light so that different frequencies can be generated for different applications.

History
The theory behind undulators was developed by Vitaly Ginzburg in the USSR. However it was Motz and his team who in 1953 installed the first undulator in a linac at Stanford, using it to generate millimetre wave radiation through to visible light.

It was not until the 1970s that undulators were installed in electron storage rings to produce synchrotron radiation. The first institutions to take these devices were the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow, and the Tomsk Polytechnic University. These installations allowed a fuller characterisation of the behaviour of undulators.

Undulators only became practical devices for insertion in synchrotron light sources in 1981, when teams at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL), and at Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (BINP) in Russia developed permanent magnetic arrays, known as Halbach arrays, which allowed short repeating periods unachievable with either electromagnetic coils or superconducting coils.

Despite their similar function, wigglers were used in storage rings for over a decade before they were used to generate synchrotron radiation for beamlines. Wigglers have a damping effect on storage rings, which is the function to which they first put at the Cambridge Electron Accelerator in Massachusetts in 1966. The first wiggler used for generation of synchrotron radiation was a 7 pole wiggler installed in the SSRL in 1979.

Since these first insertions the number of undulators and wigglers in synchrotron radiation facilities throughout the world have proliferated and they are one of the driving technologies behind the next generation of light sources, free electron lasers.

Operation

Insertion devices are traditionally inserted into straight sections of storage rings (hence their name). As the stored particle beam, usually electrons, pass through the ID the alternating magnetic field experienced by the particles causes their trajectory to undergo a transverse oscillation. The acceleration associated with this movement stimulates the emission of synchrotron radiation.

There is very little mechanical difference between wigglers and undulators and the criterion normally used to distinguish between them is the K-Factor. The K-factor is a dimensionless constant defined as:

where q is the charge of the particle passing through the ID, B is the peak magnetic field of the ID,  is the period of the ID,  relates to the speed, or energy of the particle, m is the mass of the accelerated particle, and c is the speed of light.

Wigglers are deemed to have K>>1 and undulators to have K<1.

The K-Factor determines the energy of radiation produced, and in situations where a range of energy is required the K-number can be modified by varying the strength of the magnetic field of the device. In permanent magnet devices this is usually done by increasing the gap between the magnet arrays. In electromagnetic devices the magnetic field is changed by varying the current in the magnet coils.

In a wiggler the period and the strength of the magnetic field is not tuned to the frequency of radiation produced by the electrons. Thus every electron in a bunch radiates independently, and the resulting radiation bandwidth is broad. A wiggler can be considered to be series of bending magnets concatenated together, and its radiation intensity scales as the number of magnetic poles in the wiggler.

In an undulator source the radiation produced by the oscillating electrons interferes constructively with the motion of other electrons, causing the radiation spectrum to have a relatively narrow bandwidth. The intensity of radiation scales as , where  is the number of poles in the magnet array.

References

Synchrotron instrumentation

de:Insertion device

Insertion device


هذه قائمة ميداليات الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية لعام 2000 التي أقيمت في أستراليا وقد تحصلت الولايات المتحدة على المركز الأول برصيد 36 ذهبية.

مراجع

الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2000
جداول ميداليات الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية

قائمة ميداليات الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2000


Xenija Leonidowna Malzewa (, wiss. Transliteration ; * 1979) ist eine ehemalige russische Bogenbiathletin.

Xenija Malzewa nahm erfolgreich an zwei Weltmeisterschaften im Bogenbiathlon teil. 2003 gewann sie in Krün hinter Jekaterina Lugowkina und Olga Koslowa Bronze im Sprintrennen und wurde im Massenstartrennen hinter Koslowa und vor Nadia Peyrot Vizeweltmeisterin. Noch erfolgreicher war sie im folgenden Jahr, als die 2003 nicht ausgetragenen Staffel wieder im Programm war. Malzewa gewann hier mit Koslowa und Lugowkina den Titel vor den Italienerinnen, wurde hinter Koslowa und Peyrot Dritte im Sprint, gewann den Titel vor diesen im Verfolgungsrennen und gewann erneut hinter Koslowa und Peyrot Bronze im Massenstartrennen. Zudem wurde sie hinter Koslowa 2004 Zweite der Gesamtwertung des Weltcups und gewann die Gesamtwertungen im Sprint und der Verfolgung.

Kirill Malzew ist ihr jüngerer Bruder.

Weblinks

Belege

Biathlet (Russland)
Weltmeister (Bogenbiathlon)
Geboren 1979
Frau
Russischer Meister (Bogenbiathlon)
Sowjetbürger
Russe

Xenija Leonidowna Malzewa


An Isolepis cernua in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Vahl, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Johann Jakob Roemer och Schult.. An Isolepis cernua in nahilalakip ha genus nga Isolepis, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 I. c. andina
 I. c. cernua
 I. c. meruensis
 I. c. platycarpa
 I. c. setiformis

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Isolepis

Isolepis cernua


Utvrda od kamena, utvrda u Tuzli iz osmanskog vremena. Podignuta je u središtu utvrde Palanke. Vrijeme gradnje ove omanje kamene utvrde bilo je tijekom druge polovine 18. stoljeća. Namjena je bila isključivo vojna. Bila je pravokutna oblika. Bedem je bio od kamena i visok i na njemu nekoliko kula. Druga polovica 19. stoljeća značila je kraj za ovu tvrđavu. Tada su i ostale osmanske osmanske utvrde u Bosni i Hercegovini napuštene i srušene. Od ostatka ove tvrđave sagrađena je zgrada Kamenog suda (1868. ili 1871.), podzid rijeke Jale i inih zgrada.

Izvori

Građevine u Tuzli
Utvrde u Bosni i Hercegovini
Povijest Tuzle

Utvrda od kamena (Tuzla)


Oranjestad (bogstaveligt: "Oraniens By") er hovedstad og største by i Aruba. Oranjestad ligger på den sydlige kyst nær den vestlige ende af ølandet. På det lokale sprog, Papiamento , er Oranjestad ofte omtalt som "Playa". I 2015 var befolkningstallet i byen på ca. 35.000.

Historie
Byen blev bygget omkring Fort Zoutman, kort efter fortet stod færdigt i 1796. I starten havde byen ikke noget officielt navn, men var kun var kendt som byen på Hestebugten (Paardenbaai på hollandsk), et sted hvorfra indfødte heste blev opdrættet og eksporteret til nabolandet Curaçao. Byen har lige siden været øens hovedstad.

Byen er opkaldt efter kong Vilhelm 1. af Nederlandene. Navnet blev tildelt byen i 1820'erne, da interessen for Aruba voksede på grund af opdagelsen af (alluviale) guldårer.

Air Aruba havde engang hovedkvarter i Oranjestad. Air Aruba suspenderede sin virksomhed den 23. oktober 2000.

Tiara Air har haft hovedkontor i Oranjestad siden 2006, undtagen mellem 2014 og 2016, da virksomheden suspenderede tjenester på grund af den venezuelanske flyselskabskrise.

Geografi
Små dele af byen er dannet af en række menneskeskabte udvidelser af land ud i havet. Det nuværende renæssancemarked (tidligere Seaport Marketplace) samt den tilstødende Dronning Wilhelmina Park ligger inden for denne landvinding.

Klima
Oranjestad har et varmt halvtørret klima. Temperaturerne er høje året rundt, luften er fugtig med lav temperaturvariation også året rundt, mens nedbør er meget lav på grund af at regionen ligger i en zone med divergens mellem sydøstlige vindstrømme mod syd og den nordamerikanske monsun videre mod nord. Undtagelsen fra denne tørhed forekommer i løbet af den korte regntid fra oktober til december, når den sydlige tilbagetrækning af den intertropiske konvergenszone skaber hyppigere fugtige, nordlige vinde.

Kultur
Der er en del nederlandsk kolonial arkitektur i byen. På grund af øget offentlig interesse for at opretholde øens kulturarv er en række gamle bygninger og huse i bymidten omdannet til farverigt restaurerede landemærker, såsom det kalkfarvede civile register på Wilhelminastraat.

Økonomi

Turisme
Flere moderne rekreationsmuligheder er opstået, herunder udendørs indkøbscenter på Royal Plaza, og et par spredte bygninger langs Main Street og på Main Square.

Fort Zoutman er en af byens attraktioner. Andre attraktioner inkluderer den skattefrie havn.

Der er omkring otte museer på øen.

Infrastruktur
Oranjestad serveres af Queen Beatrix International Airport, 2,5 km fra byens centrum. Dens centrum serveres af en sporvognslinje indviet i december 2012.

Kilder og henvisninger

Hovedstæder i Caribien
Pages with unreviewed translations

Oranjestad


Le muscle épineux (anciennement nommé muscle épi-épineux) est une partie du muscle érecteur du rachis. C'est un faisceau de muscles et de tendons, situé près de la colonne vertébrale. Il est divisé en trois parties : le muscle épineux du thorax, le muscle épineux du cou et le muscle épineux de la tête..

Muscle épineux du thorax
Le muscle épineux du thorax est la continuation médiale du muscle érecteur du rachis. Il est à peine séparable en tant que muscle distinct. Il est situé à la face médiale du muscle longissimus du thorax et se confond intimement avec lui.

Il s'insère par trois ou quatre tendons sur les apophyses épineuses des deux premières vertèbres lombaires et des deux dernières vertèbres thoraciques. Les tendons s'unissent et forment un petit muscle qui se termine par quatre à huit tendons qui s'insèrent sur les apophyses épineuses des vertèbres thoraciques supérieures.

Il est intimement lié au muscle semi-épineux du thorax situé en dessous.

Muscle épineux du cou
Le muscle épineux du cou est un muscle inconstant, qui naît de la partie inférieure du ligament nuchal, de l'apophyse épineuse de la septième cervicale, et parfois des apophyses épineuses des première et deuxième vertèbres thoraciques, et se termine sur l'apophyse épineuse de l'axis, et parfois sur les apophyses épineuses des deux vertèbres cervicales du dessous.

Muscle épineux de la tête
Le muscle épineux de la tête est généralement indissociable du muscle semi-épineux de la tête.

Le muscle épineux de la tête n'est pas bien caractérisé dans les manuels et les atlas d'anatomie modernes, et est souvent omis de l'illustration anatomique. Cependant, il peut être identifié comme des fibres qui s'étendent des apophyses épineuses de la première vertèbre thoracique et de la septième vertèbre cervicale au crâne, se mélangeant souvent avec le muscle semi-épineux de la tête.

Notes et références

Liens externes

épineux

Muscle épineux


O beija-flor-ruivo (Selasphorus rufus) é um pequeno beija-flor, com cerca de  de comprimento e um bico longo, reto e delgado. Essas aves são conhecidas por suas extraordinárias habilidades de voo, voando  durante os seus trânsitos migratórios. É uma das sete espécies do gênero Selasphorus.

Descrição

O macho adulto tem um peito branco, parte do rosto ruivo, flancos e cauda e um remendo iridescente na garganta laranja-vermelho ou gorget. Alguns machos têm um pouco de verde nas costas ou na coroa. A fêmea tem penas verdes, brancas, algumas penas iridescentes laranja no centro da garganta, e uma cauda escura com pontas brancas e base ruiva.

A fêmea é ligeiramente maior que o macho. As fêmeas e os raros machos de dorso verde são extremamente difíceis de diferenciar do colibri de Allen. A forma "entalhada" típica do segundo rectriz (R2) é considerada uma importante marca de campo para distinguir o beija-flor rufo macho adulto do beija-flor de Allen macho adulto. Este é um colibri de tamanho típico, sendo um pássaro muito pequeno. Ele pesa , mede  longo e se estende por  através das asas.

Eles se alimentam de néctar de flores usando uma língua extensível ou pegam insetos na asa. Essas aves requerem alimentação frequente enquanto são ativas durante o dia e tornam-se entorpecidas à noite para conservar energia. Devido ao seu pequeno tamanho, eles são vulneráveis a pássaros e animais que se alimentam de insetos.

Reprodução
Seus habitats de reprodução primários são áreas abertas, encostas de montanhas e bordas de floresta no oeste da América do Norte, do sul do Alasca até a Colúmbia Britânica e do noroeste do Pacífico até a Califórnia, fazendo ninhos mais ao norte (Alasca) do que qualquer outro colibri . A fêmea constrói um ninho em um local protegido em um arbusto ou conífera. Os machos são promíscuos, acasalando-se com várias fêmeas.

Migração

Os colibris rufos ocidentais migram através das Montanhas Rochosas e das planícies próximas durante maio a setembro para aproveitar a temporada de flores silvestres. Eles podem ficar em uma região local durante todo o verão, caso em que os migrantes, como as aves reprodutoras, frequentemente assumem e defendem agressivamente os locais de alimentação. A maior parte do inverno em áreas arborizadas no estado mexicano de Guerrero, viajando por mais de  por uma rota terrestre a partir de sua casa de verão mais próxima - uma jornada prodigiosa para um pássaro que pesa apenas 3 a 4 g.

Os beija-flores rufos machos adultos tendem a migrar um pouco mais cedo do que as fêmeas ou jovens. Uma vez que os juvenis ou fêmeas são essencialmente indistinguíveis dos colibris de Allen, a menos que seja confirmado por uma inspeção cuidadosa, os migrantes ruivos orientais podem ser classificados como "colibris ruivos / de Allen".

Mecânica pairando, metabolismo e dimorfismo sexual

A velocimetria de imagem digital foi usada para capturar os movimentos das asas do colibri ruivo no filme, permitindo a determinação de que a ave suporta seu peso corporal durante o pairar principalmente por movimentos da asa para baixo (75% da sustentação ) ao invés de movimentos para cima (25% da sustentação). Ao pairar durante o jejum, os colibris ruivos oxidam ácidos graxos para apoiar o metabolismo e as necessidades de energia dos alimentos, mas podem mudar rapidamente para o metabolismo de carboidratos (em 40 minutos) após se alimentarem de néctar de flores.

Tanto o macho quanto a fêmea de S. rufus são territoriais; no entanto, eles defendem diferentes tipos de territórios. Os machos mais agressivos lutam para defender áreas com flores densas, empurrando as fêmeas para áreas com flores menos povoadas. Os machos geralmente têm asas mais curtas do que as fêmeas, portanto, seu custo metabólico para pairar é maior. Isso permite que os machos batam suas asas em altas frequências, dando-lhes a capacidade de perseguir e atacar outras aves para defender seu território. O custo metabólico das asas curtas é compensado pelo fato de que esses machos não precisam desperdiçar energia procurando comida, porque seu território defendido fornece bastante sustento. As fêmeas, por outro lado, não têm acesso às fontes de alimento de alta concentração, porque os machos as combatem. Portanto, as fêmeas geralmente defendem territórios maiores, onde as flores são menos povoadas, forçando-as a voar mais longe entre as fontes de alimento. O custo metabólico de voar mais longe é compensado com asas mais longas, proporcionando um voo mais eficiente para as fêmeas. As diferenças no comprimento das asas de S. rufus demonstram um dimorfismo sexual distinto, permitindo que cada sexo explore melhor os recursos em uma área.

Conservação
Em 2018, o colibri ruivo foi elevado de menos preocupação a quase ameaçado na Lista Vermelha da IUCN, com base em que, devido à sua dependência de presas de insetos durante a temporada de inverno, será fortemente afetado pelo declínio global nas populações de insetos devido a pesticidas e agricultura intensificada. Devido à mudança climática, muitas flores de que o colibri ruivo se alimenta durante a época de reprodução começaram a florescer duas semanas antes da chegada das aves aos locais de nidificação, o que pode fazer com que os colibris ruivos cheguem tarde demais para se alimentar delas.

Galeria

Rufous
Aves descritas em 1788
rufous hummingbird

Beija-flor-ruivo