The European Car of the Year ("ECOTY") award is an international Car of the Year award established in 1964, by a collective of automobile magazines from different countries in Europe. The current organising companies of the award are Auto (Italy), Autocar (United Kingdom), Autopista (Spain), Autovisie (Netherlands), L'Automobile Magazine (France), Stern (Germany) and Vi Bilägare (Sweden).

The voting jury consists of motoring journalists from publications throughout Europe. Representation from each country is based on the size of the country's car market, and car manufacturing industry. There are no categories or class winners — the stated objective is to find a "single, decisive winner" among all competing cars.

The 2023 ECOTY was announced on 13 January 2023 in Brussels, Belgium, the winner being the Jeep Avenger.

Current rules
Eligible cars are new models released in the twelve months prior to the award. The award is not restricted to European cars, but nominees must be available in at least five European countries, and have expected sales of 5,000 a year.

Nominees are judged on the following criteria: design, comfort, safety, economy, handling, performance, functionality, environmental requirements, driver satisfaction and price. Technical innovation and value for money are also important factors.

A shortlist of seven cars is selected by a simple vote. For the final round of voting, each jury member has 25 points to distribute among the finalists. The points must be distributed to at least five cars, with no more than ten to any one car, and no joint top marks. The voting is open, and each jury member provides published justification for their vote distribution.

Under these rules, the decisiveness of the victory has varied greatly. For example, in 1988, the Peugeot 405 won by 212 points, the biggest gap in the history of the European Car of the Year competition; such feat was repeated in 2013, as the Mk VII Volkswagen Golf won by the same points gap. In 2010 the Volkswagen Polo won by a mere 10 points, received maximum points from twenty-five jurors, and was the top choice of 59.

The Renault Clio (1991, 2006), Volkswagen Golf (1992, 2013), Opel/Vauxhall Astra (1985, 2016), and Toyota Yaris (2000, 2021) are the only cars to have won the award more than once.

In 2011, the Nissan Leaf was the first electrically-powered vehicle to be awarded Car of the Year.

Result
British carmakers produced the first two winners of the award. The Rover 2000 saloon was the inaugural winner in 1964 while the Austin 1800 was victorious in 1965. The Rover won over another British contender, the rear-engine Hillman Imp.

The Renault 16 was the world's first production hatchback car  and unsurprisingly won the award for 1966, having been launched at the beginning of 1965. A year later, the award went to the Fiat 124, which won more than twice as many as voted as its nearest competitor, the BMW 1600. Fiat missed out the following year, however, when its 125 was pipped to the award by the revolutionary new NSU Ro80, one of the first production cars to feature a rotary engine.

Peugeot claimed the accolade for the first time with the 1969 award, which was won by its 504 saloon, a large family car which offered a high standard of interior comfort and build quality. The Fiat 128 was the next winner of the award, while a year later the innovative new Citroën GS family saloon won the award.

Fiat became the first manufacturer to win the award for a third time when its 127 supermini won the 1972 title. The next winner of the award was the Audi 80, and the 1974 award went to the Mercedes-Benz 450SE luxury saloon.

Despite financial problems which led to its takeover by Peugeot that year, Citroën won the accolade in 1975 with its flagship CX saloon, which fought off a strong challenge from the highly acclaimed Volkswagen Golf. Then came Chrysler Europe's first winner of the award, the contemporary Simca 1307/1308 (Chrysler Alpine in the United Kingdom). Despite all the strife which troubled British Leyland throughout the 1970s, the state-owned carmaker achieved recognition for 1977 when its Rover 3500 executive car won the award.  This was the last time a British marque would win the contest (discounting the Vauxhall models which were badge engineered Opels) - until the Jaguar I-Pace took the crown in 2019.

Sports cars have traditionally accounted for only a tiny percentage of car sales throughout Europe, but the European Car of the Year accolade was won by one for 1978, when the Porsche 928 sealed the award in the face of competition from the BMW 7 Series and Ford Granada.

Just before the sale of its European division to Peugeot, Chrysler achieved a success second in the contest with its Horizon, which won the 1979 award ahead of one of its main rivals, Fiat Ritmo/Strada. Lancia finally achieved recognition a year later when its stylish new Delta hatchback was voted European Car of the Year.

Ford finally achieved success in the contest when the Escort MkIII, the first of that model line to feature front-wheel drive or a hatchback, sealed the award for 1981, fighting off competition from British Leyland's crucial Austin Metro supermini and the Fiat Panda. A year later, the accolade was perhaps surprisingly won by the Renault 9, which managed to finish ahead of the more widely well regarded Opel Ascona C and the MK2 Volkswagen Polo. The 1983 award was won by the Audi 100, which narrowly finished ahead of the slightly smaller and similarly aerodynamic Ford Sierra.

The 1984 award saw two new superminis finish well ahead of the nearest contenders. The Fiat Uno was Fiat's fourth success in the history of the award, finishing slightly ahead of the Peugeot 205. A year later, General Motors finally achieved recognition when its latest version of the Opel Kadett/Vauxhall Astra sealed it. Ford achieved a second victory in the 1986 contest with its new Scorpio/Granada flagship Which unsuccessful in the American market. General Motors made it two victories in three years when its own flagship model, the Opel Omega/Vauxhall Carlton, won the award for 1987.

19 years after the 504 gave Peugeot its first European Car of the Year, the French carmaker finally enjoyed its second triumph in the competition when its mid-range 405 saloon won the 1988 award by a wide margin. A year later, Fiat became the first manufacturer to win the award five times when its ground-breaking new Tipo achieved victory.

Citroën's new XM flagship model won the award for 1990, with its French rival Renault scoring success a year later with the new Clio supermini, which signalled the end for the iconic R5. With the award now nearly 30 years old, Volkswagen finally achieved recognition in 1992 when its MK3 Golf won the award, finishing ahead of two of its most important competitors - the Vauxhall/Opel Astra and Citroën ZX.

A non-European brand - with a British-built product - won the award for the first time for 1993, when the Nissan Micra earned top marks ahead of the Fiat Cinquecento (a car which helped the popularity of city cars in Europe to soar over the next few years) and Renault's new flagship, the Safrane.

Ford achieved a third success in the competition with its Mondeo, successor to the Sierra, winning the award for 1994. Fiat increased its number of victories in the contest to six, when its new Punto supermini won the award for 1995, just as its Uno and 127 ancestors had done many years earlier. Fiat made it seven victories a year later when its Bravo/Brava range pipped the stylish Peugeot 406 to the honour.

Renault's innovative compact MPV, the Scénic, won the ECOTY And Japan Import Car of the Year for 1997, while The Fiat subsidiary Alfa Romeo won the next year's award for the first time with its 156 mid-range sports saloon.

Ford achieved a fourth success in the contest when its boldly-styled Focus won the 1999 award, fighting off competition from the latest Vauxhall/Opel Astra as well as Peugeot's stylish 206 supermini. A year later, a Japanese manufacturer - this time with a Japanese-built product - won the award when the Toyota Yaris Hatchback and Yaris Verso Mini MPV earned top marks in Car of the Year Japan and ECOTY ahead of the boldly-styled Fiat Multipla and the practical Vauxhall/Opel Zafira compact MPV.

Alfa Romeo's modern revival continued when its stylish 147 won the award for 2001, with the next winner being the Peugeot 307. It was another French success for 2003, when the second generation Renault Megane was the winner.

Fiat achieved its eighth success in the contest when its all-new Panda won the 2004 award. Toyota made it two victories from six years when its radical Prius hybrid won the 2005 award. The Renault Clio became the first model to win the award twice when the third generation of the popular supermini won it for 2006, having previously won in 1991.

Ford's stylish and practical S-MAX won the 2007 award, fighting off a close challenge from the Vauxhall/Opel Corsa, earlier versions of which had been largely overlooked by the contest's judges.

Fiat made in nine victories in the contest when it won the 2008 award with the 500 model, a retro-styled take on its iconic small car which had first been launched 50 years earlier. The next award went to a more traditional and mainstream offering, when Vauxhall/Opel won the award for only the third time with its Insignia.

Volkswagen's Polo supermini had been around in several forms since its launch in the mid 1970s, but the all-new version launched in 2009 was the first generation of Polo to win this award, and only the second Volkswagen-badged car ever to win it.

Then came two years of success for electric-powered cars, with the British-built Nissan Leaf and United States-built (Opel) Vauxhall Ampera/Chevrolet Volt winning the 2011 and 2012 award respectively.

The Volkswagen Golf (having previously won in 1992) then joined the Renault Clio with the distinction of two wins in the contest when the MK7 version won the 2013 award. One of the Golf's key rivals, the Peugeot 308, was the next winner. In 2015, was awarded the Volkswagen Passat. In 2016, the Opel/Vauxhall Astra, another key rival to the Golf, became the third automobile to win the award twice, having previously won in 1985.

In 2017 Peugeot won with the fifth time with the crossover 3008.

The 2018 winner announced on 5 March is for a Swedish manufacturer for the first time in the history of the competition, with the Volvo XC40 winning.

 Since 2001

* The I-Pace received 18 first-place votes, compared to 16 for the A110.

See also

 List of motor vehicle awards
Car of the Year for other similar awards in different countries and by various magazine and institutions.

References

External links

Motor vehicle awards
Awards established in 1964
Car
Stern (magazine)
Road transport in Europe

European Car of the Year


Psihoarhitectura este un cuvânt ce definește studiul acțiunii spațiului construit asupra psihicului uman. El a fost lansat în cadrul primei din seria conferințelor "Psihoarhitectura" organizate în Universitatea de arhitectura București, în mai 2014 de lect.dr.arh. Codruța Iana. Cuvântul este o licență lingvistică ce denumește explicit relația dintre cele două domenii de cunoaștere, arhitectură și psihologie. El apare și în titlul cărții cu același nume a conferinței "Psihoarhitectura", publicată în 2017 la editura  UAUIM. Psihoarhitectura include dar nu se confundă, conform definiției date, cu acțiunea psihologică a mediului, respectiv cu psihologia ambientală deoarece spațiul arhitectural prezintă valențe multiple și acționează diferit asupra psihicului uman. De asemenea relația dintre spațiul arhitectural și locuitorul său este una complexă, profund reciprocă, în același timp de locuire, de conținere, de aparținere și de creare în sensul de re-formare reciprocă. De aceea termenul care definește relația psihologică a omului cu spațiu pe care îl habitează are nevoie de un cuvânt specific.

Domeniul vast al acestui studiu a fost îmbogățit de cercetările încununate de cursul prof.dr.arh. Mariana Eftenie, "Psihologia spațiului construit", susținut în UAUIM.

Psihologie
Arhitectură

Psihoarhitectura


Amdahl may refer to:

People
 Einar Amdahl (1888-1974), Norwegian theologist
 Bjarne Amdahl (1903-1968), Norwegian pianist and composer
 Douglas K. Amdahl (1919–2010), American lawyer and judge from Minnesota
 Gene Amdahl (1922–2015), formulator of Amdahl's law of parallel computing and founder of Amdahl Corporation

Companies
 Amdahl Corporation, a manufacturer of IBM-mainframe-compatible computers

Amdahl


Allium daninianum, es una especie de planta bulbosa del género Allium, perteneciente a la familia de las amarilidáceas, del orden de las Asparagales. Es originaria del este del Mediterráneo donde se distribuye por Siria, Líbano, Israel, Jordania y Transjordania, donde crece principalmente en las comunidades arbustivas a una altitud menor de 900 metros.

Taxonomía

Allium daninianum fue descrita por Brullo, Pavone & Salmeri y publicado en Willdenowia 26: 239 (1996).
Etimología
Allium: nombre genérico muy antiguo. Las plantas de este género eran conocidos tanto por los romanos como por los griegos. Sin embargo, parece que el término tiene un origen celta y significa "quemar", en referencia al fuerte olor acre de la planta. Uno de los primeros en utilizar este nombre para fines botánicos fue el naturalista francés Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656-1708).

daninianum: epíteto

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 http://www.flowersinisrael.com/Alliumdaninianum_page.htm

daninianum
Flora de la cuenca mediterránea
Plantas descritas en 1996
Plantas descritas por Brullo
Plantas descritas por Pavone
Plantas descritas por Salmeri

Allium daninianum


In biology and biochemistry, protease inhibitors, or antiproteases, are molecules that inhibit the function of proteases (enzymes that aid the breakdown of proteins). Many naturally occurring protease inhibitors are proteins.

In medicine, protease inhibitor is often used interchangeably with alpha 1-antitrypsin (A1AT, which is abbreviated PI for this reason). A1AT is indeed the protease inhibitor most often involved in disease, namely in alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency.

Classification
Protease inhibitors may be classified either by the type of protease they inhibit, or by their mechanism of action. In 2004 Rawlings and colleagues introduced a classification of protease inhibitors based on similarities detectable at the level of amino acid sequence. This classification initially identified 48 families of inhibitors that could be grouped into 26 related superfamily (or clans) by their structure. According to the MEROPS database there are now 81 families of inhibitors. These families are named with an I followed by a number, for example, I14 contains hirudin-like inhibitors.

By protease
Classes of proteases are:

 Aspartic protease inhibitors
 Cysteine protease inhibitors
 Metalloprotease inhibitors
 Serine protease inhibitors
 Threonine protease inhibitors
 Trypsin inhibitors
 Kunitz STI protease inhibitor

By mechanism
Classes of inhibitor mechanisms of action are:

 Suicide inhibitor
 Transition state inhibitor
 Protein protease inhibitor (see serpins)
 Chelating agents

Families

Inhibitor I4
This is a family of protease suicide inhibitors called the serpins. It contains inhibitors of multiple cysteine and serine protease families. Their mechanism of action relies on undergoing a large conformational change which inactivates their target's catalytic triad.

Inhibitor I9

Proteinase propeptide inhibitors (sometimes referred to as activation peptides) are responsible for the modulation of folding and activity of the peptidase pro-enzyme or zymogen. The pro-segment docks into the enzyme, shielding the substrate binding site, thereby promoting inhibition of the enzyme. Several such propeptides share a similar topology, despite often low sequence identities. The propeptide region has an open-sandwich antiparallel-alpha/antiparallel-beta fold, with two alpha-helices and four beta-strands with a (beta/alpha/beta)x2 topology.
The peptidase inhibitor I9 family contains the propeptide domain at the N-terminus of peptidases belonging to MEROPS family S8A, subtilisins. The propeptide is removed by proteolytic cleavage; removal activating the enzyme.

Inhibitor I10

This family includes both microviridins and marinostatins. It seems likely that in both cases it is the C-terminus which becomes the active inhibitor after post-translational modifications of the full length, pre-peptide. It is the ester linkages within the key, 12-residue region that circularise the molecule giving it its inhibitory conformation.

Inhibitor I24

This family includes PinA, which inhibits the endopeptidase La. It binds to the La homotetramer but does not interfere with the ATP binding site or the active site of La.

Inhibitor I29

The inhibitor I29 domain, which belongs to MEROPS peptidase inhibitor family I29, is found at the N-terminus of a variety of peptidase precursors that belong to MEROPS peptidase subfamily C1A; these include cathepsin L, papain, and procaricain. It forms an alpha-helical domain that runs through the substrate-binding site, preventing access. Removal of this region by proteolytic cleavage results in activation of the enzyme. This domain is also found, in one or more copies, in a variety of cysteine peptidase inhibitors such as salarin.

Inhibitor I34

The saccharopepsin inhibitor I34 is highly specific for the aspartic peptidase saccharopepsin. In the absence of saccharopepsin it is largely unstructured, but in its presence, the inhibitor undergoes a conformational change forming an almost perfect alpha-helix from Asn2 to Met32 in the active site cleft of the peptidase.

Inhibitor I36

The peptidase inhibitor family I36 domain is only found in a small number of proteins restricted to Streptomyces species. All have four conserved cysteines that probably form two disulphide bonds. One of these proteins from Streptomyces nigrescens, is the well characterised metalloproteinase inhibitor SMPI.

The structure of SMPI has been determined. It has 102 amino acid residues with two disulphide bridges and specifically inhibits metalloproteinases such as thermolysin, which belongs to MEROPS peptidase family M4. SMPI is composed of two beta-sheets, each consisting of four antiparallel beta-strands. The structure can be considered as two Greek key motifs with 2-fold internal symmetry, a Greek key beta-barrel. One unique structural feature found in SMPI is in its extension between the first and second strands of the second Greek key motif which is known to be involved in the inhibitory activity of SMPI. In the absence of sequence similarity, the SMPI structure shows clear similarity to both domains of the eye lens crystallins, both domains of the calcium sensor protein-S, as well as the single-domain yeast killer toxin. The yeast killer toxin structure was thought to be a precursor of the two-domain beta gamma-crystallin proteins, because of its structural similarity to each domain of the beta gamma-crystallins. SMPI thus provides another example of a single-domain protein structure that corresponds to the ancestral fold from which the two-domain proteins in the beta gamma-crystallin superfamily are believed to have evolved.

Inhibitor I42

Inhibitor family I42 includes chagasin, a reversible inhibitor of papain-like cysteine proteases. Chagasin has a beta-barrel structure, which is a unique variant of the immunoglobulin fold with homology to human CD8alpha.

Inhibitor I48

Inhibitor family I48 includes clitocypin, which binds and inhibits cysteine proteinases. It has no similarity to any other known cysteine proteinase inhibitors but bears some similarity to a lectin-like family of proteins from mushrooms.

Inhibitor I53

Members of this family are the peptidase inhibitor madanin proteins. These proteins were isolated from tick saliva.

Inhibitor I67

Bromelain inhibitor VI, in the Inhibitor I67 family, is a double-chain inhibitor consisting of an 11-residue and a 41-residue chain.

Inhibitor I68

The Carboxypeptidase inhibitor I68 family represents a family of tick carboxypetidase inhibitors.

Inhibitor I78

The peptidase inhibitor I78 family includes Aspergillus elastase inhibitor.

Compounds
 Aprotinin
 Bestatin
 Calpain inhibitor I and II
 Chymostatin
 E-64
 Leupeptin (N-acetyl-L-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-argininal)
 alpha-2-Macroglobulin
 Pefabloc SC
 Pepstatin
 PMSF (phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride)
 TLCK
 Trypsin inhibitors

See also
 Kunitz domain
 Pacifastin
 Proteinase inhibitors in plants

References

External links
 Sigma-Aldrich protease inhibitor overview

Protein families

Protease inhibitor (biology)


An Holcolemma dispar in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Clayton. An Holcolemma dispar in nahilalakip ha genus nga Holcolemma, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Holcolemma

Holcolemma dispar


Belören, Çorum ilinin Bayat ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Coğrafya
Çorum iline 86 km, Bayat ilçesine 6 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar

Bayat belde ve köyleri

Belören, Bayat


Post is the second studio album by Icelandic singer Björk. It was released on 7 June 1995 by One Little Indian Records. Continuing the style developed on her first album Debut (1993), Björk conceived of Post as a bolder and more extroverted set of songs than its predecessor, featuring an eclectic mixture of electronic and dance styles such as techno, trip hop, IDM, and house, but also ambient, jazz, industrial, and experimental music. Björk produced Post herself with co-producers including Nellee Hooper, 808 State's Graham Massey, and former Massive Attack member Tricky. She wrote most of the songs after moving to London, and intended the album to reflect her new life in the city.

The album reached number one in Iceland, number two in the United Kingdom and number 32 in the United States. It was certified gold in New Zealand and Sweden, and platinum in Australia, Canada, the US, and the UK. Six singles were released: "Army of Me", "Isobel", "It's Oh So Quiet", "Hyperballad", "Possibly Maybe", and "I Miss You", with three reaching the UK top 10. Their accompanying music videos were noted for their surrealism, themes of nature and technology, and artistic development of the medium. A remix album titled Telegram was released in 1996.

During the album's commercial peak, Björk was affected by media attention and Post's promotional tour. She survived a murder attempt, and caused controversy by assaulting a reporter. Björk would relocate to Spain away from the press and produce her next album, Homogenic (1997). Considered an important exponent of art pop, Post has been praised by critics for its ambition and timelessness. It was named one of the greatest albums of 1995 by numerous publications, and has since been named one of the greatest albums of all time by publications including Entertainment Weekly and Rolling Stone.

Recording and production

Björk released her previous studio album Debut in 1993. At that time, she had moved to London. The production of Debut was "long and laborious", as Björk sought to fully realise her compositional ideas from the past. After its release, she was free to concentrate on her present life for new musical clues for her following album. She contacted producer Nellee Hooper who had worked with her on her previous album. He refused initially, encouraging her to produce the album herself, but agreed when she insisted. However, Björk agreed to co-produce along with other enlisted producers; "to make it stay fresh, she had to think about other people being involved". With Hooper's confirmation, Björk commenced work on the album in late 1994 at the Compass Point Studios in Nassau. The picturesque locale inspired Björk to meld the recording process with the exotic natural environment. Biographer Mark Pytlik writes: "The tales surrounding these recording sessions are appropriately evocative". For example, Rolling Stone wrote that for her vocals: "Björk extended her mic cord to a beach so she could sing to the sea". Additionally, the first version of "Cover Me" was recorded entirely from a nearby cave.

For this record, Björk incorporated shelved songs she wrote in Manchester with 808 State's Graham Massey, which had preceded the recording sessions for Debut. These included "Army of Me" and "The Modern Things", which had become live staples over the summer, and did not need to undergo extensive transformations at Compass Point. Björk explained her decision to include "Army of Me" in Post rather than Debut: "I was gonna make it as a part of Debut but for me [that album] was a more gentle energy and Post was more raw, more brutal. And maybe you can say that Debut was London but Post was more a little bit Manchester, a little bit Scotland, a little bit Bristol. So it was not so sleek. At that time, anything that came from London was a little bit sleek, and people from Scotland and Manchester and Bristol looked down at all things sleek, they wanted things to be raw. When I use the word 'sleek' I actually don't use it as a bad word, I think it worked really well on Debut, to kinda glue everything together. But I think on Post I was like: 'okay, I've put aside this raw energy, now I want to bring it in." Massey stated: "With 'Army of Me' we wanted to try something that was quite hard and techno-y. I'm not sure how she wrote those lyrics so fast but I remember that song being almost instantaneous. [...] We kind of knocked that off in one day and then started on 'The Modern Things' the same day and finished that the next".

Although the album was supposed to be delivered the day after she returned from the Bahamas, Björk felt it was not yet complete and decided to continue its production back in London. She enlisted a new team of engineers and programmers, and spent the next months "tweaking, rearranging, and sometimes completely rerecording her pre-existing tracks". Ultimately, it was the inclusion of more "real" instruments that "resuscitated Post for Björk". Björk continued to compose songs such as "Isobel", which was created while she was visiting Reykjavík for Christmas, before bringing it back to Hooper's studio. The song's lyrics were written in collaboration with Icelandic poet Sjón, which was his first songwriting experience. Sjón would become a frequent collaborator throughout Björk's career. She also enlisted trip hop artist Tricky to assist in producing the album, on the condition that he would work on two tracks on her album and she would contribute two vocals for his album. Their collaboration resulted in the Post songs "Enjoy" and "Headphones"—in addition to "Keep Your Mouth Shut" and "Yoga", which appeared on Tricky's 1996 studio album, Nearly God.

The track that underwent the most extensive change was "I Miss You", an old song from the Debut era. Howie Bernstein gave the song its "Latin-tinged [rhythm]". Back in London, Björk contacted "old standby" Talvin Singh to record additional percussion parts for it. Fellow former Sugarcubes member Einar Örn Benediktsson was also contacted to play the trumpet on "Enjoy". English sessionist Gary Barnacle was enlisted to play the saxophone. Although he had not been involved in music for a long time, Brazilian composer Eumir Deodato immediately agreed to participate on the album at Björk's request. Björk decided to contact him after being impressed by his arrangements of a rare Milton Nascimento song called "Travessia". Deodato's presence as composer and conductor "immediately bolstered" "Hyperballad", "You've Been Flirting Again" and "Isobel". This addition of strings, brass and percussion elements gave Post the balance Björk felt her original recordings had lacked. "It's Oh So Quiet" was the last track to be recorded. By the time the album was finished in April 1995, the list of co-producers included Björk, Hooper, Bernstein, Massey, and Tricky. Björk has said: "The people I collaborated with were all people I was hanging out with in clubs in London. I had known them all for a while before we ended up working together."

Composition

Musical style

Björk's website described Post as "a bit of a bolder side of [Björk], who now had ventured all the way from Iceland to England, and was exploring the faster pace and big city life that this new country brought. This album became influenced of that and became more adventurous and club-friendly as a contrast to the shy first album, Debut." Likewise, The Guardian wrote in 2011 that "Post tapped into the vortex of multicultural energy that was mid-90s London where she had relocated, and where strange hybrids such as jungle and trip-hop were bubbling". Noted for its eclectic nature, Björk described Post as "musically promiscuous" and "spastic". Peter Tabakis of Pretty Much Amazing said that it has a protean form and "wide emotional palette". While the album is recognised as an experimental work, it is also characterised by its accessibility and pop framework. Post has been described as art pop, experimental pop, and avant-pop.

Post touches on various musical styles, including industrial music, big-band jazz, trip hop, chillout, and experimental music. Jim Farber, reviewing the album in 1995 for Entertainment Weekly, considered Post to be a "connecting point between industrial-disco, ambient-trance, and catchy synth pop". When asked if this variety of genres was intentional, Björk replied: "Yes, I'm very aware of that. I've got very many sides to me." She recognises Post as darker and more aggressive than Debut, and has identified independence, strength, and instinct as its lyrical themes. The balance between synthetic and organic elements in the album—generated through the combination of electronic and "real" instruments—is a recurring characteristic of Björk's output. In 1999, Vibe stated: "Fusing techno, industrial, ambient, punk, and the rarefied yet tuneful spheres of art rock, Björk explores a jungle of tones, supported by her eternally buoyant voice from Mars." Part of the album's innovation was Björk's further embrace of electronic instrumentation, an interest established on Debut. While IDM and trip hop influences were present on Debut, Post is characterised by Björk's fuller incorporation of these genres.

The Rolling Stone review stated that Björk "[foraged] for inspiration in the soundscapes of orchestral jazz, ambient techno and classical". Influences of jazz fusion were also noted by a contemporary review by The New York Times. In 1996, when asked about the album's musical influences, Björk stated: "I'm influenced by everything. By books, by the weather, by the water, by my shoes, if they're comfortable or not. Everything."

Songs

The album opens with "Army of Me", an aggressive song with industrial rock, and trip hop influences. It incorporates a looped drum sample of Led Zeppelin's "When the Levee Breaks". Dedicated to Björk's younger brother, the song's lyrics are, according to Björk herself, "about telling someone who is full of self-pity and doesn't have anything together to get a life and stand up"; as she sings: "And if you complain once more/You'll meet an army of me!" "Hyperballad", which incorporates a spectrum of electronic and orchestral styles, has been described as "a love song penned by Aphex Twin". NME wrote that its music "altered from gentle folktronica to drum and bass-tinted acid house"; an attempt to reflect the song's lyrics, which are about "the art of not forgetting about yourself". In them, Björk describes living at the top of a mountain and going to a cliff at sunrise. She throws objects off the cliff while pondering her own suicide. The ritual allows her to exorcise darker thoughts and return to her partner. The track is followed by "The Modern Things", a song that, in a magical realist tone, "playfully posits the theory that technology has always existed, waiting in mountains for humans to catch up". Interview described it in 1995 as a "spooky tune", noting "the odd scratchings at the end" of the track. In a startling shift in style, the big band track "It's Oh So Quiet" covers a German composition made famous by Betty Hutton. It has been described as "a palate-cleanser during the course of the record". Björk included the song "just to make it absolutely certain that the album would be as schizophrenic as possible, that every song would be a shock".

The following track, "Enjoy", a song concerning the links between sex and fear, has been considered "decidedly trippy", and "Posts most abrasive track". NME described it in its 1995 review as, "a dark and deranged techno thing". Over military drums and "squalls of noise", Björk sings about "her hedonistic tendencies". The orchestral interlude "You've Been Flirting Again", like the previous track "Enjoy", features "mysterious or open-ended lyrics". They are an attempt to describe the ambiguous nature of flirting. "Isobel" is a string-laden, orchestral trip hop song, Craig McLean of The Face called the track "Broadway on breakbeats". Conceived by Björk as "part autobiography part storytelling", its lyrics concern Isobel, a woman magically born in a forest who finds people in the city "a bit too clever for her", eventually retreating back to nature and sending them a message of instinct through trained moths. Inspired by South American literature—particularly Gabriel García Márquez—the track's lyrics discuss "the duality between reason and emotions, between intuition and intellect"; in Björk's words, "asking how 20th century civilisation clashes with nature and, in places like Iceland and Thailand, people really believe they can have a TV remote control in one hand and a ghost sitting beside them".

"Possibly Maybe" is an ambient dub track that fuses trip-hop and chill-out music. Björk has said that it was the first unhappy song she wrote, stating in 1997: "That was very hard for me. [...] I was ashamed writing a song that was not giving hope". Its lyrics document the various stages of Björk's ill-fated relationship with Stéphane Sednaoui. With the track, De Vries "create[d] a vinyl-crackling ambience, full of glissando strings and leaden, muted bass. The slide guitar heard in the background of the song was originally intended to be its focal point, as Björk initially strived for an "ambient country" sound inspired by Chris Isaak's "Wicked Game".  "I Miss You" was described in 1997 as an "amalgam of styles, with electronic drums melding into African bongos mixed with jazzy horn playing". A house music number, its "horn-infused Afro-Cuban strains [...] reflect the romantic whimsy of [its] lyrics". Björk wrote "Cover Me", one of the quieter moments on the album, to her co-producer Nellee Hooper after he agreed to participate in the making of Post. She has said: "I guess I was trying to make fun of myself, how dangerous I manage sometimes to make album making. And trying to lure him into it. But it is also  thing from me to him". The album ends with the experimental "Headphones", an ambient track. Featuring "just-for-headphones studio tricks", it has been described as "a chiming, somnolent dip into Björk's heavy-lidded pre-dream state". Its lyrics were written as a thank you to Graham Massey, who would make compilation cassettes for Björk. She also stated: "But, of course, it is also a love letter to sound. The sound of sound. Resonances, frequencies, silences and such... a music-worship thing".

Title and artwork
[[File:Piccadilly Circus - geograph.org.uk - 265001.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Post'''s album cover was meant to depict Björk in Piccadilly Circus.]]
Björk chose the title Post for two reasons. Firstly, it refers to the fact that all the songs on the album were written after her move to England, while the songs on Debut were songs she had written during the previous ten years of her life in Iceland. In a 1996 interview, Björk said: "I always knew it would be two albums and that's why I called them Debut and Post. Before and after". Secondly, the title was inspired by Björk's desire to communicate with friends and family back in Iceland, giving Post the additional meaning of "mail".

The album cover was photographed by Stephane Sednaoui. It shows Björk standing in a London street, her pale skin and dark hair contrasting with the vivid colours of the Japanese-inspired signs behind her. Designer Paul White of Me Company—who had been a frequent collaborator since the Sugarcubes—"surrounded her with giant postcards to represent communication with friends and family". Björk also said that "my musical heart was scattered at the time and I wanted the [cover] to show that". Me Company designed the artwork, while Martin Gardiner modeled the lotus flower used in the album's booklet and packaging. The jacket Björk wears, shown on the cover, was inspired by Royal Mail airmail envelopes, referencing the album's title. It was specially crafted from envelope paper called Tyvek by designer Hussein Chalayan. The jacket is displayed under glass at Hard Rock Reykjavík, and was part of a 2015 MoMA retrospective on Björk, Björk. Vice has identified the airmail jacket look as one of the "ultimate fashion moments" of Björk's career.

A shot of Björk surrounded by silver balls was planned as the cover, but it was scrapped in favour of something "more poppy". The photo would later appear in a 1995 article for The Face.

Release and promotionPost was released on 7 June 1995, as a 12" record, CD, and compact cassette. It was issued on One Little Indian Records in the United Kingdom and Elektra Records in the United States and Canada; Polydor Records issued Post in Australia and Japan, also releasing the European edition of the album. In September 1995, Björk and poet Sjón released Post, a paperback book meant to be a "pictorial and verbal record of the making of that album". It contained interviews with Björk and also focused on the European leg of the tour. The Post Tour was her first proper North American tour as a solo artist, with Aphex Twin as her opening act. While in the United States, she also appeared on Late Night with David Letterman; this tour "helped maintain Posts momentum and keep Björk in the public eye", since airings of "Army of Me" and "Isobel" had been relegated primarily to after-hours alternative music shows in MTV. In the United Kingdom, Björk also performed on Top of the Pops on several occasions. In 1996, Björk took part in Arnold Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire, conducted by Kent Nagano and the Opera orchestra of Lyon. In addition, Björk also appeared in several music magazines.

In November 1996, Björk released the "often-delayed" remix project Telegram, which contained reworkings of several songs from Post, with her voice re-recorded. Telegram has been described as "effectively a completely new album". Author Mark Pytlik writes, "Promises of a Post remix album had been circulating since the release of "Army of Me" in April 1995. To compensate, Björk announced the release of a string of 12″ remixes beginning in June, limited to only 1,000 copies each. Producers and musicians featured on Telegram include: Dillinja, Eumir Deodato, LFO, and Graham Massey, among others; Björk only remixed "You've Been Flirting Again" herself. The album also contains a new composition, "My Spine", a collaboration with British percussionist Evelyn Glennie. Telegram spent five weeks on the US Billboard 200 chart, peaking at number 66. In the UK, it peaked at number 59, spending two weeks on the albums chart.

In 2005, the UNICEF charity record Army of Me: Remixes and Covers was released; it is a collection of seventeen eclectic remixes of "Army of Me". All profits went directly to the charity, to assist the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Live at Shepherds Bush Empire was released as a VHS in November 1998, containing the last performance of the Post Tour, which took place at Shepherd's Bush Empire in February 1997. Post Live, a live album consisting of songs recorded during the Post Tour, was included in the 2003 box set Live Box. The 2002 box set Family Tree includes demos and alternate versions of various tracks off the album. Post has been reissued several times, adapting to different formats such as colored records, 180g vinyl, and DualDisc. A remastered version of the album in surround sound was included in the box set Surrounded, which was released in 2006 on Elektra Records. In 2012, Universal Japan issued a limited edition of Debut and Post together as one compilation . All of Posts music videos were included on the 1998 video release Volumen, and its 2002 reissue Volumen Plus. They also appear on Greatest Hits – Volumen 1993–2003, a release that includes the videos featured on Volumen and Volumen Plus. They are also featured on video compilations of its directors, including The Work of Director Michel Gondry and The Work of Director Spike Jonze, all of them from 2003.

Singles

"Army of Me" was released as the lead single from Post on 24 April 1995, shortly after the album's production concluded. It was released in the United Kingdom as two different CD releases, with "Cover Me", "You've Been Flirting Again", "Sweet Intuition", and various remixes as its B-sides. A commercial success, it peaked atop the Íslenski Listinn Topp 40, as well as at numbers five and ten in Finland and the United Kingdom, respectively. In the United States, it peaked at number 21 on the Alternative Airplay chart. Michel Gondry directed the video for "Army of Me", which takes place in a cyberpunk environment. In the video, Björk is seen driving a massive truck, which has been described as "alternately [looking] like an overgrown SUV and a science fiction tank" as she quests to rescue her loved one from an art museum.

"Isobel" was released as the second single on 14 August, with B-sides "Charlene", "I Go Humble", "Venus as a Boy", and several remixes. Although the record company was against the idea of releasing "Isobel", Björk insisted because she "felt intuitively that this was the right choice". However, "Isobel" did not replicate the success of "Army of Me", peaking at number two in Iceland and number 23 in the UK. The music video for "Isobel", directed by Gondry "Isobel" represents the story of the title character Björk envisioned with Sjón. It tells the story of "a wild child discovering urban culture through installations of toy fighter planes", over lush superimposed imagery. Like in the lyrics, where Björk takes the role of narrator and protagonist, she plays two different parts in the music video: Björk is seen as the Isobel who "weaves and composes this world and this story on her organ", and as the Isobel who inhabits this primal world.

"It's Oh So Quiet" was released as the third single on 13 November. Its B-sides included "You've Been Flirting Again", "Hyperballad", "Sweet Sweet Intuition" (a rework of "Sweet Intuition"), and "My Spine". The music video for "It's Oh So Quiet" became one of the most played clips on MTV, and the song became Björk's most successful single, peaking at number one in Iceland and within the top ten in Australia, Finland, Ireland, Scotland and the UK, while peaking at number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100's extension Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart. The single was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 400,000 units in the UK. Spike Jonze directed the music video for "It's Oh So Quiet", a homage to Hollywood's Technicolor musicals that drew inspiration from Busby Berkeley and Jacques Demy's The Umbrellas of Cherbourg. Like Demy, Jonze "mines the magical from the mundane," as he transforms a drab auto shop into the location where Björk dances and sings with a full dance company, an attempt to reflect the "exuberance" of her vocal performance.

"Hyperballad" was released as the fourth single on 12 February 1996. The single—consisting of two separate CDs—also included remixes of the song, "Isobel" and "Cover Me". Some regions also included a double A-side single with the song "Enjoy", although it only received a number of promo remixes. It peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart and atop the US Dance Club Songs. The music video for "Hyperballad", also directed by Gondry, has been described as "a techno-dream visual story full of flashing lights, buzzing static, and holograms." It shows Björk as "a character running through a landscape that simulates that of a computer game, only to throw herself off a cliff." The clip is an attempt to reflect the song's story, so Gondry depicted Björk lying down as a dead body, with a holographic image of her singing superimposed on her.

"Possibly Maybe" was released as the fifth single on 28 October via several 12-inch records and three different CD releases. A limited-edition 12-inch double A-side with remixes of "Possibly Maybe" and "Enjoy" (by Mark Bell and Dom T., respectively) was also released. "Possibly Maybe" peaked at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart. Sednaoui directed the music video for "Possibly Maybe", despite the song being about his failed relationship with Björk. Björk and Sednaoui had previously worked together in the music video for "Big Time Sensuality". In the clip, she appears "as a goddess, floating out from a numinous light-streaked background." Sednaoui is known for having a particularly filmic technique for each of his clips; in "Possibly Maybe", the use of blacklighting "makes Björk glow sensuously and perversely". It was conceived in a theatrical way: nearly all of the scenes were filmed in the same space, which is transformed with changes in the mise-en-scène. The style of "Possibly Maybe"'s scenery and Björk's wardrobe reference East Asian imagery, and a Japanese traditional doll is featured as Björk's only accompaniment; as a silent witness, it is the object on which the protagonist casts reflections on her own identity. Regarding the video, Sednaoui said: "Her song and my video were a way of saying things to each other that we couldn't say otherwise."

"I Miss You" was released as the sixth and final single on 17 February 1997.  Although it became Björk's third US Dance Club Songs number-one single, it was the least successful single from Post in Europe, as it peaked only at number 36 on the UK Singles Chart. The animation of its music video was produced by John Kricfalusi and directed by Erik Weiss. It was promptly censored on MTV because of its nudity and violence towards the end.

Critical reception

Upon its release, Post received universal acclaim from music critics. Lorraine Ali of Rolling Stone praised the album for differentiating from the alternative rock offerings of the early 1990s, and for successfully merging disparate styles. She concluded: "When Post comes to an end, it feels like getting back from a good vacation: the last thing you want to do is re-enter the real world". Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Jim Farber stated that despite Posts "bizarre" combination of diverse genres, the conviction of Björk's delivery and assuring hooks "[made] her most surreal passages as relatable as moon-June standards". He felt that Björk "[reinvented] that tradition, constructing standards for the cyber age".

Joy Press, who reviewed the album for The New York Times, praised the album for not being a "play-safe sequel" to Debut, pointing out that Björk, "[had] followed her most wonderfully wayward impulses". Los Angeles Times critic Richard Cromelin felt that Post was "an often heady mix of trendiness and nostalgia" that was capable of transcending Björk's self-consciousness. Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune found the album's backing tracks to be "even more varied and unusual" than on Debut, describing Björk as "an extra-terrestrial voice rummaging around in a sonic toybox". Spins Barry Walters felt the album was an improvement over its predecessor, stating its songs were "stronger, more developed, and less reliant on Björk's wide-eyed delivery". He concluded that: "After years of (no) alternative fascist grunge domination, it's heartening that Björk and producer-co-songwriter Nellee Hooper stayed true to themselves and created another highly personal album that has a chance of interrupting the airwave flow of whiny rockers with little imagination".

Writing for MTV Online, Lou Stathis wrote that, "[it's mostly] Björk's wacky, mind-altered perspective that makes Post modern pop music at once both baffling and engaging". He believed that the album was a rewarding experience for both the casual consumer, as well as the serious listener, also pointing out that, "it not only sounds good while you're listening to it, but it leaves you feeling good when it's over, too". Robert Christgau, reviewing the album for The Village Voice, was less enthusiastic. He found that the album's "eccentric instrumentation" and "electronic timbres" failed to compensate for its lack of "groove" and was unmoved by Björk's lyrics, which he said "might hit home harder if she'd grown up speaking the English she'll die singing, but probably wouldn't".

Commercial performancePost reached the top ten of several countries, including Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Post also peaked at number two on the European Top 100 Albums chart. The album peaked at number 32 in the Billboard 200, almost 30 places higher than the peak position of its predecessor Debut. It also received an enthuastic reception from college radios. Post also reached top 40 in Hungary and Japan. The album was certified platinum in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Europe; and gold in Sweden and New Zealand. In 2007, The Washington Post reported that Post had sold 810,000 units in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan; it had sold 36,000 additional copies by 2015.

Controversy
The music video for "Army of Me" was removed from MTV's playlist before it aired because its ending depicted Björk bombing an art museum; the Oklahoma City bombing happened at this time. Author Mark Pytlik wrote that this "foreshadowed a string of unlucky events that would further hinder Posts unveiling".

An unsourced sample by Robin Rimbaud, prominently heard throughout "Possibly Maybe", resulted in a lawsuit demanding a co-songwriter credit. After Rimbaud's label New Electronica refused a sample clearance compensation of £1,000 from One Little Indian founder Derek Birkett, Björk and Birkett resolved to destroy over 100,000 copies of the album to create a new version without the sample. However, at the request of Rimbaud, New Electronica gave Björk permission use the sample.

Musician Simon Fisher sued Hooper and Björk over writing credits in Debut (1993), but these charges were cleared by judge Robin Jacob. According to Pytlik, these events resulted in "the strangest promotional tour anyone could have ever envisioned: in the week since Post had been released, Björk had seen her album deleted, her video banned, and two separate lawsuits brought against her". One Little Indian were also better prepared to promote the album, scheduling a string of European and American tour dates from the beginning of July into late August.

During the Post era, the extensive media attention and a world tour of 105 dates began to affect Björk. She repeatedly complained about the intrusiveness of tabloids and reporters. On tour in February 1996, Björk arrived at Bangkok International Airport with her son Sindri after a long flight. While the pair walked through the arrival terminals, reporter Julie Kaufman approached them and said, "Welcome to Bangkok!" Björk charged at Kaufman and wrestled her to the ground. It was later reported Kaufman had been bothering Björk and Sindri for days prior. The incident was reported around the world.

On 12 September, an obsessed American fan, Ricardo López, sent a letter bomb rigged with sulfuric acid to Björk's residence in London, returned home and filmed his suicide. Police contacted Scotland Yard, who intercepted the package without incident. To record in privacy away from the unwanted interest of the press, Björk's tour drummer Trevor Morais offered her his studio in Málaga, Spain, to record her next album, Homogenic.

Impact and legacy

Nick Coleman of The Independent considered Post to be an important release of the art pop genre, Retrospectively, Slant Magazines Eric Henderson argued that Post "will likely always remain the Björk album that most successfully sustains her winning balance of experimental whimsy and solid pop magic", while Heather Phares of AllMusic wrote that the record was "not simply Debut redux" and concluded: "The work of a constantly changing artist, Post proves that as Björk moves toward more ambitious, complex music, she always surpasses herself". Celebrating the album's 20th anniversary, the British magazine NME described it as, "a masterful matching of hard, up-to-the-minute beats with complex, personal lyrics about the rush and rage of being a modern urban woman". American writer Tom Moon included Post in his 2008 reference book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die.

The album's influence has been identified as being increasingly palpable on the contemporary music landscape, and later reviews of the album also make note of the timeless aspect of the music. Writing for The Daily Review, James Rose wrote in 2015: "Post is where mainstream music could have gone. While modern chart music hasn't gone there entirely[,] she undoubtedly helped broaden the playing field. [The album] stands today as a body of work that still informs the more marginal artistic fringes of modern music and reminds us how narrow and staid our world would be without outliers like Björk. Also in 2015, Andrew Shaw of Nerdist felt that Post "chose to ignore expectation, market restrictions, and contemporary trends", and that Björk "pushed her vocal performances into new places, where no other vocalists could dare to sing". He compared the album's impact on audiences to that of Jimi Hendrix's 1967 album, Are You Experienced, writing it "set the benchmark for what was possible when you take tradition and set it on fire". Raymond Ang of The Wall Street Journal considered Post to be "Björk's last stab at the pop game… she would dig deeper into her increasingly avant-garde interests and, in the years to come, thrill and challenge her audience".

David Longstreth of Dirty Projectors is an admirer of the record, stating he was influenced by Björk's deconstruction of classic melodies. American singer-songwriter Amy Lee has said Post is "one of the biggest records in [her] life". DJ Shadow sampled "Possibly Maybe" in "Mutual Slump", a track off his 1996 album, Endtroducing...... The Vitamin String Quartet—known for its series of tribute albums to rock and pop acts—covered "Army of Me" and "You've Been Flirting Again" in the 2001 album, Ice: The String Tribute to Björk. In 2008, Stereogum released a compilation of cover versions in homage to the album, titled Enjoyed: A Tribute to Björk's Post. It features: Dirty Projectors, Liars, Xiu Xiu, High Places and Atlas Sound, among other artists.

Much of Post's six music videos have gone on to become classics—most notably "It's Oh So Quiet" and "Army of Me". At the time of its release, music videos were beginning to be used as an art form, and Björk's visual output during this period—and her career in general—have become a clear example of the medium's artistic legitimation. Spanish writer Estíbaliz Pérez Asperilla has identified recurring motifs and themes through Björk's videography; these include nature and a magnified depiction of Björk. Surrealism and technology have also been identified as recurring features in Björk's visual output of this period. David Ehrlich of Time Out considered her "one of the first artists to meaningfully explore the aesthetic and semiotic value of CG and its relationship to the [videos]." Writing for Paste, Alexa Carrasco felt, "Björk has created some of the most beautiful and weird videos to ever play on MTV."  The popularity of the music video for "It's Oh So Quiet" made the song one of Björk's most ubiquitous tracks, and was considered her first breakthrough on MTV. The music videos—and the pink boots Björk wears in "Hyperballad" (the work of Belgian designer Walter Van Beirendonck)—were displayed in the Museum of Modern Art, New York City, as part of the 2015 Björk exhibition. They were also featured in the 2016 exhibition, Björk Digital, which premiered at Carriageworks as part of the Vivid Sydney festival.

In 2008, when asked how she felt about the album in retrospect, Björk reflected: "I was kinda surprised how the odd spastic thing of the album had actually aged well."

Accolades
By the end of 1995, Post appeared on the year-end lists of several publications. In The Village Voices Pazz & Jop critics' poll for 1995, the album placed at number seven. At the 1995 Icelandic Music Awards, Post received the award for Album of the Year; Björk was also awarded Artist of the Year, Female Singer of the Year, Composer of the Year, and was nominated for Songwriter of the Year. Additionally, "Army of Me" received the Song of the Year award, with "Isobel" also being nominated. She also received the Best Female award at the 1995 MTV Europe Music Awards,
 and Best International Female at the Rockbjörnen Awards. Björk was also nominated for the Nordic Council Music Prize. In 1996, she received her second Best International Female Solo Artist award at the 16th Brit Awards. She received the same distinction at the Danish Music Awards, the International Dance Music Awards, and the Italian Music Prize. In 1996, Post was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards, was awarded an IFPI Platinum Europe Award, and the ASCAP Vanguard Award given by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. For the album's music videos, "Army of Me" was nominated for Best Special Effects in a Video and the International Viewer's Choice Award at the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards. "It's Oh So Quiet" was nominated for the Best Music Video award at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards, losing to Janet and Michael Jackson's "Scream". At the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards, the video was awarded the Best Choreography in a Video award, and was nominated for Best Female Video, Breakthrough Video, Best Direction, Best Art Direction in a Video, and International Viewer's Choice Award (MTV Europe).Vibe included the album in its 1999 list of the 100 Essential Albums of the 20th Century. Slant Magazine considered it the second best album of the decade in a 2011 list, only behind Björk's next release, Homogenic, writing it: "is [her] most scatterbrained work to date, but it's tied together flawlessly by [Björk's] singular whimsicality". In 2003, Pitchfork listed it as the 20th best album of the decade, with William Morris writing, "few artists on this list could rival [Björk] in terms of innovation, vision, talent, and high-yield experimentation, and Post was the record to establish this." In a 2012 article, Paste considered Post to be the sixty-fourth best album of the decade, with Ryan Reed stating: "no Björk album is as weird (or weirdly wonderful) as 1995's Post, a dizzying whirlwind of sonic textures and stylistic shifts that demonstrates every facet of her ever-expanding bag of tricks. [...] Björk clearly aimed to demonstrate the meaninglessness of genre boundaries. She succeeded." Post was ranked at number 376 on Rolling Stones "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" list, with the publication praising its "utter lack of musical inhibition," and ranked at number 289 on the 2020 updated list. The American publication Consequence of Sound placed the album at number seventy-nine on their 2010 list of the Top 100 Albums Ever, with Harry Painter writing: "Björk is one of few artists who could put out an album juxtaposing blistering electro-pop with big band, club-ready tribal dance with downtempo trip-hop and find both critical and commercial success." In 2015, Post placed on number 69 on Spins list of the 300 Best Albums of the Past 30 Years, claiming that "[Björk's] fearless plunge into styles is matched by the aplomb with which she bares her anxieties and aspirations."  Also in 2008, FNAC placed the album at number 246 in its list of the 1000 best albums of all time. In an unordered list of 500 essential albums compiled for Vanity Fair in 2013, English musician Elvis Costello included Post and mentioned "Hyperballad" as a highlight of the record. In the album's entry of the "Women Who Rock: The 50 Greatest Albums of All Time" list of 2012, Rolling Stone felt, "Björk's artistic stature grew by yards in the course of this strange, affecting work, by turns harshly industrial, meditative and neon jubilant."

Track listingNotes' "Army of Me" contains a sample from "When the Levee Breaks" (1971), performed by Led Zeppelin.
 "Hyperballad" is named as "Hyperballad (Family Tree Version)" in some regions on streaming services.
 "The Modern Things" contains a sample from "Latin-Esque" (1962) by Juan García Esquivel.
 "Isobel" contains samples from "Infinity" (1973) by Shelly Manne and "Salut Mayoumba" (1983) by Yello.
 "Isobel" is named as "Isobel (Family Tree Version)" in some regions on streaming services.
 "Possibly Maybe" contains a sample from "Untitled (Side A)" (1994), performed by DJ Scanner. The sample was shortly removed from some early pressings of Post while it was disputed.
 "I Miss You" contains samples from "L'Abeille" (1978) by Guem & Zaka Percussion, and "Industrial Bass (Backroom Remix)" (1990) by Project 86.

Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Post''.

Musicians

 Björk – vocals, arrangements, keyboards, organ, string arrangements, brass arrangements, beat programming
 Howie Bernstein – programming
 John Altman – orchestra arrangements, conducting
 Marcus Dravs – programming
 Lenny Franchi – programming
 Graham Massey – keyboards, programming
 Tricky – keyboards, programming
 Marius de Vries – keyboards, programming
 Gary Barnacle – soprano saxophone
 Stuart Brooks – trumpet
 Jim Couza – hammer dulcimer
 Einar Örn Benediktsson – trumpet
 Eumir Deodato – string arrangements, conducting
 Isobel Griffiths – orchestral contracting
 Maurice Murphy – trumpet
 Tony Pleeth – cello
 Guy Sigsworth – harpsichord
 Talvin Singh – percussion
 Rob Smissen – viola
 Gavin Wright – orchestra leading

Technical personnel

 Björk – production
 Howie Bernstein – production, engineering, mixing
 Marcus Dravs – engineering, mixing
 Al Fisch – engineering
 Lenny Franchi – engineering
 Nellee Hooper – production
 Graham Massey – production
 Steve Price – engineering
 Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing
 Al Stone – engineering
 Tricky – production

Artwork

 Martin Gardiner – lotus flower modelling
 Me Company – artwork packaging design
 Stéphane Sednaoui – photography

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications and sales

Release history

See also
Album era
Media studies
Music of the United Kingdom (1990s)
Postmodern art

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

1995 albums
Albums produced by Howie B
Albums produced by Nellee Hooper
Björk albums
One Little Independent Records albums
Albums produced by Björk
Albums recorded at Olympic Sound Studios
Avant-pop albums
Experimental pop albums

Post (Björk album)


El payaso Plim Plim, un héroe del corazón fue una serie de televisión animada argentina creada por Smilehood y emitida por Disney Junior para toda Latinoamérica. Su preestreno tuvo lugar el 21 de septiembre de 2011, y su estreno el 1 de octubre del mismo año. Su estreno en Brasil se realizó el 23 de julio de 2012 también en Disney Junior. El 4 de agosto de 2012, llegó a las pantallas del Canal 13. Se convirtió en la primera serie animada argentina en llegar a los EU.UU, estrenándose el 14 de febrero de 2013 en Discovery Familia.

Personajes

Personajes mágicos
 Plim Plim: Es un niño de 6 años, mide 1.12, es un payaso, héroe y mago, el único humano del relato que aparece de manera mágica proveniente de un mágico espacio-tiempo. Es generoso, valiente, entusiasta y bien intencionado. Su frase característica es ¡Claro que sí!
 Wichi Wi: Es un pajarito, acompañante y mensajero de Plim Plim y pertenece a su mismo mundo mágico. Es el nexo entre él y los niños. Su idioma se llama como su nombre, pero silbado. Nadie sabe cómo aparece o cómo se va. En algunas ocasiones es un poco torpe.
 Tuni: Es el transporte mágico. Su combustible es la alegría. Es un automóvil que puede transformarse en avión, helicóptero, lancha, submarino o máquina de aventuras, según las necesidades.

Personajes del preescolar
 Nesho: Es un elefante de 5 años. Su nombre es de origen oriental. Es intelectual, lento, deductivo e inteligente, estructurado, ordenado y memorioso. Su instrumento favorito es la tuba. Su color favorito es el azul y su frase es ¡Qué curioso!
 Bam: Es un oso de 5 años de edad, goloso, tierno y divertido. Su nombre es de origen latino. Su instrumento favorito es el tambor. Su color favorito es el rojo y su frase es ¡Delicioso!
 Acuarella: Es una pequeña coneja de 4 años a la que le gustan las artes plásticas, es alegre, imaginativa, soñadora, enamoradiza, aunque también es despistada, olvidadiza y suele perder la concentración fácilmente. Su instrumento favorito es el xilofón. Su color favorito es el amarillo y su frase es ¡Amo!
 Mei-Li: Es una gata de 5 años, coqueta, dinámica, atlética, vigorosa y algo ansiosa. Todo lo hace con mucha velocidad. Su nombre es de origen chino y significa "bonita". Su instrumento favorito es el keytar. Su color favorito es el rosa y su frase es ¡Síiii!!! ¡YAA! ¡YAA! ¡YAA!
 Hoggie: Es un cerdito de 5 años, al que le gusta llevar la contra. Se caracteriza por ser malhumorado, gruñón y egoísta. Su nombre significa "cerdito" en inglés. Es deportista, musculoso y buen músico. Su instrumento favorito es el tambor. Su color favorito es el verde y su frase es Yo tampoco.
 Arafa: Es una jirafa de 27 años. Es una maestra comprensiva, maternal y tierna. Es la única adulta en las historias. Su nombre significa "jirafa" en swahili. Su frase es ¡Buena suerte!
 Sol: Lo observa todo y acompaña las acciones de los personajes con sus gestos.

Origen y desarrollo
En 2006, el productor y experto en marketing Guillermo Pino, propietario de los derechos comerciales de El Payaso Plim Plim, y el director creativo especializado en televisión, Claudio Pousada, se proponen rescatar el personaje como protagonista de una serie de dibujos animados.  El año 2009 terminan los primeros 3 capítulos en el estudio SinergiaLab de Pousada; entreviendo el potencial del producto que estaban desarrollando, Pino y Pousada fundan Smilehood, una empresa dedicada a promover valores humanos a través de sus creaciones.
A finales de 2010, presentan a Disney Latinoamérica  20 capítulos de la serie en español.
El 21 de septiembre de 2011, se emitió el primer capítulo de "El Payaso Plim Plim, un héroe del corazón" a través del canal Disney Junior,  "Las flores de Mei-li". Se estrenó oficialmente el 1 de octubre de 2011.
El 4 de agosto de 2012, la serie empieza a emitirse por el Canal 13  sábados y domingos a las 9:00.

Aunque el público al que se dirige Plim Plim son los niños de entre 1 y 5 años de edad, en sus narraciones también se incluyen guiños visuales y sonoros para padres y maestros.

Episodios

Temporada 1

Temporada 2

Tercera Temporada

Producción

Doblaje

Canciones en español

Obras de Teatro

Plim Plim en vivo: una aventura misteriosa (2013)
El día 1 de junio de 2013 se estrenó la primera versión teatral basada en la serie televisiva  "Plim Plim en vivo: una aventura misteriosa" en el Teatro Metropolitan City de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Todos los personajes de la serie juegan a ser detectives. Los amigos encuentran un álbum de fotografías, una de las cuales está incompleta. Iniciarán la búsqueda, pero no podrán hacerlo solos. El público debe ayudarles a encontrar las pistas, y así es como descubren el valor de trabajar en equipo.

Plim Plim & el Profesor Burbujas (2016)
El día 18 de julio de  2016 se estrenó una segunda obra, "Plim Plim & el Profesor Burbujas". En ella  se presenta un nuevo personaje, compañero secundario de Plim Plim, "El Profesor Burbujas", un científico loco experto en burbujas.

El Profesor Burbujas cree que puede hacer las burbujas más increíbles y grandes del mundo sin ayuda de los demás. Plim Plim, en complicidad con el público, le enseñará que la mejor manera de hacer las cosas es en equipo y mejor aún, con amigos.

Plim Plim junto al deporte por la Paz en Fuengirola
Plim Plim ha participado en varios eventos deportivos  junto a deportistas famosos, a fin de fomentar los hábitos saludables y el deporte entre los más pequeños.

Entre estos eventos ha participado:
 Despedida Gaby Milito

 Despedida Pupi Zanetti Lleyton Hewitt Usain Bolt Serena y Venus Williams

Plim Plim solidario
A través de un convenio con Social Team de la Fundación Messi, se realizaron las siguientes actividades:
 Hogar Pequeña Exaltación parte del programa social "Mi barrio"
 Navidad para los Hogares: Hogar Casa Mama, Hogar Jesús Amigos, Casa Chicos del Sur y Club Villa Elvira
 Hogar Escobar
 Hospital Garraham
 Adhesión y difusión a la campaña "Doná una hora de tu tiempo"
 Adhesión y difusión a la colecta "más por menos"

Plim Plim en el Partido por la Paz en Roma
Plim Plim apareció en el Partido Interreligioso por la Paz  de 2014, evento simbólico en apoyo a la diversidad cultural promovido por el papa Francisco en el que participaron jugadores y técnicos de varios países. Plim Plim también visitó el hospital pediátrico Bambino Gesù, que pertenece a la Santa Sede.

Fundación P.U.P.I y Scholas Ocurrentes participaron conjuntamente en este evento cuyos objetivos fueron la firma de un manifiesto por la paz por parte de todos los participantes y la recaudación de fondos. El dinero recaudado por la venta de entradas se destinó íntegramente a financiar ambas fundaciones.

Premios y nominaciones
 2015 Cynopsis Kids Imagination Awards. Mención de Honor.
 2014 Premio Santa Clara de Asís.
 2014 Nominación Martín Fierro TV Abierta, Argentina
 2013 Premio Martín Fierro de Cable, Argentina
 2013 Nominación Martín Fierro TV Abierta, Argentina
 2012 Premio Mercurio a la excelencia en el Marketing en la categoría entretenimiento, Argentina.
 2012 Nominación Martín Fierro de Cable, Argentina
 2012 Distinción Premios ATVC, Argentina

Enlaces externos
 Sitio web oficial de Plim Plim

Series de televisión animadas de Argentina
Series de televisión iniciadas en 2010
Series de televisión de Argentina
Series de televisión en español
The Walt Disney Company Latin America

Premio Santa Clara de Asís
Payasos ficticios
Héroes de ficción


L'opération Carthage est un raid aérien britannique sur Copenhague, au Danemark, mené le 21 mars 1945 pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, qui causa d'importants dommages collatéraux. La cible du raid était le Shellhus, bâtiment utilisé comme quartier général de la Gestapo dans le centre-ville, utilisé pour le stockage des dossiers et les interrogatoires de citoyens danois qui y étaient torturés. La résistance danoise demandait depuis longtemps aux Britanniques de mener un raid contre le site. L'opération est un succès : le bâtiment est détruit, 18 prisonniers sont libérés et la lutte contre la résistance interrompue. Un documentaire en ligne comprend des images prises par la RAF et des entretiens avec les personnes impliquées. Une partie du raid est dirigée par erreur contre l'école voisine de l'Institut Jeanne d'Arc. Ce bombardement causa la mort de 125 civils (dont 86 écoliers et 18 adultes à l'école). Un raid similaire visant le quartier général de la Gestapo à Aarhus le 31 octobre 1944 s'était déroulé avec succès.

Contexte

Le raid est demandé par la Résistance danoise pour libérer ses membres emprisonnés et détruire les archives de la Gestapo, afin de perturber ses opérations. La RAF refuse initialement la mission, la considérant comme trop risquée, notamment en raison de l'emplacement du bâtiment dans un centre-ville surpeuplé et de la nécessité d'un bombardement à basse altitude. Elle ne sera approuvée qu'au début de 1945 après des demandes répétées. Une fois l'approbation donnée, la planification du raid prend plusieurs semaines ; des maquettes du bâtiment cible et de la ville environnante sont construites pour être utilisées par les pilotes et les navigateurs en vue d'une attaque à très basse altitude.

Raid
La force d'attaque se compose de chasseurs-bombardiers De Havilland Mosquito FBVI du 140 escadre de la RAF, comprenant le 21 escadron de la RAF, le 464 escadron de la RAAF et le 487 escadron de la RNZAF. La mission s'effectue en trois vagues de six avions, avec deux Mosquito B.IV de reconnaissance de la  pour enregistrer les résultats et un court métrage de l'attaque. Trente chasseurs Mustang de la RAF assurent la protection des Mosquito contre les avions allemands et attaquent des canons anti-aériens pendant le raid.

Les avions décollent de la  le matin et atteignent Copenhague après 11 h 00. Le raid, mené à très basse altitude, rencontre un imprévu. Un Mosquito  heurte un pylône d'éclairage de 30 m de haut des voies de la gare d'Enghave  puis s'écrase sur une école catholique (l'Institut Jeanne d'Arc) dans le quartier de Frederiksberg, à environ  de la cible, y mettant le feu. Plusieurs bombardiers de la deuxième et de la troisième vague, voyant le panache de fumée, attaquent par erreur l'école en la prenant pour leur cible.

Résultats

Le lendemain, un avion de reconnaissance inspecte la cible pour évaluer les résultats. Les dégâts sont importants, l'aile ouest du bâtiment de six étages étant rasée presque au niveau du sol. La résistance danoise fournit une photographie montrant le bâtiment brûlant de bout en bout.

Le raid a détruit le siège et les archives de la Gestapo, perturbant gravement les opérations de la Gestapo au Danemark et permettant l'évasion de 18 prisonniers. Cinquante-cinq soldats allemands, 47 employés danois de la Gestapo et huit prisonniers sont morts dans le bâtiment du quartier général. Côté  allié, quatre bombardiers Mosquito et deux chasseurs Mustang sont perdus et neuf aviateurs sont morts. À l'école Jeanne d'Arc, 86 écoliers et 18 enseignants et religieuses sont tués.

Le 14 juillet 1945, les restes d'un homme non identifié sont retrouvés dans les ruines du Shellhus et transférés au Département de médecine légale de l'université de Copenhague. Quatre jours plus tard, deux autres dépouilles sont retrouvées puis enterrées au cimetière de Bispebjerg les 4 et 21 septembre.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Opération Jéricho, une attaque similaire contre la prison d'Amiens en France
 Histoire du Danemark pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale

Bibliographie

 Matthias Bath: Danebrog gegen Hakenkreuz, Der Widerstand in Dänemark 1940–1945, Wachholtz 2011,
 Peder Hove: En dag i marts, Lindhardt & Ringhof et Peder Hove 1988, Traduction française Un jour en mars Laurence W. Ø. Larsen – Gaïa Editions 2006

Filmographie

 Et le ciel s'assombrit (VO : Skyggen i mit øje), film réalisé par Ole Bornedal dont le sujet est précisément l'opération Carthage, sorti le 28 octobre 2021 au Danemark et distribué internationalement le 9 mars 2022 par Netflix.

Liens externes
 (DK in English) On the entire event
 (DK in Danish, encyclopaedic) On the French School (encyclopedic)
 (DK in Danish, encyclopedic) On the Shell office building (encyclopedic)
 (DK in Danish) On the bombing of the French School

 IWM Interview with RAF officer Edward Sismore, who participated in the raid

Carthage
Mars 1945
Histoire de Copenhague
1945 au Danemark
Opération Carthage

Opération Carthage (Danemark)


Sivert Mannsverk, né le  à Øvre Årdal en Norvège, est un footballeur norvégien qui évolue au poste de milieu central à l'Ajax Amsterdam.

Biographie

En club
Né à Øvre Årdal en Norvège, Sivert Mannsverk est formé par le club local du Sogndal Fotball, où il commence sa carrière professionnelle. Il joue son premier match le , lors d'une rencontre de championnat contre Ullensaker/Kisa IL. Il est titularisé et son équipe s'incline par trois buts à zéro.

Mannsverk inscrit son premier but en professionnel le  face au Skeid Fotball, en championnat. Il est titularisé et les deux équipes se neutralisent (2-2 score final).

Le , Sivert Mannsverk s'engage en faveur du Molde FK, où il signe un contrat courant jusqu'en 2025.

Le , Mannsverk participe à la finale de la coupe de Norvège face au FK Bodø/Glimt. Titulaire, il est le héros du match puisqu'il marque le seul but de la partie, sur penalty, donnant donc la victoire et le trophée à son équipe.

Mannsverk participe au sacre de son équipe lors de la saison 2022, le Molde FK remportant le Champion de Norvège pour la cinquième fois de son histoire.

Le , Sivert Mannsverk rejoint les Pays-Bas afin de s'engager en faveur de l'Ajax Amsterdam. Il signe un contrat de cinq ans, soit jusqu'en juin 2028.

En sélection
Sivert Mannsverk représente l'équipe de Norvège des moins de 17 ans pour un total de trois matchs joués, tous en 2019.

Sivert Mannsverk joue son premier match avec l'équipe de Norvège espoirs le  face à la Finlande. Il est titulaire et son équipe s'impose sur le score de trois buts à un.

Palmarès
 Molde FK
 Coupe de Norvège (1) :
 Vainqueur : 2021-22.
 Championnat de Norvège (1) :
 Champion : 2022.

Références

Liens externes

Footballeur norvégien
Joueur du Sogndal Fotball
Joueur du Molde FK
Joueur de l'Ajax Amsterdam
Naissance en mai 2002
Naissance au Vestlandet

Sivert Mannsverk


සම්මානිත මහාචාර්ය දේශමාන්‍ය  ජයරත්න බණ්ඩා දිසානායක මහතා (උපත 1937 අප්‍රේල් 16 දින)  සිංහල භාෂාව පිළිබඳ ප්‍රවීන විද්වතෙකි. ඔහු තායිලන්තයේ ශ්‍රී ලංකා තානාපතිවරයා ලෙසද සේවය කර ඇත.

සම්පූර්ණ නම - රාජපක්ෂ රාජකරුණා මහ වාසල දුක්ගන්නා දිසානායක මුදියන්සේලාගේ ජයරත්න බණ්ඩා දිසානායක

පුවක්මොටේ බෞද්ධ පිරිමි පාසලෙන් හා මහනුවර ධර්මරාජ විද්‍යාලයෙන් මූලික අධ්‍යාපනය ලබාගත් දිසානායක මහතා කොළඹ ආනන්ද විද්‍යාලයෙන් ද්වීතීයික අධ්‍යාපනය ලැබීමෙන් අනතුරුව 1961 දී ශ්‍රී ලංකා විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයෙන් උපාධිය ලබාගත්තේය.

ගත් කතුවරු - සිංහල
1937 උපත්

ජේ. බී. දිසානායක


Rodna uloga, poznata i kao spolna uloga, društvena je uloga koja obuhvaća niz ponašanja i stavova koji se općenito smatraju prihvatljivim, prikladnim ili poželjnim za osobu na temelju spola te osobe. Rodne uloge obično su usredotočene na koncepcije muškosti i ženstvenosti, iako postoje iznimke i varijacije.

Specifičnosti u vezi s tim rodnim očekivanjima mogu se razlikovati među kulturama, dok druge karakteristike mogu biti uobičajene u nizu kultura. Osim toga, rodne uloge (i percipirane rodne uloge) razlikuju se ovisno o rasi ili etničkoj pripadnosti osobe.

Rodne uloge utječu na širok raspon ljudskog ponašanja, često uključujući odjeću koju osoba odluči nositi, profesiju koju osoba obavlja, osobne odnose u koje osoba ulazi i kako se ponašaju unutar tih odnosa. Iako su se rodne uloge razvile i proširile, tradicionalno drže žene u "privatnoj" sferi, a muškarce u "javnoj" sferi.

Različite skupine, ponajviše feministički pokreti, predvodile su napore za promjenu aspekata prevladavajućih rodnih uloga za koje vjeruju da su opresivne, netočne i seksističke.

Pozadina
Rodna uloga, poznata i kao seksualna uloga, društvena je uloga koja obuhvaća niz ponašanja i stavova koji se općenito smatraju prihvatljivim, prikladnim ili poželjnim za osobu na temelju spola te osobe.

U sociologiji roda, proces kojima pojedinac uči i stječe rodnu ulogu u društvu naziva se rodna socijalizacija. uloge su kulturno specifične, i dok većina kultura razlikuje samo dvije (dječak/muškarac i djevojčica/žena), druge prepoznaju više. Neka nezapadna društva imaju tri spola: muškarce, žene i treći spol. Buginese društvo je identificiralo pet spolova. Androginija je ponekad predložena i kao treći spol. Androgina ili androgina osoba je netko s kvalitetama koje se odnose i na muški i na ženski spol. Neki se pojedinci identificiraju bez ikakvog spola.

Mnoge transrodne osobe identificiraju se jednostavno kao muškarci ili žene i ne predstavljaju zaseban treći spol. Biološke razlike između (nekih) trans žena i cisgender žena povijesno su tretirane kao relevantne u određenim kontekstima, posebno one u kojima biološke osobine mogu donijeti nepoštenu prednost kao što je sport.

Rodna uloga nije isto što i rodni identitet, što se odnosi na unutarnji osjećaj vlastitog spola, bez obzira na to je li u skladu s kategorijama koje nude društvene norme ili ne. Točka u kojoj se ti internalizirani rodni identiteti eksternaliziraju u skup očekivanja je geneza rodne uloge.

Teorije roda kao društvenog kontrukta
Prema društvenom konstrukcionizmu, rodno ponašanje uglavnom je posljedica društvenih konvencija. Teorije poput evolucijske psihologije ne slažu se s tim stajalištem.

Većina djece uči kategorizirati se prema spolu do treće godine života. Od rođenja, tijekom rodne socijalizacije, djeca uče rodne stereotipe i uloge od svojih roditelja i okoline. Tradicionalno, dječaci uče manipulirati svojim fizičkim i društvenim okruženjem fizičkom snagom ili spretnošću, dok se djevojke uče predstavljati kao predmeti koje treba promatrati. Društveni konstrukcionisti tvrde da se razlike između muškog i ženskog ponašanja bolje mogu pripisati dječjim aktivnostima odvojenim od spola nego bilo kojoj bitnoj, prirodnoj, fiziološkoj ili genetskoj predispoziciji.

Kao aspekt teorije uloga, teorija rodnih uloga "tretira ove različite raspodjele žena i muškaraca u uloge kao primarno podrijetlo društvenog ponašanja diferenciranog spolom, [i pretpostavlja da] je njihov utjecaj na ponašanje posredovan psihološkim i društvenim procesima." Prema Gilbertu Herdtu, rodne uloge proizašle su iz dopisnog zaključka, što znači da je opća podjela rada proširena na rodne uloge.

Socijalni konstrukcionisti rodne uloge smatraju hijerarhijskim i patrijarhalnim. Pojam patrijarhat, prema istraživaču Andreju Cherlinu, definira "društveni poredak koji se temelji na dominaciji žena od strane muškaraca, posebno u poljoprivrednim društvima".

Glavni teoretičari

Talcott Parsons
Muške kulture očekuju od muškaraca da budu asertivni, ambiciozni i natjecateljski raspoloženi, da teže materijalnom uspjehu i da poštuju sve što je veliko, snažno i brzo. Muške kulture očekuju od žena da služe i brinu se za nematerijalnu kvalitetu života, za djecu i slabije. Ženske kulture, s druge strane, definiraju društvene uloge spolova koje se relativno preklapaju, u kojima, posebno, muškarci ne moraju biti ambiciozni ili natjecateljski raspoloženi, već mogu težiti drugačijoj kvaliteti života od materijalnog uspjeha; ljudi mogu poštovati sve što je malo, slabo i sporo.

U ženskim kulturama skromnost i odnosi su važne karakteristike. To se razlikuje od muških kultura, gdje samopoboljšanje dovodi do povećanog samopoštovanja. Muške kulture su individualističke, dok su ženske kulture kolektivnije zbog značaja osobnih odnosa.

West i Zimmerman
Candace Zapad i Don H. Zimmerman razvili su interakcionistički pogled na spol koji nadilazi njegovu izgradnju "uloga". Za njih je spol "proizvod jedne ili druge vrste društvenih akcija koje poduzimaju muškarci i žene čija je kompetencija kao članova društva talac njegove proizvodnje". Kehlan kao " etnometodološki pristup "koji analizira" mikro interakcije kako bi otkrio kako se postiže objektivna i dana priroda svijeta", sugerirajući da spol ne postoji dok se empirijski ne opazi i ne ostvari interakcijama. Zapad i Zimmerman tvrdili su da upotreba izraza "uloga" za opisivanje rodnih očekivanja skriva proizvodnju roda kroz svakodnevne aktivnosti. Nadalje, izjavili su da su uloge lokalizirani identiteti, poput "medicinske sestre" i "studenta", koji se razvijaju kako situacija zahtijeva, dok je spol temeljni identitet bez određenog mjesta ili organizacijskog konteksta. Prema njihovom mišljenju,"konceptualizacija spola kao uloge otežava procjenu njegovog utjecaja na druge uloge i smanjuje njegovu objašnjenu korisnost u raspravi o moći i nejednakosti." Zapad i Zimmerman vide spol kao individualnu produkciju koja odražava i konstruira interaktivna i institucionalna rodna očekivanja.

Biološki čimbenici
Povijesno gledano, rodne uloge uglavnom su se pripisivale biološkim razlikama između muškaraca i žena. Iako istraživanja pokazuju da biologija igra ulogu u rodnom ponašanju, opseg njezinog utjecaja na rodne uloge manje je jasan.

Ideje o prikladnom rodnom ponašanju razlikuju se ovisno o kulturi i Eri, iako se nekim aspektima posvećuje veća pažnja od drugih. U studiji na ivi, ispitanici su upitani misle li da bi najamni rad trebao biti ograničen samo na muškarce u slučaju nedostatka radnih mjesta: na Islandu je udio onih koji su pristali na prijedlog bio 3,6%; dok je u Egiptu iznosio 94,9%.

Različite vjerske i kulturne skupine unutar iste zemlje mogu imati različite norme koje pokušavaju "kontrolirati" unutar vlastitih skupina, uključujući rodne norme.

Uloge žena u kršćanstvu danas se mogu znatno razlikovati (kao što su se povijesno mijenjale od novozavjetne crkve iz prvog stoljeća). To se posebno odnosi na brak i službene položaje ministara u određenim kršćanskim denominacijama, crkvama i izvancrkvenim organizacijama.

Islam
Način na koji se poštuju rodne uloge uvelike ovisi o kulturi. Dok neke kulture potiču muškarce i žene da preuzmu iste uloge, druge potiču tradicionalniju, manje dominantnu ulogu žena.

Hinduizam
Hinduistička božanstva imaju dvosmisleniji rodni sastav od božanstava drugih svjetskih religija. To informira odnose između žena i muškaraca i kako se razumiju razlike između muškaraca i žena.

Istraživanje braka u SAD-u
Institucija braka utječe na rodne uloge, nejednakosti i promjene. U Sjedinjenim Državama rodne uloge prenose mediji, socijalna interakcija i jezik. Kroz ove platforme društvo je utjecalo na ljude da od malih nogu ispunjavaju stereotipne rodne uloge u heteroseksualnom braku. O ulogama koje se tradicionalno dodjeljuju prema biološkom spolu supružnici sve više raspravljaju na jednakoj osnovi.

Komunikacija rodnih uloga u Sjedinjenim Državama
U SAD-u samohrani muškarci nadmašuju samohrane žene u omjeru od 100 samohranih žena do 86 samohranih muškaraca, iako nikad oženjeni muškarci stariji od 15 godina nadmašuju žene u omjeru 5:4 (33,9% prema 27,3%), prema istraživanju američke popisne zajednice iz 2006.godine.. Rezultati se razlikuju ovisno o dobnim skupinama: 118 samohranih muškaraca na 100 samohranih žena starijih od 20 godina naspram 33 samohrana muškarca na 100 samohranih žena starijih od 65 godina.

Brojevi se također razlikuju u različitim zemljama. Na primjer, u Kini ima mnogo više mladića nego mladih žena, a očekuje se da će se ta nejednakost povećati. U regijama s nedavnim sukobima, poput Čečenije, znatno je više žena nego muškaraca.

Mediji
U današnjem društvu mediji zasićuju gotovo svaki aspekt ljudskog života. Čini se neizbježnim da je društvo pod utjecajem medija i onoga što oni prikazuju. Uloge su odvojene prema spolu, što znači da se i na muškarce i na žene različito gleda na temelju biološkog spola, a budući da se spolne uloge internaliziraju, mediji imaju izravan utjecaj na pojedince. Razmišljanje o tome kako se parovi ponašaju u romantičnim TV emisijama ili filmovima i kako su žene prikazane kao pasivne u oglasima u časopisima otkriva mnogo o tome kako se percipiraju rodne uloge u društvu i u heteroseksualnim brakovima. Tradicionalne rodne uloge muškarca vide kao "tvorca, zaštitnika i hranitelja", a ženu kao "lijepu i pristojnu, ali ne previše agresivnu, ne previše otvorenu ili previše inteligentnu". Ljudi uče oponašanjem i socijalnom interakcijom, kako u fizičkom svijetu, tako i putem medija: televizije, časopisa, oglašavanja, novina, Interneta itd. tvrdi da su "rodne interakcije, struktura i kulturna značenja isprepleteni na međusobno ojačavajuće i kontradiktorne načine".

Društvena interakcija
Rodne uloge u heteroseksualnim brakovima internaliziraju se oponašanjem. Ljudi uče što društvo smatra prikladnim rodnim ponašanjem oponašajući ponavljanje postupaka svog uzora ili roditelja istog biološkog spola. U braku često rodne uloge svake osobe određuju njegovi roditelji. Kad bi supruga ODRASLA oponašajući postupke tradicionalnih roditelja, a suprug netradicionalne roditelje, njihovi pogledi na bračne uloge bili bi različiti. Jedan od načina na koji ljudi mogu steći ove stereotipne uloge je kroz sustav nagrađivanja i kažnjavanja. Kad djevojčica oponaša majku dok obavlja tradicionalne kućanske poslove, često je nagrađena rekavši da je dobra u poslu. Nekonvencionalno, da je dječačić obavljao iste zadatke, najvjerojatnije bi bio kažnjen jer se ponašao ženstveno. Budući da se društvo pridržava ovih očekivanih uloga za muškarce i žene u braku, to stvara uzor djeci.

Promjena rodnih uloga u braku
Tijekom godina rodne uloge nastavile su se mijenjati i imale su značajan utjecaj na instituciju braka. Tradicionalno su muškarci i žene imali potpuno suprotne uloge, muškarci su se smatrali hraniteljima obitelji, a žene čuvaricama i doma i obitelji. Međutim, u današnjem društvu podjela uloga počinje se zamagljivati. Sve više i više ljudi prilagođava netradicionalne rodne uloge u svojim brakovima kako bi podijelili odgovornosti. Ovaj pogled na rodne uloge traži jednakost među spolovima. U današnjem društvu vjerojatnije je da su muž i žena hranitelji svoje obitelji. Sve više žena dolazi na posao, dok sve više muškaraca doprinosi kućanskim poslovima.

Nakon otprilike 1980.stopa razvoda u Sjedinjenim Državama stabilizirala se. Znanstvenici iz sociologije objašnjavaju da je ova stabilizacija bila posljedica nekoliko čimbenika, uključujući, ali ne ograničavajući se na promjenu rodnih uloga. Stavovi prema promjeni rodnih uloga mogu se podijeliti u dvije perspektive: tradicionalnu i egalitarnu. Tradicionalni stavovi podržavaju određene odgovornosti za spolove-supruge odgajaju djecu i održavaju kuću urednom, a muževi su hranitelji. Egalitarni stavovi podržavaju jednako izvršavanje dužnosti oba spola-i supruge i muževi su hranitelji i oboje sudjeluju u odgoju djece i održavanju kuće urednom. U posljednjih 40 godina odnosi u brakovima postali su egalitarniji. Dvije studije provedene početkom 2000-ih pokazale su snažnu korelaciju između egalitarnih stavova i sreće i zadovoljstva u braku, za koje znanstvenici vjeruju da dovode do stabilizacije stope razvoda. Rezultati studije iz 2006.godine koju je provela Gail Kaufman, profesorica sociologije, otkrili su da oni koji imaju egalitarne stavove prijavljuju znatno višu razinu bračne sreće od onih s tradicionalnijim stavovima. Druga studija koju je proveo Marshall 2008.godine pokazala je da kvalitetniji odnosi uključuju ljude s egalitarnijim uvjerenjima. Lindemann, sociologinja koja proučava spol, seksualnost, obitelj i kulturu, sugerirala je da je promjena rodnih uloga i egalitarnih stavova dovela do stabilnosti braka kroz zadatke koje su obavljala oba partnera, poput rada do kasno i odvođenja bolesne djece iz škole. Iako još uvijek postoji jaz u rodnim ulogama, uloge u brakovima postale su manje rodne i ravnopravnije u odnosu na ono što su tradicionalno bile.

Preokret uloga
Tijekom povijesti supružnicima su dodijeljene određene javne funkcije. Pojavom novog svijeta pojavile su se očekivane uloge koje je svaki supružnik morao posebno ispuniti. Muževi su uglavnom bili zaposleni poljoprivrednici. Žene su se brinule o djeci i kući. Međutim, uloge se sada mijenjaju, pa čak i mijenjaju.

Društva se mogu promijeniti na takav način da se rodne uloge brzo mijenjaju. U 21.stoljeću došlo je do pomaka u rodnim ulogama zbog različitih čimbenika kao što su nove obiteljske strukture, obrazovanje, mediji i nekoliko drugih. Istraživanje Zavoda za statistiku rada iz 2003.pokazalo je da oko 1/3 supruga može zaraditi više od svojih muževa.

S obzirom na važnost obrazovanja koja se naglašava u cijeloj zemlji i pristup visokom obrazovanju (na primjer, putem interneta), žene su počele podizati razinu obrazovanja. Žene su se također počele više baviti rekreativnim aktivnostima poput sporta, koje su se u prošlosti smatrale dijelom muškaraca. Očevi se također sve više uključuju u odgoj svoje djece, umjesto da odgovornost stavljaju isključivo na majku.

Broj Očeva koji ostaju kod kuće u SAD-u gotovo se udvostručio između 1989.i 2012., s 1,1 milijuna na 2,0 milijuna, prema istraživačkom centru za Iphine. Čini se da se ovaj trend odražava u brojnim zemljama, uključujući Veliku Britaniju, Kanadu i Švedsku. Međutim, Pugh je također otkrio da, barem u SAD-u, Čini se da javno mnijenje općenito pokazuje značajnu pristranost u korist majke kao njegovatelja u odnosu na oca, bez obzira na bilo kakvu promjenu stvarnih uloga svakog od njih.

Osim Sjeverne Amerike i Europe, postoje i druge regije u kojima se mijenjaju i rodne uloge. U Aziji je Hong Kong vrlo blizak SAD-u jer su žene kirurzi u tim društvima jako usredotočeni na kućni život, dok je Japan više usredotočen na posao. Nakon što žena kirurg rodi u Hong Kongu, želi smanjiti svoj radni raspored, ali nastavlja raditi puno radno vrijeme (60-80 sati tjedno) Kao i u Hong Kongu, Japanski kirurzi i dalje rade prekovremeno, ali pokušavaju promijeniti svoj raspored kako bi bili više kod kuće (na kraju rade manje od 60 sati). Iako na sva tri mjesta žene rade na prvim linijama, žene kirurzi u SAD-u i Hong Kongu osjećaju veću ravnopravnost spolova kod kuće, gdje imaju jednaku, ako ne i veću kontrolu nad svojim obiteljima, a japanski kirurzi vjeruju da muškarci još uvijek imaju kontrolu.

Velika promjena dogodila se u Hong Kongu jer su se supruge navikle nositi s nesretnim brakom. Sada se kineske supruge razvode od svojih muževa kad se osjećaju jadno u svojim brakovima i financijski su stabilne. Zbog toga se supruga čini sposobnijom kontrolirati vlastiti život, umjesto da dopusti mužu da je kontrolira. U mnogim društvima, ali posebno u Singapuru i Taipeiju, žene imaju više poslova koji zauzimaju vodeće pozicije (tj. Liječnik ili menadžer) i manje poslova kao redovni radnik (tj . Službenik ili prodavač). Muškarci u Singapuru također imaju više rukovodećih pozicija, ali imaju i više nižih pozicija. U prošlosti su žene dobivale poslove niže razine, a muškarci su bili na svim rukovodećim pozicijama. Singapur, Taipei i Hong Kong bilježe porast nezaposlenosti muškaraca, pa žene moraju više raditi kako bi prehranile svoje obitelji.

U Indiji se žene rano udaju i moraju voditi kućanstvo čak i ako nisu završile školu. Smatra se sramotnim ako žena mora raditi izvan kuće kako bi pomogla uzdržavati obitelj. Mnoge žene otvaraju posao s nakitom kod kuće i zahvaljujući tome imaju vlastite bankovne račune. Žene srednjih godina sada mogu raditi bez srama jer više ne rađaju djecu.

Iako su se postojeća istraživanja uglavnom fokusirala na rodne stavove ili stavove povezane s poslom, do sada nije bilo istraživanja o određenim ulogama u kući. U prilog Hofstedeovim nalazima iz 1980.godine da su "kulture visoke muškosti povezane s niskim postotkom žena zaposlenih u profesionalnom i tehničkom području", vrijednosti testa jednakosti povezane s poslom bile su niže za Kineze nego za Amerikance. To potvrđuje i udio žena koje su imale profesionalne položaje u Kini (mnogo manje nego u Americi), podaci koji jasno ukazuju na ograničenja mogućnosti otvorenih za žene u modernom istočnom društvu. Nasuprot tome, nije bilo razlike između stajališta Kineza i Amerikanaca o rodnim ulogama u obitelji.

Komunikacija
Komunikacija igra veliku ulogu u procesu u kojem ljudi postaju muškarci ili žene, jer se svaki spol obučava u različitim jezičnim praksama. Spol diktira društvo kroz očekivanja o ponašanju i izgledu, a zatim se prenosi s jedne osobe na drugu kroz proces komunikacije. Rod ne stvara komunikaciju, komunikacija stvara spol.

Na primjer, žene su često izražajnije i intuitivnije u svojoj komunikaciji, ali muškarci imaju tendenciju da igraju važnu ulogu i natječu se. Nadalje, postoje razlike u prihvaćenom komunikacijskom ponašanju muškaraca i žena. Da bi se poboljšala komunikacija među spolovima, ljudi koji se identificiraju kao muškarci ili žene moraju razumjeti razlike između svakog spola.

Kao što je otkrila Kara Tigue (Sveučilište McMaster u Hamiltonu, Kanada), važnost moćnog vokala za žene na rukovodećim pozicijama ne može se podcijeniti, kao što je poznato opisano u izvještajima o godinama Margaret Thatcher na vlasti.

Neverbalna komunikacija
Hall je objavio opservacijsku studiju o neverbalnim rodnim razlikama i raspravljao o kulturnim razlozima tih razlika. U svom istraživanju primijetila je da se žene više smiješe i smiju te bolje razumiju neverbalne znakove. Vjerovala je da se žene potiču da budu emocionalno izražajnije u svom jeziku, što dovodi do toga da su razvijenije u neverbalnoj komunikaciji.

Muškarci su, s druge strane, naučeni biti manje izražajni, potiskivati svoje emocije, biti manje neverbalno aktivni u komunikaciji i sporadičnije koristiti neverbalne znakove. Većina studija o neverbalnoj komunikaciji opisala je žene kao izražajnije i procijenjeno točne u neverbalnoj komunikaciji kada je bila povezana s emocionalnim izražavanjem; ostali neverbalni izrazi bili su slični ili isti za oba spola.

Mccuiston i Morris također su primijetili značajnu razliku u muškoj i ženskoj neverbalnoj komunikaciji. Otkrili su da muškarci češće pokazuju govor tijela povezan s dominacijom, poput kontakta očima i međuljudske udaljenosti, nego žene.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 OHCHR / rodni stereotipi. Sažetak međunarodnih ugovora koji se odnose na rodne stereotipe. Ankete o rodnim ulogama koje je proveo istraživački centar Pugh

Feminizam
Sociološke teorije

Rodna uloga


"BODR" (abreviação de "Bacc On Death Row") é o decimo nono álbum de estúdio do rapper estadunidense Snoop Dogg. Foi lançado em 11 de fevereiro de 2022 no Estados Unidos, pela editora discográfica Death Row Records, tornando-se o terceiro álbum dos artista lançado pela gravadora, e o primeiro após 26 anos de hiato. O álbum foi distribuído pela empresa Create Music Group. O álbum conta com as participações especiais de Nas, T.I., Sleepy Brown, Nate Dogg, The Game, DaBaby, Uncle Murda, Wiz Khalifa e Lil Duval, a produção ficou por conta de Battlecat, Bing!, DJ Green Lantern, Hit-Boy entre outros.

Antecedentes
Em 9 de fevereiro de 2022, poucos dias antes do lançamento de BODR, Snoop Dogg anunciou a compra dos direitos da gravadora Death Row Records, que até então pertenciam a MNRK Music Group (anteriormente conhecida como eOne Music). A venda não incluiu imediatamente os direitos do catálogo da gravadora, mas foi relatado que o rapper estava se aproximando de um acordo de ambas as partes para adquirir os catálogos, que inclui trabalhos anteriores dele e de outros artistas como Dr. Dre, Tha Dogg Pound e 2Pac.

Divulgação
O álbum foi lançado dois dias antes da apresentação do rapper Super Bowl LVI halftime show, ao lado de outras lendas do hip hop Dr. Dre, Eminem, Mary J. Blige e Kendrick Lamar e participações especiais de 50 Cent e Anderson Paak.

Performance comercial
No dia do lançamento, BODR estreou na sétima posição dos álbuns mais vendidos no iTunes dos Estados Unidos. Após a performance de Snoop no Super Bowl LVI halftime show, o álbum subiu para a quarta posição.

BODR estreou na posição 104 da Billboard 200, marcando a vigésima sétima entrada do artista no gráfico.

Faixas

Desempenho nas paradas músicas

Gráficos semanais

Histórico de lançamento

Ver também
 Death Row Records

Álbuns de 2022
Álbuns de Snoop Dogg
Álbuns lançados pela Death Row Records
Álbuns em língua inglesa
Álbuns de hip hop

BODR