German orthography is the orthography used in writing the German language, which is largely phonemic. However, it shows many instances of spellings that are historic or analogous to other spellings rather than phonemic. The pronunciation of almost every word can be derived from its spelling once the spelling rules are known, but the opposite is not generally the case.

Today, Standard High German orthography is regulated by the  (Council for German Orthography), composed of representatives from most German-speaking countries.

Alphabet

The modern German alphabet consists of the twenty-six letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet plus four special letters.

Basic alphabet

Special letters
German has four special letters; three are vowels accented with an umlaut sign () and one is derived from a ligature of  (long s) and  (; called  "ess-zed/zee" or  "sharp s"). They have their own names separate from the letters they are based on.

 Capital ẞ was declared an official letter of the German alphabet on 29 June 2017. Previously represented as .
 Historically, long s (ſ) was used as well, as in English and many other European languages.

While the Council for German Orthography considers  distinct letters, disagreement on how to categorize and count them has led to a dispute over the exact number of letters the German alphabet has, the number ranging between 26 (considering special letters as variants of ) and 30 (counting all special letters separately).

Use of special letters

Umlaut diacritic usage

The accented letters  are used to indicate the presence of umlauts (fronting of back vowels). Before the introduction of the printing press, frontalization was indicated by placing an  after the back vowel to be modified, but German printers developed the space-saving typographical convention of replacing the full  with a small version placed above the vowel to be modified. In German Kurrent writing, the superscripted  was simplified to two vertical dashes (as the Kurrent  consists largely of two short vertical strokes), which have further been reduced to dots in both handwriting and German typesetting. Although the two dots of umlaut look like those in the diaeresis (trema), the two have different origins and functions.

When it is not possible to use the umlauts (for example, when using a restricted character set) the characters  should be transcribed as  respectively, following the earlier postvocalic- convention; simply using the base vowel (e.g.  instead of ) would be wrong and misleading. However, such transcription should be avoided if possible, especially with names. Names often exist in different variants, such as  and , and with such transcriptions in use one could not work out the correct spelling of the name.

Automatic back-transcribing is wrong not only for names. Consider, for example,  ("the new book"). This should never be changed to , as the second  is completely separate from the  and does not even belong in the same syllable;  () is  (the root for "new") followed by , an inflection. The word  does not exist in German.

Furthermore, in northern and western Germany, there are family names and place names in which  lengthens the preceding vowel (by acting as a ), as in the former Dutch orthography, such as , which is pronounced with a long , not an . Similar cases are  and .

In proper names and ethnonyms, there may also appear a rare  and , which are not letters with an umlaut, but a diaeresis, used as in French and English to distinguish what could be a digraph, for example,  in ,  in ,  in ,  in  and  (although Hoëcker added the diaeresis himself), and  in . Occasionally, a diaeresis may be used in some well-known names, i.e.:  (usually written as ).

Swiss keyboards and typewriters do not allow easy input of uppercase letters with umlauts (nor ) because their positions are taken by the most frequent French diacritics. Uppercase umlauts were dropped because they are less common than lowercase ones (especially in Switzerland). Geographical names in particular are supposed to be written with  plus , except . The omission can cause some inconvenience, since the first letter of every noun is capitalized in German.

Unlike in Hungarian, the exact shape of the umlaut diacritics – especially when handwritten – is not important, because they are the only ones in the language (not counting the tittle on  and ). They will be understood whether they look like dots (), acute accents () or vertical bars (). A horizontal bar (macron, ), a breve (), a tiny  or , a tilde (), and such variations are often used in stylized writing (e.g. logos). However, the breve – or the ring () – was traditionally used in some scripts to distinguish a  from an . In rare cases, the  was underlined. The breved  was common in some Kurrent-derived handwritings; it was mandatory in Sütterlin.

Sharp s

 or  () represents the "s" sound. The German spelling reform of 1996 somewhat reduced usage of this letter in Germany and Austria. It is not used in Switzerland and Liechtenstein.

As  derives from a ligature of lowercase letters, it is exclusively used in the middle or at the end of a word. The proper transcription when it cannot be used is  ( and  in earlier times). This transcription can give rise to ambiguities, albeit rarely; one such case is  "in moderation" vs.  "en masse". In all-caps,  is replaced by  or, optionally, by the uppercase . The uppercase  was included in Unicode 5.1 as U+1E9E in 2008. Since 2010 its use is mandatory in official documentation in Germany when writing geographical names in all-caps. The option of using the uppercase  in all-caps was officially added to the German orthography in 2017.

Although nowadays substituted correctly only by , the letter actually originates from a distinct ligature: long s with (round) z (). Some people therefore prefer to substitute  by , as it can avoid possible ambiguities (as in the above  vs  example).

Incorrect use of the  letter is a common type of spelling error even among native German writers. The spelling reform of 1996 changed the rules concerning  and  (no forced replacement of  to  at word's end). This required a change of habits and is often disregarded: some people even incorrectly assumed that the  had been abolished completely. However, if the vowel preceding the  is long, the correct spelling remains  (as in ). If the vowel is short, it becomes , e.g.  "I think that…". This follows the general rule in German that a long vowel is followed by a single consonant, while a short vowel is followed by a double consonant.

This change towards the so-called Heyse spelling, however, introduced a new sort of spelling error, as the long/short pronunciation differs regionally. It was already mostly abolished in the late 19th century (and finally with the first unified German spelling of 1901) in favor of the Adelung spelling. Besides the long/short pronunciation issue, which can be attributed to dialect speaking (for instance, in the northern parts of Germany  is typically pronounced short, i.e. Spass, whereas particularly in Bavaria elongated may occur as in  which is pronounced Geschoß in certain regions), Heyse spelling also introduces reading ambiguities that do not occur with Adelung spelling such as  (Adelung: ) vs.  (Adelung: ). It is therefore recommended to insert hyphens where required for reading assistance, i.e.  vs. .

Long s

In the Fraktur typeface and similar scripts, a long s () was used except in syllable endings (cf. Greek sigma) and sometimes it was historically used in antiqua fonts as well; but it went out of general use in the early 1940s along with the Fraktur typeface. An example where this convention would avoid ambiguity is  () "guardhouse", written  and  () "tube of wax", written .

Sorting
There are three ways to deal with the umlauts in alphabetic sorting.
 Treat them like their base characters, as if the umlaut were not present (DIN 5007-1, section 184.108.40.206.1). This is the preferred method for dictionaries, where umlauted words ( "feet") should appear near their origin words ( "foot"). In words which are the same except for one having an umlaut and one its base character (e.g.  vs. ), the word with the base character gets precedence.
 Decompose them (invisibly) to vowel plus  (DIN 5007-2, section 220.127.116.11.2). This is often preferred for personal and geographical names, wherein the characters are used unsystematically, as in German telephone directories ().
 They are treated like extra letters either placed
 after their base letters (Austrian phone books have  between  and  etc.) or
 at the end of the alphabet (as in Swedish or in extended ASCII).
Microsoft Windows in German versions offers the choice between the first two variants in its internationalisation settings.

A sort of combination of nos. 1 and 2 also exists, in use in a couple of lexica: The umlaut is sorted with the base character, but an  in proper names is sorted with the umlaut if it is actually spoken that way (with the umlaut getting immediate precedence). A possible sequence of names then would be  in this order.

 is sorted as though it were . Occasionally it is treated as , but this is generally considered incorrect. Words distinguished only by  vs.  can only appear in the (presently used) Heyse writing and are even then rare and possibly dependent on local pronunciation, but if they appear, the word with  gets precedence, and  (storey; South German pronunciation) would be sorted before Geschoss (projectile).

Accents in French loanwords are always ignored in collation.

In rare contexts (e.g. in older indices)  (phonetic value equal to English ) and likewise  and  are treated as single letters, but the vocalic digraphs  (historically ),  and the historic  never are.

Personal names with special characters
German names containing umlauts () and/or  are spelled in the correct way in the non-machine-readable zone of the passport, but with  and/or  in the machine-readable zone, e.g.  becomes ,  becomes , and  becomes . The transcription mentioned above is generally used for aircraft tickets et cetera, but sometimes (like in US visas) simple vowels are used (). As a result, passport, visa, and aircraft ticket may display different spellings of the same name. The three possible spelling variants of the same name (e.g. ) in different documents sometimes lead to confusion, and the use of two different spellings within the same document may give persons unfamiliar with German orthography the impression that the document is a forgery.

Even before the introduction of the capital , it was recommended to use the minuscule  as a capital letter in family names in documents (e.g. , today's spelling: ).

German naming law accepts umlauts and/or  in family names as a reason for an official name change. Even a spelling change, e.g. from  to  or from  to  is regarded as a name change.

Features of German spelling

Capitalization
A typical feature of German spelling is the general capitalization of nouns and of most nominalized words. In addition, capital letters are used: at the beginning of sentences (may be used after a colon, when the part of a sentence after the colon can be treated as a sentence); in the formal pronouns Sie 'you' and Ihr 'your' (optionally in other second-person pronouns in letters); in adjectives at the beginning of proper names (e. g. der Stille Ozean 'the Pacific Ocean'); in adjectives with the suffix '-er' from geographical names (e. g. Berliner); in adjectives with the suffix '-sch' from proper names if written with the apostrophe before the suffix (e. g. Ohm'sches Gesetz 'Ohm's law', also written ohmsches Gesetz).

Compound words
Compound words, including nouns, are written together, e.g. Haustür (Haus + Tür; "house door"), Tischlampe (Tisch + Lampe; "table lamp"), Kaltwasserhahn (Kalt + Wasser + Hahn; "cold water tap/faucet"). This can lead to long words: the longest word in regular use, Rechtsschutzversicherungsgesellschaften ("legal protection insurance companies"), consists of 39 letters.

Vowel length
Even though vowel length is phonemic in German, it is not consistently represented. However, there are different ways of identifying long vowels:

A vowel in an open syllable (a free vowel) is long, for instance in ge-ben ('to give'), sa-gen ('to say'). The rule is unreliable in given names, cf. Oliver .
It is rare to see a bare i used to indicate a long vowel .  Instead, the digraph ie is used, for instance in Liebe ('love'), hier ('here'). This use is a historical spelling based on the Middle High German diphthong  which was monophthongized in Early New High German. It has been generalized to words that etymologically never had that diphthong, for instance viel ('much'), Friede ('peace') (Middle High German vil, vride). Occasionally – typically in word-final position – this digraph represents  as in the plural noun Knie  ('knees') (cf. singular Knie ). In the words Viertel (viertel)  ('quarter'), vierzehn  ('fourteen'), vierzig  ('forty'), ie represents a short vowel, cf. vier  ('four'). In Fraktur, where capital I and J are identical or near-identical , the combinations Ie and Je are confusable; hence the combination Ie is not used at the start of a word, for example Igel ('hedgehog'), Ire ('Irishman').
A silent h indicates the vowel length in certain cases. That h derives from an old  in some words, for instance sehen ('to see') zehn ('ten'), but in other words it has no etymological justification, for instance gehen ('to go') or mahlen ('to mill'). Occasionally a digraph can be redundantly followed by h, either due to analogy, such as sieht ('sees', from sehen) or etymology, such as Vieh ('cattle', MHG vihe), rauh ('rough', pre-1996 spelling, now written rau, MHG ruh).
The letters a, e, o are doubled in a few words that have long vowels, for instance Saat ('seed'), See ('sea'/'lake'), Moor ('moor').
A doubled consonant after a vowel indicates that the vowel is short, while a single consonant often indicates the vowel is long, e.g.  ('comb') has a short vowel , while  ('came') has a long vowel . Two consonants are not doubled: k, which is replaced by ck (until the spelling reform of 1996, however, ck was divided across a line break as k-k), and z, which is replaced by tz. In loanwords, kk (which may correspond with cc in the original spelling) and zz can occur.
For different consonants and for sounds represented by more than one letter (ch and sch) after a vowel, no clear rule can be given, because they can appear after long vowels, yet are not redoubled if belonging to the same stem, e.g. Mond  'moon', Hand  'hand'. On a stem boundary, reduplication usually takes place, e.g., nimm-t 'takes'; however, in fixed, no longer productive derivatives, this too can be lost, e.g., Geschäft  'business' despite schaffen 'to get something done'.
ß indicates that the preceding vowel is long, e.g. Straße 'street' vs. a short vowel in Masse 'mass' or 'host'/'lot'. In addition to that, texts written before the 1996 spelling reform also use ß at the ends of words and before consonants, e.g. naß 'wet' and mußte 'had to' (after the reform spelled nass and musste), so vowel length in these positions could not be detected by the ß, cf. Maß 'measure' and fußte 'was based' (after the reform still spelled Maß and fußte).

Double or triple consonants
Even though German does not have phonemic consonant length, there are many instances of doubled or even tripled consonants in the spelling. A single consonant following a checked vowel is doubled if another vowel follows, for instance immer 'always', lassen 'let'. These consonants are analyzed as ambisyllabic because they constitute not only the syllable onset of the second syllable but also the syllable coda of the first syllable, which must not be empty because the syllable nucleus is a checked vowel.

By analogy, if a word has one form with a doubled consonant, all forms of that word are written with a doubled consonant, even if they do not fulfill the conditions for consonant doubling; for instance, rennen 'to run' → er rennt 'he runs'; Küsse 'kisses' → Kuss 'kiss'.

Doubled consonants can occur in composite words when the first part ends in the same consonant the second part starts with, e.g. in the word Schaffell ('sheepskin', composed of Schaf 'sheep' and Fell 'skin, fur, pelt').

Composite words can also have tripled letters. While this is usually a sign that the consonant is actually spoken long, it does not affect the pronunciation per se: the fff in Sauerstoffflasche ('oxygen bottle', composed of Sauerstoff 'oxygen' and Flasche 'bottle') is exactly as long as the ff in Schaffell. According to the spelling before 1996, the three consonants would be shortened before vowels, but retained before consonants and in hyphenation, so the word Schifffahrt ('navigation, shipping', composed of Schiff 'ship' and Fahrt 'drive, trip, tour') was then written Schiffahrt, whereas Sauerstoffflasche already had a triple fff. With the aforementioned change in ß spelling, even a new source of triple consonants sss, which in pre-1996 spelling could not occur as it was rendered ßs, was introduced, e. g. Mussspiel ('compulsory round' in certain card games, composed of muss 'must' and Spiel 'game').

Typical letters

 ei: This digraph represents the diphthong . The spelling goes back to the Middle High German pronunciation of that diphthong, which was . The spelling ai is found in only a very few native words (such as Saite 'string', Waise 'orphan') but is commonly used to romanize  in foreign loans from languages such as Chinese.
 eu: This digraph represents the diphthong , which goes back to the Middle High German monophthong  represented by iu. When the sound is created by umlaut of au  (from MHG ), it is spelled äu.
 ß: This letter alternates with ss. For more information, see above.
 st, sp: At the beginning of a word or syllable, these digraphs are pronounced . In the Middle Ages, the sibilant that was inherited from Proto-Germanic  was pronounced as an alveolo-palatal consonant  or  unlike the voiceless alveolar sibilant  that had developed in the High German consonant shift. In the Late Middle Ages, certain instances of  merged with , but others developed into . The change to  was represented in certain spellings such as Schnee 'snow', Kirsche 'cherry' (Middle High German snê, kirse). The digraphs st, sp, however, remained unaltered.
 v: The letter v occurs only in a few native words and then, it represents . That goes back to the 12th and 13th century, when prevocalic  was voiced to . The voicing was lost again in the late Middle Ages, but the v still remains in certain words such as in Vogel (compare Scandinavian fugl or English fowl) 'bird' (hence, the letter v is sometimes called Vogel-vau), viel 'much'. For further information, see Pronunciation of v in German.
 w: The letter w represents the sound . In the 17th century, the former sound  became , but the spelling remained the same. An analogous sound change had happened in late-antique Latin.
 z: The letter z represents the sound . The sound, a product of the High German consonant shift, has been written with z since Old High German in the 8th century.

Foreign words
For technical terms, the foreign spelling is often retained such as ph  or y  in the word Physik (physics) of Greek origin. For some common affixes however, like -graphie or Photo-, it is allowed to use -grafie or Foto- instead. Both Photographie and Fotografie are correct, but the mixed variants Fotographie or Photografie are not.

For other foreign words, both the foreign spelling and a revised German spelling are correct such as  / Delfin or  / Portmonee, though in the latter case the revised one does not usually occur.

For some words for which the Germanized form was common even before the reform of 1996, the foreign version is no longer allowed. A notable example is the word Foto, with the meaning "photograph", which may no longer be spelled as Photo. Other examples are Telephon (telephone) which was already Germanized as Telefon some decades ago or Bureau (office) which got replaced by the Germanized version Büro even earlier.

Except for the common sequences sch (), ch ( or ) and ck () the letter c appears only in loanwords or in proper nouns. In many loanwords, including most words of Latin origin, the letter c pronounced () has been replaced by k. Alternatively, German words which come from Latin words with c before e, i, y, ae, oe are usually pronounced with () and spelled with z. However, certain older spellings occasionally remain, mostly for decorative reasons, such as Circus instead of Zirkus.

The letter q in German appears only in the sequence qu () except for loanwords such as Coq au vin or Qigong (the latter is also written Chigong).

The letter x (Ix, ) occurs almost exclusively in loanwords such as Xylofon (xylophone) and names, e.g. Alexander and Xanthippe. Native German words now pronounced with a  sound are usually written using chs or (c)ks, as with Fuchs (fox). Some exceptions occur such as Hexe (witch), Nixe (mermaid), Axt (axe) and Xanten.

The letter y (Ypsilon, ) occurs almost exclusively in loanwords, especially words of Greek origin, but some such words (such as ) have become so common that they are no longer perceived as foreign. It used to be more common in earlier centuries, and traces of this earlier usage persist in proper names. It is used either as an alternative letter for i, for instance in Mayer / Meyer (a common family name that occurs also in the spellings Maier / Meier), or especially in the Southwest, as a representation of  that goes back to an old IJ (digraph), for instance in Schwyz or Schnyder (an Alemannic variant of the name Schneider). Another notable exception is Bayern ("Bavaria") and derived words like bayrisch ("Bavarian"); this actually used to be spelt with an i until the King of Bavaria introduced the y as a sign of his philhellenism (his son would become King of Greece later).

In loan words from the French language, spelling and accents are usually preserved. For instance, café in the sense of "coffeehouse" is always written Café in German; accentless Cafe would be considered erroneous, and the word cannot be written Kaffee, which means "coffee". (Café is normally pronounced /kaˈfeː/; Kaffee is mostly pronounced /ˈkafe/ in Germany but /kaˈfeː/ in Austria.) Thus, German typewriters and computer keyboards offer two dead keys: one for the acute and grave accents and one for circumflex. Other letters occur less often such as ç in loan words from French or Portuguese, and ñ in loan words from Spanish.

A number of loanwords from French are spelled in a partially adapted way: Quarantäne /kaʁanˈtɛːnə/ (quarantine), Kommuniqué /kɔmyniˈkeː, kɔmuniˈkeː/ (communiqué), Ouvertüre /u.vɛʁˈtyː.ʁə/ (overture) from French . In Switzerland, where French is one of the official languages, people are less prone to use adapted and especially partially adapted spellings of loanwords from French and more often use original spellings, e. g. Communiqué.

In one curious instance, the word Ski (meaning as in English) is pronounced as if it were Schi all over the German-speaking areas (reflecting its pronunciation in its source language Norwegian), but only written that way in Austria.

Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences
This section lists German letters and letter combinations, and how to pronounce them transliterated into the International Phonetic Alphabet. This is the pronunciation of Standard German. Note that the pronunciation of standard German varies slightly from region to region. In fact, it is possible to tell where most German speakers come from by their accent in standard German (not to be confused with the different German dialects).

Foreign words are usually pronounced approximately as they are in the original language.

Consonants
Double consonants are pronounced as single consonants, except in compound words.

Vowels

Short vowels
Consonants are sometimes doubled in writing to indicate the preceding vowel is to be pronounced as a short vowel, mostly when the vowel is stressed. Most one-syllable words that end in a single consonant are pronounced with long vowels, but there are some exceptions such as , and . The  in the ending - is often silent, as in  "to ask, request". The ending - is often pronounced , but in some regions, people say  or . The  in the endings - (, e.g. ,  "mortar") and - ( in the dative case of adjectives, e.g.  from  "small") is pronounced short despite these endings have just a single consonant on the end, but this  is nearly always an unstressed syllable. The suffixes -, - and the word endings -, -, -, - contain short unstressed vowels, but duplicate the final consonants in the plurals:  "female reader" —  "female readers",  "pumpkin" —  "pumpkins".

:  as in  "water"
:  as in  "men"
:  as in  "bed"; unstressed  as in  "ox"
 :  as in  "means"
 :  as in  "to come"
 :  as in  "goddess"
 :  as in  "mother"
 :  as in  "miller"
 :  as in  "dystrophy"

Long vowels
A vowel usually represents a long sound if the vowel in question occurs:
 as the final letter (except for )
 in any stressed open syllable as in  "car"
 followed by a single consonant as in  "offered"
 doubled as in  "boat"
 followed by an  as in  "pain"

Long vowels are generally pronounced with greater tenseness than short vowels.

The long vowels map as follows:
 :  as in Bahn "railway"
 :  or  as in Regelmäßig "frequently"
 :  as in Meer "sea"
 :  as in Riesig "gigantic"
 :  as in Sohn "son"
 :  as in Österreich "Austria"
 :  as in Kuh "cow"
 :  as in Über "about/above"
 :  as in Psychisch "psychic"

Diphthongs
:  as in Laut "loud"
:  as in Deutschland "Germany"
:  as in Seite "side"
Shortened long vowels

A pre-stress long vowel shortens:

:
:
:
:
:
:

Other vowels

-:  or
⟨e⟩:
:  (in the words: )

Punctuation
The period (full stop) is used at the end of sentences, for abbreviations, and for ordinal numbers, such as  for  (the first). The combination "abbreviation point+full stop at the end of a sentence" is simplified to a single point.

The comma is used between for enumerations (but the serial comma is not used), before adversative conjunctions, after vocative phrases, for clarifying words such as appositions, before and after infinitive and participle constructions, and between clauses in a sentence. A comma may link two independent clauses without a conjunction. The comma is not used before the direct speech; in this case, the colon is used. In some cases (e.g. infinitive phrases), using the comma is optional.

The exclamation mark and the question mark are used for exclamative and interrogative sentences. The exclamation mark may be used for addressing people in letters.

The semicolon is used for divisions of a sentence greater than that with the comma.

The colon is used before direct speech and quotes, after a generalizing word before enumerations (but not when the words  are inserted), before explanations and generalizations, and after words in questionnaires, timetables, etc. (e. g. ).

The em dash is used for marking a sharp transition from one thought to another one, between remarks of a dialogue (as a quotation dash), between keywords in a review, between commands, for contrasting, for marking unexpected changes, for marking an unfinished direct speech, and sometimes instead of parentheses in parenthetical constructions.

The ellipsis is used for unfinished thoughts and incomplete citations.

The parenthesis are used for parenthetical information.

The square brackets are used instead of parentheses inside parentheses and for editor's words inside quotations.

The quotation marks are written as »…« or "…". They are used for direct speech, quotes, names of books, periodicals, films, etc., and for words in unusual meaning. Quotation inside a quotation is written in single quotation marks: ›…‹ or '…'. If a quotation is followed by a period or a comma, it is placed outside the quotation marks.

The apostrophe is used for contracted forms (such as  for ) except forms with omitted final  (was sometimes used in this case in the past) and preposition+article contractions. It is also used for genitive of proper names ending in , but not if preceded by the definite article.

History of German orthography

Middle Ages
The oldest known German texts date back to the 8th century. They were written mainly in monasteries in different local dialects of Old High German. In these texts,   along with combinations such as  was chosen to transcribe the sounds  and , which is ultimately the origin of the modern German letters  and  (an old  ligature). After the Carolingian Renaissance, however, during the reigns of the Ottonian and Salian dynasties in the 10th century and 11th century, German was rarely written, the literary language being almost exclusively Latin.

Notker the German is a notable exception in his period: not only are his German compositions of high stylistic value, but his orthography is also the first to follow a strictly coherent system.

Significant production of German texts only resumed during the reign of the Hohenstaufen dynasty (in the High Middle Ages). Around the year 1200, there was a tendency towards a standardized Middle High German language and spelling for the first time, based on the Franconian-Swabian language of the Hohenstaufen court. However, that language was used only in the epic poetry and minnesang lyric of the knight culture. These early tendencies of standardization ceased in the interregnum after the death of the last Hohenstaufen king in 1254. Certain features of today's German orthography still date back to Middle High German: the use of the trigraph  for  and the occasional use of  for  because around the 12th and 13th century, the prevocalic  was voiced.

In the following centuries, the only variety that showed a marked tendency to be used across regions was the Middle Low German of the Hanseatic League, based on the variety of Lübeck and used in many areas of northern Germany and indeed northern Europe in general.

Early modern period
By the 16th century, a new interregional standard developed on the basis of the East Central German and Austro-Bavarian varieties. This was influenced by several factors:

Under the Habsburg dynasty, there was a strong tendency to a common language in the chancellery.
Since Eastern Central Germany had been colonized only during the High and Late Middle Ages in the course of the  by people from different regions of Germany, the varieties spoken were compromises of different dialects.
Eastern Central Germany was culturally very important, being home to the universities of Erfurt and Leipzig and especially with the Luther Bible translation, which was considered exemplary.
The invention of printing led to an increased production of books, and the printers were interested in using a common language to sell their books in an area as wide as possible.

Mid-16th century Counter-Reformation reintroduced Catholicism to Austria and Bavaria, prompting a rejection of the Lutheran language. Instead, a specific southern interregional language was used, based on the language of the Habsburg chancellery.

In northern Germany, the Lutheran East Central German replaced the Low German written language until the mid-17th century. In the early 18th century, the Lutheran standard was also introduced in the southern states and countries, Austria, Bavaria and Switzerland, due to the influence of northern German writers, grammarians such as Johann Christoph Gottsched or language cultivation societies such as the Fruitbearing Society.

19th century and early 20th century

Though, by the mid-18th century, one norm was generally established, there was no institutionalized standardization. Only with the introduction of compulsory education in late 18th and early 19th century was the spelling further standardized, though at first independently in each state because of the political fragmentation of Germany. Only the foundation of the German Empire in 1871 allowed for further standardization.

In 1876, the Prussian government instituted the  to achieve a standardization for the entire German Empire. However, its results were rejected, notably by Prime Minister of Prussia Otto von Bismarck.

In 1880, Gymnasium director Konrad Duden published the Vollständiges Orthographisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache ("Complete Orthographic Dictionary of the German Language"), known simply as the "Duden". In the same year, the Duden was declared to be authoritative in Prussia. Since Prussia was, by far, the largest state in the German Empire, its regulations also influenced spelling elsewhere, for instance, in 1894, when Switzerland recognized the Duden.

In 1901, the interior minister of the German Empire instituted the Second Orthographic Conference. It declared the Duden to be authoritative, with a few innovations. In 1902, its results were approved by the governments of the German Empire, Austria and Switzerland.

In 1944, the Nazi German government planned a reform of the orthography, but because of World War II, it was never implemented.

After 1902, German spelling was essentially decided de facto by the editors of the Duden dictionaries. After World War II, this tradition was followed with two different centers: Mannheim in West Germany and Leipzig in East Germany. By the early 1950s, a few other publishing houses had begun to attack the Duden monopoly in the West by putting out their own dictionaries, which did not always hold to the "official" spellings prescribed by Duden. In response, the Ministers of Culture of the federal states in West Germany officially declared the Duden spellings to be binding as of November 1955.

The Duden editors used their power cautiously because they considered their primary task to be the documentation of usage, not the creation of rules. At the same time, however, they found themselves forced to make finer and finer distinctions in the production of German spelling rules, and each new print run introduced a few reformed spellings.

German spelling reform of 1996

German spelling and punctuation was changed in 1996 () with the intent to simplify German orthography, and thus to make the language easier to learn, without substantially changing the rules familiar to users of the language. The rules of the new spelling concern correspondence between sounds and written letters (including rules for spelling loan words), capitalisation, joined and separate words, hyphenated spellings, punctuation, and hyphenation at the end of a line. Place names and family names were excluded from the reform.

The reform was adopted initially by Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Switzerland, and later by Luxembourg as well.

The new orthography is mandatory only in schools. A 1998 decision of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany confirmed that there is no law on the spelling people use in daily life, so they can use the old or the new spelling. While the reform is not very popular in opinion polls, it has been adopted by all major dictionaries and the majority of publishing houses.

See also

Antiqua-Fraktur dispute
Binnen-I, a convention for gender-neutral language in German
Dutch orthography
English orthography
German braille
German phonology
Non-English usage of quotation marks
Otto Basler
Spelling
Punctuation

References

External links

Orthography

German orthography


West Wiltshire was a local government district in Wiltshire, England, between 1974 and 2009, when it was superseded by Wiltshire Council.

The district was formed on 1 April 1974, further to the Local Government Act 1972, as a merger of the former urban districts of Bradford-on-Avon, Melksham, Trowbridge, Warminster and Westbury, along with Bradford and Melksham Rural District and the Warminster and Westbury Rural District. There were five towns in the district – Bradford-on-Avon, Melksham, Trowbridge, Warminster and Westbury – each surrounded by rural parishes. About two-thirds of the district's population was in its five towns.

The district council was based at purpose-built offices in Bradley Road, Trowbridge. It was abolished on 1 April 2009 as part of the structural changes to local government in England, when its functions were taken over by the new Wiltshire Council unitary authority.

District Council

West Wiltshire District Council had forty-four members, all elected together for a four-year term of office. The first elections were held in 1973 and the last in 2007.

Political control

Initially, in 1973, the district council had no overall control. The Conservatives took control during the 1980s, and then the Liberal Democrats from 1991 to 2003. At the elections of May 2003, 19 Conservatives, 19 Liberal Democrats, two Labour members and four Independents were elected. In this hung council, an administration of Conservatives and Independents led by Councillor A. G. Phillips (Independent) held office from May 2003 to May 2005, followed by a coalition of Liberal Democrats and Independents led by Councillor Sarah Content (Liberal Democrat), from May 2005 to May 2007. At the elections of May 2007, 26 Conservatives, 14 Liberal Democrats, and four Independents were elected as members of the Council, giving the Conservatives overall control for the first time since 1990. The Conservatives appointed Graham Payne (Conservative) as Leader and A. G. Phillips (by now also a Conservative) as Deputy Leader.

Parliamentary representation

At the parliamentary level, most of the district of West Wiltshire was in the Westbury constituency, with the remaining two parishes coming under Devizes. Throughout the district's existence, both seats were held by Conservative Members of Parliament, latterly Andrew Murrison (Westbury) and Michael Ancram (Devizes).

Settlements
Populated places in West Wiltshire included:

Ashton Gifford
Atworth
Bishopstrow
Boyton
Bradford-on-Avon
Bratton
Broughton Gifford
Bulkington
Chapmanslade
Chitterne
Codford
Corsley
Coulston
Dilton Marsh
Edington
Heytesbury
Holt
Horningsham
Imber
Keevil
Knook
Limpley Stoke
Longleat
Melksham
Melksham Without
Monkton Farleigh
North Bradley
Norton Bavant
Old Dilton
Semington
Sherrington
Southwick
South Wraxall
Staverton
Steeple Ashton
Sutton Veny
Trowbridge
Upton Lovell
Upton Scudamore
Warminster
West Ashton
Westbury
Winsley
Yarnbrook

See also
Wiltshire County Council

References

English districts abolished in 2009
Former non-metropolitan districts of Wiltshire

West Wiltshire


A President's Cup (também conhecida como Astana Open ou Astana Challenger) é um torneio de tênis disputado em quadras duras ao ar livre. Atualmente faz parte do ATP Challenger Tour e do WTA Tour e é realizado anualmente em Nur-Sultan, Cazaquistão, desde 2007.

Nota: Apesar de ser sancionado pela ITF, esse torneio é um "não ITF", não confundir com o torneio da ITF realizado no início do ano.

Resultados

Simples masculino

Duplas masculinas

Simples femininas

Duplas femininas

Torneios de tênis no Cazaquistão
Circuito Feminino ITF
ATP Challenger Tour
Circuito WTA
Fundações em 2007

President's Cup


Levant (franc. levant, tal. levante: istok) može biti:
 Levant, u općem značenju Istok, istočne zemlje. U užem smislu skupni naziv za zemlje koje leže uz obale istočnog Mediterana: Grčku, Tursku, Siriju, Libanon, Izrael, Jordan i Egipat; Grčka se kadšto izuzima iz pojma Levanta. On se uglavnom podudara s pojmom Bliski istok.
 levant (vjetar) ili levanat je vlažan i hladan istočni vjetar na Sredozemlju.

Izvori

Levant (razdvojba)


Rebirth es el séptimo álbum de estudio del rapero estadounidense Lil Wayne, estrenado el 2 de febrero de 2010 por Cash Money, Young Money y Universal Motown. Fue producido por Cool & Dre, DJ Infamous, DJ Nasty & LVM, Kevin Rudolf y J.U.S.T.I.C.E. League. Rebirth fue promocionado como el álbum rock de Lil Wayne, aunque contiene algunas canciones de hip hop.

El álbum debutó en el número 2 del Billboard 200, vendiendo 176 000 copias en su primera semana. Se convirtió en el séptimo álbum de Lil Wayne en alcanzar el top-ten, y produjo cuatro sencillos que entraron en la lista. Desde su lanzamiento, Rebirth ha recibido críticas generalmente negativas de la mayoría de los críticos. Ha sido certificado oro por la RIAA, con 500 000 copias vendidas.

Antecedentes
Originalmente, Rebirth iba a ser el relanzamiento de su álbum Tha Carter III. Se suponía que el álbum iba a ser puesto a la venta el 21 de diciembre de 2009, pero Wayne atrasó la fecha. Una semana antes de su primer lanzamiento programado, Amazon envió accidentalmente 500 copias a clientes que lo habían pedido con antelación. A pesar de que iba a ser estrenado el 7 de abril de 2009, la fecha fue cambiada varias veces y finalmente se lanzó el 2 de febrero de 2010. La artista de Young Money, Shanell, comentó que los retrasos fueron debidos al deseo de Wayne de que el álbum fuese "perfecto".

Recepción

Rendimiento comercial
Rebirth debutó en la 2ª posición del Billboard 200 con 176 000 copias vendidas en su primera semana, sobrepasando las expectaciones. Se convirtió en el séptimo álbum de Lil Wayne en llegar al top-ten. También debutó en la 1ª posición del Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums y del Top Rap Albums. En su segunda semana cayó al número 4 del Billboard 200 vendiendo 89.024 copias más. En su tercera semana, bajó una posición, con unas ventas totales de 324 470 copias. Se mantuvo en la cima del Top Rap Albums por 6 semanas consecutivas. Rebirth también entró al puesto 24 en el Reino Unido y al puesto 86 en Francia. El 5 de marzo de 2010 fue certificado oro por la RIAA, habiendo vendido más de 500 000 copias. El 5 de septiembre de 2011, el álbum llevaba vendidas 775 000 copias en Estados Unidos.

Recepción de la crítica
Desde su lanzamiento, Rebirth ha recibido reseñas negativas de la mayoría de críticos. Acumula un total de 37 puntos sobre 100 sobre la base de sus críticas, lo que indica "reseñas generalmente desfavorables", de acuerdo con Metacritic. Está en el séptimo puesto de la lista de álbumes peor recibidos del sitio. El crítico Jeff Weiss, de Los Angeles Times, calificó a Rebirth como "uno de los peores álbumes del año hasta ahora".

Lista de canciones

Listas de posiciones y certificaciones

Listas semanales

Listas de fin de año

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Rebirth en Metacritic.

Álbumes de 2010
Álbumes de Lil Wayne
Álbumes de rap
Álbumes en inglés
Álbumes de Cash Money Records
Álbumes de hip hop

Rebirth (álbum de Lil Wayne)


Ken Lawrence is a nerdcore rapper who purports to be the late theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking rapping under the name MC Hawking.

MC Hawking rose to popularity on the Internet in the early 2000s. The songs were originally released in MP3 format, but due to the popularity of the website Lawrence was signed to a record deal with Brash Music to release a "greatest hits" album in 2004.

Background
MC Hawking's entire body of work and his rapper persona were created by American web developer Ken Lawrence. Lawrence earned a degree in music composition from Hampshire College. His raps are synthesized by the text-to-speech program WillowTalk.  The beats for MC Hawking are provided by DJ Doomsday (another alter-ego of Ken Lawrence). The beats are a combination of samples of classic hip hop tracks, commercial royalty-free loop libraries, live performances, and midi compositions.

Lyrical content
The lyrics are a mixture of gangsta rap topics, science topics and Stephen Hawking quotations (such as the famous "When I hear of Schrödinger's cat, I reach for my gun", which became "Every time I think of them my trigger finger itches", referring to creationists).  Among subjects of MC Hawking songs are various scientific topics and Hawking's professional relationships with MIT rivals, as well as the standard fare of gangsta rap, including street violence and drug use.

The lyrics display insight into many aspects of current scientific thought, Newton's laws of motion ("All My Shootings Be Drivebys"), Einstein's theory of relativity ("E=MC Hawking"), the Big Bang ("The Big Bizang"), Thermodynamics ("Entropy"), and quantum physics subjects such as Schrödinger's cat and the wave function collapse ("Rock Out With Your Hawk Out").

The creation evolution controversy is also mentioned in "Fuck the Creationists" and "Entropy".

Dark Matter and greatest hits album
He is also involved with a heavy metal group called Dark Matter — a parody of Ice-T's "Body Count" — with whom he has performed such songs as "Why Won't Jesse Helms Just Hurry Up and Die", "UFT for the MC" (a parody of the Sex Pistols song "Anarchy in the UK"), and "The Big Bizang". He is also an occasional Song Fight! participant.

His "greatest hits" album is called A Brief History of Rhyme: MC Hawking's Greatest Hits, a parody of Hawking's book A Brief History of Time. It included many songs that were available on the official website, plus new material (four songs and three interludes from a fictional radio interview).

Reaction by Stephen Hawking
Stephen Hawking said in 2000 that he was "flattered, as it's a modern-day equivalent to Spitting Image".  On the inside cover of A Brief History of Rhyme, Lawrence thanks Stephen Hawking "for taking this joke in the spirit that it was intended."

MC Hawking's Podcore Nerdcast

In 2013, Lawrence, along with longtime collaborators Len Pal and the voice actor Dave B. Mitchell, launched MC Hawking's Podcore Nerdcast, a podcast in which the hosts discuss movies, games, books, and music (and particularly nerdcore hip hop). as well as interviews with nerdcore musicians including MC Frontalot, MC Lars, Random, and Atheist (Scott Knopf). In June 2014, Cassie joined the cast to fill in for Mitchell (due to scheduling conflicts). Regular features include Will It Suck, in which the hosts discuss upcoming films and predict opening weekend box office and Rotten Tomatoes results, Dino News, in which Cassie brings the latest news about dinosaurs, Nerds Need to Know, which highlights books, movies, or television shows relevant to nerd culture, and Everybody Wants to Rule the World, in which the hosts debate potential new laws or decrees that could make the world a better place. Episodes occasionally also feature new MC Hawking tracks. The podcast has been inactive since 2018.

Upcoming second album

His second album, The Hawkman Returneth, was due for release in 2018, announced with the release of the single Fear of a Black Hole, which was first performed in 2016 in front of the real Stephen Hawking and others including Richard Dawkins and Brian May. As of 2023, no additional music has been released.

Discography
A Brief History of Rhyme: MC Hawking's Greatest Hits (2004)
"The Hawkman Cometh"
"The Dozens"
"Big Bizang"
"Excerpt from a Radio Interview (Pt. 1)"
"Entropy"
"The Mighty Stephen Hawking"
"Crazy as Fuck"
"Bitchslap (With MC Frontalot)"
"Excerpt from a Radio Interview (Pt. 2)"
"Fuck the Creationists"
"E=MC Hawking"
"All My Shootings Be Drivebys"
"UFT For The MC"
"Excerpt from a Radio Interview (Pt. 3)"
"What We Need More of is Science"
"GTA3"
Songs released in MP3 format only
 "Led Zeppelin Medley" (no longer available)
 "QuakeMaster"
 "Why Won't Jesse Helms Just Hurry Up and Die?"
 "Rock Out with Your Hawk Out"
 "MC Hawking Holiday"
 "How I Roll"
Appearances
"Nerdcore Rising" - MC Frontalot - Nerdcore Rising

Fictional discography
As part of the parody, a fictional discography was created on the MC Hawking's Crib website.  None of these albums were actually created.

The Hawkman Cometh EP (1994)
[Fear of a Black Hole] (1996) (originally called A Brief History of Rhyme until Hawking's real album was given that title)
E = MC Hawking (1999)

References

External links

Nerdcore artists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Cultural depictions of Stephen Hawking
Hampshire College alumni

MC Hawking


La  est l'une des trois circonscriptions législatives que compte la préfecture de Wakayama au Japon. Cette circonscription comptait  électeurs en date du .

Description géographique

La troisième circonscription de la préfecture de Wakayama regroupe les villes de Gobō, Tanabe et Shingū avec les districts d'Arida, Hidaka, Nishimuro et Higashimuro.

Députés

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Chambre des représentants du Japon

Circonscription législative au Japon

Troisième circonscription de la préfecture de Wakayama


Argumentationsteori er en af de underdiscipliner man finder inden for filosofi.
Sammen med logik, der er en anden af filosofiens underdiscipliner, så undervises man i argumentationsteori i at argumentere for sine synspunkter.
Det indbefatter, at man lærer at identificere grundelementerne i argumenter for både at kunne gennemskue styrken af andres måde at argumentere på
samt forme utvetydige, gyldige og empirisk sande argumenter selv.

Grundlæggende ting

Argumenter
Et argument består altid af mindst to ting: Påstand og begrundelse.
Maks én påstand, mindst én begrundelse.

Man kalder også disse for præmisser (begrundelserne) og konklusion (påstanden).

Påstande
En påstand er et forsøg på at overbevise om noget, men ulig et argument, så har en påstand ingen begrundelse.

Påstande har derfor meget mindre styrke end argumenter, da begrundelse er vigtigt for vores afklaring af, hvad der er sandt og falsk.
For begrundelser giver os mulighed for at tjekke, hvad der ligger bag påstande.

For at kunne be/afkræftes, så må påstande altid indeholde et grundled og et udsagnsled, og må altid kunne være sande eller falske.

Begrundelser
En begrundelse er den årsag, følge eller observation man støtter sin påstand med.
Ikke bare en gentagelse af påstanden.
Kun begrundelser kan fungere som støtte i et argument (til den lagte påstand). Påstanden er aldrig begrundende for dém, da det fører til fejlslutninger.

Enhver begrundelse må også altid indeholde grundled+udsagnsled, og kunne være sand/falsk.

Barmhjertighedsprincippet
Af og til kan et udsagn være formuleret på en måde, hvor det bliver uklart for en hvad pointen er.
Her må man se på hvad intentionen var, for at forstå afsenderen.
Kan man dog ikke tyde intentionen, fx pga. at pointen udtrykkes i en tekst, så må man se hvordan udsagnet er stærkest,
hvis man skal forme så stærkt et modargument som muligt selv:

Dette er hvad barmhjertighedsprincippet går ud på: At vælge den stærkeste fortolkning over den svageste
og lade tvivlen komme personen til gode.

Standardisering
At standardisere er at skære udsagn op i deres bestanddele for at tyde hvad egentlig udgør påstand og begrundelse,
og om argumentet, hvis der er et, er stærkt eller svagt.
Der er flere måder at gøre dette på.

Via følgende uddrag fra René Descartes' værk Meditationer over den første filosofi, så gives her et eksempel på hvordan man kan standardisere:

Opdelingsmåde: Numerisk/alfabetisk
 K: The only alternative is that the idea (of God) is innate in me, just as the idea of myself is innate in me.
 1a: I have not received this idea through the senses.
 1a.a: The idea is never presented to me unexpectedly.
 1a.b: It is usual with the ideas of sensible things to present themselves unexpectedly.
 2a: Nor is the idea likewise a fiction of my mind.
 2a.a: It is not in my power to take from or add anything to the idea.

"K" er konklusionen. Alle følgende opdelinger er dens præmisser.
"1a" er dermed en præmis til "K", og "1a.a" samt "1a.b" er underpræmisser til "1a".
Præmisser kan potentielt set have uendelige underpræmisser, men her nøjes vi med noget begrænset.

"2a" er en anden præmis til "K". Den begrundes af underpræmissen "2a.a".

Til denne måde kan man også udelukkende bruge tal (fx 1.1 og 2.1), bogstaver (fx A.a og B.a),
eller man kan bytte rundt på tal og bogstaver (fx A1 i stedet for 1a),
så længe man blot er konsistent gennem sin opdeling.

Man tyder påstand, begrundelser og underbegrundelser via indikatorord.

Indikatorord
Disse påpeger hvilke dele af et argument, der følger af hinanden
og gør det muligt at opdele- samt analysere de udsagn, der er.

Følgende er eksempler:
(for præmisser) "fordi/for/siden, at/i kraft af/da/pga., at"
(for konklusioner) "derfor/som følge af/herved/heraf/det følger, at/pga. det, så"

Ved sætninger uden indikatorord laves den stærkest mulige tolkning (barmhjertighedsprincippet).

Opdelingsmåde: Diagram
Billede kunne ikke uploades.

Nødvendige og tilstrækkelige betingelser
Kortfattet kan man sige at nødvendige betingelser indikerer, at noget nødvendigvis må være tilfældet, hvor tilstrækkelige betingelser indikerer, at noget kan være tilfældet.

Visuelt kan man se det på denne måde:
Forestil dig en stor cirkel med en mindre cirkel inden i.
Den store cirkel repræsenterer en nødvendig betingelse, og den mindre cirkel en tilstrækkelig betingelse.

For at give mere mening til dette billede, så erstat den store cirkel med "Hund" og den lille cirkel inden i med "Chiuaua".
Dette svarer nu til at sige, at alle Chiuauaer er hunde.

Folk kan af og til bytte rundt på nødvendige og tilstrækkelige betingelser, hvormed at ende i fejlslutninger.
Fx er det ikke tilfældet at alle hunde er Chiuauaer, da nogle hunde er af andre racer.
Ved at lære forskellen på de 2 betingelser, så lærer man at tyde det omfang ethvert argument arbejder med.

Deduktion og induktion

Deduktion
Når man er deduktiv, så drages en logisk følge inden for den viden man gives.
Hvad menes der med det?
Se på følgende eksempel:

Præmis 1: Alle mennesker er dødelige.
Præmis 2: Sokrates er et menneske.
Konklusion: Derfor er Sokrates dødelig.

Konklusionen findes i præmisserne.
Herudover bevæger man sig typisk fra en observation om noget generelt (alle mennesker)
til en erklæring om noget specifikt (Sokrates).

Induktion
Når man er induktiv, så bruges empiri til at forudsige, uden for ens viden, mere empiri.
For eksempel:

Præmis 1: Denne, første svane er hvid.
Præmis 2: Denne, næste svane er hvid.
Konklusion: Derfor er alle svaner hvide.

Man forsøger at lave en generalisering, der enten gælder for det næste eksemplar man støder på,
eller for alle fremtidige eksemplarer af det man udtaler sig om.

Bemærk at man her, omvendt, typisk går fra noget specifikt (individuelle svaner) til noget generelt (alle svaner).

Et yderligere skel i mellem deduktiv og induktiv færd er, at induktion kun arbejder med sandsynlighed, bl.a. pga. Induktionsproblemet.
Deduktion arbejder derimod med nødvendighed, da det er logisk umuligt, at en konklusion her ikke er som spået.

Konvergent og divergent tænkning

Konvergent tænkning
I konvergent tænkning gennemgår man enkelte dele af viden for at sammensætte en konklusion.

Det kan også betyde at man gennemgår delene for at udpege den/dem, som i en given sammenhæng enten er blevet fastsat som rigtig,
eller som fremstår for en som det mest sandsynlige svar iblandt de dele man har.

Divergent tænkning
Ved divergent tænkning starter man omvendt fra en given info, som en konklusion,
og overvejer om der fx er fortolkninger eller undtagelser til den.

Man afsøger ikke kun de svar, der virker åbenlyse eller er påpeget af andre,
men alle muligheder, der logisk kán være fra infoen man er givet.

Begge former for tænkning er relevante at kende til,
 da man kan risikere at ende med kun at anvende én af dem, hvis ikke man er opmærksom på sig selv i forhold til begge.
 da stærke argumenter formes af sind, der er i stand til, bevidst, at ransage sine egne argumenter via begge måder.

Fejlslutninger
Fejlslutninger er inkonsistente/tvetydige/ikke-følgende og/eller usande måder at tænke på, logisk og/eller empirisk set.
Der er flere typer af dem:
 Formelle: Hvor konklusionen ikke følger logisk af præmisserne (og hvor argumentet dermed er ugyldigt).
 Uformelle: Hvor præmissen og/eller konklusionen ikke er sand (og hvor argumentet, eller dele af det, dermed er usandt).
 Sproglige: Hvor der er tvetydighed og/eller meningsskift i argumentet, som påvirker dets gyldighed, sandhed og/eller egentlige status som argument.
Fælles for alle typer af fejlslutninger er, at de på ingen måde gør argumenter mere sande og/eller gyldige. Tvært imod.

Hvorfor lære om fejlslutninger?
1. Fordi evnen til at tyde styrken af et argument er lige så vigtig for mental dannelse og al diskussion, som evnen til at tyde argumenter er.
2. Fordi det at lære om fejlslutninger, i forlængelse af de grundlæggende ting, kan opøve vores evne til at tyde argumenters styrke.

Eksempler på fejlslutninger
 Personangreb: Man angriber personen frem for bolden/argumentet.
 Stråmand: Man forvrænger andres udsagn i sine modargumenter (ligesom en stråmand uakkurat gengiver, hvad en levende person faktisk er).
 Personlig skepsis: Man afviser et argument fordi man ikke forstår det, fordi det er svært at forstå generelt eller ikke passer med ens egne, selektive rammer for hvornår noget er sandt.
 Intimidering: Man fremsætter meget kompleks viden og antager at folk, der ikke kan forholde sig til det tager fejl.
 Naivitet: Man antager at folk har ret fordi de kan fremsætte kompleks viden ("kompleks" betyder ikke "korrekt").
 Trussel: Man truer modparten for at få vedkommende til at opgive sit argument.
 Misledning: Man afleder samtalen fra hovedpunkterne i ens argument for fx at lede folk væk fra erkendelsen af hvor utilstrækkeligt det er.
 Afbrydelse: Man afbryder sin modpart, evt. på gentagende vis, for fx at holde folk fra at indse hvor utilstrækkelig ens argument er.
 Frustrationskneb: Man frustrerer modparten for fx at udstille vedkommende i et dårligt lys for dem man søger at overbevise.
 Udeblivende begrundelse: Man påstår at noget er sandt/falsk, fx ved "at sådan er det bare", når det ikke nødvendigvis er sådan (man eftertjekker ikke sine antagelser, men hævder stadig at de er sande).
 Falsk dilemma: Man opstiller et ultimatum, som ikke indbefatter alle mulighederne.
 Falsk dikotomi: Man stiller muligheder op imod hinanden som om de er gensidigt udelukkende, selvom de ikke er.
 Utilstrækkelig begrundelse
 Flertallet: Man hævder noget er sandt/falsk fordi flertallet mener det.
 Autoritet: Man hævder noget er sandt/falsk fordi en autoritet mener det, eller peger på folk som autoriteter når de ikke er det.
 Tradition: Man hævder noget er sandt/falsk fordi det er en del af en tradition/fordi man har gjort det altid/i lang tid.
 Innovation: Man hævder at noget er sandt/falsk fordi det er en del af en innovation/fordi man aldrig har prøvet det/har prøvet det i kort tid.
Selvom påstandene i disse fejlslutninger evt. er sande, så er begrundelserne utilstrækkelige, da begrundelseskilden i sig selv ikke altid har ret eller forudsætter korrekthed.
 Appel til følelser: Man kører på folks følelser, frem for logiske og empiriske omstændigheder.
Eksempel: Advokaten, der kører på hvor synd det er, at ofret har mistet sit barn (sympati).
Dette har intet at gøre med hvorvidt den mistænkte udførte forbrydelsen, eller ej.
Andre følelser, der kan køres på inkluderer vrede, glæde, sorg, håb, lettelse, frygt, afsky, skam, flovhed, jalousi, hengivenhed, ømhed, tillid, forventning, overraskelse, bekymringsløshed, forvirring.
 Ubegrundet antagelse:	Man antager, evt. på implicit vis, at ens konklusion er ubetvivleligt sand, selvom den er tvivlsom.
 Cirkulært ræsonnement: Man fremsætter en præmis, som begrundes af konklusionen, som begrundes af præmissen etc..
En konklusion har, så længe det ér en konklusion, aldrig en begrundende funktion.
Dette er præmissernes formål.
 Selektion: Man udvælger kun de eksempler som støtter ens argument, selvom der også tydeligvis er eksempler, der underminerer det.
 Generalisering: Man laver en fejlagtig/utilstrækkeligt begrundet generalisering.
 Appel til ignorance:
 Man hævder at noget er sandt fordi det ikke er blevet bevist som falsk.
 Man hævder at noget er falsk fordi det ikke er blevet bevist som sandt.
Fordi man endnu ikke har bevist/modbevist en påstand, så betyder det ikke at den dermed Er sand/falsk.
Blot at man endnu ikke har en endelig påvisning for/imod.
 Ønsketænkning:
 Man afviser et argument som falsk fordi det taler imod noget man ønsker skal være tilfældet.
 Man anerkender et argument som sandt fordi det bakker op om noget man ønsker skal være tilfældet.
Ønskning afgør ikke sandhed, andet end den om ønskningen selv.
 Øjeblikkelig alvidenhedskrav:	Man hævder at andre tager fejl fordi de ikke kan redegøre for alle implikationerne af deres argument her og nu.
Et argument bliver ikke mindre sandt/gyldigt af at indehaveren fx ikke husker visse dele af argumentet.
Redegørelsen af visse ting kan også kræve eftertanke.
 Spørgsmålsbombardering: Man stiller en overvældende række spørgsmål og antyder at den udspurgte tager fejl pga. manglende besvarelse af dem alle.
 Naturalistisk fejlslutning: Man hævder at fordi noget ér tilfældet, så bør det også være det (hvad end "bør'et" så henviser til at der vil blive opnået).
 Appel til naturen: Man hævder at fordi noget er naturligt, så må det også være godt (hvad end "godt" så betyder).
 Ingen sand skotte: Man omformulerer sine påstande hver gang de modvises.
Fejlslutningen her er at man søger at vinde argumentet i højere grad end man søger at påvise noget om verden.
 Glidebane: Man antager fejlagtigt at en hændelse vil lede til bestemte, absurde konsekvenser.
Konsekvenserne bliver absurde af natur pga. manglende redegørelse for leddene af ens konsekvensudregning.
 Falsk anekdote: Man afskriver en generel tendens eller statistik på grundlag af en personlig erfaring eller et andet, isoleret eksempel.
At man selv oplever noget afvigende betyder ikke at tendensen ikke gælder for andre.
 Falsk kompromis: Man antager fejlagtigt at sandheden/gyldigheden må ligge i midten af to, modstridende argumenter.
 Appel til hykleri: Man hævder at man fx kan begå en lovovertrædelse uden konsekvenser fordi at andre også gør det.
 Ladet spørgsmål: Man stiller et forudindtaget spørgsmål så den udspurgte ikke kan andet end at fremstå fx skyldig/utroværdig el. lign. i besvarelsen af det.
 Komposition: Man hævder fejlagtigt at fordi noget gælder for en ting, så må dette også gælde for alle tingens bestanddele.
 Division: Man hævder fejlagtigt at fordi noget gælder for en tings bestanddele, så må dette også gælde for tingen som helhed.
 Forhastet konklusion: Man danner en fejlagtig konklusion ud fra at drage antagelser, som ikke eksplicit er blevet be- eller afkræftet af den/dem man diskuterer med.
 Sammenhæng og årsag: Man hævder at en ting har forårsaget eller påvirket en anden ting, fordi de er sket samtidigt/fordi den ene skete før den anden/fordi den anden skete efter den første,når det er muligt at hver har egne, uafhængige årsager.
 Falsk analogi: Man sammenligner ting som om de er mere ens end hvad de ér, eller leder til lign. konsekvenser, når de ikke nødvendigvis gør.
 Semantisk skift: Man bruger begreber på en måde, så de skifter betydning i ens argument.
 Tvetydighed: Man formulerer sit argument så det kan forstås på flere måder og at ens pointe dermed bliver uklar.
For at kunne be- eller afkræfte et argument, så må det være klart hvad argumentet antyder.
 Konsistensløs tale: Man siger noget så generelt, at ingen kan være hverken enig eller uenig.
I forhold til argumenter, så bøjer man her kravet om at påstande samt begrundelser må kunne være sande/falske i en grad, der svarer til helt at ignorere kravet.
 Fejlslutningsfejlslutning: Man hævder at fordi modparten har begået en fejlslutning, så tager vedkommende fejl.
En konklusion og/eller præmis kan stadig være sand, selvom argumentet er ugyldigt.
Omvendt kan et argument osse være gyldigt, men usandt.
 Ugyldighed: Man konkluderer noget, som ikke følger af præmisserne.
 Usandhed: Man konkluderer noget, som logisk og empirisk set ikke kan være andet end falsk.
 Kontradiktion: Man modsiger sig selv.

Tankelovene
For både at kunne være konsistent i egne argumenter samt være i stand til at bemærke uoverensstemmelser i andres argumentation, så må man kende til de grundlæggende principper inden for logik. Disse inkluderer hhv. kontradiktionsprincippet, den udelukkede midte og identitetsloven.

Fagskel
Et lignende fag er Retorisk Argumentation (der ikke er en fagfilosofisk underdisciplin).

Her lærer man om argumentationsformer, retoriske virkemidler og andet inden for kommunikation, typisk med udgangspunkt i Stephen Toulmin's argumentationsmodel.

Området afviger på følgende, grundlæggende punkt:
Hvor argumentationsteori arbejder med sandheden, gyldigheden og tvetydigheden af argumenter,
så arbejder retorisk argumentation med selve leveringen, ift. at virke overbevisende overfor andre.

Se også
Retorisk argumentation
Induktion (matematik)

Referencer
Indholdet af emnerne i denne artikels indholdsfortegnelse refererer til følgende litteratur:

Grundlæggende ting:
 LeBlanc, Jill. "Thinking Clearly".
 P. Lee, Stephen. "What is the Argument".
 Fisher, Alec. "The logic of real arguments".

Standardisering:
 Govier, Trudy. 'Govier 2005'.

Nødvendige og tilstrækkelige betingelser:
 Betz, Frederick (2011). Managing Science: Methodology and Organization of Research. New York: Springer.
 Manktelow, K.I. (1999). Reasoning and Thinking. East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press.
 Asnina, Erika; Osis, Janis & Jansone, Asnate (2013). "Formal Specification of Topological Relations". Databases and Information Systems VII".

Deduktion og induktion:
 Carveth Read, Logic: Deductive and Inductive (Illustrated Edition). Dodo Press.

Konvergent og divergent tænkning:
 S. Kuhn, Thomas. "The Essential Tension".
 Cropley, Arthur (2006). "In Praise of Convergent Thinking".
 Guilford, J.P.. "Guilford 1977".

Fejlslutninger:
 Bentham, Jeremy. "Book of Fallacies".
 Bennet, Bo. "Logically Fallacious: The Ultimate Collection of Over 300 Logical Fallacies (Academic Edition)".

Ekstern henvisning
 Filosoffen - Fejlslutninger

Filosofi
Logik

Argumentationsteori


Milford Graves (August 20, 1941 – February 12, 2021) was an American jazz drummer, percussionist, Professor Emeritus of Music, researcher/inventor, visual artist/sculptor, gardener/herbalist, and martial artist. Graves was noteworthy for his early avant-garde contributions in the 1960s with Paul Bley, Albert Ayler, and the New York Art Quartet, and is considered to be a free jazz pioneer, liberating percussion from its timekeeping role. The composer and saxophonist John Zorn referred to Graves as "basically a 20th-century shaman."

Early life
Graves was born in Jamaica, Queens, New York City, on August 20, 1941.  He began playing drums when he was three years old, and was introduced to the congas at age eight. He also studied timbales and African hand drumming at an early age. By the early 1960s, he was leading dance bands and playing in Latin/Afro Cuban ensembles in New York on bills alongside Cal Tjader and Herbie Mann.  His group, the Milford Graves Latino Quintet, included saxophonist Pete Yellin, pianist Chick Corea, bassist Lisle Atkinson, and conga player Bill Fitch.

Career
In 1962, Graves heard the John Coltrane quartet with Elvin Jones, whose drumming made a strong impression.  The following year, Graves acquired a standard drum set from pianist Hal Galper and began using it regularly.  That summer, percussionist Don Alias invited Graves to Boston for a residency, and Graves began playing with saxophonist Giuseppi Logan.

During a visit to New York in 1964, Logan introduced Graves to trombonist Roswell Rudd and saxophonist John Tchicai. Graves "wound up playing with them for half an hour, astonishing Rudd and Tchicai, who promptly invited him to join what became The New York Art Quartet." Rudd recalled that Graves's "playing was like an anti-gravity vortex, in which you could either float or fly depending on your impulse." According to Tchicai, "Graves simply baffled both Rudd and I in that, at that time, we hadn't heard anybody of the younger musicians in New York that had the same sense of rhythmic cohesion in polyrhythms or the same sense of intensity and musicality." Tchicai also stated that Don Moore, the original New York Art Quartet bassist, "became so frightened of this wizard of a percussionist that he decided that this couldn't be true or possible and therefore refused to play with us."

That same year, Graves also participated in the "October Revolution in Jazz" organized by Bill Dixon, and appeared on a number of recordings, including the New York Art Quartet's self-titled debut album, Giuseppi Logan's debut album, which also featured pianist Don Pullen and bassist Eddie Gómez, Paul Bley's Barrage, Montego Joe's Arriba! Con Montego Joe (which also featured Chick Corea and Gómez), and the Jazz Composer's Orchestra's Communication. Graves also briefly played with Albert Ayler's trio, which included bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, as a second drummer. This combination of musicians inspired John Coltrane to add Rashied Ali as a second drummer the following year.

In 1965, Graves continued to expand his horizons, studying the tabla with Wasantha Singh and recording with Miriam Makeba on Makeba Sings!. He also recorded and released a percussion album titled Percussion Ensemble, which featured drummer Sonny Morgan. Val Wilmer wrote that the recording "remains just about the most brilliantly conceived and executed percussion album to date." That year, Graves also recorded on the New York Art Quartet's second album Mohawk, on Montego Joe's second album, Wild & Warm, on Lowell Davidson's sole release, and on a second album with Giuseppi Logan, again working with Don Pullen. Graves and Pullen soon formed a duo, and in 1966 they recorded and released In Concert at Yale University, followed by Nommo, on their SRP ("Self Reliance Project") label.

Graves joined Albert Ayler's band in 1967, replacing Beaver Harris. The group performed at Slugs' Saloon, at the Newport Jazz Festival, and, on July 21, at John Coltrane's funeral. (Recordings of this performance were released in 2004 on the compilation Holy Ghost.) Later that year, the group recorded Love Cry. Graves left Ayler's band when Impulse! began pushing Ayler in a more commercial direction.

Graves recorded Black Woman with Sonny Sharrock in the late 1960s and began playing with drummers Andrew Cyrille and Rashied Ali on a series of concerts titled "Dialogue of the Drums." Graves and Cyrille also recorded and released an album without Ali and with the title "Dialogue of the Drums" in 1974. During this time, Graves studied to become a medical technician and managed a lab for a veterinarian. In 1973, Bill Dixon helped secure Graves a teaching position at Bennington College, where Graves taught until 2012. (Dixon had previously brought Jimmy Lyons, Jimmy Garrison, Alan Shorter, and Alan Silva to Bennington.) In 1977, Graves released two albums under his own name: Bäbi, which featured reed players Arthur Doyle and Hugh Glover, and Meditation Among Us, with a Japanese jazz quartet composed of Kaoru Abe, Toshinori Kondo, Mototeru Takagi, and Toshiyuki Tsuchitori. During the early 1980s, Graves also began working with dancer Min Tanaka.

Later
In the years that followed, Graves toured and recorded in a quartet setting with drummers Cyrille, Kenny Clarke, and Famoudou Don Moye, recorded a duo album with David Murray, and performed and recorded with the New York Art Quartet in celebration of their 35th anniversary. He also recorded two solo albums, Grand Unification (1998) and Stories (2000), as well as albums with John Zorn, Anthony Braxton, William Parker, and Bill Laswell. In 2008 and 2012, Graves performed with Lou Reed. In 2017, Graves played on Sam Amidon's album The Following Mountain. 2018 saw Graves performing with bassist Shahzad Ismaily, as well as the release of the documentary Milford Graves Full Mantis, directed by Graves's former student, Jake Meginsky, along with Neil Cloaca Young. In 2019, Graves played in a duo setting with pianist Jason Moran. Alice in Chains vocalist William DuVall also directed a documentary about Graves titled Ancient to Future: The Wisdom of Milford Graves. However, the film has been in post-production status since 2013 and has not been released as of 2020.

In 2022, Black Editions Group announced that their Black Editions Archive imprint would focus on releasing previously unheard recordings by Graves.

Illness and death
Graves was diagnosed with amyloid cardiomyopathy in 2018, and was informed he had half a year more to live. He died on February 12, 2021. He was 79, and suffered from congestive heart failure prior to his death.

Honors, awards, distinctions
Graves was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in Music Composition in 2000,
and in 2015 he received a Doris Duke Foundation Impact Award.

Musical style
Graves, along with Sunny Murray and Rashied Ali, was one of the first jazz musicians to free the drums from their traditional time-keeping role, having developed "a conception of... music that went beyond jazz and the ching-a-ding of the ride cymbal." Val Wilmer described Graves as

...a percussionist with an amazing technique. Graves moved around his drumset with astonishing speed, beating rapid two-handed tattoos on every surface. Each stroke was clearly defined so that there were no rolls in the conventional sense; the emphasis was on clarity. He used his cymbals in the way another drummer might use a gong or another drum. With the NYAQ, Graves's snare drum was tuned high as was the norm, but already his tom-toms were producing a deeper sound than usual. By the end of the 'sixties, though, he had dispensed with the snare and his three tom-toms were tuned as loosely as is common in rock today... Graves was probably the first American drummer to remove all of his bottom heads because of their tendency to absorb sound.

Wilmer also wrote:

His bass drum... is in frequent use, and he habitually holds his sticks by the tip... Graves was using matched grip before it became fashionable, and he has another unique grip which enables him to hold two sticks and play on two surfaces virtually simultaneously. Sometimes he holds a huge mallet or maracas in the same hand as a regular drumstick, beating with this combination on the same surface or switching alternately from one beater to the other. He occasionally takes a small pair of tuned bongoes, places them in front of him on the skin of one tom-tom and hits them in that position. The result is a percussive maelstrom of multi-layered intensity.

John Szwed wrote that Graves "did not use a standard drum setup and sometimes hit the bass drum with a stick or kicked it instead of using a pedal, or he played the snare with a tree branch with the leaves still intact."

Graves believed that "most drummers are over-occupied with the playing of rhythms and insufficiently with the actual sound," and that it is "important for drummers to study the actual membrane, to try for different sounds or a different feeling by playing on every part of the skin and not merely the same area over and over again..." He stated that "[i]f you know how to manipulate your skins, you can make that dispersed sound - slides, portamento style, sustained tone. Instead of letting your stick free rebound, you can mute it, slide it on there. It calls for greater physicality." Graves told Aakash Mittal: "when I play, I do more than vertical strokes. I'm not just bah-bop bah-bop. My thing is moving around, touching the skins, knowing about momentum and position at the same time." In an interview with Paul Burwell, Graves stated: "I relate the drum skin to a body of water... As a musician, you are schooling yourself to deal with some of the most sensitive things in the universe: emotion, frequency, life, the vital force... we're involved with one of the most subtle things in life. Sounds - that's it!"

Graves was also very outspoken about his feelings concerning the role of the drummer: "I couldn't understand how a guy would sit and play a basic beat all the time. In African drumming, the drum is in the forefront. Timekeeping for the drummer? I said no way." He stated: "You just can't stay in the background; that's not the nature of the instrument. Most drummers are so reduced. And one of the most disrespectful things the drummer can encounter is when they put the drums either in the right or left side corner of the stage, or if they put you there, they've got people in front of you." He suggested that drummers not take "a greater or lesser role, but an equal role... Not reducing yourself to the point that you were considered just a drummer, not a musician. I resented that more than anything."

Non-musical interests
Graves pursued a wide variety of non-musical interests. According to Giovanni Russonello, Graves was "a kind of underground thought leader in martial arts, natural healing and cellular biology," preferring to "live in territory that's uncharted, which often means unseen," reflecting what John Corbett called "an axiom of adaptability, a sense that people need to be flexible to deal with new contexts and new challenges." Writing in Artforum, Christoph Cox stated: "Graves has thrown himself into a massive multidisciplinary project that straddles the arts and sciences, traditional healing practices and the frontiers of cardiology and stem-cell research."

Many of Graves' interests revolved around what he called "biological music, a synthesis of the physical and mental, a mind-body deal." One example is "Yara," a form of martial art that Graves, a former Police Athletic League boxing champ, invented in the early 1970s, and that is "spontaneous improvised, and... reacting according to that particular situation," based on "the movements of the Praying Mantis, African ritual dance, and Lindy Hop." (According to Graves, Yara means "nimbleness" in the Yoruba language.) Graves stated that certain aspects of Yara came about as a result of inquiries into the history of martial arts having led him to its roots in nature: "What is martial arts? What's Kung Fu? Where did it come from...? I started reading books on Chinese martial arts, the history of this art... There was many times... when I was reading about this so called grandmaster - he'd be up in the mountains meditating, and he saw this and he saw that. I said, 'wow - I could do the same thing, man. I'll just go out in nature 'cause that's where they got it from...' So I went to the best teacher. I went to the praying mantis himself... It goes back to hanging out with nature." Graves taught Yara at his home for over thirty years, with sparring sessions that were "hours long and full-contact."

Aakash Mittal noted the connections between Graves' martial arts activities and his music, writing: "the kinetic motion of yara can be applied with sticks in hand to a cymbal, creating a sonification of the martial arts form itself." Graves explained: "When I would spar, I'd sing on people! Put them to sleep. Just like on the trap set, one hand goes this way, the other that way. They never knew what was coming..." "I would get down to my drum set and I'd go — ting-raww—frapt! — I would keep that whole flow and go around. If I was doing a sword technique, I would practice my sword stuff and with the strokes like — thwap!... There I would exchange a stick, so if I'm hitting down here — pop! — and hitting the cymbal — shhhap!... I was directing the energy in a very precise, meaningful way, so they helped each other out. I would hit the sound and just get it, make it go like — rat-a-tat-a-rot-a-toko!"

Graves related his martial arts activities to his interest in herbal healing, nutrition, acupuncture, and healing using sound and electrical impulses, stating "When we test the body, or we grab the body, and hit certain points and grab certain points, you're not doing a destructive touch... You're a healing martial artist, a constructive martial artist, not a destructive martial artist... You just don't want to be somebody who learns a martial art to go out and be a bully and hurt somebody. I think that's wrong." Graves was "established as both an herbalist and acupuncturist in New York City" and was "frequently sought out as a healer and acupuncturist by neighbors and artists across the city." For years he tended what he called a "global garden," using it as a source of herbal remedies and nutritious foods. Graves recalled that his interest in maintaining a healthy lifestyle arose when, in his late teens, he began experiencing severe health problems as a result of regularly drinking cheap wine. He credited a drastic change in his diet with saving his life: "The plants! The plants! I didn't get into it cause someone said this is something you should do. It wasn't no hip thing, man. It was necessity. It was illness. I became a vegetarian and I started hanging out, listening to the plants."

In the mid-1970s, Graves became fascinated by the notion of "the heartbeat as a primary source of rhythm." He stumbled on a recording of heart rhythms, and "was astonished by the similarities between cardiac arrhythmias and Afro-Cuban drumming patterns. Beyond the simple da-DUM of the heartbeat, he heard polyrhythmic pulsations, variable duration between beats, and a whole spectrum of frequencies. All this strengthened his conviction that true rhythm isn't metronomic and that the tone of the beat is as important as its duration." He purchased equipment and wrote software that allowed him to record and analyze heartbeats, and began studying his own heartbeat rhythms as well as those of friends and other musicians. After decades of study, Graves used some of the funds from his 2000 Guggenheim Fellowship to purchase additional equipment and software. He wrote: "Initially I recorded heartbeats through an electronic stethoscope and listened to the different patterns of those rhythms. More recently, the use of LabVIEW, a software program, has provided much more detailed data. LabVIEW allows me to record the voltages produced by the electrical pulses of the heart, essentially capturing the frequency at which the heart vibrates. These frequencies can then be translated into the audible spectrum and analyzed as sound (heart music), which is accomplished by using specific algorithms written for LabVIEW." By playing the resulting sounds back to a person who acted as a source, Graves "found he can increase blood flow and possibly even stimulate cell growth." He wrote that this research "has inspired a number of medical studies, including a collaboration with researcher Carlo Ventura which showed that exposure to the heart music caused unassigned stem cells to develop into myocardial (heart) cells." The work also resulted in a patent entitled "Method and device for preparing non-embryonic stem cells." Dr. Baruch Krauss, who teaches at Harvard Medical School, is a physician at Boston Children's Hospital, and who studied acupuncture with Graves and followed his research, has described Graves as "what a Renaissance man looks like today... Milford is right on the cutting edge of this stuff. He brings to it what doctors can't, because he approaches it as a musician."

John Corbett wrote that "Graves's heart studies... confirm the falsity of one of the easiest potshots taken at nonmetrical or polymetrical drumming in free jazz, namely, that it's unnatural and doesn't mimic the heart, which is assumed to have a steady beat." Graves stated that regular rhythms are "not natural. You have to go against all the rules of nature, use a metronome, inhibit your true ability to sense the rhythms and vibrations of nature. In a pure metric sense, that means that your inhalation and exhalation would always be the same, because when you inhale your beats per minute increases. If you exhale, it decreases. No one breathes that way. Breath varies, so cardiac rhythm never has that tempo. It's always changing." He also stated: "We are simply not making music that is up to our potential. The complexities you can hear in the sounds of one person's heartbeat are very similar to free jazz and if we were to make music that was in tune with the vibrations of our bodies, the results would be very powerful."

Graves also painted artwork for some of his albums, and later exhibited sculptures which tie together his interests in music and martial arts, writing: "I've been thinking about sculpture as a teaching tool.  There's a saying I used to always hear: 'sculpture is frozen music.' I want something with some kind of movement to it. I'm adding elements that are not static, like transducers. I also use my years and years of experience in music and my training in martial arts to understand sculpture. There were movements I used to do that would be very quiet, maybe something from aikido or tai chi. Very slow, very slow... then all of a sudden you would burst out with this explosive, passive-aggressive energy. I wondered how I would put that into a piece of sculpture. I thought the explosion would be to put together some unorthodox elements and have contradictions set in. If a person were to look at it, it would provoke a kind of psychological motion inside of them." Graves' 2017 exhibit at The Artist's Institute at Hunter College tied together his interests in music and acupuncture, "establishing an energetic connection between music and the natural rhythms of the body." A 2020-2021 exhibit at the Institute of Contemporary Art in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, entitled Milford Graves: A Mind-Body Deal showcased "a collection of Graves' hand-painted album covers and posters, idiosyncratic drum sets, multimedia sculptures, photographs, and costumes, with elements from his home, scientific studies, recording ephemera, and archival recordings, as well as space for performance and a reading room."

Discography

As leader
1965: Percussion Ensemble (ESP) with Sunny Morgan
1977: Bäbi (IPS, reissued on Corbett Vs. Dempsey) with Arthur Doyle, Hugh Glover
1977: Meditation Among Us (Kitty) with Kaoru Abe, Toshinori Kondo, Mototeru Takagi, and Toshiyuki Tsuchitori
1998: Grand Unification (Tzadik)
2000: Stories (Tzadik)
2023: Children of the Forest (Black Editions Archive) with Arthur Doyle, Hugh Glover

As sideman or co-leader
With Marshall Allen, Roscoe Mitchell, and Scott Robinson
 Flow States (ScienSonic, 2020)

 With Sam Amidon
 The Following Mountain (Nonesuch Records)

With Albert Ayler
 Holy Ghost: Rare & Unissued Recordings (1962–70) (Revenant)
 Love Cry (Impulse!)

With Paul Bley
Barrage (ESP)

With Anthony Braxton & William Parker
 Beyond Quantum (Tzadik)

With Peter Brötzmann and William Parker
 Historic Music Past Tense Future (Black Editions, 2022)

With Kenny Clarke/Andrew Cyrille/Famoudou Don Moye
 Pieces of Time (Soul Note)

With Andrew Cyrille
 Dialogue of the Drums (IPS)

With Lowell Davidson
 Lowell Davidson Trio (ESP)

With the Jazz Composer's Orchestra
 Communication (Fontana)

 With Bill Laswell
 Space/Time – Redemption (TUM Records)
 The Stone (Back In No Time) (M.O.D. Technologies)

With Giuseppi Logan
 The Giuseppi Logan Quartet (ESP)
 More (ESP)

With Miriam Makeba
 Makeba Sings! (RCA)

with Montego Joe
 Arriba! (Prestige)
 Wild & Warm (Prestige)

with Jason Moran
 Live at Big Ears (Yes Records, 2021)

With David Murray
 Real Deal (DIW)

With New York Art Quartet
 New York Art Quartet (ESP)
 Mohawk (Fontana)
 35th Reunion (DIW)
 Call It Art (Triple Point Records)

With Don Pullen
 At Yale University (SRP)
 Nommo (SRP)

With Sonny Sharrock
Black Woman (Vortex)

With Wadada Leo Smith
 Sacred Ceremonies (Tum, 2021)

With Sun Ra
 Untitled Recordings (Transparency)

With Various Artists
 New American Music Volume 1: New York Section / Composers of the 1970's (Folkways)

With John Zorn
 50th Birthday Celebration Volume 2 (Tzadik)

Filmography
 The Breath Courses Through Us (2013) by Alan Roth
 River of Fundament (2014) by Matthew Barney
 Milford Graves Full Mantis (2018) by Jake Meginsky

Bibliography
 Graves, Milford and Pullen, Don. (January 1967) "Black Music." In Liberator, 20.
 Graves, Milford. (1968) "Untitled." In The Cricket Vol. 1, 14–17.
 Graves, Milford. (1969) "Music Workshop." In The Cricket Vol. 3, 17–19.
 Graves, Milford. (1969) "Black Music: New Revolutionary Art." In Black Arts: An Anthology of Black Creations ed. Ahmed Alhamisi, 40–41. Detroit, Black Arts Publications.
 Graves, Milford. (2007) "Book of Tono-Rhythmology." In Arcana II: Musicians on Music ed. John Zorn, 110–117. New York, Hips Road.
 Graves, Milford. (2010) "Music Extensions of Infinite Dimensions." In Arcana V: Music, Magic and Mysticism ed. John Zorn, 171–186. New York, Hips Road.

References

External links
 Audio Recordings of WCUW Jazz Festivals - Jazz History Database
 Milford Graves discography on Mindspring.com

 13 episodes of Milford Graves talking on ImprovLive 365 from 2012 (via YouTube)
 Milford Graves interview at Point of Departure
 Article on Milford Graves: Full Mantis documentary at Independencia

1941 births
2021 deaths
Free jazz drummers
American jazz drummers
Musicians from Queens, New York
Jazz musicians from New York City
ESP-Disk artists
RCA Victor artists
Impulse! Records artists
Tzadik Records artists
Bennington College faculty
Avant-garde jazz drummers
American session musicians
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers
Music therapists
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
New York Art Quartet members
American patent holders
20th-century American inventors
21st-century American inventors
African-American inventors
20th-century African-American scientists
20th-century African-American musicians
21st-century African-American people

Milford Graves


Pepsi, 1893 yılında ABD'de yaratılmış, PepsiCo tarafından üretilen ve Dünya'da en popüler alkolsüz içecek markalarından biridir.

Tarihçe

İlk yıllar

Pepsi, 1867 yılında ABD'nin bir eyaleti olan Kuzey Karolina'da doğan ve yine burada yaşayan Caleb Bradham tarafından icat edilmiştir. Önceleri doktor olmak isteyen Bradham, doğduğu eyalette başladığı tıp eğitimine Maryland'de devam etti. Fakat tıp eğitiminin zorlaşması ve pahalılaşmasının yanı sıra babasının da iflas etmesi üzerine Bradham, eğitimini yarıda bırakarak memleketine dönüp çalışmaya başladı. Bununla beraber, tıp alanına ilgisini kaybetmeyen Bradham bir süre sonra Maryland Üniversitesi'nde eczacılık alanında eğitimine devam etti. Üniversiteyi bitirip Kuzey Karolina'ya döndü. New Bern kentinde kendi eczanesini işletmeye başladı.

Bradham, 1893 ilk denemelerini yaptığı içeceği bir yandan da geliştirmeye çalıştı. 1898 yılında yine bu eczanede içeceği üretti ve New Bern şehrinde "Brad's Drink" ("Brad'in İçeceği") olarak piyasaya sürdü. Karbonatlı su, şeker, vanilya, nadir yağlar ve kola fındığından oluşan içecek piyasaya mide ilacı olarak tanıtıldı. Bradham, 1898 yılında rakibinden 100 dolar karşılığında "Pep Cola" ticari ismini satın alarak kullanmaya başlamıştır. Kimyacı olan Caleb Bradham, Pepsi'yi sindirime yardımcı olması ve enerji vermesi amacıyla geliştirmiştir. Böylece 1903 yılında Bradham, sindirim enzimi olan pepsinden esinlenerek yarattığı ürünün adını değiştirip "Pepsi-Cola" yaptı ve içkinin resmi kaydını yaptırdı. Aynı yıl mucit kimyager 7.968 galon içecek satmayı başardı. Sonraki yıl "Pepsi" 6 unsiyalıq şişelerde satılmaya başlatıldı. Satışlar 19,848 gallona kadar arttı. 1905 yılında Bradham, Pepsi'nin logosunu 1898 yılındaki orijinal tasarımından sonra ilk kez değiştirdi.

1906 yılında ABD Gıda Enstitüsü'nün içecek içerisinde zararlı bir madde olmadığına kanaat getirmesi üzerine ürünün satışı serbest bırakılmıştır. Artan talebin de etkisiyle ilk şişeleme fabrikaları Kuzey Karolina eyaletinin Durham ve Charlotte kentlerinde kurulmuştur.

İflas dönemi ve satılması
1923 yılında I. Dünya Savaşı'nın etkileri yüzünden şekerin fiyatında yükselme oldu. Bradham'ın tüm çabalarına rağmen şirket iflas etti. İflas işlemleri sırasında Caleb Bradham içeceğin tarifini federal mahkemeye sunması üzerine kim olduğu bilinmeyen bir milyarder tarafından tarif satın alındı. Bazı kaynaklarda bu kişinin Roy C. Megargel adlı bir iş insanı olduğu geçer.

Bu olaydan sekiz yıl sonra, 1931 yılında şirket tekrar iflas etti. Bu kez işletmeyi "Loft Inc" şirketinin sahibi olan Charles Guth satın aldı. 1922 ve 1933 yıllarında arasında üç kez, Coca-Cola Şirketi Pepsi-Cola şirketini satın almak için teklifte bulunsa da, türlü bahanelerle bu talepler reddedildi. Büyük Buhran yıllarında "Pepsi" başarılı pazar politikası sürdürerek rakiplerini ve özellikle Coca-Cola'yı sıkıştırmayı başardı. 12 onsluk "Pepsi-Cola" camları 5 sente satılıyorken, aynı dönemde "Coca-Cola" nın 6 onsluk şişesi 5 sentti. Böylece, "Pepsi-Cola" rakibinin müşterilerini kendine çekmeyi başardı. 1934 yılında markanın yaratıcısı Caleb Bradham öldü. 1936 ile 1938 yılları arası şirketin gelirleri iki kat artarak 2 milyon dolara yükseldi.

1939 yılında "The Pepsi Cola Company" yeniden satılması gündeme geldi ve şirket, "Phoenix Securities" in başkan yardımcısı olan Walter Staunton Mack Jr. tarafından satın aldı. Pazarlama konusunda mükemmel bir zekaya sahip olan Mack eski İngiliz balladının müziğini kullanarak reklamlar hazırladı. Bu reklam Pepsi'nin başarısına büyük katkı verdi ve 55 dilde yayımlandı. Mack'in olağanüstü çabaları sayesinde Pepsi hem ABD hem de ABD dışında Coca-Cola'nın en büyük rakibi haline geldi. II. Dünya Savaşı döneminde ise Pepsi, rakipleri olan RC Cola (Royal Crown) ve Dr. Pepper'i geride bırakarak, pazar konumuna göre Coca-Cola'dan sonra ikinci içecek olarak bilinir hale geldi. Ayrıca, Amerikan askerlerine destek olmak amacıyla camlarının tasarımını kırmızı-mavi-beyaz renginde tasarladı. 1956 yılında artık dünyanın 61 ülkesinde Pepsi-Cola'nın 149 fabrikası faaliyet gösteriyordu.

1963 yılında şirketin başkanı olan Donald M. Kendall ve Frito-Lay'in başkanı Herman Lay 1965 yılında şirketlerini bir çatı altında birleştirerek PepsiCo şirketini kurdular. Bugün dünyanın birçok ülkesinde şişeleme ve üretim fabrikası bulunan Pepsi, hemen hemen tüm ülkelerde satılmaktadır ve dolayısıyla büyük bir pazar payına sahiptir.

Tarifi
Rakibi Coca-Cola'dan farklı olarak Bradham, Pepsi'nin tarifini gizli tutmayı başaramamıştı. Şirketin iflası sürecinde, ürünün tarifini mahkemeye sunması sonucunda bu gizlilik bozulmuştu.

1923 yılında Bradham'ın mahkemeye verdiği belgeye göre Pepsi'nin içeriği şöyledir: 7500 libre şeker, 1200 galon su, 12 galon karamel, 12 galon misket limonu suyu, 58 libre fosforik asit, 0.5 galon Etanol, 6 ons limon yağı, 5 ons portakal yağı, 4 ons tarçın yağı, 2 ons hindistan cevizi yağı, 2 ons kişniş yağı bulunuyordu.

Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde Pepsi, karbonatlı su, yüksek fruktozlu mısır şurubu, karamel, şeker, fosforik asit, kafein, sitrik asit ve doğal tatlar ile yapılıyor. 12 ons Pepsi'nin içinde 41 gram karbonhidrat, 30 mg sodyum, 0 gram yağ, 0 gram protein, 38 mg kafein, 150 kalori bulunmaktadır. Ağustos 2010'da, Pepsi yapay yüksek potansiyelli tatlandırıcıların geliştirilmesi için Senomyx ile 4 yıllık anlaşma imzaladı.

Sözleşme kapsamında, PepsiCo 30 milyon dolar karşılığında Senomyx teknolojisini kendi ürünlerinde kullanacaktır. Bu işbirliği ile Pepsi'nin tatlı arttırıcılara ilişkin keşfi, bunun geliştirilmesi ve ticarileştirilmesi sağlanarak daha düşük kalorili içecekler piyasaya sürülmesi hedeflenmiştir. Eylül 2012'de Pepsi %30 daha az şeker içeren Pepsi Next adında yeni bir ürün ve sıfır kalorili tatlandırıcı olarak Stevia ürününü piyasaya sürdü.

2012 yılında Coca-Cola ve Pepsi şirketleri ABD yasaları uyarınca ürünlerinin üzerine kanser uyarı etiketi konulmaması için içeceğin ayırt edici rengi olan karamel rengini veren 4 - metilimidazol maddesini azaltmışlardır. Şirketler ürünlerinde herhangi bir kanser riski olmamasına rağmen bunun yine de bir önlem olarak gerekli olduğunu ifade ederken bu değişimin, ürünlerin tatlarında herhangi bir yansıması olmadığını belirttiler.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Pepsi resmi sayfası
 Pepsi Türkiye

Pepsi Çeşitleri

Kola markaları
1883 tanıtımları
Patent ilaçları
Amerikan markaları
PepsiCo
1893'te Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde kurulan oluşumlar
1898 tanıtımları
1890'larda tanıtılan ürünler

Pepsi


A Organização das Nações Unidas para a Educação, a Ciência e a Cultura (UNESCO) propôs um plano de proteção aos bens culturais do mundo, através do Comité sobre a Proteção do Património Mundial Cultural e Natural, aprovado em 1972. Esta é uma lista do Patrimônio Mundial existente no Zimbabwe, especificamente classificada pela UNESCO e elaborada de acordo com dez principais critérios cujos pontos são julgados por especialistas na área. O Zimbabwe ratificou a convenção em 16 de agosto de 1982, tornando seus locais históricos elegíveis para inclusão na lista.

O sítio Parque Nacional de Mana Pools e Áreas de Safari de Sapi e Chewore foi o primeiro local do Zimbabwe incluído na lista do Patrimônio Mundial da UNESCO por ocasião da 8ª Sessão do Comitè do Património Mundial, realizada em Buenos Aires (Argentina) em 1984. Desde então, o Zimbabwe totaliza 5 sítios designados como Patrimônio da Humanidade, sendo 3 deles de classificação Cultural e 2 deles de classificação Natural.

Bens culturais e naturais
O Zimbabwe conta atualmente com os seguintes lugares declarados como Patrimônio da Humanidade pela UNESCO:

Lista Indicativa
Em adição aos sítios inscritos na Lista do Patrimônio Mundial, os Estados-membros podem manter uma lista de sítios que pretendam nomear para a Lista de Patrimônio Mundial, sendo somente aceitas as candidaturas de locais que já constarem desta lista. Desde 2018, o Zimbabwe possui 2 locais na sua Lista Indicativa.

Ligações externas

Cultura do Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe

Lista do Patrimônio Mundial no Zimbabwe