The Sims strateška je videoigra iz 2000. godine, simulacija života, koju je razvila tvrtka Maxis, a izdao ju je Electronic Arts. Igra je simulacija svakodnevnih aktivnosti jednog ili više virtualnih ljudi (Simsa) u kućanstvima u predgrađu koje se nalazi u blizini izmišljenog grada. Igrači kontroliraju prilagodljive Simseve dok slijede ciljeve u karijeri i vezama. Igrači također mogu koristiti prihod svojih Simsa za obnovu svog životnog prostora, kupnju pokućstva ili odjeće za svoje domaćinstvo. Igrači također mogu odabrati društveni i uspješan život.

Razvoj igre vodio je Will Wright, a igra je bila nastavak Wrightove ranije SimCity serije. Sedam "paketa proširenja" (DLC-a) objavljeno je od 2000. do 2003. godine, od kojih je svaki dodao nove stavke, likove i značajke.
Prvi je put u prodaju puštena 4. veljače 2000., i prodana je u više od 6.3 milijuna primjeraka zbog čega je postala najprodavanija računalna igra u povijesti. Zajedno s dodacima prodana je u više od 25 milijuna primjeraka. Od prvog puštanja u prodaju igre The Sims izašlo je sedam dodataka i nastavak igre, The Sims 2 (s vlastitim dodacima). Objavljeno je nekoliko nastavaka - The Sims 2 (2004.), The Sims 3 (2009.) i The Sims 4 (2014.) godine.

Način igranja

Struktura igre je umjetni životni program zasnovan na agentima, igrica u pozadini kreira događaje. Umjetne inteligencije igre je napredna, a Simsi će na vanjske uvjete reagirati neovisno, iako je često intervencija igrača potrebna kako bi Simsi ostali na dobrom putu. Igrica tehnički ima neograničenu vrijednost ponavljanja, jer ne postoji način da istinski pobijedite u igri, a igrač može igrati neograničeno. Opisana je kao više poput igračke nego igre.

Igrač utječe na Simse te im izdaje naredbe kao što su interakcije s objektima ili drugim simsima. Sim može primati goste na svoju kućnu parcelu, pozvani ili ne. Ako su omogućeni u opcijama igre, Sims imaju određenu količinu slobodne volje, što im omogućuje autonomnu interakciju s njihovim svijetom. Međutim, igrač može nadjačati većinu tih autonomnih radnji otkazujući ih u redu radnji na vrhu zaslona. Za razliku od simuliranih okruženja u igrama poput SimCity, SimEarth ili SimLife, Sims nisu u potpunosti autonomni. Oni nisu u stanju poduzeti određene radnje bez određenih naredbi, poput plaćanja računa, pronalaska posla, vježbanja i začeća djece. Sims komuniciraju na izmišljenom jeziku koji se zove Simlish, a koji se uglavnom sastoji od mumljanja i izgovaranja besmislica.

Igrač može donositi odluke o vremenu provedenom u razvoju vještina Sima, poput vježbanja, čitanja, kreativnosti i logike dodavanjem aktivnosti na Simsov dnevni red. Svakodnevne potrebe kao što su higijena i prehrana mogu i moraju se također zakazati. Iako Sim može samostalno izvoditi ove radnje, možda im neće dati učinkovit prioritet i može pretrpjeti posljedice zbog zanemarivanja vlastitih potreba. Osim toga, Simsi moraju održavati uravnoteženi proračun i obično dopunjavati prihod dobivanjem posla. Simsi mogu zaraditi unapređenje ispunjavanjem vještina i održavanjem prijateljstva s drugima za svaku razinu, što dovodi do novih naziva radnih mjesta, povećanih plaća i različitog radnog vremena. Simsi mogu kod kuće stvarati i prodavati različita umjetnička djela i predmete.

Iako u igri nema konačnog cilja, u igrici postoji stanja neuspjeha. To se postiže tako da zadnji Sim u kućanstvu umre, bilo gladovanjem, utapanjem, vatrom ili strujnim udarom (ili od prirodnih uzroka / starosti u određenim verzijama). Kad Sim umre, pojavit će se nadgrobni spomenik ili urna (u kasnijim paketima proširenja prvo će se pojaviti Grim Reaper), a duh preminulog Sima može progoniti zgradu u kojoj je umro. Osim toga, Sims može zauvijek napustiti igru i nikad se ne vratiti ili se mogu odrasti dvojica odraslih Simsa u lošoj vezi, što će na kraju rezultirati iseljavanjem jednog od njih. Djeca će biti poslana u vojnu školu ako padnu s nastave ili ako nisu ispunila svoje potrebe (posebno kada je glad vrlo mala), socijalni radnik odvest će ih iz kućanstva i više se neće moći vratiti.

Građenje

Kada je igrač u načinu igre "Uživo", igrač ima mogućnost ući u način "Izgraditi" ili "Kupiti" kako bi zaustavio vrijeme i obnovio kuću ili parcelu. Kad igra započne, svaka obitelj započinje s §20 000 simoleona (bez obzira na broj članova). Ta se sredstva mogu upotrijebiti za kupnju male kuće ili slobodnog zemljišta na zaslonu susjedstva. Nakon kupnje parcele, igrač može izgraditi ili preurediti kuću u načinu gradnje ili kupiti ili premjestiti namještaj u načinu kupnje. Sve arhitektonske i prilagodljive značajke i namještaj u načinima gradnje i kupnje slijede sustav kvadratnih pločica u kojem se predmeti moraju postaviti na pločicu. Zidovi i ograde protežu se uz rub pločice i mogu pratiti rub pločice ili ga prelaziti dijagonalno, ali predmeti namještaja ne mogu se postavljati ni na jednu stranu prekrižene pločice. Osnovna igra sadrži preko 150 predmeta, uključujući namještaj i arhitektonske elemente.

Izvori i razvoj

Ideju za igru The Sims Will Wright dobio je nakon požara u Oaklandu 1991. kada je izgorjela njegova kuća, a zajedno s njom i većina njegovih stvari. Zbog toga se, zajedno s obitelji, morao preseliti i ponovno izgraditi svoj život; ti su ga događaji doveli do inspiracije za stvaranje računalne igre koja bi simulirala život. Igra se uz to temelji i na SimCityju, još jednoj računalnoj igri koju je dizajnirao Wright, a u kojoj igra upravlja gradom i njegovim građanima.

Wright je Maxisu prvi put predstavio ideju virtualne "kuće za lutke" 1993. dok je još razvijao svoju ideju, a djelatnici tvrtke prijedlog su dočekali skeptično; sredinom 1990-ih smatralo se da računalni hardware nije sposoban za izvođenje takvih simulacija. 1995. je Electronic Arts (EA) ponudio Wrightu da nastavi razvijati ideju koju će zatim objaviti EA. Razvijanje igre, koja je u početku bila poznata kao "Project X", započelo je 1995.

1997. ime projekta promijenjeno je u "The Sims" kao asocijacija na ostale, relativno uspješne, "Sim" igre iz sredine 1990-ih. Prije uspjeha igre nakon njezinog puštanja u prodaju 2000., EA je vjerovao da će The Sims podbaciti.

Igra The Sims koristi kombinaciju 3D i 2D grafike. Sami Simljani napravljeni su korištenjem 3D grafike, dok su svi predmeti i okolina napravljeni u dvije dimenzije.

Dodaci

The Sims je jedna od igara s najviše dodataka odnosno ekspanzija. Ovdje je potpuni popis dodataka za igru The Sims (kronološkim redom):

 The Sims: Livin' Large ili The Sims: Livin' It Up u Europi (kolovoz 2000.): novi predmeti, događaji i Simljani te mogućnost igre u više susjedstva.
 The Sims: House Party (ožujak 2001.): predmeti vezani za zabave kao što je plesni podij.
 The Sims: Hot Date (studeni 2001.): omogućava Simljanima da pozovu druge Simljane na spoj u novom gradskom središtu
 The Sims: Vacation ili The Sims: On Holiday u Europi (ožujak 2002.): omogućava igračima da Simljane odvedu na godišnji odmor i to na različite lokacije kao što su plaže, šume ili planine.
 The Sims: Unleashed (rujan 2002.): omogućava Simljanima da udome i nauče trikovima kućne ljubimce i proširuje susjedstvo koje sada uključuje i "Stari grad" ("Old Town").
 The Sims: Superstar (svibanj 2003.): omogućava Simljanima posjet "Studio gradu" ("Studio Town") koji je nalik Hollywoodu, a Simljani mogu postati i nove zvijezde
 The Sims: Makin' Magic (listopad 2003.): omogućava Simljanima upotrebu magije i bacanje čarolija, a postaje dostupan i novi "Magični grad" ("Magic Town").

Kompilacije

Kompilacije s originalnim The Sims igrama

Igra The Sims je doživjela brojena izdanja. Ta izdanja nisu ekspanzije odnosno dodaci, nego kompilacije osnovne igre i nekog od već izdanih dodataka i dodatnog sadržaja za igru. Ta izdanja uključuju:

 The Sims Deluxe Edition (2002.): Kompilacija osnovne igre, dodatka The Sims: Livin' Large, programa za stvaranje nove odjeće The Sims Creator, 25 novih predmeta i 50 novih odjevnih predmeta. Mnogi obožavatelji negodovali su zato što je ekskluzivni sadržaj bio dostupan samo kupcima ove kompilacije.
 The Sims Double Deluxe (2003.): Uključuje The Sims Deluxe Edition, The Sims: House Party i ekskluzivni sadržaj. Za razliku od sadržaja uključenog u The Sims Deluxe Edition, predmeti iz Double Deluxea mogli su se besplatno preuzeti sa službenih stranica.
 The Sims Mega Deluxe (25. svibnja 2004.): Kompilacija igara The Sims, The Sims: Livin' Large, The Sims: House Party i The Sims: Hot Date.
 Potpuna kompilacija osnovne igre i njezinih sedam dodataka:
 The Sims Complete Collection; Sjeverna Amerika (studeni 2005.): Potpuna kolekcija sadrži originalnu igru i svih sedam dodataka, dodatne sadržaje iz Deluxe Editiona i Double Deluxea i alat The Sims Creator. Ova kompilacija dolazi na četiri CD-a. Inačica za Apple Macintosh prodaje se na jednom DVD-u.
 The Complete Collection of The Sims; Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo: Najnovija kompilacija koja sadrži osnovnu igru i svih sedam dodataka.
 The Sims: Full House; Australija: Australsko izdanje Full House ili Puna kuća sadrži osnovnu igru, svih sedam dodataka i disk koji najvljuje igru The Sims 2. Za razliku od američkog izdanja čiji je sadržaj bio na četiri CD-a, ovo je izdanje bilo na 12 CD-a, s odvojenim dodacima i osnovnom igrom.

Kompilacije dodataka

Kompilacija dodataka puštena je u prodaju 2005.:
 The Sims: Expansion Collection Volume One sastoji se od The Sims: Unleashed i The Sims: House Party.
 The Sims: Expansion Collection Volume Two sastoji se od The Sims: Hot Date i The Sims: Makin' Magic.
 The Sims: Expansion Collection Volume Three sastoji se od The Sims: Vacation i The Sims: Superstar.

Još jedna serija dodatka puštena je u prodaju 2005:

 The Sims: Expansion Three-Pack Volume 1 sastoji se od The Sims: Unleashed, The Sims: Superstar i The Sims: House Party.
 The Sims: Expansion Three-Pack Volume 2 sastoji se od The Sims: Hot Date, The Sims: Vacation i The Sims: Makin' Magic.

Interne šale i Easter eggsi

Malcolm Landgraab i Shiny Things Inc.

Ime Michaela Landgraaba (ili samo prezime Landgraab) pojavljuje se već u igri SimCity 3000 gdje postoji tvrtka "Malcolm Landgraab Industries", a "Shiny Things Inc." je ime jedne od industrijskih zgrada. U igri The Sims Landgraab je šef Shiny Things Inc.-a, proizvođača kuhinjskih pomagala u igri. Kao interna šala, u igri The Sims za konzole Malcolm Landgraab pojavljuje se kao otac igračevih bezvrijednih cimera Dudleyja i Mim Landgraab. U dodatku za igru The Sims: Hot Date, jedan od šoping centara u središtu grada zove se Landgraab. Ime se koristi i u igri The Sims 2 gdje postoji određeni broj townieja koji se prezivaju Landgraab, a s ekspanzijom Open for Business dolazi i Simljanin koji imanom Malcolm Landgraab the 4. koji vodi noćni klub i trgovinu eletrkoničke opreme.

Obitelj Goth

Obitelj Goth (jedna od obitelji koja dolazi s originalnom igrom) čiji su članovi Mortimer i Bella, bračni par, te njihova kći Cassandra zaslužna je za određenu dozu crnog humora u igri zato što potiče mnoge asocijacije na smrt i očaj u brojnim situacijama. Goth predstavlja skupinu adolescenata i mladih ljudi koji nose crnu odjeću i pišu mračnu i depresivnu poeziju ili književnost.

Suprugovo ime Mortimer dobiveno je od latinskog korijena i francuske riječi, mort, što znači smrt. Suprugino ime Bella dobiveno je od latinskog korijena belli- ili bellum, što znači rat ili borba (iako je to i talijanska riječ koja znači "lijepa"). Također, kćerino ime Cassandra dolazi od grčkog izraza za "onu koja zbunjuje/zarobljava muškarce". Osim toga, dom obitelji Goth veoma je nalik ukletim vilama i čak ima i malo groblje i duhove koji noću lelujaju zemljištem.

100 dana u kućanstvu

Jednom kad obitelj provede 100 dana u istom kućanstvu igrač će dobiti poruku koja mu čestita stoti dan koji njegova obitelj provodi u kući, nakon čega slijede zanimljivosti o igri, njezinoj produkciji i samim Simljanima. To se nastavlja dok više nema zanimljivosti koje bi se mogle prikazati.

Pojavljivanja zvijezda

Tijekom serije igara The Sims pojavilo se mnogo slavnih osoba kao što su Drew Carey u The Sims: House Partyju i Christina Aguilera, Avril Lavigne, Andy Warhol i Marilyn Monroe u The Sims: Superstaru. Uz to, sa službenih su se stranica, kao dodatci za Superstar, su se sa službenih stranica mogli preuzeti Jon Bon Jovi, Richie Sambora, Freddie Prinze, Jr. i Sarah McLachlan.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 The Sims arhivirano 3. lipnja 2002. godine
 The Sims 4 arhivirano 25. veljače 2021. godine
 The Sims 3 arhivirano 25. veljače 2021. godine

The Sims
Maxis
Electronic Arts
EA Games

The Sims (videoigra)


Laurie Nunn (Londres, maio de 1986) é uma roteirista e dramaturga inglesa mais conhecida por criar a série de comédia dramática Sex Education da Netflix.

Biografia
Nunn nasceu em Londres, Inglaterra, filha do diretor teatral Trevor Nunn e da atriz australiana Sharon Lee-Hill. Aos 14 anos mudou-se para a Austrália.

Carreira
Nunn se formou em cinema no Victorian College of the Arts School of Film and TV e voltou para o Reino Unido aos 20 anos, onde completou um mestrado em roteiro na National Film and Television School de 2011-2012.

Seu primeiro grande trabalho na televisão, Sex Education, para o serviço de streaming Netflix, foi finalista do Festival Rose d'Or 2019 na categoria comédia dramática e sitcom. Na segunda temporada ela foi responsável pelo roteiro e também atuou como produtora executiva..

Filmografia
Gone to Earth (Curta-metragem) (2007)
Radiance (Curta-metragem) (2013)
Pregnant Pause (Curta-metragem) (2016)
The Grounded Series (Série de TV) (2017)
Sex Education (2019-presente)

Ligações externas
Laurie Nunn no AdoroCinema

Roteiristas do Reino Unido
Dramaturgos do Reino Unido
Roteiristas premiados com o Emmy Internacional

Laurie Nunn


Alabalıkgiller (Salmonidae), Salmoniformes takımına ait olan ve birçok tüketici tarafından sevilen alabalık ve somon balığı gibi türlerini içeren balık familyası.

En önemli ortak özellikleri, sırt ve kuyruk yüzgeçlerinin arasında bulunan yağ yüzgecidir. Ayrıca aralarında büyük ve küçük ağızlı alabalıklar diye bir ayrım yapılır. Pulları çok küçüktür ve kafalarında pulları bulunmaz. Alabalıkgillerin en eski kanıtları tebeşir çağından kalma fosillerde bulunmuştur.

Alabalıkgiller daima yırtıcı balıklardır ve etçil beslenirler. Birçok türleri lezzetli etinden ve çabuk büyümelerinden dolayı ticari amaçla yetiştirilirler.

Alt familyalar:

 Coregoninae
 Salmoninae - Büyük ağızlı alabalıklar
 Thymallinae

Yaşadığı yerler
Alabalıklar sadece kuzey yarım kürede bulunur, soğuk ve bol oksijenli suları tercih ederler. Deniz alabalığı (ve alt türleri) ve somon balıklarının haricinde çoğu tatlısu balıklarıdır.

Sınıflandırılması
 Büyük ağızlı alabalıklar
 Salmo
 Atlantik somonu (Salmo salar)
 Alabalık (Salmo trutta)
 Anadolu alabalığı (Salmo platycephalus)
 Abant alabalığı (Salmo trutta abanticus)
 Karadeniz alabalığı (Salmo trutta labrax)
 Kafkas alabalığı-Aras alabalığı (Salmo trutta caspius)
 Büyük benekli alabalık-Dağ alabalığı (Salmo trutta macrostigma)
 Deniz alabalığı (Salmo trutta trutta)
 Dere alabalığı (Salmo trutta fario)
 Göl alabalığı (Salmo trutta lacustris)
 Aral alabalığı (Salmo trutta aralensis)
 Garda alabalığı (Salmo trutta carpio)
 Boşnak alabalığı (Salmo trutta taleri)
 Mermer alabalık (Salmo trutta marmorata)
 Amu-Darya alabalığı (Salmo trutta oxianus)
 Ron alabalığı (Salmo trutta rhodanensis)
 Balkan alabalığı (Salmo trutta dentex)
 Ezenami alabalığı (Salmo trutta ezenami)
 Makedonya alabalığı (Salmo balcanicus)
 Italyan alabalığı (Salmo trutta cettii)
 Gökçe alabalığı (Salmo ischchan))
 Fibreno alabalığı (Salmo trutta fibreni)
 Feroks alabalığı (Salmo trutta ferox)
 Salmothymus
 Adriatik sombalığı (Salmothymus obstusirostris)
 Oncorhynchus
 Pembe sombalığı (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha)
 Köpek sombalığı (Oncorhynchus keta)
 Kral sombalığı (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)
 Kızıl sombalığı (Oncorhynchus nerka)
 Gümüş sombalığı (Oncorhynchus kisutsch)
 Cutthroat alabalığı (Oncorhynchus clarki)
 Yellowstone-Cutthroat alabalığı (Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri)
 Altın alabalık (Oncorhynchus aguabonita)
 Gökkuşağı alabalığı (Oncorhynchus mykiss, eski adı Salmo gairdneri)
 Hucho
 Hucho hucho
 Hucho bleekeri
 Hucho ishikawae
 Hucho taimen
 Hucho perryi
 Brachymystax
 Salvelinus
 Parahucho
 Salvethymus
 Thymallinae
 Thymallus
 Thymallus thymallus
 Thymallus arcticus
 Thymallus brevirostris
 Thymallus nigrescens
 Coregoninae
 Cins: Coregonus
 Cins: Prosopium
 Cins: Stenodus

Alabalıkgiller


Kongsvinger Station (Kongsvinger stasjon) er en jernbanestation, der ligger i byen Kongsvinger på Kongsvingerbanen i Norge. Stationen blev åbnet sammen med banen 3. oktober 1862 med tilstedeværelse af kong Karl 4.. I 1893 blev stationen udgangspunkt for Solørbanen, der imidlertid har været ren godsbane siden 1994.

Stationsbygningen er opført i schweizerstil af Günther Schüssler, en tilflyttet tysker, der også opførte andre vigtige bygninger i byen. Arkitekterne var i lighed med de øvrige stationer på Kongsvingerbanen Heinrich Ernst Schirmer og Wilhelm von Hanno. Stationsbygningen har ventesal, mens billetsalget er overgået til en Narvesen-kiosk i en bygning ved siden af.

Stationen er den sidste før grænsen til Sverige, og den fungerer som endestation for NSB's lokaltog fra Asker via Oslo S. Desuden er den endestation for nogle af svenske Värmlandstrafik tog fra Karlstad og Kristinehamn mandag-fredag. I weekenderne betjenes den af Tågkompaniets tog mellem Oslo S og Karlstad (- Örebro). Endelig stopper SJ's fjerntog mellem Oslo og Stockholm i Kongsvinger.

Alle busser i Kongsvinger kommune stopper ved stationen, og der går busser til blandt andet Elverum og Arvika.

Stationen har et stort område til omlæsning af tømmer i Norsenga. I 2010 var den Norges største tømmerterminal målt i transportvolumen med 430.000 kubikmeter.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Noter

Stationer på Kongsvingerbanen
Etableret i 1862
Stationer på Solørbanen
Jernbanestationer i Hedmark

Kongsvinger Station


Karl Behrens ist der Name folgender Personen:
* Karl Behrens (Bergrat) (1854–1906), deutscher Ingenieur und Unternehmer
 Karl Behrens (Politiker) (1879–1928), deutscher Politiker (SPD)
 Karl Behrens (1909–1943), deutscher Widerstandskämpfer
 Karl Christian Behrens (1907–1980), deutscher Wirtschaftswissenschaftler und Hochschullehrer

Siehe auch:
 Carl Behrens

Karl Behrens (Begriffsklärung)


Paulo Gomes (economista)
 Paulo Gomes (músico)
 Paulo Gomes (piloto)
 Paulo Gomes (treinador)

Desambiguação

Paulo Gomes


Radna platforma podiže radnike do visokih mjesta gdje treba obaviti kratkotrajne poslove održavanja, popravaka i čišćenja, ili manje montažne radove. Nosivost je radnih platformi od 120 do 500 kilograma, tako da se na njih mogu smjestiti od 1 do 4 radnika s potrebnim alatom. Visine dizanja iznose od 3 do 15 metara (ponekad i do 30 metara). Manje se platforme podižu ručno pomoću vijčanog vretena ili hidrauličkog cilindra, a veće imaju motorni pogon, najčešće s hidrauličkim prijenosom sila na pokretne dijelove. Za visine dizanja veće od 5 metara vrlo se često upotrebljavaju teleskopski podizni stupovi.

Podizna platforma

Podizna platforma u prvom redu služi da sigurno drži predmete ili osobe na nekoj odabranoj visini. Među podizne platforme ubrajaju se podizni stolovi, pretovarne platforme i radne platforme.

Podizni stol

Podizni stol izravnava visinske razlike pri posluživanju strojeva dijelovima koji se na njima obrađuju. Često se podiže sustavom škara koje pokreće hidraulički cilindar. Za manje učine hidraulički kružni tok osigurava se ručnim ili nožnim pogonom, a za veće elektromotornim. Uobičajena nosivost podiznih stolova iznosi od 0,5 do 5 tona, a onih teških i do 50 tona. Uobičajene su visine dizanja do oko 1,45 metara.

Pretovarna rampa
Pretovarna rampa podiže i spušta teret između poda i površine pri pretovaru na vozilima ili na utovarnoj rampi. Nosivost pretovarnih platformi iznosi od 0,5 do 20 tona, a visina dizanja od 1,5 do 2,5 metra. Vodilice su platforme u jednom ili dva stupa, a platforma se podiže ili spušta pomoću podiznog užeta ili hidraulički.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Strojevi
Infrastruktura kopnenog prometa
Građevinarstvo
Metaloprerađivačka industrija
Alati

Radna platforma


Hale County is the name of two counties in the United States:
Hale County, Alabama
Hale County, Texas

Hale County


La Editora Nacional fue una empresa editorial española de propiedad estatal organizada en plena guerra civil por la administración franquista y que duró hasta los primeros años del gobierno socialista de Felipe González. En sus primeros tiempos, fue dirigida por Pedro Laín Entralgo. Su objetivo consistió primordialmente en divulgar obras nacionales y extranjeras de pensamiento y literatura, de interés público y divulgativo, de autores clásicos y contemporáneos.

Historia

Antecedentes
El origen de la Editora Nacional se retrotrae a la Sección de Ediciones de la vicesecretaría de Educación Popular. Ya en marzo de 1938, Serrano Súñer confió a Dionisio Ridruejo el Servicio Nacional de Propaganda, dependiente del entonces Ministerio del Interior, y Pedro Laín Entralgo asumió la dirección de las ediciones oficiales. A Laín le sucedería en 1941 Darío Fernández Flórez.

También cabe citar la revista Jerarquía, subtitulada como Revista Negra de la Falange o con la grandilocuente Guía Nacionalsindicalista del Imperio, una publicación fundada durante la Guerra Civil por Fermín Izurdiaga Lorca y que daría lugar a dos colecciones de libros: Ediciones Jerarquía y Ediciones Fe. En 1941, Ediciones Jerarquía fue sustituida por la Editora Nacional, y también en ella acabarían desembocando las Ediciones Fe. La Editora Nacional probablemente existiera con anterioridad a esta fecha.

Por otra parte, el 23 de mayo de 1939 una Orden ministerial crea el Instituto Nacional del Libro Español (INLE), organismo dependiente de la Subsecretaría de Prensa y Propaganda del Ministerio de Gobernación, con intereses claros en la política editorial interior y exterior del libro español. Desde 1938, en el bando franquista se estableció una severa censura, la llamada «ley Serrano Súñer», una norma que disponía la censura previa.

Fundación
En enero de 1941 Pedro Laín Entralgo, tras su paso por la Sección de Ediciones, asumió la dirección de la recién creada Editora Nacional. Sobre su colaborador, Rogelio Pérez Olivares, recaería todo el peso de la administración como director técnico. En abril de 1942, Gabriel Arias-Salgado consiguió que la Editora Nacional pasase a depender de la Delegación Nacional de Prensa y Propaganda de FET y de las JONS, que estaba a su cargo junto a la vicesecretaría de Educación Popular. Las primeras tiradas de libros oscilaban entre los 2000 y los 5000 ejemplares y los derechos de autor variaban entre el 10% para las antologías y el 20% en obras originales. El grado de similitud entre su fondo editorial y el de la Sección de Ediciones dirigida por Fernández Flórez era alto. Los textos de José Antonio Primo de Rivera eran santo y seña de la editorial: Discursos, Obra completa, Escritos, Misión y revolución o Nuestra tarea: textos antimarxistas de José Antonio eran reeditados una y otra vez.

Directores
 Pedro Laín Entralgo (1941-1945).
 Tomás Zamora Rodríguez (1975-1978).
 Rafael Martínez Alés (1978-1982).

Referencias

Fuentes
 Ruiz Bautista, Eduardo. «La editora nacional (1941–1945): primeros pasos y traspiés» en Historia y política: ideas, procesos y movimientos sociales, ISSN 1575-0361, n.º 13, 2005, págs. 99–120, en Dialnet (pdf).
 Alusiones a la Editora Nacional en la presentación de La política, de Aristóteles, edición preparada por Carlos García Gual y Aurelio Pérez Jiménez. Editora Nacional, Madrid, 1977, en filosofia.org.
 «Situación de Editora Nacional, presentada por don Rafael Ballesteros Durán». Boletín Oficial de las Cortes Generales, Congreso de los Diputados, primera legislatura. Madrid, 30 de abril de 1980.
 «Editora Nacional (España)». PARES Portal de Archivos España visto 24.08.2020

Editoriales desaparecidas de España

Editora Nacional


Præsidentvalget i Tyskland 2017 fandt sted 12. februar 2017 i Rigsdagsbygningen i Berlin. Ved valget skulle Forbundsforsamlingen vælge den nye tyske forbundspræsident; den siddende præsident, Joachim Gauck, havde meddelt, at han ikke ønskede at genopstille. Valget faldt på den tidligere udenrigsminister Frank-Walter Steinmeier (SPD), der blev valgt med 931 stemmer ud af 1293  i Forbundsforsamlingen.

Noter

Politiske valg i Tyskland
Tyskland 2017

Præsidentvalget i Tyskland 2017


Soraia Neudil dos Santos (nascida em 13 de janeiro de 1984, em São Paulo) é uma jogadora brasileira de vôlei. Ela tem 1.91m de altura e atua como atacante.

Fez parte da Seleção Brasileira Feminina Infanto-Juvenil de vôlei que disputou o Campeonato Mundial de 2001, junto com Fabiana Claudino, Thaizze Oliveira, Nikolle Correa, Fernanda Garay, Alessandra Sperb, Elizabeth Hintemann, Danielle Lins, Fernanda Gritzbach e outras.

Clubes

Prêmios

 Campeonato Brasileiro
 Vencedora: 2007

Voleibolistas do Brasil

Soraia Santos


Acidul tiocianic (numit și acid sulfocianhidric sau acid rodanic) este un acid anorganic cu formula HSCN, care este tautomer cu acidul izotiocianic (HNCS). Forma izo- este mai dominantă, astfel că aproximativ 95% din faza de vapori este acid izotiocianic. Este un acid slab, cu o constantă de aciditate pKa de 1,1 la 20 °C.

Structură
Se presupune că între atomii de carbon și azot din molecula acidului tiocianic există o legătură triplă. Compusul a fost observat prin metode spectroscopice, dar nu a fost izolat în stare pură.

Săruri
Sărurile și esterii acidului tiocianic sunt mai răspândiți și se numesc tiocianați. Tiocianații sunt alcătuiți din ionul tiocianat provenit de la acid (−SCN) și un cation metalic potrivit (cum este cazul sării tiocianat de potasiu KSCN sau tiocianat de amoniu NH4SCN). Esterii organici ai acidului tiocianic au structura generală R–SCN, aici ionul tiocianat fiind o grupă funcțională.

Vezi și
 Tiocianat
 Acid izocianic

Note

Acizi anorganici
Tiocianați

Acid tiocianic


John Neville,  baron Latimer ( - ) est un pair anglais. Sa troisième épouse est Catherine Parr, plus tard reine d'Angleterre.

Famille
John Neville, né le 17 novembre 1493, est le fils aîné de Richard Neville (2e baron Latimer), et d'Anne Stafford, fille de Humphrey Stafford de Grafton, Worcestershire, et Katherine Fray (12 mai 1482). Il a cinq frères et six sœurs.

Carrière

En 1513, il sert dans la campagne de France du roi Henri VIII et est fait chevalier après la prise de Tournai. Il participe vers 1517 à l'enquête sur l'affaire de la sainte demoiselle de Leominster. Il est chevalier du comté du Yorkshire en 1529, son collègue chevalier du comté étant son cousin, Marmaduke Constable, le fils de la sœur de sa mère, Joyce Stafford, et de Marmaduke Constable.

Le père de Neville meurt avant la fin de 1530. Neville est nommé au Conseil du Nord cette année-là et signe la lettre demandant au pape Clément VII d'accorder à Henri VIII le divorce d'avec Catherine d'Aragon. Il a la livrée de ses terres le 17 mars 1531. Il vit principalement à Snape Castle, dans le Yorkshire, mais parfois à Wyke dans le Worcestershire.

En 1536, il est impliqué dans le Pèlerinage de Grâce, dans un rôle ambivalent. Le bruit courut qu'il avait été capturé par les rebelles, et il dit plus tard du rôle qu'il avait joué : « Ma présence parmi eux fut une période très douloureuse et dangereuse pour moi ». Il représente cependant les insurgés en novembre 1536 lors des conférences avec les chefs royaux et contribue à obtenir l'amnistie.

Il rentre ensuite chez lui et ne prend aucune part à la rébellion de Bigod de l'année suivante. Il doit céder sa maison de ville dans le cimetière de la Chartreuse à un ami de Lord Russell. Il meurt le 2 mars 1543 à Londres et est enterré dans la cathédrale Saint-Paul.

Mariages et descendance
Neville épouse d'abord, en 1520, Dorothy (décédée le 7 février 1527), fille de George de Vere par Margaret Stafford, et sœur de , dont il a un fils et une fille:

 John Neville (4e baron Latimer) (1520 -1577), épouse Lucy Somerset et a des descendants. Latimer est enterré à côté du château de Rogue dans l'église Saint-Michel de Wells, dans la chapelle de Neville .
 Margaret Neville (1525 -1546), est fiancée à Ralph Bigod. Elle est morte sans enfant.

Neville épouse en secondes noces, par licence datée du 20 juin 1528, Elizabeth (décédée avant 1533), fille d'Edward Musgrave de Hartley, Westmorland, et d'Edenhall, Cumberland, dont il n'a pas de descendants.

Neville épouse en troisièmes noces, en 1534, Catherine (1512-1548), fille de Thomas Parr de Kendal, Westmorland, et veuve d'Edward Borough (d. 1533), fils de . Elle devient ensuite la sixième épouse du roi Henri VIII.

Références

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Personnalité inhumée dans la cathédrale Saint-Paul de Londres
Personnalité anglaise du XVIe siècle
Famille Neville
Décès en  mars 1543
Naissance en novembre 1493

John Neville (3e baron Latimer)


Automeris ist eine artenreiche Gattung der Schmetterlinge aus der Familie der Pfauenspinner (Saturniidae). Die Raupen besitzen zahlreiche, an einem gemeinsamen Schaft sitzende Brennhaare.

Merkmale
Alle Automeris-Arten, die in den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika und Kanada vorkommen haben dumpf gefärbte Vorderflügeloberseiten, die den Faltern in Ruhestellung auf Rinde oder ähnlichem eine gute Tarnung geben. Die Oberseiten der Hinterflügel tragen einen auffälligen, mehrfarbigen, runden Augenfleck. Die Männchen haben doppelt gefiederte Fühler, bei den Weibchen sind sie gefiedert.

Die Eier der Falter sind weiß gefärbt und haben eine große Mikropyle, die sich bei befruchteten Eiern einige Zeit nach der Ablage schwarz verfärbt.

Die Raupen sind gedrungener als die der Gattung Hemileuca. Sie sind mit zahlreichen Brennhaaren versehen, die an einem gemeinsamen Schaft sitzen. Nördlich von Mexiko sind die Raupen der meisten Arten grün und haben auffällige Längslinien auf Höhe oder unterhalb der Stigmen. Diese Linien verlaufen vom Thorax bis zum Hinterleibsende, können aber bei manchen Arten am vorletzten Segment enden. Die Raupen von Automeris zephyria und Automeris cecrops haben eine Musterung, die aus diagonalen und seitlichen Linien besteht, die nicht in das oben beschriebene Merkmalsschema passt.

Vorkommen
Die Gattung ist neotropisch und subtropisch verbreitet. Sieben Arten der Gattung treten nördlich von Mexiko auf: Automeris io, Automeris zephyria, Automeris louisiana, Automeris cecrops, Automeris iris, Automeris patagoniensis und Automeris randa.

Lebensweise
Die Imagines sind nachtaktiv. In Ruhestellung werden ihre Hinterflügel vollständig von den Vorderflügeln verdeckt. Bei Störung werden die Flügel plötzlich entfaltet, sodass die Augenflecken zu sehen sind. Die Weibchen legen ihre Eier in Gelegen ab. Anfangs fressen die Raupen gesellig und wechseln häufig in Prozessionen direkt hintereinander zu neuen Fress- oder Ruheplätzen. Die Verpuppung erfolgt in einem Kokon, meist im Bodenstreu.

Arten
Die folgende Artenliste basiert auf dem Global Lepidoptera Names Index des Natural History Museum und wurde um weitere Arten aus der Literatur ergänzt.

 Automeris abdomicajamarcensis  & , 2011
 Automeris abdomimeridensis  & , 2011
 Automeris abdominalis , 1874
 Automeris abdominapoensis  & , 2011
 Automeris ahdomiorientalis ,  & , 2013
 Automeris abdomipichinchensis  & , 2011
 Automeris abdomipiurensis  & , 2011
 Automeris adusta , 1942
 Automeris ahuitzotli  & , 1993
 Automeris aknorkei  & , 2014
 Automeris alticarchensis ,  & , 2013
 Automeris alticola , 1975
 Automeris altotridens  & , 2011
 Automeris amagabriellae  & , 2011
 Automeris amaloretensis  & , 2011
 Automeris amanda , 1900
 Automeris amasanata  & , 2011
 Automeris amoena , 1875
 Automeris andicola , 1930
 Automeris angulatus , 1906
 Automeris anika ,  & , 2011
 Automeris anikmeisterae  & , 2011
 Automeris annulata , 1906
 Automeris argentifera , 1966
 Automeris arianae  & , 2011
 Automeris arminia (, [1781])
 Automeris averna , 1886
 Automeris bahamata  & , 2014
 Automeris balachowskyi , 1966
 Automeris belizonensis  & , 2014
 Automeris banus (, 1875)
 Automeris barinasmargaritae  & , 2011
 Automeris barragani ,  & , 2013
 Automeris basalis , 1855
 Automeris beckeri , 1856
 Automeris belti , 1886
 Automeris beutelspacheri , 2002
 Automeris bilinea , 1855
 Automeris boops (, 1874)
 Automeris boucardi , 1886
 Automeris boudinoti , 1982
 Automeris boudinotiana , 1986
 Automeris brenneri ,  & , 2011
 Automeris castrensis , 1898
 Automeris caucensis , 1976
 Automeris cecrojaliscensis  & , 2011
 Automeris cecrops (, 1875)
 Automeris celata , 1969
 Automeris chacona , 1929
 Automeris choco  & , 2011
 Automeris chrisbrechlinianae  & , 2011
 Automeris chrisbrechlinae  & , 2014
 Automeris chrismeisterae  & , 2011
 Automeris cinctinicaraguana  & , 2011
 Automeris cinctistriga (, 1874)
 Automeris colenon , 1912
 Automeris complicata , 1855
 Automeris concordiana , 2020
 Automeris coresus , 1859
 Automeris cosangana ,  & , 2013
 Automeris cryptica , 1911
 Automeris cundinamarcensis  & , 2011
 Automeris curvilinea , 1906
 Automeris cuscoata  & , 2011
 Automeris cuscosylviae  & , 2011
 Automeris dagmarae  & , 2011
 Automeris dandemon , 1912
 Automeris daudiana , 1894
 Automeris denhezorum , 1966
 Automeris denticulatus, 1906
 Automeris descimoni , 1972
 Automeris despicata , 1929
 Automeris dianae  & , 2011
 Automeris dielfi ,  & , 2011
 Automeris dognini , 1966
 Automeris draudtiana , 1973
 Automeris duchartrei , 1936
 Automeris ecuata  & , 2011
 Automeris egeus (, 1776)
 Automeris elcearaiana  & , 2014
 Automeris elenensis , 2002
 Automeris eogena (, 1874)
 Automeris escalantei , 1968
 Automeris excreta , 1929
 Automeris fabiani  & , 2011
 Automeris falco , 1910
 Automeris fieldi , 1969
 Automeris fletcheri , 1966
 Automeris frankae  & , 2011
 Automeris frontino , 2022
 Automeris gabriella , 1966
 Automeris gadouae , 1966
 Automeris godarti (, 1875)
 Automeris goodsoni , 1966
 Automeris grammoboliviana  & , 2011
 Automeris grammocajamarcensis  & , 2011
 Automeris grammocuscoensis  & , 2011
 Automeris grammodes , 1910
 Automeris grammopiurensis  & , 2011
 Automeris granulosus , 1906
 Automeris hamata , 1906
 Automeris harricajamarcensis  & , 2011
 Automeris harrisorum , 1966
 Automeris harriyungasiana  & , 2011
 Automeris hebe (, 1865)
 Automeris hegena  & , 2011
 Automeris heppneri , 1982
 Automeris hesdimasiana  & , 2014
 Automeris hesselorum , 1972
 Automeris huascari ,  & , 2013
 Automeris iguaquensis  & , 1992
 Automeris illustris , 1855
 Automeris incarnata , 1865
 Automeris innoxia , 1906
 Automeris inornata , 1855
 Automeris intertridens  & , 2011
 Automeris io (, 1775)
 Automeris iris (, 1865)
 Automeris isnosa  , 2022
 Automeris iwanowitschi ,  & , 2013
 Automeris jalishena  & , 2011
 Automeris janrudloffi  & , 2011
 Automeris janus (, 1775)
 Automeris jinotegana  & , 2011
 Automeris jivaros , 1891
 Automeris juarezia  & , 2011
 Automeris jucunda (, [1781])
 Automeris jucundoides , 1906
 Automeris junogabriellae  & , 2011
 Automeris jupachacona  & , 2011
 Automeris kaechi  & , 2011
 Automeris kitchingi  & , 2011
 Automeris kopturae , 1982
 Automeris lachaumei , 2002
 Automeris lamercedia  & , 2011
 Automeris lapazchowskyi  & , 2011
 Automeris larra (, 1855)
 Automeris lauroia , 1965
 Automeris lauta  & , 1948
 Automeris lempirensis  & , 2014
 Automeris lenarti ,  & , 2011
 Automeris liberia (, 1780)
 Automeris lojana  & , 2014
 Automeris louisiana  & , 1981
 Automeris macphaili , 1921
 Automeris maeonia (, 1897)
 Automeris magdaleniana  & , 2011
 Automeris mailinae ,  & , 2011
 Automeris managuana   & , 2011
 Automeris manantlanensis
 Automeris manzanoi ,  & , 2013
 Automeris margaritae , 1966
 Automeris marsoni  & , 2014
 Automeris masti , 1972
 Automeris melanops , 1865
 Automeris melmon , 1912
 Automeris meridionalis , 1936
 Automeris metzli (, 1853)
 Automeris miamazonica  & , 2011
 Automeris micheneri , 1966
 Automeris midea  & , 1886
 Automeris mideloretensis  & , 2011
 Automeris midenapoensis  & , 2011
 Automeris mideperuensis  & , 2011
 Automeris mixthena  & , 2011
 Automeris mixtus , 1936
 Automeris moenschorum  & , 2011
 Automeris moloneyi , 1897
 Automeris montegabriellae  & , 2011
 Automeris montezuma (, 1875)
 Automeris moresca , 1906
 Automeris nadezhdae  & , 2011
 Automeris napoensis , 2002
 Automeris naranja , 1898
 Automeris nebulosus , 1906
 Automeris niepelti , 1929
 Automeris nigra
 Automeris oaxhena ,  & , 2011
 Automeris oberthurii , 1875
 Automeris occidentalis , 1929
 Automeris occidentorestes  & , 2011
 Automeris occihebe , 2020
 Automeris oiticicai , 1966
 Automeris orestes (, 1875)
 Automeris oroiana ,  & , 2013
 Automeris ovalina , 1906
 Automeris pacchana ,  & , 2013
 Automeris pallida , 1930
 Automeris pallidior , 1929
 Automeris paracaleta  & , 2011
 Automeris parachacona  & , 2011
 Automeris paracreta  & , 2011
 Automeris parecuata ,  & , 2013
 Automeris parafera  & , 2014
 Automeris parageus  & , 2011
 Automeris parainornata  & , 2011
 Automeris paralarra  & , 2011
 Automeris paramaculata , 1966
 Automeris paramelanops  & , 2011
 Automeris parapichinchensis  & , 2011
 Automeris paraxigua  & , 2011
 Automeris pastaziana  & , 2011
 Automeris patagoniensis ,  & , 1992
 Automeris paulheberti  & , 2020
 Automeris peggyae  & , 2011
 Automeris pelaezi , 1988
 Automeris peruviana , 1929
 Automeris petrovae  & , 2014
 Automeris phrynon , 1897
 Automeris pichichensis , 1976
 Automeris pinasi ,  & , 2013
 Automeris pinasiata  & , 2014
 Automeris pomifera , 1906
 Automeris pomiferoides  & , 2011
 Automeris postalbida , 1900
 Automeris praemargaritae , 2002
 Automeris pueblensis ,  & , 2011
 Automeris punochacona  & , 2011
 Automeris putumayona , 2020
 Automeris randa , 1894
 Automeris rectilinea , 1926
 Automeris rostralis , 2002
 Automeris rotunda , 1971
 Automeris rougeoti , 1966
 Automeris rubrescens (, 1855)
 Automeris rudloffjani  & , 2011
 Automeris sachai ,  & , 2013
 Automeris salkorum  & , 2011
 Automeris sandimasiana  & , 2014
 Automeris santaclariana  & , 2011
 Automeris schwartzi , 1966
 Automeris serpina , 1878
 Automeris silkae  & , 2011
 Automeris siri ,  & , 2011
 Automeris stacieae  & , 1993
 Automeris stumpei  & , 2011
 Automeris styx , 1982
 Automeris submacula , 1855
 Automeris subobscura , 1909
 Automeris tamaulipasiana  & , 2011
 Automeris tamsi , 1966
 Automeris themis , 1919
 Automeris thyreon , 1912
 Automeris tolimaiensis  & , 2011
 Automeris tridens (, 1856)
 Automeris tristis , 1875
 Automeris unifasciatus , 1927
 Automeris uniorientalis ,  & , 2013
 Automeris vanschaycki  & , 2011
 Automeris vergnei , 1936
 Automeris viksinjaevi  & , 2011
 Automeris violascens ( & , 1885)
 Automeris vomona , 1906
 Automeris watsoni , 1966
 Automeris wayampi , 2002
 Automeris wenczeli ,  & , 2011
 Automeris wernermeisteri  & , 2011
 Automeris werneri  & , 2014
 Automeris winbrechlini ,  & , 2011
 Automeris winbrechliniani  & , 2011
 Automeris windiana , 1971
 Automeris witti  & , 2011
 Automeris yungaiana  & , 2011
 Automeris yungasmargaritae  & , 2011
 Automeris zamorana ,  & , 2013
 Automeris zaruma , 1898
 Automeris zephyria , 1882
 Automeris zoziboucardi  & , 2011
 Automeris zozimanaguana  & , 2011
 Automeris zozine , 1886
 Automeris zozinicaraguana  & , 2011
 Automeris zugana , 1886
 Automeris zurobara , 1886
 Automeris zurouae  & , 2011
 Automeris oaxacensis , 2002

Belege

Weblinks

 Lepidoptera and some other life forms (englisch)

Pfauenspinner
Saturniidae

Automeris


Totalno, potpuno ili linearno uređen skup je skup A ako za svakih dvaju elemenata iz tog skupa vrijedi (≤) na A za koju vrijedi  ili

Ako je u nekom parcijalno uređenom skup podskup totalno uređen nazivamo ga lancem. Ako za svaki podskup nekog totalno uređena skupa ima minimalni element taj skup je dobro uređen skup. Svaki totalno uređen skup sadrži kofinalan dobro uređen skup.

Izvori

Teorija skupova

Totalno uređen skup


La  est une gare ferroviaire située sur le territoire de la commune suisse de Lalden dans le canton du Valais.

Situation ferroviaire
Établie à  d'altitude, la gare de Lalden est située au point kilométrique  de la ligne du Lötschberg entre les gares d'Eggerberg (en direction de Berne) et de Brigue.

Elle dispose de trois voies encadrées par deux quais latéraux et un quai central.

Histoire
La gare de Lalden a été inaugurée en  avec la mise en service du tronçon Frutigen - Brigue de la ligne du Lötschberg. BLS, le propriétaire de la ligne, a été renommée BLS Lötschbergbahn en  avant de fusionner en  avec Regionalverkehr Mittelland AG pour devenir BLS AG. En , le tronçon Frutigen - Brigue a perdu la majeure part de son trafic ferroviaire avec l'ouverture du tunnel de base de Lötschberg.

La gare de Lalden est fermée au trafic de voyageurs depuis  et jusqu'à  en raison de travaux de rénovation du tunnel du Lötschberg.

Services ferroviaires

Accueil
Gare du BLS, elle est dotée d'un bâtiment voyageurs ainsi que d'un distributeur automatique de titres de transport. La gare n'est pas accessible aux personnes à mobilité réduite.

Desserte
La gare de Lalden est, en temps normal, desservie une fois par heure dans chaque sens par les trains RegioExpress « Lötschberg » reliant Berne à Brigue (prolongés une fois toutes les deux heures en Italie jusqu'à Domodossola).

 RE : Berne - Thoune - Spiez - Frutigen - Kandersteg - Goppenstein - Lalden - Brigue (- Domodossola).

Intermodalité
La gare de Lalden n'est pas en correspondance avec d'autres lignes de transports en commun.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Ligne du Lötschberg
 Tunnel du Lötschberg

Liens externes

 .

Gare dans le canton du Valais
Gare mise en service en 1913

Gare de Lalden


Landing craft are small and medium seagoing watercraft, such as boats and barges, used to convey a landing force (infantry and vehicles) from the sea to the shore during an amphibious assault. The term excludes landing ships, which are larger. Production of landing craft peaked during World War II, with a significant number of different designs produced in large quantities by the United Kingdom and United States.

Because of the need to run up onto a suitable beach, World War II landing craft were flat-bottomed, and many designs had a flat front, often with a lowerable ramp, rather than a normal bow. This made them difficult to control and very uncomfortable in rough seas. The control point (too rudimentary to call a bridge on LCA and similar craft) was normally at the extreme rear of the vessel, as were the engines. In all cases, they were known by an abbreviation derived from the official name rather than by the full title.

History
In the days of sail, the ship's boats were used as landing craft. These rowing boats were sufficient, if inefficient, in an era when marines were effectively light infantry, participating mostly in small-scale campaigns in far-flung colonies against less well-equipped indigenous opponents.

In order to support amphibious operations during the landing in Pisagua (1879) by carrying significant quantities of cargo, and landing troops directly onto an unimproved shore, the Government of Chile built flat-bottomed landing craft, called Chalanas. They transported 1,200 men in the first landing and took on board 600 men in less than 2 hours for the second landing.

Origins

During World War I, the mass mobilization of troops equipped with rapid-fire weapons quickly rendered such boats obsolete. Initial landings during the Gallipoli campaign took place in unmodified rowing boats that were extremely vulnerable to attack from the Turkish shore defenses.

In February 1915, orders were placed for the design of purpose built landing craft. A design was created in four days resulting in an order for 200 'X' Lighters with a spoon-shaped bow to take shelving beaches and a drop down frontal ramp.

The first use took place after they had been towed to the Aegean and performed successfully in the 6 August landing at Suvla Bay of IX Corps, commanded by Commander Edward Unwin.

'X' Lighters, known to the soldiers as 'Beetles', carried about 500 men, displaced 135 tons and were based on London barges being 105 feet 6 inches long, 21 feet wide, and 7 ft 6 inches deep ( deep). The engines mainly ran on heavy oil and ran at a speed of approximately . The boats had bulletproof sides and a ramp at the bow for disembarkation. A plan was devised to land British heavy tanks from pontoons in support of the Third Battle of Ypres, but this was abandoned.

The Imperial Russian Navy soon followed suit, building a series of similar landing motor barges of the so-called Bolinder-class, named after the supplier of the diesels installed in them. These, however, proved too small and unseaworthy for their intended Black sea theater — they were intended for the planned Marmara Sea landings. Instead, a new class was designed, based on the widespread pattern of the Black sea merchant steamers. These were typically very light at the bow, having all their machinery concentrated at the stern, which allowed easy beaching on any gently sloping coast, and often were equipped with a bow ramp for fast unloading. This resulted in a 1300-ton, 1500 hp Elpidifor-class, named after the Rostov-on-Don merchant Elpidifor Paramonov, whose eponymous grain carrier served as a pattern on which they were based. With a 1.8 m loaded draft, and equipped with the ballast tanks and reinforced hull for safe beaching, they were able to land 1000 troops with their train at virtually any available beach. While the landings for which they were created never happened, the ships themselves turned out quite useful and had a long career, supporting the Caucasus Campaign and later as minesweepers, gunboats and utility transports.

During the inter-war period, the combination of the negative experience at Gallipoli and economic stringency contributed to the delay in procuring equipment and adopting a universal doctrine for amphibious operations in the Royal Navy.

Despite this outlook, the British produced the Motor Landing Craft in 1920, based on their experience with the early 'Beetle' armoured transport. The craft could put a medium tank directly onto a beach. From 1924, it was used with landing boats in annual exercises in amphibious landings. A prototype motor landing craft, designed by J. Samuel White of Cowes, was built and first sailed in 1926.

It weighed 16 tons and had a box-like appearance, having a square bow and stern. To prevent fouling of the propellers in a craft destined to spend time in surf and possibly be beached, a crude waterjet propulsion system was devised by White's designers. A Hotchkiss petrol engine drove a centrifugal pump which produced a jet of water, pushing the craft ahead or astern, and steering it, according to how the jet was directed. Speed was 5-6 knots and its beaching capacity was good. By 1930, three MLC were operated by the Royal Navy.

The United States revived and experimented in their approach to amphibious warfare between 1913 and mid-1930s, when the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps became interested in setting up advanced bases in opposing countries during wartime; the prototype advanced base force officially evolved into the Fleet Marine Force (FMF) in 1933.

In 1939, during the annual Fleet Landing Exercises, the FMF became interested in the military potential of Andrew Higgins's design of a powered, shallow-draught boat. These LCPL, dubbed the 'Higgins Boats', were reviewed and passed by the U.S. Naval Bureau of Construction and Repair. Soon, the Higgins boats were developed to a final design with a ramp - the LCVP, and were produced in large numbers. The boat was a more flexible variant of the LCPR with a wider ramp. It could carry 36 troops, a small vehicle such as a jeep, or a corresponding amount of cargo.

Second World War

Specialized infantry landing craft
In the run-up to WWII, many specialized landing craft, both for infantry and vehicles, were developed. At the start of World War II, the Japanese led the world in landing craft design.

The Daihatsu-class landing craft was lowered to disembark cargo upon riding up onto a beach. After reviewing photos of a Daihatsu landing craft, this was adopted by American landing craft designer Andrew Higgins in developing the Landing Craft, Personnel (Large) (LCP(L)) into the Landing Craft, Personnel (Ramped) (LCP(R)) and later the Landing Craft, Vehicle and Personnel (LCVP). However, the Daihatsu landing craft was more seaworthy than an LCVP due to its hull design. It was constructed of a metal hull and powered by a diesel engine. Victor Harold Krulak, a native of Denver, who joined the Marines after graduating from Annapolis in 1934, witnessed the Japanese use small vessels like the Daihatsu-class. In 1937, a lieutenant in an intelligence outfit during the 1937 Battle of Shanghai, when the Japanese were trying to conquer China, he used a telephoto lens to take pictures of Japanese landing craft with a square bow that became a retractable ramp,  Krulak noted that the boats' droppable ramps enabled troops to quickly disembark from the bow, rather than having to clamber over the sides and splash into the surf. Envisioning those ramps as answering the Marines' needs in a looming world war, Lieutenant Krulak showed the photographs to his superiors, who passed on his report to Washington. But two years later, he found that the Navy had simply filed it away with a notation saying it was the work of "some nut out in China." He persevered, building a balsa wood model of the Japanese boat design and discussing the retractable ramp concept with the New Orleans boat builder Andrew Higgins. That bow design became the basis for the thousands of Higgins landing craft of World War II. As according to  Victor H. Krulak "the Japanese were light years ahead of us in landing craft design".

In November 1938, the British Inter-Service Training and Development Centre proposed a new type of landing craft. Its specifications were to weigh less than ten long tons, to be able to carry the thirty-one men of a British Army platoon and five assault engineers or signallers, and to be so shallow drafted as to be able to land them, wet only up to their knees, in eighteen inches of water. All of these specifications made the Landing Craft Assault; a separate set of requirements were laid down for a vehicle and supplies carrier, although previously the two roles had been combined in the Motor Landing Craft.

J. S. White of Cowes built a prototype to the Fleming design. Eight weeks later the craft was doing trials on the River Clyde. All landing craft designs must find a compromise between two divergent priorities; the qualities that make a good sea boat are opposite to those that make a craft suitable for beaching. The craft had a hull built of double-diagonal mahogany planking. The sides were plated with "10lb. DIHT" armour, a heat treated steel based on D1 steel, in this case Hadfield's Resista ¼".

The Landing Craft Assault remained the most common British and Commonwealth landing craft of World War II, and the humblest vessel admitted to the books of the Royal Navy on D-Day. Prior to July 1942, these craft were referred to as "Assault Landing Craft" (ALC), but "Landing Craft; Assault" (LCA) was used thereafter to conform with the joint US-UK nomenclature system.

The Landing Craft Infantry was a stepped up amphibious assault ship, developed in response to a British request for a vessel capable of carrying and landing substantially more troops than the smaller Landing Craft Assault (LCA). The result was a small steel ship that could land 200 troops, traveling from rear bases on its own bottom at a speed of up to . The original British design was envisioned as being a "one time use" vessel which would simply ferry the troops across the English Channel, and were considered an expendable vessel. As such, no troop sleeping accommodations were placed in the original design. This was changed shortly after initial use of these ships, when it was discovered that many missions would require overnight accommodations.

The first LCI(L)s entered service in 1943 chiefly with the Royal Navy (RN) and United States Navy. Some 923 LCI were built in ten American shipyards and 211 provided under lend-lease to the Royal Navy.

Specialized vehicle landing craft

Following the Inter-Service Training and Development Centre 's (ISTDC) successful development of the infantry carrying LCA, attention turned to the means of efficiently delivering a tank to a beach in 1938. Enquiries were made of the army as to the heaviest tank that might be employed in a landing operation. The army wanted to be able to land a 12-ton tank, but the ISTDC, anticipating weight increases in future tank models specified 16 tons burthen for Mechanised Landing Craft designs. Another limit on any design was the need to land tanks and other vehicles in less than approximately .

Design work began at John I. Thornycroft Ltd. in May 1938 with trials completing in February 1940. Constructed of steel and selectively clad with armour plate, this shallow-draft, barge-like boat with a crew of 6, could ferry a tank of 16 long tons to shore at 7 knots (13 km/h). Depending on the weight of the tank to be transported the craft might be lowered into the water by its davits already loaded or could have the tank placed in it after being lowered into the water.

Although the Royal Navy had the Landing Craft Mechanised at its disposal, in 1940 Prime Minister Winston Churchill demanded an amphibious vessel capable of landing at least three 36-ton heavy tanks directly onto a beach, able to sustain itself at sea for at least a week, and inexpensive and easy to build. Admiral Maund, Director of the Inter-Service Training and Development Centre (which had developed the Landing Craft Assault), gave the job to naval architect Sir Roland Baker, who within three days completed initial drawings for a  landing craft with a  beam and a shallow draft. Ship builders Fairfields and John Brown agreed to work out details for the design under the guidance of the Admiralty Experimental Works at Haslar. Tank tests with models soon determined the characteristics of the craft, indicating that it would make  on engines delivering about . Designated the LCT Mark 1, 20 were ordered in July 1940 and a further 10 in October 1940.

The first LCT Mark 1 was launched by Hawthorn Leslie in November 1940. It was an all-welded 372-ton steel-hulled vessel that drew only  of water at the bow. Sea trials soon proved the Mark 1 to be difficult to handle and almost unmanageable in some sea conditions. The designers set about correcting the faults of the Mark 1 in the LCT Mark 2. Longer and wider, with  armoured shielding added to the wheelhouse and gun tubs.

The Mark 3 had an additional  midsection that gave it a length of  and a displacement of 640 tons. Even with this extra weight, the vessel was slightly faster than the Mark 1. The Mk.3 was accepted on 8 April 1941. The Mark 4 was slightly shorter and lighter than the Mk.3, but had a much wider beam () and was intended for cross channel operations as opposed to seagoing use. When tested in early assault operations, like the ill-fated Allied raid on Dieppe in 1942, the lack of manoeuvring ability led to the preference for a shorter overall length in future variants, most of which were built in the United States.

When the United States entered the war in December 1941, the U.S. Navy had no amphibious vessels at all, and found itself obliged to consider British designs already in existence. One of these, advanced by K.C. Barnaby of Thornycroft, was for a double-ended LCT to work with landing ships. The Bureau of Ships quickly set about drawing up plans for landing craft based on Barnaby's suggestions, although with only one ramp. The result, in early 1942, was the LCT Mark 5, a  craft that could accommodate five 30-ton or four 40-ton tanks or 150 tons of cargo. This 286-ton landing craft could be shipped to combat areas in three separate water-tight sections aboard a cargo ship or carried pre-assembled on the flat deck of a Landing Ship, Tank (LST). The Mk.5 would be launched by heeling the LST on its beam to let the craft slide off its chocks into the sea, or cargo ships could lower each of the three sections into the sea where they were joined together.

Development of Landing Ships
A further development was the Landing Ship, Tank designation, built to support amphibious operations by carrying significant quantities of vehicles, cargo, and landing troops directly onto an unimproved shore. The British evacuation from Dunkirk in 1940 demonstrated to the Admiralty that the Allies needed relatively large, ocean-going ships capable of shore-to-shore delivery of tanks and other vehicles in amphibious assaults upon the continent of Europe. The first purpose-built LST design was . To carry 13 Churchill infantry tanks, 27 vehicles and nearly 200 men (in addition to the crew) at a speed of 18 knots, it could not have the shallow draught that would have made for easy unloading. As a result, each of the three (Boxer, Bruiser, and Thruster) ordered in March 1941 had a very long ramp stowed behind the bow doors.

In November 1941, a small delegation from the British Admiralty arrived in the United States to pool ideas with the United States Navy's Bureau of Ships with regard to development of ships and also including the possibility of building further Boxers in the US. During this meeting, it was decided that the Bureau of Ships would design these vessels. The LST(2) design incorporated elements of the first British LCTs from their designer, Sir Rowland Baker, who was part of the British delegation. This included sufficient buoyancy in the ships' sidewalls that they would float even with the tank deck flooded. The LST(2) gave up the speed of HMS Boxer at only 10 knots but had a similar load while drawing only 3 feet forward when beaching.

Congress provided the authority for the construction of LSTs along with a host of other auxiliaries, destroyer escorts, and assorted landing craft. The enormous building program quickly gathered momentum. Such a high priority was assigned to the construction of LSTs that the previously laid keel of an aircraft carrier was hastily removed to make room for several LSTs to be built in her place. The keel of the first LST was laid down on 10 June 1942 at Newport News, Va., and the first standardized LSTs were floated out of their building dock in October. Twenty-three were in commission by the end of 1942. Lightly armored, they could steam cross the ocean with a full load on their own power, carrying infantry, tanks and supplies directly onto the beaches. Together with 2,000 other landing craft, the LSTs gave the troops a protected, quick way to make combat landings, beginning in summer 1943.

Other

Landing Craft Navigation (LCN)
Nine-ton Landing Craft Navigation (LCN) were used by British "Combined Operations Assault Pilotage Parties" (Royal Marine and Special Boat Service crew) for surveying landing sites.

Landing Craft Control (LCC)
The Landing Craft Control (LCC) were  U.S. Navy vessels, carrying only the crew (Scouts and Raiders) and newly developed radar. Their main job was to find and follow the safe routes in to the beach, which were lanes that had been cleared of obstacles and mines. There were eight in the entire Normandy invasion (two per beach). After leading in the first wave, they were to head back out and bring in the second wave. After that, they were used as all-purpose command and control assets during the invasion.

Very small landing craft, or amphibians, were designed. The U.S.-designed Landing Vehicle Tracked, was an amphibious (and sometimes armored) personnel carrier. These were operated by Army personnel, not naval crews and had a capacity of about three tons. The British introduced their own amphibian, the Terrapin.

Landing Craft Utility (LCU)
A Landing Craft Utility (LCU) was used to transport equipment and troops to the shore. It was capable of transporting tracked or wheeled vehicles and troops from amphibious assault ships to beachheads or piers.

The Landing Ship Dock, came as a result of a British requirement for a vessel that could carry large landing craft across the seas at speed. The first LSD came from a design by Sir Roland Baker and was an answer to the problem of launching small craft rapidly. The "Landing Ship Stern Chute", which was a converted train ferry, was an early attempt. Thirteen Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM) could be launched from these ships down the chute. The Landing Ship Gantry was a converted tanker with a crane to transfer its cargo of landing craft from deck to sea - 15 LCM in a little over half an hour.

The design was developed and built in the US for the USN and the Royal Navy. The LSD could carry 36 LCM at 16 knots. It had a large open compartment at the back. Opening a stern door and flooding special compartments opened this area to the sea so that LCI-sized vessels could enter or leave. It took one and a half hours for the dock to be flooded down and two and half to pump it out. When flooded they could also be used as docks for repairs to small craft.

Due to their small size, most amphibious ships were not given names and were just given serial numbers, e.g., LCT 304. The LSTs were an exception to this, since they were similar in size to a small cruiser. In addition, three British-built LSTs were named: ,  and ; these were all larger than the U.S. design and had proper funnels.

Special craft
It was soon realized that battleships, cruisers and destroyers could not necessarily provide all the fire support (including suppressive fire) that an amphibious assault might need. Therefore, specialized vessels were developed that incorporated various direct and indirect fire weapons. These included guns and rockets which could be mounted on landing craft and landing ships. As part of the final barrage before an assault, the landing area would be plastered by these types.

Amphibious landing craft of WWII were generally fitted out with minimal weaponry. LCA crews were issued with .303 inch Lewis Guns, which were mounted in a light machine gun shelter on the forward-port side of the craft; these could be used both as anti-aircraft protection and against shore targets. Later models were fitted with two 2-inch mortars, and two Lewis or .303 Bren light machine guns. LCM 1 crews were issued with Lewis guns, and many LCM 3s had .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns mounted for anti-aircraft protection. Opportunities for troops on board to use their own weapons presented themselves.

LCIs and LCTs carried heavier weapons, such as the Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, on each side of the bridge structure. LSTs had a somewhat heavier armament.

Some landing craft were converted for special purposes either to provide defence for the other landing craft in the attack or as support weapons during the landing.

Landing Craft Assault (Hedgerow)
The LCA(HR) was a converted British LCA. It carried a battery of 24 spigot mortars, the Royal Navy's Hedgehog anti-submarine weapon, instead of personnel. The mortars were fired as a barrage onto the beach to clear mines and other obstructions. Having discharged its mortars and its duty, the LCA(HR) would leave the beach area. They were towed to the beach by larger craft, such as the LCTs that carried the Royal Engineer assault teams with their specialist vehicles and equipment, who would complete the beach clearance.

Three flotillas (of 18, 18 and 9 craft) were used at Juno, Gold and Sword beaches.

Landing Craft Flak

The Landing Craft Flak (LCF) was a conversion of the LCT that was intended to give anti-aircraft support to the landing. They were first used in the Dieppe Raid early in 1942. The ramp was welded shut, and a deck built on top of the Tank deck. They were equipped with several light anti-aircraft guns—a typical fitting was eight 20 mm Oerlikons and four QF 2 pdr "pom-poms" and had a crew of 60. On British examples, the operation of the craft was the responsibility of RN crew and the guns were manned by Royal Marines. They carried two naval officers and two marine officers.

Landing Craft Gun

The Landing Craft Gun (LCG) was another LCT conversion intended to give supporting fire to the landing. Apart from the Oerlikon armament of a normal LCT, each LCG(Medium) had two British Army 25 pounder gun-howitzers in armoured mountings, while LCG(L)3 and LCG(L)4 both had two 4.7-inch naval guns (). Crewing was similar to the LCF. LCGs played a very important part in the Walcheren operations in October 1944.

Landing Craft Rocket

The Landing Craft Tank (Rocket), LCT(R), was an LCT modified to carry a large set of launchers for the British RP-3 "60 lb" rockets mounted on the covered-over tank deck. The full set of launchers was "in excess of" 1,000 and 5,000 reloads were kept below. The firepower was claimed to be equivalent to 80 light cruisers or 200 destroyers.

The method of operation was to anchor off the target beach, pointing towards the shore. The distance to the shore was then measured by radar and the elevation of the launchers set accordingly. The crew then vanished below (apart from the commanding officer who retreated to a special cubby hole to control things) and the launch was then set off electrically. The launch could comprise the entire set or individual ranks of rockets.

A full reload was a very labor-intensive operation and at least one LCT(R) went alongside a cruiser and got a working party from the larger ship to assist in the process.

Landing Craft Support

The Landing Craft Support was used to give some firepower close in.

The Landing Craft Support (Medium) (LCS(M)), Mark 2 and Mark 3 were used by the British forces at Normandy. The crew was Royal Navy, with Royal Marines to operate the weapons: two 0.5 inch Vickers machine guns and a 4-inch mortar to fire smoke shells.

The Fairmile H Landing Craft Support (Large) had armour added to its wooden hull and a turret with an anti-tank gun fitted. The LCS(L) Mark 1 had a Daimler armoured car turret with its QF 2–pdr (40 mm) gun. The Mark 2 had a QF 6–pdr (57 mm) anti–tank gun.

The American Landing Craft Support was larger, each was armed with a 3-inch gun (), various smaller guns, and ten MK7 rocket launchers.

Inflatable landing craft
Inflatable boats were often used to transport amphibious troops from high speed transports and submarines. The United States used a 7-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Small) (LCR-S) and a 10-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Large) (LCR-L).

The first and last instances of the large use of rubber boats in amphibious operations in World War II were the Makin Island raid in 1942 and the landing of the 1st Battalion 6th Marines Battle of Tarawa in 1943 where the Battalion commander Major William K. Jones was nicknamed "Admiral of the Condom Fleet".

Landing Craft Group and wartime training

After Pearl Harbor, the U.S. Army and Navy began intense planning for the transport of millions of men into combat and the training for amphibious operations. By June 1942, Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet (AFAF) established headquarters at Norfolk (Virginia) under the command of Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt. Temporary headquarters for a transport command were set up in an old American Export Line transport ship that had been built for the Army in World War I. Within the transport command, a Landing Craft Group was created to prepare the crews of landing ships.

"The training of landing craft crews under the direction of Captain W.P.O. Clarke began at the end of June 1942," according to Naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison. Clarke was given orders to "secure, organize, and train crews for approximately 1,800 landing craft" including LSTs and LCIs, which at that time were still in the design phase.

To man and support such landing craft, the Navy ordered that 30,000 men and 3,000 officers be trained in a matter of months, but initially the Landing Craft Group consisted only of Capt. Clarke, two officers and a yeoman. In creating training programs, Clarke studied blueprints for the new craft and "from these paper drawings he prepared ship's organizations for each type. This was the first textbook for crews assigned to the large landing craft. From this, they were to be trained in what their duties were to be, what the ship would be like, and how it would be expected to operate."

In August 1942, Capt. Clarke was told about Operation Torch and secret plans to invade North Africa the following November. He had only a few months to train thousands of men, most of whom were just out of indoctrination school. "They were the butchers, the bakers, and the light bulb makers of American youth. War was new to them, and organized Navy life was strange," observed Lt. Eric Burton, a Naval officer who wrote By Sea and By Land, a semi-official account published during the War about amphibious combat.

Capt. Clarke created hydrographic, maintenance, medical, and communications training programs, and a section to train Army shore parties how to unload landing craft. He set up a training facility at Solomons Island, and held exercises on the shores of the Chesapeake Bay around the clock, day and night.

On 1 September 1942, the Amphibious Force and its Landing Craft Group rented the Nansemond Hotel, a popular resort hotel on Virginia Beach near Norfolk, to use as a headquarters building. Eventually, 40 major amphibious operations would be planned at the old hotel. For several weeks, Gen. George S. Patton worked on plans for the invasion of North Africa out of the Nansemond.

"Captain Clarke had less than two months, about one-third of what had been considered the minimum, to train these men to conduct night ship-to-shore landings," wrote Samuel Eliot Morison about the preparations for Operation Torch. "Considering the time limitations, his performance was remarkable." Clarke was awarded the Legion of Merit for the accomplishment. According to the Presidential citation, he and the Landing Craft Group "brought these ships and craft to a high state of readiness for combat operations in all subsequent major amphibious operations in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Mediterranean theatres.

Early Cold War developments
Despite all the progress that was seen during World War II, there were still fundamental limitations in the types of coastline that were suitable for assault. Beaches had to be relatively free of obstacles, and have the right tidal conditions and the correct slope. However, the development of the helicopter fundamentally changed the equation.

The first use of helicopters in an amphibious assault came during the Anglo-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt in 1956 (the Suez War). Two British light fleet carriers were pressed into service to carry helicopters, and a battalion-sized airborne assault was made. Two of the other carriers involved,  and , were converted in the late 1950s into dedicated "commando carriers."

The US Navy built five  landing platform helicopter vessels in the 1950s and 1960s, and various converted fleet and escort carriers for the purpose of providing a helicopter amphibious assault capability. The first of the type envisaged was the escort carrier , which never actually saw service as an amphibious assault ship. Delays in the construction of the Iwo Jima class saw other conversions made as a stopgap measure; three s (, , and ) and one  () were converted into Boxer and Thetis Bay class amphibious assault vessels. Helicopter amphibious assault techniques were developed further by American forces in the Vietnam War and refined during training exercises.

Current landing craft

Amphibious mechanized utility and landing craft
Mechanized utility and landing craft were the kind used during the second world war and, while the mechanized landing craft of today are similar in construction, many improvements have been made. For example, landing craft (such as the LCM-8 of the US Navy) are capable of a military lift of  at a speed of , carrying even heavy equipment, such as M1 Abrams tanks. Landing craft can mount several machine guns or similar weapons for the defense of troops and/or vehicle crews inside.

Air-cushioned landing craft

The air-cushioned landing craft (Landing Craft Air Cushion, or LCAC in the US Navy) is based on small to mid-sized multi-purpose hovercraft, Also known as "over the beach" ("OTB") craft, they allow troops and material to access more than 70 percent of the world's coastline, while only approximately 15 percent of that coastline is available to conventional landing craft. Like the mechanized landing craft, they are usually equipped with mounted machine guns, although they also support grenade launchers and heavy weapons. These vehicles are commonly used in the United States Navy, the Royal Navy, the Russian Navy, and the Hellenic Navy.

Landing barges

Landing barges were adaptations of British Thames barges and lighters as landing craft. In size, they came between the landing craft and landing ships. They were used at all beaches during the landings at Normandy and were manned by British crews.

Some were fitted with engines, while others were towed to the beach. They were used for defence, transportation, supply (food, water and oil) and repair (fitted out with workshops).

Those fitted for vehicle carrying had a ramp fitted in place at the rear and they had to back onto beaches. They would work from ships and coasters to the shore and back.

Two flotillas were made up of "flak barges" to provide defence of the beaches. Like landing craft, flak barges carried A/A guns: two 40 mm Bofors and two 20 mm Oerlikon, with army gunners and naval crew.

The Landing Barge, Kitchen (LBK) was fitted with a large superstructure containing the galley. With a crew of 20 plus, they could carry food for 800 for a week and provide 1,600 hot and 800 cold meals a day, including freshly baked bread.

See also

 Balikpapan-class landing craft heavy
 LCM-1E
 Mark 8 Landing Craft Tank
 Ramped craft logistic

Notes

References

 U.S. Amphibious Ships and Craft: An Illustrated Design History, by Norman Friedman

Navy Fact File: Landing Craft, Air Cushioned
Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Assn. (usslci.com)
NavSource.org Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Data and Photo Index
USS Rankin (AKA-103): Her Landing Craft
Hersey, John. "U.S.S. LCI 226". Life, March 27, 1944, pp. 53–61.
US Navy, ONI 226, Allied Landing Craft and Ships, April 1944

External links
 Recollections of veterans who served on WW2 landing craft.

English inventions

Landing craft


Sackville Tufton,  comte de Thanet ( - ) est un noble anglais. Il accède à son titre en avril 1786, à la suite du décès de son père Sackville Tufton (8e comte de Thanet). Deux de ses frères cadets, John Tufton (cricket) et Henry Tufton (11e comte de Thanet), sont de célèbres joueurs de cricket amateurs.

Sackville Tufton est lui-même un joueur de cricket passionné qui fait cinq apparitions connues dans des matchs de cricket de première classe entre 1791 et 1794. Il est l'un des premiers membres du Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) et est associé au cricket du Kent .

Biographie
Il est né à Hothfield House dans le Kent. Sa mère est Mary, fille de John Philip Sackville, et à la mort de son père, le 10 avril 1786, son oncle maternel, John Sackville (3e duc de Dorset), est son tuteur pendant sa minorité. Il devient haut shérif héréditaire de Westmorland de 1786 à 1825. Au début de sa vie, il passe beaucoup de temps à l'étranger, notamment à Vienne, où il a une liaison avec une dame hongroise, Anne Charlotte de Bojanowitz, avec qui il se marie, sous le rite anglican, à St. George's, Hanover Square, le 28 février. 1811.

En politique, il soutient généralement le duc de Bedford et l'opposition à Pitt. En mai 1798, il est présent avec Fox, Sheridan, Erskine et d'autres sympathisants whigs au procès d'Arthur O'Connor à Maidstone. O'Connor est déclaré non coupable, mais n'est pas acquitté, car un mandat d'arrêt pour son arrestation pour une autre infraction est en attente. Thanet et d'autres sont accusés d'avoir provoqué une émeute dans le tribunal et d'avoir éteint les lumières pour tenter de secourir le prisonnier, ou du moins d'aider à son évasion. L'affaire est jugée devant Lord Kenyon au banc du roi le 25 avril 1799. Sir John Scott assure les poursuites et Erskine dirige la défense. Richard Brinsley Sheridan semble témoigner pour l'accusé, et se distingue en parant huit fois, et finalement en évitant, la question d'Edward Law, l'avocat de l'accusation, "Croyez-vous que Lord Thanet avait l'intention de favoriser l'évasion d'O'Connor ?" Après avoir été reconnu coupable d'émeute et d'agression à Maidstone, Thanet est traduit en jugement le 3 mai et incarcéré à la prison de King's Bench, la caution offerte par le duc de Bedford étant refusée. Le 10 juin, il est condamné à un an d'emprisonnement dans la Tour de Londres et à une amende de 1 000 £, et à sa libération, il est condamné à fournir une garantie pour sa bonne conduite pendant sept ans pour un montant de 20 000 £.

Après sa libération, le comte vit tranquillement à Hothfield et devient un agriculteur populaire, visitant régulièrement le marché agricole d'Ashford. Il passe beaucoup de temps à l'étranger et meurt à Châlons le 24 janvier 1825. Il est enterré le 7 février à Rainham. Ne laissant aucun descendant, il est successivement remplacé par ses frères Charles (1770-1832) et Henry Tufton (1775-1849), onzième et dernier comte de Thanet.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Joueur du Marylebone Cricket Club
Joueur anglais de cricket
Comte de la pairie d'Angleterre
Décès en janvier 1825
Naissance en juin 1769
Décès à 55 ans
Comte de Thanet

Sackville Tufton (9e comte de Thanet)


Survivor Series 2006 a fost ce-a de-a douăzecea ediție a pay-per-view-ului anual Survivor Series organizat de World Wrestling Entertainment. A avut loc pe data de 26 noiembrie 2006 în arena Wachovia Center din Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Rezultate
 Dark match: Carlito l-a învins pe Charlie Haas (05:00)
 Carlito l-a numarat pe Haas dupa un "Back Cracker".
 Team WWE Legends (Ric Flair, Sgt. Slaughter, Dusty Rhodes & Ron Simmons) (însoțit de Arn Anderson) a învins Spirit Squad (Johnny, Kenny, Mikey și Nicky) într-un 4-on-4 Survivor Series elimination match (10:31)
 Flair l-a eliminat pe Johnny cu un "Figure-Four Leglock" fiind unicul supraviețuitor.
 Chris Benoit l-a învins pe Chavo Guerrero păstrându-și centura WWE United States Championship (08:19)
 Benoit l-a făcut pe Chavo să cedeze cu un "Crippler Crossface".
  Mickie James a învinso pe Lita câștigând centura WWE Women's Championship (08:18)
 Mickie a numărato pe Lita după un "Tornado DDT".
 Team DX (CM Punk, Jeff Hardy, Matt Hardy, Shawn Michaels și Triple H) a-u învins Team Rated-RKO (Edge, Johnny Nitro, Mike Knox, Gregory Helms și Randy Orton) într-un 5-on-5 Survivor Series elimination match (11:30)
 Triple H l-a numărat pe Orton după un "Sweet Chin Music" a lui Michaels și un "Pedigree".
 Mr. Kennedy l-a învins pe The Undertaker într-un First Blood match (09:15)
 Undertaker a început să sângereze după ce Montel Vontavious Porter l-a lovit cu un scaun.
 Team Cena (Bobby Lashley, Kane, John Cena, Rob Van Dam și Sabu) i-au învins pe Team Big Show (Big Show, Finlay, Montel Vontavious Porter, Test și Umaga) într-un 5-on-5 Survivor Series elimination match (12:35)
 Cena l-a eliminat pe Show după un "Spear" a lui Lashley și un  "FU".
 Batista l-a învins pe Booker T (c) într-un Last Chance match câștigând centura World Heavyweight Championship (13:58)
 Batista l-a numărat pe Booker după ce l-a lovit cu centura
 Dacă Booker era descalificat sau pierdea prin count out, pierdea campionatul.

Evenimente pay-per-view WWE
Survivor Series

Survivor Series (2006)


Grevskabet Provence er et tidligere len i området omkring Rhoneflodens delta.

Historisk udvikling af grevskabet

Se også
 Liste over grever i Provence
 Provences historie

Grevskaber i Frankrig
Frankrigs territoriale udvikling
Middelalder

Grevskabet Provence


Pilar Ruiz-Lapuente, née en 1964 à Barcelone (État espagnol), est une astrophysicienne travaillant comme professeur à l'Université de Barcelone. Ses travaux comprennent des recherches sur les supernovas de type Ia. En 2004, elle a dirigé l'équipe qui a recherché l'étoile compagne de la naine blanche qui est devenue la supernova SN 1572, observée entre autres par Tycho Brahe. Les recherches de Ruiz-Lapuente sur les supernovas ont contribué à la découverte de l'accélération de l'expansion de l'univers.

Aperçu de carrière
Ruiz-Lapuente a obtenu son diplôme en physique à l'Université de Barcelone, puis a fait ses études de doctorat à l'Université de Barcelone, à l'Institut Max-Planck d'astrophysique et à l'Observatoire européen austral. Elle est ensuite devenue chercheuse au Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Depuis 2012, elle est professeure au Département d'astronomie et de météorologie de l'Université de Barcelone.

Recherche sur l'accélération de l'univers
Ruiz-Lapuente était l'un des membres du Supernova Cosmology Project, l'une des deux équipes de recherche qui ont fait la co-découverte inattendue, en 1998, que l'univers s'étendait à un rythme accéléré. Les équipes l'ont découvert en étudiant les supernovas de type Ia et ont avancé l'énergie noire comme explication de cette expansion accélérée.

She said of her contribution to the work... À la suite de cette découverte, Ruiz-Lapuente, ainsi que ses collègues du projet Supernova Cosmology et les co-découvreurs de l'équipe de recherche High-z Supernova, ont reçu le prix Gruber de cosmologie 2007 et le Breakthrough Prize de physique fondamentale 2015. Les recherches auxquelles elle a contribué ont également abouti à l'attribution du prix Nobel de physique 2011 au chercheur principal de son équipe, Saul Perlmutter, qu'il a partagé avec les directeurs de l'équipe de recherche High-z Supernova.

Publications notables
En 2012, Pilar-Ruiz avait écrit plus de 130 articles de revues. Il s'agit notamment de travaux publiés dans Nature et Science.

Certains articles incluent :

 Nebular spectra of type IA supernovae as probes for extragalactic distances, reddening, and nucleosynthesis (Spectres nébulaires des supernovae de type IA comme sondes pour les distances extragalactiques, le rougissement et la nucléosynthèse)
 A possible low-mass type Ia supernova (Une possible supernova de type Ia de faible masse)
 Tycho Brahe's supernova: light from centuries past (Supernova de Tycho Brahe : lumière des siècles passés)
 Dark energy, gravitation and supernovae (Énergie noire, gravitation et supernovas)

Elle a également écrit un livre intitulé El enigma de la realidad. Las entidades de la física de Aristóteles a Einstein. .

Notes et références

Liens externes

Astronome espagnol du XXe siècle
Astronome espagnol du XXIe siècle
Astrophysicien espagnol
Astrophysicienne
Femme astronome
Étudiant de l'université de Barcelone
Professeur à l'université de Barcelone
Personnalité liée à Barcelone
Naissance en mai 1964
Naissance à Barcelone
Lauréat du prix Peter-Gruber de cosmologie

Pilar Ruiz-Lapuente


Zombie 4, parfois commercialisé sous le titre Au-delà de la mort ( ou ) est un film d'épouvante italien réalisé par Claudio Fragasso et sorti en 1989.

C'est la suite de Zombi 3 de Lucio Fulci, Bruno Mattei et Claudio Fragasso, sorti l'année précédente.

Synopsis

Fiche technique
 Titre original :  ou
 Titre français : Zombie 4 ou Au-delà de la mort ou
 Réalisateur : Claudio Fragasso (sous le nom de « Clyde Anderson »)
 Scénario :
 Photographie :
 Montage : Maurizio Baglivo
 Musique :
 Effets spéciaux : Franco Di Girolamo, Rodolfo Torrente
 Décors :
 Costumes : Julie De Guzman
 Maquillage : Franco Di Girolamo
 Production : Franco Gaudenzi, Bruno Mattei
 Société de production : Filmes Cinematografica
 Pays de production :
 Langue de tournage : italien
 Format : Couleur par Eastmancolor - Son mono - 35 mm
 Durée : 93 minutes (1h33)
 Genre : Film de zombies, film d'épouvante
 Dates de sortie :
 Japon :  (directement en vidéo)
 Allemagne de l'Ouest :  (directement en vidéo)
 Italie :

Distribution
Jeff Stryker (sous le nom de « Chuck Peyton ») : Chuck
Cristina Caporilli : Jenny
 (sous le nom d'« Alex McBride ») : David
 : Dan
Lorenzo Piani : Tommy
Romano Puppo : Le chef des zombies
Donatella Antonaros : Louise
Luciano Pigozzi (sous le nom d'« Alan Collins ») : Le docteur
Giuseppe Grimaldi : Mad
Antonio Zambito : Rod

Notes et références

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Film italien sorti en 1989
Film italien de zombies
Film réalisé par Claudio Fragasso
Suite de film italien
Film en italien
Film en anglais
Film tourné aux Philippines
Film tourné à Rome
Film se déroulant dans un pays fictif en Amérique
Film se déroulant sur une île
Film sur une épidémie
Film sur le vaudou

Zombie 4


La Bosnie-Herzégovine participe aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022 à Pékin en Chine. Il s'agit de sa  à des Jeux d'hiver.

Athlètes engagés

Résultats

Luge

Ski alpin

Ski de fond

Notes et références

Bosnie-Herzégovine
2022
Jeux olympiques d'hiver

Bosnie-Herzégovine aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022


Kritična masa (prema grč. ϰριτιϰός, od ϰρίνειν: razlučivati, prosuđivati) je najmanja masa radioaktivne tvari u kojoj može nastati nuklearna lančana reakcija (nuklearna fisija). Vrijednost kritične mase pojedine kemijske tvari ovisi o fizikalnim svojstvima atomskih jezgara (broju neutrona koji nastaju u nuklearnoj reakciji), obliku u kojem se tvar nalazi (najmanja je za sferni oblik ili kuglu), gustoći (obrnuto je razmjerna kvadratu gustoće) i čistoći tvari. Na primjer, ako je oblikovana u kuglu (sferu) i potpuno očišćena od primjesa, kritična masa izotopa neptunija 236Np bit će 7 kilograma, plutonija 239Pu 10 kilograma, uranija 233U 15 kilograma, a uranija 235U 52 kilograma. Ako tvar nije čista, kritična se masa povećava, na primjer, ako izotop uranija 235U čini 20% tvari u kugli, kritična će masa biti veća od 400 kilograma.

Nuklearna fisija

Kada se neutronom gađa atom litija, dolazi do pojedinačne transmutacije (pretvorbe) i na tome se sve prekida. Proces sam sebe ne podržava. Da izazovemo iduće pretvaranja, moramo ponovo gađati. Želimo li dakle praktično iskoristiti reakciju razbijanja jezgre i pri tom osloboditi nuklearnu energiju, mora se naći takav proces koji će sam sebe podržavati. Takav je na primjer slučaj kad hoćemo iskoristiti reakciju gorenja drveta. Komad drveta se zapali na jednom mjestu, i pošto je proces gorenja započeo, ne treba više držati šibicu jer se od zagrijavanja drveta na jednom mjestu pale i susjedni dijelovi. Proces gorenja se prenosi i širi sve dalje i dalje i podržava sam sebe. Jasno je da ne bismo mogli iskoristiti reakciju gorenja ako bismo svaki komadić drveta morali paliti posebnom šibicom.

1939. su njemački fizičari O. Hahn i F. Strassmann, te I. Joliot-Curie i P. Savić u Francuskoj našli proces koji je sposoban održavati sam sebe i koji se razvija i teče kao lavina. Takav proces se zove nuklearna lančana reakcija.

Bombardiranjem izotopa uranija-235 neutronima zbiva se ova pojava. Neutron koji je pogodio atomsku jezgru uranija ujedno je od jezgre apsorbiran i dolazi do procesa raspadanja kao u biologiji, to jest do diobe stanice. Takva je jezgra sada nestabilna i raspada se na dva jednaka dijela koji su potpuno drugi kemijski elementi, na primjer barij i kripton. Ovo cijepanje atomske jezgre na dva dijela zove se nuklearna fisija. Kod te lančane reakcije emitira se još nekoliko neutrona, od kojih svaki može ponovo izazvati diobu atomske jezgre na dva dijela. To nastaje kod svake diobe, te novi neutroni učestvuju u daljem procesu raspadanja (dezintegracije). Time se sam proces dalje razvija kao kod gorenja, odnosno eksplozije dinamita. Kod svakog tog raspadanja masa dobivenih produkata manja je od prijašnje mase zajedno s apsorbiranim neutronom. Dakle lančana reakcija je niz fisija, kod kojih jedna izaziva drugu.

No to se događa samo kod uranija atomske mase 235. Teškoća je i u tome što samo spori neutroni izazivaju lančanu reakciju. Da bismo usporili neutrone, puštemo ih kroz tvari male atomske mase koje ne upijaju neutrone. Atomi male atomske mase usporavaju neutrone zato što im neutroni predaju jedan dio svoje kinetičke energije, a ne odbijaju se od njih istom brzinom kao od atoma velike atomske mase. U tu svrhu služi teška voda i čisti grafit. Teška voda je spoj teškog vodika (deuterij) i kisika, a razlikuje se od obične vode u tome što vri kod 101,4 °C, a smrzava se kod 3,8 °C. Te tvari koje usporavaju neutrone zovu se moderatori ili usporivači neutrona.

Osim toga za dobivanje lančanog procesa nije svejedno koliki će se komad uranija uzeti. Uzme li se manji komad, neutroni mogu izletjeti u vanjski prostor, a da na svojem putu ne sretnu druge uranijeve atomske jezgre. Da bi proces bio eksplozivan, to jest da bi nastala lavina, komad uranija ne smije biti manji od neke određene veličine. Ta najmanja masa kod koje se još zbiva lančani proces zove se kritična masa.

Izvori

Nuklearna fizika
Masa

Kritična masa


Nermin Pura (d.1923, İstanbul), Türk ressam.

1923 yılında İstanbul'da dünyaya geldi. Küçük yaşlarda resim yapmaya başladı. Kendisi gibi ressam olan eşi Numan Pura ile evlendi. Eşiyle birlikte sanat çalışmalarına devam etti. Yurt içinde 23 kez kişisel sergi açan sanatçı, 12 kere Devlet Resim ve Heykel Sergilerine katılmıştır. Halen birçok resmi ve özel kolleksiyonlarda eserleri bulunmaktadır.

Türkiye Emlak Kredi Bankası Genel Müdürlük Raportörlüğü'nden emekli olduktan resim çalışmalarına ağırlık verdi. Ressamlığının yanı sıra şair ve yazar olarak da tanınır. Ankara Kadın Ressamlar Derneği'nin kurucuları arasında yer alan Nermin Pura, ayrıca Güzel Sanatlar Birliği Resim Derneği, Ressamlar Derneği ve Sanat Sevenler Derneği üyesidir.

Eserlerinin Özellikleri

Sanatçının kompozisyonları duygusal kimliğinin bir uzantısı olarak addedilmektedir. İzlenimci bir bakış açısına sahip olan Pura, eserlerinde sıcak ve canlı renkleri tercih etmektedir.

20. yüzyıl Türk ressamları
21. yüzyıl Türk ressamları
1923 doğumlular
Karacaahmet Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
İstanbul doğumlu ressamlar
20. yüzyıl Türk şairleri
21. yüzyıl Türk şairleri
Türk kadın ressamlar
100 yaş üstü Türkler

Nermin Pura


Suat Yıldırım (d. 1941, Ergani, Diyarbakır), Türk ilahiyat profesörüdür.

Özgeçmişi

Babası Mehmet Zeki Yıldırım dedesi Hacı Hüsnü Yıldırım, Ergani müftülüğü yapmış zevat arasındadır. Anne tarafından dedesi Mustafa İnal Osmanlı dönemi mutasarrıflarından, onun babası Kavasbaşılardan Hacı İbrahim, Osmanlı dönemi A'yan (Senato) âzalarındandır. 1964'te Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi'nden mezun oldu. 1964-1965'te kısa süre Edirne müftülüğünde bulunup iki yıl yedek subay olarak askerlik görevini müteakip Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı müfettişliği yaptı (1967-1968). 1968'de Erzurum Atatürk Üniversitesi'nde Arap Dili ve Edebiyatı asistanlığına başladı. 1970-1971 yıllarında bir müddet Bağdat'ta incelemede bulundu.

1973'te "Peygamberimizin Kur'an'ı Tefsiri" konulu doktora tezini tamamladı. 1977'de Tefsir doçenti unvanını alarak 1977-1987 döneminde Erzurum Atatürk Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Tefsir Anabilim Dalı Başkanlığı yaptı. 1974-1975 döneminde Paris Sorbonne Üniversitesi'nde incelemeler yaptı. 1987-1988 yıllarında Suudi Arabistan'da Medine İslam Üniversitesi, Tebliğ Fakültesinde sözleşmeli profesör olarak lisans ve lisansüstü dersleri okuttu. Daha sonra Marmara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Tefsir profesörlüğüne tayin edilip 1989-1993 döneminde burada Tefsir Anabilim Dalı Başkanlığı görevini ifa etti. 1993-1995 döneminde üç yıl Sakarya Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dekanlığı yaptı. Marmara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesinde öğretime devam ederken oradan izinli olarak 1998-2000 döneminde Malezya Uluslararası İslam Üniversitesi'nde öğretim üyeliği yaptı. Evli olup üç kız babasıdır.

Suat Yıldırım'ın te'lif ve tercüme olarak 13 kitabı, yetmişten fazla ilmî inceleme ve makalesi bulunmaktadır.

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İçişleri Bakanlığı tarafından terör suçlusu olarak kırmızı liste de aranmaktadır.

Kitapları

 Peygamberimizin Kur'anı Tefsiri (1983)
 Kur'an'da Ulûhiyyet (1987)
 Kur'an İlimlerine Giriş (1983-1987)
 Kur'an-ı Kerim ve Fennî Keşifler (1990)
 Fatiha ve En'am Sûrelerinin Tefsiri (1989 ve 1993)
 Mevcut Kaynaklara Göre Hıristiyanlık (1988 ve 1997)
 Kur'an-ı Hâkim ve Açıklamalı Meali. Tefsire Giriş (2001).
 Tevrat, İncil, Kur'an-ı Kerim ve Bilim (1981).
 En Mühim Mesaj: Kur'an (1985 ve 1995)
 Tefsir-i Kebir Tercümesi (1987-1995)
 Le Coran avec la Traduction Française (1997).

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 https://www.odatv4.com/makale/odatv-den-bayram-bombasi-ilk-kez-okuyacaksiniz-feto-ciftliginde-olum-hazirligi-244217
 https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/15-temmuz-darbe-girisimi/feto-elebasi-gulenin-ev-arkadasi-suat-yildirim/2056554
 https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/diyanet-arsivi-temizleyememis-islam-ansiklopedisinde-feto-kalintilari-1742008
 https://www.takvim.com.tr/guncel/2016/08/20/fetocunun-kuran-mealinde-bizans-haritasi
 https://www.sakaryayenihaber.com/haber/6784457/fetoyu-sau-ilahiyata-o-yerlestirdi

1941 doğumlular
Türk ilahiyatçılar
Sakarya Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi dekanları
Fatih Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Malezya Uluslararası İslam Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Marmara Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Atatürk Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Türkiye tarafından aranan kaçaklar

Suat Yıldırım


Futbolo Klubas Kruoja 2001 var en fodboldklub fra den litauiske by Pakruojis.

Historie
Klubben blev stiftet i 2001 og gik konkurs i 2015.

Titler

Nationalt
 A Lyga
 Vindere (0)
 Andenplads (1): 2014

Klub farver

Historiske slutplaceringer

Noter

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger
 fkkruoja.lt
 Kruoja Pakruojis UEFA-e

Fodboldklubber i Litauen
Etableret i 2001
Ophørt i 2015
Tidligere fodboldklubber i Litauen

FK Kruoja Pakruojis