Alison Wylie (Swindon, 1954) é uma filósofa canadense da arqueologia. Ela é professora de filosofia na Universidade da Colúmbia Britânica e detém uma Cátedra de Pesquisa do Canadá em Filosofia das Ciências Sociais e Históricas.

Wylie é especialista em filosofia da ciência, ética em pesquisa e feminismo nas ciências sociais, particularmente arqueologia e antropologia.

Infância e educação
Wylie nasceu em 1954 em Swindon, Inglaterra. Ela cresceu no Canadá e obteve seu diploma de graduação em Filosofia e Sociologia pela Mount Allison University em 1976. Ela então estudou na Universidade de Binghamton, onde obteve um mestrado em antropologia (1979), e um doutorado em filosofia através do Programa de História e Filosofia das Ciências Sociais e Comportamentais de curta duração (1982). Sua tese de doutorado foi intitulada Positivismo e a Nova Arqueologia, orientada por Rom Harré.

Carreira acadêmica
Wylie ocupou cargos docentes na Universidade de Western Ontario (1985–1998), Universidade Washington em St. Louis (1998–2003), Barnhard College / Universidade Columbia (2003–2005), Universidade de Washington (2005–2017) e Universidade de Durham (2013-2017). Ela também ocupou cargos de visitante na Universidade Nacional da Austrália, Universidade de Reading, Universidade Stanford, École des hautes études en sciences sociales em Paris, Universidade da Califórnia em Berkeley, Universidade de Nova Iorque, Universidade de Denver e Durham University. Atualmente é professora no departamento de filosofia da Universidade da Colúmbia Britânica.

Wylie co-presidiu o comitê de ética em arqueologia da Society for American Archaeology (SAA), que elaborou os Princípios de Ética Arqueológica em uso pela SAA. Wylie recebeu um Prêmio de Reconhecimento Presidencial da SAA em 1995 por este trabalho.

Ela foi a editora sênior de Hypatia, A Journal of Feminist Philosophy entre 2008 e 2013) e foi nomeada Filosófa destaque do ano pela Sociedade Feminina na Filosofia em 2013. Ela atuou como presidente da Associação Filosófica Americana Pacific Division entre 2011 e 2012  e é a atual presidente da Associação Filosófica da Ciência (2019-2020). Em novembro de 2019, Wylie foi eleita membro correspondente da Academia Australiana de Humanidades.

Wylie recebeu em 2019 o prêmio Alan Saunders Memorial Lecture  (Associação Australiana de Filosofia e Australian Broadcast Corporation); a Distinta Palestra 2018 do Fórum de História das Ciências Humanas; a Dewey Lecture de 2017, Pacific Division da Associação Filosófica Americana; a palestra Katz Distinguished de 2016 na Universidade de Washington; a Springer Lecture de 2013, Associação Europeia de Filosofia da Ciência; a Palestra Mulvaney de 2013, Universidade Nacional Australiana; e Patty Jo Watson Distinguished Lecturer de 2008, Divisão de Arqueologia, American Anthropological Association.

Obras publicadas

 Livros

 (2016). Evidential Reasoning in Archaeology, co-authored with Robert Chapman, Bloomsbury Academic Publishing, London: Bloomsbury.
 (2015). Material Evidence, Learning from Archaeological Practice, co-edited with Robert Chapman, London: Routledge.
 (2007). Value-Free Science? Ideals and Illusions, co-edited with Harold Kincaid and John Dupré, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 (2002).  Thinking From Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology, Berkeley CA: University of California Press.
 (1995). Ethics in American Archaeology: Challenges for the 1990s, co-edited with Mark J. Lynott, Washington D.C.: Society for American Archaeology Special Report Series.
 (1995). Breaking Anonymity: The Chilly Climate for Women Faculty, co-edited with members of the Chilly Collective, Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
 (1994). Equity Issues for Women in Archaeology, co-edited with Margaret C. Nelson and Sarah M. Nelson, Washington, D.C.: Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, Number 5.

 Pautas especiais

 Hypatia thematic clusters: Women in Philosophy: The Costs of Exclusion, and Epistemic Justice, Ignorance, and Procedural Objectivity (editor), Hypatia 26.2 (2011).
 Feminist Legacies / Feminist Futures, 25th Anniversary Special Issue of Hypatia, A Journal of Feminist Philosophy, co-edited with Lori Gruen, 25.4 (2010).
 Doing Archaeology as a Feminist, Special Issue of the Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, guest edited with Margaret W. Conkey, 14.3 (2007).
 Epistemic Diversity and Dissent, Special Issue of Episteme: Journal of Social Epistemology, guest editor, 3.1 (2006).
 Feminist Science Studies, Special Issue of Hypatia, A Journal of Feminist Philosophy, guest edited with Lynn Hankinson Nelson, 19.1 (2004).
 Special Issues of Philosophy of the Social Sciences: selected papers from the Philosophy of Social Science Roundtable, March issues since 2000 (PoSS 30.1 to 44.2).

 Artigos e similares

 "Crossing a Threshold: Collaborative Archaeology in Global Dialogue," Archaeologies 15.5 (2019): 570-587.
 "Representational and Experimental Modeling in Archaeology": Springer Handbook of Model-based Science, Part I, eds. Magnani and Bertolotti, 2017, pp. 989–1002.
 "What Knowers Know Well: Standpoint Theory and the Formation of Gender Archaeology," Scientiae Studia 15.1 (2017): 13-38.
 "From the Ground Up: Philosophy and Archaeology," Proceedings and Addresses of the APA 91 (2017): 118-136.
 "Feminist Philosophy of Social Science": Routledge Companion to Feminist Philosophy, eds.  Garry, Khader, and Stone, 2017, pp. 328–340.
 "How Archaeological Evidence Bites Back: Strategies for Putting Old Data to Work in New Ways": Science, Technology and Human Values 42.2 (2017): 203-225.
 "A Plurality of Pluralisms: Collaborative Practice in Archaeology": in Objectivity in Science: New Perspectives from Science and Technology Studies, eds. Padovani, Richardson, and Tsou, Springer, 2015, pp. 189–210.
 "'Do Not Do Unto Others…': Cultural Misrecognition and the Harms of Appropriation in an Open Source World," with George Nicholas: in Appropriating the Past, eds. Scarre and Coningham, CUP, 2012, pp. 195-221.
 "Feminist Philosophy of Science: Standpoint Matters," Proceedings and Addresses of the APA 86.2 (2012): 47-76.
 "Critical Distance: Stabilizing Evidential Claims in Archaeology": in Evidence, Inference and Enquiry, eds.  Dawid, Twining, and Vasilaki, OUP, 2011, pp. 371–394.
 "What Knowers Know Well: Women, Work, and the Academy," in Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science: Power in Knowledge, ed. Grasswick, Springer, 2011, pp. 157–179.
 "Archaeological Facts in Transit: The 'Eminent Mounds' of Central North America", in How Well do 'Facts' Travel?, edita Howlett and Morgan, CUP, 2010, pp. 301–322.
 "Archaeological Finds: Legacies of Appropriation, Modes of Response," co-authored with George Nicholas, in The Ethics of Cultural Appropriation eds. Young and Brunk, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, pp. 11–54.
 "Agnotology in/of Archaeology," Agnotology: The Making and Unmaking of Ignorance, eds. Proctor and Schiebinger, Stanford UP, 2008, pp. 183–205.
 "The Promise and Perils of an Ethic of Stewardship," Embedding Ethics, eds. Meskell and Pells, Berg, 2005, pp. 47–68.
 "Why Standpoint Matters," in Science and Other Cultures: Issues in Philosophies of Science and Technology, eds. Figueroa and Harding, Routledge, 2003, pp. 26–48.
 "Doing Social Science as a Feminist: The Engendering of Archaeology," in Feminism in Twentieth Century Science, Technology, and Medicine, eds. Creager, Lunbeck, and Schiebinger, Chicago UP, 2001, pp. 23–45.
 "Standpoint Matters, in Archaeology for Example," Primate Encounters: Models of Science, Gender, and Society, eds. Strum and Fedigan, Chicago UP, 2000, pp. 243–260.
 "Questions of Evidence, Legitimacy, and the (Dis)Unity of Science" American Antiquity 65.2 (2000): 227-237.
 "Rethinking Unity as a Working Hypothesis for Philosophy of Science," Perspectives on Science 7.3 (1999): 293-317.
 "Science, Conservation, and Stewardship: Evolving Codes of Conduct in Archaeology," Science and Engineering Ethics 5.3 (1999): 319-336.
 "Good Science, Bad Science, or Science as Usual?: Feminist Critiques of Science," in Women in Human Evolution, ed. Hager, Routledge, 1997, pp. 29–55.
 "The Engendering of Archaeology: Refiguring Feminist Science Studies," Osiris 12 (1997): 80-99.
 "Ethical Dilemmas in Archaeological Practice: Looting, Repatriation, Stewardship, and the (Trans)formation of Disciplinary Identity," Perspectives on Science 4.2 (1996): 154-194.
 "The Constitution of Archaeological Evidence: Gender Politics and Science," in The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power, eds. Galison and Stump, Stanford UP, 1996, pp. 311–343.
 "Epistemic Disunity and Political Integrity," in Making Alternative Histories: The Practice of Archaeology and History in Non-Western Settings, eds. Schmidt and  Patterson, SAR Press, 1995, pp. 255–272.
 "Unification and Convergence in Archaeological Explanation: The Agricultural 'Wave of Advance' and the Origins of  Indo-European Languages," The Southern Journal of Philosophy 34, Supplement (1995): 1-30.
 "Doing Philosophy as a Feminist: Longino on the Search for a Feminist Epistemology," Philosophical Topics 23.2 (1995): 345-358.
 "'Invented Lands/Discovered Pasts': The Westward Expansion of Myth and History," Historical Archaeology 27.4 (1993): 1-19.
 "The Interplay of Evidential Constraints and Political Interests: Recent Archaeological Work on Gender," American Antiquity 57 (1992): 15-34.
 "Reasoning About Ourselves: Feminist Methodology in the Social Sciences," in Women and Reason, eds.  Harvey and Okruhlik, Michigan UP, 1992, pp. 225–244.
 "Gender Theory and the Archaeological Record," Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory, eds. Conkey andGero, Blackwell, 1991, pp. 31–54.
 "Archaeological Cables and Tacking: The Implications of Practice for Bernstein's 'Options Beyond Objectivism and Relativism'," Philosophy of the Social Sciences 19 (1989): 1-18.
 "Arguments for Scientific Realism: The Ascending Spiral," American Philosophical Quarterly 23 (1986): 287-297.
 "The Reaction Against Analogy," Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 8 (1985): 63-111.
 "Between Philosophy and Archaeology," American Antiquity 50 (1985): 478-490.
 "Epistemological Issues Raised by a Structuralist Archaeology," in Symbolic and Structural Archaeology, ed.  Hodder, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982, pp. 39–46.

Ligações externas
 Site pessoal (em inglês)
 página do corpo docente da Universidade da Colúmbia Britânica (em inglês)
 Documentos de Alison Wylie - Arquivos do Pembroke Center, Brown University (em inglês)
 Philosopher's Zone | Rádio ABC (junho de 2019) (em inglês)
 Instituto Cornell de Arqueologia e Ciências dos Materiais | RadioCIAMS (março de 2019) (em inglês)
 The Transect | Arqueologia no Noroeste (janeiro de 2019) (em inglês)
 SCI PHI Podcast | episódio 38 (abril de 2018) (em inglês)
 Glastonbury: Today, Tomorrow, 2,250 Years Ago. Extinct Blogue! (março de 2018) (em inglês)

Arqueólogos do Canadá
Professores da Universidade Washington em St. Louis
Professores da Universidade de Washington
Filósofos da ciência
Epistemologistas
Professores da Universidade Columbia
Filósofos analíticos
Pessoas vivas
Nascidos em 1954
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Wikiconcurso de edição)

Alison Wylie


Pablo Lavallén, de son nom complet Pablo Hernán Lavallén, est un footballeur argentin né le . Il évoluait au poste de défenseur.

Biographie

Joueur
Pablo Lavallén commence sa carrière avec River Plate en 1991.

Il remporte avec River la Copa Libertadores 1996.

En 1996, il rejoint le club mexicain de l'Atlas FC.

Lavallén est ensuite joueur du CD Veracruz en 2002.

Après un passage au CA Huracán, il est transféré au San Luis FC.

Lors des années 2004 et 2005, Lavallén revient sous les couleurs du CA Huracán.

Il est joueur également du  de 2005 à 2006.

Après une dernière saison en 2007 à Huracán, il raccroche les crampons.

Il fait partie du groupe argentin médaillé d'argent aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 1996.

Entraîneur
Il poursuit une carrière d'entraîneur après sa carrière de joueur.

Palmarès

Notes et références

Liens externes

Footballeur argentin
Médaillé d'argent olympique argentin
Footballeur aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 1996
Joueur de River Plate
Joueur du Club Atlético Huracán
Joueur du Club Atlético Platense
Joueur de l'Atlas FC
Joueur du CD Veracruz
Joueur du San Luis FC
Entraîneur argentin de football
Naissance en septembre 1972
Naissance à Buenos Aires

Pablo Lavallén


بوغني إحدى بلديات دائرة بوغني التابعة لولاية تيزي وزو.

أعلام
 نبيل حيماني
 سيدي أمحمد بوقبرين
 حسين نسيب
 فريد علي
 يوسف عطال
 آكلي يحياتن

مواضيع ذات صلة
 بلديات ولاية تيزي وزو
 دوائر ولاية تيزي وزو

مصادر

 التقسيم الإداري لولاية  ولاية تيزي وزو

بوغني

بوغني


La mezquita del Rey Abdalá I es una mezquita en Amán la capital de Jordania. Toma el nombre del rey jordano Abdalá I y fue construida entre 1982 y 1989, convirtiéndose en uno de los símbolos de la ciudad.

La mezquita está coronada por una cúpula cubierta con magníficos mosaicos azules y posee una capacidad de hasta 3.000 personas, además posee dos cúpulas más pequeñas y dos minaretes de arquitectura futurista. La mezquita está situada en la colina Jebel al-Weibdeh en la parte occidental de la capital jordana.

Bajo la cúpula se encuentra una gran sala de oración para hombres, pero esta no se encuentra en la nave central sostenida por columnas, por lo que recuerda a la Cúpula de la Roca en Jerusalén. El complejo de la mezquita cuenta con un museo de historia y religión islámica.

El 11 de abril de 2006, a la Mezquita del Rey Abdalá I le fue retirado el título "Mezquita Nacional de Jordania", en favor de la recién construida Mezquita del Rey Hussein Bin Talal.

Galería

Enlaces externos
 Jordan-Wiki: Mezquita del Rey Abdalá I (en inglés)

Rey Abdala
Rey Abdala
Edificios y estructuras de Amán
Arquitectura de 1989
Arquitectura de Jordania del siglo XX

Mezquita del Rey Abdalá I


Laura Alonso Padin (2. januar 1976) er en spansk sanger (sopran).

Hu begyndte sin karrieer i 1999, hvor hun blev tilknyttet Aalto-Theater i Essen i Tyskland. Hun har optrådt som gæstesolist på en række større internationale teatre og operahuse.

Laura Alonso Padín bor i Berlin og New York.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Operasangere fra Spanien
Sopraner

Laura Alonso Padin


Pangasinan (Pangasinense) is an Austronesian language, and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. It is the primary and predominant language of the entire province of Pangasinan and northern Tarlac, on the northern part of Luzon's central plains geographic region, most of whom belong to the Pangasinan ethnic group. Pangasinan is also spoken in southwestern La Union, as well as in the municipalities of Benguet, Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, and Zambales that border Pangasinan. A few Aeta groups and most Sambal in Central Luzon's northern part also understand and even speak Pangasinan as well.

Classification
The Pangasinan language belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian languages branch of the Austronesian languages family.
Pangasinan is similar to other closely related Philippine languages, Malay in Malaysia (as Malaysian), Indonesia (as Indonesian), Brunei, and Singapore, Hawaiian in Hawaii and Malagasy in Madagascar. The Pangasinan language is very closely related to the Ibaloi language spoken in the neighboring province of Benguet, located north of Pangasinan.  Pangasinan is classified under the Pangasinic group of languages.

The other Pangasinic languages are:
Ibaloi
Karao
Iwaak
Kalanguya/Kallahan

Geographic distribution
Pangasinan is the official language of the province of Pangasinan, located on the west central area of the island of Luzon along Lingayen Gulf. The people of Pangasinan are also referred to as Pangasinense. The province has a total population of 2,343,086 (2000), of which 2 million speak Pangasinan. Pangasinan is spoken in other Pangasinan communities in the Philippines, mostly in the neighboring provinces of Benguet, La Union, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Zambales, and Nueva Vizcaya.

History
Austronesian speakers settled in Maritime Southeast Asia during prehistoric times, perhaps more than 5,000 years ago. The indigenous speakers of Pangasinan are descendants of these settlers, who were probably part of a wave of prehistoric human migration that is widely believed to have originated from Southern China via Taiwan between 10 and 6 thousand years ago.

The word Pangasinan means 'land of salt' or 'place of salt-making'; it is derived from the root word , the word for 'salt' in Pangasinan. Pangasinan could also refer to a 'container of salt or salted products'; it refers to the ceramic jar for storage of salt or salted-products or its contents.

Literature
Written Pangasinan and oral literature in the language flourished during the Spanish and American period. Writers like Juan Saingan, Felipe Quintos, Narciso Corpus, Antonio Solis, Juan Villamil, Juan Mejía and María C. Magsano wrote and published in Pangasinan.  Felipe Quintos, a Pangasinan officer of the Katipunan, wrote  (), a history of the Katipunan revolutionary struggle in Pangasinan and surrounding provinces.  Narciso Corpus and Antonio Solis co-wrote , a short love story.  (Lingayen, Pangasinan: Gumawid Press, 1926)

Juan Villamil translated José Rizal's "Mi último adiós" in Pangasinan.  Pablo Mejia edited , a news magazine, in the 1920s.  He also wrote , a biography of Rizal. Magsano published , a literary magazine.  Magsano also wrote , a romance novel.  Pangasinan Courier published articles and literary works in Pangasinan.  Pioneer Herald published , a literary supplement in Pangasinan.  Many Christian publications in Pangasinan are widely available.

Many Pangasinan are multilingual and proficient in English, Filipino, and Ilocano. However, the spread and influence of the other languages is contributing to the decline of the Pangasinan language. Many Pangasinan people, especially the native speakers are promoting the use of Pangasinan in the print and broadcast media, Internet, local governments, courts, public facilities and schools in Pangasinan.  In April 2006, the creation of Pangasinan Wikipedia was proposed, which the Wikimedia Foundation approved for publication on the Internet.

Phonology

Vowels
Pangasinan has the following vowel phonemes:

In native vocabulary, /i/ and /u/ are realized as [i ~ ɪ ~ ɛ] and [u ~ ʊ ~ ɔ]. The close variants [i]/[u] are only used in stressed open syllables, while the open-mid variants [ɛ]/[ɔ] occur in open and closed final syllables before a pause. The default variants [ɪ]/[ʊ] occur in all other environments.

Some speakers have /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ as distinct phonemes, but only in loanwords.

Consonants

Pangasinan is one of the Philippine languages that do not exhibit []-[d] allophony, they only contrast before consonants and word-final positions; otherwise, they become allophones where [d] is only located in word-initial positions and after consonants & [] is only pronounced between vowels. Before consonants and word-final positions, [] is in free variation with trill [r]. In Spanish loanwords, [d] and [] contrast in all word positions.

All consonantal phonemes except  may be a syllable onset or coda. The phoneme  is a borrowed sound and rarely occurs in coda position. Although the Spanish word  'clock' would have been heard as , the final  is dropped resulting in . However, this word also may have entered the Pangasinan lexicon at early enough a time that the word was still pronounced , with the j pronounced as in French, resulting in  in Pangasinan. As a result, both  and  occur.

The glottal stop  is not permissible as coda; it can only occur as onset. Even as an onset, the glottal stop disappears in affixation.  Glottal stop  sometimes occurs in coda in words ending in vowels,  only before a pause.

Grammar

Sentence structure
Like other Malayo-Polynesian languages, Pangasinan has a verb–subject–object word order. Pangasinan is an agglutinative language.

Pronouns

Personal

Noun affixes
Benton (1971) lists a number of affixes for nouns. Benton describes affixes in Pangasinan as either "nominal" (affixes attached directly to nouns) and "nominalizing" (affixes which turn other parts of speech into nouns). Benton also describes "non-productive affixes", affixes which are not normally applied to nouns, and only found as part of other pre-existing words. Many of these non-productive affixes are found within words derived from Spanish.

Writing system
Modern Pangasinan consists of 27 letters, which include the 26 letters of the basic Latin alphabet and the Pangasinan digraph ng:

The ancient people of Pangasinan used an indigenous writing system called Kuritan.  The ancient Pangasinan script, which is related to the Tagalog Baybayin script, was derived from the Javanese Kawi script of Indonesia and the Vatteluttu or Pallava script of South India.

The Latin script was introduced during the Spanish colonial period. Pangasinan literature, using the indigenous syllabary and the Latin alphabet, continued to flourish during the Spanish and American colonial period. Pangasinan acquired many Spanish and English words, and some indigenous words were Hispanicized or Anglicized. However, use of the ancient syllabary has declined, and not much literature written in it has survived.

Loanwords

Most of the loan words in Pangasinan are Spanish, as the Philippines was ruled by Spain for more than 300 years. Examples are  ('place'),  (from poder, 'power, care'),  (from , 'against'),  (, 'green'),  (, 'spirit'), and  ('holy, saint').

Examples

Malinac ya Labi (original by Julian Velasco).

Modern Pangasinan with English translation

Words

 I – ,
 you (singular) – ,
 he –  (he/she),
 we – , , , , , ,
 you (plural) – , ,
 they –  ()
 this –
 that – ,
 here –
 there – ,
 who – , ,
 what –
 where –
 when – ,
 how – ,
 not – , , ,
 all –
 many – ,
 some –  ()
 few –
 other –
 one – ,
 two – ,  ()
 three – ,  ()
 four – ,  ()
 five – ,  ()
 big –
 long –
 wide – ,
 thick –
 heavy –
 small – , , ,
 short – , , , , ,
 narrow –
 thin – ,
 woman –
 man – ,
 human –
 child –
 wife – ,  (spouse)
 husband – ,  (spouse)
 mother –
 father –
 animal –
 fish – ,
 bird – ,  (chick)
 dog –
 louse –
 snake –
 worm –  (germ),  (earthworm)
 tree – ,  (plant)
 forest – ,
 stick – ,
 fruit –
 seed –
 leaf –
 root –
 bark –
 flower – ,
 grass –
 rope – , ,
 skin – ,
 meat –
 blood –
 bone –
 fat (n.) – ,
 egg –
 horn –
 tail –
 place –
 go –
 nothing –

 feather –
 hair –
 head –
 ear –
 eye –
 nose –
 mouth –
 tooth –
 tongue –
 fingernail –
 foot –
 leg –
 knee –
 hand –
 wing –
 belly –
 guts –
 neck –
 back –
 breast – ,
 heart –
 liver –
 drink –
 eat – , ,
 bite –
 suck – ,
 spit –
 vomit –
 blow –
 breathe – , , , ,
 laugh –
 see –
 hear –
 know – ,
 think –
 smell –
 fear –
 sleep –
 live –
 die – ,
 kill – ,
 fight – , ,
 hunt – , , ,  (catch)
 hit – , ,
 cut – ,
 split – , ,  (half)
 stab – ,
 scratch – , ,
 dig –
 swim –
 fly (v.) –
 walk –
 come – , , ,
 lie –  (lie down),  (tell a lie)
 sit –  ()
 stand –
 turn – ,
 fall –  (drop),
 give – ,  ()
 hold –
 squeeze –
 rub – , ,
 wash –
 wipe –
 pull –
 push –
 throw –
 tie –
 sew –

 count –
 say – ,
 sing – ,
 play –
 float –
 flow –
 freeze –
 swell –
 sun – ,
 moon –
 star –
 water –
 rain –
 river – , , ,
 lake –
 sea – ,
 salt –
 stone –
 sand –
 dust –
 earth –
 cloud –
 fog –
 sky –
 wind –
 snow –
 ice –
 smoke –
 fire – ,  (blaze),  (flame)
 ashes –
 burn – ,
 road – ,  (path)
 mountain –
 red – ,
 green – ,
 yellow –
 white – ,
 black – ,
 night –
 day –
 year –
 hot – ,
 cold – ,
 full –  (),  ()
 new –
 old –
 good – , ,
 bad – ,
 rotten – ,
 dirty – , , ,
 straight – ,
 round – , ,
 sharp –  (),
 dull – ,
 smooth – , ,
 wet – ,
 dry – ,
 correct – ,  (true)
 near –
 far –
 right –
 left –
 at –
 in –
 with –
 and –
 if –
 because – ,
 name –
 smile – ,
 lolo –
 lola –
 beautiful – , ,
 true – ,
 wrong –
 odor –
 delicious – ,
 I love you – ,

 Good day! - Masantos ya agew!
 Good morning! - Masantos ya kabwasan!
Good afternoon! - Masantos ya ngarem!
Good evening! - Masantos ya labi!

Numbers
List of numbers from one to ten in English, Tagalog and Pangasinan

Cardinal numbers:

Ordinal numbers:

Ordinal numbers are formed with the prefix kuma- (ka- plus infix -um).  Example:  , 'second'.

Associative numbers:

Associative numbers are formed with the prefix ka-.  Example:  , 'third of a group of three'.

Fractions:

Fraction numbers are formed with the prefix ka- and an associative number.  Example:  , 'third part'.

Multiplicatives:

Multiplicative ordinal numbers are formed with the prefix pi- and a cardinal number from two to four or pin- for other numbers except for number one.  Example:  , 'first time'; , 'second time'; , 'fifth time'.

Multiplicative cardinal numbers are formed with the prefix man- (mami- or mamin- for present or future tense, and ami- or amin- for the past tense) to the corresponding multiplicative ordinal number.  Example:  , 'once'; , 'twice'; , 'thrice'.

Distributives:

Distributive cardinal numbers are formed with the prefixes san-, tag-, or  and a cardinal number.  Example:  , 'one each';  , 'two each'.

Distributive multiplicative numbers are formed with the prefixes magsi-, , or  and a multiplicative cardinal number.  Example:  , 'twice each'; , 'each twice'.

Dictionaries and further reading
The following is a list of some dictionaries and references:

   Includes translations of English songs like "Joy to the World," and "What A Friend We Have in Jesus."
   The compilation has 20,000 entries.

  Traditional folk song.

See also

 Languages of the Philippines
 Malayo-Polynesian
 Pangasinan
 Tarlac
 La Union
 Pangasinan literature

References

External links

 Pangasinan as a dying language
 Bansa Pangasinan-English Dictionary
 Pangasinan Wiktionary
 Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database
 Sunday Punch
 Sun Star Pangasinan
 Pangasinan Star
 Pangasinan: Preservation and Revitalization of the Pangasinan Language and Literature
 Globalization killing Pangasinan language
 Pangasinan language is alive and kicking (Philippine Daily Inquirer, June 8, 2007)
 Dying languages
 Pangasinan-Spanish Dictionary, by Lorenzo Fernandez Cosgata, published in 1865.

South–Central Cordilleran languages
Verb–subject–object languages
Agglutinative languages

Pangasinan language


Kaw Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Kaw Township (Jefferson County, Kansas)
 Kaw Township (Wabaunsee County, Kansas)
 Kaw Township (Missouri)
 Kaw Township (Kay County, Oklahoma)
 Kaw Township (Osage County, Oklahoma)

Kaw Township


ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ බුදු දහම එරට පූර්ව-ඉස්ලාමීය යුගයේ පැවති ප්‍රධාන ආගම් ආගම් අතුරින් එකක් විය. හින්දු කුෂ් කඳු වැටියට දකුණු දෙසින් බුදු දහම පුළුල්ව ව්‍යාප්තව ගියේ ය. බුදු දහම ප්‍රථම වරට ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානය වෙත හඳුන්වා දුන්නේ කි.පූ. 305දී ග්‍රීක සෙලියුකීය අධිරාජ්‍යය ඉන්දියානු මෞර්ය අධිරාජ්‍යය සමග සන්ධානයක් ඇති කරගැනීමත් සමගයි. මෙහි ප්‍රතිඵලයක් ලෙස ග්‍රීක-බුදු දහම වර්තමාන උතුරු පාකිස්ථානය සහ ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානය යන ප්‍රදේශවල පිහිටා තිබූ ග්‍රීක-බැක්ට්‍රියානු රාජධානිය (ක්‍රි.පූ. 250-125) සහ පසුකාලීන ඉන්දු-ග්‍රීක රාජධානිය (ක්‍රි.පූ. 180 - ක්‍රි.ව. 10) තුළ වැජඹෙන්නට විය. ග්‍රීක-බුදු දහම උච්චස්ථානයට පත්වූයේ කුෂාණ අධිරාජ්‍යය යටතේ ය. මෙකල ග්‍රීක අක්ෂර මාලාව අනුසාරයෙන් බැක්ට්‍රියානු භාෂාව රචනා කෙරිණි.

නොයෙකුත් බෞද්ධ භික්ෂූන් ධර්ම ප්‍රචාරය සඳහා පිටත්ව යාම සිදු විය. මේ අතරට බෝධිධර්ම, ලෝකක්ෂේම සහ මහාධර්මරක්ෂිත යන භික්ෂූන් අයත් වේ. බෝධිධර්ම චීනයේ සෙන් බුදු දහමේ සහ ජනප්‍රවාදගත ෂඕලින් කුං ෆු සටන් කලාවේ නිර්මාතෘ වශයෙන් සැලකේ. ලොකක්ෂේම (ක්‍රි.ව. 178 පමණ) භික්ෂුව චීන අගනුවර වූ ලුවෝයැං වෙත ගමන් කොට, පළමුවරට මහායාන බෞද්ධ සූත්‍ර චීන බසට පරිවර්තනය කළේ ය. මහාවංසය (පරිච්. XXIX) අනුව මහාධර්මරක්ෂිත නම් භික්ෂුවගේ නායකත්වය යටතේ 30,000ක බෞද්ධ භික්ෂූන් පිරිසක් "ඇලසැන්ද්‍රා ග්‍රීක නගරයේ" (කොකේසස්හි ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩ්‍රියාව, වර්තමාන ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ කාබුල්හි සිට 150 km පමණ උතුරින්) සිට පැමිණ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ, අනුරාධපුරයේ මහා ස්තූපය වෙත පූජා පවත්වා තිබේ. ග්‍රීක-බැක්ට්‍රීය රජකු වූ Iවන මෙනැන්ඩර්, (පාලි: "මිලින්ද"; රාජ්‍ය. ක්‍රි.පූ. 165 - ක්‍රි.පූ. 135) බුදු දහමේ සුප්‍රකට අනුග්‍රාහකයකු වූ අතර, මිලින්ද පැනය නම් බෞද්ධ පාඨය හේතුවෙන් ඔහු අනුස්මරණීය විය.

උතුරු ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ බල්ඛ්හි පිහිටා තිබූ සුප්‍රකට පර්සියානු බෞද්ධ විහාරය නව විහාර ලෙස හැඳින්වුණු අතර, එය සියවස් ගණනාවක් පුරා මධ්‍ය ආසියානු බෞද්ධ ඉගෙනීම් මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් ලෙස ක්‍රියා කළේ ය.

ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථාන‍යේ බුදු දහමේ පරිහානිය ආරම්භ වූයේ 7වන සියවසේ ඉස්ලාමයේ පැමිණීමත් සමග ය. 11වන සියවසේ ඝස්නවිද්වරුන්ගේ ආක්‍රමණ හේතුවෙන් එය ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයෙන් තුරන් වී ගියේ ය.

ඉතිහාසය

ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ දේශසීමාව තුළ පිහිටි භූමිය සියවස් ගණනාවක් පුරා බොහෝ සංස්කෘතික සහ ආගමික විපර්යාසයන්වලට ලක්වූ භූමියක් විය. මැද පෙරදිග, දකුණු ආසියානු සහ මධ්‍ය ආසියානු සංස්කෘතීන්ට මැදිවී පිහිටි භූගෝලීය පිහිටුම සහ සුප්‍රකට සේද මාවතට (නැගෙනහිර ආසියානු සහ මධ්‍යධරණී ශිෂ්ටාචාර සම්බන්ධ කෙරුණු) ආසන්නව පිහිටීම නිසා, මෙම භූමිය නොයෙකුත් දැවැන්ත ඓතිහාසික සහ සංස්කෘතික ප්‍රගමනයන්ට ලක් විය. ඉන් වඩාත් වැදගත් බලපෑමක් වූයේ මහා ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩර් විසින් මෙම භූමිය ආක්‍රමණය කිරීම හේතුවෙන් එය හෙලනිස්තික ලෝකයට ඇතුළත් වීමයි. මේ නිසා මෙම ප්‍රදේශයේ බෞද්ධාගමික කලාව කෙරෙහි හෙලනිස්තික බලපෑම බෙහෙවින් දක්නට ලැබිණි. ක්‍රි.පූ. 305දී සෙලියුකීය අධිරාජ්‍යය ඉන්දියානු මෞර්ය අධිරාජ්‍යය සමග සන්ධානයකට එළැඹියේ ය. මෞර්යවරුන් ඉන්දියාවේ සිට බුදු දහම හඳුන්වා දුන් අතර, ක්‍රි.පූ. 185දී පමණ බලය අහිමි වනතෙක්ම ඔවුහු හින්දු කුෂ් ප්‍රදේශයට දකුණින් වූ භූමිය පාලනය කළහ.

මෙම සංවර්ධනයන් සිදුවූ අවධියේ මෙම භූමියෙන් බොහෝ ප්‍රදේශ බැක්ට්‍රියා සහ සොග්ඩියානා රාජධානිවලට අයත් විය. ඉස්ලාමය පැමිණෙන තෙක්ම සිතියානුවන් ඇතුළු පෂ්ටුන්වරුන්ගේ මුතුන්මිත්තන් විසින් අනුගමනය කරන ලද්දේ බුදු දහමයි.

වර්තමාන ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ පැවති බෞද්ධ සංස්කෘතියට සාක්ෂි වශයෙන් ස්මාරක බොහෝමයක් හමු වේ. මෙම ප්‍රදේශයේ ග්‍රීක සංස්කෘතික සහ කලාත්මක බලපෑම බෞද්ධ කලාව සහ ග්‍රීක-බුදු දහම යටතේ අධ්‍යයනය කළ හැක. මේ පිළිබඳ වැඩිදුර තොරතුරු ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ පූර්ව-ඉස්ලාමික හින්දු සහ බෞද්ධ උරුමය සහ ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ හින්දු ආගම යටතේ හැදෑරිය හැක.

සැසේනියානු පර්සියානු රාජවංශය මුස්ලිම්වරුන්ට නතු වීමත් සමග (ක්‍රි.ව. 651දී) බල්ඛ් ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටි නව විහාරය මුස්ලිම් පාලනයට (ක්‍රි.ව. 663දී) යටත් විය. නමුත් එය තවත් සියවසක් පමණ ක්‍රියාකාරීව පැවතියේ ය. ක්‍රි.ව. 715දී බල්ඛ්හි ඇතිවූ කෝලාහලයක් අබ්බාසිද් කාලිෆේටය මගින් මර්දනය කිරීමත් සමග, බොහෝ පර්සියානු බෞද්ධ භික්ෂූහු, සේද මාවත ඔස්සේ නැගෙනහිර දෙසින් පිහිටි බෞද්ධ ඛෝටාන් රාජධානිය වෙත පලාගියහ. මෙම රාජධානියේ භාවිත වූ භාෂාව නැගෙනහිර ඉරාන භාෂාවක් වූ අතර, ඇතැම් භික්ෂූන් චීනය වෙත ගමන් කළහ. නව විහාරයේ පාරම්පරික පරිපාලකයින් වූ පර්සියානු බර්මාකිඩ්වරු විහාරය වෙත එල්ල වූ ආක්‍රමණයෙන් පසු බුදු දහම අත්හැර ඉස්ලාමය වැළඳ ගත්හ. අනතුරුව ඔවුන් බැග්ඩෑඩයේ, අබ්බාසිද් කාලිෆ්වරුගේ බලවත් අමාත්‍යවරුන් බවට පත් විය. මෙම අමාත්‍ය පවුල් පෙළපතේ අවසානයා වූ ජෆාර් ඉබ්න් යාහ්යා බොහෝ අරාබි නිසොල්ලාස කථාවල ඇතුළත් චරිතයකි. ජනකථාවල සහ ජෆාර්ගේ ජනප්‍රිය සංස්කෘතිය තුළ ඔහු සම්බන්ධ වන්නේ මිත්‍යාවාදය, මායාවන්, සහ ඉස්ලාමීය විෂයයන්ගෙන් පරිබාහිර සම්ප්‍රදායන් අනුගමනය කළ තැනැත්තකු ලෙසයි.

බෞද්ධාගම උමයියාද්වරුන්ගේ ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ ඉස්ලාමික ආක්‍රමණය සහ අබ්බාසිද් කාලිෆේටයේ පාලනය යටතේ ද පැවතිණි. ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයෙන් බුදු දහම තුරන් කර දමන ලද්දේ ආක්‍රමණික සෆාරිද්වරුන්, ඝස්නවිද්වරුන්, සහ ඝූරිද්වරුන් විසිනි.

පුරාවිද්‍යා සොයාගැනීම්

බාමියන් විහාරයේ පුස්තකාලය
මුල්කාලීන බෞද්ධ ගුරුකුල අතුරින් එකක් වූ, මහාසාංඝික-ලෝකෝත්තරවාද ගුරුකුලය බාමියන් ප්‍රදේශයේ පුම්‍රඛව පැවතී ඇත. චීන බෞද්ධ භික්ෂුවක වූ හියුංසාං ක්‍රි.ව. 7වන සියවසේ දී ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ බාමියන්හි ලෝකෝත්තරවාද විහාරය වෙත පැමිණ ඇති අතර මෙම ස්ථානය අනාවරණය කර ගැනීමට නූතන පුරාවිද්‍යාඥයන් සමත් වී ඇත. විහාර එකතුවේ තිබූ මහායාන සූත්‍ර ඇතුළත් බර්ච් පොතු සහ පුස්කොළ පොත් සොයාගැනීමට මේ වනවිට හැකියාව ලැබී තිබේ. මෙම ලේඛන වර්තමානයේ ෂෝයෙන් එකතුවේ තබා ඇත. ඉන් ඇතැම් ලේඛන ගාන්ධාරී භාෂාවෙන් සහ ඛරෝෂ්ඨි අක්ෂරවලින් ලියා ඇති අතර, සෙසු ලේඛන සංස්කෘත බසින් සහ ගුප්ත අක්ෂර මාලාව භාවිතයෙන් ලියා තිබේ. විහාර එකතුවේ තිබී සොයාගැනුණු ලේඛන සහ ඒවායේ කොටස් අතර පහත මූලාශ්‍ර පාඨ හඳුනාගත හැක:

 මහාසාංඝික-ලෝකෝත්තරවාදයේ එන ප්‍රාතිමෝක්ෂ විභංග (MS 2382/269)
 මහාපරිනිර්වාණ සූත්‍රය, ආගම තුළ එන සූත්‍රයකි. (MS 2179/44)
 චංගි සූත්‍රය, ආගම තුළ එන සූත්‍රයකි. (MS 2376)
 වජ්‍රඡේදිකා ප්‍රඥාපාරමිතා සූත්‍රය, මහායාන සූත්‍රයකි. (MS 2385)
 භෛසජ්‍යගුරු සූත්‍රය, මහායාන සූත්‍රයකි. (MS 2385)
 ශ්‍රීමාලාදේවී සිංහනාද සූත්‍රය, මහායාන සූත්‍රයකි. (MS 2378)
 ප්‍රවාරණ සූත්‍රය, මහායාන සූත්‍රයකි. (MS 2378)
 සර්වධර්මප්‍රවෘත්තිනිර්දේස සූත්‍රය, මහායාන සූත්‍රයකි. (MS 2378)
 අජාතශත්‍රැකව්කෘත්‍යවිනෝදන සූත්‍රය, මහායාන සූත්‍රයකි. (MS 2378)
 සාරිපුත්‍ර අභිධර්ම ශාස්ත්‍ර (MS 2375/08)

බෞද්ධ පුරාවස්තු
2010 අගෝස්තුවේ දී, ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ කාබුල්වලට දකුණින් වූ ලෝගාර් පළාතෙන් බෞද්ධ පුරාවස්තු 42ක් පමණ අනාවරණය කර ගැනීමට හැකි වූ බැව් වාර්තා විය. පුරාවිද්‍යාඥයන් අනුව මින් ඇතැම් කෞතුක වස්තූන් 2වන සියවසට පමණ අයත් වේ. තවත් බෞද්ධ පුද බිම් ඝස්නියෙන් හමු විය. ලෝගාර්වලින් හමුවූ පුරාවස්තූන් අතර බෞද්ධ විහාර ද්විත්වයක් (ස්තූප), බුද්ධ ප්‍රතිමා, සිතුවම්, රන් කාසි සහ වටිනා පබළු ඇතුළත් විය.

මේවාත් බලන්න

ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ පූර්ව-ඉස්ලාමීය හින්දු සහ බෞද්ධ උරුමය
ත්‍රපුසා සහ බහාලිකා

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

බාහිර සබැඳි

web.singnet.com.sg
StudyBuddhism.com
folk.uio.no
silkroadfoundation.org

ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානයේ ඉතිහාසය

රට අනුව බුද්ධාගම

ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථාන‍යේ බුදු දහම


أغوستينو غاروفالو  (مواليد 29 سبتمبر 1984 في توري أنونسياتا - إيطاليا) لاعب كرة قدم إيطالي يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الأولى سيينا الإيطالي منذ 2009 في مركز الظهير الأيسر كما يجيد اللعب في مركز الجناح الأيسر.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من توري أنونزياتا
رياضيون من كامبانيا
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثالثة
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الرابعة
لاعبو باري
لاعبو ساليرنيتانا
لاعبو سيينا
لاعبو فينيزيا
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون
لاعبو كرة قدم من كامبانيا
لاعبو مودينا
لاعبو نادي سبيزيا
لاعبو نادي غروسيتو
لاعبو نوفارا
مواليد 1984
مواليد في توري أنونزياتا

أغوستينو غاروفالو


Marsuinii sunt un grup de mamifere marine, toate clasificate în familia Phocoenidae, taxonul Odontoceti (balene dințate). Există șapte specii de marsuini. Acestea sunt mici balene cu dinti, care sunt foarte de aproape înrudite cu delfinii oceanici. Cea mai evidentă diferență vizibilă între cele două grupuri este că marsuinii au ciocuri mai scurte și aplatizate, dinți în formă de spade, distincți de dinții conici ai delfinilori. Marsuinii și alte cetacee aparțin cladei Cetartiodactyla, animalelor biongulate, și cele mai apropiate rude care încă mai există sunt hipopotamii, ei desprinzându-se cu aproximativ 40 de milioane de ani în urmă.

Taxonomie și evoluție
Marsuinii, împreună cu balenele și delfinii, sunt descendenți ai ungulatelor terestre (animale cu copite), care au intrat în oceane cu 50 de milioane de ani în urmă. În timpul Miocenului (de la 23 la 5 milioane de ani în urmă), mamiferele erau destul de recente, în sensul că rareori s-au mai schimbat după aceea din punct de vedere fiziologic. Cetaceele s-au diversificat, iar dovezile fosile sugerează că delfinii și delfinii s-au despărțit de la ultimul lor strămoș comun în urmă cu circa 15 milioane de ani. Cele mai vechi fosile sunt culese din apele de mică adâncime din Pacificul de Nord, animalele răspândindu-se pe coastele europene și în emisfera sudică abia mult mai târziu, în timpul Pliocenului.

 ORDINUL ARTIODACTYLA
 Infraordin Cetacea
 Taxon Odontoceti balene dințate
 Superfamilia Delphinoidea
 Familia Phocoenidae – marsuini
 Genul †Haborophocoena
 H. toyoshimai
 Genul Neophocaena
 N. phocaeniodes – marsuini apteri
 N. asiaeorientalis – marsuini cu creasta îngustă apteri
 Genul †Numataphocoena
 N. yamashitai
 Genul Phocoena
 P. phocoena – marsuini
 P. sinus – vaquita
 P. dioptrica – marsuinul cu ochelari
 P. spinipinnis – marsuinul Burmeister
 Genul Phocoenoides
 P. dalli – marsuinul lui Dall
 Genul †Septemriocetus
 S. bosselaersii
 Genul †Piscolithax
 P. aenigmaticus
 P. longirostris
 P. boreios
 P. tedfordi

Hibrizii descoperiți recent între marsuinul mascul portuar și marsuinul lui Dall femelă indică faptul că cele două specii pot fi de fapt membrele aceluiași gen.

Referințe

Legături externe

Odontoceti

Marsuin


القرية العالمية هي قرية تجمع فيها منتوجات عالمية حسب الدولة التي أنشأتها ولكل دولة سوق خاص بها وبعض الدول الموجودة فيها :

 فلسطين
 السعودية
 الأردن
 البحرين
 الإمارات العربية المتحدة
 دولة الكويت
 العراق
 مصر
 سورية
 الهند
 جزر القمر
 الصومال
 قطر
 موريتانيا
 باكستان
 ليبيا
 الجزائر
 المغرب
 تونس
 اليمن
 سلطنة عمان
 الصين
 ((جمهورية السودان الديمقراطية))
((كوريــا))
وغيرها الكثير من الدول.

أوقات الدخول إليها
تفتح القرية العالمية أبوابها في كل صيف في شهر 7 وتغلق بعد شهرين من افتتاحها.

موقع القرية العالمية

كانت القرية العالمية تقع في منطقة مرج الحمام، تم نقلها إلى منطقة المقابلين (البنيات).

بعض المرافق الموجودة فيها

يوجد فيها الكثير من المطاعم إذ يوجد في كل بلد داخل القرية مطعم مأكولات شعبية حسب البلد، ويوجد أيضاً العديد من الألعاب منها :

 الجبل الروسي
 الكانجر
 الصحن الدوار
 السفينة
 السلاسل
 القلابة
 الدوامة
وغيرها.

مدينة عمان

القرية العالمية (عمان)


Viscount Cowdray, of Cowdray in the County of Sussex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1917 for the industrialist Weetman Pearson, 1st Baron Cowdray, head of the Pearson conglomerate. He had already been created a Baronet, of Paddockhurst, in the Parish of Worth, in the County of Sussex, and of Airlie Gardens, in the Parish of St Mary Abbots, Kensington, in the County of London, on 26 June 1894, and Baron Cowdray, of Midhurst in the County of Sussex, in 1910. His son, the second Viscount, sat as a Liberal Member of Parliament for Eye. His son, the third Viscount, after serving in World War II where he lost an arm, was Chairman of the family firm of Pearson Plc from 1954 to 1977.  The titles are held by the latter's son, the fourth Viscount, who succeeded in 1995.

The family seat is Cowdray Park, West Sussex, near Midhurst, Sussex, which the 4th Viscount put up for sale in 2011 and later proposed converting into apartments.

Viscounts Cowdray (1917)
Weetman Dickinson Pearson, 1st Viscount Cowdray (1856–1927)
(Weetman) Harold Miller Pearson, 2nd Viscount Cowdray (1882–1933)
Weetman John Churchill Pearson, 3rd Viscount Cowdray (1910–1995)
Michael Orlando Weetman Pearson, 4th Viscount Cowdray (born 1944)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son Hon. Peregrine John Dickinson Pearson (born 1994).

References

External links

Viscountcies in the Peerage of the United Kingdom

Noble titles created in 1917
Noble titles created for UK MPs

Viscount Cowdray


Das Barcelona KIA 2008 war ein Tennis-Sandplatzturnier für Frauen in Barcelona. Es war als Turnier der Kategorie Tier IV Teil der WTA Tour 2008. Das Turnier fand vom 9. bis zum 15. Juni 2008 statt.

Qualifikation

Einzel

Setzliste

Ergebnisse

Doppel

Setzliste

Ergebnisse

Weblinks

Turnier der WTA Tour 2008
Tennisturnier in Barcelona

Barcelona KIA 2008


Colorado es un municipio brasilero del estado del Paraná. Es conocida como La Capital del rodeo. El municipio tiene como patrona a Nuestra Señora Auxiliadora.

Historia
La historia de la formación de Colorado deriva, como significativa parte de las ciudades en el Norte paranaense, de iniciativas empresariales. En el caso de Colorado fue la Compañía Colonizadora Imobiliaria Agrícola de Catanduva - CIAC que, en 1948, además de lotear áreas rurales y urbanas, fue responsable por estimular la venida de paulistas, de la región de Catanduva y proximidades para este nuevo emprendimento inmobiliario.

Geografía
Posee un área es de 403,263 km² representando 0,2023 % del estado, 0,0716 % de la región y 0,0047 % de todo el territorio brasilero. Se localiza a una latitud 22°50'16" sur y a una longitud 51°58'22" oeste. Su población estimada en 2010 es de 22.340 habitantes.

Demografía
Datos del Censo - 2007
Población Total: 20.957
 Urbana: 18.772
 Rural: 2.185
 Hombres: 10.360
 Mujeres: 10.597

Índice de Desarrollo Humano (IDH-M): 0,719
 IDH-M Salario: 0,627
 IDH-M Longevidad: 0,716
 IDH-M Educación: 0,813
El Aeropuerto más próximo es el de Maringá a 87 km.

Colorado fue conocida por realizar anualmente una de las mayores fiestas de rodeos del Brasil. En 2010 realizó su 36ª Fiesta del Peón, entre 19 y 28 de marzo, siguiendo la tradición en la ciudad.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Paraná

Colorado (Paraná)


المصرف القومي للبلاستيك  شركة تونسية تأسست عام 1958، تصنّع مختلف المنتجات اللدائنية، من أثاث الحدائق، والأثاث والأدوات المنزلية، والأوعية والأكياس والصناديق.

انظر أيضا

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي للمصرف القومي للبلاستيك.

المراجع

مصرف قومي للبلاستيك
شركات أسست في 1958

المصرف القومي للبلاستيك


Giovanny Martínez (Colombia, 7 de julio de 1989) es un futbolista colombiano. Juega de centrocampista en Honduras Progreso de la Liga Nacional de Honduras.

Ararat-Armenia
Debutaría el 19 de agosto de 2018 en la derrota 3-1 ante el Pyunik.

Clubes

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Ficha en SoccerWay

Futbolistas de Colombia
Futbolistas del Centauros Villavicencio
Futbolistas del Deportes Quindío
Futbolistas del Universitario de Popayán
Futbolistas del América de Cali
Futbolistas de la Universidad Autónoma del Caribe Fútbol Club
Futbolistas de la Alianza Petrolera
Futbolistas del Deportivo Pasto
Futbolistas del Club Sport Huancayo
Futbolistas del Cortuluá
Futbolistas del FC Ararat-Armenia
Futbolistas del Águilas Doradas Rionegro

Giovanny Martínez


Eben Alexander (11. prosinca 1953.), američki neurokirurg i pisac

Životopis
Eben Alexander ugledni je neurokirurg koji je uvijek bio skeptičan prema iskustvima svojih pacijenata koji su doživjeli iskustva kliničke smrti i svjedočili o postojanju onostranog svijeta, razgovorima s anđelima i Bogom. Sve dok i sam nije doživio takvo iskustvo. Naime, u svojoj 54. godini obolio je od rijetke bolesti i sedam dana bio u komi. Nakon toga je od žestokog kritičara takvih svjedočanstava postao jedan od najsnažnijih zagovornika ideje da raj postoji te da je duhovna stvarnost jednako realna kao i materijalna. Zbog toga ga je odbacio jedan dio znanstvene zajednice, ali su ga prigrlili milijuni ljudi širom svijeta.

Djela
Napisao više djela, od kojih se ističu:
 Dokaz da postoji raj

Izvori

Američki liječnici
Publicisti
Neurokirurzi

Eben Alexander (1953.)


Thomas Sterry Hunt, né à Norwich le  et mort à New York le , est un chimiste et géologue américain.

Biographie

Thomas Sterry Hunt est né le 5 septembre 1826 à Norwich au Connecticut.  Ainé d'une famille de six enfants, il perd son père à l`âge de 12 ans, ce qui l'oblige à se consacrer à de menus emplois afin de participer à la subsistance de la famille. En 1945, lors du sixième congrès annuel de l'Association of American Geologists and Naturalists à New Haven auquel il assiste comme correspondant qu'il se fait remarquer par Benjamin Silliman.  Ce dernier facilite son entrée à l'Université de Yale où, sous la direction de Benjamin Silliman Jr., il s'initie à la chimie.

À la faveur de l'appui de Benjamin Silliman Jr. et de James Dwight Dana, Thomas Sterry Hunt est embauché à la Commission géologique du Canada comme chimiste et minéralogiste en 1846.  De 1856 à 1862, il est professeur de chimie à l'Université Laval et de 1862 à 1868 il enseigne au McGill College.  De 1858 à 1865 environ, il gère le Musée de géologie René-Bureau.  En 1872 il quitte la Commission géologique du Canada et se joint au MIT pour une chaire en géologie, poste qu'il occupera jusqu'en 1878.

Thomas Sterry Hunt est un pionnier de la géochimie au Canada.  Il est l'auteur de plus de 350 publications scientifiques.  On lui doit en outre, en collaboration avec James Dwight Dana, le procédé d'une encre verte adoptée par département du Trésor des États-Unis pour l'impression des billets verts.

Thomas Sterry Hunt avait une excellente maîtrise du français. Joseph-Clovis Kemner Laflamme qui le connaissait bien, écrit à son sujet lors d'une allocution en 1892 à son sujet la Société Royale du Canada :II garda cependant toute sa vie un véritable culte pour la forme. On le constate facilement en parcourant n'importe lequel de ses ouvrages. La phrase est toujours irréprochable et facile, souvent élégante.La réserve écologique internationale Thomas-Sterry-Hunt a été nommée en son honneur.

Distinctions

 Fellow of the Royal Society (1859)
 Honorary degree of LL.D, Cambridge (1881)
 Docteur honoris causa, Université Laval

Publications monographiques

 Chemical and Geological Essays. 1875. (OCLC:1197129247)
 Mineral physiology and physiography : a second series of chemical and geological essays with a general introduction. 1886. (OCLC:1084337657)
 A new basis for chemistry, a chemical philosophy. 1887. (OCLC:1083989797)
 Un système chimique nouveau. 1889. (OCLC:1108696360)
 Systematic mineralogy based on natural classification : with a general introduction. 1891. (OCLC:1013451891)
 Special report on the trap dykes and azoic rocks of southeastern Pennsylvania. 1878. (OCLC:1083890095)

Références

Liens externes

Professeur à l'Université Laval
Membre de l'Académie nationale des sciences
Membre de l'Académie américaine des arts et des sciences
Membre de la Société royale du Canada
Membre de la Royal Society
Professeur à l'Université McGill
Docteur honoris causa de l'Université Laval

Thomas Sterry Hunt


سكودا أوتو، المعروفة أيضًا باسم سكودا، هي شركة سيارات تشيكية يقع مقرها في الجمهورية التشيكية في مدينة ملادا بولسلاف، أصبحت سكودا إحدى الشركات التابعة لمجموعة فولكس فاجن في عام 1991، والتي تتضمن أيضًا ماركات سيارات فولكس واجن، أودي ايه جي، بنتلي موتورز المحدودة، سيارات بوجاتي سا، لامبورغيني أوتوموبيلي القابضة S.p.A. سيات، ومصنع مركبات المنتجات الثقيلة سكانيا AB. بلغ إجمالي مبيعاتها 674,530 سيارة في عام 2008.

التاريخ

أصول سكودا تعود إلى أوائل تسعينات القرن التاسع عشر، على غرار العديد من مصنعي السيارات المؤسسون منذ فترة طويلة، وقد بدأت الشركة مع صناعة الدراجات الهوائية. كان العام 1894، وفاكلاف كليمنت ذا ال26 عاما، الذي كان بائع كتب بالإتجار في ملادا بوليسلاف، في الجمهورية التشيكية اليوم، التي كانت آنذاك جزءا من النمسا والمجر، لم يتمكن من الحصول على قطع الغيار الصحيحة لإصلاح دراجته الألمانية. أعاد كليمنت دراجته إلى الصانعين، سيدل وناومان، مع رسالة، بالتشيكية، طالبا منهم القيام بأعمال الإصلاح، فقط كي يتلقى ردا، باللغة الألمانية، قائلا: «إذا كنت ترغب في الرد على استفسارك، ينبغي لك أن تحاول الكتابة بلغة يمكننا ان نفهمها». كليمنت مشمئزا، على الرغم من عدم حصوله على أي خبرة تقنية سابقة، قرر أن يبدأ ورشته الخاصة لتصليح الدراجات الهوائية، والذي افتتحه هو وفاكلاف لورين عام 1895 في ملادا بوليسلاف. قبل الدخول في الشراكة التجارية مع كليمنت، كان لورين صانع مؤسس للدراجات بالفعل من بلدة تورنوف القريبة.

في عام 1898، وبعد الانتقال إلى مصنعهم المبني حديثا، اشترى الزوج "motorcyclette" ورنر، الذي كان منتجا من قبل المصنع الفرنسي ورنر براذرز. أثبتت motorcyclette لورين وكليمنت الأولى (التي كانت مدفوعة بواسطة محرك مثبت على أذرع التحكم التي تقود العجلات الأمامية) أنها خطيرة وغير موثوق بها - فحادثة مبكرة وقعت عليها كلفت لورين سِنّة أمامية. ولتصميم آلة أكثر أمانا بهيكلها حول المحرك، كتب الزوج إلى متخصص الاشتعال الألماني روبرت بوش للحصول على المشورة بشأن نظام كهرومغناطيسي مختلف. وجعلت دراجة الزوج النارية الجديدة سلافيا بدايتها في عام 1899.
في عام 1900، عندما كان للشركة قوة عاملة من 32 عامل، بدأ تصدير سلافيا، ب150 آلة تم شحنها إلى لندن لشركة هيوستن. وبعد ذلك بوقت قصير، إعتمدتهم الصحافة كصانعي أول دراجة نارية.
كان النموذج الأول، Voiturette A، ناجحا وتأسست الشركة في كلا من داخل النمسا والمجر ودوليا. بحلول 1905 كانت السيارات يتم إنتاجها من قبل الشركة. خلال الحرب العالمية الأولى انخرطت سكودا في الإنتاج الحربي.

بعد الحرب العالمية الأولى بدأت في إنتاج الشاحنات، ولكن في عام 1924، بعد الدخول في مشاكل والتعرض لحريق، بحثت الشركة عن شريك. نتيجة لذلك اندمجت مع أشغال سكودا، أكبر شركة صناعية في تشيكوسلوفاكيا. كان معظم الإنتاج اللاحق تحت اسم سكودا. بعد انخفاض خلال فترة الكساد الاقتصادي، أصبحت سكودا ناجحة مرة أخرى مع نماذج مثل بوبيلار في أواخر الثلاثينات.

خلال احتلال تشيكوسلوفاكيا في الحرب العالمية الثانية، تم تحويل أشغال سكودا إلى جزء من أشغال هيرمان غورينغ لخدمة الجهود الألمانية في الحرب العالمية الثانية.

بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية

عندما، بحلول تموز / يوليو 1945، أعيد بناء مصنع ملادا بوليسلاف، بدأ إنتاج أول سيارة سكودا في فترة ما بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية، سلسلة 1101. كانت أساسا إصدارا محدثا من إصدارة ما قبل الحرب العالمية الثانية سكودا بوبيلار. في خريف عام 1945، أصبحت سكودا (جنبا إلى جنب مع كافة الشركات المصنعة الكبيرة) جزءا من الاقتصاد المخطط، والذي يعني أنها تم فصلها من شركة سكودا الأم. وبالرغم من الظروف السياسية غير المواتية وفقدان الاتصال مع التطور التقني في البلدان غير الشيوعية، احتفظت سكودا بسمعة طيبة حتى الستينات، منتجة نماذج مثل سكودا 440 سبارتاك، و445 أوكتافيا، وفيليشيا وسكودا 1000 MB. كانت سكودا دائما معروفة دوليا ببناء سيارات شديدة المتانة وجديرة بالثقة.

في أواخر الثمانينات، كانت سكودا (المسماة وقتهاAutomobilové závody, národní podnik, Mladá Boleslav، ملادا بوليسلاف) لا تزال تقوم بتصنيع السيارات التي يعود تاريخها فكريا إلى الستينات. فطرازات المحرك الخلفي مثل سكودا 105/120، واستل ورابيد بيعت بشكل مطرد وأبلت بلاء حسنا ضد منتجات أكثر حداثة في سباقات مثل رالي راك في السبعينات والثمانينات. فقد فازوا في فئتها في رالي راك لمدة 17 عاما على التوالي. كانوا مدعومين بمحرك قدرة 130 حصانا، و1289 سم مكعب. وعلى الرغم من صورتها المؤرخة وكونها موضع سخرية، ظلت السكودا مشهدا مألوفا على طرقات المملكة المتحدة وأوروبا الغربية خلال السبعينات والثمانينات.

كانت الإصدارات الرياضية متاحة لإستل، والطرازات السابقة لها، وباستخدام «رابيد» كاسم الإصدار. وكانت إصدارات السقف اللين متاحة أيضا. كانت رابيد قد وصفت في مرة 'بورش الرجل الفقير' وقد حازت على نجاح مبيعات كبير في المملكة المتحدة خلال الثمانينات.

«وبالطبع، فإن السكودا قد أصبحت على هذا القدر من المرح جزئيا بسبب وجودها المطلق على طرق بريطانيا.  لابد أن الشكرة كانت تفعل شيئا صحيحاً». مقتطف من تقرير هيئة الإذاعة البريطانية على مبيعات سكودا في الثمانينات.

وجاءت نقطة التحول في عام 1987 مع طراز فافوريت. كان مظهر الفافوريت من تصميم شركة التصميم الإيطالية بيرتوني. مع بعض تقنية المحرك مرخص لها من أوروبا الغربية، ولكن لا تزال تستخدم المحرك ال1289 سم مكعب من تصميم سكودا، فنجح مهندسو سكودا في تصميم سيارة مماثلة للإنتاج الغربي. كانت الفجوة التكنولوجية لا تزال هناك، ولكنها بدأت في الانغلاق بسرعة. كانت الفافوريت تحظى بشعبية كبيرة في تشيكوسلوفاكيا، وبلدان الكتلة الشرقية الأخرى. كما أنها بيعت بشكل جيد في أوروبا الغربية، خاصة في المملكة المتحدة والدنمارك، باعتبارها متينة وموثوق بها، وأيضا كقيمة جيدة. استمرت مستويات التوازن لديهم في التطور وكانزا يباعون حتى عرض الفيليسيا في عام 1984.

تابعة لمجموعة فولكس واجن

جلبت الثورة المخملية تغييرات كبيرة إلى تشيكوسلوفاكيا، وخضعت معظم الصناعات للخصخصة. في حالة سكودا سيارات، جلبت الحكومة شريكا أجنبيا قويا. تم اختيار فولكس واجن في عام 1990 وفي نيسان / أبريل، عام 1991، أصبحت سكودا العلامة التجارية الرابعة لمجموعة فولكس واجن.

كانت فولكس فاجن تقف ضد شركة صناعة السيارات الفرنسية رينو، التي خسرت لأن خطتها الاستراتيجية لم تشمل إنتاج النماذج ذات القيمة العالية في المصانع التشيكية: كان من المقرر أن يتم إنتاج سيارة المدينة رينو توينجو في مصانع سكودا.

في الوقت الذي تم فيه اتخاذ القرار، كانت الخصخصة لدى شركة ألمانية كبرى إلى حد ما مثيرة للجدل. فالثروات اللاحقة لمصنعي سيارات الكتلة الشرقة مثل لادا-أوتوفاز، وأشغال سكودا نفسها، التي كانت الشركة الأم لسكودا أوتو من قبل، يمكن أن ينموا عن الاقتراح بأن ذلك لم يكن قرارا سيئا.

بدعم من خبرات شركة فولكس فاجن واستثناراتها في التصميم - في كل من النمط والهندسة - فقد تحسنت كثيرا. كان طراز 1994 فيليسيا لا يزال يستند إلى قاعدة الفافوريت، ولكن تحسينات الجودة قامت بالمساعدة، وفي الجمهورية التشيكية كانت السيارة شعبية كما كانت فيّمة مقابل المال. كرئيس لمجلس إدارة شركة فولكس فاجن اختار بايتش شخصيا ديرك فان برايكل كرئيس للتصميم، وشقت أخيرا طرازات أوكتافيا وفابيا اللاحقة طريقها إلى أسواق الاتحاد الأوروبي الطالبة. وهما مبنيتان على القاعدة العامة لمجموعة فولكس واجن. تستند أحدث أوكتافيا إلى قاعدة جولف MK5، وتستند فابيا إلى 1}قاعدة { A0{/1}. وهذا مثير للاهتمام، لأنها صدرت بسنة قبل إفراج شركة فولكس فاجن عن بولو الجديدة التي كانت أيضا مستندة إليها.

تغيرت صورة سكودا في أوروبا الغربية تماما. وبتقدم التطور التقني وجلب طرازات جديدة جذابة إلى السوق، سارت صورة سكودا في البداية حثيثا نحو التحسن. في المملكة المتحدة، تم تحقيق المنعطف الأكبر مع حملة "إنها سكودا، بأمانة" الساخرة التي بدأت بداية الألفيات. في إعلان بعام 2003 على التلفزيون البريطاني، يقوم موظف جديد على خط الإنتاج بوضع شارات سكودا على أغطية السيارات. وعندما تأتي بعض السيارات جاذبية المظهر يتراجع، غير واضعا الشارة، نظرا لأنها تبدو جيدة جدا حتى لا يمكنها أن تكون سكودا. نجحت هذه الحملة من خلال مواجهة مشكلة صورة سكودا - وهو تكتيك يعتبره المتخصصين في مجال التسويق شديد الخطورة. قبل أن تبدأ الحملة الإعلانية، كان من الشائع أن نسمع المرشدين السياحيين في براتيسلافا يؤلفون النكان حول السكودا، قائلين "كيف يمكنك مضاعفة قيمة سكودا؟ إملأ خزان الوقود!  إذا كانت فابيا وأوكتافيا أي شيء أقل من سيارات ممتازة، لربما كانت الحملة قد أدت إلى نتائج عكسية سيئة. بحلول عام 2005، كانت سكودا تبيع أكثر من 30,000 سيارة سنويا في المملكة المتحدة، وهي حصة في السوق أكثر من 1 ٪. لأول مرة في تاريخ المملكة المتحدة، ظهرت قائمة انتظار للتسليمات من سكودا. صنف مالكي سكودا في المملكة المتحدة باستمرار علامتها التجارية قرب أو في أعلى مرتبة من مسح رضا العملاء جي دي باور خلال الألفيات.

لسكودا الآن العديد من مصانع التحويل والتجميع، بما في ذلك واحدا في سراييفو، البوسنة والهرسك. لدى سكودا أيضا مصنع تجميع في مدينة أورانجاباد، في ولاية مهاراشترا الهندية الغربية التي أنشئت في عام 2001 تحت اسم سكودا الهند الخاصة المحدودة.
في عام 2006، قدمت سكودا طرازها الجديد رومستر، وهي مركبة صغيرة متعددة الأغراض ذات تصميم فريد، والذي يعكس التوجهات المستقبلية. في نهاية كانون الأول / ديسمبر 2006، أصدرت سكودا كذلك الصور الرسمية الأولى للفابيا الجديدة، وهو طراز من شأنه أن يحل محل الفابيا في عام 2007.

في وقت لاحق في عام 2008، أصدرت سكودا الصور الأولى للاوكتافيا فاسيليفتيد. المميزة بمصابيح أمامية، وشبكة أمامية\مصد جدد وكذلك خلفية ودواخل معدلة التصميم قليلا. السيارة المعدلة تحتوي أيضا على اختيار جديد من المحركات بما في ذلك TFSI 1.4 ومحركات ديزل المسطرة المشتركة.

تم عرض فكرة سيارة جديدة في معرض باريس للسيارات في أيلول / سبتمبر 2006. هذه الفكرة كانت تسمى جويستر، وهي سيارة مدمجة ذات ثلاثة أبواب مقصودة بشكل خاص للشباب.

ذراع فولكس واجن الأسترالية، فجا (مجموعة فولكس واجن أستراليا)، أعلنت مؤخرا أنها سوف تعيد سكودا إلى سوق السيارات الأسترالي في تشرين الأول / أكتوبر 2007. قبل ذلك التاريخ، كانت سيارات سكودا قد بيعت لآخر مرة في أستراليا عام 1983. حاليا اوكتافيا، ورومستر وسوبرب متافرون في أستراليا. وذكرت فجا أنها ستجلب فابيا إلى السوق الأسترالية فقط إذا كانوا قادرين على تسعيرها أقل من فولكس فاجن بولو.

يقال أن نسخة من فولكس واجن غول ان اف البرازيلية ستكون قاعدة طراز جديدة لسكودا في أوروبا.

تاريخ المبيعات

رياضة السيارات

بعد تاريخ طويل من الانتصارات المتفوقة في مستويات أدنى من رياضة السيارات، أصبحت سكودا مشاركا في بطولة العالم للراليات لدى الاتحاد الدولي للسيارات في موسم 1999، مع نماذج لسيارات الرالي العالمية من سكودا اوكتافيا. كانت أفضل نتيجة لسكودا مع اوكتافيا دبليو آر سي كان مركز أرمين شفارتس الثالث في عام 2001 في رالي السفاري. من أواخر 2003، استعيض عن اوكتافيا بسكودا فابيا الأصغر. استخدمت سكودا موسم 2004 لتطوير السيارة أكثر لكنه لم يحقق نجاحا كبيرا في الموسم التالي. ومع ذلك، في خاتمة الموسم رالي أستراليا، كان بطل العالم في عام 1995 كولن مكراي في المرتبة الثانية قبل أن يتقاعد. ثم انسحبت سكودا من السلسلة، وشهد موسم 2006 سكودا ممثلة من قبل فريق ريد بول سكودا شبه الرسمي. قاد جان كوبيكي الفابيا دبليو آر سي إلى المركز الخامس في رالي كاتالونيا، ومؤخرا حتى رالي دويتشلاند 2007، ظلت الفابيا محققة تنيجة المركز الخامس، مرة أخرى على يدي كوبيكي.

الطرازات

الطرازات الحالية

 فابيا 2007 - (الجيل الثاني) (صغير)
 اوكتافيا / لورا 2004 - (الجيل الثاني) (سيارة عائلية صغيرة)
 رومستر / براكتيك 2006 - (سيارة نشاط ترفيهي)
 سوبرب 2008 - (الجيل الثاني) (سيارة عائلية كبيرة)
 يتي 2009 [[مركبة صغيرة متعددة الأغراض|(سيارة استخدام رياضي صغيرة
سكودا رابيد

أفكار سيارات

 فابيا سوبر (2007)
 جويستر (2006)
 يتي II (2006)
 يتي (2005)
 فكرة رومستر (2003)
 تودور (2002)
 فابيا إصدارة باريس (2002)
 أهوج (2002)
 فيليسيا جولدن براغ (1998)
 783 فافوريت كوبيه (1987)

النماذج السابقة

1900s

 لورين & كليمنت إيه (1905-1907)
 لورين & كليمنت بي (1906-1908)
 لورين & كليمنت سي (1906-1908)
 لورين & كليمنت دال (1906-1907)
 لورين & كليمنت هاء (1906-1909)
 لورين & كليمنت بي2 (1907-1908)
 لورين & كليمنت سي2 (1907-1908)
 لورين & كليمنت اف (1907-1909)
 لورين & كليمنت اف اف فرنسي (1907)
 لورين & كليمنت اف سي (1907-1909)
 لورين & كليمنت اتش أو / اتش ال / اتش ال بي (1907-1913)
 لورين & كليمنت بي اس (1908-1909)
 لورين & كليمنت اف سي اس (1908-1909)
 لورين & كليمنت جي (1908-1911)
 لورين & كليمنت دي أو / دي ال (1909-1912)
 لورين & كليمنت اف دي أو / اف دي ال (1909-1915)
 لورين & كليمنت إي ان (1909-1910)
 لورين & كليمنت اف ان / جي دي في / آر سي (1909-1913)
 لورين & كليمنت اف سي آر (1909)
 لورين & كليمنت ال / ال أو (1909-1911)

1910s

 لورين & كليمنت أي ان اس (1910-1911)
 لورين & حكومة كليمنت ك / ك بي / ال أو ك بي (1911-1915)
 لورين & كليمنت ال ك (1911-1912)
 لورين & كليمنت اس / اس ايه (1911-1916)
 لورين & كليمنت دي ان (1912-1915)
 لورين & كليمنت ر. ك (1912-1916)
 لورين & كليمنت اس بي / اس سي (1912-1915)
 لورين & كليمنت ام / ام بي / ام أو (1913-1915)
 لورين & كليمنت ام كيه/400 (1913-1924)
 لورين & كليمنت أو / أو كيه (1913-1916)
 لورين & كليمنت اس دي / اس أي / اس جي / اس كيه (1913-1917)
 لورين & كليمنت ام اس (1914-1920)
 لورين & كليمنت اس اتش / اس كيه (1914-1917)
 لورين & كليمنت تي / تي ايه (1914-1921)
 لورين & كليمنت اس آي/اس ال/اس ام/اس أو/200/205 (1916-1924)
 لورين & كليمنت ام دي/ام إي/ام اف/ام جي/ ام اتش/ام إي/ام ال/300/305 (1917-1923)

1920s

 لورين & كليمنت ام اس/540/545 (1920-1923)
 لورين & كليمنت - سكودا 545 (1924-1927)
 سكودا 422 (1929)

وهناك أيضا سكودا فيليشيا إستايت

1930s

 سكودا 633 (1931)
 سكودا بوبيلار (1934)
 سكودا رابيد (1934)

1940s

 سكودا تودور (1946-1952)
 سكودا سوبرب 4000

1950s

 سكودا 1200 (1952-1956)
 سكودا 440/445 (1955-1959)
 سكودا 1200
 سكودا 1201 (1956-1961)
 سكودا اوكتافيا (1959-1964)
 سكودا فيليشيا (1959-1964) مكشوفة

1960s

 سكودا اوكتافيا كومبي (1961-1971)
 سكودا 1202 كومبي (1961-1973)
 سكودا فيليشيا مكشوفة (1959-1964)
 سكودا MB1000/1100 (1964-1969)
 سكودا 1203 (1967-1981)
 سكودا وينيتو (النموذج الوحيد في عام 1968)
 سكودا 100/110 (1969-1977)

1970s

 سكودا 110R كوبيه (1970-1980)
 سكودا 1100 جي تي (1970)
 سكودا سوبر سبورت 'Ferat Vampir RSR' (1971)
 سكودا 120S رالي (1971-1974)
 سكودا 105/120/125 (1976-1990)
 سكودا 130 RS (1977-1978)

الثمانينات

 سكودا غارد (1981-1984)
 سكودا 130/135/136 (1984-1990)
 سكودا رابيد (1984-1990)
 سكودا فافوريت (1987-1995)

التسعينات والألفيات

 سكودا فيليشيا (1994-2001)
 سكودا اوكتافيا الجيل الأول (1996-2004)
 سكودا فابيا الجيل الأول (1999-2007)
 سكودا سوبرب الجيل الأول (2002-2008)
 سكودا رومستر (2006)
 سكودا يتي (2009)
سكودا رابيد (2013)

معرض الصور

خارج الإنتاج

تنتج حاليا

ملاحظات

المراجع

 سكودا # 1 مورد في توب جير مسح أجري في 2006
 سكودا اوكتافيا - الفائز في فئة 'السيارات العائلية' في مسح جي دي باور من واتكار 2005
 سكودا - الجائزة الفضية في مسح جي دي باور واتكار 2005
 سكودا اوكتافيا - أوتو اكسبريس درايفر فائز 2007

وصلات خارجية

تأسيسات سنة 1895 في النمسا-المجر
تصنيع السيارات في التشيك
تصنيع السيارات في تشيكوسلوفاكيا
سكودا
سيارات في التشيك
شركات أسست في 1895
شركات تصنيع مركبات أسست في 1895
شركات مصنعة لسيارات فارهة
علامات تجارية تشيكية
ماركات سيارات
مجموعة فولكسفاغن
مصنعو سيارات
ملادا بوليسلاف

سكودا أوتو


Cliff Palace is the largest cliff dwelling in North America. The structure built by the Ancestral Puebloans is located in Mesa Verde National Park in their former homeland region. The cliff dwelling and park are in Montezuma County, in the southwestern corner of Colorado, in the Southwestern United States.

History

Tree-ring dating indicates that construction and refurbishing of Cliff Palace was continuous approximately from 1190 CE through 1260 CE, although the major portion of the building was done within a 20-year time span. The Ancestral Puebloans, also known as Anasazi, who constructed this cliff dwelling and the others like it at Mesa Verde were driven to these defensible positions by "increasing competition amidst changing climatic conditions". Cliff Palace was abandoned by 1300, though debate is ongoing as to the cause. Some contend that a series of megadroughts interrupting food production systems was the main cause.

Cliff Palace was rediscovered in 1888 by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason while they were looking for stray cattle.

Description
Cliff Palace was constructed primarily out of sandstone, mortar and wooden beams. The sandstone was shaped using harder stones, and a mortar of soil, water and ash was used to hold everything together. "Chinking" stones were placed within the mortar to fill gaps and provide stability. Many of the walls were decorated with colored earthen plasters, which were the first to erode over time.
Many visitors wonder about the relatively small size of the doorways at Cliff Palace; the explanation being that at the time the average man was under , while the average woman was closer to
Cliff Palace contains 23 kivas (round sunken rooms of ceremonial importance) and 150 rooms and had a population of approximately 100 people. One kiva, in the center of the ruin, is at a point where the entire structure is partitioned by a series of walls with no doorways or other access portals. The walls of this kiva were plastered with one color on one side and a different color on the opposing side. "It is thought that Cliff Palace was a social, administrative site with high ceremonial usage." Archaeologists believe that Cliff Palace contained more clans than the surrounding Mesa Verde communities. This belief stems from the higher ratio of rooms to kivas. Cliff Palace has a room-to-kiva ratio of 9 to 1. The average room-to-kiva ratio for a Mesa Verde community is 12 to 1. This ratio of kivas to rooms may suggest that Cliff Palace might have been the center of a large polity that included surrounding small communities.

A large square tower is to the right and almost reaches the cave "roof". It was in ruins by the 1800s. The National Park Service carefully restored it to its approximate height and stature, making it one of the most memorable buildings in Cliff Palace. It is the tallest structure at Mesa Verde standing at  tall, with four levels. Slightly differently colored materials were used to show that it was a restoration.

References

Bibliography

Chapen, Frederick H. The Land of the Cliff-Dwellers. Appalachian Mountain Club, W. B. Clarke and Co., Boston, 1892.  Reprinted by the University of Arizona Press, with notes and foreword by Robert H. Lister, 1988.  .
Noble, David Grant. "Ancient Ruins of the Southwest", pp. 36–43.Northland Publishing, Flagstaff, Arizona 1995. .
Oppelt, Norman T.  "Guide to Prehistoric Ruins of the Southwest", pp. 159–161. Pruett Publishing, Boulder, Colorado, 1989. .

External links

Cliff Palace at National Park Service
Mesa Verde National Park at National Park Service
Map showing location of Cliff Palace at National Park Service

Buildings and structures completed in the 12th century
Mesa Verde National Park
Cliff dwellings
Dwellings of the Pueblo peoples
Puebloan buildings and structures
Ancient Puebloan archaeological sites in Colorado
Archaeological museums in Colorado
Native American history of Colorado
Buildings and structures in Montezuma County, Colorado
Landmarks in Colorado
Pre-Columbian cultural areas
Oasisamerica cultures
Ruins in the United States
Former populated places in Colorado
Historic house museums in Colorado
Museums in Montezuma County, Colorado
Former populated places in Montezuma County, Colorado

Cliff Palace


بلدية بالازويلوس دي لا سايرا ، هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة برغش، التي تقع في منطقة قشتالة وليون، والتي تقع في شمال غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 81 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2002).

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في مقاطعة برغش
بلديات برغش

بالازويلوس دي لا سايرا


Stanislavski's system is a systematic approach to training actors that the Russian theatre practitioner Konstantin Stanislavski developed in the first half of the twentieth century. His system cultivates what he calls the "art of experiencing" (with which he contrasts the "art of representation"). It mobilises the actor's conscious thought and will in order to activate other, less-controllable psychological processes—such as emotional experience and subconscious behaviour—sympathetically and indirectly. In rehearsal, the actor searches for inner motives to justify action and the definition of what the character seeks to achieve at any given moment (a "task").

Later, Stanislavski further elaborated the system with a more physically grounded rehearsal process that came to be known as the "Method of Physical Action". Minimising at-the-table discussions, he now encouraged an "active representative", in which the sequence of dramatic situations are improvised. "The best analysis of a play", Stanislavski argued, "is to take action in the given circumstances."

Thanks to its promotion and development by acting teachers who were former students and the many translations of Stanislavski's theoretical writings, his system acquired an unprecedented ability to cross cultural boundaries and developed a reach, dominating debates about acting in the West. According to one writer on twentieth-century theatre in London and New York, Stanislavski's ideas have become accepted as common sense so that actors may use them without knowing that they do.

Stanislavski before his system
Having worked as an amateur actor and director until the age of 33, in 1898 Stanislavski co-founded with  Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko the Moscow Art Theatre (MAT) and began his professional career. The two of them were resolved to institute a revolution in the staging practices of the time. Benedetti offers a vivid portrait of the poor quality of mainstream theatrical practice in Russia before the MAT:The script meant less than nothing. Sometimes the cast did not even bother to learn their lines. Leading actors would simply plant themselves downstage centre, by the prompter's box, wait to be fed the lines then deliver them straight at the audience in a ringing voice, giving a fine display of passion and "temperament." Everyone, in fact, spoke their lines out front. Direct communication with the other actors was minimal. Furniture was so arranged as to allow the actors to face front.

Stanislavski's early productions were created without the use of his system. His first international successes were staged using an external, director-centred technique that strove for an organic unity of all its elements—in each production he planned the interpretation of every role, blocking, and the mise en scène in detail in advance. He also introduced into the production process a period of discussion and detailed analysis of the play by the cast. Despite the success that this approach brought, particularly with his Naturalistic stagings of the plays of Anton Chekhov and Maxim Gorky, Stanislavski remained dissatisfied.

Both his struggles with Chekhov's drama (out of which his notion of subtext emerged) and his experiments with Symbolism encouraged a greater attention to "inner action" and a more intensive investigation of the actor's process. He began to develop the more actor-centred techniques of "psychological realism" and his focus shifted from his productions to rehearsal process and pedagogy. He pioneered the use of theatre studios as a laboratory in which to innovate actor training and to experiment with new forms of theatre.

Throughout his career, Stanislavski subjected his acting and direction to a rigorous process of artistic self-analysis and reflection. His system of acting developed out of his persistent efforts to remove the blocks that he encountered in his performances, beginning with a major crisis in 1906.

Stanislavski eventually came to organise his techniques into a coherent, systematic methodology, which built on three major strands of influence: (1) the director-centred, unified aesthetic and disciplined, ensemble approach of the Meiningen company; (2) the actor-centred realism of the Maly; and (3) the Naturalistic staging of Antoine and the independent theatre movement. Stanislavski's earliest reference to his system appears in 1909, the same year that he first incorporated it into his rehearsal process. Olga Knipper and many of the other MAT actors in that production—Ivan Turgenev's comedy A Month in the Country—resented Stanislavski's use of it as a laboratory in which to conduct his experiments. At Stanislavski's insistence, the MAT went on to adopt his system as its official rehearsal method in 1911.

Experiencing the role

This system is based on "experiencing a role." This principle demands that as an actor, you should "experience feelings analogous" to those that the character experiences "each and every time you do it." Stanislavski approvingly quotes Tommaso Salvini when he insists that actors should really feel what they portray "at every performance, be it the first or the thousandth."

Not all emotional experiences are appropriate, therefore, since the actor's feelings  must be relevant and parallel to the character's experience. Stanislavski identified Salvini, whose performance of Othello he had admired in 1882, as the finest representative of the art of experiencing approach. Salvini had disagreed with the French actor Cocquelin over the role emotion ought to play—whether it should be experienced only in rehearsals when preparing the role (Cocquelin's position) or whether it ought to be felt in performance (Salvini's position).

On this basis, Stanislavski contrasts his own "art of experiencing" approach with what he calls the "art of representation" practised by Cocquelin (in which experiencing forms one of the preparatory stages only) and "hack" acting (in which experiencing plays no part). Stanislavski defines the actor's "experiencing" as playing "credibly", by which he means "thinking, wanting, striving, behaving truthfully, in logical sequence in a human way, within the character, and in complete parallel to it", such that the actor begins to feel "as one with" the role.

Stanislavski's approach seeks to stimulate the will to create afresh and to activate subconscious processes sympathetically and indirectly by means of conscious techniques. In this way, it attempts to recreate in the actor the inner, psychological causes of behaviour, rather than to present a simulacrum of their effects. Stanislavski recognised that in practice a performance is usually a mixture of the three trends (experiencing, representation, hack) but felt that experiencing should predominate.

The range of training exercises and rehearsal practices that are designed to encourage and support "experiencing the role" resulted from many years of sustained inquiry and experiment. Many may be discerned as early as 1905 in Stanislavski's letter of advice to Vera Kotlyarevskaya on how to approach the role of Charlotta in Anton Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard:
First of all you must live the role without spoiling the words or making them commonplace. Shut yourself off and play whatever goes through your head. Imagine the following scene: Pishchik has proposed to Charlotta, now she is his bride... How will she behave? Or: Charlotta has been dismissed but finds other employment in a circus of a café-chantant. How does she do gymnastics or sing little songs? Do your hair in various ways and try to find in yourself things which remind you of Charlotta. You will be reduced to despair twenty times in your search but don't give up. Make this German woman you love so much speak Russian and observe how she pronounces words and what are the special characteristics of her speech. Remember to play Charlotta in a dramatic moment of her life. Try to make her weep sincerely over her life. Through such an image you will discover all the whole range of notes you need.

Exercises such as these, though never seen directly onstage or screen, prepare the actor for a performance based on experiencing the role. Experiencing constitutes the inner, psychological aspect of a role, which is endowed with the actor's individual feelings and own personality. Stanislavski argues that this creation of an inner life should be the actor's first concern. He groups together the training exercises intended to support the emergence of experiencing under the general term "psychotechnique".

Given circumstances and the Magic If

Stanislavski's "Magic If" describes an ability to imagine oneself in a set of fictional circumstances and to envision the consequences of finding oneself facing that situation in terms of action. These circumstances are "given" to the actor principally by the playwright or screenwriter, though they also include choices made by the director, designers, and other actors. The ensemble of these circumstances that the actor is required to incorporate into a performance are called the "given circumstances". "It is easy," Carnicke warns, "to misunderstand this notion as a directive to play oneself." A human being's circumstances condition his or her character, this approach assumes. "Placing oneself in the role does not mean transferring one's own circumstances to the play, but rather incorporating into oneself circumstances other than one's own."

In preparation and rehearsal, the actor develops imaginary stimuli, which often consist of sensory details of the circumstances, in order to provoke an organic, subconscious response in performance. These "inner objects of attention" (often abbreviated to "inner objects" or "contacts") help to support the emergence of an "unbroken line" of experiencing through a performance, which constitutes the inner life of the role. An "unbroken line" describes the actor's ability to focus attention exclusively on the fictional world of the drama throughout a performance, rather than becoming distracted by the scrutiny of the audience, the presence of a camera crew, or concerns relating to the actor's experience in the real world offstage or outside the world of the drama. In a rehearsal process, at first, the "line" of experiencing will be patchy and broken; as preparation and rehearsals develop, it becomes increasingly sustained and unbroken.

When experiencing the role, the actor is fully absorbed by the drama and immersed in its fictional circumstances; it is a state that the psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi calls "flow." Stanislavski used the term "I am being" to describe it. He encouraged this absorption through the cultivation of "public solitude" and its "circles of attention" in training and rehearsal, which he developed from the meditation techniques of yoga. Stanislavski did not encourage complete identification with the role, however, since a genuine belief that one had become someone else would be pathological.

Tasks and action

An actor's performance is animated by the pursuit of a sequence of "tasks" (identified in Elizabeth Hapgood's original English translation as "objectives").  A task is a problem, embedded in the "given circumstances" of a scene, that the character needs to solve. This is often framed as a question: "What do I need to make the other person do?" or "What do I want?"

In preparing and rehearsing for a role, actors break up their parts into a series of discrete "bits", each of which is distinguished by the dramatic event of a "reversal point", when a major revelation, decision, or realisation alters the direction of the action in a significant way. (Each "bit" or "beat" corresponds to the length of a single motivation [task or objective].  The term "bit" is often mistranslated in the US as "beat", as a result of its pronunciation in a heavy Russian accent by Stanislavski's students who taught his system there.)

A task must be engaging and stimulating imaginatively to the actor, Stanislavski argues, such that it compels action:
One of the most important creative principles is that an actor's tasks must always be able to coax his feelings, will and intelligence, so that they become part of him, since only they have creative power. [...] The task must provide the means to arouse creative enthusiasm.  Like a magnet, it must have great drawing power and must then stimulate endeavours, movements and actions. The task is the spur to creative activity, its motivation. The task is a decoy for feeling. [...] The task sparks off wishes and inner impulses (spurs) toward creative effort. The task creates the inner sources which are transformed naturally and logically into action. The task is the heart of the bit, that makes the pulse of the living organism, the role, beat.

Stanislavski's production of A Month in the Country (1909) was a watershed in his artistic development, constituting, according to Magarshack, "the first play he produced according to his system." Breaking the MAT's tradition of open rehearsals, he prepared Turgenev's play in private. The cast began with a discussion of what Stanislavski would come to call the "through-line" for the characters (their emotional development and the way they change over the course of the play). This production is the earliest recorded instance of his practice of analysing the action of the script into discrete "bits".

The pursuit of one task after another forms a through-line of action, which unites the discrete bits into an unbroken continuum of experience. This through-line drives towards a task operating at the scale of the drama as a whole and is called, for that reason, a "supertask" (or "superobjective"). A performance consists of the inner aspects of a role (experiencing) and its outer aspects ("embodiment") that are united in the pursuit of the supertask.

In his later work, Stanislavski focused more intently on the underlying patterns of dramatic conflict. He developed a rehearsal technique that he called "active analysis" in which actors would improvise these conflictual dynamics. In the American developments of Stanislavski's system—such as that found in Uta Hagen's Respect for Acting, for example—the forces opposing a characters' pursuit of their tasks are called "obstacles".

Method of Physical Action

Stanislavski further elaborated his system with a more physically grounded rehearsal process that came to be known after his death as the "Method of Physical Action". Stanislavski had developed it since 1916, he first explored it practically in the early 1930s. The roots of the Method of Physical Action stretch back to Stanislavski's earliest work as a director (in which he focused consistently on a play's action) and the techniques he explored with Vsevolod Meyerhold and later with the First Studio of the MAT before the First World War (such as the experiments with improvisation and the practice of anatomising scripts in terms of bits and tasks).

Benedetti emphasises the continuity of the Method of Physical Action with Stanislavski's earlier approaches; Whyman argues that "there is no justification in Stanislavsky's [sic] writings for the assertion that the method of physical actions represents a rejection of his previous work". Stanislavski first explored the approach practically in his rehearsals for Three Sisters and Carmen in 1934 and Molière in 1935.

Minimising at-the-table discussions, he now encouraged an "active analysis", in which the sequence of dramatic situations are improvised. "The best analysis of a play", Stanislavski argued, "is to take action in the given circumstances." He continues:
For in the process of action the actor gradually obtains the mastery over the inner incentives of the actions of the character he is representing, evoking in himself the emotions and thoughts which resulted in those actions. In such a case, an actor not only understands his part, but also feels it, and that is the most important thing in creative work on the stage.

Just as the First Studio, led by his assistant and close friend Leopold Sulerzhitsky, had provided the forum in which he developed his initial ideas for his system during the 1910s, he hoped to secure his final legacy by opening another studio in 1935, in which the Method of Physical Action would be taught. The Opera-Dramatic Studio embodied the most complete implementation of the training exercises described in his manuals. Meanwhile, the transmission of his earlier work via the students of the First Studio was revolutionising acting in the West. With the arrival of Socialist realism in the USSR, the MAT and Stanislavski's system were enthroned as exemplary models.

Many actors routinely equate his system with the American Method, although the latter's exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply with the multivariant, holistic and psychophysical approach of the "system", which explores character and action both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in' and treats the actor's mind and body as parts of a continuum. In response to his characterisation work on Argan in Molière's The Imaginary Invalid in 1913, Stanislavski concluded that "a character is sometimes formed psychologically, i.e. from the inner image of the role, but at other times it is discovered through purely external exploration." In fact Stanislavski found that many of his students who were "method acting" were having many mental problems, and instead encouraged his students to shake off the character after rehearsing.

Theatre studios and the development of Stanislavski's system

First Studio
The First Studio of the Moscow Art Theatre (MAT) was a theatre studio that Stanislavski created in 1912 in order to research and develop his system. It was conceived as a space in which pedagogical and exploratory work could be undertaken in isolation from the public, in order to develop new forms and techniques. Stanislavski later defined a theatre studio as "neither a theatre nor a dramatic school for beginners, but a laboratory for the experiments of more or less trained actors." The First Studio's founding members included Yevgeny Vakhtangov, Michael Chekhov, Richard Boleslavsky, and Maria Ouspenskaya, all of whom would exert a considerable influence on the subsequent history of theatre.

Leopold Sulerzhitsky, who had been Stanislavski's personal assistant since 1905 and whom Maxim Gorky had nicknamed "Suler", was selected to lead the studio. In a focused, intense atmosphere, its work emphasised experimentation, improvisation, and self-discovery. Until his death in 1938, Suler taught the elements of Stanislavski's system in its germinal form: relaxation, concentration of attention, imagination, communication, and emotion memory. On becoming independent from the MAT in 1923, the company re-named itself the Second Moscow Art Theatre, though Stanislavski came to regard it as a betrayal of his principles.

Opera Studio

Benedetti argues that a significant influence on the development of Stanislavski's system came from his experience teaching and directing at his Opera Studio. He created it in 1918 under the auspices of the Bolshoi Theatre, though it later severed its connection with the theatre. Stanislavski worked with his Opera Studio in the two rehearsal rooms of his house on Carriage Row (prior to his eviction in March 1921). His brother and sister, Vladimir and Zinaïda, ran the studio and also taught there. It accepted young members of the Bolshoi and students from the Moscow Conservatory. Stanislavski also invited Serge Wolkonsky to teach diction and Lev Pospekhin (from the Bolshoi Ballet) to teach expressive movement and dance.

By means of his system, Stanislavski aimed to unite the work of Mikhail Shchepkin and Feodor Chaliapin. He hoped that the successful application of his system to opera, with its inescapable conventionality, would demonstrate the universality of his methodology. From his experience at the Opera Studio he developed his notion of "tempo-rhythm", which he was to develop most substantially in part two of An Actor's Work (1938).

A series of thirty-two lectures that he delivered to this studio between 1919 and 1922 were recorded by Konkordia Antarova and published in 1939; they have been translated into English as On the Art of the Stage (1950). Pavel Rumiantsev—who joined the studio in 1920 from the Conservatory and sang the title role in its production of Eugene Onegin in 1922—documented its activities until 1932; his notes were published in 1969 and appear in English under the title Stanislavski on Opera (1975).

Opera—Dramatic Studio
Near the end of his life Stanislavski created an Opera—Dramatic Studio in his own apartment on Leontievski Lane (now known as "Stanislavski Lane"), under the auspices of which between 1935 and 1938 he offered a significant course in the system in its final form.

Given the difficulties he had with completing his manual for actors, in 1935 while recuperating in Nice Stanislavski decided that he needed to found a new studio if he was to ensure his legacy. "Our school will produce not just individuals," he wrote, "but a whole company." In June he began to instruct a group of teachers in the training techniques of the 'system' and the rehearsal processes of the Method of Physical Action. The teachers had some previous experience studying the system as private students of Stanislavski's sister, Zinaïda. His wife, Lilina, also joined the teaching staff. Twenty students (out of 3500 who had auditioned) were accepted for the dramatic section of the Opera—Dramatic Studio, where classes began on 15 November 1935. Its members included the future artistic director of the MAT, Mikhail Kedrov, who played Tartuffe in Stanislavski's unfinished production of Molière's play (which, after Stanislavski's death, he completed).

Jean Benedetti argues that the course at the Opera—Dramatic Studio is "Stanislavski's true testament." Stanislavski arranged a curriculum of four years of study that focused exclusively on technique and method—two years of the work detailed later in An Actor's Work on Himself and two of that in An Actor's Work on a Role. Once the students were acquainted with the training techniques of the first two years, Stanislavski selected Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet for their work on roles. He "insisted that they work on classics, because, 'in any work of genius you find an ideal logic and progression.'" He worked with the students in March and April 1937, focusing on their sequences of physical actions, on establishing their through-lines of action, and on rehearsing scenes anew in terms of the actors' tasks. "They must avoid at all costs," Benedetti explains, "merely repeating the externals of what they had done the day before."

Heritage

Many of Stanislavski's former students taught acting in the United States, including Richard Boleslavsky, Maria Ouspenskaya, Michael Chekhov, Andrius Jilinsky, Leo Bulgakov, Varvara Bulgakov, Vera Solovyova, and Tamara Daykarhanova. Others—including Stella Adler and Joshua Logan—"grounded careers in brief periods of study" with him. Boleslavsky and Ouspenskaya went on to found the influential American Laboratory Theatre (1923—1933) in New York, which they modeled on the First Studio. Boleslavsky's manual Acting: The First Six Lessons (1933) played a significant role in the transmission of Stanislavski's ideas and practices to the West. In the Soviet Union, meanwhile, another of Stanislavski's students, Maria Knebel, sustained and developed his rehearsal process of "active analysis", despite its formal prohibition by the state.

In the United States, one of Boleslavsky's students, Lee Strasberg, went on to co-found the Group Theatre (1931—1940) in New York with Harold Clurman and Cheryl Crawford. Together with Stella Adler and Sanford Meisner, Strasberg developed the earliest of Stanislavski's techniques into what came to be known as "Method acting" (or, with Strasberg, more usually simply "the Method"), which he taught at the Actors Studio. Boleslavsky thought that Strasberg over-emphasised the role of Stanislavski's technique of "emotion memory" at the expense of dramatic action.

Every afternoon for five weeks during the summer of 1934 in Paris, Stanislavski worked with Adler, who had sought his assistance with the blocks she had confronted in her performances. Given the emphasis that emotion memory had received in New York, Adler was surprised to find that Stanislavski rejected the technique except as a last resort. He recommended an indirect pathway to emotional expression via physical action. Stanislavski confirmed this emphasis in his discussions with Harold Clurman in late 1935. The news that this was Stanislavski's approach would have significant repercussions in the US; Strasberg angrily rejected it and refused to modify his approach. Adler's most famous student was actor Marlon Brando. Later, many American and British actors inspired by Brando were also adepts of Stanislavski teachings, including James Dean, Julie Harris, Al Pacino, Robert De Niro, Harvey Keitel, Dustin Hoffman, Ellen Burstyn, Daniel Day-Lewis and Marilyn Monroe.

Meisner, an actor at the Group Theatre, went on to teach method acting at New York's Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre, where he developed an emphasis on what Stanislavski called "communication" and "adaptation" in an approach that he branded the "Meisner technique". Among the actors trained in the Meisner technique are Robert Duvall, Tom Cruise, Diane Keaton and Sydney Pollack.

Though many others have contributed to the development of method acting, Strasberg, Adler, and Meisner are associated with "having set the standard of its success", though each emphasised different aspects: Strasberg developed the psychological aspects, Adler, the sociological, and Meisner, the behavioral. While each strand of the American tradition vigorously sought to distinguish itself from the others, they all share a basic set of assumptions that allows them to be grouped together.

The relations between these strands and their acolytes, Carnicke argues, have been characterised by a "seemingly endless hostility among warring camps, each proclaiming themselves his only true disciples, like religious fanatics, turning dynamic ideas into rigid dogma." Stanislavski's Method of Physical Action formed the central part of Sonia Moore's attempts to revise the general impression of Stanislavski's system arising from the American Laboratory Theatre and its teachers.

Carnicke analyses at length the splintering of the system into its psychological and physical components, both in the US and the USSR. She argues instead for its psychophysical integration. She suggests that Moore's approach, for example, accepts uncritically the teleological accounts of Stanislavski's work (according to which early experiments in emotion memory were 'abandoned' and the approach 'reversed' with a discovery of the scientific approach of behaviourism). These accounts, which emphasised the physical aspects at the expense of the psychological, revised the system in order to render it more palatable to the dialectical materialism of the Soviet state. In a similar way, other American accounts re-interpreted Stanislavski's work in terms of the prevailing popular interest in Freudian psychoanalysis. Strasberg, for example, dismissed the "Method of Physical Action" as a step backwards. Just as an emphasis on action had characterised Stanislavski's First Studio training, so emotion memory continued to be an element of his system at the end of his life, when he recommended to his directing students:
One must give actors various paths. One of these is the path of action. There is also another path: you can move from feeling to action, arousing feeling first.
"Action, 'if', and 'given circumstances'", "emotion memory", "imagination", and "communication" all appear as chapters in Stanislavski's manual An Actor's Work (1938) and all were elements of the systematic whole of his approach, which resists easy schematisation.

Stanislavski's work made little impact on British theatre before the 1960s. Joan Littlewood and Ewan MacColl were the first to introduce Stanislavski's techniques there. In their Theatre Workshop, the experimental studio that they founded together, Littlewood used improvisation as a means to explore character and situation and insisted that her actors define their character's behaviour in terms of a sequence of tasks. The actor Michael Redgrave was also an early advocate of Stanislavski's approach in Britain. The first drama school in the country to teach an approach to acting based on Stanislavski's system and its American derivatives was Drama Centre London, where it is still taught today.

Many other theatre practitioners have been influenced by Stanislavski's ideas and practices. Jerzy Grotowski regarded Stanislavski as the primary influence on his own theatre work.

Criticism of Stanislavski's theories

Mikhail Bulgakov, writing in the manner of a roman à clef, includes in his novel Black Snow (Театральный роман) satires of Stanislavski's methods and theories. In the novel, the stage director, Ivan Vasilyevich, uses acting exercises while directing a play, which is titled Black Snow.  The playwright in the novel sees the acting exercises taking over the rehearsals, becoming madcap, and causing the playwright to rewrite parts of his play.  The playwright is concerned that his script is being lost in all of this.  When he finally sees the play performed, the playwright reflects that the director's theories would ultimately lead the audience to become so absorbed in the reality of the performances that they forget the play.  Bulgakov had the actual experience, in 1926, of having a play that he had written, The White Guard, directed with great success by Stanislavski at the Moscow Arts Theatre.

See also

 List of productions directed by Konstantin Stanislavski
 List of acting techniques
 Naturalism
 Realism
 Socialist realism
 Russian symbolism
 Symbolism
 Russian avant-garde
 Experimental theatre
 Twentieth-century theatre
 Theatre practitioner
 Method acting
 Constantin Stanislavski
 Lee Strasberg
 Sanford Meisner
 Ivana Chubbuck
 Ion Cojar

Notes

Sources

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External links

 The Stanislavsky Research Centre at the University of Leeds
 The Stanislavski Centre at the Rose Bruford College
 Routledge Performance Archive: Stanislavski

Acting techniques
Moscow Art Theatre

Stanislavski's system


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