Greyhound Lines, Inc. (Greyhound) operates the largest intercity bus service in North America. Services include Greyhound Mexico, charter bus services, and Amtrak Thruway services. Greyhound operates 1,700 coaches produced mainly by Motor Coach Industries and Prevost serving 230 stations and 1,700 destinations. The company's first route began in Hibbing, Minnesota in 1914 and the company adopted the Greyhound name in 1929. The company is owned by Flix North America, Inc., an affiliate of FlixBus, and is based in Downtown Dallas.

History

1914–1930: early years

In 1914, Eric Wickman, a 27-year-old Swedish immigrant, was laid off from his job as a drill operator at a mine in Alice, Minnesota. He became a  Hupmobile salesman in Hibbing, Minnesota, and, when he could not sell the first seven-passenger Hupmobile that he received, he began using it along with fellow Swedish immigrant Andy "Bus Andy" Anderson and C. A. A. "Arvid" Heed to transport iron ore miners two miles from Hibbing to Alice for 15 cents per ride. Wickman made $2.25 on his first run.

Wickman almost gave up after the first winter due to the harsh driving conditions in Minnesota. However, he agreed to continue on by reducing his driving duties. In 1915, he added a 15-mile route to Nashwauk, Minnesota. In December 1915, Wickman merged his company with that of 19-year-old Ralph Bogan, who was running a similar transportation service from Hibbing to Duluth, Minnesota, to form the Mesaba Transportation Company. By 1918, the company had 18 vehicles and annual income of $40,000.

In 1922, Wickman and Heed sold their interests in the company to Bogan and Anderson. Wickman and Heed then moved to Duluth and acquired White Bus Lines. In 1924, Wickman formed Northland, which acquired the Superior-White Company; its founder, Orville S. Caesar, who had strong business acumen, mechanical skills, and ambition, eventually became president of the company. In 1925, the company completed the $2.5 million acquisition of eight independent bus lines in Minnesota. In 1928, Anderson and Bogan disbanded and sold most of the routes of the Mesaba Transportation Company to Northland.

The company continued to expand and, in 1928, it had income of $6 million and was offering trips all over the United States. In 1929, the company acquired the Yelloway-Pioneer System, which in 1928 made the first transcontinental bus trip, and The Pickwick Corporation.

In 1929, the company acquired additional interests in Gray Line Worldwide and part of the Colonial Motor Coach Company to form Eastern Greyhound Lines. It also acquired an interest in Northland Transportation Company and renamed it Northland Greyhound Lines.

1930–1945

By 1930, more than 100 bus lines had been consolidated into the parent company, then called Motor Transit Corporation. Recognizing the need for a more memorable name, the partners of the Motor Transit Corporation changed its name to The Greyhound Corporation after the Greyhound name used by earlier bus lines. According to company lore, that name came from a driver, Ed Stone, who was reminded of a greyhound when he saw a passing bus in a reflection.

Also in 1930, the company moved from Duluth, Minnesota to Chicago, Illinois.

The business suffered during the Great Depression, and by 1931 was over $1 million in debt. As the 1930s progressed and the economy improved, Greyhound began to prosper again.

In 1934, intercity bus lines, of which Greyhound was the largest carried approximately 400 million passengers — nearly as many passengers as the Class I railroads. The film It Happened One Night (1934) — about an heiress (Claudette Colbert) traveling by Greyhound bus with a reporter (Clark Gable) — has been credited by the company for spurring bus travel nationwide.

In 1935, national intercity bus ridership climbed 50% to 651,999,000 passengers, surpassing the volume of passengers carried by the Class I railroads for the first time. In 1935, Wickman reported record profits of $8 million. In 1936, already the largest bus carrier in the United States, Greyhound began taking delivery of 306 new buses.

In 1941, the company acquired Greyhound Canada.

Between 1937 and 1945, Greyhound built many new stations and acquired new buses in the period in the late Art Deco style known as Streamline Moderne. For terminals, Greyhound retained architects including William Strudwick Arrasmith and George D. Brown. Notable examples of Streamline Moderne stations include the Blytheville Greyhound Bus Station, Cleveland, Ohio Greyhound Bus Station, Columbia, South Carolina Greyhound Bus Station, and Old Washington, D.C. Greyhound Bus Station

Greyhound worked with the Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company for its streamlined Series 700 buses, first for Series 719 prototypes in 1934, and from 1937 as the exclusive customer for Yellow's Series 743 bus (which Greyhound named the "Super Coach"). Greyhound bought a total of 1,256 buses between 1937 and 1939.

By the beginning of World War II, the company had 4,750 stations and nearly 10,000 employees.

1945–1983: expansion, desegregation, and diversification

Wickman retired as president of the Greyhound Corporation in 1946 and was replaced by his long-time partner Orville S. Caesar. Wickman died at the age of 66 in 1954.

Greyhound commissioned industrial designer Raymond Loewy and General Motors to design several distinctive buses from the 1930s through the 1950s. Loewy's first was the Yellow Coach PDG-4101, the Greyhound Silversides produced in 1940-1941. Production was suspended during World War II. When the "Silversides" buses resumed production in 1947, it was renamed GM PD 3751. PD 3751 production continued through 1948. In 1954, the first of Greyhound's distinctive hump-backed buses was introduced. In 1944, Loewy had produced drawings for the GM GX-1, a full double-decker parlor bus with the first prototype built in 1953. The PD-4501 Scenicruiser was designed Loewy and built by General Motors as model PD-4501. The front of the bus was markedly lower than its rear section.

After World War II, and the building of the Interstate Highway System beginning in 1956, automobile travel became a preferred mode of travel in the United States. This, combined with the increasing affordability of air travel, led to a decline in business for Greyhound and other intercity bus carriers.

In October 1953, Greyhound acquired the Tennessee Coach Company's entire operation, and the negotiations for the Blue Ridge Lines, and its affiliate White Star Lines, that operated between Cleveland and the Mid Atlantic Seaboard.

In 1955, the Interstate Commerce Commission ruled in the case of Keys v. Carolina Coach Co. that U.S. interstate bus operations, such as Greyhound's, could not be segregated by race. In 1960, in the case of Boynton v. Virginia, the U.S. Supreme Court found that an African American had been wrongfully convicted for trespassing in a "whites only" terminal area. In May 1961, Civil Rights Movement activists organized interracial Freedom Rides as proof of the desegregation rulings. On May 14, a mob attacked a pair of buses (a Greyhound and a Trailways) traveling from Washington, D.C., to New Orleans, Louisiana, and slashed the Greyhound bus's tires. Several miles outside of Anniston, Alabama, the mob forced the Greyhound bus to stop, broke its windows, and firebombed it. The mob held the bus' doors shut, intending to burn the riders to death. Sources disagree, but either an exploding fuel tank or an undercover state investigator brandishing a revolver caused the mob to retreat. When the riders escaped the bus, the mob beat them, while warning shots fired into the air by highway patrolmen prevented them from being lynched. Additional Freedom Riders were beaten by a mob at the Greyhound Station in Montgomery Alabama.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964's Title II and Title III broadened protections beyond federally regulated carriers such as Greyhound, to include non-discrimination in hotels, restaurants, and other public accommodations, as well as state and local government buildings.

Later in the 1960s, Greyhound leadership ridership declined and Greyhound used the profitable bus operations to invest in other industries.

In 1966, Gerald H. Trautman became president and CEO of the company.

In 1970, the company acquired Armour and Company meat-packing company, which owned the Dial deodorant soap brand, for $400 million.

In 1971, Greyhound moved its headquarters to Phoenix, Arizona.

The company also acquired Traveller's Express money orders, MCI and TMC bus manufacturing companies, and airliner leasing.

Greyhound began to hire African American and female drivers in the late 1970s.

In 1972, Greyhound introduced the unlimited mileage Ameripass. The pass was initially marketed as offering "99 days for $99" or, transportation to anywhere at any time for a dollar a day. For decades, it was a popular choice for people traveling across the U.S. on a budget. Over time, Greyhound raised the price of the pass, shortened its validity period and rebranded it as the Discovery Pass, before discontinuing it in 2012.

Greyhound acquired Premier Cruise Line in 1984. Between 1985 and 1993, Premier operated as the "Official Cruise Line of Walt Disney World" with onboard Disney characters.

1983–2001: consolidation, strikes, and bankruptcies

1983 Greyhound drivers' strike
In 1983, Greyhound operated a fleet of 3,800 buses and carried about 60% of the intercity bus-travel market in the United States.

Starting November 2, 1983, Greyhound suffered a major and bitter drivers' strike action. A fatality occurred in Zanesville, Ohio, when a replacement driver ran over a striking worker at a picket line. A new contract was ratified on December 19, 1983 and drivers returned to work the next day.

1986–1990: spin-off, merger, and first bankruptcy
In early 1987, the bus line was acquired by an investor group led by Fred Currey, a former executive of rival Continental Trailways, who became CEO of Greyhound and relocated its headquarters to Dallas, Texas.

In February 1987, Greyhound Lines' new ownership and the Amalgamated Transit Union (ATU) agreed on a new, 3-year contract.

In June 1987, Greyhound Lines acquired Trailways, Inc. (formerly Continental Trailways), the largest member of the rival Trailways Transportation System, effectively consolidating into a national bus service. Greyhound was required by the Interstate Commerce Commission to maintain coordinated schedules with other scheduled service operators in the U.S.

Between 1987 and 1990, Greyhound Lines' former parent continued to be called The Greyhound Corporation, confusing passengers and investors alike. The Greyhound Corporation retained Premier Cruise Lines and ten non-bus subsidiaries using the Greyhound name, such as Greyhound Leisure Services, Inc. (an operator of airport and cruise ship duty-free shops), and Greyhound Exhibits. In March 1990, The Greyhound Corporation changed its name to Greyhound Dial Corporation. Because Greyhound Dial's switchboard continued to get questions from misdirected bus passengers, it changed its name to The Dial Corporation in March 1991, to eliminate any association with bus travel.

1990: Greyhound drivers' strike
In early 1990, the drivers' contract from 1987 expired at the end of its three-year term. In March, the ATU began a strike action against Greyhound. The 1990 drivers' strike was similar in its bitterness to the strike of 1983, with violence against both strikers and their replacement workers. One striker in California was killed by a Greyhound bus driven by a strikebreaker, and a shot was fired at a Greyhound bus. While Greyhound CEO Fred Currey argued that "no American worth his salt negotiates with terrorists," ATU leader Edward M. Strait responded that management's failure to negotiate amounted to "putting the negotiations back into the hands of terrorists." During the strike by its 6,300 drivers, Greyhound idled much of its fleet of 3,949 buses and cancelled 80% of its routes. At the same time, Greyhound was having to contend with the rise of low-cost airlines such as Southwest Airlines, which further reduced the market for long-distance inter-city bus transportation. Without the financial strength provided in the past by a parent company, the strike's lower revenues and higher costs for security and labor-law penalties caused Greyhound to file for bankruptcy in June 1990. The strike was not settled until May 1993, 38 months later, under terms favorable to Greyhound. While the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) had awarded damages for unfair labor practices to the strikers, this liability was discharged during bankruptcy reorganization. Greyhound agreed to pay $22 million in back wages to union drivers, recall 550 of the remaining strikers, reinstate most of the 200 strikers who were fired for alleged misconduct, and increase hourly pay for drivers to $16.55 from $13.83 by March 1998.

Early 1990s: bankruptcy and antitrust cases
In August 1991, Greyhound emerged from bankruptcy by which time it had shrunk its overall workforce to 7,900 employees from 12,000 pre-bankruptcy, and trimmed its fleet to 2,750 buses and 3,600 drivers.

In August 1992, Greyhound canceled its bus terminal license (BTL) agreements with other carriers at 200 terminals, and imposed the requirement that Greyhound be the sole-seller of the tenant's bus tickets within a 25-mile radius of such a Greyhound terminal. In 1995, the United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division brought suit to stop this practice, alleging that it was an illegal restraint of trade, bad for consumers, and reduced competition. In February 1996, the DOJ won its case, and Greyhound agreed to permit its tenants to sell tickets nearby and permit its tenants to honor interline tickets with competitors.

Greyhound's total revenues in 1994 were $616 million. At that time, the company was offering $10 fares due to competition.

In September 1998, Greyhound promised to make accommodations for disabled passengers, including equipping most buses with wheelchair lifts.

2001: Trailways-Laidlaw mergers and bankruptcy

In the late 1990s, Greyhound Lines acquired two more members of the National Trailways Bus System. The company purchased Carolina Trailways in 1997, followed by the intercity operations of Southeastern Trailways in 1998. Following the acquisitions, most of the remaining members of the Trailways System began interlining cooperatively with Greyhound, discontinued their scheduled route services, diversified into charters and tours, or went out of business altogether.

On September 3, 1997, Burlington, Ontario-based transportation conglomerate Laidlaw announced it would buy Greyhound Canada, Greyhound's Canadian operations, for US$72 million.

In October 1998, Laidlaw announced it would acquire the U.S. operations of Greyhound Lines, Inc., including Carolina Trailways and other Greyhound affiliates, for about $470 million. The acquisition was completed in March 1999.

In June 2001, after incurring heavy losses through its investments in Greyhound Lines and other parts of its diversified business, Laidlaw filed for bankruptcy protection in both the U.S. and Canada.

2002–2007: Laidlaw ownership

Naperville, Illinois-based Laidlaw International, Inc. listed its common shares on the New York Stock Exchange on February 10, 2003 and emerged from re-organization on June 23, 2003 as the successor to Laidlaw Inc.

By 2003, Greyhound faced significant competition in the northeast from Chinatown bus lines. More than 250 buses, operated by competitors such as Fung Wah Bus Transportation and Lucky Star Bus were competing fiercely from curbsides in the Chinatowns of New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. When operating on inter-city routes, the Chinatown buses offered prices about 50% less than Greyhound's. Between 1997 and 2007, Chinatown buses took 60% of Greyhound's market share in the northeast United States.

In 2003, Greyhound expanded its QuickLink service, Greyhound's brand of commuter bus service that runs frequently during the peak weekday commuting hours. Routes were operated from Sacramento, California to the San Francisco Bay Area and Macon, Georgia to Atlanta.

In 2004, Greyhound dropped low-demand rural stops and started concentrating on dense, inter-metropolitan routes. It cut nearly 37% of its network. In some rural areas, particularly in the Plains states, parts of the upper Midwest (such as Wisconsin), and the Pacific Northwest, local operators took over the old stops, often with government subsidies.

2007–2021: FirstGroup ownership

On February 7, 2007, British transport group FirstGroup announced the acquisition of Laidlaw International for $3.6 billion, which closed on October 1, 2007.

Almost immediately after acquiring the carrier, FirstGroup sought to improve Greyhound's image by refurbishing many terminals, expanding the fleet with new buses, refurbishing old buses, and retraining customer service staff. Greyhound also started a new advertising campaign with Butler, Shine, Stern & Partners aimed at attracting 18- to 24-year-olds and Hispanics.

Although FirstGroup's interest was primarily the school and transit bus operations of Laidlaw, FirstGroup retained the Greyhound operations and in 2009 exported the brand back to the United Kingdom as Greyhound UK (unrelated to bus operator Greyhound Motors which operated from 1921 to 1972).

In 2008, Greyhound's three regional bus operations (Carolina Trailways, based in Raleigh, N.C., Vermont Transit Lines of Burlington, Vermont, and Texas, New Mexico & Oklahoma Coaches of Lubbock, Texas ["T.N.M.&O."]) were consolidated into Greyhound Lines.

On March 27, 2008, Greyhound launched service under the BoltBus brand. The first buses started running between Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C. In the Northeastern U.S., BoltBus was originally operated in partnership with Peter Pan Bus Lines, but this arrangement ended on September 27, 2017, with Greyhound continuing the brand alone. BoltBus expanded to the West Coast in May 2012 with a route in the Pacific Northwest between Vancouver, BC, Seattle, and Portland. Service was expanded again in October 2013 with a route between the two largest metropolitan areas in California, Los Angeles and the San Francisco Bay Area (San Jose and Oakland). A stop in San Francisco was added in December 2013 along with a route between Los Angeles and Las Vegas.

Beginning in 2009, all buses purchased have three-point seat belts installed.

In 2010, in response to competition from Megabus and Chinatown bus lines, the company launched "Greyhound Express", featuring newer buses and fewer stops.

In February 2013, in partnership with DriveCam, Greyhound deployed video cameras across its entire fleet to increase safety and driver compliance by combining data and video analytics with real-time driver feedback and coaching.

As of 2014, Greyhound's 1,229 buses served over 3,800 destinations in North America, traveling 5.5 billion miles (8.8 billion km) on North America's roads.

In 2014, the company introduced a refreshed logo and a new navy blue and dark gray livery for buses. Buses were refurbished to add wireless Internet access, power outlets, and leather seating with increased legroom.

Before 2014, Greyhound was criticized for overbooking, often leaving passengers to wait for the next bus departure. Shortly after the sale to FirstGroup closed, Greyhound began a program in select markets, where riders could reserve a seat for an additional $5. However, only a limited number of seats could be reserved and the fee would have to be paid at the terminal's ticketing counter, even if the ticket was bought in advance online. In 2014, Greyhound rolled out a new yield management computer system, enabling the company to more closely manage the number of tickets sold for each departure and dynamically adjust pricing based on sales. Although the amount of overbooked buses has been sharply reduced with this new system, Greyhound still does not explicitly guarantee a seat to everyone with a ticket (except on Greyhound Express routes).

In 2014, Greyhound reported a profit of $73 million on revenues of $990.6 million, and attributed the company's success to a mix of changing urban populations and a focus on more profitable routes with higher demand.

In 2013-2015, Greyhound expanded its Greyhound Connect service, which operates shorter routes to take passengers from stops in smaller, rural cities to stations in larger, urban cities. Some routes are operated using funds from the "Federal Formula Grant Program for Rural Areas" from the Federal Transit Administration.

In July 2015, the company announced that it would open terminals in Monterrey and Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and begin service between the two cities and Texas, claiming to be the first American bus company to operate an intra-Mexican route. In September 2015, Greyhound announced expanded service in Missouri and Kansas shortly after Megabus announced that it would be ending service to several cities and college campuses.

The company's Lucky Streak brand is for routes to/from cities with casinos. All fares are sold as open-ended round-trips, with passengers allowed to return to their origin at any time. On the Atlantic City routes, casinos offer special bonuses (gambling credit, room/dining discounts) to Lucky Streak passengers. Lucky Streak routes serve Atlantic City (to/from Baltimore, Brooklyn, New York City, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C.), Connecticut (Mohegan Sun & Foxwoods Casino) (to/from Boston, Bridgeport, New Haven, New York City, Providence, and Stamford), and Las Vegas (to/from Anaheim, Barstow, Claremont, Compton, El Monte, Hollywood, Long Beach, Los Angeles, Phoenix, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Ana, and Victorville).

In February 2020, the company reversed its position regarding unwarranted searches and notified the Department of Homeland Security that it no longer would allow unwarranted searches on its buses, in areas of terminals, company offices, or any area where a person needs a ticket for access.

In December 2020, the company sold the customer terminal facility in Los Angeles, as well as facilities in Denver, Colorado, and Ottawa, Canada for a total of $137 million. The facility in Denver was sold for $38 million.

In May 2021, Greyhound Canada shut down all of its bus routes in Canada. Greyhound Lines continues to operate four cross-border routes that either start or finish in the U.S. from Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver: the company also placed 38 buses used by its Canada division up for auction.

In July 2021, BoltBus suspended operations indefinitely and Greyhound took over all routes.

In July 2021, the bus station in Columbus, Ohio, was sold to the Central Ohio Transit Authority for $9.5 million. In October 2021, the bus station in Downtown Louisville was sold for $2.8 million. The bus station in Cincinnati was sold to a real estate company for $4.25 million, with plans to convert it to parking.

In September 2021, the company agreed to pay $2.2 million to settle a lawsuit over its practice of allowing U.S. Customs and Border Protection agents to board its buses in Washington State to conduct warrantless immigration sweeps. The company had been criticized for allowing government officials to arrest its customers who were illegally in the country.

2021–present: FlixMobility
On October 21, 2021, Munich-based FlixBus acquired Greyhound for $78 million.

In 2022, FirstGroup sold almost all its remaining Greyhound properties to Twenty Lake Holdings LLC for approximately $140 million.

Notable incidents and accidents

Below is a list of major incidents and accidents on Greyhound buses and buses of subsidiaries in the United States.

 August 4, 1952: in Greyhound's most deadly collision, two Greyhound buses collided head-on with each other along U.S. Route 81 near Waco, Texas. The fuel tanks of both buses then ruptured, bursting into flames. Of the 56 persons aboard both coaches, 28 were killed, including both drivers.
 May 13, 1972: near Bean Station, Tennessee, between Knoxville and Bristol, a Greyhound Scenicruiser on a scheduled trip from Memphis to New York City collided head-on with a tractor-trailer truck. The driver of the bus had begun to pass a car. Fourteen people, including both the bus and truck drivers, died. The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the cause of the crash was the Greyhound driver's overtaking maneuver and his failure to avoid the truck.
 May 9, 1980: the cargo ship MV Summit Venture collided with the Sunshine Skyway Bridge, near St. Petersburg, Florida, causing a part of the roadway to collapse and causing several vehicles, including a Greyhound bus, to fall into Tampa Bay. All 26 people aboard the bus died, as did nine others.
 December 18, 1990: a Greyhound bus left Salt Lake City for Chicago and was caught in a driving snowstorm on I-80. Just short of the Wyoming border, the bus was hit by a semi-tractor trailer that had crossed the median heading in the opposite direction. The force of the collision tipped the bus onto its right side and it fell down a steep embankment. The bus slid for 150 feet and came to rest against a fence, about 35 feet below the eastbound lanes of I-80. Seven passengers were killed and more than 40 injured.
 June 20, 1998: a Greyhound bus on a scheduled trip from New York City to Pittsburgh ran off a road near Burnt Cabins, Pennsylvania, and hit a truck parked in an emergency parking area. Six passengers and the driver died. The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the probable cause of the accident was the driver's use of a sedating antihistamine and driver fatigue, due to an irregular work-rest schedule.
 October 3, 2001: in the 2001 Greyhound bus attack, at approximately 4:15 a.m. local time, a passenger, Damir Igric, assaulted the driver of his bus, attempting to slit his throat, and causing the bus to crash near Manchester, Tennessee, killing Igric himself and five other passengers and injuring 32 others. Since the incident occurred three weeks after the September 11 terrorist attacks, Greyhound temporarily suspended all schedules as soon as the company learned of the incident for fear that it may have been part of a larger coordinated attack. After investigation by the company and the FBI, it was confirmed that Igric had acted alone and service resumed later that afternoon. After the incident, Greyhound bus stations increased security, though not nearly to the same level as airports or train stations.
 September 30, 2002: Arturo Martinez Tapia assaulted a Greyhound driver near Fresno, California, resulting in two passenger deaths after the bus rolled off an embankment and crashed. Following this attack, an aisle gate and driver's shield were installed on most Greyhound buses to prevent passengers from having direct contact with the driver when the bus is in motion, even if the aisle gate is forced open. The project was funded by a $16 million grant from the Transportation Security Administration.

 January 23, 2014: Maquel Donyel Morris, who was reportedly hallucinating, screamed "everybody's going to die," attacked the driver, and grabbed the steering wheel of a bus traveling on Interstate 10 near Tonopah, Arizona,  west of Phoenix. 24 passengers were injured, including 21 who were airlifted to nearby hospitals. Police credited the driver for keeping the bus upright and preventing it from crossing into oncoming traffic.
 January 19, 2016: an overnight bus carrying 20 passengers that had departed from Los Angeles the previous night crashed on Highway 101 in San Jose, California, killing two and hospitalizing eight others. The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the probable cause of the crash was the failure of the California Department of Transportation to properly delineate the crash attenuator and the gore area.
 July 12, 2018: on a bus traveling from Columbus to Cincinnati, Ohio, three Colombian athletes on the Comunidad el Oso Ultimate club claimed they were thrown off one of the buses for speaking Spanish. Greyhound indicated the players had become unruly because they were not dropped off where they wanted to be dropped off, which was a place other than their ticketed destination. The driver left them and all their luggage at a gas station. The players were traveling to the World Flying Disc Federation's World Ultimate Club Championships. They were picked up by the Ohio police soon after and dropped off at their hotel in Cincinnati.
 August 30, 2018: a Greyhound bus traveling from St. Louis to Los Angeles was involved in a collision with a semi-truck on Interstate 40 westbound near Thoreau, New Mexico. One of the tires on the eastbound truck blew out and caused the driver to lose control and cross the median, colliding with the bus. Of the 48 onboard, 8 people, including the driver, were killed, and several more sustained injuries.
 February 3, 2020: one person was killed and five others were injured when a passenger opened fire on a bus heading from Los Angeles to San Francisco. At the time of the shooting, the bus was travelling northbound on Interstate 5 near Grapevine, California. After the shooting, the driver pulled to the side of the highway and convinced the shooter to get off the bus. The driver then continued down the highway to a gas station to get medical assistance for the injured passengers. The suspect, still on the side of the highway, was later arrested without incident.
 February 2, 2022: one person was killed and four others were injured when a fellow passenger opened fire on them as they exited a Los Angeles-bound bus after it stopped at a convenience store in the city of Oroville, California. Passengers reported that, earlier in the trip, the suspect exhibited paranoid behavior and showed the firearm he had in a bag on the bus. After the shooting, the suspect dropped the gun and ran into a Walmart, where he was found naked and arrested after getting into a fight.
 July 12, 2023: shortly before 2AM, a westbound Greyhound bus, traveling from Indianapolis to St. Louis, struck three semi tractor trailers parked along the I-70 Silver Lake rest area exit ramp near Highland, Illinois. Three people were killed and 14 were seriously injured; four injured passengers were taken by helicopter to hospitals, the rest by ambulance. Although Illinois law prohibits trucks from parking along exit ramps, industry observers say there has been a nationwide shortage of overnight parking places. National Transportation Safety Board expects the investigation to take between one and two years.

In popular culture

Films
 The 1934 film It Happened One Night shows the main character on a Greyhound bus from Florida to New York City.
 The 1961 film Breakfast at Tiffany's shows the main character seeing her ex-husband off from New York City.
 The 1969 film Midnight Cowboy shows the main character, in the final scene, holding his hustler friend on a New York City to Florida bus.
 The 1974 film Harry and Tonto shows the main character, played by Art Carney, traveling cross-country with his cat aboard a Greyhound bus.
 The 1976 film The Baby Blue Marine includes a sequence in which the title character travels in a late '30s or early '40s Silver Side.
 The 1988 film Cocktail includes the main character and his friends catching up to a Greyhound bus bound for New York City.
 The 1991 film Sleeping with the Enemy sees the main character escape from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, to Cedar Falls, Iowa, on a Greyhound bus.
 The 1998 film Smoke Signals includes the main characters traveling from Coeur d'Alene, Idaho to Phoenix, Arizona via a Greyhound bus.
 The 1995 film Boys on the Side shows one of the main characters traveling to Pittsburgh on a Greyhound bus.
 The 1999 film Life has a scene of one of the main characters at a Greyhound bus station.
 The 2015 film Tomorrowland has several scenes featuring Greyhound, including a character traveling to the 1964 New York World's Fair on a historic bus (a 1969 GMC), a Greyhound Glide-a-Ride trackless train on the World's Fair midway, and the main character traveling on a Greyhound bus in 2015 (a MCI 102DL3) from Cape Canaveral, Florida to Houston, Texas. Greyhound also sponsored a sweepstakes tied in with the film, wrapped several Greyhound buses with imagery from the film, placed promotional items inside terminals, and sponsored the film's Los Angeles premier.
 The 2022 film Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers sees one of the main characters on a Greyhound bus going to Los Angeles, while another main character chases the bus trying to catch up.

Songs
 The song "Love on a Greyhound Bus" appeared in the 1946 MGM film, "No Leave, No Love." Lyrics by Kay Thompson and Ralph Blane and music by George Stoll
 1956 song, "Cash on the Barrelhead" by The Louvin Brothers
 The Barry Mann/Cynthia Weil 1963 song "On Broadway" (remade most famously by The Drifters and later George Benson) mentions "I'll catch a Greyhound bus for home".
 Chuck Berry rides a Greyhound bus from Norfolk, Virginia, to Birmingham, Alabama, in his 1964 song "Promised Land".
 Simon and Garfunkel referred to Greyhound Lines in their 1968 song "America".
 Creedence Clearwater Revival mention Greyhound in their 1969 song, "Lodi".
 Country singer Roy Clark sang about a romantic breakup in his 1970 song "Thank God and Greyhound."
 Folk singer-songwriter Harry Chapin song about taking the Greyhound in his 1972 song "Greyhound".
 The Allman Brothers Band referenced Greyhound Lines in their 1973 song "Ramblin' Man".
 Country singer Waylon Jennings's 1973 song "Lonesome, On'ry and Mean" begins with the lyrics: "On a Greyhound bus/Lord I'm traveling this morning/I'm going to Shreveport and on down to New Orleans/Been driving these highways/Been doing things my way/It's been making me lonesome on'ry and mean".
 The Ian Hunter 1975 song "Once Bitten, Twice Shy" contains the lyrics: "You didn't know what Rock 'n' Roll was / Until you met a drummer on a Greyhound bus".
 The 1976 song "The Killing of Georgie" by Rod Stewart states that Georgie leaves home for Manhattan on a Greyhound bus.
 In 1976, country singer Hoyt Axton released the song "An Old Greyhound" about his tour bus, a retired GMC PD-4501 Scenicruiser.
 Billy Joel's "New York State of Mind" from the Turnstiles album, released on May 19, 1976, refers to taking "a Greyhound on the Hudson River Line".
 John Denver mentions riding a Greyhound bus at the beginning of "Wild Flowers In A Mason Jar (the Farm)", a song from the 1981 album Some Days Are Diamonds.
 John Mellencamp in his 1985 song Minutes to Memories starts with the lyric: "On a Greyhound thirty miles beyond Jamestown...".
 In his song "Me and the Devil Blues", blues singer and guitarist Robert Johnson expresses a wish that his body be buried beside a road so that his "old evil spirit" can "catch a Greyhound bus and ride".
 On indie rock band The Hang Ups' album So We Go, the last song is called "Greyhound Bus".
 American rock band The Mountain Goats references the narrator being "headed for the greyhound" in "See America Right" off of the album Tallahassee.
 Kenny Chesney's song "Pirate Flag" describes the singer's escape from a small mountain town by taking a Greyhound bus to (what is implied to be) Key West, Florida.
 Los Angeles–based rapper Skee-Lo recites Greyhound's advertising slogan in his 1995 hit single "I Wish" ("Cause if you don't want me around, see I go simple, I go easy, I go Greyhound").
 The Cowboy Junkies' 1999 song "Leaving Normal" contains the lyric: "Funny how the smell of a Greyhound bus now smells like a fresh start to me, and how the sound of the steel-belts on the blacktop is now the sound of breaking free".
 Dexter Freebish's 2000 hit "Leaving Town" mentions Greyhound ("Take a drag and wait for the Greyhound, the world is your playground").
 On The Moldy Peaches eponymous album, there is a track titled "Greyhound Bus".
 Country star Sara Evans' 2003 song "Backseat of a Greyhound Bus" describes a pregnant woman who escapes the confines of a small town and gives birth in a Greyhound bus.
 Country star Jo Dee Messina's 1996 song "Heads Carolina, Tails California" describes a couple spontaneously traveling to somewhere better, mentioning Greyhound during its bridge: "We're gonna get outta here if we gotta ride a Greyhound bus. Boy, we're bound to outrun the bad luck that's tailin' us".
Ween's 2003 song "Chocolate Town" contains the lyric: "Greyhound bus to chocolate town".
 Death Cab for Cutie's 2005 song "Soul Meets Body" contains the lyric: "Cause in my head there's a Greyhound station...".
 Kimya Dawson's song "My Rollercoaster", from her 2006 album, Remember That I Love You, contains the lyric: "And before I had a minivan I rode the Greyhound bus/ My mom would say, "I hope some day you get paid for being Kimya Dawson".
 Michael Jackson's posthumously published 2011 song "Hollywood Tonight" contains the lyric: "West bound Greyhound".
From the soundtrack of La La Land (2016); the song Another Day of Sun contains the lyric: "I left him at a Greyhound station west of Santa Fé".
 Calpurnia's 2018 song "Greyhound" is named after Greyhound Lines.
 Elton John's 1973 song "Blues for Baby and Me" contains the lyric: "There's a Greyhound outside in the lane; it's waiting for us".
 De La Soul's 2016 album and the Anonymous Nobody contains a song titled Greyhounds. In it, Posdnuos and Trugoy the Dove each rap a verse where they recount a tale about somebody attempting to discover their way throughout everyday life and taking a greyhound bus to discover it.
 Guns N' Roses mentions the Greyhound line in the first verse of its controversial 1988 song "One in a Million".
 The Midnight's song "Sunset" contains the lyric: "Greyhound station, we paid in cash"

Other
 The SNES video game EarthBound, released in 1995 in North America, features a bus resembling a Greyhound bus that is used to travel between destinations.
 The musical Violet, like the short story "The Ugliest Pilgrim" on which it is based, follows the title character on a Greyhound Bus trip from Spruce Pine, North Carolina, to Tulsa, Oklahoma, and back.
Monessen High School in Monessen, Pennsylvania, has a running greyhound mascot based on Greyhound's logo.
 In the Jack Reacher novels by Lee Child, Jack Reacher is a regular Greyhound passenger.

See also
 List of Greyhound Bus stations

Former operating subsidiaries
 Atlantic Greyhound Lines
 Capitol Greyhound Lines
 Dixie Greyhound Lines
 Florida Greyhound Lines
 Great Lakes Greyhound Lines
 Greyhound Canada
 Southeastern Greyhound Lines
 Teche Greyhound Lines
Museums and Preserved Stations
 Freedom Rides Museum (Montgomery, Alabama)
 Greyhound Bus Museum (Hibbing, Minnesota)
 Old Greyhound Bus Station (Jackson, Mississippi) (private office)
 Old Greyhound Terminal (Washington, D.C.) (incorporated into building built on site)

References

Further reading

External links

 Greyhound Lines home page
 "Northland Greyhound Lines" (at Bluehounds and Redhounds), including the early history of The Greyhound Corporation
 Bluehounds and Redhounds, the history of Greyhound and Trailways
 "Greyhound Lines after WW2" (at Bluehounds and Redhounds)
 Greyhound Mexico
 Current Greyhound Lines timetables
 Greyhound listing of both current and archived schedule changes, updated map of Greyhound routes, and current and archived timetables, along with contact info
 Greyhound Bus Museum, in Hibbing, Minnesota
 Greyhound Bus Tracker
 Track Greyhound Bus

1914 establishments in Minnesota
2007 mergers and acquisitions
2021 mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 1914
American subsidiaries of foreign companies
Bus transportation in the United States
Companies based in Dallas
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2001
FirstGroup companies

Intercity bus companies of the United States
Transport companies established in 1914

Greyhound Lines


La batalla de Praga, que se produjo entre el 25 de julio y el 1 de noviembre de 1648, fue la última acción militar de la Guerra de los Treinta Años. Mientras se desarrollaban las negociaciones que decantarían en la Paz de Westfalia, los suecos aprovecharon la oportunidad para montar una última campaña en Bohemia. El resultado, y probablemente el objetivo principal, fue saquear la fabulosa colección de arte reunida en el castillo de Praga por Rodolfo II, emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico (1552-1612), cuya selección fue llevada por el Elba en barcazas y enviada a Suecia.

Después de ocupar el castillo y la orilla occidental del Moldava durante algunos meses, los suecos se retiraron cuando las noticias de la firma del tratado les fueron comunicadas.

Acciones generales
El general Hans Christoff von Königsmarck, comandante de la columna delantera de Suecia, entró en la ciudad, que fue defendida por el conde Feldmarschall Rudolf von Colloredo, veterano del sitio de Mantua y de la batalla de Lützen, donde sirvió a las órdenes de Albrecht von Wallenstein. Los suecos capturaron el castillo de Praga, un extenso complejo palaciego, en la orilla occidental del río Moldava y trataron de entrar en la ciudad vieja de la orilla oriental del río, pero fueron rechazados en el Puente de Carlos por los hombres de Colloredo. Cuando un tercer ejército sueco comandado por el príncipe Carlos Gustavo llegó cerca de Praga, los tres ejércitos suecos lanzaron repetidos ataques contra la ciudad. Estos ataques fueron resistidos, en gran parte gracias a la habilidad del Feldmarschall y la voluntad de sus tropas. Cuando en noviembre Gustavo recibió un informe sobre la firma de la paz, ordenó que sus tropas se retiren.

Incapaces de entrar en la ciudad, los suecos se concentraron en saquear el castillo; algunos han argumentado que este era el objetivo principal de la incursión. Muchos de los tesoros recogidos por el emperador Rodolfo II (como el Codex Gigas y el Codex Argenteus) fueron llevados a Suecia, donde algunos se pueden encontrar en el Palacio de Drottningholm, añadiendo, por ejemplo, varias estatuas de Adrián de Vries. Las mejores obras de arte fueron llevadas al exilio por Cristina, reina de Suecia, y fueron dispersas luego de su muerte, algunas de estas pinturas forman el núcleo de la Colección Orleans, que se vendieron en Londres después de la Revolución francesa, por lo que muchos de los cuadros de Rodolfo II se encuentran ahora en el Reino Unido. Un inventario sueco de 1652 lista 472 pinturas venidas desde Praga.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos

Praga (1648)
Praga (1648)
Praga (1648)
Praga (1648)
Historia de Praga
Conflictos en 1648
República Checa en el siglo XVII
Asedios del siglo XVII

Batalla de Praga (1648)


Svijet

Natjecanja

Svjetska natjecanja
 Od 5. do 6. veljače – Svjetsko prvenstvo u rukometu u Njemačkoj: prvak Njemačka
 Od 4. do 19. lipnja – Svjetsko prvenstvo u nogometu u Francuskoj: prvak Italija

Kontinentska natjecanja

Europska natjecanja
 Od 7. do 13. kolovoza – Europsko prvenstvo u vaterpolu u Londonu u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu: prvak Mađarska

Osnivanja
 Moreirense Futebol Clube, portugalski nogometni klub

Rekordi

Nagrade

Ostali događaji

Rođenja

Smrti

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Natjecanja

Timski športovi

Pojedinačni športovi

Osnivanja

Rekordi

Nagrade

Ostali događaji

Rođenja

Smrti

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Šport u 1938.


Rickettsia, hareketsiz, gram negatif, spor oluşturmayan, yüksek pleomorfizm gösteren bir bakteri cinsidir. Kok (0.1 μm), Basil (1–4 μm) veya ipliksi (10 μm'ye kadar) formda olabilirler. Rickettsia cinsi'ne, kene kaynaklı lekeli humma konusundaki çalışmalarından dolayı Howard Taylor Ricketts'in adı verilmiştir. Rickettsia tek bir cinsin ismi olmasına rağmen, "rikettsiya" veya "rikettsiyalar" terimleri genellikle Rickettsiales ordosunun tüm üyeleri için kullanılabilmektedir.

Rickettsia türleri pireler, keneler, bitler gibi çeşitli Eklem bacaklı tipleri tarafından taşınırlar, ve hem insanlarda, hem de bitkilerde hastalık oluşturabilirler. Rickettsia türlerinin sebep oldukları hastalıklardan en bilinenleri: tifüs, rikettsiyal çiçek, Marsilya humması, Afrika kene-ısırığı ateşi, Kayalık dağlar lekeli ateşi, Flinders Island lekeli ateşi, ve Queensland kene tifüsüdür. Rickettsia'''ların çoğu tetrasiklin grubu antibiyotiklere duyarlıdırlar.

Rikettsiyalar  zorunlu hücre içi parazit olduklarından, üremek ve replikasyon için canlı ökaryot hücrelerin (özellikle endotelyum hücreleri) sitoplazmalarına girmek zorundadırlar. Dolayısıyla, Rickettsia'' türleri yapay kültür besiyerlerinde üremezler; doku veya embriyo kültüründe üretilebilirler. Genellikle tavuk embriyolarında, Ernest William Goodpasture tarafından 1930'larda geliştirilen metot kullanılarak kültürleri yapılır.

Çok küçük boyutları, zorunlu intraselüler (hücre içi)  üreme davranışları ve zorunlu parazit yaşamları yüzünden önceleri virüs oldukları düşünülen, modern mikroskop ve tahlil yöntemlerinin gelişimi ile ultra küçük gerçek bakteriler oldukları, tüm bakteri organellerini ve çoğu bakteri enzimini bulundurdukları anlaşılan gram negatif mikroorganizmalardır.

Kaynakça

Rickettsiaceae
Bakteri cinsleri
Proteobakteriler

Riketsiya


Aderus escaleai é uma espécie de inseto besouro da família Aderidae. Foi descrita cientificamente por Maurice Pic em 1905.

Distribuição geográfica
Habita na Guiné Equatorial.

Referências

escaleai
Fauna da Guiné Equatorial
Insetos descritos em 1905
Espécies descritas por Maurice Pic

Aderus escaleai


Charithra Chandran (Perth, ) est une actrice britannique.

Biographie
Née à Perth dans une famille indienne d'ethnie tamoule, elle a 2 ans lorsqu'elle suit son père en Inde après le divorce de ses parents. Elle grandit un temps auprès de ses grands-parents paternels en Inde.

De retour au Royaume-Uni deux ans plus tard, elle vit à Liverpool, dans le Suffolk puis à Oxford. Elle décroche en 2019 un bachelor en philosophie, politique et économie, tout en travaillant à temps partiel en tant qu'analyste au New Policy Institute.

Elle intègre ensuite le National Youth Theatre et participe à plusieurs spectacles de théâtre.

Filmographie

 2022 : La Chronique des Bridgerton : Edwina Sharma
 2021 : Alex Rider : Sabina Pleasance

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Naissance en janvier 1997
Actrice anglaise de télévision
Personnalité britannique née d'un parent indien
Naissance à Perth (Écosse)
Étudiant de New College (Oxford)
Élève de Oxford High School

Charithra Chandran


Joshua Ryan "Josh" Hutcherson () este un actor american. Originar din Kentucky, Hutcherson a debutat ca actor la începutul anilor 2000. Primul său rol într-un film a fost în Prieten la nevoie (Miracle Dogs, 2003) pe Animal Planet.

Primele apariții ale lui Hutcherson au fost în Micul Manhattan, Zathura (2005), RV (2006), Podul către Terabithia (2007), Călătorie spre centrul Pământului (2008) și Copiii sunt bine-mersi (2010). În 2011 a primit rolul lui Peeta Mellark în seria de filme Jocurile foamei, lansate anual din 2012 până în 2015, pentru care a câștigat trei premii MTV Movie și un People's Choice Award. În aceeași perioadă, a primit un rol principal în Călătoria 2: Insula misterioasă (2012) și a avut un rol de voce în animația Epic (2013).

De-a lungul carierei sale, Hutcherson și-a exprimat interesul în regie și producție. El a servit atât ca producător executiv, cât și ca actor în Liceul groazei (2011), The Forger (2012) și Escobar: Paradise Lost (2015).

Primii ani
Joshua Ryan Hutcherson s-a născut în Union, Kentucky, la data de 12 octombrie 1992. El este fiul cel mare al lui Chris și Michelle Hutcherson (născută Fightmaster) și are un frate mai mic, Connor.

Interesul lui Hutcherson pentru actorie s-a dezvoltat în copilărie, în ciuda îngrijorării părinților în legătură cu această profesie. Conform actorului, acesta a "iubit industria de divertisment" încă de la vârsta de patru ani. La vârstă de opt, actorul a luat cartea de telefon și a sunat la o agenție care promova actori. În ianuarie 2002, Hutcherson și mama lui s-au mutat în Los Angeles pentru ca acesta să participe la cât mai multe audiții. În Los Angeles au trăit timp de 3 ani, într-o comunitate care adăpostea tineri actori copii și familiile lor.

Cea mai mare parte a copilăriei și-a petrecut-o la filmări, ci nu în sălile de clasă. El a urmat cursurile Școlii Elementare din New Haven până când și-a început cariera la vârsta de nouă ani, după care a început să învețe acasă, mama sa fiindu-i profesor.

Cariera în actorie

2002–2010: Primele roluri
După ce s-a mutat la Hollywood în 2002, Hutcherson a apărut în mai multe reclame de televiziune. Primul său rol major a fost Nicky Harper în episodul pilot House Blend, după care au urmat roluri secundar în ER și Becoming Glen. În următorul an, a jucat rolul principal de Charlie Logan în filmul Miracle Dogs, lansat pe  Animal Planet. The film, Hutcherson's first, received a 79 percent approval rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. Următorul rol al lui Hutcherson a fost prima sa apariție într-un film de lung metraj, numit American Splendor. Această producție a câștigat premiul cel mare al juriului la Sundance Film Festival.[22] În 2004, a primit rolul de Hero Boy în filmul The Polar Express, în care Tom Hanks a avut rolul principal. În animația Howl's Moving Castle, a dat voce personajului Markl, lucrând alături de Christian Bale și Billy Crystal. Întreg dialogul filmului a fost înregistrat timp de opt ore consecutive.

În 2005, Hutcherson a apărut în mai multe filme produse la Hollywood, în încercarea de a deveni cunoscut în industrie. În filmul Little Manhattan, el a primit un rol principal alături de fratele său mai mic, Connor. Următorul rol principal pe care l-a primit a fost în filmul Zathura, pentru ca re a fost recompensat cu Premiul Tânărului Artist (în engleză Young Artist Award ) la categoria "Cea mai Bună Performanță într-un Film de Lungmetraj a unui Tânăr Artist într-un Rol Principal" (în engleză "Best Performance in a Feature Film by a Leading Young Actor").

Următorul apariția a lui Hutcherson a fost în comedia RV la începutul lui 2006, în care a interpretat rolul fiului lui Robin Williams, și anume Bob Munro. Pentru acest rol, el a primit a doua nominalizare la Premiul Tânărului Artist.

Cel mai important rol din copilăria lui Hutcherson a fost cel al lui Jesse Aarons în filmul Bridge to Terabithia, 2007. Datorită acestuia, el a câștigat pentru a doua oară Premiul Tânărului Artist la categoria "Cea mai Bună Performanță într-un Film de Lungmetraj a unui Tânăr Artist într-un Rol Principal".

În 2008, a apărut în drama Winged Creatures ( lansată cu numele de Fragments pe DVD) alături de Dakota Fanning și în Journey to the Center of the Earth, un film 3D adaptat după romanul cu același nume. În următorii doi ani, a jucat rolul unui băiat numit Steve "Leopard" Leonard,care vizitează un carnaval alături de prietenii săi, în filmul Cirque du Freak și a primit un rol secundar în filmul apreciat de către critici The Kids Are All Right, în care joacă rolul fiului unui cuplu de lesbiene. Conform lui Kaleem Aftab de la publicația The Independent, rolul său din The Kids Are All Right  a fost un punct important din cariera sa, în vedere continuării profesiei de actor și la maturitate. Filmul a câștigat Globul de Aur pentru Cel mai Bun Film de Musical sau Comedie (în engleză Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy) și a fost nominalizat la Oscar pentru Cel mai Bun Film.

2011–prezent
În aprilie 2011, Hutcherson a fost anunțat ca actorul care va interpreta rolul lui Peeta Mellark în seria The Hunger Games. Primul film din serie a fost lansat pe 23 martie 2012 și a devenit unul dintre cele mai de succes filme ale anului. Hutcherson a primit un premiu MTV Movie Award for Cel mai Bun Actor.

Concomitent cu filmările pentru The Hunger Games, el a fost producător executiv și actor în rol principal în Detention (2011) și The Forger (2012). În continuare în 2012 și-a reluat rolul de Sean Anderson în Journey 2: The Mysterious Island.

În 2013, Hutcherson a dat voce personajului Nod în animația 3D Epic, filmul fiind considerat cel mai mare succes al actorului cu excepția serie The Hunger Games series. Pentru rolul din The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, Hutchersoa câștigat cel de al doilea MTV Movie Award la categoria "Best Male Performance".

În 21 noiembrie 2014 și 20 noiembrie 2015 sunt lansate ultimele două filme din seria The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 și Part 2 . Personajul său trece printr-o schimbare semnificantă de caracter, ceea ce pentru Hutcherson a însemnat o provocare: "Sunt emoționat pentru că niciodată nu am mai jucat rolul unui personaj care înnebunește".

Înainte de filmările celor două filme Mockingjay, Hutcherson a fost actor și producător executiv în Escobar: Paradise Lost, lansat în 16 ianuarie 2015.

Viața personală

Hutcherson locuiește în Los Angeles, California. În mai 2012, a cumpărat o proprietate în valoare de $2.5 în Laurel Canyon, Hollywood Hills.

Este cunoscut ca fiind un aliat al persoanelor LGBT (lesbiene, gay, bisexuali și transgender). Implicarea sa este motivată de faptul că doi dintre unchii săi, care erau gay, au murit din cauza unor afecțiuni legate de SIDA. În aprilie 2012, el a devenit cel mai tânăr beneficiar al Vanguard Award de la GLAAD, având în vedere pentru promovarea drepturilor egale pentru persoanele LGBT.

Filmografie

Film

Televiziune

Videoclipuri muzicale

Premii și nominalizări

Referințe

 ISBN 978-1-932899-12-2.
 ISBN 978-0-7864-2938-7.

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1992
Oameni în viață

Josh Hutcherson


....
රත්නාවලී කුමරිය යනු පළමුවන පළමු වන විජයබාහු රජුගේ කාලිංග වංශික තිලෝක සුන්දරී බිසවගේ දියණියකි.ඇය පළමුවන වික්‍රමබාහු රජුගේ සහෝදරිය වන අතර සුගලා දේවියගේ අර්ධ සහෝදරියයි.ඇය තම නැන්දණිය ගේ පුත්‍රයා වූ ද්ක්ඛිණදේශය පාලකයා වූ මානාභරණ කුමරු සමග විවාහ විය.පළමුවන පරාක්‍රමබාහු යනු ඔවුන් දෙදෙනාගේ පුත්‍රයාය.තවද ප්‍රභාවතී කුමරිය ලෙස දියණියක්ද ඔවුන්ට සිට ඇත.ඇය දෙවැනි මානාභරණ කුමරු ගේ බිසව විය.

රත්නාවලී බිසව


Oreste Bonomi (Milan,  - Rome, ) est un homme politique italien.

Biographie
Fils de Giovanni et Angela Penagini, il travaille comme marchand et comptable. Président de la Fédération nationale des commerçants.

Il est élu député aux élections politiques de 1934 avec le Parti national fasciste et nommé conseiller national en 1939.

Directeur général du tourisme, il est, à partir de 1936, commissaire adjoint de Vittorio Cini pour l'Exposition universelle prévue en 1942. Du 6 février au 25 juillet 1943, il est ministre du commerce et de la monnaie pendant la dernière phase du gouvernement Mussolini.

Décoration
 - Chevalier de l'Ordre des Saints-Maurice-et-Lazare - 24 janvier 1935

 - Officier de l'Ordre des Saints-Maurice-et-Lazare - 3 juin 1937

 - Commandeur de l'Ordre des Saints-Maurice-et-Lazare - 2 juin 1941

 - Chevalier de Grand-croix de l'Ordre des Saints-Maurice-et-Lazare - 15 avril 1943

 - Chevalier de l'Ordre de la Couronne d'Italie - 14 mai 1926

 - Officier de l'Ordre de la Couronne d'Italie - 10 juin 1930

 - Commandeur de l'Ordre de la Couronne d'Italie - 29 août 1931

 - Grand Officier de l'Ordre de la Couronne d'Italie - 25 avril 1936

 - Chevalier de Grand-croix de l'Ordre de la Couronne d'Italie - 21 avril 1940

 - Commandeur de l'Ordre colonial de l'étoile d'Italie - 16 juillet 1936

 - Grand Officier de l'Ordre colonial de l'étoile d'Italie - 8 mai 1939

 - Officier de l' Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur - 1 mars 1935

 - Commandeur de l'Ordre de Léopold - 17 juin 1937

 - Croix de l'Ordre de l'Aigle allemand - 16 décembre 1937

 - Commandeur avec plaque de l'Ordre équestre du Saint-Sépulcre de Jérusalem - 29 août 1934

 - Croix du Mérite de la guerre - 26 septembre 1960

 - Médaille de bronze de la vaillance militaire - 5 juillet 1941

 - Médaille d'argent de la valeur militaire - 10 juillet 1936

 - Médaille commémorative des opérations militaires en Afrique orientale

 - Médaille du mérite de la jeunesse italienne de Littorio - 8 avril 1939

 - Médaille commémorative de la Marche sur Rome

 - Marche sur Addis Abeba (Marche de la volonté de fer) - 30 juillet 1937

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Gouvernement Mussolini

Liens externes

Personnalité politique italienne du XXe siècle
Naissance à Milan
Naissance en juillet 1902
Décès à Rome
Décès en avril 1983
Décès à 80 ans
Ministre du Commerce et de la Monnaie du royaume d'Italie (1861-1946)
Député de la XIXe législature du royaume d'Italie
Député de la XXXe législature du royaume d'Italie
Conseiller national de la Chambre des faisceaux et des corporations
Grand-croix de l'ordre des Saints-Maurice-et-Lazare
Grand-croix de l'ordre de la Couronne d'Italie
Grand officier de l'ordre colonial de l'Étoile d'Italie
Officier de la Légion d'honneur promu en 1935
Commandeur de l'ordre de Léopold
Commandeur de l'ordre équestre du Saint-Sépulcre de Jérusalem
Médaille d'argent de la valeur militaire
Médaille de bronze de la valeur militaire
Militaire italien de la seconde guerre italo-éthiopienne
Militaire italien de la Seconde Guerre mondiale

Oreste Bonomi


The Gothic Line (; ) was a German defensive line of the Italian Campaign of World War II. It formed Field Marshal Albert Kesselring's last major line of defence along the summits of the northern part of the Apennine Mountains during the fighting retreat of the German forces in Italy against the Allied Armies in Italy, commanded by General Sir Harold Alexander.

Adolf Hitler had concerns about the state of preparation of the Gothic Line: he feared the Allies would use amphibious landings to outflank its defences. To downgrade its importance in the eyes of both friend and foe, he ordered the name, with its historic connotations, changed, reasoning that if the Allies managed to break through they would not be able to use the more impressive name to magnify their victory claims. In response to this order, Kesselring renamed it the "Green Line" (Grüne Linie) in June 1944.

Using more than 15,000 slave labourers, the Germans created more than 2,000 well-fortified machine gun nests, casemates, bunkers, observation posts and artillery fighting positions to repel any attempt to breach the Gothic Line. Initially this line was breached during Operation Olive (also sometimes known as the Battle of Rimini), but Kesselring's forces were consistently able to retire in good order. This continued to be the case up to March 1945, with the Gothic Line being breached but with no decisive breakthrough; this would not take place until April 1945 during the final Allied offensive of the Italian Campaign.

Operation Olive has been described as the biggest battle of materials ever fought in Italy. Over 1,200,000 men participated in the battle. The battle took the form of a pincer manoeuvre, carried out by the British Eighth Army and the U.S. Fifth Army against the German 10th Army (10. Armee) and German 14th Army (14. Armee). Rimini, a city which had been hit by previous air raids, had 1,470,000 rounds fired against it by allied land forces. According to Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese, commander of the British Eighth Army: "The battle of Rimini was one of the hardest battles of Eighth Army. The fighting was comparable to El Alamein, Mareth and the Gustav Line (Monte-Cassino)."

Background
After the nearly concurrent breakthroughs at Cassino and Anzio in spring 1944, the 11 nations representing the Allies in Italy finally had a chance to trap the Germans in a pincer movement and to realize some of the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's strategic goals for the long, costly campaign against the Axis "underbelly". This would have required the U.S. Fifth Army under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark to commit most of his Anzio forces to the drive east from Cisterna, and to execute the envelopment envisioned in the original planning for the Anzio landing (i.e., flank the German 10th Army, and sever its northbound line of retreat from Cassino). Instead, fearing that the British Eighth Army, under Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese, might beat him to the Italian capital of Rome, Clark diverted a large part of his Anzio force in that direction in an attempt to ensure that he and the Fifth Army would have the honour of liberating the city.

As a result, most of Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring's forces slipped the noose and fell back north fighting delaying actions, notably in late June on the Trasimene Line (running from just south of Ancona on the east coast, past the southern shores of Lake Trasimeno near Perugia and on to the west coast south of Grosseto) and in July on the Arno Line (running from the west coast along the line of the Arno River and into the Apennine Mountains north of Arezzo). This gave time to consolidate the Gothic Line, a  deep belt of fortifications extending from south of La Spezia (on the west coast) to the Foglia Valley, through the natural defensive wall of the Apennines (which ran unbroken nearly from coast to coast,  deep and with high crests and peaks rising to ), to the Adriatic Sea between Pesaro and Ravenna, on the east coast. The emplacements included numerous concrete-reinforced gun pits and trenches and 2,376 machine-gun nests with interlocking fire, 479 anti-tank, mortar and assault gun positions,  of barbed wire and many miles of anti-tank ditches. This last redoubt proved the Germans' determination to continue fighting.

Nevertheless, it was fortunate for the Allies that at this stage of the war the Italian partisan forces had become highly effective in disrupting the German preparations in the high mountains. By September 1944, German generals were no longer able to move freely in the area behind their main lines because of partisan activity. Generalleutnant Frido von Senger und Etterlin—commanding XIV Panzer Corps (XIV Panzerkorps)—later wrote that he had taken to travelling in a little Volkswagen "(displaying) no general's insignia of rank—no peaked cap, no gold or red flags...". One of his colleagues who ignored this caution—Wilhelm Crisolli (commanding the 20th Luftwaffe Field Division)—was caught and killed by partisans as he returned from a conference at corps headquarters.

Construction of the defences was also hampered by the deliberately poor quality concrete provided by local Italian mills whilst captured partisans forced into the construction gangs supplemented the natural lethargy of forced labour with clever sabotage. Nevertheless, prior to the Allies' attack, Kesselring had declared himself satisfied with the work done, especially on the Adriatic side where he "...contemplated an assault on the left wing....with a certain confidence".

Allied strategy

The Italian Front was seen by the Allies to be of secondary importance to the offensives through France, and this was underlined by the withdrawal during the summer of 1944 of seven divisions from the U.S. Fifth Army to take part in the landings in southern France, Operation Dragoon. By 5 August, the strength of the Fifth Army had fallen from 249,000 to 153,000, and they had only 18 divisions to confront the combined German 10th and 14th Armies′ strength of 14 divisions plus four to seven reserve divisions.

Nevertheless, Winston Churchill and the British Chiefs of Staff were keen to break through the German defences to open up the route to the northeast through the "Ljubljana Gap" into Austria and Hungary. Whilst this would threaten Germany from the rear, Churchill was more concerned to forestall the Russians advancing into central Europe. The U.S. Chiefs of Staff had strongly opposed this strategy as diluting the Allied focus in France. However, following the Allied successes in France during the summer, the U.S. Chiefs relented, and there was complete agreement amongst the Combined Chiefs of Staff at the Second Quebec Conference on 12 September.

Allied plan of attack

The original plan of General Sir Harold Alexander, the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI)—as formulated by his Chief of Staff, Lieutenant-General Sir John Harding—was to storm the Gothic Line in the centre, where most of his forces were already concentrated. It was the shortest route to his objective, the plains of Lombardy, and could be mounted quickly. He mounted a deception operation to convince the Germans that the main blow would come on the Adriatic front.

On 4 August, Alexander met Lieutenant-General Leese, the British Eighth Army commander, to find that Leese did not favour the plan. He argued that the Allies had lost their specialist French mountain troops to Operation Dragoon and that the Eighth Army's strength lay in tactics combining infantry, armour and guns which could not be employed in the high mountains of the central Apennines.

It has also been suggested that Leese disliked working in league with Clark after the Fifth Army's controversial move on Rome at the end of May and early June and wished for the Eighth Army to win the battle on its own. He suggested a surprise attack along the Adriatic coast. Although Harding did not share Leese's view and Eighth Army planning staff had already rejected the idea of an Adriatic offensive (because it would be difficult to bring the necessary concentration of forces to bear), General Alexander was not prepared to force Leese to adopt a plan which was against his inclination and judgement and Harding was persuaded to change his mind.

Operation Olive—as the new offensive was christened—called for Leese's Eighth Army to attack up the Adriatic coast toward Pesaro and Rimini and draw in the German reserves from the centre of the country. Clark's Fifth Army would then attack in the weakened central Apennines north of Florence toward Bologna with British XIII Corps on the right wing of the attack fanning toward the coast to create a pincer with the Eighth Army advance. This meant that as a preparatory move, the bulk of the Eighth Army had to be transferred from the centre of Italy to the Adriatic coast, taking two valuable weeks, while a new intelligence deception plan (Operation Ulster) was commenced to convince Kesselring that the main attack would be in the centre.

Adriatic Front (British Eighth Army)

Eighth Army dispositions for Operation Olive

On the coast, Leese had Polish II Corps with 5th Kresowa Division in the front line and the 3rd Carpathian Division in reserve. To the left of the Poles was Canadian I Corps which had the Canadian 1st Infantry Division (with the British 21st Tank Brigade under command) in the front line and the Canadian 5th Armoured Division in reserve.

For the opening phase the corps artillery was strengthened with the addition of the British 4th Infantry Division's artillery. West of the Canadians was British V Corps with the British 46th Infantry Division manning the right of the corps front line and 4th Indian Infantry Division its left. In reserve were the British 56th Infantry and 1st Armoured Divisions and the British 7th Armoured and 25th Tank Brigades.

Further to the rear was the British 4th Division, waiting to be called forward to join the corps. The left flank of the Eighth Army front was guarded by British X Corps employing the 10th Indian Infantry Division and two armoured car regiments, 12th and 27th Lancers. Prior to the attack the I Canadian Corps' front was covered by patrolling Polish cavalry units and V Corps by patrolling elements of the Italian Liberation Corps. In army reserve, also waiting to be called forward, was the 2nd New Zealand Division.

German 10th Army dispositions
Facing the Eighth Army was the German 10th Army's LXXVI Panzer Corps (LXXVI Panzerkorps). Initially, this had only three divisions: 1st Parachute Division facing the Poles, 71st Infantry Division (71. Infanterie-Division) inland on the parachute division's right and 278th Division (278. Infanterie-Division) on the Corps right flank in the hills which was in the process of relieving 5th Mountain Division. The 10th Army had a further five divisions in 51st Mountain Corps covering  of front line on the right of LXVI Panzer Corps and a further two divisions—162nd Infantry Division (162. (Turkoman) Infanterie-Division) and 98th Infantry Division (98. Infanterie-Division) (replaced by 29th Panzer Grenadier Division (29. Panzergrenadierdivision) from 25 August)—covering the Adriatic coast behind LXVI Corps. In addition, Kesselring had in his Army Group Reserve the 90th Panzer Grenadier Division (90. Panzergrenadierdivision) and 26th Panzer Division (26. Panzerdivision).

Eighth Army attack

The British Eighth Army crossed the Metauro river and launched its attack against the Gothic Line outposts on 25 August. As Polish II Corps, on the coast and I Canadian Corps, on the coastal plain on the Poles' left, advanced towards Pesaro the coastal plain narrowed and it was planned that the Polish Corps, weakened by losses and lack of replacements, would go into Army reserve and the front on the coastal plain would become the responsibility of the Canadian Corps alone. The Germans were taken by surprise, to the extent that both von Vietinghoff, and the parachute division's commander—Generalmajor  Richard Heidrich—were away on leave.

They were in the process of pulling back their forward units to the Green I fortifications of the Gothic Line proper and Kesselring was uncertain whether this was the start of a major offensive or just Eighth Army advancing to occupy vacated ground whilst the main Allied attack would come on the U.S. Fifth Army front towards Bologna. On 27 August, he was still expressing the view that the attack was a diversion and so would not commit reserves to the front. It was not until 28 August—when he saw a captured copy of Leese's order of the day to his army prior to the attack—that Kesselring realised that a major offensive was in progress, and three divisions of reinforcements were ordered from Bologna to the Adriatic front, still needing at least two days to get into position.

By 30 August, the Canadian and British Corps had reached the Green I main defensive positions running along the ridges on the far side of the Foglia river. Taking advantage of the Germans' lack of manpower, the Canadians punched through and by 3 September had advanced a further  to the Green II line of defences running from the coast near Riccione. The Allies were close to breaking through to Rimini and the Romagna plain. However, LXXVI Panzer Corps on the German 10th Army's left wing had withdrawn in good order behind the line of the Conca river. Fierce resistance from the Corps′ 1st Parachute Division—commanded by Heidrich (supported by intense artillery fire from the Coriano ridge in the hills on the Canadians' left)—brought their advance to a halt.

Meanwhile, British V Corps was finding progress in the more difficult hill terrain with its poor roads tough going. On 3–4 September, while the Canadians once again attacked along the coastal plain, V Corps made an armoured thrust to dislodge the Coriano Ridge defences and reach the Marano river. This was to open the gate to the plain beyond which could be rapidly exploited by the tanks of British 1st Armoured Division, poised for this purpose. However, after two days of gruesome fighting with heavy losses on both sides, the Allies were obliged to call off their assault and reassess their strategy. Leese decided to outflank the Coriano ridge positions by driving westwards toward Croce and Gemmano to reach the Marano valley which curved behind the Coriano positions to the coast some  north of Riccione.

Battles for Gemmano and Croce
The Battle of Gemmano has been nicknamed by some historians as the "Cassino of the Adriatic". After 11 assaults between 4 and 13 September (first by British 56th Division and then British 46th Division), it was the turn of Indian 4th Division who after a heavy bombardment made the 12th attack at 03:00 on 15 September and finally carried and secured the German defensive positions. In the meantime, to the north, on the other side of the Conca valley a similarly bloody engagement was being ground out at Croce. The German 98th Division held their positions with great tenacity, and it took five days of constant fighting, often door to door and hand to hand before the British 56th Division captured Croce.

Coriano taken and the advance to Rimini and San Marino

With progress slow at Gemmano, Leese decided to renew the attack on Coriano. After a paralyzing bombardment from 700 artillery pieces and bombers, the Canadian 5th Armoured Division and the British 1st Armoured Division launched their attack on the night of 12 September. The Coriano positions were finally taken on 14 September.

Once again, the way was open to Rimini. Kesselring's forces had taken heavy losses, and three divisions of reinforcements ordered to the Adriatic front would not be available for at least a day. Now, the weather intervened: torrential rain turned the rivers into torrents and halted air support operations. Once again movement ground to a crawl, and the German defenders had the opportunity to reorganise and reinforce their positions on the Marano river, and the salient to the Lombardy plain closed. Once more, the Eighth Army was confronted by an organised line of defence, the Rimini Line.

Meanwhile, with Croce and beyond it Montescudo secured, the left wing of the Eighth Army advanced to the Marano river and the frontier of San Marino. The Germans had occupied neutral San Marino over a week previously to take advantage of the heights on which the city-state stood. By 19 September, the city was isolated and fell to the Allies with relatively little cost.  beyond San Marino lay the Marecchia valley running across the Eighth Army line of advance and running to the sea at Rimini.

During the night of 19/20 September, Brigadier Richard W. Goodbody, commanding the 2nd Armoured Brigade, ordered (with many doubts) the 2nd Dragoon Guards (Queen's Bays) to attack Pt 153 at 10.50. The German antitank gunners, using the renowned 88mm guns, had a field day. All but three Sherman tanks of the two squadrons that took part in the attack were destroyed. The Bays lost 24 tanks and, more important, 64 highly skilled tank crewmen. Fortunately for the 9th Queen's Royal Lancers, who had been ordered to pass through the Bays, their attack was postponed after strong representations had been made to higher HQ.

On the right the I Canadian Corps on 20 September broke the German positions on the Ausa river and into the Lombardy Plain and 3rd Greek Mountain Brigade entered Rimini on the morning of 21 September as the Germans withdrew from their positions on the Rimini Line behind the Ausa to new positions on the Marecchia. However, Kesselring's defence had won him time until the onset of the autumn rains. Progress for the Eighth Army became very slow with mud slides caused by the torrential rain making it difficult to keep roads and tracks open, creating a logistical nightmare. Although they were out of the hills, the plains were waterlogged and the Eighth Army found themselves confronted, as they had the previous autumn, by a succession of swollen rivers running across their line of advance. Once again, the conditions prevented Eighth Army's armour from exploiting the breakthrough, and the infantry of British V Corps and I Canadian Corps (joined by the 2nd New Zealand Division) had to grind their way forward while von Vietinghoff withdrew his forces behind the next river beyond the Marecchia, the Uso, a few miles beyond Rimini. The positions on the Uso were forced on 26 September, and Eighth Army reached the next river, the Fiumicino, on 29 September. Four days of heavy rain forced a halt, and by this time V Corps was fought out and required major reorganization.

Since the start of Operation Olive, Eighth Army had suffered 14,000 casualties. As a result, British battalions had to be reduced from four to three rifle companies due to a severe shortage of manpower. Facing the Eighth Army LXXVI Panzer Corps had suffered 16,000 casualties. As the Eighth Army paused at the end of September to reorganise Leese was reassigned to command the Allied land forces in South-East Asia and Lieutenant-General Richard L. McCreery was moved from commanding British X Corps to take over the army command.

Central Front (Fifth Army)

U.S. Fifth Army formation
Clark's U.S. Fifth Army comprised three corps: U.S. IV Corps, under Major General Willis D. Crittenberger, on the left formed by the U.S. 1st Armored Division, the 6th South African Armoured Division and two Regimental Combat Teams (RCTs), one of the U.S. 92nd Infantry Division the other the Brazilian 6th RCT (the first land forces contingent of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force); in the centre was U.S. II Corps, under Major General Geoffrey Keyes, (with the U.S. 34th, 85th, 88th and 91st Infantry Divisions supported by three tank battalions under command); and on the right British XIII Corps, under Lieutenant-General Sidney Kirkman, (composed of the British 1st Infantry and 6th Armoured Divisions, the 8th Indian Infantry Division and the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade). Like the Eighth Army, the Fifth Army was considered to be strong in armour and short on infantry considering the terrain they were attacking.

German formation in the central Apennines
In the front line facing Clark's forces were five divisions of Joachim Lemelsen's German 14th Army (20th Luftwaffe Field Division, 16th SS Panzer Grenadier Division (16. Panzergrenadierdivision), 65th and 362nd Infantry Divisions and the 4th Parachute Division) and two divisions on the western end of von Vietinghoff's German 10th Army (356th and 715th Infantry Divisions). By the end of the first week in September, the Luftwaffe Field Division and the 356th Infantry Division had been moved to the Adriatic front along with (from army reserve) the 29th Panzer Grenadier Division and the armoured reserve of 26th Panzer Division. The 14th Army was not of the same quality as the 10th Army: it had been badly mauled in the retreat from Anzio and some of its replacements had been hastily and inadequately trained.

Allied plan
Clark's plan was for II Corps to strike along the road from Florence to Firenzuola and Imola through the Il Giogo pass to outflank the formidable defences of the Futa pass (on the main Florence–Bologna road) while on their right British XIII Corps would advance through the Gothic Line to cut Route 9 (and therefore Kesselring's lateral communications) at Faenza. The transfer of 356th Infantry Division to the Adriatic weakened the defences around the Il Giogo pass which was already potentially an area of weakness, being on the boundary between 10th and 14th Armies.

Battle

During the last week in August, U.S. II Corps and British XIII Corps started to move into the mountains to take up positions for the main assault on the main Gothic Line defences. Some fierce resistance was met from outposts but at the end of the first week in September, once reorganisation had taken place following the withdrawal of three divisions to reinforce the pressured Adriatic front, the Germans withdrew to the main Gothic Line defences. After an artillery bombardment, the Fifth Army's main assault began at dusk on 12 September. Keyes tried to flank the II Giogo Pass by attacking both the peaks of Monticello and Monte Altuzzo using the 91st Infantry Division in a bold attempt to bounce the Germans off the positions, but this failed.

Progress at the II Giogo Pass was slow, but on II Corps' right British XIII Corps were making better progress. Clark grasped this opportunity to divert part of II Corps reserve (the 337th Infantry Regiment, part of the 85th Infantry Division) to exploit XIII Corps success. Attacking on 17 September, supported by both American and British artillery, the infantry fought their way onto Monte Pratone, some  east of the Il Giogo pass and a key position on the Gothic Line. Meanwhile, U.S. II Corps renewed their assault on Monte Altuzzo, dominating the east side of the Il Giogo Pass. The Altuzzo positions fell on the morning of 17 September, after five days of fighting. The capture of Altuzzo and Pratone as well as Monte Verruca between them caused the formidable Futa Pass defences to be outflanked, and Lemelsen was forced to pull back, leaving the pass to be taken after only light fighting on 22 September.

On the left, IV Corps had fought their way to the main Gothic Line: notably the U.S. 370th Regimental Combat Team, which pushed the Axis troops on its sector to the north beyond the Highway 12 towards Gallicano; and the Brazilian 6th RCT, which took Massarosa, Camaiore and other small towns on its own way north. By the end of the month, the Brazilian unit had conquered Monte Prano and controlled the Serchio valley region without suffering any major casualties. In October, it also took Fornaci with its munitions factory, and Barga; while the 370th received reinforcements from other units (365th and 371st), to ensure the Fifth Army left wing sector at the Ligurian Sea.

On Fifth Army's far right wing, on the right of the British XIII Corps front, 8th Indian Infantry Division fighting across trackless ground had captured the heights of Femina Morta and British 6th Armoured Division had taken the San Godenzo Pass on Route 67 to Forlì, both on 18 September.

At this stage, with the slow progress on the Adriatic front, Clark decided that Bologna would be too far west along Route 9 to trap the German 10th Army. He decided therefore to make the main II Corps thrust further east towards Imola whilst XIII Corps would continue to push on the right toward Faenza. Although they were through the Gothic Line, Fifth Army—just like the Eighth Army before them—found the terrain beyond and its defenders even more difficult. Between 21 September and 3 October, U.S. 88th Division had fought its way to a standstill on the route to Imola suffering 2,105 men killed and wounded — roughly the same as the whole of the rest of II Corps during the actual breaching of the Gothic Line.

The fighting toward Imola had drawn German troops from the defence of Bologna, and Clark decided to switch his main thrust back toward the Bologna axis. U.S. II Corps pushed steadily through the Raticosa Pass and by 2 October, it had reached Monghidoro some  from Bologna. However, as it had on the Adriatic coast, the weather had broken and rain and low cloud prevented air support while the roads back to the ever more distant supply dumps near Florence became morasses.

On 5 October, U.S. II Corps renewed its offensive along a  front straddling Route 65 to Bologna. They were supported on their right flank by British XIII Corps including British 78th Infantry Division, newly returned to Italy after a three-month re-fit in Egypt. Gradual progress was made against stiffening opposition as German 14th Army moved troops from the quieter sector opposite U.S. IV Corps. By 9 October, they were attacking the massive  high sheer escarpment behind Livergnano which appeared insuperable. However, the weather cleared on the morning of 10 October to allow artillery and air support to be brought to bear. Nevertheless, it took until the end of 15 October before the escarpment was secured. On the right of U.S. II Corps British XIII Corps was experiencing equally determined fighting on terrain just as difficult.

Time runs out for the Allied offensive

By the second half of October, it was becoming increasingly clear to Alexander that despite the dogged fighting in the waterlogged plain of Romagna and the streaming mountains of the central Apennines, with the autumn well advanced and exhaustion and combat losses increasingly affecting his forces' capabilities, no breakthrough was going to occur before the winter weather returned.

On the Adriatic front, the British Eighth Army's advance resumed on its left wing through the Apennine foothills toward Forlì on Route 9. On 5 October the 10th Indian Infantry Division—switched from British X Corps to British V Corps—had crossed the Fiumicino river high in the hills and turned the German defensive line on the river forcing the German 10th Army units downstream to pull back towards Bologna. Paradoxically, in one sense, this helped Kesselring because it shortened the front he had to defend and shortened the distance between his two armies, providing him with greater flexibility to switch units between the two fronts. Continuing their push up Route 9, on 21 October British V Corps crossed the Savio river which runs north eastward through Cesena to the Adriatic and by 25 October were closing on the Ronco river, some  beyond the Savio, behind which the Germans had withdrawn. By the end of the month, the advance had reached Forlì, halfway between Rimini and Bologna.

Cutting the German Armies' lateral communications remained a key objective. Indeed, later Kesselring was to say that if in mid-October the front south of Bologna could not be held, then all the German positions east of Bologna "were automatically gone." Alexander and Clark had decided therefore to make a last push for Bologna before winter gripped the front.

On 16 October, the U.S. Fifth Army had gathered itself for one last effort to take Bologna. The Allies were short of artillery ammunition because of a global reduction in Allied ammunition production in anticipation of the final defeat of Germany. The Fifth Army's batteries were rationed to such an extent that the total rounds fired in the last week of October were less than the amount fired during one eight-hour period on 2 October. Nevertheless, U.S. II Corps and British XIII Corps pounded away for the next 11 days. Little progress was made in the centre along the main road to Bologna. On the right, there was better progress, and on 20 October the U.S. 88th Division seized Monte Grande, only  from Route 9, and three days later British 78th Division stormed Monte Spaduro. However, the remaining  were over difficult terrain and were reinforced by three of the best German divisions in Italy—the 29th Panzergrenadier Division, 90th Panzergrenadier Division and the 1st Parachute Division—which Kesselring had been able to withdraw from the Romagna as a result of his shortened front. By late October, the Brazilian 6th RCT had pushed the Axis forces through province of Lucca to Barga, where its advance was halted.

Later operations
In early November, the buildup to full strength of the 1st Brazilian Division and some reinforcement of the U.S. 92nd Division had not nearly compensated the U.S. Fifth Army for the formations diverted to France. The situation in the British Eighth Army was even worse: Replacement cadres were being diverted to northern Europe and I Canadian Corps was ordered to prepare to ship to the Netherlands in February of the following year. Also, while they remained held in the mountains, the armies continued to have an over-preponderance of armour relative to infantry.

During November and December, Fifth Army concentrated on dislodging the Germans from their well-placed artillery positions which had been key in preventing the Allied advance towards Bologna and the Po Valley. Using small and medium Brazilian and American forces, the U.S. Fifth Army attacked these points one by one but with no positive outcome. By the end of the year, the defence compound formed by the Germans around Monte Castello, (Lizano in) Belvedere, Della Toraccia, Castelnuovo (di Vergato), Torre di Nerone, La Serra, Soprassasso and Castel D'Aiano had proved extremely resilient.

Meanwhile, the British Eighth Army—held on Route 9 at Forlì—continued a subsidiary drive up the Adriatic coast and captured Ravenna on 5 November. In early November, the push up Route 9 resumed, and the river Montone, just beyond Forlì, was crossed on 9 November. However, the going continued to be very tough with the river Cosina, some  further along Route 9 being crossed only on 23 November. By 17 December, the river Lamone had been assaulted and Faenza cleared. The German 10th Army established itself on the raised banks of the river Senio (rising at least  above the surrounding plain) which ran across the line of the Eighth Army advance just beyond Faenza down to the Adriatic north of Ravenna. With snows falling and winter firmly established, any attempt to cross the Senio was out of the question and the Eighth Army's 1944 campaign came to an end.

In late December, in a final flourish to the year's fighting, the Germans used a predominantly Italian force of units from the Italian Monterosa Division to attack the left wing of the U.S. Fifth Army in the Serchio valley in front of Lucca to pin Allied units there which might otherwise have been switched to the central front. Two brigades of the 8th Indian Infantry Division were rapidly switched across the Apennines to reinforce the U.S. 92nd Infantry Division. By the time the reinforcements had arrived, the Axis forces had broken through to capture Barga, but decisive action by the 8th Indian Division's Major-General Dudley Russell halted further advance and the situation was stabilised and Barga recaptured by the New Year.

In mid-December Alexander became supreme commander of the Mediterranean Theatre. Clark took his place as commander of the Allied Armies in Italy (re-designated 15th Army Group) and command of U.S. Fifth Army was given to Lucian K. Truscott. In mid-February, as the winter weather improved,  Fifth Army resumed its attacks on German artillery positions (Operation Encore). This time the IV Corps used two full infantry divisions to accomplish the mission: the Brazilian division, tasked with taking Monte Castello, Soprassasso and Castelnuovo di Vergato; and the newly arrived U.S. 10th Mountain Division, tasked to take Belvedere, Della Torraccia and Castel D'Aiano. Operation Encore began on 18 February and was completed on 5 March, preparatory to the final offensive in Italy.

See also
 Gothic Line order of battle
 15th Army Group
 Battle of Rimini (1944)
 Italian Campaign (World War II)
 Operation Sunrise (World War II)
 Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II
 Italian Social Republic
 European Theatre of World War II

Notes
Footnotes

Citations

References

 Baumgardner, Randy W. (1998) 10th Mountain Division Turner Publishing Co.

 Corrigan, Gordon. (2010) The Second World War: A Military History Atlantic Books
 Ernest F. Fisher Jr. (1993) [1977] Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps United States Government Printing Office
 Evans, Bryn. (2012) [1988] With the East Surreys in Tunisia and Italy 1942 - 1945: Fighting for Every River and Mountain Pen & Sword Books Ltd
 Gibran, Daniel K. (2001) The 92nd Infantry Division and the Italian Campaign in World War II McFarland & Co. Inc. Publishers

 Various Authors (2005) Gothic Line - Le Battaglie Della Linea Gotica 1944-45  Edizioni Multigraphic

External links

 La Città Invisibile   Collection of signs, stories and memories during the Gothic Line age.
 Gemmano 1944 Part 1 : The Gothic Line and the Operation Olive
 Gothic Line And Po Valley Campaign Go For Broke National Education Center
 The Gothic Line: Canada's Month of Hell  Canada at War
 Gotica Toscana Italian military history no profit association
 Men at war on Gothic line  Associazione Linea Gotica

 North Apennines Campaign, 1944-1945  in U.S. Army Center of Military History Website.
 Photographs of the Gothic Line Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d'Italia
 Portal FEB   Website with Bibliography, videos, testimonials from veterans about the Italian Campaign.
  Time Line of Mediterranean WWII theatre

Italian campaign (World War II)
German World War II defensive lines
World War II sites in Italy
World War II operations and battles of the Italian Campaign
World War II defensive lines

Gothic Line