An Eria mucronata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Lindley. An Eria mucronata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eria, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eria

Eria mucronata


Rodna binarnost (također poznata kao rodni binarizam, binarizam ili genderizam) klasifikacija je spola u dva različita, suprotna oblika muškog i ženskog roda, bilo prema društvenom sustavu ili kulturnom uvjerenju.

U ovom binarnom modelu, spol, rod i seksualnost su usklađeni s nečijim genetskim spolom ili spolom temeljenim na spolnim žlijezdama, ili sa spolom dodijeljenim pri rođenju. Na primjer, kad se muškarac rodi, rodni binarizam može pretpostaviti da će muškarac biti muškog izgleda, karakternih osobina i ponašanja, uključujući heteroseksualnu privlačnost prema ženama. Ti aspekti mogu uključivati očekivanja od odijevanja, ponašanja, seksualne orijentacije, imena ili zamjenice, željenog toaleta ili drugih kvaliteta. Ta očekivanja mogu ojačati negativne stavove, pristranost i diskriminaciju prema ljudima koji izražavaju rodne razlike ili čiji je rodni identitet neskladan s njihovim prirođenim spolom.

Opći aspekti
Pojam binarni spol opisuje sustav u kojem društvo raspoređuje svoje članove u jedan od dva skupa rodnih uloga, rodnih identiteta i atributa na temelju vrste genitalija. U slučaju ljudi rođenih s organima koji ne spadaju u ovaj klasifikacijski sustav (interspolni ljudi), provođenje binarnog sustava često uključuje prisilnu kiruršku promjenu spola. Interseksualni ljudi anatomski se često identificiraju kao muškarci ili žene; međutim, njihov urođeni rodni identitet može biti različit. Spolna se binarnost stoga usredotočuje prvenstveno na nečiji urođeni identitet, bez obzira na njegove anatomske značajke.

Rodne uloge glavni su aspekt rodne binarnosti. Rodne uloge oblikuju i ograničavaju životna iskustva ljudi, utječući na aspekte samoizražavanja, od izbora odjeće do zanimanja. Većina ljudi ima ženske i muške psihološke osobine. Na tradicionalne rodne uloge utječu mediji, religija, uobičajeno obrazovanje, politički sustavi, kulturni sustavi i socijalni sustavi. Glavne religije poput islama i kršćanstva, posebno djeluju kao autoriteti za rodne uloge. Na primjer, islam uči da su majke primarno dužne skrbiti se za svoju djecu, a Katolička crkva, najveća kršćanska denominacija, cispolne muškarce određuje za svećenike. Kršćanstvo svoju privrženost rodnom binarnom sustavu podupire Knjigom postanka u Bibliji, gdje je u 27. retku objavljeno da je "Bog stvorio čovjeka na svoju sliku; na sliku Božju stvorio ga je; muško i žensko stvorio ih je."

Ortodoksni judaizam također zabranjuje ženama da budu zaređene za rabinice i da služe kao svećenici u svojim skupštinama.

Na engleskom neke imenice (npr. Dječak), počasni naslovi (npr. Gospođica), zanimanja (npr. Glumica) i zamjenice (npr. Ona, njegova) imaju rod i spadaju u binarno muško/žensko. Djeca koja su odrastala u okruženjima koja govore engleski (i druge rodove jezike) doživljavaju spol kao binarnu kategoriju.

Prema Thomasu Keithu iz Muškosti u suvremenoj američkoj kulturi, dugogodišnja kulturna pretpostavka da su dualnosti između muškaraca i žena "prirodne i nepromjenjive" dijelom objašnjava postojanost sustava patrijarhata i muških privilegija u modernom društvu.

Hyde i kolege sugeriraju da vidljivo obilježavanje spola postaje neprirodno psihološki istaknuto.

U LGBT zajednici
Rodni binarizam može stvoriti institucionalizirane strukture moći, a pojedinci koji se identificiraju izvan tradicionalnih rodnih binarnih datoteka mogu doživjeti diskriminaciju i uznemiravanje unutar LGBT zajednice. Većina ove diskriminacije proizlazi iz društvenih očekivanja o spolu koja su izražena u LGBT zajednici. Ali mnogi LGBT ljudi i mnoge omladinske aktivističke grupe zagovaraju rodni binarizam unutar LGBT zajednice. Mnogi pojedinci iz LGBT + zajednice prijavljuju unutarnju hijerarhiju statusa moći. Neki koji se ne identificiraju unutar binarnog sustava padaju na dno hijerarhije. Mnoštvo različitih varijabli kao što su rasa, etnička pripadnost, dob, spol i još mnogo toga može smanjiti ili podići nečiju prividnu moć.

Širom svijeta postoji mnogo pojedinaca i nekoliko supkultura koje se mogu smatrati iznimkama od rodnih binarnih ili specifičnih transrodnih identiteta. Pored pojedinaca čija su tijela prirodno interspolna, postoje i specifične društvene uloge koje uključuju aspekte oba ili niti jednog binarnog spola. Tu spadaju dvodusi kod američkih Indijanaca i indijske hidžre. Feministička filozofkinja María Lugones tvrdi da su zapadni kolonizatori autohtonim narodima nametnuli svoje dualističke ideje o rodu, zamjenjujući već postojeće autohtone koncepte.  Na suvremenom Zapadu, ne-binarni ljudi razbijaju rodnu binarnost odbijajući izraze poput "muški" i "ženski". Transrodne osobe imaju jedinstveno mjesto u odnosu na rodnu binarnost. U nekim slučajevima, pokušavajući se prilagoditi društvenim očekivanjima o svom spolu, transseksualne osobe mogu se odlučiti za operativni zahvat, hormone ili oboje.

Ograničenja i odbijanje
Neki su feministički znanstvenici osporavali postojanje jasne rodne binarnosti. Judith Lorber objašnjava problem neispitivanja podjele ljudi u ove dvije skupine "iako često pronalaze značajnije razlike unutar grupe od razlika između grupa". Lorber tvrdi da to potvrđuje činjenicu da je rodna binarnost proizvoljna i dovodi do lažnih očekivanja i muškaraca i žena. Umjesto toga, raste podrška za mogućnost korištenja dodatnih kategorija koje uspoređuju ljude bez "prethodnih pretpostavki o tome tko je poput koga".

Znanstvenici koji proučavaju rodnu binarnost iz perspektive intersekcijskog feminizma i kritičke teorije rase slažu se da je tijekom procesa europske kolonizacije SAD-a stvoren i proveden binarni rodni sustav kao sredstvo zaštite patrijarhalnih normi i podržavanja europskog nacionalizma. Smatra se da je ova ideja roda kao binarnog sustava represivno sredstvo za odražavanje diferencijalne dinamike snage. Studije tradicije dvoduha pokazale su da razne indijanske nacije razumiju spol i seksualnost na način koji se izravno suprotstavlja zapadnim normama.

Rodni binarizam također postavlja ograničenja na adekvatnost medicinske skrbi koja se pruža pacijentima koji ne odgovaraju rodu. U medicinskoj literaturi postoji velika praznina o nebinarnim populacijama koje imaju jedinstvene zdravstvene potrebe.

Anne Fausto-Sterling predlaže klasifikaciju 23 spola i odmak od klasifikacije muškog i ženskog spola. U svom radu "Pet spolova: zašto muškarci i žene nisu dovoljni", ona govori o postojanju interspolnih osoba, pojedinaca koji imaju kombinaciju muških i ženskih spolnih karakteristika, koji se smatraju odstupanjima od norme i koji često podliježu prisili operacija u vrlo mladoj dobi kako bi se održao dvospolni sustav. Postojanje ovih pojedinaca dovodi u pitanje standarde rodnih binarnih datoteka i dovodi u pitanje ulogu društva u konstrukciji roda. Fausto-Sterling kaže da moderni praktičari potiču ideju da je rod kulturni konstrukt i zaključuje da, "prelazimo iz razdoblja seksualnog dimorfizma u jedno od raznolikosti izvan broja 2".

Izvori

LGBT

Rodna binarnost


Lord Soames may refer to:

Christopher Soames, Baron Soames, former Governor of Southern Rhodesia
Nicholas Soames, Baron Soames, former MP for Mid Sussex and Crawley, and son of Christopher Soames

Lord Soames


භාර්තා කා වීර් පුත්‍ර – මහාරාණා ප්‍රතාප් හෙවත් මහාපුත්‍ර යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ කොන්ටිලෝයි එන්ටර්ටේන්මන්ට්හි අභිමන්‍යු රාජ් සිං විසින් නිෂ්පාදනය කරන ලද ඉන්දියානු ඓතිහාසික ප්‍රබන්ධ රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලාවකි. මේ සඳහා පාදක වී ඇත්තේ දහසයවන සියවසේ වයඹදිග ඉන්දියාවේ වර්තමාන රාජස්ථාන් ප්‍රාන්තයට අයත් භූමියේ මෙවාර් ප්‍රදේශයේ හින්දු රාජ්පුත් පාලකයා වූ මහාරාණා ප්‍රතාප්ගේ ජීවිත කථාව ඇසුරෙනි.

මෙම කතාමාලාව විකාශය ඇරඹූයේ 2013 මැයි 27 දින සෝනි එන්ටර්ටේන්මන්ට් ටෙලිවිෂන් ඉන්ඩියා නාළිකාවෙනි. කතාමාලාවේ පළමු කථාංගයේ කථානය සිදුකරන ලද්දේ බොලිවුඩ් නළු අමිතාබ් බච්චන් විසිනි.

කතාමාලාවේ අවසන් කථාංගය 2015 දෙසැම්බර් 10 දින විකාශය විය. මෙහි දී මහාරාණා ප්‍රතාප් රෝගී තත්ත්වයක් හේතුවෙන් අභාවප්‍රපාප්ත වන අතර, ඔහුගේ පුත් අමර් සිං මෙවාරයේ ඉදිරි රාණා ලෙස කිරුළු පළඳියි.

චරිත නිරූපණය

 ෆයිසල් ඛාන්/ෂාරද් මල්හෝත්‍රා, මහාරාණා ප්‍රතාප් ලෙස
 රෝෂිණී වාලියා/රචනා පරුල්කාර්, මහාරාණි අජාබ්දේ ලෙස
 ජන්නත් සුබයිර් රහ්මානි/ හීනා පර්මාර්, මහාරාණි ෆූල් බායි රථෝර් ලෙස
 ෂර්හාන් සිං, ඉස්මයිල් ඛාන් ලෙස
ජිනීත් රාත්, මහාරාණා Iවන අමර් සිං ලෙස
 සාහිල් දේශ්මුඛ්/ අරිෂ් භිවන්දිවාලා/විශාල් ජේත්වා/ක්‍රිප් සූරි/අවිනේශ් රේඛි,  ජලාලුද්දීන් මුහම්මද් අක්බර් ලෙස
 රාජ්ශ්‍රී ඨාකුර්, මහාරාණි ජයිවන්තා බායි සොංගාරා ලෙස
 ආශ්කා ගොරාඩියා, රාණි ධීර්බායි භාටියාණි ලෙස
 අංකිත් භාරද්වාජ්, රාඕ චන්ද්‍රසේන් රථෝර් ලෙස
 තාෂා කපූර් /පාර්වතී සේගාල්, රාජකුමාරී හීර් කුන්වාරි ලෙස
 ෆලාක් නාස්, රුඛයියා සුල්තාන් බෙගම් ලෙස
 රියා දීප්සි, සලීමා සුල්තාන් බෙගම් ලෙස
 වින්ධ්‍යා තිවාරි, රාණි දුර්ගාවතී ලෙස
 සරිකා ධිලන්, රාණි වීර්බායි ජාලා ලෙස
 නිර්භයි වාධ්වා, හකීම් ඛාන් සූර් ලෙස
විනීතා ජෝෂි තක්කර්, රාජකුමාරී මාන් කන්වාර් ලෙස
 දීක්ෂා සොනාල්කර්, රාජකුමාරී චාන්ද කන්වාර්
අංකුර් නයියර්, ආචාර්ය රාඝවේන්ද්‍ර ලෙස
ශෛලේෂ් දත්තර්, තුල්සිදාස් ලෙස
රාජු ශ්‍රේෂ්ඨ, මියා ටැන්සෙන් ලෙස
ඛුරාම් ඛාන්, කුන්වාර් ජග්මාල් සිං ලෙස
විනීත් කුමාර්, මීර් ශක්ති සිං ලෙස
 ෂේස් කස්මි, රාවත් ක්‍රිෂ්ණා දාස් චුන්දාවත් ලෙස
ශක්ති ආනන්ද්, මහාරාණා IIවන උදය සිං ලෙස
 දිව්‍යාලක්ෂ්මී, රාණි සජ්ජා බායි සෝලංකිනි ලෙස
 ජයා භටාචාර්ය, මහම් අංගා ලෙස
 ධෲව් සංග්වන්, කුන්වාර් ශක්ති සිං ලෙස
 සුරේන්ද්‍ර පාල්, රාඕ මාල්දියෝ රථෝර් ලෙස
 ප්‍රියා මරාඨේ, රාණි සෞභාග්‍යවතී ලෙස (පසුබිම් රංගනය)
 නේහා බාම්, දායි කොකොයි ලෙස
 දක්ෂ් අජිත් සිං, රාජ් රාණා බහදූර් ලෙස
 ප්‍රදීප් කබ්රා, ෂාම්ස් ඛාන් ලෙස
 සිරාජ් මුස්තාෆා ඛාන්, බසාර් ඛාන් ලෙස
 අංජලී ප්‍රියා, ක්‍රිෂ්ණා ලෙස
 යෂ් මිස්ත්‍රි, කුන්වාර් වික්‍රම් දේව් සිං ලෙස
 ෂාබාස් ඛාන්, බයිරම් ඛාන් ලෙස
 ගුෆි පයින්තාල්, නසීරුද්දීන් මොහම්මද් හුමායුන් ලෙස (පසුබිම් රංගනය)
 ආනන්ද් ගොරාදියා, රාඕ සුර්තාන් සිං ලෙස
අඛිල් වෛද්, බාද්ෂා ඛාන් ලෙස
 හේමන්ත් චෞධරි, දොණ්ඩියා ඨාකුර් සන්දා ලෙස
 රීමා වෝහ්රා, ගෞහාර් ජාන් ලෙස
 ප්‍රතිභා පෝල්, ඛේටු ලෙස
 කුණාල් බක්ෂි, පීර් මොහම්මද් ලෙස
 යෂ් කාරියා/ත්‍රීයුග් මන්ත්‍රී, පණ්ඩිත් චක්‍රපාණී මිෂ්රා ලෙස
 අංජලී රාණා, රාණි හංසාබායි ලෙස
තරුන් ඛන්නා, සාහිර් සාකා ලෙස
 රජීව් භාරද්වාජ්, රාවත් සායි දාස් චුන්දාවත් ලෙස
 රුෂිරාජ් පාවාර්, රාවත් පට්ටා සිං සිසෝදියා ලෙස
 වේද් තාපර්, රාඕ ජයිමාල් ලෙස
රිතේශ් එම්. එම්. ශුක්ලා, තක්කල් පණ්ඩිත් ලෙස
සොහාද් උද්දියාන් ඛා, මහරාජා සංග්‍රාම් සිං ලෙස (පසුබිම් රංගනය)

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

සෝනි එන්ටර්ටේන්මන්ට් රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා
ඉන්දියානු කාලාන්තර රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා
ඉන්දියානු ඓතිහාසික රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා
මහාරාණා ප්‍රතාප් අනුස්මරණ
2013 ඉන්දියානු රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා ඇරඹීම්
රාජස්ථානය පසුබිමෙහි නිර්මාණය වූ රූපවාහිනී වැඩසටහන්
රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා

භාරත් කා වීර් පුත්‍ර – මහාරාණා ප්‍රතාප්


Tegui Calderón Rosario (born February 1, 1972) is a Puerto Rican rapper, singer and actor. He began his musical career in 1996 (as Tego Tec) and was supported by the famous Puerto Rican rapper Eddie Dee, who invited him on his second studio album, El Terrorista de la Lírica, released in 2000. Calderón reached international success in 2003 with his first album, El Abayarde, which sold 300,000 copies worldwide and was nominated for a Latin Grammy Award. His importance in reggaeton music led him to participate in Eddie Dee's 12 Discípulos album in 2004. He released three more studio albums between 2006 and 2015, varying in styles, focusing more in hip hop and African music rather than reggaeton in The Underdog/El Subestimado (2006) and El Abayarde Contraataca (2007). His fourth studio album, El Que Sabe, Sabe, released in 2015, won a Latin Grammy Award for Best Urban Music Album. In the same year, he announced that he is planning a studio album alongside the Puerto Rican singer Yandel titled El Blanco y el Negro.

Calderón's style is characterized by his social and political themes, with lyrics against corruption in the Puerto Rican government. His themes also include dancing, love, self-reflection and personal experiences.

His film career started in 2007 with his supporting role in Illegal Tender. In 2009 he had a lead role in a short film called Los Bandoleros, which is part of Fast & Furious franchise, and the same year had a cameo appearance in the fourth installment of that franchise, Fast & Furious. In 2011, he reprised his character in a supporting role in Fast Five, alongside his colleague and friend Don Omar.

Early life
Calderón was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico. He is the son of Pilar Rosario Parrilla, a schoolteacher, and Esteban Calderón Ilarraza, a government worker for Puerto Rico's Department of Health. Moving at a young age from his native Puerto Rico to Miami, Florida, Calderón attended Miami Beach Senior High. Here he was exposed to several different cultures, eventually studying percussion and working as a drummer in a rock band. The band would cover songs produced by artists including Ozzy Osbourne and Led Zeppelin. He has noted that both of his parents were fans of Ismael Rivera, and that his father was also interested in jazz. He was influenced by both genres and incorporated them into his music, including songs such as "Minnie the Moocher". He eventually developed a music style that combined elements of salsa, plena, dancehall, and hip-hop, focusing on aspects of urban life in his lyrics.

Early musical career
Calderón's career began as a participant in Puerto Rican hip hop contests on television during the 1990s. He met Eddie Dee and DJ Adam who would become his main collaborators, but Calderón was rejected by most producers and deejays at the time. DJ Adam in an interview with Puerto Rican podcaster Chente Ydrach said that Calderón was going to be a part of the underground album DJ Adam's Mad Jam, but Calderón's style was too eccentric and underdeveloped, so he was taken out of the final tracklist.

Calderón signed to Eddie Dee's label in 2000, collaborating with Dee on his first hit on Puerto Rican radio, the hip hop song "En Peligro de Extinción" from Dee's second album El Terrorista de la Lírica.

During 2001-2002, Calderón participated in over a dozen original compilations including gold and platinum albums such as "Kilates", "Boricuas NY" volumes 1 and 2, "The Majestic", "La Mision" volumes 2 and 3 and of course his first worldwide crossover hit 'Cosa Buena' from the "Planet Reggae" production distributed by White Lion Records and Diamond Music.  On top of that, he also was featured in the albums of Yaga y Mackie "Sonando Diferente" and Maestro's "The Movie" which further accelerated his buzz in the streets.

Thanks to 'Cosa Buena' and it being one of the first reggaeton videos receiving major rotation on mainstream channels such as Telemundo, in 2002, Calderón became a worldwide phenomenon before his debut album "El Abayarde" in November of that same year creating much hype for his debut. Despite only being available in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and parts of the United States due to White Lion Records (formerly known as Boricua Guerrero and now 100% under Elías de León's ownership) being an independent label at the time; Regardless, 'El Abayarde' became the first hip hop/reggaeton album by a solo artist to sell over 75,000 units in one week with no major label distribution.  This success led to Calderón and White Lion signing a joint venture with Sony Music Latin. Calderón formed his own label in the process known as Jiggiri Records under the White Lion banner and distributed by Sony Music Latin. Jiggiri Records would go on to sign and release multi-platinum albums from notable artists such as Zion & Lennox, Voltio and John Eric. Calderón would go on to become one of the most successful touring acts in all of Latin music from 2003-2005, thus further legitimizing the genre now known as reggaeton (once called 'underground').

In August 2003, Calderón performed at the Madison Square Garden in New York City. Based on his show and performance, The New York Times noted that he "made the best case for Reggaetón as music with room to grow" being a "forward-looking performer." His second appearance at the venue was in October 2004, where he headlined an event titled Megatón 2004. The concert sold out, with 20,000 in attendance, a mixed crowd of Latino and non-Latino fans.

Calderón's travels subsequently led him to Miami, where he incorporated dancehall elements into his musical style. In 2004, his album titled El Enemy de los Guasíbiri was released.  The album's production included a mix of several urban genres. Calderón claimed that he preferred the influence of these other genres due to his belief that Salsa had "become too corporate and too safe". Years after its release, Calderón stated that he had never approved the release of the Guasibiri album, which he claimed was rather a collection of old songs and that it should be left out of his discography as an unauthorized album. Following the release of this album, reggaeton gained more influence with several hip-hop producers in New York. Calderón continued working on several mixtapes, being featured in remixes of Usher's "Yeah", Fat Joe's "Lean Back", N.O.R.E.'s "Oye Mi Canto" and Akon's "I Wanna Love You", 50 Cent's P.I.M.P remix and also Calderón featured Aventura's "We Got the Crown".

2005–present

Calderón participated on the 2004 and 2005 editions of New York's Puerto Rican Day parade. During this timeframe he became the first Latin American artist to be included on New York's Power-105. Calderón's influence among Latin American youth was noted in a featured published by the Village Voice. The publication claimed that he had "almost single-handedly. .. steered his country's dominant youth culture out of the island and Latino neighborhoods, and into the American stream of pop consciousness."  Around this time Calderón still remained a fixture in popular Latin music thanks to international hits such as the Don Omar– led "Bandoleros" (notably included in The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift soundtrack) and "Quítate Tú Pa Ponerme Yo" from Dee's 12 Discípulos compilation album.

In mid-2005, Calderón signed a joint venture deal between Atlantic Records and his own independent label, Jiggiri Records, for the amount of a million dollars as reported in the Hip Hop/Reggaeton publications of the time. In 2006, he released The Underdog/El Subestimado, his second album, containing less reggaeton and more hip hop music. This album featured appearances by Buju Banton, Voltio, Bataklán, Eddie Dee, Luis Cabán, Yandel, Zion, Chyno Nyno, Don Omar and Oscar D'León. Several producers were involved in the album, including Cookee, Major League, Salaam Remi, Eric Figueroa, Luny Tunes, DJ Nelson, Danny Fornaris, Nesty la Mente Maestra, Naldo, DJ Joe, DJ Fat, Echo and Diesel.

In 2023, Calderón released "La Receta" through Paz y Esperanza and Universal Music Latino.

Musical styles and themes
Although Calderón is a reggaeton artist, he claims to like "all types of music". Evidence of this is seen both in his biography (he began his career in music in a heavy metal band and attended a school for music as a drummer) as well as in his music, which incorporates "'several musical tendencies'", including sounds and rhythms from places like Africa, Colombia, and the Caribbean. He obtains the sound for his popular reggaeton music through "fusing an experimental reggaeton style strongly rooted in the working-class Caribbean aesthetics of classic salsa with a strong dose of hip-hop". On The Underdog/El Subestimado, he collaborated with rap duo Anónimo Consejo to create a song entitled "Son Dos Alas" which eventually was shortened to an interlude without Calderón.

Calderón has also been praised for his lyrics, which are much more substantive and uplifting, expressing social consciousness. Calderón has been described as "the reggaeton champion of an Afro-Caribbean working-class aesthetic" and is known for lyrics that are equal parts poetry and politics. A consistent link between all of his albums "are the social themes and the untouchable bravado that he usually transmits through his artistic outlook."  According to Tony Touch (legendary hip hop dj and collaborator), "Tego is someone who represents struggle, an underdog... He's more of an MC, a product of late-'80s hip-hop."

Film and other career projects
Calderón made his acting debut in the film Illegal Tender produced by John Singleton.  Calderón played the role of Choco, a Puerto Rican gangster whose character was written specifically for him by director Franc. Reyes.

Calderón turned down roles in both Feel the Noise and "El Cantante" and instead chose to appear in Illegal Tender out of respect for its producer.  After convincing John Singleton that he wanted to appear in a comedy, Calderón was slated to appear in an upcoming Singleton film which casts him as the coach of a baseball team., but the movie was never produced.

Calderón traveled to Sierra Leone along with artists Raekwon and Paul Wall to film a VH1 documentary about diamond mining entitled "Bling'd: Blood, Diamonds, and Hip-Hop." The documentary focused on the role of Hip Hop in the blood diamond trade, after the filming concluded Calderón publicly announced that he would no longer wear jewelry.  His experience in Africa also changed his outlook on life, which influenced the recording of the track "Alegria", encouraging fans to not complain about life and recognize that there are other people with bigger problems in their lives.

Calderón and Don Omar are featured in Fast & Furious, Fast Five and The Fate of the Furious, the fourth, fifth and eighth installments of The Fast and the Furious franchise.

Discography

 Studio albums
 El Abayarde (2002)
 The Underdog/El Subestimado (2006)
 El Abayarde Contraataca (2007)
 El Que Sabe, Sabe (2015)

 Mixtapes
 The Original Gallo Del País - O.G. El Mixtape (2012)

 Compilation albums
 El Enemy de los Guasíbiri (2004)

Awards and nominations
American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers Latin Music Awards

!Ref.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2004
|«Al Natural»
|Hip hop/Rap/Reggaeton Song of the Year
|
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2009
|«Quitarte To'» (featuring Randy)
|Urban Song of the Year
|
| style="text-align:center;"|
|}

Grammy Awards

!Ref.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2007
|The Underdog/El Subestimado
|Best Latin Rock, Alternative or Urban Album
|
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2008
|El Abayarde Contraataca
|Best Latin Urban Album
|
| style="text-align:center;"|
|}

Latin Grammy Awards

!Ref.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2003
|El Abayarde
|rowspan="2"|Best Urban Music Album
|
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2008
|El Abayarde Contraataca
|
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|
|-
|«Ni Fu Ni Fa»
|Best Urban Song
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2012
|"Calentura" (with ChocQuibTown and Zully Murillo)
|Record of the Year
|
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|
|-
|The Original Gallo del País
|rowspan="2"|Best Urban Music Album
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2015
|El Que Sabe, Sabe
|
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|
|-
|«Dando Break»
|Best Urban Song
|
|}

Filmography

Video games

References

External links

  Official website

1972 births
Living people
Latin Grammy Award winners
Puerto Rican rappers
Puerto Rican reggaeton musicians
Puerto Rican musicians
Singers from San Juan, Puerto Rico
Latin music songwriters
21st-century American rappers
Puerto Rican people of African descent
Atlantic Records artists
Warner Music Latina artists
Universal Music Latino artists

Tego Calderón


James McArthur (Glasgow, Escocia, Reino Unido, 7 de octubre de 1987) es un exfutbolista escocés que jugaba de centrocampista.

Trayectoria
Inició su carrera en el Hamilton Academical F. C. de su país. Debutó en la Primera División de Escocia (segunda categoría) en la temporada 2004-05. Con el mismo club consiguió el ascenso a la Premier League escocesa en 2008. En total jugó 169 partidos por el equipo de Hamilton, anotando 7 goles.

El 31 de julio de 2010 fue transferido al Wigan Athletic F. C. de Inglaterra a cambio de 600 000 libras.

Clubes

Palmarés

Títulos nacionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Ficha en SFA

Nacidos en Glasgow
Centrocampistas de fútbol
Futbolistas del Hamilton Academical Football Club
Futbolistas del Wigan Athletic Football Club
Futbolistas del Crystal Palace Football Club
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol sub-21 de Escocia
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Escocia en los años 2010

James McArthur


Femonoe, Yunan mitolojisinde, (İngilizce: Phemonoe, Grekçe: Φημονόη) Homeros öncesi dönemin bir Yunan şairiydi. Apollo'nun kızı ve altı birimlik vezin türü olan Hekzametre'nin (İngilizce: Hexameter) mucidi olduğuna inanılmaktadır.

Bazıları Delphi'deki Apollo Tapınağı'nın girişinde yazılı olan "Kendini bil"  anlamına gelen Gnothi Seauton deyişini Femonoe'ye atfetmiştirler.

Kaynakça

Delfi
Antik Yunan şairler
Yunan mitolojisinde kadınlar
Apollon'un çocukları
Klasik peygamberler

Femonoe


Kosmos 2367, ruski izviđački satelit za morsko radiotehničko izviđanje iz programa Kosmos. Vrste je US-PU (br. 8L/Konus-A).
Lansiran je 26. prosinca 1999. godine u 08:00 s kozmodroma Bajkonura (Tjuratam) u Kazahstanu. Lansiran je u nisku orbitu oko planeta Zemlje raketom nosačem Ciklon-2 11K69 (modificirani ICBM). Orbita mu je bila 403 km u perigeju i 417 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,03°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26040. COSPARova oznaka je 1999-072-A. Zemlju je obilazio u 92,76 minuta. Pri lansiranju bio je mase kg.

Vratio se u atmosferu 20. srpnja 2002. godine. Dijelovi satelita su se odvojili i kružili su u niskoj orbiti i vratili u atmosferu, ukupno sedamnaest komada.

Izvori
А.Железняков. Энциклопедия "Космонавтика". Хроника освоения космоса. 1999 год. (rus.)
Heavens-above (engl.)
NASA (engl.)
Planet4589.org Tablični prikaz podataka o satelitima (engl.)

Vanjske poveznice
N2YO.com Search Satellite Database
Celes Trak SATCAT Format Documentation (engl.)
Kunstman  Satellites in Orbit (engl.)

Sateliti Kosmos

Kosmos 2367


A permanent marker or indelible marker is a type of marker pen that is used to create permanent or semi-permanent writing on an object.

Description
In general, permanent marker ink comprises a main carrier solvent, a glyceride, a pyrrolidone, a resin, and a colorant, making it water resistant. It is capable of writing on a variety of surfaces from paper to metal to stone. They come in a variety of tip sizes (ultra fine to wide), shapes (chisel point, bullet tip, and wide bristle), and colors (metallic, or ultraviolet reactive).

Most markers have alcohol-based solvents. Other types, called paint markers, contain volatile organic compounds which evaporate to dry the ink, and are similar to spray paint. Due to solvents such as toluene and xylene often being present in permanent markers, they have a potential for abuse as a recreational drug.

The permanent marker was invented in 1952 by Sidney Rosenthal.

Applications

General purpose
Permanent markers are used for writing on metals, plastics, ceramics, wood, stone, cardboard etc. However, the mark made by them is semi-permanent on some surfaces. Most permanent marker ink can be erased from some plastic surfaces (like polypropylene and teflon) with little rubbing pressure.
They can be used on ordinary paper, but the ink tends to bleed through and become visible on the other side.

Use in microscopy
In addition to being used for labelling microscopy slides, permanent markers can be used to do a negative stain of a bacterial sample. This means the background is stained with the marker, but the bacteria are not.  The bacteria can be seen because they are unstained (lighter) while the background is stained (darker).

Removal
Permanent markers are generally used on hard, non-porous surfaces, because instead of staining they form a surface layer that, despite their name, can be removed by high pressure cleaning, paint thinners, or organic solvents such as acetone, xylene, or toluene. When used indoors, isopropyl alcohol, ethanol, and ethyl acetate are preferred cleaners, as their fumes are much less hazardous than toluene and xylene, the main components of paint thinner, or the longer-chain hydrocarbons found in mineral spirits. Other common non-polar solvents include benzene, turpentine and other terpenes (which constitute essential oils of many plants with strong scents), most ethers, chloroform and dichloromethane, hydrocarbon fuels, and diacetone alcohol, among many others. Many of these solvents are toxic, carcinogenic, or flammable, and should only be used with adequate ventilation.

Most brands of "OLFA" marker wipe off easily with acetone-free nail polish remover, the kind containing ethyl acetate, a relatively non-toxic organic solvent.

A permanent marker can also be removed by drawing over it with a dry erase marker on non-porous surfaces such as a whiteboard, as dry erase markers also contain a non-polar solvent. Most dry-erase board cleaner solutions also contain effective organic solvents like 2-butoxyethanol to remove the pigment.

Laws
Due to their potential to be used for vandalism, some locales, such as Florida, California, New York City, and Berwyn, Illinois, have laws against possessing permanent markers in public, and prohibit sales of them to minors.

Notes and references

See also
 List of pen types, brands and companies
 Inhalants

Visual arts materials
Pens
Writing implements

Permanent marker


Daniel Noel "Danny" Drinkwater ()

Și-a început cariera la Manchester United, apoi a fost împrumutat la echipele Huddersfield Town, Cardiff City, Watford și Barnsley, înainte de a semna cu Leicester, în 2012.

Referințe

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1990
Fotbaliști englezi
Mijlocași
Fotbaliști ai Manchester United FC
Fotbaliști ai Cardiff City FC
Fotbaliști ai Watford FC
Fotbaliști ai Barnsley FC
Fotbaliști ai Leicester City FC
Fotbaliști ai Chelsea FC
Fotbaliști ai Burnley FC
Fotbaliști ai Aston Villa FC
Fotbaliști ai Reading FC
Fotbaliști internaționali englezi

Danny Drinkwater


Li Jingfang GCVO (李經方; 1854 – 28 September 1934), also known as Li Ching-fong, was a Chinese statesman during the Qing dynasty. Being the nephew and adopted son of the late statesman Li Hongzhang, he served in his adoptive father's secretariat in his youth. In 1882, Li Jingfang obtained the second highest degree in the imperial examinations and subsequently obtained appointment in the Qing foreign service because of his knowledge of English. In 1886–89, he worked as a secretary to the Qing legation in London and in 1890-92 he served as the Qing minister to Japan. He is mostly known for having signed the Sino-Japanese Treaty of Shimonoseki in Li Hongzhang's stead in 1895. He was appointed as an Honorary Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order by Queen Victoria in 1896 and was promoted to a Honorary Knight Grand Cross a few years later in 1909. He also served as the Chinese Minister to London in 1909–1910.

References

1854 births
1934 deaths
Politicians from Hefei
Ambassadors of China to Japan
Qing dynasty diplomats
Businesspeople from Anhui
Ambassadors of China to the United Kingdom
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order

Li Jingfang


Le Musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro (en portugais : Museu Histórico da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro), plus connu sous le nom de Museu da Cidade, est un musée de Rio de Janeiro, au Brésil.

Créé en 1934, il est situé dans un ensemble de plusieurs bâtiments, dont deux édifices du  dédiés aux expositions, la chapelle de São João Batista du , ainsi qu'une réserve technique et un édifice administratif. Le complexe du musée est situé dans le parc naturel municipal Parque da Cidade dans le quartier de Gávea.

Historique
Le musée a été créé par décret le . Le , l'intendant municipal Alfredo Piragibe avait soumis une demande au maire demandant que les pièces du Sénat du Conseil municipal et du Conseil municipal de Rio de Janeiro soient envoyées au futur Musée municipal.

Par la suite, sur la base du décret  du  ,qui décidait « Conserver en bonne et due forme, correctement catalogué les pièces de numismatique, les livres rares et les objets de grande valeur pour l'étude de l'histoire de la ville », le maire Antônio Prado Júnior, par décret du , a ordonné que « pour assurer la meilleure conservation des objets qui présentent un intérêt pour l'histoire de la ville de Rio de Janeiro», tous les objets existant dans d'autres Directions seraient collectés par la Direction des statistiques et des archives, avec des employés affectés à la collecte, afin de constituer la collection historique de la ville. C'est le maire Pedro Ernesto qui a créé le musée le . Le Musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro est depuis placé sous la responsabilité de la mairie de Rio. En 1994, la mairie a signé un accord avec le gouvernement de l'État pour administrer l'institution.

Collection

Depuis sa création, le Musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro était déjà axé sur la conservation de pièces de grande importance pour l'histoire de la ville de Rio de Janeiro et parce qu'il a été créé dans une ville qui a été pendant longtemps la capitale du pays, sa collection est assez éclectique. Cet éclectisme a sa justification dans la nécessité de présenter une synthèse de la culture brésilienne, tout en maintenant son accent sur la ville de Rio de Janeiro.

La collection du musée comprend environ , dont des œuvres d'artistes tels que Eliseu Visconti, Thomas Ender, Antônio Parreiras, Armando Vianna, Augusto Malta et Marc Ferrez, avec aussi les collections des maires Pereira Passos, Pedro Ernesto, Carlos César de Oliveira Sampaio et César Maia. Le musée possède également une importante collection bibliographique composée de livres, magazines, catalogues, etautres ouvrages de référence rares sur l'histoire et la littérature de Rio de Janeiro, ainsi que des ouvrages de muséologie sur les collections du musée.

La constitution de cette vaste collection a commencé par la collecte dans les institutions publiques, les ventes aux enchères, les acquisitions et les donations.

Expositions
Le pavillon d'exposition temporaire, construit à la fin du , joue un rôle important dans la programmation du musée, car il abrite les expositions temporaires.

L'exposition « Divina Geometria – Cristo Redentor por Oskar Metsavaht », en 2016, a marqué la réouverture des lieux. En 2017, le musée a inauguré l'exposition « Rio de Janeiro par Estácio de Sá », avec des objets d'époque liés à la fondation de la Ville par Estácio de Sá en 1565, ainsi que l'exposition « Images du Rio au  », qui a présenté à travers des lithographies le Rio de Janeiro du .

En 2019, l'exposition « Corpo de Fuzileiro Navais, Inclusao e Arte », a présenté  de peintres de l'Association des Peintres avec Bouche et Pieds (APBP) des militaires, réalisées lors d'une mission de paix menée en Haïti. L'exposition a été organisée par le Commandement général du Corps des Fusiliers Navals avec le soutien du Secrétaire à la Culture.

Actuellement, le musée présente une exposition, localisée sur les trois étages du pavillon d'exposition temporaire, « Le musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro raconte son histoire », explorant l'histoire de l'institution au cours de ses 85 ans ; on y voit des curiosités et des aspects importants relatifs à la formation du musée.

Le petit palais, où sont présentées les expositions de longue durée, est actuellement fermé et devait ouvrir en 2020.

Bibliographie
Musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro : Secrétaire à la Culture, aux Sports et au Tourisme de l'État de Guanabara, 1974. 32 pages.

Porto, Claudia. Musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro : la collection volume 1 / Claudia Porto. - Rio de Janeiro : Philae, 2016. 72 pages.

Porto, Claudia. Musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro : la collection volume 2 / Claudia Porto. - Rio de Janeiro : Philae, 2016. 72 pages.

Porto, Claudia. Musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro : la collection volume 3 / Claudia Porto. - Rio de Janeiro : Philae, 2016. 72 pages.

Telles, Marcus. Musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro : Histoire de Rio / Marcus Telles. - Rio de Janeiro : Philae, 2016. 72 pages.

Metsavaht, Oscar. Christ Rédempteur : Géométrie divine / Oscar Metsavaht. - , Rio de Janeiro : Instituto-e, 2016. 200 pages.

Références

Liens externes

 Page du Musée sur le site du Secrétariat Municipal de la Culture de Rio de Janeiro
 Page du Musée historique de la ville de Rio de Janeiro

historique, Rio
historique Rio
Rio
historique Rio


Javier Otaola Bajeneta (Bilbao, 20 de febrero de 1956) es abogado y escritor. Miembro de número de la Real Sociedad Bascongada de Amigos del País.
Ha sido Gran Maestro de la Gran Logia Simbólica Española (GOEU), entre 1997 y 2000, y Presidente de la Internacional Masónica (CLIPSAS), entre 1997 y 1999.

Historia
Se recibió de licenciado en Derecho en 1977 y ejerció como abogado hasta 1982 en los Colegios de Bilbao, Vitoria y Madrid, además ha sido Letrado del Gobierno de la Comunidad Autónoma Vasca desde 1982 a 2021 que se jubiló y fue Defensor Vecinal-Herritarren Defendatzailea de la ciudad de Vitoria-Gasteiz (2000, durante dos períodos). Promotor y animador del Foro Club de los Iguales-Gure Artean, Amigo de Número de la Real Sociedad Bascongada de Amigos del País/ Euskalerriaren Adiskideak Elkartea, socio de la Asociación de Escritores de Euskadi/Euskadiko Idazleen Elkartea, y de otras asociaciones: culturales, mediadoras, y filantrópicas. Iniciado en Masonería en 1981 en la Logia Tolerancia (Bilbao), cofundador de la Logia Manuel Iradier en 1993 (Vitoria-Gasteiz), de la logia de estudios Theorema, (1997); ha sido Gran Maestro de la Gran Logia Simbólica Española (GOEU) (1997-2000) y Presidente de la internacional masónica CLIPSAS (Electo en Barcelona 1997- y cesó en el cargo tras el Encuentro de Atenas 2000).

Javier Otaola es autor de los ensayos La Metáfora masónica. Razón y sentido (San Sebastián, 1999); Laicidad, una estrategia para la libertad (Barcelona, 2000); En el umbral de la logia (San Sebastián, 2003); Ciudadanía e identidad (Madrid, 2007); Testutxoak (Donostia, 2007); Fragmentos de un discurso masónico (Oviedo, 2009); La masonería en persona(s), junto a Valentín Díaz (Oviedo, 2010); La logia y la ley del deseo (Madrid, 2011 Atanor Ediciones); Cristianismo sin embargo, (Oviedo, 2011); Masonería y Hermenéutica. Un mundo problemático, junto a Andrés Ortiz-Osés, (Madrid, 2012, Atanor Ediciones); Una mirada a la logia, junto al fotógrafo chileno Sebastián Utreras (Oviedo, 2012). Y las novelas Brocheta de Carne (San Sebastián, 2003); y As de Espadas (Barcelona, 2009).
Otaola es  o ha sido colaborador de Claves de Razón Práctica, El Correo, El País, Euskal Irratia Telebista y de otros medios. En 2023 publica una nueva novela protagonizada por su personaje de ficción, la ertzaina (policía vasca) Felicidad (o Zorione) Olaizola. ¨La comisaria Olaizola y el caso del perro blanco´,que se desarrolla en la ciudad de Vitoria-Gasteiz.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Web oficial
 Escritores vascos
 Enciclopedia Auñamendi

Escritores de Bilbao
Ensayistas del País Vasco
Masones de España
Nacidos en Bilbao

Javier Otaola Bajeneta


Landegodefjorden er et bredt sund i Bodø kommune i Nordland  fylke i Norge som i syd dannes  mellem øen Landegode og fastlandet lige nord for Bodø by. Sundet er omkring 18 kilometer langt frem til innløpet af Mistfjorden og foden af Mjeldefjellet, mens man på vestsiden regner indløbet for at  være ved Landegode fyr.

Sundet har en række små øer og grunde og kan, specielt i vintertiden være udsat for pludselig stærk vind. Microburst fra Landegodefjeldene eller en stærk østlig vind, med hyppige kast fra fastlandet er heller ikke usædvanligt. Sundet er sejlrute for «inndenskærs» skibstrafik og for rutegående trafik som Hurtigruten, Nordlandsekspressen og hurtigfærgen mellem Bodø og Helnessund.

Der er en tæt bebyggelse langs fylkesvej 834 på østsiden af Landegodefjorden, fra Bodø by og nordøstover til Mjeldefjellet, med bydelen Løpsmarka og bebyggelserne Løp, Myklebostad og Skau. Samlet går bygderne under navnet Nordstranda. Området ved  Mjelde er et populært rekreationsområde med blandt andet sandstrande og turområder.

Kilder og henvisninger

 National Geospatialintelligence Agency: Prostar Sailing Directions 2004 North and West Coasts of Norway Enroute. Januar 2004. Side 155-156.

Fjorde i Nordland
Bodø

Landegodefjorden


Aequatorium, rod glavočika smješten u podtribus Tussilagininae. Potoji 13 priznatih vrsta raširenih po sjevernim krajevima Južne Amerike, od Ekvadora do Venezuele.

Vrste
 Aequatorium albiflorum (Wedd.) Cuatrec. & S.Díaz
 Aequatorium asterotrichum B.Nord.
 Aequatorium caucanum S.Díaz & Cuatrec.
 Aequatorium jamesonii (S.F.Blake) C.Jeffrey
 Aequatorium latibracteolatum S.Díaz & Cuatrec.
 Aequatorium lepidotum B.Nord.
 Aequatorium palealbum S.Díaz & A.Correa
 Aequatorium polygonoides B.Nord.
 Aequatorium repandiforme B.Nord.
 Aequatorium sinuatifolium S.Díaz & Cuatrec.
 Aequatorium tatamanum S.Díaz & A.Correa
 Aequatorium venezuelanum V.M.Badillo
 Aequatorium verrucosum (Wedd.) S.Díaz & Cuatrec.

Izvori

Senecioneae

Aequatorium


An Panicum aquaticum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Jean Louis Marie Poiret. An Panicum aquaticum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Panicum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Panicum

Panicum aquaticum


Blitz3D — un motor de joc comercial dezvoltat de Mark Sibley, precum și un mediu de dezvoltare cu limbajul Blitz BASIC și un limbaj de scripting pentru crearea de jocuri. Dezvoltarea originală a compilatorului Blitz BASIC a fost realizată pentru PC-ul Amiga, dar astăzi deja suportă mai multe platforme, inclusiv Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X și Linux. Versiunea pentru Microsoft Windows suportă DirectX 7.

Blitz3D
Limba conține 588 de structuri care vă permit să creați spațiu de joc cu două și trei dimensiuni. Cu aceasta puteți crea jocuri mici folosind un număr mare de biblioteci scrise de membrii comunității de programare Blitz3D.

Începând cu 3 august 2014, acesta este distribuit gratuit, codul sursă este deschis sub licența zlib/libpng.

Exemple de programe

Нello world
Graphics 800,600                 ; - Графический режим 800x600
While Not KeyDown(1)             ; - Начало главного цикла
 Cls()                           ; - Чистим экран
  Text 10, 20, "Hello, World!" ; - Пишем текст "Hello world" в точке 10,20
 Flip()                          ; - Выводим на экран
Wend                             ; прекращаем цикл при нажатии на Esc
End                              ; конец программы

Нello world folosind variabilele

Graphics 800,600
Global a$="Hello"
Global b$="World"
While Not KeyDown(1)
 Cls()
  Text 0,0,a$+b$
 Flip()
Wend
End

Lucru cu imagini

Graphics 800,600
Global Image = LoadImage("picture.bmp")

While Not KeyDown(1)
 Cls()
  DrawImage Image,100,100
 Flip()
Wend
End

Нello world folosind variabilele

Graphics 800,600
Global a$="Hello"
Global b$="World"
While Not KeyDown(1)
 Cls()
  Text 0,0,a$+b$
 Flip()
Wend
End

Lucru cu imagini

Graphics 800,600
Global Image = LoadImage("picture.bmp")

While Not KeyDown(1)
 Cls()
  DrawImage Image,100,100
 Flip()
Wend
End

Lucru cu grafică tridimensională

Graphics3D 800,600                     ;Setăm modul grafic
Global model = LoadMesh("helloworld.3ds")          ;Încărcăm modelul tridimensional al inscripției "Hello, World"
PositionEntity model,0,0,0            ;Setăm modelul la punctul 0,0,0
Global camera = CreateCamera()             ;Creăm o cameră
PositionEntity camera,0,0,-10             ;Instalăm camera în spatele obiectului

While Not KeyDown(1)                         ;Începutul ciclului
 Cls()                          ;Ștergem ecranul
 RenderWorld()                  ;Render imagini
 Flip()                        ; Afișăm la ecran
Wend                           ;Sfârșitul ciclului
End                             ;Sfârșitul programului

Note

Legături exterene
 Site-ul oficial
 Secțiunea despre Blitz3D la boolean.name
 Secțiunea despre BlitzMax la boolean.name
 În legătură cu BlitzMax proiecte deschise la Google Code

Software liber

Blitz Basic


كيبا  ، هي سلسة أنيمي يابانية تم إنتاجها من طرف استوديو مادهاوس (Studio Madhouse) وتم بثها في التلفيزيون الياباني بداية 1 أبريل 2006 وهي من إخراج هيروشي كوجينا والسلسلة متكونة من 51 حلقة.

القصة
«زد» ولد عمره 15 سنة، يعيش في مدينة تدعى «كالم»، الصديق الوحيد لزد هو «نوا» أو بالعربية «نوح»
ذات يوم يتلقى «زد» دعوة من طرف رياح غامضة لكي يعبر بوابة فضائية، وهذه الأخيرة تأخذه إلى مدينة «تيمبورا» مدينة مختلفة عن العالم الذي كان يعيش فيه.

وفي تلك المدينة تنطلق مغامرة «زد» حيث يكتشف بأن له قدرات «شارد كاستر». قوة «الشارد كاستر» تمكن من التحكم بالوحوش و«سبيريت»Spiritsبالعربية «الأرواح»، ثم يبدأ زد بالتدرب على التحكم بهذه القوة السحرية دون أن يعلم بأنه يحمل بجسده سبيريت قوي يدعى«أميل غاول»"Amil Gaoul".

وصلات
 الوقع الرسمي لكيبا (ياباني)

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أفلام أي دي في
أنمي ذو سيناريو أصلي
أنمي ومانغا فانتازيا مظلمة
أنمي ومانغا مغامرات
أنيبلكس
شركة مادهاوس
عروض تلفزيون طوكيو
مسلسلات أنمي
مسلسلات أنمي متلفزة بدأ عرضها في 2006
مسلسلات تلفزيونية يابانية انتهت في 2007
مسلسلات تلفزيونية يابانية بدأ عرضها في 2006

كيبا


Two ships of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Fleetwood, after the town of Fleetwood.  A third ship was planned as Fleetwood, but was renamed before being launched:

 was a Royalist ship captured by the Parliamentarians in 1655 and renamed Wexford.
HMS Fleetwood was to have been a  minesweeper. She was renamed  in 1918 and was launched later that year.
 was a  sloop launched in 1936 and broken up after 1959.

References

Royal Navy ship names

HMS Fleetwood


يوليانوس الأول هو بطريرك الإسكندرية وبابا الكنيسة القبطية الأرثوذكسية الحادي عشر. وُلد في مدينة الإسكندرية. كان طالباً مجتهداً في الكلية الإكليريكية التي أسسها مار مرقس الرسول، ورُسم قساً بمسقط رأسه، وقد فاق الكثيرين بعلمه وعفافه وتقواه فرُسم بطريركاً.

وكان الوثنيون وقتئذٍ لا يسمحون للأساقفة بالخروج عن مدينة الإسكندرية فكان هو يخرج سراً منها ويرسم الكهنة في كل مكان، ووضع مقالات كثيرة وميامر عظيمة لتعليم النصارى. أقام على الكرسي الرسولي عشر سنين، وعاصر الإمبراطور كومودوس. تنيح بسلام يوم 8 برمهات - 17 مارس 188م وتعيد الكنيسة بتذكار نياحته في الثامن من شهر برمهات.

مراجع

أساقفة مصريون في القرن 2
باباوات الإسكندرية
رؤساء أساقفة في القرن 2
سنة الولادة غير معروفة
صفحات تحتاج تصنيف سنة الولادة
قديسون في القرن 2
مواليد في مصر
وفيات 188

يوليانوس (بابا الإسكندرية)


Oxygen toxicity is a condition resulting from the harmful effects of breathing molecular oxygen () at increased partial pressures. Severe cases can result in cell damage and death, with effects most often seen in the central nervous system, lungs, and eyes. Historically, the central nervous system condition was called the Paul Bert effect, and the pulmonary condition the Lorrain Smith effect, after the researchers who pioneered the discoveries and descriptions in the late 19th century. Oxygen toxicity is a concern for underwater divers, those on high concentrations of supplemental oxygen, and those undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy.

The result of breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen is hyperoxia, an excess of oxygen in body tissues. The body is affected in different ways depending on the type of exposure. Central nervous system toxicity is caused by short exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure. Pulmonary and ocular toxicity result from longer exposure to increased oxygen levels at normal pressure. Symptoms may include disorientation, breathing problems, and vision changes such as myopia. Prolonged exposure to above-normal oxygen partial pressures, or shorter exposures to very high partial pressures, can cause oxidative damage to cell membranes, collapse of the alveoli in the lungs, retinal detachment, and seizures. Oxygen toxicity is managed by reducing the exposure to increased oxygen levels. Studies show that, in the long term, a robust recovery from most types of oxygen toxicity is possible.

Protocols for avoidance of the effects of hyperoxia exist in fields where oxygen is breathed at higher-than-normal partial pressures, including underwater diving using compressed breathing gases, hyperbaric medicine, neonatal care and human spaceflight. These protocols have resulted in the increasing rarity of seizures due to oxygen toxicity, with pulmonary and ocular damage being largely confined to the problems of managing premature infants.

In recent years, oxygen has become available for recreational use in oxygen bars. The US Food and Drug Administration has warned those who have conditions such as heart or lung disease not to use oxygen bars. Scuba divers use breathing gases containing up to 100% oxygen, and should have specific training in using such gases.

Classification

The effects of oxygen toxicity may be classified by the organs affected, producing three principal forms:

 Central nervous system, characterised by convulsions followed by unconsciousness, occurring under hyperbaric conditions;
 Pulmonary (lungs), characterised by difficulty in breathing and pain within the chest, occurring when breathing increased pressures of oxygen for extended periods;
 Ocular (retinopathic conditions), characterised by alterations to the eyes, occurring when breathing increased pressures of oxygen for extended periods.

Central nervous system oxygen toxicity can cause seizures, brief periods of rigidity followed by convulsions and unconsciousness, and is of concern to divers who encounter greater than atmospheric pressures. Pulmonary oxygen toxicity results in damage to the lungs, causing pain and difficulty in breathing. Oxidative damage to the eye may lead to myopia or partial detachment of the retina. Pulmonary and ocular damage are most likely to occur when supplemental oxygen is administered as part of a treatment, particularly to newborn infants, but are also a concern during hyperbaric oxygen therapy.

Oxidative damage may occur in any cell in the body but the effects on the three most susceptible organs will be the primary concern. It may also be implicated in damage to red blood cells (haemolysis),  the liver, heart, endocrine glands (adrenal glands, gonads, and thyroid), or kidneys, and general damage to cells.

In unusual circumstances, effects on other tissues may be observed: it is suspected that during spaceflight, high oxygen concentrations may contribute to bone damage. Hyperoxia can also indirectly cause carbon dioxide narcosis in patients with lung ailments such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or with central respiratory depression. Hyperventilation of atmospheric air at atmospheric pressures does not cause oxygen toxicity, because sea-level air has a partial pressure of oxygen of  whereas toxicity does not occur below .

Signs and symptoms

Central nervous system

Central nervous system oxygen toxicity manifests as symptoms such as visual changes (especially tunnel vision), ringing in the ears (tinnitus), nausea, twitching (especially of the face), behavioural changes (irritability, anxiety, confusion), and dizziness. This may be followed by a tonic–clonic seizure consisting of two phases: intense muscle contraction occurs for several seconds (tonic phase); followed by rapid spasms of alternate muscle relaxation and contraction producing convulsive jerking (clonic phase). The seizure ends with a period of unconsciousness (the postictal state). The onset of seizure depends upon the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas and exposure duration. However, exposure time before onset is unpredictable, as tests have shown a wide variation, both amongst individuals, and in the same individual from day to day. In addition, many external factors, such as underwater immersion, exposure to cold, and exercise will decrease the time to onset of central nervous system symptoms. Decrease of tolerance is closely linked to retention of carbon dioxide. Other factors, such as darkness and caffeine, increase tolerance in test animals, but these effects have not been proven in humans.

Lungs
Exposure to oxygen pressures greater than 0.5 bar, such as during diving, oxygen prebreathing prior to flight, or hyperbaric therapy is associated with the onset of pulmonary toxicity symptoms. Pulmonary toxicity symptoms result from an inflammation that starts in the airways leading to the lungs and then spreads into the lungs (tracheobronchial tree). The symptoms appear in the upper chest region (substernal and carinal regions). This begins as a mild tickle on inhalation and progresses to frequent coughing. If breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen continues, subjects experience a mild burning on inhalation along with uncontrollable coughing and occasional shortness of breath (dyspnea). Physical findings related to pulmonary toxicity have included bubbling sounds heard through a stethoscope (bubbling rales), fever, and increased blood flow to the lining of the nose (hyperaemia of the nasal mucosa). Initially, there is an exudative phase that results in pulmonary oedema. An increase in the width of the interstitial space may be seen in histological examination. X-rays of the lungs show little change in the short term, but extended exposure leads to increasing diffuse shadowing throughout both lungs. Pulmonary function measurements are reduced, as indicated by a reduction in the amount of air that the lungs can hold (vital capacity) and changes in expiratory function and lung elasticity. Lung diffusing capacity decreases leading eventually to hypoxaemia. Tests in animals have indicated a variation in tolerance similar to that found in central nervous system toxicity, as well as significant variations between species. When the exposure to oxygen above  is intermittent, it permits the lungs to recover and delays the onset of toxicity.  A similar progression is common to all mammalian species. If death from hypoxaemia has not occurred after exposure for several days a proliferative phase occurs, developing a chronic thickening of the alveolar membrane and a decrement in lung diffusing capacity. These changes are mostly reversible on return to normoxia, but the time required for complete recovery is not known.

Eyes

In premature babies, signs of damage to the eye (retinopathy of prematurity, or ROP) are observed via an ophthalmoscope as a demarcation between the vascularised and non-vascularised regions of an infant's retina. The degree of this demarcation is used to designate four stages: (I) the demarcation is a line; (II) the demarcation becomes a ridge; (III) growth of new blood vessels occurs around the ridge; (IV) the retina begins to detach from the inner wall of the eye (choroid).

Causes

Oxygen toxicity is caused by hyperoxia, exposure to oxygen at partial pressures greater than those to which the body is normally exposed. This occurs in three principal settings: underwater diving, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, and the provision of supplemental oxygen, in critical care, and for long-term treatment of chronic disorders, and particularly to premature infants. In each case, the risk factors are markedly different.

Under normal or reduced ambient pressures, the effects of hyperoxia are initially restricted to the lungs, which are directly exposed, but after prolonged exposure or at hyperbaric pressures, other organs can be at risk. At normal partial pressures of inhaled oxygen, most of the oxygen transported in the blood is carried by haemoglobin, but the amount of dissolved oxygen will increase at partial pressures of arterial oxygen exceeding , when oxyhemoglobin saturation is nearly complete. At higher concentrations the effects of hyperoxia are more widespread in the body tissues beyond the lungs.

Central nervous system toxicity

Exposures, from minutes to a few hours, to partial pressures of oxygen above about —about eight times normal atmospheric partial pressure—are usually associated with central nervous system oxygen toxicity and are most likely to occur among patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy and divers. Since sea level atmospheric pressure is about , central nervous system toxicity can only occur under hyperbaric conditions, where ambient pressure is above normal. Divers breathing air at depths beyond  face an increasing risk of an oxygen toxicity "hit" (seizure). Divers breathing a gas mixture enriched with oxygen, such as nitrox, similarly increase the risk of a seizure at shallower depths, should they descend below the maximum operating depth accepted for the mixture.
CNS toxicity is aggravated by a high partial pressure of carbon dioxide, stress, fatigue and cold, all of which are much more likely in diving than in hyperbaric therapy.

Lung toxicity

The lungs and the remainder of the respiratory tract are exposed to the highest concentration of oxygen in the human body and are therefore the first organs to show toxicity. Pulmonary toxicity occurs only with exposure to partial pressures of oxygen greater than , corresponding to an oxygen fraction of 50% at normal atmospheric pressure. The earliest signs of pulmonary toxicity begin with evidence of tracheobronchitis, or inflammation of the upper airways, after an asymptomatic period between 4 and 22 hours at greater than 95% oxygen, with some studies suggesting symptoms usually begin after approximately 14 hours at this level of oxygen.

At partial pressures of oxygen of —100% oxygen at 2 to 3 times atmospheric pressure—these symptoms may begin as early as 3 hours into exposure to oxygen. Experiments on rats breathing oxygen at pressures between  suggest that pulmonary manifestations of oxygen toxicity may not be the same for normobaric conditions as they are for hyperbaric conditions. Evidence of decline in lung function as measured by pulmonary function testing can occur as quickly as 24 hours of continuous exposure to 100% oxygen, with evidence of diffuse alveolar damage and the onset of acute respiratory distress syndrome usually occurring after 48 hours on 100% oxygen. Breathing 100% oxygen also eventually leads to collapse of the alveoli (atelectasis), while—at the same partial pressure of oxygen—the presence of significant partial pressures of inert gases, typically nitrogen, will prevent this effect.

Preterm newborns are known to be at higher risk for bronchopulmonary dysplasia with extended exposure to high concentrations of oxygen. Other groups at higher risk for oxygen toxicity are patients on mechanical ventilation with exposure to levels of oxygen greater than 50%, and patients exposed to chemicals that increase risk for oxygen toxicity such the chemotherapeutic agent bleomycin. Therefore, current guidelines for patients on mechanical ventilation in intensive care recommend keeping oxygen concentration less than 60%. Likewise, divers who undergo treatment of decompression sickness are at increased risk of oxygen toxicity as treatment entails exposure to long periods of oxygen breathing under hyperbaric conditions, in addition to any oxygen exposure during the dive.

Ocular toxicity

Prolonged exposure to high inspired fractions of oxygen causes damage to the retina. Damage to the developing eye of infants exposed to high oxygen fraction at normal pressure has a different mechanism and effect from the eye damage experienced by adult divers under hyperbaric conditions. Hyperoxia may be a contributing factor for the disorder called retrolental fibroplasia or retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) in infants. In preterm infants, the retina is often not fully vascularised. Retinopathy of prematurity occurs when the development of the retinal vasculature is arrested and then proceeds abnormally. Associated with the growth of these new vessels is fibrous tissue (scar tissue) that may contract to cause retinal detachment. Supplemental oxygen exposure, while a risk factor, is not the main risk factor for development of this disease. Restricting supplemental oxygen use does not necessarily reduce the rate of retinopathy of prematurity, and may raise the risk of hypoxia-related systemic complications.

Hyperoxic myopia has occurred in closed circuit oxygen rebreather divers with prolonged exposures. It also occurs frequently in those undergoing repeated hyperbaric oxygen therapy. This is due to an increase in the refractive power of the lens, since axial length and keratometry readings do not reveal a corneal or length basis for a myopic shift. It is usually reversible with time.

A possible side effect of hyperbaric oxygen therapy is the initial or further development of cataracts, which are an increase in opacity of the lens of the eye which reduces visual acuity, and can eventually result in blindness. This is a rare event, associated with lifetime exposure to raised oxygen concentration, and may be under-reported as it develops very slowly. The cause is not fully understood, but evidence suggests that raised oxygen levels may cause accelerated deterioration of the vitreous humour due to degradation of lens crystallins by cross-linking, forming aggregates capable of scattering light. This may be an end-state development of the more commonly observed myopic shift associated with hyperbaric treatment.

Mechanism

The biochemical basis for the toxicity of oxygen is the partial reduction of oxygen by one or two electrons to form reactive oxygen species, which are natural by-products of the normal metabolism of oxygen and have important roles in cell signalling. One species produced by the body, the superoxide anion (), is possibly involved in iron acquisition. Higher than normal concentrations of oxygen lead to increased levels of reactive oxygen species. Oxygen is necessary for cell metabolism, and the blood supplies it to all parts of the body. When oxygen is breathed at high partial pressures, a hyperoxic condition will rapidly spread, with the most vascularised tissues being most vulnerable. During times of environmental stress, levels of reactive oxygen species can increase dramatically, which can damage cell structures and produce oxidative stress.

While all the reaction mechanisms of these species within the body are not yet fully understood, one of the most reactive products of oxidative stress is the hydroxyl radical (), which can initiate a damaging chain reaction of lipid peroxidation in the unsaturated lipids within cell membranes. High concentrations of oxygen also increase the formation of other free radicals, such as nitric oxide, peroxynitrite, and trioxidane, which harm DNA and other biomolecules. Although the body has many antioxidant systems such as glutathione that guard against oxidative stress, these systems are eventually overwhelmed at very high concentrations of free oxygen, and the rate of cell damage exceeds the capacity of the systems that prevent or repair it. Cell damage and cell death then result.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of central nervous system oxygen toxicity in divers prior to seizure is difficult as the symptoms of visual disturbance, ear problems, dizziness, confusion and nausea can be due to many factors common to the underwater environment such as narcosis, congestion and coldness. However, these symptoms may be helpful in diagnosing the first stages of oxygen toxicity in patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy. In either case, unless there is a prior history of epilepsy or tests indicate hypoglycaemia, a seizure occurring in the setting of breathing oxygen at partial pressures greater than  suggests a diagnosis of oxygen toxicity.

Diagnosis of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in newborn infants with breathing difficulties is difficult in the first few weeks. However, if the infant's breathing does not improve during this time, blood tests and x-rays may be used to confirm bronchopulmonary dysplasia. In addition, an echocardiogram can help to eliminate other possible causes such as congenital heart defects or pulmonary arterial hypertension.

The diagnosis of retinopathy of prematurity in infants is typically suggested by the clinical setting. Prematurity, low birth weight, and a history of oxygen exposure are the principal indicators, while no hereditary factors have been shown to yield a pattern.

Differential diagnosis
Clinical diagnosis can be confirmed with arterial oxygen levels.
A number of other conditions can be confused with oxygen toxicity, these include:
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Cerebrovascular event (stroke)
Envenomation or toxin ingestion
Hypercapnia (Carbon dioxide narcosis)
Hyperventilation
Hypoglycemia
Infection
Migraine
Multiple sclerosis
Seizure disorder (epilepsy)

Prevention

The prevention of oxygen toxicity depends entirely on the setting. Both underwater and in space, proper precautions can eliminate the most pernicious effects. Premature infants commonly require supplemental oxygen to treat complications of preterm birth. In this case prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia and retinopathy of prematurity must be carried out without compromising a supply of oxygen adequate to preserve the infant's life.

Underwater

Oxygen toxicity is a catastrophic hazard in scuba diving, because a seizure results in high risk of death by drowning. The seizure may occur suddenly and with no warning symptoms. The effects are sudden convulsions and unconsciousness, during which victims can lose their regulator and drown. One of the advantages of a full-face diving mask is prevention of regulator loss in the event of a seizure. Mouthpiece retaining straps are a relatively inexpensive alternative with a similar but less effective function. As there is an increased risk of central nervous system oxygen toxicity on deep dives, long dives and dives where oxygen-rich breathing gases are used, divers are taught to calculate a maximum operating depth for oxygen-rich breathing gases, and cylinders containing such mixtures should be clearly marked with that depth.

The risk of seizure appears to be a function of dose – a cumulative combination of partial pressure and duration. The threshold for oxygen partial pressure below which seizures never occur has not been established, and may depend on many variables, some of them personal. The risk to a specific person can vary considerably depending on individual sensitivity, level of exercise, and carbon dioxide retention, which is influenced by work of breathing.

In some diver training courses for modes of diving in which exposure may reach levels with significant risk, divers are taught to plan and monitor what is called the 'oxygen clock' of their dives. This is a notional alarm clock, which ticks more quickly at increased oxygen pressure and is set to activate at the maximum single exposure limit recommended in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Diving Manual. For the following partial pressures of oxygen the limits are: 45 minutes at , 120 minutes at , 150 minutes at , 180 minutes at  and 210 minutes at , but it is impossible to predict with any reliability whether or when toxicity symptoms will occur. Many nitrox-capable dive computers calculate an oxygen loading and can track it across multiple dives. The aim is to avoid activating the alarm by reducing the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas or by reducing the time spent breathing gas of greater oxygen partial pressure. As the partial pressure of oxygen increases with the fraction of oxygen in the breathing gas and the depth of the dive, the diver obtains more time on the oxygen clock by diving at a shallower depth, by breathing a less oxygen-rich gas, or by shortening the duration of exposure to oxygen-rich gases. This function is provided by some technical diving decompression computers and rebreather control and monitoring hardware.

Diving below  on air would expose a diver to increasing danger of oxygen toxicity as the partial pressure of oxygen exceeds , so a gas mixture should be used which contains less than 21% oxygen (termed a hypoxic mixture). Increasing the proportion of nitrogen is not viable, since it would produce a strongly narcotic mixture. However, helium is not narcotic, and a usable mixture may be blended either by completely replacing nitrogen with helium (the resulting mix is called heliox), or by replacing part of the nitrogen with helium, producing a trimix.

Pulmonary oxygen toxicity is an entirely avoidable event while diving. The limited duration and naturally intermittent nature of most diving makes this a relatively rare (and even then, reversible) complication for divers. Established guidelines enable divers to calculate when they are at risk of pulmonary toxicity. In saturation diving it can be avoided by limiting the oxygen content of gas in living areas to below 0.4 bar.

Screening
The intention of screening using an oxygen tolerance test is to identify divers with low tolerance to high partial pressures of hyperbaric oxygen who may be more prone to oxygen convulsions during diving operations or during hyperbaric treatment for decompression sickness. The value of this test has been questioned, and statistical studies have shown low incidence of seizures during standard hyperbaric treatment schedules, so some navies have discontinued its use, though an others continue to require the test for all candidate divers.

The variability in tolerance and other variable factors such as workload have resulted in the U.S. Navy abandoning screening for oxygen tolerance. Of the 6,250 oxygen-tolerance tests performed between 1976 and 1997, only 6 episodes of oxygen toxicity were observed (0.1%).

The oxygen tolerance test used by the Indian Navy, which follows recommendations of the US Navy and US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, is to breathe 100% oxygen delivered by BIBS mask at an ambient pressure of 2.8 bar absolute (18 msw) for 30 minutes, at rest in a dry hyperbaric chamber. No symptoms of CNS oxygen toxicity may be observed by the attendant.

Hyperbaric setting

The presence of a fever or a history of seizure is a relative contraindication to hyperbaric oxygen treatment. The schedules used for treatment of decompression illness allow for periods of breathing air rather than 100% oxygen (air breaks) to reduce the chance of seizure or lung damage. The U.S. Navy uses treatment tables based on periods alternating between 100% oxygen and air. For example, USN table 6 requires 75 minutes (three periods of 20 minutes oxygen/5 minutes air) at an ambient pressure of , equivalent to a depth of . This is followed by a slow reduction in pressure to  over 30 minutes on oxygen. The patient then remains at that pressure for a further 150 minutes, consisting of two periods of 15 minutes air/60 minutes oxygen, before the pressure is reduced to atmospheric over 30 minutes on oxygen.

Vitamin E and selenium were proposed and later rejected as a potential method of protection against pulmonary oxygen toxicity. There is however some experimental evidence in rats that vitamin E and selenium aid in preventing in vivo lipid peroxidation and free radical damage, and therefore prevent retinal changes following repetitive hyperbaric oxygen exposures.

Normobaric setting

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is reversible in the early stages by use of break periods on lower pressures of oxygen, but it may eventually result in irreversible lung injury if allowed to progress to severe damage. One or two days of exposure without oxygen breaks are needed to cause such damage.

Retinopathy of prematurity is largely preventable by screening. Current guidelines require that all babies of less than 32 weeks gestational age or having a birth weight less than  should be screened for retinopathy of prematurity at least every two weeks. The National Cooperative Study in 1954 showed a causal link between supplemental oxygen and retinopathy of prematurity, but subsequent curtailment of supplemental oxygen caused an increase in infant mortality. To balance the risks of hypoxia and retinopathy of prematurity, modern protocols now require monitoring of blood oxygen levels in premature infants receiving oxygen.

Careful titration of dosage to minimise delivered concentration while achieving the desired level of oxygenation will both minimise the risk of oxygen toxicity damage and the amount of oxygen used for long term therapy.

Hypobaric setting

In low-pressure environments oxygen toxicity may be avoided since the toxicity is caused by high partial pressure of oxygen, not by high oxygen fraction. This is illustrated by the use of pure oxygen in spacesuits, which must operate at low pressure, and a high
oxygen fraction and cabin pressure lower than normal atmospheric pressure in early spacecraft, for example, the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft. In such applications as extra-vehicular activity, high-fraction oxygen is non-toxic, even at breathing mixture fractions approaching 100%, because the oxygen partial pressure is not allowed to chronically exceed .

Management

During hyperbaric oxygen therapy, the patient will usually breathe 100% oxygen from a mask while inside a hyperbaric chamber pressurised with air to about . Seizures during the therapy are managed by removing the mask from the patient, thereby dropping the partial pressure of oxygen inspired below .

A seizure underwater requires that the diver be brought to the surface as soon as practicable. Although for many years the recommendation has been not to raise the diver during the seizure itself, owing to the danger of arterial gas embolism (AGE), there is some evidence that the glottis does not fully obstruct the airway. This has led to the current recommendation by the Diving Committee of the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society that a diver should be raised during the seizure's clonic (convulsive) phase if the regulator is not in the diver's mouth—as the danger of drowning is then greater than that of AGE—but the ascent should be delayed until the end of the clonic phase otherwise. Rescuers ensure that their own safety is not compromised during the convulsive phase. They then ensure that where the victim's air supply is established it is maintained, and carry out a controlled buoyant lift. Lifting an unconscious body is taught by most recreational diver training agencies as an advanced skill, and for professional divers it is a basic skill, as it is one of the primary functions of the standby diver. Upon reaching the surface, emergency services are always contacted as there is a possibility of further complications requiring medical attention. If symptoms develop other than a seizure underwater the diver should immediately switch to a gas with a lower oxygen fraction or ascend to a shallower depth if decompression obligations allow. If a chamber is available at the surface, surface decompression is a recommended option. The U.S. Navy has published procedures for completing decompression stops where a recompression chamber is not immediately available.

The occurrence of symptoms of bronchopulmonary dysplasia or acute respiratory distress syndrome is treated by lowering the fraction of oxygen administered, along with a reduction in the periods of exposure and an increase in the break periods where normal air is supplied. Where supplemental oxygen is required for treatment of another disease (particularly in infants), a ventilator may be needed to ensure that the lung tissue remains inflated. Reductions in pressure and exposure will be made progressively, and medications such as bronchodilators and pulmonary surfactants may be used.

Divers manage the risk of pulmonary damage by limiting exposure to levels shown to be generally acceptable by experimental evidence, using a system of accumulated s which are based on exposure time at specified partial pressures. In the event of emergency treatment for decompression illness, it may be necessary to exceed normal exposure limits to manage more critical symptoms.

Retinopathy of prematurity may regress spontaneously, but should the disease progress beyond a threshold (defined as five contiguous or eight cumulative hours of stage 3 retinopathy of prematurity), both cryosurgery and laser surgery have been shown to reduce the risk of blindness as an outcome. Where the disease has progressed further, techniques such as scleral buckling and vitrectomy surgery may assist in re-attaching the retina.

Repetitive exposure
Repeated exposure to potentially toxic oxygen concentrations in breathing gas is fairly common in hyperbaric activity, particularly in hyperbaric medicine, saturation diving, underwater habitats, and repetitive decompression diving. Research at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) by R.W. Hamilton and others determined acceptable levels of exposure for single and repeated exposures. A distinction is made between acceptable exposure for acute and chronic toxicity, but these are really the extremes of a possible continuous range of exposures. A further distinction can be made between routine exposure and exposure required for emergency treatment, where a higher risk of oxygen toxicity may be justified to achieve a reduction of a more critical injury, particularly when in a relatively safe controlled and monitored environment.

The Repex (repetitive exposure) method, developed in 1988, allows oxygen toxicity dosage to be calculated using a single dose value equivalent to 1 minute of 100% oxygen at atmospheric pressure called an Oxygen Tolerance Unit (OTU), and is used to avoid toxic effects over several days of operational exposure. Some dive computers will automatically track the dosage based on measured depth and selected gas mixture. The limits allow a greater exposure when the person has not been exposed recently, and daily allowable dose decreases with an increase in consecutive days with exposure. These values may not be fully supported by current data.

A more recent proposal uses a simple power equation, Toxicity Index (TI) = t2 × PO2c, where t is time and c is the power term. This was derived from the chemical reactions producing reactive oxygen or nitrogen species, and has been shown to give good predictions for CNS toxicity with c = 6.8 and for pulmonary toxicity for c = 4.57.

For pulmonary toxicity, time is in hours, and PO2 in atmospheres absolute, TI should be limited to 250.

For CNS toxicity, time is in minutes, PO2 in atmospheres absolute, and a TI of 26,108 indicates a 1% risk.

Prognosis

Although the convulsions caused by central nervous system oxygen toxicity may lead to incidental injury to the victim, it remained uncertain for many years whether damage to the nervous system following the seizure could occur and several studies searched for evidence of such damage. An overview of these studies by Bitterman in 2004 concluded that following removal of breathing gas containing high fractions of oxygen, no long-term neurological damage from the seizure remains.

The majority of infants who have survived following an incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia will eventually recover near-normal lung function, since lungs continue to grow during the first 5–7 years and the damage caused by bronchopulmonary dysplasia is to some extent reversible (even in adults). However, they are likely to be more susceptible to respiratory infections for the rest of their lives and the severity of later infections is often greater than that in their peers.

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) in infants frequently regresses without intervention and eyesight may be normal in later years. Where the disease has progressed to the stages requiring surgery, the outcomes are generally good for the treatment of stage 3 ROP, but are much worse for the later stages. Although surgery is usually successful in restoring the anatomy of the eye, damage to the nervous system by the progression of the disease leads to comparatively poorer results in restoring vision. The presence of other complicating diseases also reduces the likelihood of a favourable outcome.

Provision of supplementary oxygen remains of life-saving importance in critical care, and can increase survival in some chronic conditions, but hyperoxia and the formation of reactive oxygen species is involved in the pathogenesis of several life-threatening diseases. The toxic effects of hyperoxia are particularly prevalent in the pulmonary compartment, and cerebral and coronary circulations are at risk when vascular changes occur. Long-term hyperoxia harms the immune responses and susceptibility to infectious complications and tissue injury are increased.

Epidemiology

The incidence of central nervous system toxicity among divers has decreased since the Second World War, as protocols have developed to limit exposure and partial pressure of oxygen inspired. In 1947, Donald recommended limiting the depth allowed for breathing pure oxygen to , which equates to an oxygen partial pressure of . Over time this limit has been reduced, until today a limit of  during a recreational dive and  during shallow decompression stops is generally recommended, though military divers using oxygen rebreathers may operate to greater depths for limited periods, at greater risk. Oxygen toxicity has now become a rare occurrence other than when caused by equipment malfunction and human error. Historically, the U.S. Navy has refined its Navy Diving Manual air and mixed gas tables to reduce oxygen toxicity incidents. Between 1995 and 1999, reports showed 405 surface-supported dives using the helium–oxygen tables; of these, oxygen toxicity symptoms were observed on 6 dives (1.5%). As a result, the U.S. Navy in 2000 modified the schedules and conducted field tests of 150 dives, none of which produced symptoms of oxygen toxicity. Revised tables were published in 2001.

The variability in tolerance and other variable factors such as workload have resulted in the U.S. Navy abandoning screening for oxygen tolerance. Of the 6,250 oxygen-tolerance tests performed between 1976 and 1997, only 6 episodes of oxygen toxicity were observed (0.1%).

Central nervous system oxygen toxicity among patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy is rare, and is influenced by a number of a factors: individual sensitivity and treatment protocol; and probably therapy indication and equipment used. A study by Welslau in 1996 reported 16 incidents out of a population of 107,264 patients (0.015%), while Hampson and Atik in 2003 found a rate of 0.03%. Yildiz, Ay and Qyrdedi, in a summary of 36,500 patient treatments between 1996 and 2003, reported only 3 oxygen toxicity incidents, giving a rate of 0.008%. A later review of over 80,000 patient treatments revealed an even lower rate: 0.0024%. The reduction in incidence may be partly due to use of a mask (rather than a hood) to deliver oxygen.

The overall risk of CNS toxicity may be as high as 1 in 2000 to 3000 treatments. but it varies with the pressure and may be as high as 1 in 200 at higher pressure treatment schedules of 2.8 to 3.0 ATA, or as low as 1 in 10,000 schedules at 2 ATA or less.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is among the most common complications of prematurely born infants and its incidence has grown as the survival of extremely premature infants has increased. Nevertheless, the severity has decreased as better management of supplemental oxygen has resulted in the disease now being related mainly to factors other than hyperoxia.

In 1997 a summary of studies of neonatal intensive care units in industrialised countries showed that up to 60% of low birth weight babies developed retinopathy of prematurity, which rose to 72% in extremely low birth weight babies, defined as less than  at birth. However, severe outcomes are much less frequent: for very low birth weight babies—those less than  at birth—the incidence of blindness was found to be no more than 8%.

Administration of supplemental oxygen is extensively and effectively used in emergency and intensive care medicine, but the reactive oxygen species caused by excessive oxygenation tend to cause a vicious cycle of tissue injury, characterized by cell damage, cell death, and inflammation, mostly in the lungs, which can exacerbate problems of tissue oxygenation for which the supplemental oxygen was intended as  a treatment. Similar problems can occur in oxygen therapy for chronic conditions which involve hypoxia. Careful titration of oxygen supply to minimise the excess to physiological need also reduces pulmonary hyperoxic exposure to the reasonably practicable minimum. The incidence of pulmonary symptoms of oxygen toxicity is about 5%, and some drugs can increase the risk, such as the chemotherapeutic agent bleomycin.

History

Central nervous system toxicity was first described by Paul Bert in 1878. He showed that oxygen was toxic to insects, arachnids, myriapods, molluscs, earthworms, fungi, germinating seeds, birds, and other animals. Central nervous system toxicity may be referred to as the "Paul Bert effect".

Pulmonary oxygen toxicity was first described by J. Lorrain Smith in 1899 when he noted central nervous system toxicity and discovered in experiments in mice and birds that  had no effect but  of oxygen was a pulmonary irritant. Pulmonary toxicity may be referred to as the "Lorrain Smith effect". The first recorded human exposure was undertaken in 1910 by Bornstein when two men breathed oxygen at  for 30 minutes, while he went on to 48 minutes with no symptoms. In 1912, Bornstein developed cramps in his hands and legs while breathing oxygen at  for 51 minutes. Smith then went on to show that intermittent exposure to a breathing gas with less oxygen permitted the lungs to recover and delayed the onset of pulmonary toxicity.

Albert R. Behnke et al. in 1935 were the first to observe visual field contraction (tunnel vision) on dives between  and . During World War II, Donald and Yarbrough et al. performed over 2,000 experiments on oxygen toxicity to support the initial use of closed circuit oxygen rebreathers. Naval divers in the early years of oxygen rebreather diving developed a mythology about a monster called "Oxygen Pete", who lurked in the bottom of the Admiralty Experimental Diving Unit "wet pot" (a water-filled hyperbaric chamber) to catch unwary divers. They called having an oxygen toxicity attack "getting a Pete".

In the decade following World War II, Lambertsen et al. made further discoveries on the effects of breathing oxygen under pressure and methods of prevention. Their work on intermittent exposures for extension of oxygen tolerance and on a model for prediction of pulmonary oxygen toxicity based on pulmonary function are key documents in the development of standard operating procedures when breathing increased pressures of oxygen. Lambertsen's work showing the effect of carbon dioxide in decreasing time to onset of central nervous system symptoms has influenced work from current exposure guidelines to future breathing apparatus design.

Retinopathy of prematurity was not observed before World War II, but with the availability of supplemental oxygen in the decade following, it rapidly became one of the principal causes of infant blindness in developed countries. By 1960 the use of oxygen had become identified as a risk factor and its administration restricted. The resulting fall in retinopathy of prematurity was accompanied by a rise in infant mortality and hypoxia-related complications. Since then, more sophisticated monitoring and diagnosis have established protocols for oxygen use which aim to balance between hypoxic conditions and problems of retinopathy of prematurity.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia was first described by Northway in 1967, who outlined the conditions that would lead to the diagnosis. This was later expanded by Bancalari and in 1988 by Shennan, who suggested the need for supplemental oxygen at 36 weeks could predict long-term outcomes. Nevertheless, Palta et al. in 1998 concluded that radiographic evidence was the most accurate predictor of long-term effects.

Bitterman et al. in 1986 and 1995 showed that darkness and caffeine would delay the onset of changes to brain electrical activity in rats. In the years since, research on central nervous system toxicity has centred on methods of prevention and safe extension of tolerance. Sensitivity to central nervous system oxygen toxicity has been shown to be affected by factors such as circadian rhythm, drugs, age, and gender. In 1988, Hamilton et al. wrote procedures for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to establish oxygen exposure limits for habitat operations. Even today, models for the prediction of pulmonary oxygen toxicity do not explain all the results of exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen.

Society and culture

Recreational scuba divers commonly breathe nitrox containing up to 40% oxygen, while technical divers use pure oxygen or nitrox containing up to 80% oxygen to accelerate decompression. Divers who breathe oxygen fractions greater than of air (21%) need to be educated on the dangers of oxygen toxicity and how to manage the risk. To buy nitrox, a diver may be required to show evidence of relevant qualification.

Since the late 1990s the recreational use of oxygen has been promoted by oxygen bars, where customers breathe oxygen through a nasal cannula. Claims have been made that this reduces stress, increases energy, and lessens the effects of hangovers and headaches, despite the lack of any scientific evidence to support them. There are also devices on sale that offer "oxygen massage" and "oxygen detoxification" with claims of removing body toxins and reducing body fat. The American Lung Association has stated "there is no evidence that oxygen at the low flow levels used in bars can be dangerous to a normal person's health", but the U.S. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research cautions that people with heart or lung disease need their supplementary oxygen carefully regulated and should not use oxygen bars.

Victorian society had a fascination for the rapidly expanding field of science. In "Dr. Ox's Experiment", a short story written by Jules Verne in 1872, the eponymous doctor uses electrolysis of water to separate oxygen and hydrogen. He then pumps the pure oxygen throughout the town of Quiquendone, causing the normally tranquil inhabitants and their animals to become aggressive and plants to grow rapidly. An explosion of the hydrogen and oxygen in Dr Ox's factory brings his experiment to an end. Verne summarised his story by explaining that the effects of oxygen described in the tale were his own invention (they are not in any way supported by empirical evidence).  There is also a brief episode of oxygen intoxication in his "From the Earth to the Moon".

See also

References

Sources

 Revised version of Donald's articles also available as:

Further reading

External links
The following external sites contain resources specific to particular topics:
 2008 Divers Alert Network Technical Diving Conference – Video of "Oxygen Toxicity" lecture by Dr. Richard Vann (free download, mp4, 86MB).
  – Discussion of the effects of breathing oxygen on the respiratory system.
  – Clinical overview with references.

Diving medicine
Element toxicology
Intensive care medicine
Oxygen
Respiratory diseases
Neurobiological brain disorders

Oxygen toxicity


المئزر أو العَنَاقُ أو «زيتا الدب الأكبر» رابع ألمع نجوم كوكبة الدب الأكبر والنجم التاسع والستين من حيث اللمعان في السماء بقدر ظاهري يبلغ 2,27. نجم المئزر يتوسط ذيل الدب الأكبر. يبعد عنا 78 سنة ضوئية.

ببصر طبيعي بالإمكان ملاحظة نجم خافت يدور حول المئزر يبلغ قدره الظاهري 4 تقريباً ويسمى «السها». وقد تمت ملاحظة أنهما يشكلان معاً نظاماً نجمياً في القرن السابع عشر. يبعد السها عن المئزر 380 وحدة فلكية (17 ساعة ضوئية تقريباً). وقد كان العرب القدماء يختبرون قوة أبصارهم بواسطة هذا النجم. ولاحقا بعد عقود من اكتشاف أنهما يكوِّنان نجماً ثنائياً اكتشف نجمان آخران يدوران حول المئزر أي أنه نجم متعدد. وجميعهم جزء من مجموعة الدب الأكبر المتحركة.

طالع أيضا
 السها (نجم)
 بنات نعش الكبرى

المراجع

أجرام باير
أجرام فهرس هنري درابر
أجرام هيباركوس
أجسام فلامستيد
أشباه عمالقة نوع-A
بنات نعش الكبرى
فهرس النجوم الساطعة
كوكبة الدب الأكبر
مجموعة الدب الأكبر المتحركة
مسح بون الفلكي
نجوم النسق الأساسي نوع-A
نجوم بأسماء خاصة
نجوم متعددة

المئزر (نجم)


Í hagfræði er Lögmálið um minnkandi afrakstur (einnig kallað lögmálið um minnkandi jaðarframleiðslu) lækkun á jaðarframleiðslu  þegar magn eins framleiðsluþáttar er aukið smám saman, á meðan öllum öðrum framleiðsluþættum er haldið föstum. Lögmálið um minnkandi jaðarfremleiðslu segir að í framleiðsluferli muni aukning í framleiðsluþætti (t.d. vél eða vinnuafl) um eina einingu, á meðan öllum öðrum framleiðsluþáttum er haldið föstum, á einhverjum tímapunkti skila lægri framleiðslu á hverja einingu framleiðsluþátta. Lögmálið um minnkandi jaðarframleiðslu veldur ekki lækkun á heildarframleiðslu, heldur skilgreinir það punkt á framleiðsluferlinum þar sem framleiðsla viðbótar einingar af vöru mun leiða til taps og er þekkt sem neikvæð jaðarframleiðsla. Við minnkandi jaðarframleiðslu er framleiðslumagn jákvætt, en framleiðni og skilvirkni minnkar.

Þegar jaðartekjur eru jafnar jaðarkostnaði er hagstæðast að hætta að auka við framleiðsluþátt eða hætta eftirspurninni eftir framleiðsluþætti.

Tilvísanir
Hagfræði
Rekstrarhagfræði

Lögmál um minnkandi jaðarframleiðslu


An Trichopilia suavis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Lindley ngan Joseph Paxton. An Trichopilia suavis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Trichopilia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Trichopilia

Trichopilia suavis


Paweł Wszołek (født 30. april 1992 i Tczew, Polen) er en polsk fodboldspiller, der spiller som Midtbanespiller i Queens Park Rangers F.C..

Eksterne henvisninger

 Paweł Wszołek på 90minut.pl
 Paweł Wszołek på national-football-teams.com

Referencer

Fodboldspillere fra Polen
Fodboldspillere fra Polonia Warszawa
Fodboldspillere fra UC Sampdoria
Fodboldspillere fra Hellas Verona FC
Fodboldspillere fra Queens Park Rangers F.C.

Paweł Wszołek