The Buick Electra is a full-size luxury car manufactured and marketed by Buick from 1959 to 1990, over six generations. Introduced as the replacement for the Roadmaster lines, the Electra served as the flagship Buick sedan line through its entire production and was offered as a six-passenger four-door sedan with two-door sedan, two-door convertible, and five-door station wagon variants.

The Electra initially used GM's rear-drive C Platform, undergoing a significant downsizing for 1977.

For its sixth generation, introduced for model year 1985, the Electra underwent another significant downsizing, and adopted unibody construction as well as GM's new front-drive C Platform — becoming along with its rebadged variants, the Oldsmobile 98 and Cadillac Deville and Fleetwood, the company's first full-size, unibody, transverse engine, front-drive cars.

For 1991, Buick retired the Electra nameplate, migrating its front-drive premium sedan to the Buick Park Avenue nameplate, previously used as an upper trim level of the Electra itself.  The Electra Estate was redesigned, becoming the Roadmaster Estate for 1991.

In late 2022, Buick announced plans to revive the Electra nameplate for its forthcoming 2024 electric models.

Origin of name
The Buick Electra was named after Texas socialite and sculptor Electra Waggoner Biggs, sister-in-law of GM President Harlow H. Curtice.  Also namesake of the Lockheed L-188 Electra airliner, Biggs owned the Waggoner Ranch (one of the largest ranches in Texas) and as an artist, created portrait sculptures of two US presidents and other American figures.

First generation (1959–1960)

Following World War II, the Roadmaster constituted the upper echelon of Buick's lineup.  For 1958, Buick returned the Limited nameplate (dormant since 1942), slotted between the Roadmaster and the Cadillac Series 62.

For 1959, the Super was renamed the Invicta, the Roadmaster was renamed the Electra and Electra 225, and the unsuccessful Limited model was discontinued. The appearance was shared with two other Buick models, the mid-level Invicta and the entry level LeSabre. The Electra 225 nameplate was a nod to the car's overall length of over 225 in (5,715 mm), earning it the street name "deuce and a quarter."

The Electra 225 Riviera was the top-line model and it shared its six window hardtop roofline exclusively with Cadillac (which offered it on all of its models). Buick first applied the "Riviera" name to a premium trimmed 2-door Roadmaster hardtop in the middle of the 1949 model year, and thereafter denoted all Buick hardtops Rivieras. Also, from 1950 through 1953, Buick made a premium trimmed, stretched wheelbase sedan, exclusively in the Roadmaster and Super lines, that was called Riviera. But 1959 was the first year that not all Buick hardtops were called Rivieras. A standard 4-window four-door hardtop was also available, as was a 4-door 6-window pillared sedan, along with a stripped chassis of which 144 were built in 1959 and 1960. The two-door convertible was only available as an Electra 225, and the 2-door hardtop as an Electra.

For 1959, the Electra and Electra 225 both used the General Motors C-body shared with the Oldsmobile 98 and all Cadillacs, riding on a longer  wheelbase than the B-body LeSabre and Invicta, both of which rode on . The standard and only available engine was the 401 cubic-inch Wildcat V8 with four-barrel carburetor, 10.25 to 1 compression ratio and  mated to a two-speed Dynaflow automatic transmission, which was also standard equipment along with power steering and power brakes using Buick's unique  finned aluminum brake drums. Power windows and seat and leather interiors were standard on the Electra 225 convertible and optional on all other models. Front bucket seats were optional on the convertible. Electra interiors were trimmed in nylon Mojave cloth or broadcloth combinations with "Cordaveen". Electra 225 convertibles were trimmed in leather. Standard Electra features included horizontal Red-line speedometer, two-speed electric windshield wipers, trip mileage indicator, cigar lighter, dual sunshades, Step-On parking brake, dual horns, Twin-Turbine automatic transmission, Foamtex seat cushions, electric clock, trunk light, glovebox light, power steering, power brakes, full wheelcovers and dual exhaust. In addition Electra 225s had Super Deluxe wheelcovers and an outside rearview mirror as standard equipment. Padded dashboards were also standard.  The Electra, along with all other 1959 Buicks, featured all new styling not shared with other GM divisions that included slanted headlights in front along with a highly chromed square grille somewhat similar to the 1958 Buick and "Delta-Fins" back along with round taillights. The "slanted" headlights were also shared with the 1958–60 Lincoln Continental. Exterior distinction from other Buicks came from extra-wide moldings, with a massive Electra emblem on the front fender extension. The Electra 225 script was found on the front fenders ahead of the wheelhouse. The 4-door models had a lower bright rear fender molding as well.

The 1960 Electra and Electra 225 received a minor facelift with a concave grille and horizontal headlights centered by Buick's then-new "Trishield" logo, which is still in use today. Reintroduced to Electras and other Buicks for 1960 were the chrome VentiPorts first introduced in 1949 and last seen in 1957. Electra and Electra 225 models featured four VentiPorts on each front fender while lesser LeSabre and Invicta models had three VentiPorts. Electras featured wider rocker panel bright moldings and the Electra script on the front fenders ahead of the wheelhouse. Electra 225s featured a badge that was circled on the deck lid. The Electra 225 name was found on the front fenders in place of the Electra name.

Inside, a revised instrument panel featured "Mirromatic", where the speedometer, odometer and any warning light indicators are reflected from an adjustable tilt mirror inside the dashboard for comfortable viewing that would reduce unwanted glare and reflection. A new two-spoke steering wheel with horn bars was introduced, replacing the time honored horn ring then still common to most automobiles. Brisbane cloth interiors graced closed models while the convertible was trimmed in leather. Convertibles also had a two way power seat adjuster and power windows standard.  The bucket seat option introduced on Electra 225 convertibles in 1959 was now available on Electra coupes and included a center consolette with storage compartment. Standard Electra features included windshield wipers, trip mileage indicator, cigar lighter, dual sunshades, Step-On parking brake, dual horns, a single-key locking system, Twin-Turbine automatic transmission, Foamtex seat cushions, electric clock, trunk light, license plate frames, glovebox light, power steering and power brakes. In addition Electra 225s had back-up lights, a Glare-proof rear view mirror, parking brake signal light, safety buzzer, map light and Super Deluxe wheelcovers as standard equipment.

Second generation (1961–1964)

The Electra, along with the Invicta and LeSabre, was redesigned for 1961 with drastically shrunken fins, and was joined with the all-new compact sized Skylark/Special. Electras featured bright rocker panel and wheelhouse moldings.  Four VentiPorts per front fender were a hallmark, with identification spelled out on the front fender plaques.  Electra 225s had four "hash marks" interrupting behind the wheelhouse of the rear fender. Electra 225 nameplates were found on the front fenders. Electra interiors were trimmed in fabric. Electra 225s were trimmed in Calais cloth or leather trim, except for convertibles which were trimmed in vinyl. An optional Custom interior featured leather trim, while another featured vinyl with contrasting vertical stripes and front bucket seats with a storage consolex and power two-way seat adjustment.  Standard equipment on the Electra included Turbine-Drive automatic transmission, "Mirromatic" instrument panel, directional signals, full-flow oil filter, electric windshield wipers, Deluxe steering wheel, trip mileage indicator, cigar lighter, Step-On brake, dual armrests, cloth and vinyl trim, combinations, carpeting, power steering, power brakes, two-speed windshield wiper/washer system, glovebox light, Custom-padded seat cushions and Deluxe wheelcovers. Two-tone Electras had the color accent on the rear cove. In addition Electra 225s had back-up lights, Glare-proof rearview mirror, parking lights, signal light, safety buzzer, courtesy lights, two-way power seat, Super Deluxe wheelcovers with gold accents and power windows. The Electra and Electra 225 were the same length in 1961. Buick discontinued the Electra nameplate at the end of the 1961 model year, leaving only the Electra 225 starting in 1962.

The big Buick of 1962 carried four VentiPorts per front fender and featured a rakish sculptured restyle of its 1961 guise. The hardtop coupe and standard hardtop sedan featured a convertible inspired semi-formal roofline, while the Riviera hardtop sedan continued to use six-window pillarless configuration. Electra 225 rear fenders had a group of vertical hashmarks, with Electra 225 spelled out in block letters just above. A full length bright strip crowned the upper body ridge, while the tower rocker molding and wheelhouses were accented with bright trim. Wheelcovers had a gold accent ring. Interiors were of the finest cloth and, on the convertible, leather was used. Standard features included directional signals, full-flow oil filter, dual speed electric windshield washer/wipers, Deluxe steering wheel, cigar lighter, Step-on parking brake, dual armrests, Turbine-Drive transmission, padded dashboard, heater, defroster, glovebox light, back-up lights, power steering, Glare-proof rearview mirror, power brakes, power brake signal light, safety buzzer, courtesy lights, two-way power seats, power windows, Super Deluxe wheelcovers, Safety option group, custom padded cushions, Accessory Group options and custom moldings.

Buick's largest, plushest and most expensive models were restyled for 1963, with distinctive rear fenders culminating in a sharp vertical edge housing narrow back-up lights. The taillights were horizontally placed in the vertical deck cove. A unique cast grille was used at the front. Bright wheelhouse and lower body moldings, with ribbed rear fender panels were used. Red-filled Electra 225 badges were found on the rear fenders, while four VentiPorts lent status to the front fenders. Interiors were cloth and vinyl combinations, while a Custom interior in vinyl and leather, with front bucket seats and a storage console, was available for the convertible and sport coupe. Standard equipment included directional signals, full-flow oil filter, dual speed electric windshield wiper/washers, Deluxe steering wheel, cigar lighter, Step-On parking brake, dual armrests, Turbine-Drive automatic transmission, padded dashboard, heater, defroster, glovebox light, back-up lights, power steering, Glare-proof rearview mirror, power brakes, parking brake signal light, safety buzzer, courtesy lights, two-way power seats, power windows, Super Deluxe wheelcovers, Safety option group, custom padded cushions, Accessory Group options and custom moldings. Buick dropped the Riviera name as a body style designation after the 1963 model year, shifting the Riviera name exclusively to Buick's new personal luxury coupe that had been introduced in 1963. Buick added a 7-way tilt steering wheel and a new cruise control as an option.

The large General Motors C-body was used to create the 1964 Electra 225, Buick's richest full-size car. Vertical, narrow taillamps were found in the nearly straight-cut rear fender ends, and the so-called "Deuce-and-a Quarter" came with fender skirts. Four traditional VentiPorts were found on the front fenders, with heavy die-cast grille accenting the frontal aspect. Wide front lower body moldings were used along with a bright deck cove insert. Electra 225 lettering was found on the rear fenders and specific full wheelcovers were featured. Vinyl and brocade cloth interior trims were found in closed models, while leather upholstery was offered for seats in the convertible. Among the Electra's exclusive standard equipment were power steering; power brakes; two-speed electric wipers with windshield washer; foam padded seats; electric clock; license frame; trunk light; two-way power seat and power windows for the convertible; safety buzzer; and additional courtesy lights. The two-speed Dynaflow automatic was replaced by the 3-speed TH-400 as standard equipment.

Third generation (1965–1970)

All GM passenger vehicles received a major redesign in 1965 dominated by flowing "Coke bottle" lines and fastback roof profiles on its coupe models, and the 6 window-body style was eliminated. For 1965, Buick also changed its marketing strategy and offering the Electra 225 in two trim levels, base and Custom. Along with the new body came a new chassis with a full perimeter frame including side rails that replaced the previous "X" frame used since 1961. Engine offerings were unchanged from 1964 including the standard  401 V8, and two versions of the larger 425 V8 that were rated at  with a four-barrel carburetor or  with two four barrels. The three-speed Super Turbine 400 automatic transmission was standard equipment.  A new body style introduced for 1965 was the thin-pillar 4-door sedan, which featured frameless window glass with a thin, chrome fixed "B" pillar.

The 1966 Electra 225 saw only minor styling changes including a new grille and a revised full-width taillight and trunk lid that included an "Electra 225" script rather than the "BUICK" nameplate spelled out in 1965. Engine offerings were unchanged from 1965 with the exception that the dual-quad  425 was downgraded from a factory option to dealer-installed. Inside, a revised instrument panel featured a horizontal sweep speedometer, fuel gauge and warning lights. Front seat headrests became an option.

A moderate facelift highlighted the 1967 Electra 225 including a Pontiac/Oldsmobile-like divided split grille. Both base and Custom models were continued with a new "Limited" option package available Electra 225 Custom 4-door hardtop reviving a nameplate that graced Buick's ultra-luxury flagship in the late 1930s (and again in 1958), which included an ultra-luxurious interior trim. Under the hood a new 430 cubic-inch V8 rated at  with four-barrel carburetor replaced the previous "Nailhead" 401 and 425 V8s. Power front disc brakes were available as a new option along with a stereo 8-track tape player.

The 1968 Electra 225 received a revised grille and taillight trim along with concealed windshield wipers. Inside, there was a revised instrument panel with a square speedometer and other instruments, plus a new steering wheel. Shoulder seat-belts were standard for both the driver and front passenger. Base and Custom models were still offered, with the Limited trim option available on the Electra 225 Custom hardtop sedan.

1969 brought a major restyling to the Electra 225 and other GM B-body and C-body cars with somewhat crisper bodylines than 1965–68 models, but continued with the same chassis and inner body structure introduced with the 1965 model, however the wheelbase was increased one inch to . The 1969s were also the first to offer headrests as standard equipment due to a federal safety mandate, and the steering column with ignition switch that also locked the steering wheel with the transmission in "Park", a feature found on all 1969 GM cars one year before it became a federal safety mandate in 1970. Also new was a variable-ratio power steering system combined with revised front suspension tuning called "Accu-Drive."  Other changes included ventless front windows. The same assortment of base and Custom models were offered in 1969 with the "Limited" trim package available on Custom sedans and coupes. A new option available with the Limited package was a split 60/40 bench seat with center armrest.  Finned aluminum drum brakes were again offered as standard equipment, while the Bendix four-piston disk brake units were also available.  vented steel rotors were coupled with the cast iron caliper assemblies. A dual exhaust was available as an option. Five different rear axles were available: a 2.56 Economy as well as 2.73, 3.08, 3.23:1 gear ratios. The special PX-Code "AC Delete" 3.91 performance gear option was also available. The standing quartermile was completed in 15.5 seconds at a terminal velocity of  for the dual exhaust engine with the 2.73 gear ratio in a  Custom Convertible.

Only a minor facelift with revised grille and taillight trim marked the 1970 Electra 225. The big news was under the hood, where a new  455 cubic-inch V8 replaced the 430 V8 used from 1967 to 1969. This was the final year for the Electra convertible, finned aluminum brake drums and high compression engines. New this year was a concealed radio antenna, which amounted to two wires embedded in the windshield.  Also new for 1970 was the Estate Wagon, which shared the Electra's 455 V8 and four VentiPorts, but was a B-body car like the LeSabre and the Wildcat and consequently shared the smaller cars'  wheelbase and interior. This was Buick's first full-sized station wagon since 1964. The following year the Buick Estate would move up to Electra's larger body and more voluminous interior.

Fourth generation (1971–1976)

Like the other GM brands, Buick completely restyled its B-body and C-body cars for 1971. The full-size cars emerged larger and heavier than ever before or after. The new GM full-size bodies, at 64.3-inch front shoulder room and 63.4-inch rear shoulder room set a record for interior width that would not be matched by any car until the full-size GM rear-wheel drive models of the early to mid 1990s. The styling featured curved bodysides, long hoods and wide expanses of glass. All Electra 225s were hardtops in the 1971 to 1973 model years, eliminating the previous four-door pillared sedan variant and the convertible. In 1974 Buick adopted GM's pillared coupe body and fitted it with the "Landau" option on the Electra Limited coupe. Optional driver and passenger airbags were also available from 1974 to 1976, but they were unpopular due to their cost.

In the first year for new GM C-body shared with Oldsmobile 98 and Cadillac, the 1971 Electra 225 rode on a new body chassis which retained the  wheelbase with styling evolutionary from previous models. The new design included a double-shell roof for improved roll-over protection and noise reduction. Inside was a new wrap-around cockpit style instrument panel shared with B-body LeSabre and Centurion models that grouped all instruments with easy reach of the driver.  Under the hood, the 455-cubic-inch V8 was retained as standard equipment, but featured a lower compression of 8.5 to 1 compared to 10.25 to 1 in 1970 as part of a GM corporate mandate requiring all engines to run on 91 Research octane regular leaded, low-lead or unleaded gasolines. Horsepower also dropped from 370 to 315 as a result. Standard equipment continued to consist of variable-ratio power steering and Turbo Hydra-matic transmission. Power front disc brakes were now standard equipment on Electras, replacing the  finned aluminum drum brakes used in full-sized Buicks since the late 1950s.  Also new for the 1971 Electra 225, as well as the B-body LeSabre and Centurion, and E-body Riviera, was a new power ventilation system. The system, shared with other GM B-, C- and E-body cars along with the compact Chevrolet Vega, used the heater fan to draw air into the car from the cowl intake, and force it out through vents in the trunk lid or tailgate. In theory, passengers could enjoy fresh air even when the car was moving slowly or stopped, as in heavy traffic. In practice, however, it didn't work.  Within weeks of the 1971 models' debut, however, Buick—and all other GM dealers—received multiple complaints from drivers who complained the ventilation system pulled cold air into the car before the heater could warm up—and could not be shut off. The ventilation system was extensively revised for 1972.

From 1971 to 1976, Buick's full-sized Estate Wagon shared the  wheelbase and 455 cubic-inch V8 with the Electra 225, and shared its interior and exterior styling from 1971 to 1974 (complete with the prerequisite four VentiPorts). And although from 1975 to 1976 the number of VentiPorts were reduced by one, and the front fascia was downgraded to a LeSabre's, the Electra 225 style chrome rocker panel moldings and distinctive Electra 225 style rear quarter panels (albeit without fender skirts) remained. These were the first Buick station wagons to be built on Buick's largest chassis since the Roadmaster Estates of 1947–53. The Estate Wagons, as did other GM full-sized wagons during these years, used a unique rear suspension with multi-leaf springs instead of the coil springs used on other full-sized Buicks, and other full-sized GM cars. The Estate Wagons also featured a new 'clamshell' tailgate design where the rear power-operated glass slid up into the roof as the tailgate (manually or with power assist), slid into a recess under the cargo floor. The power tailgate, the first in station wagon history, ultimately supplanted the manual tailgate, which required marked effort to lift from storage. It was operated by switches on the instrument panel or a key switch on the rear quarter panel. The clamshell system, heavy and complex, made it easier to load and unload the extremely long wagons in tight spaces. But it remained un-adopted by any other manufacturer, and would be eliminated when GM reduced the length of their wagons by about a foot in 1977, and the overriding concern became increased fuel economy.  At  shipping weight, or about  curb weight, the three-seat 1974 Estate Wagons are easily the heaviest Buicks ever built, even heavier than the Buick Limited limousines of 1936–42.

A new egg-crate grille and taillight trim highlighted the 1972 Electra 225s. The trouble-prone ventilation system used in 1971 was replaced by a new system using vents in the doorjambs instead of the trunk-mounted vents of 1971.  The 455 V8 was carried over and now rated at 250 net horsepower compared to 315 gross horsepower in 1971. The differences in advertised horsepower in the two years was due to an industry-wide switch from "gross" (dynometer-rated and not installed in vehicle) to "net" (as installed in vehicle with accessories and emission controls installed) horsepower measurements.  The 1972 Buick was available as: Electra 225, Electra 225 Custom, and Electra 225 Custom Limited.

A revised egg-crate grille above a new federally mandated  front bumper and revised taillights were among the most noticeable changes for the 1973 Electra 225. All engines now featured EGR valves to meet increasingly stringent 1973 emission standards (the EGR valve was featured on Buick engines for California cars in 1972).

New grillework and a new rear with revised taillights and a federally mandated  rear bumper highlighted the 1974 Electra 225, still available in base and up level Electra Custom models. The Electra Limited, previously a luxurious trim option on the Custom models, was upgraded to full model status. Electra Limited models also got power windows, power driver's seat and a new digital clock as standard equipment, along with an optional leather upholstery trim, the first Buicks (along with that year's Riviera) to offer real leather seats since the 1963 Riviera. The 1974 Buick Electra Limited had velour seats and door panels that were the same as the 1974 Oldsmobile 98 Regency.  The 455 V8 was revised to meet the 1974 federal and California emission standards with horsepower dropping from 250 in 1972–73 to 230 for 1974. A one-year only option for the '74 Electra was the high-performance Stage 1 455 with dual exhausts and a  rating.  1974 was the last year for the pillarless hardtop coupe, although the 4 door hardtop would continue to be produced until 1976.  Inside, the wrap-around instrument panel was substantially revised and optionally available for the first time (and seldom ordered) was a driver's side airbag system with an exclusive steering wheel design. 1974 was the final year for the Max Trac traction control option. New options for 1974 included radial tires and a "low fuel" warning light came on when the gas tank was down to only four gallons. A new distinctive "Landau" option was available on the Limited coupe that included the now-popular rear side opera windows and rear-quarter vinyl roof.

1975 brought about changes in all of General Motors C-body cars.  In 1975, all Electra 225 coupes had fixed rear side windows and center posts.  1975 also brought along a newer front end and interior design. Rectangular headlights became standard on all GM C-body cars, along with many others. This supposedly would allow engineers to lower the front end to reduce wind resistance, but this wasn't very apparent with the new design.  The Electra received a new metal "eggcrate" style grille, which covered most of the front end, and wrapping under the headlights. The grille included running lights on either side. There was a choice of a base model Electra 225, whose trim and appointments were upgraded to the same level as the previous year's Electra 225 Custom, an upscale Limited, and the Park Avenue. The 1975 Electra was also the longest Buick ever built at , which is over 19 feet. These cars dwarfed the newer front-wheel drive Electras and Park Avenues in sheer size and weight.  Power windows and a power driver's seat became standard on all Electra models in 1975. Also new to the standard equipment list were radial-ply tires. The 1975 Electra was one of the first GM vehicles to offer an Air Cushion Restraint System or "airbag".  Inside, a new flat instrument panel (shared with LeSabre, Estate Wagon and Riviera) with horizontal sweep speedometer (silver facing with black lettering) replaced the wrap-around cockpit dash of previous years and door panel trim was revised. The speedometer was scaled back from  to  and kilometer readings were added. The 1975 Buick Electra Limited got an all new interior.  Technical changes for 1975 included the addition of a catalytic converter and electronic ignition to not only meet the stringent 1975 and later emission requirements, but also extended routine maintenance intervals, and improved fuel economy and driveability which was a must in the era immediately following the 1973–74 energy crisis, but also spelled the end of dual exhaust systems and mandated the use of unleaded gasoline as the converter could be rendered useless if contaminated with lead. Axle ratios were also numerically lowered to aid in improving gas mileage. The 455 four-barrel V8, now rated at , was retained as the standard and only available engine.

1976 brought about a few changes on the Electra. The front-end was reworked, including the grille and bumper. The new plastic grille featured 17 vertical bars and covered much of the radiator. The grille did not extend under the headlights in 1976, but instead Buick moved the running lights and turn signal lights underneath the headlights, where the 1975 grille had once been. The bumper no longer housed running lights.  There were also some minor interior differences. The brake release handle was black instead of chrome, the seat material was slightly different, on the limited, notch-back diamond pattern seating. The 1975 material appeared in a "corduroy" form, but the actual material was not corduroy. The 1976 diamond pattern seating material did not have this appearance.  The engine air cleaner did not have a "cold-air" ram air intake hose like the 1975 model did, and there were some carburetor changes and camshaft changes to meet EPA standards. The rear end ratio also was higher than the 1975 standard, at 2.56:1 instead of 2.73:1. The Park Avenue and leather seating in 1975 and 1976 were the same. Once again, there was the base 225, the Limited, and the luxurious Park Avenue. The Park Avenue Deluxe vanished for 1976 due to poor sales. The 1976 Electra is about the same size as the 1975 at , making them among the biggest Buicks ever.

The 1975 Buick Electra 225 Limited was the longest four-door hardtop car GM ever built, as the Cadillac Sixty Special (which was a bit longer) was unavailable as a hardtop sedan since the mid-sixties. The model also ushered in a return of the six window configuration that Buick offered between 1959 and 1964.

All Electras were powered by Buick's 455 cu. in. (7.5 L) engine between 1971 and 1976. The 1971 model had , but that was reduced to  by the 1976 model year; increasingly stringent exhaust emission limits reduced engine output, and an industry-wide 1972 change in rating systems reduced the horsepower numbers produced by any given engine. Even at its weakest state, the Buick-built 455 engine still produced  of torque at 2000 rpm. The 455 was the standard engine on the Electra, but there were some built with Buick 350s during the GM strike, when 455 production halted. The 350 engine also came with a price rebate. The 455 engine disappeared after the 1976 model year, in favor of smaller, more efficient engines.

To commemorate the Bicentennial of the United States, the standard colors available on all Buicks were Judicial Black, Liberty White, Pewter Gray, Potomac Blue, Continental Blue, Concord Green, Constitution Green, Mount Vernon Cream, Buckskin Tan, Musket Brown, Boston Red and Independence Red, with specially available colors on select models Congressional Cream, Revere Red, Colonial Yellow and Firecracker Orange.

Total production for this generation was 794,833.

Electra Limited Park Avenue: Introduced for the 1975 model year, as an option package for the Electra Limited sedan, the Park Avenue, was originally an interior comfort and appearance package, which gave buyers velour, pillow-topped seating, velour headliner, thicker carpet, and an upscale door panel design. The Park Avenue's seats were designed by Flexsteel. This seating design was similar to the Cadillac Sixty Special with the Talisman (1974–1976) option and stayed with Park Avenue through the 1980 model year. The Park Avenue option also offered a full-size center console which eliminated the front, middle passenger space. The center console was eliminated in 1977. 1975 also offered a more luxurious Park Avenue Deluxe, which was sold only in 1975, and included every option available on the Electra (posi-traction, 15-inch rallye sport wheels, rear automatic leveling, etc.). The Park Avenue Deluxe was an expensive option not popular with buyers; only 37 were built. The Park Avenue would remain as the top-level trim package through 1988. In 1989, the Electra Park Avenue Ultra debuted as the top model. In 1991, the Electra name would be dropped completely and Park Avenue would replace it as the flagship Buick sedan.

Fifth generation (1977–1984)

For 1977, a fifth-generation Electra was introduced as GM downsized its C-body full-size lines.  Again a counterpart of the Oldsmobile 98, the Electra shed over 11 inches of length and over 800 pounds of curb weight.  Coinciding with the major size reduction, Buick ended production of hardtop body styles, with both two-door and four-door Electras offered only as pillared sedans.  The downsized model brought increased sales, with 161,627 Electras produced in 1977.

As a consequence of the lighter body and chassis, the 455 V8 of the previous generation was retired entirely, with a 4-barrel Buick 350 V8 returning as the standard engine.  The Oldsmobile 403 V8 was introduced as an optional engine.

The Electra was offered in standard, Electra 225, and Electra Limited trims; the Park Avenue option was added to the two-door, though the full-length center console option was deleted from the option package.  The Estate Wagon shifted to the B-body chassis of the LeSabre, though adopting the front fascia of the Electra (with premium versions sharing interior trim).  For 1978, the Electra Park Avenue was added as a distinct trim level.

From 1977 to 1979, the exterior of the Electra saw minor yearly revisions.  For 1978, the grille was updated along with revised taillamps; for 1979, the front fascia was restyled with a flatter look, adding the Buick emblem to the taillamps.

1980 update: For 1980, all GM B and C-bodies underwent a mid-cycle model update, with multiple aerodynamic enhancements to the body.  Distinguished by a slightly lower hoodline, the sloped headlamp housings made their return, with a vertically-slatted grille.  In a notable change, the Electra 225 trim (in use since 1959) was retired.  To improve fuel economy, the Electra was no longer offered with a standard V8 engine, replaced with a Buick 4.1L V6.  The Buick 350 now became an option, with an Oldsmobile 307 V8 replacing the 403 V8.  As an additional option, the Oldsmobile 350 diesel V8 was introduced.  The new engines were paired with a 4-speed THM200-4R automatic transmission, which used a lockup torque converter and a 0.67:1 overdrive ratio. With the new transmission, the Electra could be equipped with a numerically higher rear axle ratio for better performance, while offering improved fuel economy with the overdrive range.

From 1981 onward, the Electra saw few model updates.  For 1981, the VentiPorts were deleted from non-Park Avenue trims.  On the latter, the Ventiports became vestigial indentations on their chrome fender trim.

For 1985, General Motors downsized nearly all of its full-size lines a second time.  While the Chevrolet Caprice Classic (which replaced the Impala entirely) and GM full-size station wagons remained, Buick, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac shifted to the front-wheel drive C-body and H-body platforms; Cadillac adopted the C-body for much of its lineup, with the Cadillac Brougham (replacing the de Ville and Fleetwood Brougham) remaining to support livery and professional car sales.

Production of the rear-wheel drive Electra ceased in April 1984.  Though it would use the slightly smaller B-body chassis (from the 1977–1985 LeSabre); the 1992–1996 Buick Roadmaster served as a functional successor of the 1977–1984 Buick Electra.  As of current North American production, the Roadmaster remains the final rear-wheel drive Buick sedan powered by a V8 engine.

Buick Estate While GM downsized its C-body sedans for 1985, Buick, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac full-size station wagons retained the full-size B-body platform for 1985.  Buick continued the use of the Electra Estate name for its highest-trim station wagon, which also served as the flagship station wagon of General Motors (as Cadillac did not offer a station wagon at the time). For 1990, Buick renamed its full-size wagon as the Buick Estate Wagon (dropping Electra and LeSabre).  For 1991, the B-body wagons were redesigned, with Buick introducing the Buick Roadmaster Estate.

For 1985–1990 figures, see Buick Estate.

Sixth generation (1985–1990)

For its sixth and final generation, GM downsized the 1985 Electra, using the company's newly developed C platform shared with the Oldsmobile 98 and the Cadillac Deville as well as their variants. Beginning with 1985 models, these were GM's first front-drive, transverse-engine, full-size cars — offered in two- and four-door sedan body styles. Launched in April 1984, the 6th generation Electra was marketed briefly alongside its rear-wheel drive predecessor, which ended production the same month.

The C platform was essentially identical to GM's H platform, shared with the Buick Lesabre (1986–1999), Oldsmobile 88 (1986–1999) and Pontiac Bonneville (1987-1999).

Using unibody rather than body-on-frame construction, the sixth generation was significantly shorter (24"), narrower, lighter (604 lbs) and more fuel-efficient than the previous generation — nearly matching the key interior dimension of their predecessors, losing only one cubic foot of interior volume while providing a more nearly flat passenger compartment floor. Automotive journalist for Popular Science, Jim Dunne, nonetheless noted the cars did feel smaller inside; they featured thinner front seats and more tumblehome, thereby locating the side glass as well as the windshield closer to passengers.

Introduced in early 1984, for model year 1985, the line was offered in three trim levels: Electra (300, 380 or 430 correlating to engine displacement); Park Avenue, the luxury variant; and the T-Type, a more sporty variant. In 1989, Buick would introduce the Park Avenue Ultra, a more luxurious trim variant. Engines initially included a 3L Buick V6; 3.8L Buick V6, and 4.3L Oldsmobile diesel V6. By model year 1986, Buick would offer only one engine, the 3.8L V6 — which would continue to evolve as the sole engine for the Electra line.

Standard features included a four speed automatic transmission with overdrive; multi-port (later, sequential) fuel injection with mass airflow sensor; four wheel-independent suspension, marketed as Dynaride; 14" steel wheels with covers; power windows; air conditioning; rack and pinion steering; and electronic fuel door release. Park Avenue trim included coach lamps, cruise control, acoustics package, electric door locks and trunk release. T-Type trim included the 3.8 liter engine; upgraded, firm suspension marketed as Grand Touring suspension, ceiling console, quartz analog gage cluster, black-wall radial all season tires, re-calibrated steering, 15" alloy wheels, 45/45 bucket front seats with floor console; leather-wrapped steering wheel; and passenger assist straps.

Optional features included two-position memory driver seat, electronic instrument/gage cluster; analog instrument/gage cluster; 14" alloy wheels; driver's sill-mounted button-operated keyless entry pad, passenger and driver powered seats, and electronic climate control. An electronic rear load-leveling suspension was offered, using air-pressurized rear Chapman struts to maintain a level ride height.

Aside from its waterfall grill, the Electra was differentiated from its Oldsmobile and Cadillac counterparts by an engine hood that slid forward several inches on opening, and pivoted forward from its leading edge to provide engine access from each side. A similar, 'clamshell' approach had been initially considered for the trunk. On Park Avenue trims, an articulated chrome band that ran the length of the car, integrating the front and rear bumpers, and all trims featured a rear drop-in license plate holder (shared with the LeSabre as well as the contemporary Riviera) and tilt-up taillight assemblies for convenient bulb changing. All C-bodies as well as H-bodies, benefited form GM's first effort  to begin addressing the "design" of the engine bay, to provide a more logical, organized layout.

1986: For 1986, the 3.8L Buick V6 became the sole engine choice.  The spare tire and wheel were relocated from an upright position at the forward trunk bulkhead, to a flat position under the load floor; the federally-mandated Center High Mount Stop Lamp (CHMSL) was introduced; a revised "shell system" carpeting with an insulation layer and a preformed backing layer was introduced; anti-lock brakes became optional; electronic digital instrumentation became available; cell phone pre-wiring becameoptional; a retractable clothes hanger became standard equipment on the Park Avenue trim level.

1987: For 1987, flush composite headlamps replaced previous exposed sealed-beam headlamps, with fixed glass and replaceable bulbs accessible from under hood; outside sideview mirrors were redesigned.  For 1987, a Electra Limited trim replaced the Electra 'number nomenclature' trim.

1988: The two-door body style was eliminated for model year 1988, after an approximate total production of 15,000. For 1988, Buick introduced the 3800 V6, a major engine redesign, with the previous 3.8 L V6 version offered in some Electra models through model year 1988.

1989: In compliance with U.S. passive restraint standards, front seat-belts were door-mounted for the front outboard positions and three-point at the rear outboard positions. An optional remote keyless entry system with fob superseded the previously optional, sill-located, button-activated keyless entry.

As a running change during the 1989 model year, Buick introduced the flagship Park Avenue Ultra trim. The Ultra featured silver lower body cladding replacing chrome trim, silver B-pillar overlay, trim-specific 15-inch alloy wheels, ant-lock brakes, trim-specific grille and C-pillar badging, vinyl roof with a "frenched" stitching and limousine-style rear window (as a no-cost option), leather trim on the steering wheel, all seat surfaces, door panels, rear pull straps, front and rear center arm rest and glove compartment door; dark burled wood trim; a package of 14 acoustic enhancements (at the roof, trunk floor, rear seat back, rear shelf, and rear shock wells), tinted glass marketed as Soft-ray glass; smoked tail lamps, silver accent body stripe; and a split front bench seat with a split frame design and dual 20-way adjustment, styled by Giorgetto Giugiaro — similarly marketed by Cadillac on their 1987-1989 Fleetwood Sixty Special model. Originally offered in six two-tone paint colors (one extra cost Firemist color) and four interior colors (blue, gray, red and beige), the Ultra offered a no-cost-delete vinyl roof, power moonroof, cornering lamps, automatic climate control, and Twilight Sentinel. The Ultra reached a production of 4,815 for 1989.

1990: Standard equipment included a Delco radio with cassette and rear window defogger; door secondary seals were revised to reduce wind noise; windshield wiper system was made more robust, and the bodywork received structural improvements, including at the upper rails; junction of upper rails and tie bars; front lower rails, rear rails as well as a wider floor pan center section.

1991: For the 1991 model year, the C-body sedans were redesigned, with Buick retiring the Electra nameplate and making the Park Avenue a stand-alone model line, rather than an Electra trim level.

Engines: The sixth-generation Buick Electra was introduced with three engines: the 110 hp 3.0-liter V6 (Electra 300) served as the standard engine, along with an optional  3.8-liter V6 (Electra 380) and a 4.3-liter naturally-aspirated diesel V6 (Electra 430). For 1986, the 3.0 and 4.3-liter engines were dropped; the 3.8-liter V6 becoming the sole engine; and the 300/380/430 nomenclature was retired. The 3.8 was upgraded and now produced . For 1988, Buick introduced the LN3 3800 3.8L V6 – a major engine redesign, featuring a balance shaft and now producing  and . The previous 3.8 L V6 version was still offered in some Electra models through the 1988 model year, denoted by VIN code 3. Electras with the new 3800 V6 were designated by VIN code C.

  Buick V6 – 1985 Electra 300,  at 4800 rpm,  at 2600 rpm
  Buick V6 – 1985–1986 Electra 380, 1987–1990 Electra Limited, 1985–1990 Electra T-Type, 1985–1990 Electra Park Avenue, 1989–1990 Electra Park Avenue Ultra
  Oldsmobile diesel V6 – 1985 Electra 430

References

Electra
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Convertibles
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Full-size vehicles
Coupés
Sedans
1960s cars
1970s cars
1980s cars
1990s cars
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States
Cars introduced in 1959
Flagship vehicles

Buick Electra


Anestezi (Yunanca ek an-, "-siz, -sız anlamında" ve aesthētos, "hissetmek"), genellikle cerrahi müdahalelerden önce uygulanan, bedenin tümünün ya da belli bir bölümünün ağrıya duyarsız hâle gelmesini sağlayan işleme verilen addır. Vücudun sadece belirli bir bölgesini uyuşturan anestezi türü ise lokal anestezidir. Anestezi yaratan maddelere anestezikler, ilgilenen uzmanlık dalına ise anestezibilim (anesteziyoloji) denir.

Anestezi, duyumsama yokluğudur. Genel anestezi, geçici bilinç kaybı ile birlikte duyu fonksiyonlarının ortadan kalkmasıdır. Bu tür anestezi Alman tıbbında ve Türkiye'de bazı insanlar arasında genel anestezi deyimi yerine "Narkoz" da denilmektedir. Narkoz, anestezi ile eş anlamlı gibi görülüyor olsa da, tam bilinç kaybı olmadan, duyarlılığın ileri derecede ortadan kalkmasıyla oluşan belirgin uyuşma halidir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Lokal anestezi
 Sedasyon
 Narkoz

Dış bağlantılar
Anestezi İlaçları
Anestezi Tarihi, Neslihan Alkış - Ankara Üniversitesi

Kaynakça

Tıp terimleri
Fransızcadan Türkçeye geçen sözcükler

Anestezi


هو حزب نشط في الخمسينات عقب بدايه النهضة الكويتية بعد تصدير أول شحنه نفط، في حينها كانت الكويت في حاجه الأيدي العاملة، فقامت باستقطاب أبناء الوطن العربي في العراق و سوريا و مصر و فلسطين، وقد كان من بينهم منتمون إلى عدة أحزاب لينشروا أفكارهم وكان من بينها حزب البعث ، وكذلك ساهم سفر الطلبة الكويتيين للدراسة في الخارج، و بعد ذلك أتوا بأفكار قومية صاحبتهم إلى أثناء العودة لينشروها و كان من بينهم فكر البعث العربي القومي الذي كان نشطا حينها في القطر السوري و القطر العراقي ليتخذ له مكاناً في كل قطر عربي، وكان من أبرز الطلبة الكويتيين هو حمد العيسى بعد تخرجه من كلية الحقوق في مصر وأيضا نشط كل من شملان العيسى أخو حمد العيسى و كذلك د. خليفة الوقيان و علي السبتي و فيصل الصانع عضو سابق في مجلس الأمة الكويتي و عبدالرحمن الرميح الذي يضرب المثل الأعلى للحزب، حيث انخرط في صفوف جبهة التحرير العربية وقد شارك في العمليات العسكرية التي شنتها المقاومة الفلسطينية في جنوب لبنان و بعدها استشهد ونقل جثمانه إلى الكويت ملفوفاً بالعلم الفلسطيني.

نبذه عن الحزب
لقد كان من أبرز البعثيين العرب الذين هاجروا إلى دوله الكويت للعمل في القطاعات و المؤسسات التعليمية و الصحية، التشييد و البناء أثناء تدفقات الثروة النفطية في الكويت كل من ناجي علوش و زهير محسن و عبد الوهاب الكيالي ، فقد استطاع هؤلاء في بناء تنظيم بعثي غير رسمي في الكويت تركزت نشاطاته على أيدي وافدين عرب في الكويت ، ويعود الفضل كذلك إلى عودة الطلاب الكويتيين الذين درسوا في جامعات مختلفة في عدة دول عربية، و و قد أتوا محملين بمبادئ حزب البعث و أفكاره و ساهموا في نشره من خلال منتديات و أندية ثقافيه و قومية و اجتماعية و نذكر منهم : السيد حمد العيسى الذي استطاع تأسيس نادي الاتحاد العربي كواجهة اجتماعية لحزب البعث و بعدها تحول إلى مركز استقطابي و توجيهي للبعثيين في الكويت ، حيث كان له دور قومي فعال في دعم و تشجيع نضال الشعب المصري أثناء تأميم قناة السويس .

مواضيع ذات صلة
 حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي - القطر العراقي
 حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي الأردني
 حزب طليعة لبنان العربي الاشتراكي
 حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي-القطر السوري

مراجع

أحزاب سياسية محظورة
كويت

حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي (الكويت)


Olaylar

Doğumlar
 Claudius Aelianus, Yunanca yazmış Romalı yazar ve retorik (belagat) öğretmeni (ö. 235)

Ölümler
 Avidius Cassius, kısa bir süre için imparatorluğunu ilan etmiş Roma isyancısı (d. 130)
 Genç Faustina, Roma imparatoru Marcus Aurelius'un karısı (d. 125/130)

175


Ernst Fischer (* 27. September 1896 in Breslau; † 7. Februar 1981 in Richmond, Virginia) war ein deutsch-amerikanischer Physiologe.

Leben
Der aus Breslau gebürtige Ernst Fischer – er war jüdischen Glaubens – wandte sich nach abgelegtem Abitur einem Studium der Medizin an den Universitäten Frankfurt am Main und Göttingen zu, das er 1924 in Frankfurt mit dem Erwerb des akademischen Grades eines Dr. med. abschloss. Nach einer Tätigkeit an der Göttinger Medizinischen Universitätsklinik trat er im gleichen Jahr eine Assistenzstelle am Institut für animalische Physiologie der Universität Frankfurt am Main an, wo er sich nach Studienaufenthalten in London und Neapel 1928 als Privatdozent für Physiologie habilitierte.

Der wegen seines jüdischen Glaubens 1933 aus dem Universitätsdienst entlassene Ernst Fischer emigrierte 1934 über das Vereinigte Königreich in die Vereinigten Staaten, wo er im gleichen Jahr eine Associate Professur für Physiologie an der University of Rochester erhielt. 1944 folgte er dem Ruf auf die Professur für Physiologie an die Virginia Commonwealth University, die er bis 1966 bekleidete. Zuletzt füllte er eine Professur für dasselbe Fach von 1968 bis 1972 an der Union University in Schenectady aus. Zusätzlich hielt er Gastprofessuren an der Universität Frankfurt von 1969 bis 1966 sowie an der Hacettepe-Universität von 1966 bis 1967 inne.

Ernst Fischer, der 1935 in die Virginia Academy of Science in Richmond, 1946 in die New York Academy of Sciences sowie 1951 in das American College of Cardiology aufgenommen wurde, verfasste seit 1931 über 110 Aufsätze und Beiträge zu seinem Fachgebiet in den wichtigsten deutschen und amerikanischen physiologischen und medizinischen Zeitschriften und Sammelwerken.

Schriften
 Die elektrischen Erscheinungen des quergestreiften Muskels während der Einwirkung von contracturerzeugenden Substanzen, Dissertation, Frankfurt am Main, 1924.
 Mit Emil Lehnartz: Lehrbuch der Physiologie für Studierende der Zahnheilkunde, Springer, 1934.

Literatur
 Werner Schuder (Hrsg.): Kürschners Deutscher Gelehrten-Kalender. Band 1, 13. Ausgabe, De Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1980, ISBN 3-11-007434-6, Seite 888.
 Walther Killy und Rudolf Vierhaus (Hrsg.): Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopädie. Band 3, K.G. Saur Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, München, 1996 ISBN 3-598-23163-6 Seite 314.
 Dietrich von Engelhardt (Hrsg.): Biographische Enzyklopädie deutschsprachiger Mediziner. Band 1: A – Q., Saur, München 2002, ISBN 3-598-11462-1. Seite 175.

Weblinks

Mediziner (20. Jahrhundert)
Humanphysiologe
Hochschullehrer (Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main)
Hochschullehrer (University of Rochester)
Hochschullehrer (Richmond, Virginia)
Hochschullehrer (Hacettepe-Universität)
Hochschullehrer (Union College)
Emigrant aus dem Deutschen Reich zur Zeit des Nationalsozialismus
Deutscher Emigrant in den Vereinigten Staaten
Deutscher
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1896
Gestorben 1981
Mann

Ernst Fischer (Mediziner)


Dittersdorf ist ein Weiler von Berga/Elster im Landkreis Greiz in Thüringen.

Lage
Auf einer Hochlage, westlich der Weißen Elster bei Berga befindet sich im oberen Harnbachtal der Weiler Dittersdorf an der Landesstraße 1083 und der Bundesstraße 175 in einem kupierten Gebiet des östlichen Thüringer Schiefergebirges. Berga liegt etwa 5 Kilometer entfernt unten im Tal.

Geschichte
Der Weiler wurde erstmals am 4. Oktober 1209 urkundlich genannt. 60 Einwohner leben im Ort.

Die Gewannflur umfasste 196 ha (1905). Am 1. Juli 1950 wurde der Ort nach Zickra b. Berga eingemeindet, bei der Volkszählung vom 29. Oktober 1946 hatte Dittersdorf eine Wohnbevölkerung von 126 Einwohnern.

Einzelnachweise

Literatur
 Frank Reinhold: Familienbuch Clodra bei Berga/Elster mit Dittersdorf und Zickra (Landkreis Greiz), Thüringen, 1610 bis 1798. Leipzig: AMF 2016 (= Mitteldeutsche Ortsfamilienbücher der AMF 97)

Weblinks

Ort im Landkreis Greiz
Berga/Elster
Ehemalige Gemeinde (Landkreis Greiz)
Ersterwähnung 1209
Gemeindeauflösung 1950

Dittersdorf (Berga/Elster)


Yahyâ-yı Şirvânî 15. yüzyılda yaşamış Azerbaycanlı sufi, Halvetiyye tarikatının ikinci kurucusudur. Azerbaycan Türkleri'nden olan Seyid Yəhya Bakuvi Azerbaycan'ın tanınmış filozof alim ve şairlerindən biri, Halvetiyye Tarikâtı'nın İkinci kurucusudur. Baküvi aynı zamanda bir Halvetilik virdi olan Virdu-Sattar'ın da yazarıdır. 2013 yılında UNESCO Genel Konferansı'nın 36. oturumunda Seyid Yahya Bakuvin'in 550. yıldönümünün dünya çapında kutlanması kararı alındı.

Biyografi
Seyyid Yahya 1403 yılında Azerbaycan'ın Şamahı şehrinde doğdu. Doğduğu sırada Şirvanşahlar devletinin başkenti olan Şamahı şehri, bu bölgede önemli bir ilim, siyaset ve kültür merkeziydi. Seyyed Yahya'nın doğum tarihi hakkında kaynaklarda herhangi bir bilgi yoktur. Ancak 14. yüzyılın sonlarında doğduğuna dair bilgiler vardır. Bunlardan biri Nazmi'nin kırk yılı aşkın bir süre Bakü'de yaşadığını anlatmasıdır. Bu akıl yürütme doğru kabul edilirse Seyyid Yahyan'ın 1466'da vefat etmesi dikkate alındığında Bakü'ye 1426'dan önce geldiği söylenebilir. Pir Muhammed Erzincani, Bakü'ye giderken Erzincan'a gelen ve kendisini karşılayan Çalabi Halife'ye: "O artık çok yaşlı, yakında ölecek" söylediyine bakılırsa S. Yahyan'ın uzun bir ömür yaşadığı anlaşılıyor. Bu bilgiler ışığında 14. yüzyılın sonlarında doğduğu söylenmektedir.

Şeyhin tam adı Seyyid Cemaleddin Yahya ibn el-Seyyid Bahaeddin el-Şamahi el-Baküvi'dir. Şamahı'da doğmasına rağmen, güç merkezi olan Şirvan'a aitti. O dönemde Şirvan bölgesindeki ulema ve şeyhlere Şirvani denilmesi yaygındı. Şirvani unvanına ek olarak, hayatının en uzun ve en önemli dönemini Bakü'de geçirmesi, oradaki liderlik faaliyetleriyle dünyada tanınması ve ünlenmesi nedeniyle kendisine Baküvi unvanı verildi ve burada öldü. Azerbaycan kaynaklarında kendisinden daha çok Yahya Bakuvi olarak bahsedilir. Doğduğu Şamahı şehrinin adından alınan Eş-Şamakhi'ye unvanına eserlerinde nadiren rastlanır. Seyyid Yahya ile ilgili kaynaklarda sevgi ve saygıyı ifade eden pek çok güzel sıfatlar ifade edilmektedir:

 Soyluların soylusu, şeyhlerin şeyhi, seyyidlerin ileri geleni
 Şeyh, arifi-billah
 Halvetilik mezhebinin çeşmesi
 Kudvetüs-sani, hakikat mashrabında imamur-rabbani, qutbul-arifin, celalul-millati vel-haqqi vad-din
 Qutbu-vaktihi ve faridi-asrihi
 Gudvai-sani, Govs, Safiya ulemasının büyüklerinden biri.
 Halvetilik mezhebinin piri-sanisi

Piri-sani, en çok S. Yahya için kullanılan ve genellikle ona atfedilen bir terimdir. Pir, tasavvufta mezhebin kurucusu, mezhebin sahibi anlamında kullanılır. Bu anlamda Ömer Halveti halvetiliyin lideridir. Piri-san ikinci hoca demektir. Bir mezhep kurulduktan sonra, mezhebe yeni bir yön veren ve yeni bir hayat veren kişiye mutasavvıf denir. Örneğin, İsmail Rumi,  Kadiriye tarikatının piri-sani'sidir (piri, Abdülkâdir Geylani'dir), S. Yahya, Halvetilik tarikatının piri-sani'sidir.

Seyyid Yahya sağlıklı Seyyidlerden biri olarak kabul edilir. Babası yedinci İmam Musa Kazım'ın soyundandır. Şiirlerinde Seyyid mahlasını kullanmış, eserlerinin sonuna Seyyid olduğunu belirtmek için ismini Yahya el-Hüseyni olarak yazmıştır. Dedesi Nagib hanedanındandı. Babası Bahaeddin, Şirvanşahlar devletinin soylularındandı.

Çocukluk ve gençlik yılları
Seyyed Yahya'nın çocukluğu Şamahı'da ailesinin yanında geçmiştir. Çocukluğu hakkında elimizde sadece kaynak kitaplarda geçen bilgiler bulunmaktadır. Bu kaynaklardan zengin ve nüfuzlu bir ailede dünyaya geldiği anlaşılmaktadır. Ailesinin Seyyidi olması, çevresinde dikkate alınmasını ve sevilmesini sağlamıştır. Tüm bunların yanı sıra küçük yaşlardan itibaren ahlakı ve eğitimi ile insanları olumlu yönde etkilemiştir.

S. Yahya'nın çok iyi bir eğitim aldığına şüphe yok. Eserlerinin çoğunu Arapça ve Farsça yazmış olması, ana dili Azerbaycan Türkçesinin yanı sıra bu iki dile de hakim olduğunu göstermektedir. Eserleri, İslam dini ile ilgili pek çok bilim dalına derinden aşina olduğu izlenimini uyandırmaktadır. Şamahı'dan ne zaman ayrıldığına dair bir bilgi olmamakla birlikte eğitimini memleketinde tamamladığı sanılmaktadır.

Şafaul-esrar adlı eserinde hocalarının kimler olduğu hakkında bilgi vermiştir. Burada zikredilen isimlerden "hocam" dediği Şeyh Şemseddin Akhisketi'den fıkıh, Mevlana Hafızuddin el-Gardari'den Arapça, "öğretmenim ve belgem" dediği Mevlana Taceddin'den hadis ve fıkıh ve Kutubuddin es-Sarabi'den akaid ve kelam tahsili yaptığı bilinmektedir.

Bakü dönemi
S. Yahya kırk yılı aşkın bir süre Bakü'de yaşadı. Bakü'deki faaliyetlerine bakarsak, kaynaklarda bu dönemin doğru bir şekilde gösterildiği anlaşılır. Aksi yönde başka bir bilgi yoktur. Bu durumda S. Yahya'nın 15. yüzyılın 20'li yıllarında Bakü'ye geldiği sonucuna varılmaktadır. Bakü'ye gitmesine sebep olan olay, Şeyh Sadreddin'in vefatından sonra Pirzade ile arasında şeyhlik konusunda çıkan anlaşmazlıktır. Şeyh Sadreddin'in vefatından önce müritlerini toplayarak yerine Seyyid Yahya'yı atadı ve onlara kendisine itaat etmelerini söyledi. Ancak şeyhin vefatından sonra yerine Pirzade tahta geçmiş ve S. Yahya Bakü'ye yerleşmiştir.

S. Yahya Bakü'ye taşındığında I. Şirvanşah Halilullah Han idi. Bakü'ye vardıktan sonra Şirvanşah I Halilullah Han'ın yardımıyla burada ilk büyük Halveti manastırını açtı. Seyid Yahya türbesi çevresinde Şirvanşahlar tarafından yaptırılan cami ve diğer yapılardan Bakü'deki hangahın yapımında Şirvanşah I Halilullah Han'ın yardım ettiğini anlamak mümkündür. Şirvanşah I Halilullah'ın kendisine büyük yardım ve hürmet gösterdiği kaynaklarda belirtilmektedir.

I. Şirvanşah ile Halilullah Han arasındaki iyi ilişkinin alametlerinden biri de S. Yahyan'ın Kaşful-gulub'u Şirvanşah'a ithaf etmesidir. Böylece eser şu ifadelerle başlar:"Bu risalenin yazılma sebebi, adaletin hükümdarı, dünyadaki tüm padişahların en şereflisi, el-Malikul Manna'nın hükümdarlığının halefi, Halilur-rahman'ın adaşı Sultan ibn Sultan Amir Halilullah'ın günü nedeniyledir. (Yüce Allah onu bütün âleme ve alemdekilere rahmetiyle en yüksek mertebelere yükseltsin) Onun halinin ılımlılığından (Emirül-adil. Azam, Ekram, Hulasatus) bulduğum emniyet ve emniyetle yazdım. Salatin fil-alam, el-Muayyad, el-Malikul-Ma'annan, Khalilur-rahman, Sultan ibni Sultan, Amir Khaliullah halladallahu Taala Saradika Azamatahu ve Celalulhu adına yazılmıştır".

Seyyid Yahya, müritlerine uzun ömürler vermesi için Allah'a dua ederek, "Halil Bey'e dua edin, çünkü benim hayatım onun hayatıdır" demiştir. Nitekim S. Yahya da Şirvanşah I Halilullah Han'ın ölümünden dokuz ay sonra öldü.

Kaynaklarda S. Yahyan'ın tasavvufi hayatı ile ilgili bilgilerin yanı sıra aile hayatı ile ilgili bilgiler de yer almaktadır. Eşi şeyhin kızıdır. Şeyh Sadreddin, geleceğin en büyük zahit şeyhi olacak yetenekli bir mürit olan S. Yahyan'ı kızıyla evlendirdi.

S. Yahyan'ın çocuklarının sayısı kaynaklarda net olarak belirtilmemektedir. Ancak kaynaklardaki bilgilerden üç oğlu olduğu bilinmektedir. Nazmi M., S. Yahya'nın büyük oğlunun adının Fethullah olduğunu ve babasının vefatından sonra Bakü'de onun yerine secdede oturduğunu bildirir. Fethullah, babasından sonra bir yıl şeyhlik yaptıktan sonra vefat etmiş ve babasının yanına defnedilmiştir.

Lamazat'taki tablo yazıtından ortanca oğlunun adının Amir Gulla olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Şeyh'in üçüncü oğlu hakkında bilgi veren Hasan Kırımi'dir. S. Yahyan'ın küçük oğlunun adının Nasrullah olduğunu, Kırım Hanı tarafından Kırım'a davet edildiğini ve bu daveti kabul ederek Kırım'a gittiğini söylüyor. Nasrullah burada kendisine verilen takiyede şeyhlik yapmıştır. O ayrıca Kırım Hanlığı'nın Naqibul-eşhrabi olarak çalışmıştır. Halvetilik onun aracılığıyla Kırım ve çevresine yayıldı. Şeyh Nasrullah'ın torunları 17. yüzyıla kadar Kırım'da devam etti.

Ölümü

S. Yahya Bakü'de öldü. Ölümü için çeşitli tarihler verilmiştir. Nitekim Nafahatus-uns, Şagayig ve Töhfetul-mücahid'in eserlerinde 868 veya 869 olarak iki tarih verilmektedir. Hulvi ve Ahmad Hilmi 869 tarihini, S. Vijdani ve M.A. Ayni ise 862 tarihini belirtmektedir. Ancak çoğu kaynak, S. Yahya'nın Şirvanşah I Halilullah'ın ölümünden 9 ay sonra öldüğünü belirtmektedir.
Şirvanşah devletinin seçkin araştırmacılarından Sara Aşurbeyli, Abdurrahman Celaleddin el-Suyuti ve Muhammed ibn Ahmed ibn İlyas'a dayanarak yazıyor: "Mısırlı tarihçi Abdurrahman Celaleddin el-Suyuti'nin (1445-1505) "Nazm al-ukban fi iyan" adlı eserinde Şirvanşah I Halilullah'ın ölüm tarihi şöyle geçmektedir: "Şirvan hükümdarı Halil ibn Muhammed Derbendi, Şamahı'nın hakimi, hürmetli, sadık, mümini ve adil yöneticilerdendi. O, büyük Müslüman hükümdarların sonuncusudur. Elli yıl kadar Şirvan ve Şamahı'yı yönetti ve 869'da öldü (Miladi 3 Eylül 1464 - 23 Ağustos 1465). Yüz yaşlarındaydı. Yine de kolayca okuyordu ve aklı başındaydı." Şirvanşah'ın bu ölüm tarihi, başka bir Arap yazar olan Muhammed ibn Ahmed ibn İlyas tarafından da doğrulanmıştır. Ayrıca Şirvanşah I Halilullah'ın ölüm tarihini de belirterek, 869 Zilhicce ayında (25.07.1465–23.08.1465) öldüğünü yazıyor. Nümismatik veriler de bu tarihi doğrulamaktadır. Oğlu Şirvanşah I. Faruk Yaşar tarafından basılan ilk madeni paralar 869 (Miladi 1465) yılına dayanmaktadır.

Şirvanşah I Halilullah'ın 1465'te öldüğünü dikkate alan M. Rihtim, şeyhin büyük ihtimalle 870 Ramazan ayında (17.04.1466–17.05.1466) öldüğünü belirtiyor.

Çalabi Halife'nin Bakü'ye yaptığı yolculuğu anlatan Hulvi, Seyyid Yahya'nın cenaze töreni hakkında bilgi veriyor. Çelebi Halife, onu görmek için Erzincan'dan yola çıktı, ancak Bakü'ye vardığında insanların gruplar halinde bir yöne gittiklerini gördü. Merak edip sebebini sorunca, "Seyyid Yahya adında mükemmel bir mürşidimiz oldu, bugün öldü. Biz de ona son görevimizi yapmaya gidiyoruz." - cevabını aldı. Bu habere çok üzüldü ve cemaatle cenaze namazını kıldırdıktan sonra o gece yas tutmak için mezarına gitti.

Hakkında kaynaklar
Azerbaycan tasavvuf ekolü içinde yetişmiş tefekkür âlimlerinden Seyyid Yahya Baküvi ve geliştirdiği ve yeniden tesis ettiği Halvetilik tarîkatı İslam dünyasında büyük etki yaratmış ve 15. yüzyıldan itibaren geniş bir alana yayılmıştır. S. Yahya, zengin üç dilli (Türkçe, Arapça, Farsça) tasavvufi-felsefi ve edebi eserleriyle dünyanın birçok ülkesinin felsefi düşünce tarihini etkilemiştir.

Yazar hakkında en doğru bilgiyi hiç şüphesiz kendi eserlerinden verebiliriz. Ancak Müslüman yazarlar eserlerinde genellikle kendileri hakkında çok az bilgi verirler. Bazen isimlerini bile yazmazlar, bu tevazudandır. S. Yahya eserlerinde kendisinden pek bahsetmez. Ancak yine de hayatı hakkında bazı bilgiler bulmak mümkündür.
Böylece Şifaul-esrar'da hocalarından, Keşful-gulub'da Şirvanşah I Halilullah'tan bahseder. Bazı şiirlerinde hayatı ve çilleri ile ilgili bilgilere de rastlanmaktadır.

S. Yahyan'ın eserleri, onun felsefî ve dinî düşüncesi ile tasavvufu hakkında geniş bilgiler içermektedir. O zamana kadar tasavvuf alanında eserler yazan müellif sayısı fazla değildi. Bilhassa Halvetilik tarikatının sistem ve yöntemleri hakkında kendisinden önce yazılmış bir eser yoktur. 200 yıllık Halvetilik tarikatının usul ve esaslarını ilk kez onun kaleme aldığı söylenebilir. Hatta bu yöntemlerin birçoğu ilk kez S. Yahya tarafından tanımlanmış ve uygulanmıştır.

Yirmiden fazla eseriyle tevhidin tasavvufi-felsefi temellerini atmış ve günümüze kadar devam etmesini sağlamıştır. M. Rıhtim, tecrit tarikatının tüm şubelerinin okuduğu özel dua (vird) ve tarikat içinde yapılması gereken usul ve kuralların (edeb) S. Yahya tarafından yazıp yayıldığını kaydeder. Virdu-Sattar ve Meyari-mezhebi olarak bilinen bu eserler, aslında ona, Halvetiliyin gerçek kurucusu unvanını vermeye yeterlidir.

Lamii Mahmud Çelebi'nin Nafahatçevirisi, Taşköprülüzade'nin "Şagayiki-Numaniyya fi ulemayi-devlati Osmaniyya", Macdi Muhammed Efendi'nin "Hadaikuş-şakayık", Yusuf ibn Yakup'un "Menakibi-şerif ve tarikatnammei-piran and maşaihi aliyayi-khalvtaiya", Muhammed Camaluddin al-Hulvi'nin "Lamazati-hulvi ve Lamazati-ulviyya", Ali Ali'nin "Töhfatul-mücahidin ve Behcatuz", Muhammed Nazmin'in "Hadiyyatul-İhvan", Hasan Krimi'nin "Megalate-aliyeyyi-tarikati-halvatiyyeyi-Cemaliyya", Haririzadeh Muhammed Kemaleddin Efendi'nin "Tibyani-vasail-il-hakaik fi daasi-selasil-it taraiq", Sadık Vicdani "Tomari-turuki-Aliyya", Hüseyin Vassaf'ın "Safineyi-avliyayi-ebrar tefsiri-asmar", Bursalı Muhammed Tahir Efendi'nin "Osmanlı müellifleri", Bağdatlı İsmail Paşa'nın "Hadiyatül-arifin", Rahmi Sarin "İslam tasavvufunda Halvetilik ve Halvetiler" eserleri, S. Y. Bakuvin'in yaşamı ve yaratıcılığının yanı sıra Halvetilik tarihi için de önemli kaynaklardır.

Ahmet Ateş, S. Yahyan'ın İstanbul Üniversitesi Kütüphanesi'ndeki eserleri hakkında bilgi vermiştir. Fuad Köprülü, Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı ve Tahsin Yazıcı da eserlerinde Seyyid Yahya ve Halvetilik hakkında değerli bilgiler aktarmışlardır.

Eserleri
Seyyed Yahya'nın din ve tasavvuf eserlerinin sayısı ve listesi hiçbir kaynakta tam verilmemiştir. Virdu-Sattar ve Esrarut-Talib dışında kaynaklar diğer eserlerin içeriğinden bahsetmemiştir. Mükemmel eğitimi ile tanınan Seyyid Yahya nesir eserlerini Türkçe, Arapça ve Farsça, şiirlerini ise Farsça yazmıştır. Bu dildeki şiirlerinde "Seyid" soyadını kullanmıştır. Mehmet Rıhtım, Türkiye ve Azerbaycan kütüphanelerinde yaptığı uzun araştırmalar sırasında bu ülkelerin kütüphanelerinde Seyid Yahya'nın eserlerinin 100'den fazla el yazması nüshası olduğunu keşfetmiştir. Seyid Yahya'nın mirasına ait eserler genel olarak şu şekildedir:
 Atvarul-kalp
 Beyanül-bilim
 Asrarut-Talibin
 Gazeliyat
 Kaşful-gulub
 Kiseyi-Mansur
 Kitabül-vüdu
 Makarimi-ahlak
 Manakibi-Amiralmominin Ali karramallahu vechahu
 Manazilul-Aşıkın
 Manazilus-sabigin
 Meyari-tarikat
 Rümuzül-işaret
 Risaleyi Ma la budde batiniyye
 Risala fi Salavatin-nabi
 Şerh Meratibi-asrari-gulub
 Açıklama Sorusu – Gulshani-asrar
 Şarul-Asmai-samaniyyah
 Tasrrufatü mükaşefat
 Şifaul-asrar
 Virdü-Səttar

Seyid Yahya'nın diğer eserlerinden çeşitli kaynaklarda ve kataloglarda bahsedilmektedir. Bunlar "Elmi-ladun", "Menazilul-arifin", "Asrarul-vahi", "Asrarul-gulub", "Genceyi Asrar", "Kitabul-usul" eserleridir. Mehmet Rıhtım yazıyor ki, "Bunların bir kısmı muhtemelen farklı isimlerle yapılmış eserlerdir. Çünkü uzun araştırmalar bu eserlerin olmadığını göstermiştir"

Seyid Yahya'nın tasavvufun pek çok dalında kaleme aldığı eserlerindeki dil, edebî özellik ve muhteva zenginliği, yazarın düşünce derinliğini göstermesi açısından da değerlidir. Aynı zamanda yazdığı çok sayıda manzum ve nesir eser de özel ilgi görmektedir. Çünkü o zamana kadar Halvetî şeyhleri arasında bu kadar çok ve çeşitli eserler yazan kimse yoktu.

Eserlerinde İslam dünyasında kullanılan üç dili -Arapça, Farsça ve Azerbaycan Türkçesi kullanmış ve Farsça şiirler yazmıştır. Bu onun dil zenginliğini ve ifade genişliğini gösterir. Eserlerinin dikkat çekici yönlerinden biri de kaynak zenginliğidir. Yazar, eserlerinde konuları sıklıkla Kuran ayetleri ve Muhammed'in hadislerine dayanmaktadır. Bu da onun Kur'an ve hadis ilmindeki derinliğini göstermektedir. Öte yandan kendisinden önce yaşamış ve eser yazmış birçok mutasavvıfın eserlerinden de istifade etmiştir.

Müridleri
Kaynaklara göre Seyyid Yahya'nın yirmi bin civarında müridi vardı ve bunlardan 360'ı halife oldu. En ünlü müridleri ve halifeleri şunlardır:
 Rûşeni Ömer Dede
 Pir Şükrüllah Ensari
 Alaaddin Rumi
 Habib Karamani
 Pir Bahaeddin Erzincanî
 Yusuf Muskuri
 Seyyid Ahmed Sünneti
 Baba Kutub
 Pirzade Fethullah
 Pirzade Nesrullah
 Hacı Hamza Çankırı
 Sinan Rumi
 Baba Resul Halvati
 Derviş Kemal
 Üveys Halvati
 Şeyh Mansur Efendi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
• Filmi izle
 Azərbaycan Övliyaları və Mənqibələri — Seyid Yəhya Şirvani

Azeri filozoflar
Orta Çağ filozofları
İslam filozofları
Azeri Müslümanlar
1466 yılında ölenler
Halvetilik
15. yüzyıl Azeri filozofları
Bakü'de defnedilenler
Doğum tarihi bilinmeyenler
Bakü'de ölenler
Mutasavvıflar
Evliyalar
Türk felsefeciler

Yahyâ-yı Şirvânî


Azerbajdžanska književnost (azerski: Azərbaycan ədəbiyyatı) odnosi se na književnost na azerskom jeziku, koji je trenutno službeni jezik u Republici Azerbajdžanu i prvi je jezik većine ljudi u iranskoj regiji Iranskom Azerbajdžanu.

Iako većina Azera živi u Iranu, moderna azerska književnost većinom nastaje u Azerbajdžanu, gdje jezik ima status službenog. Tri pisma se koriste za pisanje: latinica, arapsko pismo i ćirilica.

Prvi primjeri azerske književnosti potječu iz oko 1200. godine, nakon mongolskog osvajanja i pisani su arapskim pismom. Nizami Gandžavi rođen je u Gandži, u današnjem Azerbajdžanu, gdje je živio do svoje smrti. Smatra se najvećim romantičnim epskim pjesnikom u perzijskoj književnosti, koji je unio kolokvijalni i realistički stil u perzijski ep. Njegovo nasljeđe nadaleko je cijenjeno i dijele ga: Afganistan, Azerbajdžan, Iran, regija Kurdistan i Tadžikistan, koji ga slave kao svog nacionalnog pjesnika.

Nekoliko velikih autora pomogli su, da se razvije azerbajđanska književnost između 1300. i 1600. godine, također i pjesništvo.

Vrhunac stvaralaštva pjesnik Fuzulija i klasično djelo azerbajdžanske književnosti predstavlja poema "Lejli i Medžnun", po kojoj je U. Hadžibekov 1908. skladao prvu azerbajdžansku operu.

Pred kraj 19. stoljeća, novine su počele objavljivati popularna književna djela. Tiskanje knjiga azerske književnosti bilo je zabranjeno u Perziji za vladavine Reza-šah Pahlavija (1925. – 1941.) i u Sovjetskom Azerbajdžanu za vrijeme Staljina i njegovoga "Crvenoga terora" kada je progonjeno na tisuće azerskih pisaca, novinara, profesora, intelektualaca i drugih, a rezultiralo je promjenom od azerbajdžanske abecede na ćirilicu.

Moderna azerbajdžanska književnost nastaje isključivo u Azerbajdžanu, makar puno Azera živi i u Iranu.

Izvori

Azerbajdžanska umjetnost
Azerbajdžan

Svjetska književnost

Azerbajdžanska književnost


මාස් (මාස් තීරුව ලෙසද හැඳින්වේ) යනු මාස්, සංස්ථාපිත වෙතින් නිෂ්පාදනය වන චොක්ලට් තීරුවකි.

මාස් (චොක්ලට් තීරුව)


Deni Jurić (Kogarah, 3. rujna 1997.), australski je nogometaš hrvatskog podrijetla koji igra na poziciji napadača. Trenutačno igra za Dinamo Zagreb. Mlađi je brat Tomija Jurića.

Klupska karijera
Dana 30. lipnja 2021. godine, Jurić je potpisao višegodišnji ugovor sa zagrebačkim Dinamom. Odmah nakon potpisa ugovora, Dinamo ga je ostavio na jednogodišnjoj posudbi u Šibeniku. Nakon prodaje Marija Gavranovića u Kayserispor, Dinamo je odlučio odmah vratiti Jurića u momčad. Prvi nastup za "modre" upisao je 21. kolovoza 2021. godine u pobjedi (1:0) nad Lokomotivom.

Reprezentativna karijera
Jurić je u kategoriji do 19 godina nastupao za Hrvatsku, a kasnije se ipak odlučio nastupati za Australiju. Za seniorsku reprezentaciju za sada još nema nastupa.

Priznanja

Klupska
Dinamo Zagreb
 1. HNL (1): 2021./22.
 Hrvatski nogometni superkup (1): 2022.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Profil, Soccerway
 Profil, Transfermarkt

Australski nogometaši
Nogometaši Dinama
Nogometaši HNK Gorice
Nogometaši NK Rudeša
Nogometaši NK Solina
Nogometaši HNK Šibenika
Aktivni nogometaši

Deni Jurić


كيسمايو (بالصومالية:Kismaayo) مدينة ساحلية في الصومال، وتعرف كونها ثالث أكبر المدن بعد العاصمة مقديشو ومدينة هرجيسا. تقع على بعد 328 ميل (528 كم) جنوب غرب مقديشو بالقرب من مصب نهر جوبا على المحيط الهندي.
اعتبارا من عام 2008، قدر عدد سكانها بحوالي 70,000 نسمة. وفي العام 1993، قدر عدد السكان وقتها ب 170,000، فيما قدر عددهم في العام 2002 ب201،000.

المناطق
تقسم المدينة إلى 5 أحياء أو مناطق رئيسية هي: Farjano، Faanoole  Shaqaalaha، siinaay وCalanleey.
وأهم منطقة في المدينة هي كالانلي وهي أقدم هذه المناطق وتضم هذه المنطقة مجموعة متنوعة من العرقيات بينهممن دارود إسماعيل وهم موسسي المدينةالعرب، البانتو، البرافنيسي والباجون وغيرهم من الأقليات.

مطار كسمايو، والذي كان سابقا قاعدة تدريب القوات الجوية الصومالية، يبعد نحو 10 كم من المدينة، ويبلغ طول مدرجه 12,000 قدم. وأعيد افتتاحه في أكتوبر 2008.
جامعة كسمايو تأسست في أغسطس 2005، وتبعد نحو 1 كيلومتر شمال المدينة على طول الطريق الرئيسي بين مقديشو وكسمايو.

التاريخ
كان يحكم المدينة والمناطق المحيطة سلطان زنجبار في 1835. وفي الفترة من 1875 إلى 1876، ضمها الخديوي إسماعيل باشا إلى الدولة العثمانية. وكانت جزء من جوبا لاند التي سيطرت عليها بريطانيا.
في الفترة من 1 يوليو 1895، صارت جزء من شركة شرق أفريقيا الإمبريالية البريطانية. في 15 يوليو 1924، تم التنازل عنها لإيطاليا لتصبح جزءا من مستعمرة جوبا لاند "Oltre Giuba"، وفي 1926، تم ادراج المنطقة ضمن مستعمرة سومالي لاند الإيطالية، وأصبحت المدينة عاصمة لإقليمها ضمن الصومال الإيطالي.

الحرب الأهلية

اتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية
في 16 يناير 2006، قتل تسعة اشخاص في معارك عنيفة بين فصائل من «تحالف وادي جوبا»، من أجل السيطرة على كيسمايو. وفي 24 سبتمبر 2006 تعرضت مدينة كيسمايو لغزو من قبل اتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية.

الحرب في الصومال
في أعقاب خسارة كبيرة من الأراضي الاثيوبية بين الحكومة الاتحادية الانتقالية والجيش في كانون الأول / ديسمبر 2006، وكان أول تراجع لاتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية في العاصمة مقديشو، لكنه تخلى عن مقديشو دون صراع على 28 كانون الأول / ديسمبر 2006، والتحرك نحو كسماوي في الجنوب والسماح للحكومة الاتحادية الانتقالية والإثيوبية القوات لتولي العاصمة وكان يخشى من أن الاتحاد سيتخذ موقفا متحديا الماضي في كسماوي عندما جيليب معركة بدأت في 31 كانون الأول / ديسمبر 2006، وشيوخ العشائر ضمن كسماوي يقال طالب اتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية مغادرة المدينة. محمد العربي، وهو زعيم عشيرة وقال «قلنا لهم أنهم سيخسرون، وأنه سيتسبب في تدمير مدينتنا.» ولكن تمرد داخل الاتحاد تسبب قواتها في التفكك، والتخلي عن كل من جيليب وكيسمايو. كانت التقارير إلى أن فروا نحو الحدود الكينية. وان القوات الإثيوبية انسحبت من كيسمايو في آذار / مارس 2007، على أن يترك إلى الحكومة الاتحادية الانتقالية.

واعتبارا من كانون الأول / ديسمبر 2007، وقوات اتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية سيطرت على ما يقرب من نصف المدينة، وحوالي نصف أحياء مقديشو، والتي يبلغ مجموعها نحو 80 ٪ من الأراضي السابق، تاركا النظام المدعوم من أثيوبيا في نفس الحالة غير المستقرة كما كان في بيدوة في بداية عام 2007.

وفي أيار / مايو 2009، الحكومة المدينة «أرسلت المقاتلين والاسلحة والمركبات لدعم جماعات المعارضة القتال في مقديشو»، وكثفت الجهود لتجنيد الجهاديين من الجنود. الشيخ أبو بكر Sayli'i، حي بين الشباب تعيين رئيس بلدية مدينة كيسمايو، وأوضح: «إن الإدارة وشعب كيسمايو ليست محايدة في مقديشو الحرب، لأنها تدعم المجاهدين الذين وهمية ضد الحكومة».

الحكومة
أنشئت في 6 سبتمبر 2008. وأفيد أعضاء ممثلة اتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية وآل بين الشباب (ثلاثة أعضاء لكل منهما) إضافة إلى جماعة محلية (عضو واحد) والذي كان له دور في الهجوم العسكري. ممثلون عن اتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية قد شككت في شرعية السلطة.

المناخ
مدينة كيسمايو الواقعة في خصب وادي جوبا، ومعروف عن الشواطئ الجميلة والنظيفة والمناخ الاستوائي. والمناخ الساخن على مدار العام، والرياح الموسمية والرياح الموسمية، وعدم انتظام سقوط الأمطار مع تكرار حالات الجفاف. «غو» الأمطار، المعروف أيضا باسم الرياح الموسمية الجنوبية الغربية، وتبدأ في نيسان / أبريل وحتى يونيو الماضي، وإنتاج كبير للمياه العذبة، والسماح الخصبة لنمو النباتات. موسم الغو تليها الجفاف.

الاقتصاد
في تشرين الأول / أكتوبر 2008، كان معدل العمل اليومي تقدر +157500 شلن صومالي (4.50 دولار) ارتفاعا من 52,000 دولار (2.21) في كانون الثاني / يناير 2008، في حين أن سعر كيلو الأرز الاحمراء ارتفعت من 14170 دولار (0.61) إلى 46,000 دولار (1.31)ألف ليتر من وقود الديزل بتكلفة 43,000 شلن (1.23 دولار) وتكاليف جمل أكثر من 15 مليون شلن (435 دولارا) إجمالي إنتاج الحبوب نحو كيسمايو وتشير التقديرات إلى أن
كان هناك مصنع للحوم التعليب، والمدابغ ومصانع حديثة الأسماك. وهناك نوعان من السكر ومعامل التكرير، واحدة بالقرب من جيليب على الوصول إلى أقل من واحد في جوبا وجوهر

المراجع

 Kismayo web portal
 1992 خريطة كيسمايو في 1992

كيسمايو
أماكن مأهولة في جوبا السفلى
السواحليون
تاريخ الإقليم السواحلي
سلطنة أجوران
مدن الصومال
مدن ساحلية في الصومال

كيسمايو


Islote Sinho (en portugués: Ilhéu Sinho) es el nombre que recibe un islote ubicado en el océano Atlántico al sudeste de la isla Salvaje Grande (Selvagem Grande), en las islas Salvajes (Ilhas Selvagens), Región Autónoma de Madeira, al oeste de Portugal.

Referencias

Sinho, Islote

Islote Sinho


Ivanka Škrabec-Novak (Hrovača, 1915. – Zamostec, 4. lipnja 1942.) bila je slovenska je učiteljica, žrtva komunističkog terora. U visokom stupnju trudnoće i unatoč njezinoj molbi da joj dopuste prije roditi dijete, partizani su ju ubili, a prethodno su ju natjerali da si sama iskopa grob.

Obrazovanje i brak

Ivanka Novak rođena je 1915. godine u uglednoj obitelji Škrabec. Njezin otac, Janez Škrabec, bio je nećak cijenjenog slovenskog franjevca i jezikoslovca Stanislava Škrabeca. Nakon studija kod uršulinki u Ljubljani, Ivanka je započela svoju nastavničku službu u Pišecama, a u jesen 1939. vratila se u rodnu Dolenjsku i postala učiteljica u Sodražici. Unatoč tome što je bila okružena većinom učiteljima liberalnoga svjetonazora, Ivanka se držala svojih uvjerenja i stavova te pritom prije rata nije imala problema s neistomišljenicima. U svoje slobodno vrijeme radila je s mladima u obrazovnim i vjerskim društvima. U prosincu 1941., nekoliko mjeseci nakon talijanske i njemačke okupacije Slovenije, Ivanka Škrabec udala se u Ljubljani za Franca Novaka, katoličkog odgajatelja, profesora kemije i izbjeglicom iz područja koje su okupirali nacisti u Gorenjskoj regiji. Vjenčao ih je Lambert Ehrlich. Nakon braka, mladi supružnici nastavljaju svoj život u Sodražici.

Prijetnje Oslobodilačke fronte
Oslobodilačka fronta, koja se pod vodstvom Komunističke partije Slovenije pripremala za vrijeme okupacije na provođenje komunističke revolucije pojavila se u Sodražici u drugoj polovici 1941. godine. Jedan od logora koji su bili pod partizanskom upravom bio je na Travnoj gori, a vodio ga je Stane Semič-Seki, veteran španjolskog građanskog rata. Ivankin suprug France kao vrlo cijenjen katolički intelektualac zastupao je stajalište da Oslobodilačku frontu vode komunisti i da osobno ne vidi ništa dobro u njihovoj akciji. Uslijedile su prve prijetnje te je Novak već tada bio označen kao narodni neprijatelj.

Pismo nerođenom djetetu
Pismo koje je Ivanka napisala pronašla je njezina rodbina prilikom iskopa njezina tijela. Pokopana je u obiteljskom grobu Škrabčevih u Hrovači. Po svoj prilici ubili su je iz osvete prema njezinom mužu koji se nije slagao s komunističkom ideologijom. Po tekstu pisma koje nije u cijelosti očuvano, čini se da je pisano neposredno pred upad partizana u njezinu kuću.

U pismu je napisala:
Još nekoliko sati i doći će kraj mojem životu. O Bože, o žalosna Majko, Majko moja. Ti znaš da umirem nevina, kao što je umirao tvoj Sin.

O dijete moje, nježni anđele moj, kako bih voljela vidjeti crte tvoga nasmijana lica, koje bi me razveselilo. O dijete moje, nježni, bijeli moj cvijete.

Nikada ne ću vidjeti tvoje bijele ručice; nikada mi ne ćeš uzvratiti sladak zagrljaj. Nikada te ne ću moći stisnuti na svoje srce; iako si tako blizu, nikada, dijete moje.

Negdje u zagrljaju šume naš će biti dom, krasit će ga proljetno cvijeće.

Moja usta nikad ti ne će pjevati pjesme u kolijevci, sama ću biti tvoja postelja, iako hladna i tako tvrda.

Grane iznad nas pjevat će ti voljenu uspavanku. Oh, samo mirno spavaj, dijete moje, blizu si moga srca, koje te silno voli; na žalost, iako te ljubi, iz ruku smrti koja i tebe čeka, ne može te spasiti.

Samo mirno spavaj. Ti ne možeš naslutiti što te čeka. Sa mnom ćeš umirati – ja u mislima s tobom. I tada će biti kraj stradanja i muke, naše borbe, zajedno ćemo k Bogu.

Kada sam te prvi put oćutjela, osjetila sam tvoj nemir. I počela sam sanjati kako ću te prvi put donijeti u Božju blizinu, da te poškropi krsna voda; na žalost, oblit će te moja krv, krvlju majke pune ljubavi bit ćeš kršteno.

Gledala sam te i vidjela kako se Krist u hostiji prvi put priklanja k tebi. Na žalost, moje će tijelo ubrzo biti ciborij, a ti, moje dijete, hostija u njemu.
Iz mojeg ciborija uzet će te ruka puna ljubavi, položit će te u svoje božansko srce… Tamo ću te, moje dijete, prvi put ugledati, o moj nježni anđele; tamo ću vidjeti tvoje lice, tamo ćeš ti vidjeti svoju majku i prvi ćeš me puta zazvati: O mama!

Gledaj, moje dijete, jutro se bliži. Prva zraka iza gore naviješta za nas posljednje jutro trpljenja. Sutra će opet ustati, ali bez trpljenja i suza, pred Bogom...

Samo mirno spavaj, tvoja majka bdije nad tobom... Gledaj crvena zraka već navješćuje da se budi dan i posljednje zvijezde se gase u njoj.

Sat na tornju već pokazuje jutro koje će nas odvesti na zadnji put... No, neću biti sama... sa mnom ćeš biti ti moje dijete... i Marija koja će, kao tada za Sinom na Kalvariju, ići s nama...

U posljednjim našim izdisajima stat će kraj nas, a potom će nas ponijeti u sretan, vječni dom… Nitko nam više neće oduzeti radost, jer bit ćemo uronjeni u vječnoga Boga, u vječni Božji mir... Moje dijete, samo spavaj...Marija je s nama...

Izvori

Životopisi, Slovenija

Ivanka Novak


Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava (March 21, 1931 – February 11, 1975) was a Malagasy politician and soldier who served as the head of state of Madagascar for six days in February 1975 before his assassination in office.

Biography

Military career
He was born in 1931 and was a Merina from a Merina family. A graduate of the French Saint Cyr military college, Ratsimandrava served throughout French Africa before returning to Madagascar when that country gained independence in 1960. He joined the army, attaining the rank of lieutenant-colonel by 1968. In 1972 President Gabriel Ramanantsoa established a military government to replace the independence government of Philibert Tsiranana, and Ratsimandrava was appointed Minister of the Interior. Several senior officers were able to manipulate the army, which led to the ousting of Ramanantsoa on February 5, 1975.

Death
Six days following his taking office, Ratsimandrava was assassinated at 8 p.m. while driving from the presidential palace to his home. His death was announced by the new ruling military committee. It claimed that the President had been killed by members of the Republican Security Forces (Groupe Mobile de Police-GMP), a counterinsurgency outfit dissolved by his predecessor. The event nearly plunged the country into civil war between supporters of the military government and former President Tsiranana. In 2006, on the 31st anniversary of colonel's murder, a conference was held in Madagascar.

Further reading
L'assassinat du president Ratsimandrava, Le Journal La Croix (1975). preview of newspaper article on assassination of Ratsimandrava

References

External links
Biography - in Malagasy.
- Photo of Ratsimandrava.

1931 births
1975 deaths
People from Antananarivo
Merina people
Malagasy military personnel
Assassinated Malagasy politicians
People murdered in Madagascar
Interior ministers of Madagascar
20th-century Malagasy people
1975 murders in Africa
1975 crimes in Madagascar
Assassinated heads of state in Africa
1970s assassinated politicians in Africa

Richard Ratsimandrava


POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface for Unix, ), UNIX için "taşınabilir işletim sistemi arabirimi".

Bir işletim sistemi hizmeti kümesi tanımlayan Elektrik ve Elektronik Mühendisleri Enstitüsü (IEEE) standardı. POSIX standardını kullanan programlar bir sistemden diğerine kolayca taşınabilir. POSIX, UNIX sistem hizmetlerine dayanır, ancak başka işletim sistemleri tarafından da geliştirilebilecek biçimde oluşturulmuştur.

POSIX'le uyumlu işletim sistemleri
İşletim sistemleri, kısmen veya tamamen POSIX'le uyumlu olabilirler. Bu özellikleri, POSIX standartlarına kısmen veya tamamen uyumlu olduklarına bağlıdır. Sertifikalı ürünler, IEEE'nin POSIX sertifikalı internet siteleri (İng. ) sahifesinde yayınlanarak ilân edilir.

Tamamen POSIX uyumlu
Aşağıdaki işletim sistemleri POSIX uyumlu olup bu standartın tamamına uymaktadır:
 A/UX
 AIX
 BlagOS
 BSD/OS
 Darwin (Mac OS X)
 HP-UX
 INTEGRITY
 IRIX
 LynxOS
 MINIX
 OpenVMS
 penOS
 QNX
 RTEMS (POSIX 1003.1-2003 Profile 52)
 Solaris und OpenSolaris
 UnixWare
 velOSity
 VxWorks

Geniş ölçüde POSIX uyumlu
Aşağıdaki işletim sistemleri, resmen POSIX uyumlu olarak sertifikalandırılmamışlarsa da, standardın büyük kısmına uymaktadırlar:
 BeOS und dessen Open-Source-Nachfolger Haiku
 Nucleus RTOS
 FreeBSD
 Linux (çoğu dağıtımlar için bakınız LSB)
 NetBSD
 OpenBSD
 DragonFly BSD
 PikeOS (Gömülü sistemler için eşzamanlı işletim sistemi. PSE51- ve PSE52 payı seçilebilir.)
 SkyOS
 SuperUX
 Syllable
 VSTa

Genişletmeyle uyumlu olabilenler
Bu işletim sistemleri, resmen POSIX uyumlu olarak sertifikalandırılmamışlarsa da, geniş olarak standartlara uyarlar. Bu sistemlerde POSIX desteği, bir nevî uyumluluk genişletmesi (genelde derleyici kütüphaneleri) veya işletim sistemi çekirdeği üzerinde bir ara tabaka şeklinde yapılır. Bu genişletmeler olmadan hiç POSIX uyumlu değillerdir.

 Microsoft Windows'un NT çekirdeğinin Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX'le kullanımı POSIX threadleri gibi alt kümeleri mesela "Pthreads-w32" desteğiyle mümkündür.
 eCos – POSIX, standart dağıtımın bir parçası olup birçok uygulamaca kullanılmaktadır.
 Plan 9: APE – ANSI/POSIX Environment
 Symbian İS PIPS'le (PIPS Is POSIX on Symbian)
 AmigaOS/MorphOS, ixemul.library ile

Kaynakça

POSIX

POSIX


δ-Globin, delta-Globin, oder Hämoglobin delta-Kette ist ein Protein aus der Familie der Globine, dessen 147 Aminosäuren lange Polypeptidkette ein Häm als Cofaktor bindet und das so Teil des Proteinkomplexes von Hämoglobin A2 (Hb A2) ist, die Hämoglobin-Untereinheit delta (HBD).

Das δ-Globin ist damit Bestandteil einer Hämoglobin-Variante, die beim erwachsenen Menschen für den Sauerstofftransport gebildet wird. Codiert wird es vom HBD-Gen, das im Gen-Cluster des β-Globin-Locus (mit der Abfolge 5′ - HBE1 – HBG2 – HBG1 – HBD – HBB - 3′) auf Chromosom 11 liegt. Die Expression dieser einander sehr ähnlichen Gene wird hier über eine gemeinsame Kontrollregion geregelt und ist entwicklungsabhängig unterschiedlich. Je nach Entwicklungsphase bzw. Zellmilieu kann die Proteinbiosynthese von entsprechenden ε-, γ-, δ- oder β-Globinen veranlasst werden. Diese Proteine unterscheiden sich voneinander nur in wenigen Aminosäuren ihrer jeweils 147 AS langen Kette; doch zeigen die aus ihnen zusammengesetzten Hämoglobine Unterschiede im Sauerstoff-Bindungsvermögen.

Funktion
Nach der Geburt findet die Bildung roter Blutkörperchen (Erythropoese) vornehmlich im Knochenmark statt und es werden nun überwiegend die Hämoglobine des Erwachsenen gebildet, "adulte Hämoglobine" genannt. Diese bestehen wie das fetale Hämoglobin (HbF) aus vier paarweise gleichen Untereinheiten. Zwei davon sind ebenfalls alpha- (α), die beiden anderen jedoch nicht gamma-Ketten, sondern Produkte des beta-Gens (HBB) oder des delta-Gens (HBD). Aus zwei Paaren mit α-Globin und β-Globin setzt sich das HbA zusammen (α2β2); im normalen Erwachsenenleben macht es ungefähr 97 % des gesamten Hämoglobins aus. Aus zwei alpha- und zwei delta-Untereinheiten besteht das HbA2 (α2δ2); es stellt zusammen mit HbF (α2γ2) die restlichen 3 % des Hämoglobins Erwachsener.

Klinische Bedeutung
Mutationen im HBD-Gen für δ-Globin werden mit der Delta-Thalassämie in Verbindung gebracht.

Siehe auch
 Thalassämie

Einzelnachweise

Literatur

Sauerstofftransporter
Blutbestandteil
Codiert auf Chromosom 11 (Mensch)

Δ-Globin


Konzerviranje restauriranje drvoreza je postupak zbrinjavanja i obnavljanja grafičkih otisaka s drvene ploče.Brojnji primjerci azijskih i europskih drvoreza pokazuju posljedice starenja te oštećenja,poput primjerice izbljeđivanja boja korištenih pri tisku.

Uobičajeni materijali

Japanski drvorez
Obično su otisnuti na pappiru izrađenom od vlaka murve. Korišteni su brojni pigmenti orgnnskog porijekla.Od anorganskih koristili su creno olovo.

Kineski drvorez
Vlakna korištena za otiske kineskog drvoreza mogu potjecati od 5 biljaka: konoplje,ratana,kore, bambusa te trava.Često se zajedno koristilo i po nekoliko vrsta vlakana,zavisno o lokalnoj dostupnosti.

Europski drvorez
Kod europskih drvoreza kod otisaka nalazimo 3 temelnja materijala, a to su papir,pigment i vezivo korišteno za vezanje pigmenata.Papir je najčešće tanak,jer su drvorezi tiskani u razmjerno velikim tiražama,te su bili relativno jeftini.kao pigmenti korišteni su i anorganski,na svijetlu stabilni materijali,i organski bojitelji poput indiga. kao vezivo za pigmente najčešće je korišteno laneno ulje te smola. .

Uzroci propadanja

Svijetlo

Vrlo je dobro znano da svijetlo oštećuje neke od boja korištenih kod izrade otisaka s drvene ploče.Ultraljubičasti dio spektra uzrokuje najveća oštećenja.L

Vlaga

Papir i pigmenti su oboje osjetljivi na promjene u relativnoj vlažnosti zraka. Ako ista padne ispod 35 posto, papir postaje suh i lako lomljiv. Ako je pak viša od 65 posto, papir se lako izobliči. Nadalje kod povišene vlage pojedini pigmenti postaju translucentni.Kod stalnih čestih promjena vlage papir lako popuca, a kod povišene vlage lako postaje pljesnjiv,te može doći i do napada štetnika kojima ovakovi uvjeti odgovaraju.

Toplina
Povišene temperature zraka uzrokuju mehanički stres, te papir postaje krt i lomljivH.

Zagađenost zraka
Također uzrokuje ubrzano propadanje otisaka,primjerice kod zagađenosti zraka spojevima sumpora,olovni pigmenti pocrne ili posmeđeP.

Štetnici
Štetnici mogu lako uništiti ili oštetiti otiske drvoreza.

Preventivna zaštita
Preventivna zaštita,odnosno briga o zbirkama način je sprečavanja propadanja predmeta kulturne baštine putem uklanjanja ili smanjenja štetnog djelovanja na iste.Dobar sustav zaštite od štetnika, te kvalitetan sustav ovlaživanje zraka u prostorima za izlaganje ili čuvanja predmeta priznata su i dokazana riješenja spomenutih problema.

Pohrana
Obavezno treba koristiti materijale erhivke kvalitete.Pohrana otisaka u mape od nearhivskog materijala može dovesti do stvaranja kiselih uvjeta.Korištenje kavalitetnih beskiselinskih materijala prevenira spomenutu pojavu.Pohrana u mape također reducira svijetlosna oštećenja čuvanih otisaka.

Izlaganje
Najbolja je zaštita smanjenje razine svijetla na najviše 50 lx,te držanje relativne vlage na oko 55 %.

Konzerviranje restauriranje

Mrlje i točke
Ojedna od metoda uklanjanja mrlja koristi sprejanje predmeta mješavinom vodikova peroksida i vode,ispiranje prskanjem,te potom sušenje otiska uz pomoć upojnog papira. Brojni su postupci uklanjanja mrlja izrazito štetni za papir, pigmente i veziva za spomenute.Ispiranje vodom može rastopiti korištene tinte.Pri dodiru s vodom neki se organski bojitelji mogu otopiti. .

Rupe i slična oštećenja
Rupe se mogu zapuniti ljepljenjenm papirnatih zakrpa.Pri tome se koriste reverzibilna veziva.

Skidanje i demontiranje
Demontaža je proces uklanjanja otiska iz zaštitnog papirnatog okvira. To se često radi zato što su stariji nosači obično napravljeni od kiselog papirnog materijala koji može uništiti papir ili izblijedjeti boje. Nosači se obično lijepe za otiske preko ljepila koje mogu uzrokovati žute distorzije na papiru.

Ravnanje
Suho izravnavanje papira otiska ponekad može ukloniti znakove preklapanja, gužvanja ili naboravanja. U tom procesu, otisak se polaže na ravnu površinu, a težina drugog objekta koristi se kako bi se dodao još veći pritisak na otisak. Ponekad ravnanje može biti nepotrebno, primjerice kada je prikladno pohranjivanje u mapu.  Vlažno ravnanje tehnike je koja često uključuju korištenje vlage kako bi se poravnali papirnati predmeti; međutim, ova tehnika može uzrokovati daljnja oštećenja otisaka koji imaju vodotopive boje.

 Humidity flattening techniques often involve using humidity to help flatten paper objects; however, this technique can cause further damage to prints that have water-soluble colorants.

Dodatna literatura
New Approaches to Book and Paper Conservation‑Restoration, ed. by Patricia Engel, Joseph Schirò, René Larsen, Elissaveta Moussakova and Istvan Kecskeméti, Wien 2011.

Museum of Fine Arts (2011). Conservation and Care of Museum Collections. Boston, MA: MFA Publications.

Fiske, Betty (2006). "Conservation of Japanese Woodblock Prints: Display, Storage, and Treatment". Impressions. 28 (28): 60–75. JSTOR 42597791.

Tsai, Fei Wen (1997). "Technology, treatment, and care of a Chinese wood block print"

Morenus, Linda Stiber; Eng, Charlotte W.; Takahatake, Naoko; Rambaldi, Diana C. (2015-11-01). "16th- and 17th-Century Italian Chiaroscuro Woodcuts: Instrumental Analysis, Degradation, and Conservation". Journal of the American Institute for Conservation. 54 (4): 238–271

Izvori

Konzervacija

Konzerviranje restauriranje drvoreza


!Artigos com hCards
Johann Georg Kohl (28 de abril de 1808, em Bremen - 28 de outubro de 1878) foi um escritor de viagens, historiador e geógrafo alemão.

Vida
Filho de um comerciante de vinhos, frequentou um ginásio em Bremen, e depois estudou direito nas universidades de Göttingen, Heidelberg e Munique. Quando seu pai morreu em 1830, ele teve que interromper os estudos e passou seis anos trabalhando como tutor na Curlândia . Ele então viajou para São Petersburgo e outras partes da Rússia. Em 1838, ele voltou para a Alemanha e se estabeleceu em Dresden, de onde visitou grande parte da Europa e escreveu sobre suas experiências.

Teorias do futuro
O principal trabalho científico de Kohl, Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen der Menschen in ihrer Abhängigkeit von der Gestalt der Erdoberfläche (Transporte e assentamento de pessoas e sua dependência do terreno de superfície) (1841, 1850) é considerado o documento fundador do transporte moderno e da geografia urbana . Usando Moscou como exemplo, ele formulou uma teoria matemática para o desenvolvimento de cidades esféricas e como, eventualmente, essas cidades desenvolveriam arranha-céus e shopping centers subterrâneos. Da mesma forma, também fundamental para a geografia teórica foi seu Die geographische Lage der Hauptstädte Europas (A localização geográfica das capitais da Europa) (1874).

Viagens na Irlanda e Liverpool
O registro de Kohl de sua viagem de 1842 à Irlanda e ao porto inglês de Liverpool continua sendo uma visão importante da condição de ambos os locais antes de ambos serem assolados pelo desastre humanitário da Grande Fome.

Viagens na Grã-Bretanha
Em 1842, Kohl visitou York. Ele escreveu uma longa descrição do Ministro e da comunidade Quaker de York (ver pp.62-69 em Palliser and Palliser eds. 1979 York as They Saw It: From Alcuin to Lord Esher . William Sessions Limited.

Viagens na América
De 1854 a 1858, viajou pelos Estados Unidos. Ele preparou alguns mapas valiosos para o governo dos Estados Unidos e, a pedido do United States Coast Survey, preparou dois relatórios: History of the Discovery of the US Coast e the History and Investigation of the Gulf Stream (Bremen, 1868).  Enquanto estava em Washington e em Harvard, Kohl fez amizade com muitos escritores (incluindo Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Ralph Waldo Emerson e Washington Irving ) e estudiosos (incluindo George Bancroft, Charles Bennett Deane e Louis Agassiz ). O livro de Kohl, Reisen in Canada und durch die Staaten von New York und Pennsylvanien (Viagens no Canadá e nos estados de Nova York e Pensilvânia; 1856) ainda é consultado para estudo histórico do holandês da Pensilvânia .  Em seu retorno à Europa, ele se estabeleceu em Bremen, onde foi nomeado bibliotecário municipal 1863.

Bibliografia

 1841: Viagens no interior da Rússia e da Polônia
 1841: Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen der Menschen in ihrer Abhjängigkeit von der Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche, Dresden.
 1842–1846: Reiseberichte über Österreich, das bayrische Hochland, Dänemark und Großbritannien .
 1844: De Ukraine en Klein-Rusland
 1844: As Ilhas Britânicas e seus habitantes
 1845: Johann Georg Kohl e Ida Kohl: Englische Skizzen (em 3 atos), Leipzig e Dresden.
 1846: Reise durch Dänemark und die Herzogthümer Schleswig und Holstein (em 2 volumes), Leipzig.
 1850–1852: Reiseberichte über die Niederlande, Istrien, Dalmatien und Montenegro und das südöstliche Deutschland .
 1850: Aus meinen Hütten (em 2 volumes), Leipzig.
 1851: Der Rhein (O Reno; em 2 volumes), Leipzig.
 1851: Skizzen aus Natur und Völkerleben (em 2 atos), Dresden.
 1854: Die Donau (O Danúbio), Trieste.
 1856: Geschichte des Golfstroms und seiner Erforschung, Stuttgart.
 1856: Reisen in Canada und durch die Staaten von New York und Pennsylvanien (Viagens no Canadá e pelos estados de Nova York e Pensilvânia), Stuttgart.
 1857: Catálogo descritivo de mapas, relacionados à América mencionados em Hakluyt, Washington.
 1858: Reisen im Nordwesten der Vereinigten Staaten (Viagens no Noroeste dos Estados Unidos), St. Louis.
 1859: Kitschi Gami oder Erzählungen vom Oberen See ( Kitchi Gami ou histórias do Lago Superior), Bremen.
 1860: Die beiden ältesten generalkarten von Amerika 1527 e 1529, Weimar.
 1861: Geschichte der Entdeckung Amerikas (História do Descobrimento da América), Bremen.
 1864: Nordwestdeutsche Skizzen, Bremen.
 1866: Deutsche Volksbilder und Naturansichten aus dem Harz, Hannover.
 1866: Am Wege, Blick in Gemüt und Welt, Bremen.
 1869: Entdeckungsgeschichte der Küsten der Vereinigten Staaten
 1869: Uma História da Descoberta do Maine
 1870: Episoden aus der Kultur- und Kunstgeschichte Bremens, Bremen.
 1874: Die geographische Lage der hauptstädte Europas, Leipzig.
 1877: Geschichte der Entdeckungsfahrten und Schiffahrten zur Magalhaes-Straße, Berlim.

Fontes

 Herbert Schwarzwälder . Das Große Bremen-Lexikon . , Bremen 2003,
 Wilhelm Wolkenhauer. "Johann Georg Kohl" em Aus allen Weltteilen, X, pp. 138–141.

links externos

 Works by or about Johann Georg Kohl at Internet Archive

Bibliotecários da Alemanha
Geógrafos da Alemanha
Mortos em 1878
Nascidos em 1808
Escritores de Bremen

Johann Georg Kohl


Latendorf er en by og kommune i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i Amt Boostedt-Rickling i den nordlige del af Kreis Segeberg. Kreis Segeberg ligger i den sydøstlige del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.

Geografi
Latendorf ligger omkring 10 km sydøst for Neumünster, 15 km nordøst for Bad Bramstedt og 16 km nordvest for Bad Segeberg ved udkanten af Segeberger Forst. Mod nordøst går Bundesstraße B205 fra Bad Segeberg mod Neumünster, mod syd går Bundesstraße 206 fra Bad Segeberg mod Bad Bramstedt og mod vest går motorvejen A7 fra Hamborg mod Flensborg.

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 Kommunens websted
 Statistikamt Nord – Bevölkerung der Gemeinden in Schleswig-Holstein 4. Quartal 2014 (XLSX-Data) (Fortschreibung auf Basis des Zensus 2011)

Byer i Slesvig-Holsten
Kommuner i Slesvig-Holsten
Byer i Kreis Segeberg

Latendorf


Abadan (Farsça: آبادان), İran'ın Huzistan Eyaleti'nde şehir.

Eyaletin aynı isimli Abadan şehristanı'nın yönetim merkezi olan şehrin 2006 yılı resmi nüfusu 217.988 kişi ve 48.061 hanedir.

İran'daki petrol yataklarından gelen boru hatlarının ulaştıkları kentte, dünyanın en büyük petrol arıtma tesislerinden biri kurulmuştur. Bir adet uluslararası havaalanının bulunduğu şehirde ayrıca 1939'da kurulan bir teknoloji enstitüsü vardır.

Konumu
Fars Körfezi'nin kıyısında, Şattülarap'da bir adada denizden 53 km. kadar içeride yer alan Abadan, İsfahan'ın yaklaşık 402 km. güneybatısındadır.

Geçmişi
1047'de kurulan Abadan, 1908'de petrol bulunup bir yıl sonra da ilk rafineriler kurulmaya başlayıncaya kadar küçük bir kasaba olarak kaldı. İran'ın en işlek limanlarından biri olan Abadan, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ile İran arasında sürekli bir tartışma konusu olmuştur. 1847'de yapılan Erzurum Antlaşması'yla İran'a bırakıldı. 1909'da Anglo Persian Oil Company, adayı kiralayarak burada dünyanın en büyük rafinelerinden birini kurdu.1973'te İran tarafından devralındı. 1951'e kadar dünyanın en büyük petrol arıtma tesisleri olan rafinerilerde, 1980'de İran-Irak Savaşı başlayıncaya kadar yılda 18 milyon ton ham petrol işleniyordu, bu savaşta büyük zarar gördü Irak'ın 1983'te düzenlediği saldırı sonucunda Basra Körfezi'nin tarihindeki en büyük petrol kirlenmesi ortaya çıktı.

Kaynakça

Abadan


Piptocarpha notata é uma espécie de planta do gênero Piptocarpha e da família Asteraceae.

Taxonomia
A espécie foi descrita em 1873 por John Gilbert Baker.
O seguinte sinônimo já foi catalogado:
 Piptocarpha cinerea  (Sch. Bip.) Baker

Forma de vida
É uma espécie terrícola, arbustiva e trepadeira.

Descrição

Conservação
A espécie faz parte da Lista Vermelha das espécies ameaçadas do estado do Espírito Santo, no sudeste do Brasil. A lista foi publicada em 13 de junho de 2005 por intermédio do decreto estadual nº 1.499-R.

Distribuição
A espécie é encontrada nos estados brasileiros de Bahia, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro e São Paulo.
A espécie é encontrada no domínio fitogeográfico de Mata Atlântica, em regiões com vegetação de floresta estacional semidecidual e floresta ombrófila pluvial.

Notas
Contém texto em CC-BY-SA 4.0 de Volet, D.P.; Monge, M.; Semir, J. (in memoriam) Piptocarpha  in Flora e Funga do Brasil.

Ligações externas
 Piptocarpha notata no projeto Flora e Funga do Brasil
 Piptocarpha notata no portal do Centro Nacional de Conservação da Flora (Brasil)

Piptocarpha
Plantas descritas em 1873
Flora do Espírito Santo (estado)
Espécies citadas na Lista Vermelha de Ameaça da Flora Brasileira
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Flora Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo

Piptocarpha notata


Le Pensionnat, film thaïlandais ;
 Le Pensionnat, une série d'émissions de télévision française de téléréalité diffusée sur M6 ;
 Le pensionnat, un roman de Josette Alia publié en 2005 ;

Voir aussi
 Le Pensionnat de Chavagnes, une émission de télé réalité française diffusée sur M6

Le Pensionnat (homonymie)