The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It represents action in line with treaty commitments under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.

Offences under the Act include:
 Possession of a controlled drug unlawfully
 Possession of a controlled drug with intent to supply it
 Supplying or offering to supply a controlled drug (even where no charge is made for the drug)
 Allowing premises you occupy or manage to be used unlawfully for the purpose of producing or supplying controlled drugs

It is often presented as little more than a list of prohibited drugs and of penalties linked to their possession and supply. In practice, however, the act establishes the Home Secretary as a key player in a drug licensing system. Therefore, for example, various opiates are available legally as prescription-only medicines, and cannabis (hemp) may be grown under licence for 'industrial purposes'. The Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001, created under the 1971 Act, are about licensing of production, possession and supply of substances classified under the act.

The act creates three classes of controlled substances, A, B, and C, and ranges of penalties for illegal or unlicensed possession and possession with intent to supply are graded differently within each class. The lists of substances within each class can be amended by Order in Council, so the Home Secretary can list new drugs and upgrade, downgrade or delist previously controlled drugs with less of the bureaucracy and delay associated with passing an act through both Houses of Parliament.

Critics of the Act such as David Nutt say that its classification is not based on how harmful or addictive the substances are, and that it is unscientific to omit substances like tobacco and alcohol.

Provisions

Section 37 – Interpretation
Section 37(5) became spent on the repeal of sections 8 to 10 of the Pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933. It was repealed by Group 7 of Part 17 of Schedule 1 to the Statute Law (Repeals) Act 2004.

List of controlled drugs

The Act sets out four separate categories: Class A, Class B, Class C and temporary class drugs. Substances may be removed and added to different parts of the schedule by statutory instrument, provided a report of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs has been commissioned and has reached a conclusion, although the Secretary of State is not bound by the council's findings.

Class A includes cocaine, heroin, morphine, oxycodone, fentanyl, MDMA ("ecstasy"), methamphetamine, LSD, DMT, mescaline extract, and psilocybin (magic mushrooms).

Class B includes cannabis, ketamine, amphetamine, codeine, methcathinone, barbiturates, mephedrone, methaqualone and methylphenidate. Any class B drug that is prepared for injections becomes a class A substance.

Class C includes benzodiazepines, pregabalin, and most other non-barbiturate tranquillisers; GHB; tramadol; cathinone; and anabolic steroids.

All other psychoactive drugs except alcohol, caffeine, and tobacco (or other nicotine preparations) are controlled under the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016 and Medicines Act 1968.

Penalties
The penalties for drug offences depend on the class of drug involved. These penalties are enforced against those who do not have a valid prescription or licence to possess the drug in question. Thus, it is not illegal for someone to possess heroin, a Class A drug, so long as it was administered to them legally (by prescription).

Class A drugs attract the highest penalty, and imprisonment is both "proper and expedient". The maximum penalties possible are as follows:

International cooperation

The act makes it a crime to assist in, incite, or induce, the commission of an offence, outside the UK, against another nation's corresponding law on drugs. A corresponding law is defined as another country's law "providing for the control and regulation in that country of the production, supply, use, export and import of drugs and other substances in accordance with the provisions of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs" or another drug control treaty to which the UK and the other country are parties. An example might be lending money to a United States drug dealer for the purpose of violating that country's Controlled Substances Act.

History
The Drugs (Prevention of Misuse) Act 1964 controlled amphetamines in the United Kingdom in advance of international agreements and was later used to control LSD.

Before 1971, the UK had a relatively liberal drugs policy and it was not until United Nations influence had been brought to bear that controlling incidental drug activities was employed to effectively criminalise drugs use. It is noted that bar the smoking of opium and cannabis; Section 8, part d, under the 1971 Act was not an offence (relating to the prosecution of the owner of a premises/building inside of which controlled drugs were being used). Section 8 of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 was amended by Regulation 13 of Misuse of Drugs Regulations 1985 and Section 38 of the Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001.
These amendments were however repealed in 2005 by Schedule 1 (part 6) of the Drugs Act 2005,.

The Current Section 8 covers:
people knowingly allowing premises they own, manage, or have responsibility for, to be used by any other person for:

 administration or use of any controlled drug
 supply of any controlled drug
 the production or cultivation of controlled drugs, (such as growing cannabis, making crystal meth, preparing magic mushrooms).

Criticism and controversy
Notable criticism of the act includes:
 Drug classification: making a hash of it?, Fifth Report of Session 2005–06, House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, which said that the present system of drug classification is based on historical assumptions, not scientific assessment.
  Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse, David Nutt, Leslie A. King, William Saulsbury, Colin Blakemore, The Lancet, 24 March 2007, said the act is "not fit for purpose" and "the exclusion of alcohol and tobacco from the Misuse of Drugs Act is, from a scientific perspective, arbitrary."

The Transform Drug Policy Foundation offers rational criticism of the harms caused by the Government's  current prohibitionist drug policy. The Drug Equality Alliance (DEA) has launched legal actions against the UK Government's partial and unequal administration of the Act's discretionary powers, making particular reference to the arbitrary exclusion of alcohol and tobacco on the subjective  grounds of historical and cultural precedents contrary to the Act's policy and objects.

Classification of cannabis has become especially controversial. In 2004, cannabis was reclassified from class B to class C, in accordance with advice from the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD). In 2009, it was returned to class B, against ACMD advice.

In February 2009 the UK government was accused by its most senior expert drugs adviser Professor David Nutt of making a political decisions with regard to drug classification in rejecting the scientific advice to downgrade ecstasy from a class A drug. The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) report on ecstasy, based on a 12-month study of 4,000 academic papers, concluded that it is nowhere near as dangerous as other class A drugs such as heroin and crack cocaine, and should be downgraded to class B. The advice was not followed. Jacqui Smith, then Home Secretary, was also widely criticised by the scientific community for bullying Professor David Nutt into apologising for his comments that, in the course of a normal year, more people died from falling off horses than died from taking ecstasy. Professor Nutt was later sacked by Alan Johnson (Jacqui Smith's successor as Home Secretary); Johnson saying "It is important that the government's messages on drugs are clear and as an advisor you do nothing to undermine public understanding of them. I cannot have public confusion between scientific advice and policy and have therefore lost confidence in your ability to advise me as Chair of the ACMD."

In May 2011, a report named Taking Drugs Seriously was released by Demos. It discusses several issues with the current system, since its enactment in 1971. It states that the constant presence of new drugs will make it difficult for the government to keep up with the latest situation - over 600 drugs are now classified under the act. Comparison levels of harm previously demonstrated by David Nutt show that alcohol and tobacco were among the most lethal, while some class A drugs, such as MDMA, LSD, and magic mushrooms, were among the least harmful.

Use of controlled substances for research
A common misunderstanding amongst researchers is that most national laws (including the Misuse for Drugs Act) allows the use of small amounts of a controlled substance for non-clinical / non-in vivo research without licences. A typical use case might be having a few milligrams or microlitres of a controlled substance within larger chemical collections (often tens of thousands of chemicals) for in vitro screening. Researchers often believe that there is some form of "research exemption" for such small amounts. This incorrect view may be further re-enforced by R&D chemical suppliers often stating and asking scientists to confirm that anything bought is for research use only.

A further misconception is that the Misuse of Drugs Act simply lists a few hundred substances (e.g. MDMA, Fentanyl, Amphetamine, etc.) and compliance can be achieved via checking a CAS number, chemical name or similar identifier. However, the reality is that in most cases all ethers, esters, salts and stereo isomers are also controlled and it is impossible to simply list all of these. The act contains several "generic statements" or "chemical space" laws, which aim to control all chemicals similar to the "named" substance, these provide detailed descriptions similar to Markushes, a good example of a few of these are found in the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (amendment) order 2013.

Due to this complexity in legislation the identification of controlled chemicals in research is often carried out computationally, either by in house systems maintained a company's sample logistics department or by the use commercial software solutions. Automated systems are often required as many research operations can often have chemical collections running into 10Ks of molecules at the 1–5 mg scale, which are likely to include controlled substances, especially within medicinal chemistry research, even if the core research of the company is not narcotic or psychotropic drugs. These may not have been controlled when created, but they have subsequently been declared controlled, or fall within chemical space close to known controlled substances.

There are no specific research exemptions in the Misuse of Drugs Act. However, the associated Misuse of Drug Regulations 2001 does exempt products containing less than 1 mg of a controlled substance (1 ug for lysergide and derivatives) so long as a number of requirements are met, including that it cannot be recovered by readily applicable means, does not pose a risk to human health and is not meant for administration to a human or animal.

Although this does at first seem to allow research use, in most circumstances the sample, by definition, is "recoverable" - in order to prepare it for use the sample is "recovered" into an assay buffer or solvent such as DMSO or water. In 2017 the Home Office also confirmed that the 1 mg limit applies to the total of all preparations across the entire container in the case of sample microtitre plates. Given this, most companies and researchers choose not to rely on this exemption.

However according to Home Office licensing, "University research departments generally do not require licences to possess and supply drugs in schedules 2, 3, 4 part I, 4 part II and schedule 5, but they do require licences to produce any of those drugs and to produce, possess and/or supply drugs in schedule 1".

See also
Dangerous Drugs (Supply to Addicts) Regulations 1968

Notes

References

External links

 The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, as originally enacted, from Legislation.gov.uk
 UK Misuse of Drugs Act, Steve Chapman website
 Controlled Drugs, Patient UK website

United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1971
English criminal law
1971 in cannabis

Misuse of Drugs Act 1971


El fuerte, monasterio o convento de San Francisco es un complejo arquitectónico de la ciudad española de Guadalajara. Fue fundado como convento, usado desde 1808 como fuerte militar y hoy es propiedad del Ayuntamiento y es utilizado para diversas funciones. En los bajos de la iglesia conventual se encuentra la cripta de los duques del Infantado, realizada a imagen del panteón de los Reyes del monasterio de El Escorial.

Historia
El monasterio de San Francisco tuvo una primera etapa como casa de los caballeros templarios gracias al empeño de la reina Berenguela de Castilla hasta la supresión de esa orden por el papa Clemente V en 1314. Después, en el primer tercio del siglo , pasa a la órbita de la orden franciscana por iniciativa de la infanta Isabel de Castilla, primogénita de Sancho IV de Castilla y María de Molina.

Posteriormente, en 1395, aquella casa conventual fue arrasada por un incendio, aunque, para entonces, los Mendoza ya se habían hecho cargo del patronato de su capilla mayor y pudo reconstruirse con los dineros aportados por el almirante Diego Hurtado de Mendoza. Desde ese momento, se trazó una línea de mecenazgo en la que fueron decisivas las aportaciones suntuarias y económicas del marqués de Santillana y del cardenal Mendoza.

Fue este último el responsable de la conclusión de las obras del templo a finales del siglo , y de la financiación y colocación del retablo mayor. Quizás fueron de aquel retablo las denominadas Tablas de San Ginés, un conjunto de pinturas al óleo ejecutado por el Maestro de los Luna.

Un siglo más tarde, esta labor de mecenazgo sería continuada y completada por Ana de Mendoza y Enríquez de Cabrera, VI duquesa del Infantado. Le correspondió, durante las primeras décadas del siglo , la responsabilidad de afrontar el proyecto de construcción del claustro y del panteón bajo la iglesia y de un nuevo retablo mayor, una tramoya barroca de elementos móviles desaparecida, trazados por el arquitecto Francisco Mir. Aquella cripta, construida entre 1628 y 1633, sería totalmente renovada por orden de Juan de Dios de Silva y Haro, X duque del Infantado. En 1696 dieron comienzo las obras del nuevo mausoleo de los duques del Infantado según las trazas arquitectónicas dadas por Felipe Sánchez, quien acababa de diseñar la ampliación de la Basílica del Pilar. Para plantear el proyecto mencionado, el autor recurrió a las trazas del Panteón Real y de la iglesia del monasterio de San Bernardo de Alcalá de Henares, ambas de Juan Gómez de Mora.

En 1808, tras la invasión de la Grande Armée napoleónica, el convento de San Francisco se convirtió para las fuerzas ocupantes en el centro militar estratégico de Guadalajara. Es en esos años cuando el panteón es víctima de saqueos y cuando se profanan los sarcófagos.

Después de aquel primer episodio castrense, el viejo convento vivió una larga historia militar que se dilató hasta el año 2000, cuando el Ministerio de Defensa le cedió la propiedad al Ayuntamiento de Guadalajara.

La cripta de los duques del Infantado fue restaurada mediante el programa del 1% cultural del Ministerio de Cultura y fue abierta al público el 1 de abril de 2011. Mediante ese mismo programa están siendo restaurados la iglesia y el resto del conjunto conventual.

Descripción

La iglesia, aún hoy en pie, es de traza gótica –atribuible al arquitecto Juan Guas–, con una sola nave de seis tramos y capillas laterales entre los contrafuertes. Sin embargo, la sencillez de esta composición no le impiden alcanzar unas dimensiones espaciales notables, convirtiéndola en el templo  más amplio de la ciudad.

Para abordar esta nueva construcción se desmanteló el panteón preexistente bajo el presbiterio, se desplegó una nueva escalera de acceso y se abrieron huecos que iluminaran las estancias, como el gran ventanal que, semioculto, ornamenta el muro exterior de la cabecera del templo y da luz a la capilla funeraria.

Cripta de los duques del Infantado

La cripta fue encargada por Juan de Dios Silva y Mendoza, X duque del Infantado, al arquitecto Felipe Sánchez, quien diseñó una cripta y capilla inspiradas en el panteón de los Reyes del monasterio de El Escorial de Juan Bautista Crescenzi. Las obras dieron comienzo en 1696.

Felipe Sánchez planteó un ejercicio barroco tanto en su composición como en su materialización. De una parte, la sala del panteón se resolvió con una planta elipsoidal, con ocho pilastras que sirven de apoyo a los arcos que vertebran la cúpula rebajada que cubre la estancia, en clara referencia al mausoleo escurialense pero también a la iglesia de San Andrés del Quirinal de Roma. Los nichos para los sarcófagos se emplazan en cada uno de los intercolumnios, ocupando en orden vertical todo el paño, a excepción del hueco de entrada al panteón y del gran vano de comunicación con la capilla aneja.

De otra parte, todos los paramentos, pavimentos y bóvedas están tapizados con placas de mármoles negros y rosas de muy poca sección para componer un juego cromático alternativo y crear plafones de traza geométrica. El aparato ornamental se completa con ménsulas y roleos de alabastro dorados, especialmente en las cornisas y en los lunetos de las cúpulas. Precisamente, la fragilidad de los jaspes y los yesos empleados han generado problemas de conservación que, agudizados por la alta humedad que afecta a la cripta, otorgan al monumento el carácter artificioso y banal más característico del barroco efímero.

Las corrientes de agua subterránea que discurren bajo la iglesia conventual fueron uno de los principales escollos con que se encontró Felipe de la Peña, maestro de obras que abordó la construcción del panteón. Al final, el nivel de la capa freática fue determinante para el desarrollo del proyecto. Tal es así, que la rasante del presbiterio tuvo que elevarse notoriamente sobre el suelo del templo para poder albergar la cripta y modificarse el muro testero de la capilla mayor para dejar al descubierto la linterna de la bóveda de la capilla subterránea.

Bibliografía
Bonilla Almendros, Víctor. El Monasterio de San Francisco en Guadalajara. Ayuntamiento de Guadalajara. Guadalajara, 1999.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Bienes de interés cultural de la provincia de Guadalajara
San Francisco
San Francisco
Monumentos de Guadalajara (España)
Arquitectura de España del siglo XIV
Monumentos histórico-artísticos de España declarados en 1931

Convento de San Francisco (Guadalajara)


La reacción de Bargellini es un método de síntesis orgánica para obtener morfolinas y piperazinonas con alto impedimento estérico a partir de cetonas y 2-amino-2-metil-1-propanol o 1,2-diaminopropanos.

Mecanismo
El mecanismo de reacción comienza con la desprotonación del cloroformo. El anión triclorometiluro ataca al carbonilo de la cetona, formando así el alcóxido, de una manera similar a la reacción de Grignard. El alcóxido ataca intramolecularmente al carbono trihalogenado para formar así el diclorooxirano en un mecanismo SN2 intramolecular. La amina puede atacar al oxirano debido a una formación de un carbocatión terciario en una sustitución nucleofílica SN1 con una eliminación concertada de un átomo de cloro. Así se forma un halogenuro de N-alquil-α-aminoácido. Al final, el grupo amino o hidroxilo ataca al cloruro de ácido formando el heterociclo correspondiente.

Aplicaciones

Diversos compuestos se ha reportado como productos de la síntesis de Bargellini Un ejemplo es la síntesis de la 5',5'-dimetil-2,3-dihidro-6'H-espiro[indeno-1,3'-[1,4]oxazinan]-6'-ona:

Referencias

Reacciones orgánicas epónimas
Ciencia y tecnología de Italia del siglo XX
Ciencia de 1906
Italia en 1906

Reacción de Bargellini


Evangelion refers to the gospel in Christianity, translated from the Greek word  (, ) meaning "Good News".

Evangelion may also refer to:

 Gospel account
 Gospel Book
 In Manichaeism, a major text known as the Evangelion (), also known as the Gospel of Mani
 Nestorian Evangelion, an illustrated gospel book belonging to the Church of the East, also known as  ('Life of Jesus Christ')

Arts and entertainment

 Neon Genesis Evangelion (franchise), a media franchise
 Neon Genesis Evangelion, an anime television series
 Neon Genesis Evangelion (manga), a manga based partially on the anime
 Neon Genesis Evangelion (video game), a video game based on the anime and the film The End of Evangelion
 Neon Genesis Evangelion: ANIMA, a series of light novels set on an alternate timeline, three years after the events of the original series
 Rebuild of Evangelion, a series of animated films that retell the events of the anime in a new way and provide a different conclusion to the events of the series
 Evangelion (mecha), cyborgs that appear in the anime
 Evangelion (album), a 2009 studio album by Polish blackened death metal band Behemoth

See also
 Evangelion movie (disambiguation)
 Evangelical (disambiguation)
 Good news (disambiguation)
 Gospel (disambiguation)

Evangelion


L'avenue du Général-de-Gaulle est une voie du quartier des Chantiers de Versailles, en France.

Situation et accès
L'avenue du Général-de-Gaulle est une voie publique située dans le quartier des Chantiers de Versailles. Elle débute au 2, avenue de Paris et se termine au 9, avenue de Sceaux.

Origine du nom
L'avenue du Général-de-Gaulle tient son nom de Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), militaire et président de la République française.

Historique
Elle a été percée en 1817 dans les jardins de l'Hôtel du Grand-Maître, qui accueillait depuis 1790 la municipalité de Versailles. Elle porta les noms suivants :

 Avenue de Berry, de 1820 à 1830, en l'honneur du Charles-Ferdinand d'Artois, duc de Berry (1778-1820),
 Avenue de la Mairie, de 1830 à 1878,
 Avenue Thiers, de 1878 à 1979, en l'honneur d'Adolphe Thiers (1797-1877),
 Avenue du Général-de-Gaulle depuis 1979, en l'honneur de Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970).

Bâtiments remarquables et lieux de mémoire
 N°1 : Façade initiale de l'hôtel de ville de Versailles ; monument aux morts.
 N°5 : Gare de Versailles-Château-Rive-Gauche, ouverte en 1840.

Références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Liste des voies de Versailles

Général-de-Gaulle
Avenue

Avenue du Général-de-Gaulle (Versailles)


وهو الأمير عز الدين أبو الحسن سعادة بن عبد الله الرومي المستظهري. (نسبة لسيدهِ المستظهر بالله) الخادم للرسائل.
ذكر أبو الحسن محمد بن عبد الملك الهمذاني في تاريخهِ، وقال: ((كان خادماً شهماً، لهُ منظر حسن، ومخبر مستحسن، يفصح بأكثر اللغات)).

أرسلهُ الخليفة المستظهر بالله إلى السلطان محمد بن ملك شاه السلجوقي، في شهر محرم من عام 495 هـ، فأحسن السفارة والمفاوضة وأصطحب معهُ الشيخين الحسن بن محمد الأستربادي، وأبا سعد ابن الحلواني، فمضى وأدى المهمة، وعاد بالأموالِ الوفيرة، والهدايا الكثيرة.

وكان يتولى مصالح الناس، مع الشحنة (ابن البرسقي). وعمر لنفسهِ الدار الجميلة المطلة على نهر دجلة، وهي التي أوقفها على فقراء الصوفية، وجعل أمرها إلى القاضي وجيه الدين عمر السهروردي البكري، وعلى عقبهِ ونسلهِ، وقد آل النظر فيها إلى الشرع.

ولقد كان يحب أهل العلم والعلماء وسعى في الأنفاق عليهم وأسس الأمير سعادة المستظهري مدرسة لتدريس المذهب الحنفي في مدينة بغداد، وألحق إلى جوارهـا رباطهِ المعروف على شاطيء نهر دجلة، في موضع المحاكم المدنية القديمة في مبنى القشلة عند رأس (سوق السراي) المخصص لبيع الكتب حالياً في نهاية شارع الأكمكخانة المعروف بشارع المتنبي حاليا.

وفاته
توفي الأمير سعادة المستظهري في بغداد عام 500هـ/1109م، ودفن في مقبرة الخيزران في الأعظمية.

مصادر

أشخاص من بغداد
صفحات تحتاج تصنيف سنة الولادة
وفيات 1109
وفيات 500 هـ
مدفونون في مقبرة الخيزران

سعادة المستظهري


Kokshetau (; , ; ), formerly known as Kokchetav (, ; the official name between 1868 and 1993) is a lakeside city in northern Kazakhstan and the capital of Akmola Region (oblys), which stretches along the southern shore of Lake Kopa, lying in the north of Kokshetau Hills, a northern subsystem of the Kokshetau Uplands (Saryarka) and the southern edge of the Ishim Plain. It is named after the Mount Kokshe.

It was the administrative center of Kokshetau Region (oblast) from 1944 to 1991 as part of the Soviet Union and from 1991 as part of Kazakhstan to 1997 when it was abolished. It is also situated at the junction of the Trans-Kazakhstan and South Siberian railways. Kokshetau lies at an elevation of approximately  above sea level. The climate of Kokshetau features hot summers and cold winters.

It has 150,649 inhabitants (2022 est.), up from 123,389 (1999 census), while Akmola Region had a total population of 738,587 (2019 est.), down from 1,061,820 (1989 census), making it the tenth most populous region in Kazakhstan. The city's history has been influenced by people of many nations and religions. Kokshetau retains multiethnic population, with 59% ethnic Kazakhs (up from 36%), the rest being mostly 28% ethnic Russians (down from 42%) and other ethnic groups such as Ukrainians, Tatars and Germans. Kokshetau City Administration (area of ), with a population of roughly 165,153 residents, includes one settlement administration (which consists of the work settlement of Stantsyonny) and the Krasnoyarsk rural district, which includes two rural settlements (the villages of Krasny Yar and Kyzyl-Zhuldyz).

The city is considered to have been founded in 1824 as a military fortress, while it was granted city status in 1895.  It was the centre of Kokshetau Region, which was abolished in 1997. It is well known for its nature and tourist sites, such as Burabay and Zerendi, among others. The city's main football team is FC Okzhetpes. Kokshetau is about  from Petropavl,  northwest of the national capital Astana along the A1,  from Omsk along the A13, and  from Kostanay. The city is served by Kokshetau Airport (KOV). The akim (mayor) is Bauyrzhan Gaisa from the Amanat Party.

Kokshetau is an important economic, educational, and cultural centre of the Akmola Region. Attractions in and around Kokshetau include Akmola Regional Museum of History and Local Lore, Bukpa Hill, Kokshetau City Park, Kokshetau City History Museum, Museum of Literature and Art. The northwest entrance to Burabay National Park () and Burabay spa town is a little over 43 miles (70 km) from Kokshetau. Kokshetau was awarded the title Kazakhstan City of Culture for the year 2021.

Names and etymology

The name Kokshetau (; ) is of Kazakh origin literally meaning a (), kokshe / "", meaning () and tau / "", meaning () — the name of always turning blue, as if in a deep haze of mountains, thus "Blueish Mountain/Smoky-Blue Mountain" in English. That is how from ancient times Kazakhs were calling the highest mountain in Akmola Region "Mount Kokshe" (947 m), located 60 miles away from the city.

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared its independence on 16 December 1991 (Kazakhstan Independence Day), and on 7 October 1993, by the Resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the city of  Kokchetav () was renamed to the more Kazakh sounding Kokshetau as part of the government's campaign to apply Kazakh names to cities, but the city's airport still retains KOV as its IATA code. In Russian it became known as Kokshetau.

Chronology of name changes
Historically, several names in various languages have identified Kokshetau.

 Stanitsa Kokchetavskaya (1827–1868; which is a romanized back-transliteration from Russian name in Cyrillic: ; )
 Kokchetav (1868–1993; in publications dating from the Soviet period, the city name was occasionally spelled in English as "Kokchetav", which is a back-transliteration from post-revolution Russian name in Cyrillic: , Russian name in Cyrillic script (1868-1918): ; Kazakh name in Yañalif script (1929-1940): , Kazakh name in Cyrillic script (after 1940): )
 Kokshetau (since 1993; which is a romanized back-transliteration from Russian name in Cyrillic: ; Kazakh name in Cyrillic script: , Kazakh name in Latin script (new version before 2021): , Kazakh name in Latin script (latest version of the Kazakh Latin alphabet after 2021): )

Physical geography and geology

Location
Kokshetau is located in the country of Kazakhstan and lies in the northern portion of Akmola Region. The city is located on the border of the West Siberian Plain, on the southeastern shore of Lake Kopa, at an altitude of 234 meters above sea level, in the Kokshetau Mountains, north part of the Kokshetau Hills, the foothills of which surround the city from the south and west. It covers an area of . It is located about  north-west of the national capital of Astana.

The city lay along low hills and by a kidney-shaped lake. There are numerous hills in the vicinity of the city (Bukpa Hill). The city is located in the flat part of the interfluve of the Kylshakty river, flowing in the eastern part of the city, and the Shagalaly river, flowing from the western side of the city. The city has several parks and gardens. Also, within the city limits can be found small forests, mostly consisting of birches and pine plantations. The Kokshetau area is known for its two national parks, Burabay and Kokshetau.

Nearby places
The village of Krasny Yar lies adjoined directly to the west of Kokshetau, on the bank of the River Shagalaly. Also contiguous with Kokshetau, directly to the east, with no natural border, is the smaller village of Stantsyonny.

Nearby cities

Petropavl
Astana
Ekibastuz
Omsk (Russia)
Kostanay
Rudny
Shchuchinsk
Karaganda
Kurgan (Russia)
Tyumen (Russia)

Nearby towns

Atbasar
Arkalyk
Tara (Russia)
Taiynsha
Akkol
Derzhavinsk
Ereymentau
Esil
Ishim (Russia)
Makinsk
Stepnyak
Stepnogorsk

Nearby villages

Krasny Yar
Stantsyonny
Kyzylzhulduz
Kyzyltan
Kaindy
Akkol (Zerendi District)
Kishkenekol
Astrakhanka
Balkashino
Shortandy
Zerendi
Zhaksy

Time
The time offset from the UTC used by Kokshetau is 6 hours after UTC, or UTC+6:00 (ALMT). This is also used by most of Kazakhstan. This time apply throughout the year as Kazakhstan does not observe Daylight saving time (DST).

Climate

According to the Köppen climate classification, Kokshetau lies in a cold semi-arid climate zone (Köppen climate classification: BSk) with extreme continental influences. The city has an extreme continental climate with long, very cold, frigid, snowy, dry winters and warm, dry, sunny summers (featuring occasional brief rain showers). Winter is frosty and long (more than 5 months). In spring, prevails clear and dry weather, with a large number of sunny days. Autumn begins in August or September, and the weather is observed from clear at the beginning of the season, to cloudy in October–November. The average annual temperature in Kokshetau is . Summer temperatures occasionally reach 35 °C (95 °F) while −30 to −35 °C (−22 to −31 °F) is not unusual between mid-December and early March.

The warmest month is July with daily mean temperature near , and the coldest month is January, with a daily mean of . Snow and ice are dominant during the winter season. July is the wettest month (averaging  of precipitation) while March is the driest (averaging  of precipitation). Yearly precipitation amounts to . Typically, the city's Lake Kopa and rivers of Kylshakty and Shagalaly are frozen over between the second week of November and the beginning of April.

Average January temperature:
Average July temperature:
Average annual precipitation:  to

Legal status and administrative-territorial division
Kokshetau is the capital (administrative centre) of the Akmola Region  (oblys, county, area). Kokshetau city administration (, ) (area of ), with a population of roughly 165 153 residents, includes one settlement administration and the Krasnoyarsk rural district, which includes two rural settlements, served by the city public transport system.

Kokshetau was the centre of a region covering seventy-eight thousand square kilometres of the Virgin Lands; it administered 15 agricultural districts and connected 4 other towns, 116 state farms, and 25 collective farms, and that region encompassed a population of more than 600,000.

Administrative districts and microdistricts

Kokshetau is divided into seven administrative districts ().

 Aul
 Beybitshilik
 Bostandyk
 Bukpa
 Kokshe
 Sary-Arka
 Zhaylau

Districts
Traditionally, Kokshetau was divided into seventeen administrative microdistricts () that today have no administrative function. These are administrative units that possess no independent governance structures. They are used for management of utilities and publicly owned housing.

Kokshetau includes the following microdistricts:

Authorities, local government and politics

Kokshetau authorities
The city administration and Kokshetau City Mäslihat is in the Kokshetau Akimat building on Mukhtar Auezov Street. Kokshetau City Mäslihat is a representative body of the city, elected every four years and holds its sessions in Kokshetau Akimat.  The Mayor of Kokshetau is Amanat Party member Bauyrzhan Gaisa.

Local government
The bodies of local self-government of Kokshetau are:
 Kokshetau City Mäslihat, a representative body. Consisting of 17 deputies for four years.
 Mayor of Kokshetau, head of the Kokshetau City Administration manages the administration on the principles of unity of command.

Regional authorities
Most key buildings of the regional government are along Abai Street and Mukhtar Auezov Street. Abai Street is named after a Kazakh poet, composer and Hanafi Maturidi theologian philosopher Abai Qunanbaiuly. On the eastern side of Abai Street on Abylai Khan Square sits the Akmola Regional Akimat, in a modern cream and brown-toned building.

Local government
The bodies of local self-government of Akmola region are:
 Akmola Regional Mäslihat (parliament of Akmola Region), a representative body. Consisting of 32 deputies for five years.

List of akims (mayors) of Kokshetau (1992–present)

The Akim (Kazakh: әкім, äkım) of Kokshetau is the chief authority in the city of Kokshetau. The position was established in 1992. The mayor is responsible for the administration of government services, the composition of councils and committees overseeing Kokshetau City Administration departments and serves as the chairperson for the meeting of the Kokshetau City Mäslihat. The mayor also functions to help devise long-term development plans in consultation with other stakeholders and bodies to improve the condition, livability, and sustainability of the city.

Politics
The city council (Kokshetau City Mäslihat) of Kokshetau is made up of 17 representatives that are elected every four years. The Kokshetau City Mäslihat governs the city alongside the Akim (Mayor). The 2023 local government elections for Kokshetau City Mäslihat in Kokshetau yielded the following results:

History

{{Quote box|width=20em|align=right|bgcolor=GhostWhite
|title=Historical affiliations
|quote=
 Omsk Oblast 1827–1838
∟ part of the Russian Empire
 Border control of the Siberian Kirghiz 1838–1854
∟ part of the Russian Empire
 Siberian Kirghiz Oblast 1854–1868
∟ part of the Russian Empire
 Akmolinsk Oblast 1868–1917
∟ part of the Russian Empire
 Alash Autonomy 1917–1918
 The Ufa Directory 1918–1918
 Russian Government 1918–1919
 Kirghiz Territory 1919–1920
∟ part of the Russian SFSR
 Kirghiz ASSR 1920–1922
∟ autonomous part of the Russian SFSR
 Kirghiz ASSR 1922–1925
∟ part of the Russian SFSR in the USSR
 Kazakh ASSR 1925–1936
∟ part of the Russian SFSR in the USSR
 Soviet Kazakhstan 1936–1991
∟ constituent republic of the Soviet Union
 1991–present
}}

Early history
Kokshetau past incorporates all the main stages and turning points of the history of Kazakhstan. For many centuries, nomadic Kazakh tribes lived on the territory of the former Kokshetau Region. The territory of Kokshetau was part of the Middle Horde, the clans of the tribal union of the Argyns that occupied vast regions of Northern and Central Kazakhstan. In the 18th – 19th centuries, the headquarters of famous khans, such as Abylai Khan, Kasym Khan, Kenesary Khan, were located on the land of Kokshetau Region.

Foundation of Kokshetau (1824–1917)
As Russia's hand stretched southwards, Kokshetau was initially founded on 29 April 1824 as an administrative outpost at the foot of the southern side of Mount Kokshe on the shores of Lake Ulken Shabakty. The Middle Horde signed treaties of protection with Russia. The local population strongly opposed the fact that the new settlement was placed in the chosen place. In the summer of 1827, the district order was transferred to the new place where the city of Kokshetau is now located. The settlement began to be called Kokchetav. The construction of the settlement began at the foot of Bukpa Hill, on the southern shores of Lake Kopa, and a picket was set up to protect the district order.

By the middle of 19th-century, the population of the settlement was significantly increasing due to the migration of the peasants from Russia (Povolzhye) and Ukraine who were driven to migrate by starvation and poverty to farm the steppe. In 1868, when the Akmolinsk Oblast was formed, Kokshetau became a district city in this region, which further developed as a center of agricultural and animal husbandry and as a resort town. In 1876, the city lost its military significance. The line and fortress were abolished. In 1895, Kokshetau was granted city status. By that time the population in the town was above 5 thousand people.

 Soviet era (1918–1991)
In 1928, Kokshetau District was divided into several boroughs and until 1944 Kokshetau's territory was part of Karaganda Region and later part of North Kazakhstan Region. On 16 March 1944, according to the Decree of the Presidium of Supreme Soviet of Kazakh SSR, Kokshetau became the administrative center of the newly created Kokchetav Oblast. Relatively rapid growth and development of Kokshetau took place during the years of development of virgin lands, especially in the second half of the 1950s.

 Fall of the Soviet Union and modern history (1991–present)
On 3 May 1997, Kokshetau Oblast was abolished, the city was deprived of the status of a regional center. On 8 April 1999, after Akmola and North Kazakhstan regions were reorganized, Kokshetau became the center of Akmola Region.

Demographics

 Population
Kokshetau is the eighteenth-largest city in Kazakhstan. Kokshetau ranks fourth in terms of population in Northern Kazakhstan, ranking after Pavlodar, Kostanay and Petropavl. Residents of Kokshetau are referred to as  "көкшетаулықтар" (kökşetaulyqtar) in Kazakh and  "кокшета́уцы" (kokshetautsy) in Russian.

Histogram of population evolution of Kokshetau from 1959.

Note: 2020 and 2018 are population estimates; 1897 is the Russian Imperial Census; 1959, 1970, 1979 and 1989 are the Soviet Census.

Languages
Throughout its history Kokshetau has been a city of many languages. The state and official language in Kokshetau, as in all Kazakhstan, is the Kazakh language. Kazakh is one of the Turkic languages and the mother tongue of Kazakhs living in Kokshetau. Despite Kokshetau's Kazakh majority, Russian language is the most-widely spoken native language in the city, although Kazakh is understood as well. Russian language is used as official language and as one of mediums of instruction and media administration. Russian is used in theaters and newspapers from Kokshetau.

It is also common to find the Kazakh being spoken in the city, mainly by Kazakhs and other Turkic people, while many elderly people speak Kazakh or Russian, depending on their upbringing. Russians, Ukrainians, some Tatars, Germans, Poles, Ingush, Belarusians, Koreans, Azerbaijanis, Armenians, Bashkirs, Moldovans, Mari in Kokshetau speak Russian.

Substantial numbers of people also use Shala Kazakh (a Russo-Kazakh mixed language) in their everyday lives.

 Ethnic and national composition
Kokshetau is an ethnically and culturally diverse city. It has changed its demographics, nowadays having more ethnic Kazakhs in a city that formerly had a Slavic majority. It is the only regional center in Northern Kazakhstan where Kazakhs make up the majority.

As of January 2022, the population of Kokshetau is 150,649, and the extended urbanized area has 165,153 inhabitants.

Historically, Kokshetau was ethnically diverse. As of the 2020 Census, ethnic Kazakhs made up (~58%) of the city population, representing an increase from 36% in 1999. The ethnic makeup of the city's population as of year 2020 was:

In 1989, Kokshetau had a population of 136,757. The ethnic mix was about 18.5% Kazakh, 54.5% Russian and 27.0% other ethnic groups.

Kazakh and Russian are both the main spoken languages.

 Religion

Kokshetau is one of the most religiously diverse cities of Kazakhstan with more than 56.65 per cent of its population adhering to Islam. Religious buildings are scattered around the city.

 Sunni Islam
Islam (primarily Sunni Islam) is the predominant religion within Kokshetau, with 56.65% of residents identifying as Muslims in the 2009 Census. There were 83,436 Muslims reported in the 2009 census. Kokshetau's first Mosque was established by
Ablay (Abilkhair) Gabbas in 1846. Kokshetau has a mosque constructed in the beginning of the 20th century. A new mosque for 1,200 people named after Nauan Hazrat opened in 2015.

Mosques:
 Nauan Hazrat Mosque (capacity 1,200—1,400), located at the corner of Momishuly and Auelbekov streets. It is the largest mosque in Akmola Region.
 Zhakiya Kazhi Mosque, located on the Aulbekova Street.

 Russian Orthodox Church

Kokshetau has a Russian Orthodox Church temple of Archangel Michael. The Kokshetau and Akmola diocese is located in the Church of the Resurrection in the city.

Russian Orthodox churches:
 Church of the Resurrection, Kokshetau (capacity 1,500), (ROC). It is located on the new embankment of Lake Kopa. The church was built in the traditions of Russian church architecture of the mid-XIX century.
 Church of the Holy Archangel Michael, Kokshetau, (ROC)
 St George's Church, Kokshetau. Kokshetau's first Christian Church.

 Other religions
Other religions practiced are Christianity (primarily Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism). Christianity is Kokshetau's second largest religion. There were 60,168 Christians reported in the 2009 census. Much of Kokshetau's civic life and civil society is secular in the sense that it has no religious character.

In 1997, a Roman Catholic Church was built in neo-Gothic style using red bricks.

Roman Catholic churches:
 Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Kokshetau

Entertainment, tourism and culture
Kokshetau is the major cultural center of Akmola Region. Culture in Kokshetau, first developed during the period of Russian Empire, grew under the Soviet Union, which established many of the first cultural institutions of the city. Now it has 2 theatres and 5 museums. There is 1 cinema and 12 libraries. The city is full of clubs, restaurants, and bars.

As the capital of Akmola Region, Kokshetau is a melting pot of cultures from all ethnic groups of the region. Though Kazakh people are an indigenous community of Kokshetau, the city's culture represents many languages and ethnic groups, supports differences regarding religion, traditions and linguistics, rather than any single and dominant culture.

Theatres
Kokshetau has a strong theater culture. Kokshetau is home to many theatre groups, mainly operating under the support of the ministry of culture. Theatre halls in the city organize several shows and performances throughout the year. Kokshetau's major theaters are:

 From the central Abylai Khan Square, pedestrianised Kanysh Satbayev Street runs south a couple of blocks to the Palace of Culture (; opened in 1977), which also incorporates Akmola Regional Russian Drama Theater, and it is quite popular among locals.
 Akmola Regional Kazakh Music and Drama Theatre named after Shahhmet Kussainov (opened in 1996) is the biggest theatre in Kokshetau and is popular among Kazakh speaking people.
 Children's puppet theater "Altyn Saka" (opened in 2022)

National events/festivals
The city organises many public celebrations that greatly attract the locals as well as the visitors.
 "Dombra Fest"
 "Sabantuy" (annual)
 "Festival of Kazakh culture"  (annual). It is the most widely celebrated festival among Kazakhs.
 "Bir shanyrak astynda"
 "Russian (Russkaya) Pesnya"

Philharmonic
 Akmola Regional Philharmonic named after Ükılı Ybyrai was founded in 1956.

 Historical museums
Kokshetau is home to several of Akmola Region's most important museums. Kokshetau has several museums dedicated to Akmola Region's history and culture. Museums in the city include:
 Akmola Regional Museum of History and Local Lore (opened in 1920) offers a display of minerals and semi-precious stones in the foyer, and rooms on the ground floor devoted to palaeontology and to World War II, the latter focused on displays related to local war heroes. It is the largest museum in Kokshetau.
 Kokshetau City History Museum (KCHM; opened as Valerian Kuybyshev's Memorial Museum in 1949), located at the a street on a hillside. The wooden house of the museum is where Valerian Kuybyshev, one of the Revolution's most famous heroes, had grown up. The house is surrounded by trees, with a stable or coach-house at the back and a particular memorial tree planted by his mother in 1903 in memory of Valerian's brother, accidentally shot and killed by a friend. This little museum initially was dedicated to a really tough revolutionary. As a boy Valerian Kuybyshev had started taking part in the anti-tsarist movement and then in the days of the Bolshevik struggle had led troops against the White Guards in the Civil War, he was one of those revolutionaries in the true spirit of the Revolution. There were also Amankeldı İmanov and Alibi Dzhangildin who are national heroes of the Central Asian uprising in 1916. The city's museum offers a view of Kokshetau's history through old maps and photos.
 Museum of Mercy and Courage (opened in 1982)
Biographical museums:
 Museum of the Hero of the Soviet Union  Malik Gabdullin (opened in 1993), located at the corner of Auelbekov and Nazarbayev streets, on the eastern side of the town centre, the modern-looking two-storey wooden building. Malik Gabdullin was born in 1915, in a village 30 km away from Kokshetau. When he was made a Hero of the Soviet Union in 1943, the authorities constructed for his family a larger and nicer wooden house adjacent to this, but his pious father donated the wood from this building to efforts to reconstruct the Kokshetau Mosque, when the latter was damaged by fire in 1956.
Literature museums:
 Museum of Literature and Art (opened in 1989)

 Cinemas
The first film screening in the city of Kokchetav (now Kokshetau) took place in 1910.
 Cinema Alem (formerly known as the Druzhba Cinema; it was built in 1963, and as of 2023 was still being used as a cinema). It is located in Independence Square and is currently the largest cinema in the city.

 Libraries
 Public libraries
The city has 12 libraries. In addition to the libraries affiliated with the various universities and schools, the Akmola Regional Universal Scientific Library is a major research library. There are several archives in Kokshetau.

 Akmola Regional Universal Scientific Library (ARUSL) named after Magzhan Zhumabayev. ARUSL was inaugurated in 1946. It is Akmola Region's main academic library and scientific information centre.

University libraries
The Kokshetau State University library contains over 735,000 units of educational and scientific literature and a rare fund, which consists of 104 copies of printed works published in the 19th century in Kazakh, Russian, German and English languages, making it one of the largest libraries in all of Akmola Region.

 Kazakhstan Capital of Culture 2021
Kokshetau was selected as a Kazakhstan Capital of Culture for 2021.

Palaces
 Kokshetau Palace of Culture
 Palace of Culture «Dostar»
 Palace of Childhood and Youth «Bolashak Sarayi»
 Kokshetau Wedding Palace, a civil registry building.

 Mausoleums
 Nauan Hazrat Mausoleum. The construction of the mausoleum began in 2020. It was built around the grave of the famous religious figure Nauryzbay Talasuly. It is located near the old Muslim cemetery. This site was added to the list of objects of historical and cultural heritage of Akmola Region, as well as the list of 100 sacred places of Kazakhstan.

 Cemeteries
There are 5 cemeteries in Kokshetau.
 Old Cossack cemetery. It is located at the area of Barmashino where a monument to a Soviet soldier is situated. The mass grave of Soviet officers and soldiers who died in local hospitals is also located there.
 Old Orthodox cemetery. The cemetery was closed to new burials in the 1969.
 Old Muslim cemetery
 Muslim cemetery (Second Cemetery)
 Christian cemetery (Third Cemetery)

 Monuments and memorials
 The statue of Shoqan Walikhanov who had been a traveller, scientist, geographer, and one of the first Kazakh democrat, a tall handsome figure in a granite officer's greatcoat. He had been an officer in the tsar's army and was supposed to be a descendant of Genghis Khan himself, no less. His grandfather Abylai Khan had been called the last Khan of the Kazakh Khanate.

 On the west side of the Abylai Khan Square there is a statue of Abylai Khan, depicted squatting regally, his right hand on his hip in a display of relaxed strength. Behind the Kazakh ruler rises a very tall stalk of wheat, on the tip of which a bird is flying.

 In the central park there is also a statue of Vladimir Lenin, standing next to a simple Soviet monument to the Kazakhstnis killed in the Civil War; it was removed from the central square.

 A bust of Talgat Bigeldinov, a pilot who notched up 305 combat missions, shot down seven enemy aircraft and was twice made Hero of the Soviet Union, is followed by a series of polished stones inscribed with he names of the Hero Cities of the Soviet Union. These run for two blocks, ending up at the War Memorial. A young flag-bearing soldier kneels before an eternal flame. Behind him rises peculiar silvery sculpture of a star with a point missing. The portraits of local war heroes are presented on the surrounding wall, in alphabetical order, starting with Talgat Bigeldinov.

 In the centre of the city, just in front of the Akmola Regional Museum of History and Local Lore, an inscription on a wall-like monument records a decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR from 1958, awarding Kokshetau Oblast the Order of Lenin by virtue of its success in surpassing the yearly plan for bread production.

 There is also a statue of a young, rathe studently-looking Valerian Kuybyshev, a Bolshevik military commander during the Civil War and key figure behind the first Five-Year Plan, who gave his name to the city of Samara during the Soviet period.

 Economy and services

In autumn 1941, the Podolskiy Sewing Machines Plant, two factories from the city of Ordzhonikidze and military hospitals were evacuated to Kokshetau.

Kokshetau has traditionally been an important commercial center in northern Kazakhstan, but after the collapse of the Soviet Union most of the old manufacturing lines, whose markets included the entire Soviet Union, either stopped working or had to greatly reduce their operations. The collapse of the Soviet Union also meant the collapse of Kazakhstan's industrial base.

Nevertheless, the city continues to be an important regional center for the Akmola Region, acting as a commercial hub for the surrounding areas in the region. In recent years, the city has started attracting more investment from various corporations. Kokshetau Oblast had really started developing as the machine factories and other industries grew, and the numerous rest homes, sanatoria, and holiday spots were set up.

From Ekibastuz to Kokshetau runs an overhead power line designed for a transmission voltage of 1,150 kV, the Ekibastuz-Kokshetau powerline. Kokshetau's retail business is growing with several newly built malls and shopping centres.

 Industry
Major industrial employers of Kokshetau include:

 Altyntau Kokshetau – gold mining enterprise. The site comprises a gold deposit and the Gold Recovery Plant commissioned in 2009. The innovative high-tech equipment manufactured in Canada, Australia, USA, Sweden, Finland, Germany, Italy and Russia is installed at the plant. Over the last eight years of operation, the output increased 2.5 times and metal recovery increased by one fifth hitting 75% in 2019.

 Tynys – the production of medical products, weighing equipment, water meters, aircraft units and assemblies, polyethylene pipes.

 KamAZ-Engineering – machine-building plant.

 Kokshetau Mineral Waters – TURAN water is bottled at Kokshetau Mineral Waters plant using KHS equipment. TURAN water is produced from Kuskol water deposit located in an ecologically pristine area near Kokshetau. The deposit is subject to constant government control, and the water well is guarded 24/7.

Food factories supply Kokshetau and Akmola Region with sausages, semi-finished meat products, bread, dairy products, and confectionery. The city also has a new ceramic brick factory.

Public services
Kokshetau is policed by Police Department of the Akmola Region (a territorial police force) whose headquarters are in the city.

Fire services in Kokshetau are provided by Department of Emergency Situations of the Akmola Region.

Domestic waste services in Kokshetau are provided by Kokshe Tazalyk and EcoGroup 2020 Services under contract.

 Health and medical care

Kokshetau has an extensive network of municipal and regional health facilities. Kokshetau is a major healthcare and medical service centre in Akmola Region. During the war five evacuated hospitals were places on the territory of North-Kazakhstan region, including 3 hospitals in Kokshetau. Several hospitals of Kokshetau, refurbished with modern technologies, provide healthcare and conduct medical research.

Local hospitals include the Avicenna Medical Centre, Viamedis Rehabilitation Centre among many others. Temporary hospitals were established and vaccines were available in all major hospitals during the 2020-2021 COVID-19 pandemic. Private medical institutions also operate in the city.

 Telecommunication
The official opening of the Kokshetau city telephone network took place on 1878. As of 2005, the total capacity of the telephone network in Kokshetau was about 42,634  numbers. The city has several mobile operators (Kcell/Altel, Tele2 Kazakhstan, Beeline).

In addition to the mobile network providers, Kazakhtelecom provides internet services.

Kazpost is the official national postal operator of Kazakhstan. Based in Kokshetau, it currently operates through 10 postal offices in city.

Media

Kokshetau is the center of television and radio broadcasting in Akmola Region. Many public and private TV and radio channels operate in Kokshetau. Media in Kokshetau covers print media, newspapers, publisher, broadcast, local TV stations, and Internet, with some media having influence over the region. All major Kazakhstani newspapers are active in Kokshetau. The city has a developed telecommunications system.

Newspapers and magazines

Kokshetau's first newspaper was the weekly Tselinnyy kray, established in 1920, which would change its name to the Akmolinskaya Pravda in 1992. In the city, there are some popular urban newspapers. Akmolinskaya Pravda, Stepnoy mayak and Kokshetau are Russian-language media headquartered in the city. Akmolinskaya Pravda is the oldest newspaper of the city.

 Regional socio-political newspaper "Akmolinskaya Pravda" is a long-running daily local paper, with local and regional coverage.
 Republican newspaper "Bukpa"
 Regional newspaper "Arka Azhary"
 Regional newspaper "Stepnoy mayak"

TV and radio

Kokshetau television networks:
 Local television news is covered by TV channel Kazakhstan–Kokshetau. It is main city channel. The channel tells about the events of social, cultural, economic life, the activities of scientific and educational institutions of the city.
 Balapan
 Cartoon Network
 Channel One Eurasia
 Channel 31
 Disney Channel
 Euronews
 Gakku TV
 Khabar 24
 MTV
 Nickelodeon
 Qazsport
Kokshetau radio stations:
 "Kazakh Radio": 101.0 FM
 "Russian Radio Asia": 102.0 FM
 "Autoradio Kazakhstan": 102.5 FM
 "Shalkar Radio": 103.7 FM
 "Europe Plus Kazakhstan": 104.2 FM
 "Energy FM": 104.8 FM
 "Radio NS": 105.7 FM
 "Zhuldyz FM": 106.1 FM
 "Radio Dacha": 106.5 FM
 "People's Radio": 107.0 FM
 "Tengri FM": 107.6 FM

Internet media
Kokshetau City Administration
Kokshetau - Kazakhstan
Aqmola News
Akmolinskaya Pravda

Transportation

Partly due to its location, Kokshetau is a major transport hub on the highway and rail networks. Kokshetau has a strong public-transport system.

 Local public transport
The city transport in Kokshetau consists of a network of buses, minibuses (marshrutka; which are GAZelle light commercial vehicles) and taxis that are available 24 hours a day. Public transport in Kokshetau is heavily privatized and mostly handled by private operators.

 City buses
The first bus services in Kokshetau were introduced in 1939. Bus timetables and detailed schematic map of the route are at every stop. Distances between stops are about 300–500 meters. Buses in the city cost ₸80-₸120. Buses, mostly Yutong, LiAZ and MAZ buses, are the most common and popular mode of transport in the city.

 Public vans
In the square between the bus and railway stations gather a range of taxis and minibuses offering to take you to Astana or Petropavl.

 Taxi
In Kokshetau taxis are available at any time of the day or night. Ride-sharing services such as Yandex Taxi and inDrive are available in the city via mobile apps. Taxi fare is from 400 to 2500 tenge, depending on the distance from the city center and the results of negotiations with the driver.

 Intercity transportation

 Railway stations
The city is an important railroad hub in the northern part of Kazakhstan. Kokshetau Railway station is served by the Kazakhstan Railways, which links Petropavl to Almaty. The first train pulled into the Kokshetau Railway station on 2 June 1922. Railways are Kokshetau's one of the main modes of intracity and suburban transportation. Kazakhstan Railways (who manage the station) provide freight and passenger traffic to and from Kokshetau.

There are two railway stations in the city: Kokshetau-1 and Kokshetau-2. The main railway station Kokshetau-1 station is located  north-east from the centre of Kokshetau and includes a main building (built in 1981) and some other technical buildings. Kokshetau-1 station is the city's main station and a major stop for numerous passenger trains traveling between Petropavl and the other regions of Kazakhstan each day. The popular Tulpar-Talgo service to Almaty takes sixteen hours. It sits at the eastern end of the long Abai Qunanbaiuly Street, Kokshetau's central thoroughfare. A tall concrete clock tower guides you to it.

Among the trains passing Kokshetau-1 station are the daily services between Almaty and Petropavl, Kyzylorda and Petropavl, and Karaganda and Kostanay. There are also less frequent trains passing northwards on to various Russian destinations, including Moscow, Yekaterinburg and Omsk, and local electric train services to Ereymentau and Astana.

 Intercity buses
Kokshetau Central Bus Terminal (Kökşetau avtobeketı), which opened in 1981, serves the city of Kokshetau. The bus station is on the Vernadsky Street 8 across the road from Kokshetau Railway Station. It links the city with the villages in Akmola Region and other cities in Kazakhstan and the neighboring countries. Frequent schedules of bus routes connect Kokshetau to Astana, Petropavl, Zerenda, Burabay, Karaganda, Pavlodar, Kostanay, Omsk, Yekaterinburg, Tobolsk, Tyumen and Kurgan. Many of these are cross-country services operating from north to south, for which Kokshetau provides interchange facilities.

 Airport

Kokshetau and surrounding communities are served by one commercial international airport: Kokshetau International Airport , which is the seventeenth-busiest airport (2019) by passenger traffic in Kazakhstan. It is located  north-east from the centre of city, on the route to Omsk, and used to be the headquarters of now-defunct Air Kokshetau. The airport has a capacity of handling 200 passengers per hour. The Kokshetau International Airport, which opened in 1945, was significantly upgraded in 2013 with a new 2850-metre runway capable of accommodating all aircraft types without any restrictions. In 2013, the airport received its first scheduled flight after the renovation to Moscow, Russia. The airport can be reached by car, public transport, or taxi. Seasonal flights to Frankfurt am Main, were available in 2004 but have been cancelled since. It serves mostly domestic flights. SCAT Airlines fly to and from Aktau and Shymkent as well as Qazaq Air operates two weekly flights to Almaty. The former largest carrier of the Kokshetau Airport — Air Kokshetau — is not serving any regular destinations as of 2021.

 Road transportation and bridges
There are a number of municipal, regional and republican roads that serve Kokshetau. The main roads to/from Kokshetau are:

Republican roads (National Highways)
 The city is served by the A1, which begins in Petropavl () and leads to Astana () passing Kokshetau, Shchuchinsk and Makinsk. European route  intersect in Kokshetau;
 The A13 (Omsk–Kokshetau road), which connects Kokshetau to Omsk (Russia). Kokshetau is located a couple of hours' drive south of Russia's Siberian border;

Other major roads passing through Kokshetau include:

Regional roads (Regional Highways)
 The R11 highway connects Kokshetau to Saumalkol and Kostanay (via the M36);
 The R12 highway connects Kokshetau to Zerendi and Atbasar

There are seven Kylshakty bridges and dozens of grade-separated intersections in the city.

Architecture and landmarks

Squares
 The city centres on a large and bare Abylai Khan Square, at the intersection of Abai Qunanbaiuly and Kanysh Satbayev streets.
 Independence Square. It is the center of Kokshetau.

Old Town
West of the centre many attractive single-storey log-built houses survive, usually featuring painted wooden shutters. A couple of particularly fine examples, both enjoying official recognition as historical monuments, are the whitewashed wooden cottage at 22 Kenesary Khan Kasymuly Street, at the corner of Abai Qunanbaiuly Street, with intricate carving at the base of the roof, and the cottage at 33 Felix Dzerzhinsky Street. The latter sits opposite a small Kokshetau City History Museum (32 Kanay-bi Street), itself housed in a single-storey wooden building.

Landmarks
The city is full of numerous buildings and monuments that reflect its rich and diverse history. The architecture of Kokshetau has been shaped through its history by the progression of historical eras. Many buildings of Kokshetau are ranged from a different number of architectural styles.

 Historical architecture
The architecture of the city dates back to 19th century, the city had numerous wooden buildings with elaborate decor. Kokshetau is the home of a unique architectural tradition and community with number of historical buildings in city. There are a number of two-story wooden houses in the city built mostly in the middle of the 20th century as temporary habitations. Among other notable buildings are the mansions of the merchant Andrei Vasilievich Sokolov (late of the 19th century - beginning of the 20th century), the Akmola Regional Museum of History and Local Lore (beginning of the 20th century).

 Soviet-era architecture
Industrialization in Kokshetau started in the late 1920s. The city's 3,000-worker Soviet construction trust built some of the large, gray, faceless apartment buildings that were so typical of Soviet society and still stand, often in disrepair, today. The apartments housed the trust's own construction workers, among others, in units of one to three rooms. The city's apartment houses are called "Khrushchyovka" and "Stalinka" due to the peculiarities of architectural approaches in their construction.

 Contemporary architecture
When the Iron Curtain was falling, but the Soviet Union still was intact, five citizens from the city paid a visit to Waukesha. Among them was then mayor of the city, Askar Khassen, who took the idea of building more single homes in Kokshetau, as comfortable as the homes in the US. On the hilly outskirts of Kokshetau, someone may find the fingerprint of Waukesha County. There are big, expensive, single-family homes. They're inching up the hills. In Kokshetau, the locals have a name for this high-priced neighborhood of single-family homes, "Small America" or "Khassen's Cottages". Prominently located at the opening of this housing development are tall brick pillars, a sign outlining location of lots, and a decorative brick wall, all reminiscent of the gated entries seen in some Waukesha County subdivisions.

When the Soviet Union crumbled and Kazakhstan became an independent country in 1991, the city's construction trust-turned-business began to put a face on their buildings.

 Education and research

Kokshetau is a major educational centre in Akmola Region. Kokshetau's education system includes institutions of all grades and conditions: preschool, general, special (correctional), and vocational (secondary and higher education), as well as others. Kokshetau is a regional centre of education and has a large number of educational establishments, including universities, professional colleges and gymnasiums (high schools). Primary and secondary schools in Kokshetau include state-run and private institutions.

 Secondary, primary and nursery
Primary and secondary education system of Kokshetau includes:
 48 nurseries, 27 of which are municipal, 4 mini-centers - 3 state and 1 private, 17 private kindergartens
 24  (secondary education) schools, including 6 lyceums and 6 gymnasiums
 16 colleges
 1 center for the correctional development of children "Meyirim"
 5 institutions of additional education for children (the Center for extracurricular activities "Aulet", the State Enterprise "Children's Music School", the State Enterprise "Children's Art School" founded in 1979, the educational enterprise of labor training, the center for the development of gifted children "Kokshetau Daryny")

Additionally, there are evening schools for adults and specialist technical schools.

Some of the top high schools are:

 Kokshetau Nazarbayev Intellectual School of Physics and Mathematics (NIS Kokshetau PhM) was established in 2009, as a branch of the Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools (NIS), a network of schools in Kazakhstan.
 Kokshetau Bilim-Innovation Public Lyceum (former "Kazakh-Turkish Lyceum") for gifted children.

Colleges
 Kokshetau higher medical college trains intermediate level specialists in eight specialisations.

Institutions of higher education
Kokshetau is home to most of Akmola Region's major universities. The city is currently home to the following state higher educational institutions that are accredited and licensed to operate in the Republic of Kazakhstan, with more than 12,000 students:

 National
 Kokshetau State University (which is named after Shokan Ualikhanov), established 1962 — offers opportunities to study undergraduate, graduate and PhD programs in most fields. It is the biggest university in Kokshetau with 499 academic staff. The university has over 7,400 students, who have a choice of eight faculties. The main university building located in the city center. Since 2018, a medical faculty has been opened at Kokshetau State University with 740 students, 200 of whom receive grants from the akim (50 grants are allocated annually).

 Private
 The Kokshetau University (named after Abay Myrzakhmet). It was founded in 2000. The largest private higher educational institution in Kokshetau.
 Kokshetau Technical Institute of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Republic of Kazakhstan
 Kokshetau Academy of Economics and Management

A number of other non-state-funded institutions for further education operate in the city.

 Sport

Sport has always been important in Kokshetau. The city has a long sporting heritage. Kokshetau is a center of Akmola Region sports. A number of well-known athletes, both world and Olympics champions, are associated with the city.

 Football
Football and ice hockey are by far the most popular sports in the city. Kokshetau has many parks that provide excellent pitches for impromptu games. The city is home to the FC Okzhetpes football club, based in the Okzhetpes Stadium, and which has a capacity of 4,500, which participates in the Kazakhstan Premier League, the top division of football in Kazakhstan. In 2015 and 2018, they finished first place in the Kazakhstan First Division.

 Ice hockey
Burabay Sports Complex serves as home arena to the ice hockey club Arlan Kokshetau, which competes in the Kazakhstan Hockey Championship. Arlan Kokshetau hockey players were the champions of Kazakhstan in the season 2017/2018. Arlan Kokshetau players also became the first team from Kazakhstan to win IIHF Continental Cup in the season 2018/2019. The city has an ice rink for winter sports. Several sports clubs are active in the city:

 Basketball
The BC Sinegorie of the Kazakhstan Basketball League is the only professional basketball team in Kokshetau. It was founded in 2014 and its home arena is the Triatlon Sport Complex.

Infrastructure
 Okzhetpes Stadium – stadium with capacity 4,500, home ground for FC Okzhetpes
 Burabay Sport Complex – sport complex, capacity 3,000. Home to Arlan Kokshetau
 Ice arena for winter sports – indoor sporting arena.

 Clubs
Professional sports teams based in Kokshetau include:

 Tourism and shopping
The hotels in the city have good occupancy year round due to a lot of commuters who travel to work and meetings in Kokshetau. Kokshetau Airport has also conducted renovation projects. The largest hotel of the city is the Dostyk Hotel. The Kokshetau Hotel is located at the Abylai Khan Square at the centre of Kokshetau, while the Green Which Hotel Kokshetau is located near the Amanat Party building.

The location of Kokshetau itself, is an inspiring factor for the foreigners to visit the city in order to enjoy the view of the Mount Kokshe.

Shopping and commerce
Kokshetau is home to Akmola Region's largest shopping mall, RIO, opened in 2009, which is a major regional shopping destination within a radius of 150 kilometers from Kokshetau and with a floorspace of .  Many renowned brands have a presence at the centre including LC Waikiki, Beeline Kazakhstan, Miniso, Koton and Detsky Mir.
Attracting over 800,000 visitors a year, the centre's retail areas contain shops (including eateries) from chain stores up to high-end boutiques. The centre has over 900 parking spaces.

Local residents also tend to shop at traditional bazaars: Ortalyk Bazaar, Zhibek Zholy Bazaar, and Eastern Bazaar. Modern shopping areas are found mostly in central streets of the city.

Parks and recreation
 Parks and gardens
Kokshetau is home to a large number of parks, recreation areas and open spaces, mainly established in the early years of the Independence and well maintained and expanded thereafter.
 Central Park, the city's largest and oldest park, established in 1957. It is the oldest city park. It features a few run-down fairground rides, and discos on summer weekend evenings. From the park, the pedestrianised Bauyrzhan Momyshuly Street runs south. It covers a territory of approximately 3,5 hectares.
 Revolution Fighters Park. The park is located in east-southern part of Kokshetau.

Fountains
As of 2021 the city had 10 fountains.

 Elikti
Elikti is a ski resort near Kokshetau, located on the slopes of Mount Elikti, at the elevation of 500 metres above sea level. The resort area is about 25 kilometres (16 mi) of Kokshetau city by the P11 road on the way from Kokshetau to Ruzayevka. It is popular for its mild climate, a large quantity of sunny days and a great amount of snow through the winter. Visitors can buy or rent any necessary skiing and snowboarding equipment.

 Recreation around Kokshetau

Around Kokshetau, there are numerous nearby freshwater lakes such as Lake Burabay, Lake Ulken Shabakty, Lake Kishi Shabakty, Lake Aiyrtau and the Lake Zerendi, which are popular among Kokshetau residents for recreation, swimming and watersports and can be quickly reached by car.

Significant depictions in art, literature, and popular culture

 The city was marked by the ethnographer and publicist Grigory Potanin, who visited it in the 1890s.
 Anastasia Tsvetayeva dedicated to the city the story in her famous and one of the best-known work Old Age and Youth, 1967 (Russian: Starost i molodost').
 The city was depicted and documented from a South African writer and leftist Alex La Guma's perspective in his book A Soviet Journey (1978), who visited it the in the late 1960s.

International relations

The city of Kokshetau is member of some international organizations: United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), and the International Assembly of CIS Countries' Capitals and Big Cities (MAG).

Twin towns – Sister cities
Kokshetau is twinned with:

Cooperation and friendship
In addition to its sister city, Kokshetau has an official co-operation agreements (yntymaqtastyq turaly kelısım) with:

  Krasnoyarsk, Russian Federation (since August 2022)

One road in Kokshetau has been named after its sister city; a road in Beybitshilik district is named Waukesha (Waukeshskaya) Street.

Notable people

 Nikolay Kuibyshev (1893-1938), military leader

 Artists and literary figures
 Lazzate Maralbayeva (born 1951), French painter and architect
 Bakhytzhan Kanapyanov (born 1951), poet and publisher

 Sportsperson
 Daryn Zhunussov (born 1991), ice dancer
 Timur Dosmagambetov (born 1989), footballer
 Sultan Abilgazy (born 1997), footballer
 Anna Nurmukhambetova (born 1993), weightlifter
 Vedat Albayrak (born 1993), judoka
 Vladimir Niederhaus (born 1967), football official
 Alexandr Chervyakov (born 1980), biathlete
 Yevgeniy Gidich (born 1996), professional racing cyclist
 Gleb Brussenskiy (born 2000), professional cyclist
 Nikolay Ivanov (born 1971), cross-country skier
 Yevgeniya Voloshenko (born 1979), cross-country skier
 Mariya Grabovetskaya (born 1987), weightlifter
 Tatyana Osipova (born 1987), cross-country skier
 Mykhailo Burch (born 1960), footballer
 Yekaterina Babshuk (born 1991), footballer
 Pavel Dubitskiy (born 1982), athlete
 Sergey Kopytov (born 1965), weightlifter
 Anton Kuksin (born 1995), footballer
 Yevgeniy Meleshenko (born 1981), hurdler
 Nikolay Ozhegin (born 1971), judoka
 Yaroslava Yakushina (born 1993), boxer

See also
 European route E125
 Kokshetau Mountain
 Lake Kopa
 Kokshetau National Park
 Kokshetau Region
 List of cities in Kazakhstan

References and sources
References

Sources
 Bureau of National Statistics: http://www.stat.gov.kz

 Further reading

 Tsvetayeva, Anastasia. Old Age and Youth (1988), Moscow: Progress Publishers.
 La Guma, Alex. A Soviet Journey'' (1978), Moscow: Progress Publishers .

External links

 Official web site
 360° QTVR fullscreen panoramas of the Kokshetau
 Visitaqmola.kz – Tourism website for Akmola Region

 WikiSatellite view of Kokshetau at WikiMapia

Cities in Central Asia
Cities and towns in Kazakhstan
Populated places established in 1824
Akmolinsk Oblast (Russian Empire)
Kokchetav Oblast
Populated places in Akmola Region
Populated places established in the 19th century
19th-century establishments in Kazakhstan
1824 establishments in the Russian Empire
1824 establishments in Asia

Kokshetau


Holzheim (fränkisch: Huldshaim)  ist ein Stadtteil der kreisfreien Stadt Nürnberg. Zusammen mit Mühlhof, Krottenbach, Lohhof und Gerasmühle bildet Holzheim den Statistischen Bezirk 55 (Krottenbach, Mühlhof).

Geographische Lage
Die Stadtrandsiedlung Holzheim bildet mit Mühlhof im Norden eine geschlossene Siedlung und liegt im Süden Nürnbergs, östlich von Krottenbach und westlich von Reichelsdorf an der im Osten vorbeifließenden Rednitz. Holzheim besteht größtenteils Wohngebiet, im Nordosten zwischen B 2 und der Rednitz befindet sich ein Gewerbegebiet. Südlich des Ortes liegt die Schwedenschlucht. Die Bundesstraße 2 führt nach Reichelsdorf (1,1 km nördlich) bzw. nach Wolkersdorf (1,4 km südlich). Eine Gemeindeverbindungsstraße führt über Mühlhof nach Krottenbach (1,1 km nordwestlich).

Geschichte
Der Ort wurde 1287 als "Holzheim" erstmals urkundlich erwähnt, als die Deutschordenskommende Nürnberg u. a. einen Hof in Holzheim erwarb. Der andere Hof wurde von Irmgart von Sülzburg erworben, den sie bereits 1306 mit dem Deutschen Orden gegen ein anderes Anwesen eintauschte. Der Ortsname bedeutet Siedlung bei dem Wald.

1732 gab es laut den Oberamtsbeschreibungen von Johann Georg Vetter in Holzheim 3 Anwesen, die alle der Deutschordenskommende Nürnberg unterstanden. Auch gegen Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts gab es in Holzheim 3 Anwesen (1 Ganzhof, 2 Halbhöfe). Das Hochgericht übte das brandenburg-ansbachische Oberamt Schwabach aus. Einen Gemeindeherrn hatte der Ort nicht. Alle Anwesen hatten die Deutschordenskommende Nürnberg als Grundherrn. 1800 gab es im Ort weiterhin 3 Anwesen, die dem Deutschen Orden unterstanden.

Von 1797 bis 1808 unterstand der Ort dem Justiz- und Kammeramt Schwabach. Im Rahmen des Gemeindeedikts wurde 1808 Holzheim dem Steuerdistrikt Dietersdorf, I. Sektion und der 1818 gebildeten Ruralgemeinde Dietersdorf zugeordnet. Am 14. Oktober 1959 wurde die Gemeinde nach Wolkersdorf umbenannt. Am 1. Juli 1972 wurde Holzheim im Zuge der Gebietsreform in Bayern nach Nürnberg eingegliedert.

Einwohnerentwicklung

Religion
Der Ort ist seit der Reformation evangelisch-lutherisch geprägt und nach St. Georg (Dietersdorf) gepfarrt. Die Einwohner römisch-katholischer Konfession sind nach Heilige Familie (Nürnberg) gepfarrt.

Literatur

Weblinks

Fußnoten

Stadtteil von Nürnberg
Statistischer Distrikt von Nürnberg
Ort in der kreisfreien Stadt Nürnberg
Ersterwähnung 1287
Siedlung (Städtebau) in Nürnberg

Holzheim (Nürnberg)


مدة حياة الطرد على الشبكة  هي قيمة في ترويسة بروتوكول الإنترنت (IP) هذه القيمة تخبر الموجهات(routers) في شبكة حاسوبية فيما إذا كان الطرد قد بقي في الشبكة لمدة طويلة وينبغي التخلص منه.

مدة حياة الطرد

هناك عدة أسباب تؤدي إلى عدم تسليم الطرد إلى وجهته في مدة معقولة من الزمن، على سبيل المثال: مجموعة من الموجهات غير الصحيحة على الشبكة تؤدي إلى إدخال الطرد في حلقة لانهائية، والحل يكمن في تجاهل الطرد بعد مرور فترة زمنية معينة، وإرسال رسالة إلى المنشئ، الذي يمكن أن يقرر إعادة إرسال الطرد.
القيمة الأولية لحياة الطرد تحدد عادة من قبل النظام الافتراضي، وتمثل بـ 8 بت في ترويسة بروتوكول الإنترنت (IP) والفكرة الأساسية هي تحديد فترة زمنية معينة مقدرة بالثواني عندما تُستَنفَذ هذا المدة يمكن تجاهل الطرد.

كيفية عمل ال TTL

بعد أن يتم تحديد قيمة مدة حياة الطرد وإرسال الطرد، عندما يمر هذا الطرد بأي موجه Router يقوم الموجه بإنقاص القيمة بمقدار واحد (1) ويرسله إلى وجهته، ويدل العدد الناتج عن عدد القفزات المسموح بها لهذا الطرد في هذه الشبكة، إذا وصلت مدة حياة الطرد إلى القيمة صفر (0) قبل أن يصل إلى وجهته سيقوم الموجه Router بإهمال هذا الطرد ويولد رسالة خطأ (بروتوكول التحكم برسائل الإنترنت) (ICMP) وهذه الرسالة من النمط (11- تجاوز الوقت) (Time Exceeded) التي تصل إلى المرسل، وتدل على أن الطرد قد تجاوز حد القفزات المسموح له بها.

تحديد قيمة مدة حياة الطرد

أنظمة التشغيل المختلفة لها طرق مختلفة لتحديد مدة حياة طرد على الشبكة، مثلاً القيمة الافتراضية في نظام ويندوز 95/98 تكون القيمة هي 32 قفزة. بعض المستخدمين يفضلون تغييرها إلى 128 إذا كان لديهم صعوبة في الوصول إلى مواقع معينة.
ولدينا في الجدول التالي قائمة لبعض أنظمة التشغيل وقيم (TTL) الافتراضية لها :

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 Default Time To Live (TTL) values
 (time-to-live (TTL

بروتوكولات الإنترنت
بنية الإنترنت
تصميم الويب

تي تي إل


Diese Liste gibt den Fortschreibungsstand vom 27. Juli 2016 wieder und enthält 62 Baudenkmäler.

Baudenkmäler nach Gemeindeteilen

Kasendorf

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Azendorf

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Döllnitz

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Hammerhaus

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Heubsch

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Lindenberg

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Lopp

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Peesten

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Welschenkahl

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Siehe auch
 Liste der Bodendenkmäler in Kasendorf

Anmerkungen

Literatur

Weblinks

!
Kasendorf
Baudenkmaler Kasendorf

Liste der Baudenkmäler in Kasendorf


Begonia crispula é uma espécie da flora de Brasil pertencente à família Begoniaceae.

Taxonomia
Begonia crispula foi nomeada por o botânico alemão Alexander Curt Brade, descrito em Arquivos do Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro 10: 134, pl. 3–4, e publicado em 1950.

Conservação
O Governo do Estado do Espírito Santo incluiu em 2005 B. crispula em sua primeira lista de espécies ameaçadas de extinção, por intermédio do Decreto nº 1.499-R, classificando-a como uma espécie "Criticamente em perigo" (CR).

crispula
Flora do Espírito Santo (estado)
Espécies citadas na Lista Vermelha de Ameaça da Flora Brasileira
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Flora Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo
Plantas descritas por Brade
Plantas descritas em 1950

Begonia crispula


بعثة ويدل هي رحلة بريطانية من 1821 إلى 1824 قادها جيمس ويديل في المياه القطبية الجنوبية.

في 1819 على متن المركب الشراعي جان المعد لصيد الحيتان ذهب ويديل إلى المنطقة الجديدة المكتشفة حيث تكثر الحيتان قرب جورجيا الجنوبية وجزر سندويش الجنوبية. السبب الرئيسي وراء هذه الرحلة هو ايجاد جزر اورورا التي ظهرت للقارب الأسباني Aurora في خط العرض 53 جنوبا و 48 غربا في 1762. لم يكتشف ويديل الجزر لانها غير موجودة ولكنه وجد مكان صيد للفقمة.

في 1822 يبدا ويديل بالجزء الثاني من رحلته. لا زال في قيادى جان لكنه الآن مرفوق بقارب اخر اصغر من الأول وهو بوفوي وينطلق نحو الجنوب مع تعليمات انه إذا لم يجد فقمة عليه ان يتعمق أكثر من المستكشفين السابقين. هذا كان ملائما لروح ويديل الاستكشافية فزود فريقه بمقاييس الحرارة، والبوصلات، ومقاييس الضغط والمخططات والخرائط البحرية. في يناير 1823 يستكشف المياه بين جورجيا الجنوبية وجزر سندويش الجنوبية وجزر اوركاد الجنوبية في بحث عن اراض جديدة. حين لم يجد اراض جديدة اتجه جنوبا أكثر في انجاه خط العرض 40 جنوبا. وستصبح تلك المياه بحر ويديل. في ملاحظات ويديل يقول انه لا وجود للجليد بعد والمياه هادئة. في 20 فبراير 1823 يصل إلى ابعد نقطة معروفة انذاك في 74°15'S 3 درجة أكثر من جيمس كوك. لم يكن يعلم انه قريب من اليابسة لذا عاد إلى الشمال مقتنعا ان البحر يمتد إلى القطب الجنوبي.

لو انه اتم يومين اخرين في الإبحار إلى الجنوب لاكتشف ارض كواتس التي اكتشفها في 1904 وليام سبيرز بروس في البعثة الوطنية الأسكتلاندية في أنتاركتيكا (1902-1904). لدى عودته إلى إنجلترا تأكيد ويديل انه تجاوز الكابتن كوك أثار بضعة مشككين، لكنه سرعان ما قبل.

المراجع

العلم والتكنولوجيا في القارة القطبية الجنوبية
رحلات إلى القارة القطبية الجنوبية

بعثة ويدل


Astor Row ist der Name der 130th Street zwischen Fifth Avenue und Lenox Avenue in Harlem in New York Citys Stadtbezirk Manhattan.

Erscheinungsbild
Das Besondere an der Astor Row sind die Doppelhäuser auf der Südseite der Straße, deren Gestaltung sehr ungewöhnlich ist: Die Häuser wurden von der Straße zurückversetzt errichtet. Sie haben alle hölzerne Veranden und einen Vorgarten – eine Kuriosität in Manhattan. Dies macht einen südstaatlichen Eindruck und wurde mit dem Erscheinungsbildes eines Teils von Savannah (Georgia) verglichen.

Die Häuser der Nordseite der Straße sind hingegen große, attraktive Brownstone-Stadthäuser mit einer typischeren Bauart. 1932 lebte Father Divine, Anführer des Peace Mission Movement, auf der Nordseite der Astor Row.

Geschichte
Die Häuser wurden auf einem Grundstück errichtet, das 1844 von John Jacob Astor für 10.000 $ erworben wurde. Jedoch wurde das Bauvorhaben von seinem Enkel William Backhouse Astor umgesetzt, der den Architekten und Bauträger Charles Buek anheuerte, um das Projekt zu betreuen. Die Häuser wurden alle zwischen 1880 und 1883 erbaut.

Nach dem Tode von William Backhouse Astor wurden die Häuser unter seinen Enkel aufgeteilt: Mary, James und Sarah Van Alen. Das Eigentum blieb im Besitz der Astor-Familie bis 1911, als die zehn westlichsten Häuser an den Immobilien-Investor Max Marx verkauft wurden, der diese gegen einen Anteil an einem Appartement-Gebäude in Washington Heights eintauschte. Die neuen Eigentümer, die Brown Realty Company konnte jedoch den Kredit nicht bedienen, so dass die Häuser in den Besitz der New York Savings Bank übergingen.

1920 beschrieb ein Reporter der New York Times die Häuser als eine der attraktivesten und exklusivsten Wohnhäuser in Harlem ("one of the most attractive and exclusive home centres"), die ein Bild von häuslicher Beschaulichkeit und Behaglichkeit böten, die nur wenige andere Blocks in Manhattan aufweisen ("a picture of domestic tranquility and comfort which few other blocks in the city possess"). 1928 beschrieb Claude McKay in seinem Roman Home to Harlem die Astor Row als "Block Wunderschön" ("the block beautiful").

Die Häuser der Astor Row wurden ursprünglich für 1.000 $ pro Jahr vermietet und waren so nachgefragt, dass es für diese Objekte auf Jahre hinaus eine Warteliste gab. Anfangs lebten hier Weiße. 1920 kaufte der Immobilienunternehmer James Cruikshank 20 der 28 Häuser (zehn, die im Besitz der New York Savings Bank waren und zehn, die noch im Besitz der Astor-Familie waren) und vermietete diese an Schwarze.

Niedergang
Die Häuser wurden während des Niedergangs von Harlem von 1930 bis 1990 nicht in Stand gehalten und die Veranden gingen nach und nach verloren. In der zweiten Ausgabe des AIA Guide to New York City von 1978 wird der Astor Row attestiert, sie hätte eine dezente Schönheit, die durch das jahrelange wirtschaftliche Elend getrübt sei ("restrained beauty which has been tarnished by years of economic distress").

Sanierung
1981 stellte New York City diese Häuser unter Denkmalschutz und stellte finanzielle Mittel zur Verfügung, um die Fassaden wiederherzustellen und die Rohrleitungen, Heizungen und Elektroinstallationen zu sanieren. Die Institutionen, die diese Sanierungen überwachten und finanzierten waren das New York Landmarks Conservancy, die New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, die Vincent Astor Foundation, das Manhattan Community Board 10, die Abyssian Development Corporation, der Commonwealth Fund, das New York City Department of Housing Preservation and Development und verschiedene lokale Banken.

1992 trat Ella Fitzgerald bei einem Benefizkonzert in der Radio City Music Hall auf, um Geld für die Sanierung zu sammeln. Ende der 1990er Jahre waren die Veranden und andere ornamentale Elemente bei fast allen Gebäuden des Blocks renoviert. Im August 2009 schrieb die New York Times, der Block sei mitten im starken, bisher nicht vollendeten Aufschwung der umliegenden Straßen in Central Harlem ("the block is at the center of an intense but, as yet, unfinished revival of the surrounding streets in Central Harlem").

Astor Row heute

Heute ist die Astor Row multikulturell geprägt und eine der herausragenden architektonischen Sehenswürdigkeiten in Harlem. Sie befindet sich in der Nähe von Sylvia's Restaurant of Harlem, der Mount Moriah Baptist Church, dem ehemaligen Wohnort von Langston Hughes und anderen Sehenswürdigkeiten in Harlem.

Einzelnachweise

Quellen
 "Past & Present On Astor Row in Harlem, Two Restorations Stand As Reminders Of What Once Was", Newsday, 8. Oktober 1992, S. 77
 "The Sky Line: On Astor Row", Brendan Gill, The New Yorker, 2. November 1992, S. 51
 Harlem: Lost and Found, Michael Henry Adams, Monacelli, 2002, S. 103

Straße in Manhattan
Wohngebäude in Manhattan

Astor Row


Le djebel Oda (Jabal Oda, ou Jebel Oda) est une montagne du Soudan s'élevant à une altitude de .

Situé dans l'Est du pays, dans l'État de Mer Rouge, c'est le point culminant du désert de Nubie.

Notes et références

Sommet au Soudan

Djebel Oda


Za božanstvo povezano s Mjesecom, pogledajte Hina (božica).
Hina [ˈhinə] havajsko je žensko ime te je također ime jedne važne božice iz havajske mitologije. Ime je dano nekoliko plemkinjama (havajski Aliʻi Wahine) koje su živjele na drevnim Havajima. Bilo je popularno tijekom ranog perioda vladavine dinastije Pili.

Popis
Hinamaikalani — supruga Hulumanailanija i majka naočitog ʻAikanake
Hinahanaiakamalama — supruga Aikanake te majka Heme
Hinamaikehoa — supruga Heme i majka Kaha'ija
Hinauluohia — supruga Kaha'ija
Hina-au-kekele — gospa Velikog otoka; sestra-žena poglavice Pilikaaieje te predak Kamehamehe I. Havajskog
Hinaʻauamai — kći Pilikaaieje
Hinamaiheliʻi — kći Hinaʻauamai te žena Aliʻiponija
Hineuki (Hina-keʻuki) — gospa Velikog otoka; polusestra-žena poglavice Kukohoua
Hina od Hila
Hinakaimauliʻawa — princeza Koʻolaua

Izvori i bilješke

Životopisi, Havaji

Hina (plemkinja)


Prizivanje duhova: Porijeklo zla (eng. Ouija: Origin of Evil) je nadnaravni horor film iz 2016. godine. Režirao ga je Mike Flanagan, scenarij su napisali Flanagan i Jeff Howard. Film je prequel filma iz 2014. Prizivanje duhova. (eng. Ouija) U filmu glume Elizabeth Reaser, Annalise Basso, Lulu Wilson, Henry Thomas, Parker Mack i Doug Jones. Za razliku od prijašnjeg filma, radnja filma govorio o udovici i njezinoj obitelji te kako udovica kupuje igru na ploči Ouija za svoj posao, ne znajući, zli duh će opsjednuti udovičinu najmlađu kćer.

Film je objavljen 21. listopada 2016., a objavio ga je Universal Studios. Dosad je zaradio preko 81 milijun dolara. Mnogi kritičari bili su zadovoljni s filmom, te je dobio uglavnom pozitivne kritike. Film je također dobio pohvalu kako je mnogo bolji od prijašnjeg filma. Oba filma su prvi Hasbrovi filmovi koji su dobili dobre kritike.

Radnja

Događa se 1967. godine, u Los Angelesu, udovica Alice Zander radi u centru grada kao vidovnjakinja zajedno sa svojim kćerkama Paulinom "Linom" i devetogodišnjom Doris; iako njihov princip ostaje nepoznat ljudima, kažu da ne varaju, već da pomažu ljudima. Nakon što je igrala Ouiju kod prijateljice, Pauilina preporuči majci da kupi igru te da je koristi za svoj posao, što majka i napravi, koristeći se magnetime. Dok testira kako će manipulirati nad ljudima s igrom, Alice ne znajući stupa u kontakt s duhom imena Marcus, koji opsjeda Doris, te završava igru bez "zbogom" - time je prekršila jedno od tri pravila, nikad ne igraj sam, nikad ne igraj na groblju i svaki put reci "zbogom".  Od te noći, Doris koristi ploču sama kako bi kontaktirala razne duše.

Sljedećeg dana, Velečasni Tom zove Alice u školu zbog Dorisine domaće zadaće, koja je pisana pisanim slovima koje još nisu učili u školi, a Doris tvrdi kako joj je pomogao njen novi "prijatelj". Kasnije, kada Alice primi pismo o gubitku hipoteke nad kućom, Doris pokušava komunicirati s pokojnim ocem Rogerom, koji ju navodno vodi do tajnog mjesta u podrumu u kojem pronalazi skriveni novac. Kada da novac majci, ona povjeruje da Doris može komunicirati s Rogerom pomoću ploče, pa se one tri upute prema ploči, na kojoj se magnetska pločica počne sama micati. Kada ploča odgovori na pitanju na koje jedino Roger zna odgovor, Alice povjeruje da joj je kćer u mogućnosti komunicirati s preminulim ocem, pa drži Doris u kući kako bi joj pomagala za posao, ali Lina ne želi biti dio toga.
Nakon jedne sesije u kojoj je Doris prvi put progovorila glasom odrasle osobe i kasnije počne osjećati jaku bol u vratu, sjenovita figura se pojavi te opsjedne Doris tako da joj uđe u usta, a zatim slomi kičmu. Lina, koja počinje biti zabrinuta promjenama na sestri, pronađe papire s poljskim tekstom koje je napisala sama Doris. Lina odnese papire do Velečasnog Toma koji zamoli Sestru Hannu da prevede. Velečasni Tom je sam došao u kuću udovice na Ouija sesiju zajedno s Doris i Alice kako bi kontaktirali Tomovu pokojnu ženu Gloriju. Nakon sesije, Velečasni Tom objasni Lini i Alice kako Doris nije kontaktirala Gloriju, ali je shvatio da je Doris zapravo u mogućnosti čitati misli. Shvatio je to nakon što je pitao dušu Glorije njezino srednje ime, a Tom, umjesto da je u glavi mislio pravo ime, ponavljao je srednje ime njegove pokojne majke. Papiri na poljskom koje je Lina donijela Tomu, zapravo govore o ludom doktoru koji je vršio eksperimente na ljudima u podrumu kuće, te njihova tijela sakrivao u zidove podruma. Velečasni Tom je također predložio istjerivanje duha iz Doris.

U međuvremenu, nakon što je Doris ubila Lininog dečka Mikeyja, njegovo obješeno tijelo padne ispred, što je uzrokovala da Velečasni Tom, Alice, i Lina pobjegnu u podrum. U podrumu, zapale Ouija pluču i krenu o potragu za Doris. Kada Velečasni Tom pronađe lubanje u zidovima, shvati kako su igrali Ouija na groblju, čime su prekršili jedno od tri glavnih pravila igre. Kada je čuo zvuk starog gramofona i Dorisinog plača, Velečasni Tom uđe u tajnu sobu da spasi Doris, ali uskoro biva opsjednut duhovima. Vrati se da napadne Alice i Linu, ali ubrzo se vrati u normalu, zaključavajući samo sebe u podrumu, te ga ubrzo Doris ubija. Na katu, Alice i Lina nađu Ouija ploču na stolu, te ih Doris zarobi. Dok je Alice privezana za stol, duh Rogera nosi Linu u njen krevet, nakon čega se vraća na prijašnju scenu, gdje Lina krivi Doris za sašena usta lutke(što je potajno napravio Rogerov duh), po čemu zna da mora sašiti, to jest zatvoriti Dorisina usta kako bi prekinula glasove i ubila demona Marcusa. Dok je ubijala Marcusa, Marcus uspijeva izaći iz Dorisinih usta te pokušava ući u Linu, ali Lina biva brža od Marcusa te ga ubiva i zaustavlja glasove i zlo. Nakon što Lina objasni majci da je sašiti, Dorisina usta bio jedini način za zaustaviti zlo i glasove, na kratko vrijeme biva opsjednuta, pri čemu ubada svoju majku nožem. Dok umire, Alice vidi Rogera i Doris zajedno, pri čemu umire, a Lina plače.

Dva mjeseca kasnije, Lina je završila u mentalnoj bolnici zbog navodnog ubojstva majke. Doktor je ispituje kako bi otkrili što se dogodilo njezinoj majci i Doris, ali poremećena Lina nije u mogućnosti reći išta za majku ili tijelo sestre Doris. Lina, u svojoj sobi, vlastitom krvlju nacrta Ouija ploču na podu sobe kako bi sazvala Doris. Doktor, koje ispitivao Linu, vidi Linu kako gleda u njega kroz vrata, ali ne znajući je Doris na stropu te se kreće prema njemu. Nakon kredit scene, Lina još uvijek u mentalnoj bolnici, ali sada stara žena, primi posjetu od nekoga tko tvrdi da je njezina nećakinja, što se zapravo događa u prvom dijelu.

Glumci
 Elizabeth Rekaoer kao Alice Zander
 Annalise Bkaoso kao Paulina "Lina" Zander
 Lin Shaye kao stara Paulina Zander
 Lulu Wilson kao Doris Zander
 Henry Thomkao kao Velečasni Tom Hogan
 Michael Weaver kao Roger Zander
 Parker Mack kao Mikey
 Halle Charlton kao Ellie
 Alexis G. Zall kao Betty
 Doug Jones kao Ghoul Marcus
 Kate Siegel kao Jenny Browning
 Sam Anderson kao Gospodin Browning
 Ele Keats kao Elliejeva Mama
 Nicholkao Keenan kao Walter

Produkcija
U siječnju 2015., sequal Prizivanja duhova je najavljen. U veljači 2015., Jason Blum je potvrdio da je film u razvoju, ali još nije rekao kada bi trebao izaći. Mike Flanagan je rekao da će režirati i pisati film, zajedno s Oculusovim pomoćnim piscem Jeffom Howardom. Film su producirali Michael Bay, Bradley Fuller, Andrew Form, Jason Blum, Brian Goldner, i Stephen Davis. Rečeno je da će Annalise Basso biti glumica u filmu. Datuma 17. rujna, 2015., Elizabeth Reaser se pridružila glumcima na filmu. Datuma 18. rujna, 2015., Henry Thomas i Lulu Wilson su također dobili uloge u filmu. Datuma 21. rujna 2015., još glumaca dobilo je uloge, to su bili Parker Mack, Sam Anderson, Kate Siegel, i Doug Jones.

Glazba
The Newton Brothers su skladali glazbu, zamijenili su Antona Sanka, tko je skladao glazbu za prvi film.

Premijera
U travnju 2015., objavljeno je da će premijera prequala biti 21. listopada, 2016.

Zarada
U 2016. Prizivanje duhova: Porijeklo zla je zaradio $35 milijuna u Sjevernoj Americi i $45,7 milijuna na drugim teritorijima, što ukupno daje $80,7 milijuna, protiv budžeta od $9 milijuna.

Računalo se da će film zaraditi oko $15 milijuna nakon prikazivanja u gotovo 3,168 kina u premijernom tjednu. No na kraju je zaradio $14.1 milijuna (protiv prijašnjeg koji je u premijernom tjednu zaradio $19.9 milijuna).

Izvori

Horori
Filmovi 2010-ih

Prizivanje duhova: Porijeklo zla


Ingo Schulze () este un scriitor contemporan din Germania, cunoscut pentru tratarea în romanele sale a Reunificării germane și a vieții în Germania de Est.

Biografie
Schulze s-a născut la Dresda în Germania de Est. Studiază filologia clasică la Universitatea din Jena între 1983 și 1988, apoi lucreaza ca secretar literar la Teatrul de Stat din Altenburg. După căderea Zidului fondează alături de prieteni ziarul Altenburger Wochenblatt.  În 1993 își petrece șase luni în Sank Petersburg experiență ce îl va inspira să scrie primul său roman 33 de clipe de fericire. La mijlocul anilor '90 se muta la Berlin, unde locuiește până în prezent.

Activitate
Din 2006 devine membru al , iar din 2010 este directorul depertamentului de literatură a acesteia.

Din 2007 este bursier al Villa Massimo, centrul cultural german de la Roma, și devine membru al Academiei de Limba si Literatura Germană.

Opere
 33 Augenblicke des Glücks, Berlin 1995
 Simple Storys, Berlin 1998
 Der Brief meiner Wirtin, Ludwigsburg 2000
 Von Nasen, Faxen und Ariadnefäden, Berlin 2000
 Mr. Neitherkorn und das Schicksal, Berlin 2001
 Würde ich nicht lesen, würde ich auch nicht schreiben, Lichtenfels 2002
 Neue Leben, Berlin 2005
 Handy. Dreizehn Storys in alter Manier, Berlin 2007
 Adam und Evelyn, Berlin 2008
 Was wollen wir?, Berlin Verlag, 2009
 Augusto, der Richter - Eine Erzählung, Prestel Verlag, 2010
 Orangen und Engel, Berlin Verlag, 2010
 Unsere schönen neuen Kleider, Hanser Berlin, 2012
 Henkerslos, Hanser Berlin, 2013

Prezența în România și traduceri în limba română
În octombrie 2023, Ingo Schulze este prezent la Iași, în cadrul Festivalului Internațional de Literatură și Traducere (FILIT).
 33 de clipe de fericire: Din însemnările aventuroase ale germanilor în Piter, traducător Mircea Dragoman, Editura Paralela 45, Pitești, 2006 (ISBN 978-973-21-0975-5)
 Celularul, Editura Minerva, 2009 (ISBN 978-973-21-0983-0)
 Simple Storys. Un roman din provincia est-germană, Editura Minerva, 2010 (ISBN 978-973-724-287-7)
 Adam și Evelyn''', traducător Radu-Mihai Alexe, Editura Allfa, 2010 (ISBN 978-973-724-287-7)
 Peter Holtz. Viața lui fericită povestită de el însuși, traducător Victor Scoradet, Editura Europress, 2020, (ISBN 978-606-66-8232-9)

Distincții
 Premiul Alfred Döblin, 1995 (premiu de promovare)
 , 1998, pentru Simple Storys
 Premiul Grinzane Cavour, ficțiune literatură străină, 2008, pentru Neue Leben
 Premiul Bertolt Brecht 2013

Note

Bibliografie
 Peter Michalzik: Wie komme ich zur Nordsee? Ingo Schulze erzählt einfache Geschichten, die ziemlich vertrackt sind und die alle lieben. In: Thomas Kraft (Hrsg.): Aufgerissen. Zur Literatur der 90er. Piper, München 2000, ISBN 3-492-04224-4, S. 27–38.
 Fabian Thomas: Neue Leben, neues Schreiben? Die "Wende" 1989/90 bei Jana Hensel, Ingo Schulze und Christoph Hein. Martin Meidenbauer Verlag, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-89975-948-8.
 Harry Lehmann: Geschichten aus dem blinden Fleck. Zur Erzählphilosophie von Ingo Schulze. In: Sinn und Form, 61, 2009, H. 3, S. 390–410. (PDF )
 Harry Lehmann: Ingo Schulze. Simple Stories. In: Harry Lehmann: Die flüchtige Wahrheit der Kunst. Ästhetik nach Luhmann. Fink, München 2006, ISBN 3-7705-4193-6, S. 85–99.
 Heinz Ludwig Arnold (Hrsg.): Ingo Schulze. edition text + kritik im Richard-Boorberg-Verlag, München 2012, ISBN 978-3-86916-145-7. (text + kritik.'' Heft 193).

Vezi și
 Literatura germană

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1964
Scriitori germani din secolul al XX-lea
Scriitori germani din secolul al XXI-lea
Oameni din Dresda
Oameni în viață

Ingo Schulze