Svjetionik Hrid Sv. Ivan na pučini je svjetionik na hridi Sveti Ivan na pučini, ispred Rovinja, na sredini zapadne obale poluotoka Istre. Rovinježi ga nazivaju La Lanterna. Svjetionik su izgradile tadašnje austrougarske vlasti 1853. godine.

Svjetionik pripada grupi najstarijih svjetionika nastalih u sklopu projekta izgradnje modernog svjetioničkog sustava 19 st. duž istočne obale Jadrana, koji je započeo arhitekt Pietro Nobile, a nastavili njegovi učenici u vrijeme Metternichove uprave i pod vodstvom tršćanske Deputacije Burze. Svjetionik je smješten je na zaravni u središtu otočića, kojim u potpunosti dominira. Toranj svjetionika i stambena zgrada integralno su povezani, a građeni su pravilno uslojenim redovima kamenih klesanaca. Središnjem ulazu prilazi se preko dvokrakog stubišta. Svjetionik ima cisternu ukopanu u živu stijenu, te pomoćnu zgradu za smještaj kompresora. Sastavnim dijelom ambijenta smatra se i kućica smještena na rubu okućnice svjetionika. Osmerokutna kamena kula svjetionika visoka je 23 m, a u samoj zgradi nalaze se dva apartmana. Na svjetioniku je stalna svjetioničarska posada.

Na otoku se nalazi mali pristan i dizalica za manje brodice.

Legenda o svjetioniku
Legenda kaže da je jedan mletački dužd po lošem vremenu plovio u smjeru Rovinja. Njegova je posada uočila opasne hridi Svetoga Ivana i promijenila rutu plovidbe. Dužd se zavjetovao Svetom Ivanu kako će mu, doplovi li živ do Rovinja, u znak zahvalnosti na istoimenom otočiću sljedećih dana zapaliti svijeću visoku kao toranj katedrale.

Dužd je živ stigao do rovinja, ali nije izvršio zavjet. Nekoliko mjeseci kasnije na istom ga je području zatekla iznenadna oluja. More je njegov brod bacilo na hridi Svetog Ivana, a čitava je posada nestala je u olujnom moru.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Sveti Ivan na pučini

Svjetionik Hrid Sv. Ivan na pučini


Gilbert Lalonde, né le  à Rivière Beaudette et mort le  à Laval, est un entrepreneur, constructeur d'habitation et homme politique québécois.

Biographie
Un des premiers à s'installer à Fabreville à Laval il y construit plus de 350 habitations avec sa firme Gilbert Construction Inc. Il érige au centre du quartier le centre commercial Gilbert au 3141 Boul. Dagenais Ouest, contenant plusieurs magasins dont la Papeterie Gilbert toujours en activité.

Gilbert Lalonde entama sa carrière politique avec le maire Jacques Tétreault en devenant conseiller municipal pour le quartier St-Rose (siège Fabreville) sous la bannière du parti politique Alliance démocratique Laval le 2 novembre 1969. Ayant eu 7 filles, il nomma plusieurs des rues de Fabreville en leur nom: Lisette, Gisèle, Suzanne, Diane, Carole, Élaine et Louise.

Références

Personnalité politique québécoise
Entrepreneur québécois
Naissance en juillet 1924
Décès en septembre 1993
Décès à Laval (Québec)
Décès à 69 ans

Gilbert Lalonde


Los Liceos Navales, ubicados en Ecuador son centros educativos que pertenecen a la Armada del Ecuador. El primero fue creado el 20 de octubre de 1970 en Guayaquil, y actualmente hay otros en Quito, Esmeraldas, Machala y Galápagos.

Fueron creados para brindar educación de calidad a los hijos del personal de la Armada del Ecuador. Fueron fundados por la Armada del Ecuador desde la presidencia de José María Velasco Ibarra.

Historia
Mediante Decreto No. 589-A, con fecha 20 de octubre de 1970, fue creado como Plantel Educativo de instrucción secundaria en la Presidencia del Sr. Dr. José María Velasco Ibarra y entra en funcionamiento el 16 de enero de 1973, con el Primero Curso de Ciclo Básico.

La creación de este Plantel de Educación Secundaria regentado por la Armada Nacional estuvo orientado a apoyar y contribuir a la educación de la juventud ecuatoriana, propendiendo a fomentar la vocación naval y la conciencia marítima, desde su fundación.

Con resolución No. 456, del 23 de febrero de 1973, se declara al Liceo Naval como Colegio Experimental, carácter que aún lo mantiene, por desarrollar proyectos educativos experimentales trascendentes, identificados con la realidad institucional y nacional y, cuyos resultados han sido remitidos en forma periódica a la Dirección General de Educación de la Armada Nacional y por su intermedio al Ministerio de Educación y Cultura.

En el año 1975, el Liceo Naval, fue autorizado para contar con el Ciclo Diversificado, con las especializaciones de Físico Matemáticas, Químico Biológicas y Ciencias Sociales.

En el año lectivo 1975 - 1976, el Liceo Naval, se enorgullece de contar y de graduar a la primera promoción de bachilleres, constituyéndose en un día de gloria para los navales de la historia del plantel.

Con fecha 24 de febrero de 1993, por Resolución Ministerial No. 125, se autoriza al Liceo Naval, el funcionamiento de la Jornada Vespertina, cumpliéndose así con un gran anhelo para atender la demanda de alumnos, cuyos padres cuentan con limitados recursos económicos.

Con Acuerdo No. 016, en el mes de marzo de 1993, la Dirección Provincial de Educación del Guayas, autoriza el funcionamiento de la Escuela Particular Mixta Matutina a partir del año lectivo 1993 - 1994 y, con fecha 18 de marzo de 1994, se cierra el Ciclo Educativo con la autorización para el funcionamiento del Jardín de Infantes y se declara posteriormente como Unidad Educativa Centro Naval.

Por iniciativa de la propia Armada Nacional y sus representantes, se concibió la idea de perennizar el nombre de relevantes figuras de la Marina Nacional, confiriéndole a esta Unidad Educativa la denominación de Comandante Rafael Andrade Lalama, Oficial de Marina ilustre por sus destacados méritos militares y científicos, avalados por la Dirección Provincial de Educación del Guayas, mediante Resolución No. 454 del 30 de mayo de 1996.

Con fecha 18 de julio de 1996, se actualiza el Acuerdo No. 3832 y, entra en vigencia a partir del período lectivo 1997 - 1998, el funcionamiento como Colegio Mixto. Considerando que la coeducación fortalece los principios y valores de la personalidad en su respectivo género.

Como consecuencia de los Acuerdos y Resoluciones avalados por el Ministerio del ramo, en el año lectivo 1998 - 1999, el Liceo Naval incorpora la primera promoción de bachilleres de la jornada vespertina. En el año lectivo 2001 - 2002, se incorpora a la primera promoción de bachilleres de carácter mixto de las dos jornadas.

Ahora en la institución estudian representados de hasta otros piases, como por ejemplo: China.

Objetivo
 Formar cadetes con amplia conciencia marítima, críticos, creativos, con sólidos conocimientos científicos y de valores humanos, posibilitando su ingreso y permanencia en la Escuela Superior, para contribuir al desarrollo de la Sociedad Ecuatoriana.

Misión y Visión

 Misión: "Las Unidades Educativas Públicas de Fuerzas Armadas tienen como misión ofertar un servicio educativo de calidad y calidez acordes a los requerimientos de la sociedad, formando estudiantes con vocación transformadora y espíritu naval, basados en los principios de ciencia, honor y disciplina, capaces de ingresar y permanecer en instituciones de nivel superior nacionales e internacionales".
 Visión: Las Unidades Educativas Navales se consolidarán como instituciones de excelencia en la formación integral de líderes proactivos, con conocimientos científicos, conciencia moral, social marítima y ecológica, capaces de contribuir al crecimiento de una sociedad más libre, justa y solidaria.

Colegios
Se han ido creando estos colegios desde 1970 en distintos años. Actualmente existen seis.

Liceos
 Liceo Naval Guayaquil "Cmdte. Rafael Andrade Lalama"
 Liceo Naval Quito "César Endara Peñaherrera"
 Liceo Naval Jambelí
 Liceo Naval Manta (Inactivo)
 Liceo Naval Esmeraldas
 Liceo Naval Galápagos

Educación secundaria
Armada del Ecuador
Liceos Navales de Ecuador

Liceos Navales


Isaac Newton Skelton IV (December 20, 1931 – October 28, 2013) was an American politician and lawyer who served as the U.S. representative for  from 1977 to 2011. During his tenure, he served as the chairman of the House Armed Services Committee. He was a member of the Democratic Party. On November 2, 2010, he unexpectedly lost his seat to Republican Vicky Hartzler amid a Republican landslide. Notably, he was one of three Democratic committee chairmen to lose reelection in the 2010 midterm cycle, alongside House Budget Committee chairman John Spratt of South Carolina and House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee chairman Jim Oberstar of Minnesota.

Early life and education
Skelton was born in Lexington, Missouri, a rural town with extensive Civil War history. He was the son of Carolyn Marie (Boone) and Isaac Newton Skelton III.

In 1928, Skelton's father met Harry S. Truman, then a Jackson County judge, and the men became good friends. When he was 17, Skelton attended Truman's 1949 inauguration.

Skelton was an Eagle Scout. He earned an associate of arts degree from Wentworth Military Academy and College in 1951, followed by an A.B. in 1953 and an LL.B. in 1956 from the University of Missouri. He is a brother of Sigma Chi and Alpha Phi Omega at the University of Missouri. He also attended the University of Edinburgh in Scotland in 1953.

Career
Skelton became a lawyer and entered private practice in Lafayette County, Missouri. He was a prosecuting attorney from 1957 until 1960 and a special assistant attorney general im the office of the Missouri Attorney General.

Skelton served as a member of the Missouri Senate, representing Lafayette County, from 1971 until 1977.

U.S. House of Representatives

Committee assignments
Committee on Armed Services (Chairman)
As chairman of the full committee, Skelton served as an ex officio member of all subcommittees.

Skelton served as chair of the House Armed Services Committee, having previously served as ranking member on the House Armed Services Committee since 1998 but was promoted to chairman following the 2006 midterm elections when Democrats regained control of Congress.

Political positions
Skelton voted with Democratic leadership 94.6% of the time during the 111th Congress, meaning he broke with his party more frequently than 82% of the Democratic Caucus. Vicky Hartzler, Skelton's 2010 Congressional opponent, stated on the campaign trail that Skelton has voted in line with House Speaker Nancy Pelosi 95% of the time during his tenure in the House.

Before the 2006 election, Skelton told columnist George Will that if the Democrats won control of Congress, his main priority would be "oversight, oversight, oversight!" While he voted for the War in Iraq, he expressed serious misgivings about troop readiness. In 2006, he favored reducing the number of troops in Iraq and supported redeploying a brigade from Iraq to Kuwait. Will suggested that under Skelton, the Armed Services Committee would resemble a U.S. Senate committee created to examine defense spending during World War II. This committee was chaired by Skelton's hero, Harry S. Truman.

Fiscal issues
Skelton voted against the 2001 Bush Tax cuts. In 1981, he voted against Reagan's tax cuts.
He was supportive of labor. The League of Conservation Voters rated Skelton at 53 percent on environmental issues. He was one of the few Congressional Democrats to vote in favor of CAFTA and mostly supported free trade deals. He was a supporter of TRiO programs.

Social issues
Skelton was fairly conservative on social issues. He opposed abortion and gun control. He helped craft the Don't Ask, Don't Tell policy, and voted against its repeal in 2010.

Military issues
Skelton was a long-time proponent of the Missouri National Guard, in recognition for which the National Guard Training Center in Jefferson City is named in his honor. However, at times he has disagreed with other members of Missouri's congressional delegation over the state's defense installations. In 2005, for instance, he opposed Senator Kit Bond's efforts to keep open the 131st Air National Guard Fighter Wing in St. Louis County.

The wing was considered an "alert site" by the Defense Department, responsible for maintaining sovereignty over United States air space. In its final report, the 9/11 Commission found that the lack of alert sites, and with their positions primarily on the nation's periphery, reduced the capability of the military to respond effectively to the 9/11 attacks. Senator Bond testified in the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) hearings against the closure of the 131st, which was based at Lambert International Airport. He noted that this wing, which was located in a strategically important location, had protected critical assets on 09-11-01. He warned that the loss of the wing would compromise security over a vast area of the Midwestern United States. Representative Skelton, as the ranking Democrat on the House Armed Services Committee, voted in favor of closure. The House passed the BRAC recommendations, and the base was subsequently closed, with its components deployed elsewhere.

Controversy
On October 8, 2009, Skelton, after addressing fellow Missouri Congressman Todd Akin, a Republican, on the House floor, said to Akin, "stick it up your ass." The comment was picked up by the microphone and could be heard on the C-SPAN broadcast. Skelton's spokeswoman, Jennifer Kohl, said the comment was not intended to be broadcast and was "said out of frustration in the heat of debate." Akin's spokesman, Steve Taylor, said the remark was "shocking and not characteristic of Skelton's behavior."

Political campaigns
When William J. Randall retired after 17 years in the U.S. House of Representatives, Skelton won the Democratic nomination to succeed him with 40% of the vote in a crowded primary field of nine Democratic candidates. He ran with the endorsement of Truman's widow, Bess, which he attributes to his own father's support for Harry S. Truman in the 1940 U.S. Senate primary. He was reelected 16 times, usually by well over 60 percent of the vote. Before 2010, he only faced one truly serious challenge, in 1982. That year, Missouri lost a district, and Skelton's district was merged with the neighboring 8th District, represented by freshman Republican Wendell Bailey. Although Skelton retained almost 60 percent of his former territory, Bailey held him to 55 percent of the vote.

2010

Skelton seemed to have a fairly secure hold on his district, even though it had been trending Republican for some time. Historically, it had had a character similar to Yellow Dog Democrat districts in the South. However, the rural areas of the district, once solidly Democratic, had swung hard to the GOP since the turn of the century. Indeed, in 2000, Republicans captured most of the area's legislative seats and have held them ever since. Even before then, the district had been shedding more of the strongly Democratic areas near Kansas City due to that city's dwindling population. As late as 1983, during Skelton's third term, the 4th stretched as far west as Independence on Kansas City's eastern border. As a result, it had been pushed further into heavily Republican Southwest Missouri. Al Gore, John Kerry and Barack Obama all won less than 40 percent of the vote in the district even as Skelton skated to reelection. It was considered very likely that Skelton would be succeeded by a Republican once he retired.

In 2010, Skelton faced former Republican state Representative Vicky Hartzler of Harrisonville, who had been out of politics for more than a decade. Polls consistently showed a very competitive race, easily the most competitive the district had seen in decades. Many pundits rated it as a toss-up.

It was still a surprise when Skelton lost to Hartzler, 50 percent to 45 percent. While Skelton ran evenly with Hartzler in the areas closer to Kansas City, he lost badly in the rural areas, including some that had supported him for many years. No Democrat has managed as much as 40 percent of the vote since Skelton left office.

Awards and honors
In 2005 the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Skelton its Naval Heritage award for his support of the U S Navy and military during his years in Congress. In 2010, Skelton was recognized by then, Commandant of the Marine Corps, General James F. Amos, as an Honorary Marine, the first U.S. congressman to be awarded the title. In 2012, the United States Military Academy recognized Skelton with the Sylvanus Thayer Award. In the same year, the USAF Air University presented Skelton with an honorary Doctor of Law degree for his work in the advancement of military education.

Personal life
His wife of 44 years, Susan Anding Skelton, died on August 23, 2005. Later that year, on November 26, Skelton was injured when a van carrying him and fellow U.S. Representatives Tim Murphy and Jim Marshall overturned near Baghdad Airport while on an official visit to Iraq. Skelton and Murphy were airlifted to a U.S. Military hospital in Germany after complaining of neck pain. Both made a full recovery.

On August 29, 2009, Skelton married Patty Martin, a longtime friend and widowed middle school counselor from his home town.

Skelton was a member of the Christian Church and an honorary chieftain in Scouting's Tribe of Mic-O-Say. He was also of distant relation to Daniel Boone as well as to U.S. Representative Louise Slaughter of New York.

Death
Skelton died of pneumonia at Virginia Hospital Center in Arlington, Virginia on October 28, 2013, at the age of 81. According to Skelton's colleague, Russell Orban, Skelton had been admitted to the hospital a week earlier with a bad cough.

Skelton's memoir, Achieve the Honorable, had been published just two weeks before his death.

References

External links

Profile at SourceWatch

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1931 births
2013 deaths
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
American Disciples of Christ
Deaths from pneumonia in Virginia
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Missouri
Democratic Party Missouri state senators
Missouri lawyers
People from Lexington, Missouri
University of Missouri School of Law alumni
Wentworth Military Academy and College alumni
Writers from Missouri

Ike Skelton


USS Block Island (CVE-106) (then LPH-1 and CVE-106 again) was a  of the United States Navy. She was the second ship to carry her name, done in honor of the first one, being launched 12 days after the original was sunk.

She was launched on 10 June 1944 as Sunset Bay by Todd-Pacific Shipyards, Inc. Tacoma, Washington; sponsored by Mrs. E. J. (Grace) Hallenbeck (mother of Major Pappy Boyington, then a Prisoner of War of the Japanese), and commissioned as Block Island on 30 December 1944.

Service history

World War II
Block Island got underway for Pearl Harbor on 20 March 1945. Upon arrival she underwent a period of provisioning and training in preparation for the invasion of Okinawa. On 17 April, Block Island left Hawaii and steamed toward Okinawa, via Ulithi. Flight operations commenced immediately upon her arrival 3 May and lasted until 16 June when she departed for Leyte. After a brief stay at San Pedro Bay, the carrier steamed through the Straits of Makassar for Borneo. From 26 June-6 July, she took part in the Balikpapan operation. She then proceeded to Guam where she was anchored at the time of the cessation of hostilities.

Post-War
From 6–9 September, Block Island took part in the evacuation of Allied prisoners of war from Formosa. She continued cruising in the Far East until 14 October, and arrived at San Diego on 11 December 1945. Leaving San Diego on 6 January 1946, she transited the Panama Canal and reached Norfolk on the 20th. She was placed in service in reserve on 28 May 1946.

On 29 May 1946, Block Island was towed from Norfolk to Annapolis, reporting to the Superintendent of the Naval Academy to serve as a training ship for midshipmen. This duty was terminated on 3 October 1950, and Block Island was transferred to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet.

The vessel was recommissioned on 28 April 1951 and reported to the Atlantic Fleet. From June 1951-November 1953, she carried out local operations off the Virginia Capes, made four cruises to the Caribbean and one to the United Kingdom, France, and Italy from 17 April – 26 June 1953. The painter Thomas Hart Benton was a guest on the return trip from Europe.

On 15 January 1954, she was placed in commission in reserve at Philadelphia and out of commission in reserve on 27 August 1954. In 1957–1958, she was redesignated LPH-1 in anticipation of conversion under project SCB 159 to an amphibious assault ship, but the conversion was canceled and her designation reverted to CVE-106 before any work was done. Block Island was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 July 1959.

References

External links

Commencement Bay-class escort carriers
World War II escort aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships built in Tacoma, Washington
1944 ships
Cold War escort carriers of the United States

USS Block Island (CVE-106)


Viscount Downe is a title that has been created twice in the Peerage of Ireland. The first creation came in 1675 for William Ducie. However, the title became extinct on his death in 1679. The second creation came in 1680 for John Dawnay. He had earlier represented Yorkshire and Pontefract in the English House of Commons. His son, the second Viscount, also represented these constituencies in the House of Commons. His grandson, the third Viscount, sat as a Member of Parliament for Yorkshire but died from wounds received at the Battle of Campen in 1760. He was succeeded by his younger brother, the fourth Viscount, who represented Cirencester and Malton in Parliament.

His son, the fifth Viscount, sat as a Member of Parliament for Petersfield and Wootton Bassett. In 1797, he was created Baron Dawnay, of Cowick in the County of York, in the Peerage of Great Britain. However, this title became extinct on his death while he was succeeded in the viscountcy by his younger brother, the sixth Viscount. His son, the seventh Viscount, was a Member of Parliament for Rutland. His son, the eighth Viscount, was a Major-General in the Army and served in the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879 and in the Second Boer War. In 1897, he was created Baron Dawnay, of Danby in the North Riding of the County of York, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. This peerage gave him and his descendants an automatic seat in the House of Lords until the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999. , the titles are held by his great-great-grandson, the twelfth Viscount, who succeeded his father in 2002.

The Hon. Guy Dawnay, fourth son of the seventh Viscount, was a soldier and Conservative politician.

The first Viscount of the second creation was the brother of Sir Christopher Dawnay, 1st Baronet, of Cowick, a title which became extinct in 1644 (see Dawnay baronets, of Cowick).

The family seat is Wykeham Abbey, near Scarborough, North Yorkshire.

Viscounts Downe, First Creation (1675)
William Ducie, 1st Viscount Downe (–1679)

Viscounts Downe, Second Creation (1680)
John Dawnay, 1st Viscount Downe (1625–1695)
Henry Dawnay, 2nd Viscount Downe (1664–1741)
The Honourable John Dawnay (1686–1740)
Henry Pleydell Dawnay, 3rd Viscount Downe (1727–1760)
John Dawnay, 4th Viscount Downe (1728–1780)
John Christopher Burton Dawnay, 5th Viscount Downe (1764–1832)
William Henry Dawnay, 6th Viscount Downe (1772–1846)
William Henry Dawnay, 7th Viscount Downe (1812–1857)
Hugh Richard Dawnay, 8th Viscount Downe (1844–1924)
John Dawnay, 9th Viscount Downe (1872–1931), Captain in the 10th Hussars, fought in Boer War, where he was mentioned in despatches and awarded DSO and later gained rank of Major in Norfolk Yeomanry. Succeeded as 9th Viscount on 21 January 1924.
Richard Dawnay, 10th Viscount Downe (1903–1965), educated at Eton, Page of Honour to George V between 1917 and 1919; gained rank of Colonel in the Green Howards. Succeeded as 10th Viscount on 1 December 1931.
John Christian George Dawnay, 11th Viscount Downe (1935–2002), educated at Eton and, following national service in the Grenadier Guards, Christ Church, Oxford; Deputy lieutenant of North Yorkshire in 1982. Succeeded as 11th Viscount on 8 December 1965.
Richard Henry Dawnay, 12th Viscount Downe (born 1967), educated at Eton and Durham University, where he completed a Bachelor of Science degree. An accountant by profession, formerly with HSBC. Succeeded as 12th Viscount on 15 March 2002.

The heir presumptive is the present holder's cousin Thomas Payan Dawnay (born 24 July 1978)

References

Attribution

External links

Viscountcies in the Peerage of Ireland
Extinct viscountcies in the Peerage of Ireland
Noble titles created in 1675
Noble titles created in 1680
Dawnay family

Viscount Downe


Donat Đurđević O.P. (tal. Donato de Giorgi, Georgio, Georgi, de Georgio, de Georgiis; Dubrovnik, 1428. – Dubrovnik, 1. prosinca 1492.) bio je prelat Katoličke Crkve koji je služio kao biskup trebinjsko-mrkanski od 1481. do 1492.

Životopis

Donat je rođen u Dubrovniku, 1428. godine. Sin je Nikole Matova. U dječačkoj dobi stupio je u Dominikanski red. Godine 1445. poslan je na školovanje na Sveučilište u Padovi gdje je studirao filozofiju. Dana 24. srpnja 1448. upisao se na teološki fakultet gdje je ostavo, s manjim prekidima, do 1460. godine. Bakalaureatski ispit položio je 22. srpnja 1458., licencijat iz teologije 22. svibnja 1459. te doktorat 1. siječnja 1460. godine. U protokolu padovanskog sveučilišta je navedeno kako je obranio doktorat "uz najveće slavlje cijelog grada Padove".

Nakon povratka u Dubrovnik, obnaša razne upravne dužnosti u dominikanskoj provinciji Dalmaciji. Zauzimao se za uvođenje strožega načina redovničkoga opsluživanja. Kao generalni vikar više je puta bio poglavar reformiranih samostana u Dalmaciji.  Od 1465. do 1467. bio je prior dubrovačkoga samostana, a 1470. je bio izabran za provincijala Dalmatinske provincije.Dva je puta bio delegat provincije u Vrhovnoj skupštini Dominikanskoga reda: u Avignonu (1470.) i u Rimu (1474.). U razdoblju od 1474. do 1477. godine bio je provincijal cijele provincije Dalmacije.

Dubrovački ga Senat, 31. kolovoza 1481., predlaže, a papa Siksto IV., 17. prosinca 1481., potvrđuje za trebinjsko-mrkanskoga biskupa. Senat je prethodno, 15. rujna, zatražio dopuštenje od vrhovnoga poglavara dominikanskog reda Salva Cassette. Za biskupa je posvećen 13. siječnja 1482. u rimskoj crkvi San Bernardo alle Terme. Glavni posvetitelj bio je barski nadbiskup Stjepan Teglatije, a suposvetitelji Andrija Jamometić i Juraj Divnić Kao biskup nastavio je stanovao u samostanu s ostalim redovnicima.

Ostavio je nekoliko rukopisnih djela, koja su vremenom izgubljena.

Umro je 1. prosinca 1492. u Dubrovniku. Pokopan je u crkvi sv. Dominika u Dubrovniku. Na sarkofagu, s isklesanim njegovim likom, u biskupskom ornatu nalazi se epitaf na latinskom:

QUI FUIT ISTIUS PRIOR ATQUE VICARIUS EDIS
ILLYRICE NEC NON RELIGIONIS APEX
HIC IACET ANTISTES TUUS, O MERCANA, TRIBUNI
SAXEA QUEM SIMILIS SCULPTA FIGURA
PREMIT QUEM PROBITAS VITE MERITO, QUEM SACRA FACULTAS
QUEM CELEBREM EXHIBUIT RELIGIONIS HONOS
HINC VIA DONATO PATUIT LATISSIMA COELO
CUI LICET ETERNI NUMINIS ORE FRUI, MCCCCLXXXXII.

Izvori

Literatura

Knjige

Članci

Mrežna sjedišta

Životopisi, Dubrovnik
Hrvatski dominikanci
Trebinjsko-mrkanski biskupi

Donat Đurđević


ටෝයි ස්ටෝරි 2 චිත්‍රපටිය ඇකඩමි සම්මාන සඳහා යොජනා වූ, CGI සජීවිකරණය කළ ටෝයි ස්ටෝරි පළමු චිත්‍රපටයට අනුබද්ධිත, ඩිස්නි/පීක්සර් සමාගමේ තෙවෙනි චිත්‍රපටයයි.

මෙම චිත්‍රපටය මිනිසුන් නොදකින්නට, ජීවය ලබා හැසිරෙන සෙල්ලම් බඩු සමූහයක් පිළිබඳ කියවෙන වෘතාන්තයයකි. මුල් චිත්‍රපටය මෙන්ම ටෝයි ස්ටෝරි 2 ද,  ෂික්සර් ඇනිමේෂන්  ස්ටුඩියෝස් නිෂ්පාදනය කළ, ජොන් ලස්සෙස්ටර් විසින් අධ්‍යක්ෂණය කළ, වෝල්ට් ඩිස්නි  සමාගම හා බුයනාවිස්ටා  විසින් නිකුත් කරනු ලැබූ චිත්‍රපටියක් විය. මුල්වරට ඇමරිකාවේ දී, 1999 නොවැම්බර් 26 වනදා මෙය නිකුත් විය. ඕස්ට්‍රෙලියාවේ දී දෙසැම්බර් 2 දින ද, එංගලන්තයේ 2000 පෙබරවාරි 11 දිනද, නිකුත් විය. නැවතත් ත්‍රිමාණකරණය කළ මෙම චිත්‍රපටිය 2010 පෙබරවාරි 10 දින නිකුත් වුණි. තවද මෙහි තෙවන චිත්‍රපටය 2010 ජුනි 18 දින නිකුත් කර ඇත.

මුල් චිත්‍රපටයේ තිබු චරිත එපරිද්දෙන්ම දෙවන චිත්‍රපටියේද දක්නට ලැබේ.හඬ කවන ශිල්පීන් වන ටොම් හැන්ක්ස්, ටිම් ඇලන්,දොන් රික්ල්ස් , ජිම් වාර්නි, වොලස් ෂෝන් හා  ජෝන් රැට්සන්බර්ගර්ට අමතරව අලුතින් එක්වු චරිතවලට ජෝඈන් කුසැන්, කෙල්සි ග්රැමර්, වේන් නයිට්, එස්ටෙල් හැරිස් ද තම කටහඬින් දායකත්වය සපයයි.

සටහන්

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ටෝයි ස්ටෝරි 2 (චිත්‍රපටිය)


Operation Grapple was a set of four series of British nuclear weapons tests of early atomic bombs and hydrogen bombs carried out in 1957 and 1958 at Malden Island and Kiritimati (Christmas Island) in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands in the Pacific Ocean (modern Kiribati) as part of the British hydrogen bomb programme. Nine nuclear explosions were initiated, culminating in the United Kingdom becoming the third recognised possessor of thermonuclear weapons, and the restoration of the nuclear Special Relationship with the United States in the form of the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement.

During the Second World War, Britain had a nuclear weapons project, codenamed Tube Alloys, which was merged with the American Manhattan Project in August 1943. Many of Britain's top scientists participated in the Manhattan Project. After the war, fearing that Britain would lose its great power status, the British government resumed the atomic bomb development effort, now codenamed High Explosive Research. The successful test of an atomic bomb in Operation Hurricane in October 1952 represented an extraordinary scientific and technological achievement, but Britain was still several years behind the United States, which had developed the more powerful thermonuclear weapons in the meantime. In July 1954, the Cabinet agreed that the maintenance of great power status required that Britain also develop thermonuclear weapons.

The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston produced three designs: Orange Herald, a large boosted fission weapon; Green Bamboo, an interim thermonuclear design; and Green Granite, a true thermonuclear weapon. The new designs had to be tested to demonstrate that they worked, hence Operation Grapple. The first series consisted of three tests in May and June 1957. In the first test, Grapple 1, a version of Green Granite known as Short Granite was dropped from a Vickers Valiant bomber flown by Wing Commander Kenneth Hubbard. The bomb's yield was estimated at , far below its designed capability. Despite this, the test was hailed as a successful thermonuclear explosion, and the government did not confirm or deny reports that the UK had become a third thermonuclear power. The second test, Grapple 2, was of Orange Herald; its  yield made it technically a megaton-range weapon, and the largest ever achieved by a single stage nuclear device. Grapple 3 tested Purple Granite, a version of Short Granite with some fixes; its yield was only .

A second test series was required, which consisted of a single test, Grapple X, in November 1957. This time the yield of  exceeded expectations. It was a true hydrogen bomb, but most of its yield came from nuclear fission rather than nuclear fusion. In a third series with a single test, Grapple Y, in April 1958, another design was trialled. With an explosive yield of about , it remains the largest British nuclear weapon ever tested. The design of Grapple Y was notably successful because much of its yield came from its thermonuclear fusion reaction instead of fission of a heavy uranium-238 tamper—the dense material surrounding the core that kept the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency. Its yield had been closely predicted, indicating that its designers understood the process. A final series of four tests in August and September 1958, known as Grapple Z, tested techniques for boosting and making bombs immune to predetonation caused by nearby nuclear explosions. Two of these tests were detonations from balloons. A moratorium on testing came into effect in October 1958, and Britain never resumed atmospheric nuclear testing.

Background

During the early part of the Second World War, Britain had a nuclear weapons project, codenamed Tube Alloys. At the Quebec Conference in August 1943, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and US President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Quebec Agreement, which merged Tube Alloys with the American Manhattan Project to create a combined British, American and Canadian project. The September 1944 Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire extended both commercial and military cooperation into the post-war period. Many of Britain's top scientists participated in the Manhattan Project.

The British government had trusted that America would continue to share nuclear technology, which it considered to be a joint discovery. On 16 November 1945, Churchill and Roosevelt's successors, Clement Attlee and Harry S. Truman, signed a new agreement that replaced the Quebec Agreement's requirement for "mutual consent" before using nuclear weapons with one for "prior consultation", and there was to be "full and effective cooperation in the field of atomic energy", but this was only "in the field of basic scientific research". The United States Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) ended technical cooperation. The revelation of a Canadian spy ring that included British physicist Alan Nunn May while the bill was being prepared caused the United States Congress to add the death penalty for sharing "restricted data" with foreign nations. Efforts to restore the nuclear Special Relationship with the United States over the following decade were dogged by repeated spy scandals, including the arrest of Klaus Fuchs in 1950, and the defection of Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean in 1951. Fearing a resurgence of American isolationism and Britain losing its great power status, the British government restarted its own development effort, now codenamed High Explosive Research.

The successful test of an atomic bomb in Operation Hurricane in October 1952 represented an extraordinary scientific and technological achievement. Britain became the world's third nuclear power, reaffirming the country's status as a great power, but hopes that the United States would be sufficiently impressed to restore the Special Relationship were soon dashed. In November 1952, the United States conducted Ivy Mike, the first successful test of a true thermonuclear device or hydrogen bomb, a far more powerful form of nuclear weapons. Britain was therefore still several years behind in nuclear weapons technology. The Defence Policy Committee, chaired by Churchill and consisting of the senior Cabinet members, considered the political and strategic implications in June 1954, and concluded that "we must maintain and strengthen our position as a world power so that Her Majesty's Government can exercise a powerful influence in the counsels of the world." A Cabinet meeting on 27 July accepted this argument, and directed the Lord President to proceed with the development of thermonuclear weapons.

The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston in Berkshire was directed by William Penney, with William Cook as his deputy. The scientists at Aldermaston did not know how to build a hydrogen bomb, but produced three megaton-range designs: Orange Herald, a large nuclear fission weapon with an enriched uranium tamper; Green Bamboo, an interim thermonuclear design in which fusion occurred in layers of lithium-6 deuteride that alternated with layers of uranium-235; and Green Granite, a true thermonuclear design in which the majority of the yield came from thermonuclear burning. The British bomb designers used the terms "Tom" and "Dick" for the bomb's primary and secondary stages respectively. The Tom would be a fission bomb. It would produce radiation to implode the Dick. Implicit in the creation of a hydrogen bomb was that it would be tested. Anthony Eden, who replaced Churchill as prime minister after the latter's retirement on 5 April 1955, gave a radio broadcast in which he declared: "You cannot prove a bomb until it has exploded. Nobody can know whether it is effective or not until it has been tested."

Location
Preliminary testing of boosted fission weapons, in which the fission yield was increased ("boosted") through the addition of lithium-6 deuteride, was carried out in the Operation Mosaic tests in the Montebello Islands in May and June 1956. Orange Herald would also incorporate boosting. This was a sensitive matter; there was an agreement with Australia that no thermonuclear testing would be carried out there. The Australian Minister for Supply, Howard Beale, responding to rumours reported in the newspapers, asserted that "the Federal Government has no intention of allowing any hydrogen bomb tests to take place in Australia. Nor has it any intention of allowing any experiments connected with hydrogen bomb tests to take place here." Although the devices tested in Mosaic were not thermonuclear, the tests were connected with hydrogen bomb development, so this prompted Eden to cable the Prime Minister of Australia, Robert Menzies, detailing the nature and purpose of the tests. Eden promised that the yield of the second, larger test would not exceed two and a half times that of the Operation Hurricane test, which was . This was slightly higher than the  limit previously agreed on tests in Australia. Menzies cabled his approval of the tests on 20 June 1955. In the event, the yield of the second test was .

Another test site was therefore required. For safety and security reasons, in the light of the Lucky Dragon incident, in which the crew of a Japanese fishing boat were exposed to radioactive fallout from the American Castle Bravo nuclear test, a large site remote from population centres was required. Various islands in the South Pacific and Southern Oceans were considered, along with Antarctica. The Admiralty suggested the Antipodes Islands, which are about  southeast of New Zealand. In May 1955, the Minister for Defence, Selwyn Lloyd, concluded that the Kermadec Islands, which lie about  northeast of New Zealand, would be suitable.

The Kermadec Islands were part of New Zealand, so Eden wrote to the Prime Minister of New Zealand, Sidney Holland, to ask for permission to use the islands. Holland refused, fearing an adverse public reaction in the upcoming 1957 general election in New Zealand. Despite reassurances and pressure from the British government, Holland remained firm. The search for a location continued, with Malden Island and McKean Island being considered. These were uninhabited islands claimed by both Britain and the United States. The former island became the frontrunner. Three Avro Shackletons from No. 240 Squadron were sent to conduct an aerial reconnaissance from Canton Island. It too was claimed by both the United States and Britain, and was jointly administered, so the Americans had to be informed. Holland agreed to send the survey ship  to conduct a maritime survey.

Kiritimati (Christmas Island) was chosen as a base. It too was claimed by both Britain and the United States. Lying just north of the equator, it was a tropical island, largely covered in grass, scrub and coconut plantations. Temperatures were high, averaging  during the day and  at night, and humidity was very high, usually around 98 per cent. It lay  from Tahiti,  from Honolulu,  from San Francisco and  from Sydney. Its remoteness would dominate the logistic preparations for Operation Grapple. It had no indigenous population, but about 260 Gilbertese civilians lived on the island, in a village near Port London. They came from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, and worked the coconut plantations to produce copra. While most only stayed for a year or two, some had been on the island for a decade or more. Although Christmas Island was the main base, the area around Malden Island  to the south was to be the site for the air-dropped tests, and Penrhyn Island,  farther south was used as a technical monitoring site and as a weather station. A United States Air Force (USAF) special weapons monitoring team was based there, and the airstrip was improved to allow its supporting Douglas C-124 Globemaster II to use it.

South Pacific Air Lines (SPAL) had been granted permission by the United States and British governments to operate a flying boat service from Christmas Island. Patrick Dean asked the British Ambassador to the United States, Sir Roger Makins to sound out the US government about terminating the contract. Makins reported in March 1956 that Admiral Arthur W. Radford, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was willing to help so long as the dormant American claim to the island was not prejudiced. The lease on the island facilities, including the airfield and the port, had been granted to SPAL with a clause in the contract that said it could be terminated if there was a military necessity to do so. The Americans proposed that the British tell SPAL that they were establishing an airbase on the island, and that the United States would support this so long as SPAL was paid fair compensation. An official letter was sent to the president of SPAL on 1 May 1956, withdrawing the permit to operate from Christmas Island, regretting any inconvenience, and offering to consider compensation.

Preparations

Organisation

The test series was given the secret codename Operation Grapple. Rear Admiral Kaye Edden, the Commandant of the Joint Services Staff College, was approached to be the Task Force Commander (TFC), but he pointed out that the test series would primarily be a Royal Air Force (RAF) responsibility, and that it would be more appropriate to have an RAF officer in charge. Air Commodore Wilfrid Oulton was appointed task force commander on 6 February 1956, with the acting rank of air vice marshal from 1 March 1956. He secured Group Captain Richard Gething as his chief of staff.

Group Captain Cecil (Ginger) Weir was appointed Air Task Group Commander. RAF units assigned to Grapple included two English Electric Canberra bomber squadrons, Nos. 76 and 100; two Shackleton squadrons, Nos. 206 and 240; the Vickers Valiant bombers of No. 49 Squadron; a flight of search and rescue Westland Whirlwind helicopters of No. 22 Squadron; and No. 1325 Flight with three Dakota transport planes. All would come under the command of No. 160 Wing. Cook would be the scientific director. Oulton held the first meeting of the Grapple Executive Committee on New Oxford Street in London on 21 February 1956. With pressure mounting at home and abroad for a moratorium on testing, 1 April 1957 was set as the target date.

The light aircraft carrier  was the operation control ship, and the flagship of Commodore Peter Gretton, the overall Naval Task Group commander. She embarked three Grumman TBF Avenger attack aircraft and four Royal Navy Whirlwind helicopters, along with two RAF Whirlwinds from No. 22 Squadron. Damage to the ship caused by a storm in the North Atlantic necessitated two days' of repairs in Kingston, Jamaica. By the time they were complete, there was insufficient time to sail around Cape Horn, so she traversed the Panama Canal, negotiating the narrowest part of the locks with just inches to spare. HMS Narvik reprised the role of control ship it had in Hurricane; but it also participated in Operation Mosaic, and had very little time to return to the Chatham Dockyard for a refit before heading out to Christmas Island for Grapple. In addition there were the frigates  and , and Royal New Zealand Navy frigates  and .

Base development

An advance party arrived on Christmas Island in an RAF Shackleton on 19 June 1956. The Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) supply ship Fort Beauharnois followed on 23 June, and became a temporary headquarters ship. It was ultimately joined by four more RFAs: the supply ship , ammunition ship , and tankers  and . The role of headquarters ship was assumed by the Landing Ship, Tank (LST) , which arrived on 7 December 1956. She was fitted out with special radio equipment to contact the United Kingdom. She carried large refrigerators on her tank deck for storage of fresh and frozen produce, and could supply  of potable water per day.

Narvik would have to spend long periods of time at Malden, but could not anchor there because of the steep grade of the ocean floor, so a deep-water mooring was desirable. Warrior needed one at Christmas Island, and moorings equipped with ship-to-shore telephones would be useful for the supply ships. Moorings were usually laid by boom defence vessels, but all the Royal Navy's ones were coal burners, and they lacked the range to sail all the way to Christmas Island. An ocean-going salvage vessel, was acquired and commissioned as . It was sent to the Chatham Dockyard, where it was fitted with launching ramps for mooring chains and buoys, and its quarterdeck was modified to carry a DUKW, an amphibious truck.

The RAF and Royal Engineers improved the airfield to enable it to operate large, heavily loaded aircraft, and the port and facilities were improved to enable Christmas Island to operate as a base by 1 December 1956. It was estimated that  of stores would be required for the construction effort alone. A dredge to clear the harbour was towed from Australia. Base development included improvements to the road system, and establishing an electricity supply, fresh water distillation plant, sewerage system and cold storage. The population of the island would peak at 3,000. The Army Task Group was commanded by Colonel J. E. S. (Jack) Stone; Colonel John Woollett was the garrison commander.

The construction force was built around 38 Corps Engineer Regiment, with the 48, 59 and 61 Field Squadrons, and 63 Field Park Squadron, and 12 and 73 Independent Field Squadrons. Part of the 25 Engineer Regiment also deployed. They were augmented by two construction troops from the Fiji Defence Force. With work on the plantations halted for the duration of Operation Grapple, the Gilbertese civilians were also employed on construction works and unloading the barges.

The troopship SS Devonshire sailed to the Central Pacific from East Asia. At Singapore she embarked 55 Field Squadron, which came from Korea, having been left behind there when the rest of 28 Engineer Regiment had returned to England after supporting the 1st Commonwealth Division in the Korean War. It also embarked Royal Marines Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM) crews from Poole. Heavy engineering plant and equipment was loaded on the SS Reginald Kerr, an LST converted to civilian use. Devonshire docked in Fiji, where it took on some sappers who had flown ahead, and an RAF medical team. Devonshire reached Christmas Island on 24 December, followed by Reginald Kerr, with Woollett on board. By the end of December 1956, there were nearly 4,000 personnel on Christmas Island, including two women from the Women's Voluntary Services.

The first project, which was finished in October, was to rebuild the main runway at the airport to handle Valiants. This involved levelling a surface to extend it to  long and  wide. Some  of access roads were built, and  of scrub were cleared. Existing buildings were refurbished, and new ones erected to provided  of building space. Twelve  storage tanks were provided for petrol, diesel and aviation fuel, along with pumping stations.

The main camp consisted of over 700 tents and marquees, along with  of hutted accommodation. The airbase was ready to accommodate the Valiants and their crews by March 1957. The port was managed by 51 Port Detachment. No. 504 Postal Unit, which had a detachment at Hickam Air Force Base, a USAF base in the American Territory of Hawaii, handled the receipt and despatch of mail, while No. 2 Special Air Formation Signal Troop provided communications support. The Royal Army Service Corps provided a butchery, a bakery and a laundry. They also operated DUKWs, which worked alongside the LCMs.

The Task Force received generous support from the United States Army, Navy and Air Force. RAF aircraft were allowed to overfly the United States, even when carrying radioactive or explosive materials, thereby obviating the need for winterisation for the more northerly journey over Canada. RAF ground crews were accommodated at Hickham and Travis Air Force Base in California, and a regular aerial courier service operated from Hickham to Christmas Island. Warrior had repairs made at Pearl Harbor, and the US Army base at Fort DeRussy gave Woollett use of its facilities.

About 60 Gilbertese civilians were relocated to Fanning Island in January 1957 on the copra ship Tungaru, and another 40 on the Tulgai the following month. By mid-March, 44 Gilbertese men, 29 women and 56 children remained. By the end of April, 31 of the men, and all the women and children had been taken to Fanning Island by RAF Handley Page Hastings aircraft. The civilians would remain there for the next three months, before returning to Christmas Island. During the later test series, the Gilbertese civilians remained on the island, marshalled in areas like the military personnel.

Schedule

Having decided on a location and date, there remained the matter of determining what would be tested. John Challens, whose weapons electronics group at Aldermaston had to produce the bomb assembly, wanted to know the configuration of Green Granite. Cook ruled that it would use a Red Beard Tom, and would fit inside a Blue Danube casing for air dropping. The design was frozen in April 1956. There were two versions of Orange Herald, large and small. They had similar cores, but the large version contained more explosive. Both designs were frozen in July. The Green Bamboo design was also nominally frozen, but minor adjustments continued. On 3 September, John Corner suggested that Green Granite could be made smaller by moving the Tom and Dick closer together. This design became known as Short Granite.

By January 1957, with the tests just months away, a tentative schedule had emerged. Short Granite would be fired first. Green Bamboo would follow if Short Granite was unsuccessful, but be omitted as unnecessary otherwise. Orange Herald (small) would be fired next. Because Short Granite was too large to fit into a missile or guided bomb, this would occur whether or not Short Granite was a success. Finally, Green Granite would be tested. In December 1956, Cook had proposed another design, known as Green Granite II. This was smaller than Green Granite I, and could fit into a Yellow Sun casing that could be used by the Blue Steel guided missile then under development; but it could not be made ready to reach Christmas Island before 26 June 1957, and extending Operation Grapple would cost another £1.5 million (equivalent to £ million in ).

Testing

Grapple series (3 tests)
The first trial series consisted of three tests, named Grapple 1, Grapple 2 and Grapple 3. All bombs were dropped and detonated over Malden Island, and exploded high in the atmosphere, rather than being detonated on the ground, in order to reduce the production of nuclear fallout. British scientists were aware that the Americans had been able to reduce fallout by obtaining most of the bomb yield from fusion instead of fission, but they did not yet know how to do this. Amid growing public concern about the dangers of fallout, particularly from strontium-90 entering the food chain, a committee chaired by Sir Harold Himsworth was asked to look into the matter. Another, in the United States chaired by Detlev Bronk, also investigated. They reported simultaneously on 12 June 1956. While differing on many points, they agreed that levels of strontium-90 were not yet sufficiently high to be of concern.

At an altitude of , the fireball would not touch the ground, thereby minimising fallout. The bombs would be detonated with a clockwork timer rather than a barometric switch. This meant that they had to be dropped from  in order to detonate at the correct altitude. Grapple was Britain's second airdrop of a nuclear bomb after the Operation Buffalo test at Maralinga on 11 October 1956, and the first of a thermonuclear weapon. The United States had not attempted this until the Operation Redwing Cherokee test on 21 May 1956, and the bomb had landed  from the target. Aldermaston wanted the bomb within  of the target, and Oulton felt that a good bomber crew could achieve that. A  exclusion zone was established, covering the area between 3.5° North and 7.5° South and 154° and 163° West, which was patrolled by Shackletons.

No. 49 Squadron had eight Valiants, but only four deployed: XD818, piloted by Wing Commander Kenneth Hubbard, the squadron commander; XD822, piloted by Squadron Leader L. D. (Dave) Roberts; XD823, piloted by Squadron Leader Arthur Steele; and XD824, piloted by Squadron Leader Barney Millett. The other four Valiants remained at RAF Wittering, where they were used as courier aircraft for bomb components. The last components for Short Granite were delivered by Valiant courier on 10 May 1957—three days late owing to severe head winds between San Francisco and Honolulu. A full-scale rehearsal was held on 11 May, and on 14 May it was decided to conduct the Grapple 1 test the following day. The eight official observers—two each from Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States—were flown from Honolulu to Christmas Island in an RAF Hastings, then to Malden Island in a Dakota, from whence a DUKW took them out to HMS Alert, the spectator ship. All but a small party were evacuated from Malden by HMS Warrior, Narvik and Messina by 19:00 on 14 May. The rest were picked up by a helicopter from Warrior at 07:45 on 15 May. Oulton and Cook arrived on Malden by Dakota at 08:25, where they were met by a helicopter and taken to Narvik.

The Grapple 1 mission was flown by Hubbard in XD818, with Millett and XD824 as the "grandstand" observation aircraft. The two bombers took off from Christmas Island at 09:00. The bomb was dropped from  off the shore of Malden Island at 10:38 local time on 15 May 1957. Hubbard missed the target by . The bomb's yield was estimated at , far below its designed capability. Penney cancelled the Green Granite test and substituted a new weapon codenamed Purple Granite. This was identical to Short Granite, but with some minor modification to its Dick: additional uranium-235 was added, and the outer layer was replaced with aluminium.

Despite its failure, the Grapple 1 test was hailed as a successful thermonuclear explosion, and the government did not confirm or deny reports that the UK had become a third thermonuclear power. When documents on the series began to be declassified in the 1990s, they created a spirited debate among nuclear historians. Norman Dombey and Eric Grove denounced the Grapple tests in the London Review of Books in 1992 as a hoax intended to deceive the Americans into resuming nuclear cooperation, but others, like the British nuclear weapons historian John Bayliss, pointed out that false reports would not have fooled the American observers, who helped to analyse samples from the radioactive cloud.

The next test was Grapple 2, of Orange Herald (small). For this test, two Fijian official observers were added. A detachment of 39 Fijian Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve ratings who had been on board RNZN Pukaki and Roititi was transferred to HMS Warrior. This time there were also media representatives present on HMS Alert, including Chapman Pincher and William Connor. Orange Herald bomb components arrived in three separate loads on 13 May. Assembling them took two weeks.

The bomb was dropped by XD822, piloted by Roberts, while XD823, piloted by Steele, acted as the grandstand aircraft. This bomb was dropped at 10:44 local time on 31 May. After the bomb was released, Roberts made the standard 60° banked turn to get away, but his accelerometer failed, and the aircraft went into a high speed stall. This was potentially disastrous, but through skilful flying Roberts was able to recover from the stall and use the mechanical accelerometer to complete the manoeuvre.

The  yield was the largest ever achieved by a single stage device. This made it technically a megaton-range weapon; but it was close to Corner's estimate for an unboosted yield, there were doubts that the lithium-6 deuteride had contributed at all. This was attributed to Rayleigh–Taylor instability, which limited the compression of the light elements in the core. The bomb was hailed as a hydrogen bomb, and the fact that it was actually a large fission bomb was kept secret by the British government until the end of the Cold War.

The third and final test of the series was Grapple 3, the test of Purple Granite. This was dropped on 19 June by a Valiant XD823 piloted by Steele, with Millett and XD824 as the grandstand aircraft. The yield was a very disappointing , even less than Short Granite. The changes had not worked. "We haven't got it right", Cook told Oulton. "We shall have to do it all again, providing we can do so before the ban comes into force; so that means as soon as possible."

Grapple X (1 test)
The next test series consisted of a single trial known as Grapple X. To save time and money, and as HMS Warrior, Alert and Narvik, were unavailable, it was decided to drop the bomb off the southern tip of Christmas Island rather than off Malden Island. This was just  from the airfield where 3,000 men were based. It required another major construction effort to improve the facilities, and some of those on Malden Island now had to be duplicated on Christmas Island. Works included 26 blast-proof shelters, a control room, and tented accommodation. To provide some means of chasing away intruders, the destroyer  was allotted. HMNZS Rotoiti and Pukaki reprised their role as weather ships. A cargo ship, the SS Somersby was chartered to bring tentage and stores to Christmas Island. Monitoring equipment was set up on Malden Island and Fanning Island, and the observation posts on Penrhyn Island and Jarvis Island were re-established. Oulton noticed that:

While some ships and units such as No. 49 Squadron returned to the UK, most personnel had to remain on Christmas Island. The Minister of Supply gave assurances that no personnel would have to remain on the island for more than a year unless absolutely necessary, in which case home leave would be given. To maintain morale, units were given periodic briefings on the importance of their work. Junior officers took a keen interest in the welfare of the men and their families at home, since they were not permitted to bring them to the island. An efficient mail system was maintained to allow them to keep in contact. The quality of Army rations was better than at any other British base. The men were given one day a week off work, and sports such as football, cricket, tennis, volleyball sailing, fishing and water skiing were organised. Leave was provided that could be taken in Fiji, Hawaii or the Gilbert Islands. To relieve the monotony, some Army personnel ashore exchanged places with some Navy personnel afloat. A Christmas Island Broadcasting Service was established with nightly radio programmes.

The scientists at Aldermaston had not yet mastered the design of thermonuclear weapons. Knowing that much of the yield of American and Soviet bombs came from fission in the uranium-238 tamper, they had focused on what they called the "lithium-uranium cycle", whereby neutrons from the fission of uranium would trigger fusion, which would produce more neutrons to induce fission in the tamper. However, this is not the most important reaction. Corner and his theoretical physicists at Aldermaston argued that Green Granite could be made to work by increasing compression and reducing Rayleigh–Taylor instability. The first step would be achieved with an improved Tom. The Red Beard Tom was given an improved high explosive supercharge, a composite uranium-235 and plutonium core, and a beryllium tamper, thereby increasing its yield to . The Dick was greatly simplified; instead of the fourteen layers in Short Granite, it would have just three. This was called Round A; a five-layer version was also mooted, which was called Round B. A diagnostic round, Round C, was also produced. It had the same three layers as Round A, but an inert layer instead of lithium deuteride. Grapple X would test Round A. Components of Rounds A and C were delivered to Christmas Island on 24, 27 and 29 October. On inspection, a fault was found in the Round A Tom, and the fissile core was replaced with the one from Round C.

This time there was no media presence, and only two foreign observers, Rear Admiral G. S. Patrick, the Director of the Atomic Energy Division in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations from the US Navy, and Brigadier General John. W. White, the Deputy Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, from the USAF. As the final preparations were being made for the test on 8 November, Oulton was advised at 01:00 that a Shackleton had sighted the SS Effie, an old Victory ship now flying the Liberian flag, in the exclusion zone. Eager to minimise publicity before this test, the British government had delayed sending out the Notice to Mariners, which had only been issued three weeks before. This failed to take into account the size of the Pacific Ocean; Effie had left its last port of call before it had been issued. The Shackleton kept Effie under observation while trying to contact her, and Cossack was sent to intercept. By 06:00, all was in readiness for the test, but there was no news of Effie. Finally, at 06:15, word was received from the Shackleton that the crew had woken up and Effie had turned about and was now headed due south, out of the exclusion zone at . A report from the Shackleton at 07:25 indicated that Effie was now sailing in company with Cossack.

By this time the Valiants had started their engines; they took off at 07:35, and were on the way when Cossack reported that Effie had cleared the area. The bomb was dropped from Valiant XD824, piloted by Millett, at 08:47 on 8 November 1957; Flight Lieutenant R. Bates flew the grandstand Valiant XD825. This time the yield of  exceeded expectations; the predicted yield had only been , but it was still below the  safety limit. This was the real hydrogen bomb Britain wanted, but it used a relatively large quantity of expensive highly enriched uranium. Due to the higher-than-expected yield of the explosion, there was some damage to buildings, the fuel storage tanks, and helicopters on the island.

Grapple Y (1 test)
The physicists at Aldermaston had plenty of ideas about how to follow up Grapple X, and the possibilities were discussed in September 1957. One was to adjust the width of the shells in the Dick to find an optimal configuration. If they were too thick, they would slow the neutrons generated by the fusion reaction; if they were too thin, they would give rise to Rayleigh–Taylor instability. Another was to do away with the shells entirely and use a mixture of uranium-235, uranium-238 and deuterium. Ken Allen had an idea, which Samuel Curran supported, of a three-layer Dick that used a greater amount of lithium deuteride that was less enriched in lithium-6 (and therefore had more lithium-7) while reducing the amount of uranium-235 in the centre of the core. This proposal was adopted in October, and it became known as "Dickens" because it used Ken's Dick. The device would otherwise be similar to Round A, but with a larger radiation case. The safety limit was again set to . Keith Roberts calculated that the yield could reach , and suggested that this could be reduced by modifying the tamper, but Cook opposed this, fearing that it might cause the test to fail. The possibility of a moratorium on testing caused the plans for the test, codenamed Grapple Y, to be restricted to the Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, who gave informal approval, and a handful of officials.

The New Zealand National Party lost the 1957 election, and Walter Nash became Prime Minister. His New Zealand Labour Party had endorsed a call by the British Labour Party for a moratorium on nuclear testing, but he felt obligated to honour commitments made by his predecessors to support the British nuclear testing programme. However, HMNZS Rotoiti was unavailable, as it was joining the Far East Strategic Reserve; its place would be taken by the destroyer . Air Vice Marshal John Grandy succeeded Oulton as Task Force commander, and Air Commodore Jack Roulston became the Air Task Force Commander.

The bomb was dropped off Christmas Island at 10:05 local time on 28 April 1958 by a Valiant piloted by Squadron Leader Bob Bates. It had an explosive yield of about , and remains the largest British nuclear weapon ever tested. The design of Grapple Y was notably successful because much of its yield came from its thermonuclear reaction instead of fission of a heavy uranium-238 tamper, making it a true hydrogen bomb, and because its yield had been closely predicted—indicating that its designers understood what they were doing.

Grapple Z series (4 tests)
On 22 August 1958, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced a one-year moratorium on nuclear testing, effective 31 October 1958, if the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom also agreed to suspend testing. Britain had already indicated that it would do so, and the Soviet Union agreed on 30 August. This did not mean an immediate end to testing; on the contrary, all three rushed to perform as much testing as possible before the deadline. The British scientists needed to gather as much data as possible to allow them to design production nuclear weapons. As the prospect of increased American cooperation grew after October 1957, they knew that the quality and quantity of what the Americans would share would depend on what they had to offer. A new British test series, known as Grapple Z, commenced on 22 August. It explored new technologies such as the use of external neutron initiators, which had first been tried out with Orange Herald. Core boosting using tritium gas and external boosting with layers of lithium deuteride permitted a smaller, lighter Tom for two-stage devices. It would be the biggest and most complex British test series.

Of particular concern was radiation damage. Keith Roberts and Bryan Taylor at Aldermaston had discovered that the flash of radiation from the detonation of an atomic bomb could affect a nearby bomb. This opened up the possibility of a missile warhead being disabled by another launched for this purpose. Plutonium cores were especially vulnerable, as they were already prone to predetonation. This had the potential to render Britain's nuclear deterrent ineffective. This discovery was given the highest level of secrecy, and Aldermaston would spend much of the next few years working on the problem. To build a primary immune to this effect would require techniques that Aldermaston had not yet mastered. The number of tests in the series was assumed to be four for planning purposes, but as late as May the Prime Minister had only approved two tests, tentatively scheduled for 15 August and 1 September 1958. Four Valiants, XD818, XD822, XD824 and XD827, deployed to Christmas Island, the last of which arrived on 31 July.

The first test was of Pendant, a fission bomb boosted with solid lithium hydride intended as a primary for a thermonuclear bomb. Rather than being dropped from a bomber, this bomb was suspended from a string of four vertically stacked barrage balloons. This was chosen over an air drop because the bomb assembly could not be fitted into a droppable casing, but it introduced a host of problems. A balloon test had been tried only once before by the British, during Operation Antler at Maralinga in October 1957. William Saxby from Aldermaston was placed in charge of the balloon crews, who commenced training at RAF Cardington in Bedfordshire in January 1958. Inflating the balloons required 1,200 cylinders of hydrogen gas, and there were no reserves. If another balloon test was required, then the empty cylinders would have to be returned to the United Kingdom for refilling, and then shipped out again. An important consideration was how they could be shot down if they broke loose of their moorings with a live hydrogen bomb. The cargo ship SS Tidecrest arrived at Christmas Island on 20 July, but the firing harness was lost at San Francisco International Airport on 1 August, and a replacement had to be flown out. The Pendant fissile core arrived by air on 12 August, and the weapon was assembled with its external neutron initiator unit. On 22 August 1958 it was hoisted  in the air over the south east corner of Christmas Island, and it detonated at 09:00. The yield was assessed at .

The next test was of Flagpole, an unboosted version of Orange Herald known as Indigo Herald. It was air dropped by Valiant XD822, flown by Squadron Leader Bill Bailey, with XD818 flown by Flight Lieutenant Tiff O'Connor as the grandstand aircraft, on 2 September 1958. This was the first live drop of a British nuclear weapon using blind radar technique. This meant that the bomb would be dropped using radar rather than visually with the optical bombsight, a technique normally reserved for when a target is obscured by cloud or smoke. Bailey managed to place the bomb  from the target. It detonated at  about  offshore from South East Point on Christmas Island at 08:24 with a yield of about .

The third test was of Halliard, an unusual three-stage design with two nuclear-fission components followed by a thermonuclear stage that was supposedly immune to exposure from another bomb despite its not using boosting. The Americans had indicated an interest in it. Macmillan noted in his diary:

The success of blind radar bombing in Flagpole led to Grandy deciding to use the technique again. Hubbard was less sure. The  accuracy achieved in Flagpole was exceptional; in 52 practice drops with blind radar, the average error had been  as opposed to  with visual bombing. Thus it was only slightly more accurate, but the aircrew would be dropping a live hydrogen bomb—generally considered a dangerous thing to do—with no means of verifying that their instruments were correct. Air Chief Marshal Sir Harry Broadhurst, the head of Bomber Command, wished O'Connor luck; his XD827 would make the drop, with Squadron Leader Tony Caillard in XD827, the grandstand aircraft. The aircraft took off at 07:15 on 11 September 1958. Once in the air, a fault developed in the ground radar transmitter. Grandy then authorised a visual drop. It was later confirmed that it was  from the target.  It was detonated at  about  offshore from South East Point on Christmas Island at 08:49 with a yield of about , very close to the predicted yield of .

The final test in the Grapple Z series was of Burgee, at 09:00 on 23 September 1958. This was another balloon-borne test detonated over the south east corner of Christmas Island. Burgee was an atomic bomb boosted with gaseous tritium created by a generator codenamed Daffodil. It had a yield of about . The Aldermaston weapon makers had now demonstrated all of the technologies that were needed to produce a megaton hydrogen bomb that weighed no more than  and was immune to premature detonation caused by nearby nuclear explosions. The international moratorium commenced on 31 October 1958, and Britain never resumed atmospheric testing.

Summary

Aftermath

Cooperation with the United States

The British breakthrough came in the wake of the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite, on 4 October 1957. Sputnik came as a tremendous shock to the American public, who had trusted that American technological superiority ensured their invulnerability. Suddenly, there was incontrovertible proof that, in missile and space technology at least, the Soviet Union was actually ahead. In the widespread calls for action in response to the Sputnik crisis, officials in the United States and Britain seized the opportunity to mend the relationship between the two nations that had been damaged by the 1956 Suez Crisis. At the suggestion of Harold Caccia, the British Ambassador to the United States, Macmillan wrote to Eisenhower on 10 October urging that the two countries pool their resources to meet the challenge. To do this, the McMahon Act's restrictions on nuclear cooperation needed to be relaxed.

British information security, or the lack thereof, no longer seemed so important now that the Soviet Union was apparently ahead and the United Kingdom had independently developed the hydrogen bomb. The trenchant opposition from the United States Congress's Joint Committee on Atomic Energy that had derailed previous attempts was absent. Amendments to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 passed Congress on 30 June 1958, and were signed into law by Eisenhower on 2 July 1958. The 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement was signed on 3 July, and was approved by Congress on 30 July. Macmillan called this "the Great Prize".

The Anglo-American Special Relationship proved mutually beneficial, although it was never one of equals; the United States was far larger than Britain both militarily and economically. Britain soon became dependent on the United States for its nuclear weapons, as it lacked the resources to produce a range of designs. The British decided to adapt the American Mark 28 as a cheaper alternative to doing their own development. This Anglicised version of the Mark 28 became Red Snow. Other weapons were acquired through Project E, under which weapons in American custody were supplied for the use of the RAF and British Army.

Nuclear material was also acquired from the United States. Under the Mutual Defence Agreement 5.4 tonnes of UK produced plutonium was sent to the US in return for  of tritium and 7.5 tonnes of highly enriched uranium between 1960 and 1979. This replaced production from the British uranium enrichment facility at Capenhurst in Cheshire, although much of the highly enriched uranium was not used for weapons, but as fuel for the growing UK fleet of nuclear submarines. The Royal Navy ultimately acquired entire weapons systems, with the UK Polaris programme and Trident nuclear programme using American missiles with British nuclear warheads.

Operation Dominic
In addition to the British tests during Operation Grapple, the United States used Christmas Island for nuclear testing in Operation Dominic in 1962. Twenty-four nuclear bombs were detonated near Christmas Island as part of this test series. In 1979, the Gilbert Islands, Phoenix Islands and Line Islands, which included Christmas Island and Malden Island, became independent of the United Kingdom as the Republic of Kiribati. By the 1980s, there was a permanent population of around 1,200 the majority of whom were Gilbertese. The spelling of the name of the island was changed to Kiritimati, the Gilbertese writing of Christmas. Malden Island was uninhabited, but Penrhyn Island was part of the Cook Islands, a self-governing dependency of New Zealand.

Health effects
In 2005, a Massey University study that was contracted and paid for by a veterans' organisation in New Zealand examined some 50 sailors who observed the tests from ships. It was found in one battery of tests, that they were indistinguishable from the control group, which is interpreted as indicating that "DNA repair mechanisms in the veterans are not deficient". The same Massey University team tested for chromosome translocations within peripheral blood lymphocytes, and a statistically higher rate of this non-germline abnormality was found.

Various veterans' organisations then filed a class action lawsuit against the UK Ministry of Defence following the publication of the study, with many media outlets reporting on it at the time. The effects of radioactive fallout from the Grapple tests were researched by a 2010 British Government study that concluded the fallout did not reach concentrations that could affect the surrounding nature. The Ministry of Defence maintained that few people were exposed to any radiation or contamination at all, and that studies had shown little or no health effects. An analysis of illnesses in veterans of Grapple and other weapons tests produced statistics that are hard to interpret. The veterans showed rates of illness that were slightly higher than the control group, but the control group had lower rates of illness than the population as a whole while the veterans had rates that were about the same. Neither of these results has a clear explanation. Some veterans of Operation Grapple believe that cancers, bone problems and genetic defects passed on to subsequent generations have been consequences of their radiation exposure.

In 1993, Ken McGinley, a veteran of five of the tests, and Edward Egan, a veteran of Grapple Y, sued for £100,000 damages (equivalent to £ in ) over multiple health problems which they attributed to their involvement in the tests. They took their claim to the European Court of Human Rights, which rejected it in a 5–4 split decision on 9 June 1998. An appeal to the court to re-open the case was declined in January 2000. A group of 1,011 British ex-servicemen were denied permission to sue the Ministry of Defence by the Supreme Court in March 2012, on the grounds that too much time had elapsed since they became aware of their medical conditions, under the terms of the Limitation Act 1980. In January 2015, the Prime Minister of Fiji, Frank Bainimarama, announced that the Fijian government would provide Fiji $9,855 compensation payments to the 24 surviving Fijian servicemen who participated in Operation Grapple. On 21 November 2022 British veterans of nuclear tests won a medal after years of campaigning.

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Grapple
20th-century military history of the United Kingdom
1957 in the United Kingdom
1958 in the United Kingdom
1957 in military history
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1957 in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands
1958 in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands
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Articles containing video clips

Operation Grapple


ජාලිය වික්‍රමසූරිය (ඉංග්‍රීසි: Jaliya Wickramasuriya) මහතා ඇමරිකාවේ හිටපු ශ්‍රී ලංකා තානාපතිවරයායි.

ඹහු ශ්‍රී ලංකා ජනපති මහින්ද රාජපක්ෂ මහතා සහ, චමල් රාජපක්ෂ, බැසිල් රාජපක්ෂ, ගෝඨාභය රාජපක්ෂ, රුසියාවේ ශ්‍රී ලංකා තානාපති උදයංග වීරතුංග යන මහත්වරුන්ගේ ඥාති සොහොයුරා වන අතර වර්තමාන ශ්‍රී ලංකා ගුවන් තොටුපල හා ගුවන් ගමන් සේවා සභාපති ප්‍රසන්න වික්‍රමසූරිය මහතාගේ සොහොයුරාද වෙයි.

ජාලිය වික්‍රමසූරිය මහතා කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසුවෙකි.

ආශ්‍රිත
  ජාලිය වික්‍රමසූරියයන් ගේ ඉංග්‍රීසි විකිපීඩියා පිටුව

චරිත කතා
ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ
ආදි නාලන්දියයෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
ලාංකික සිංහලයෝ

ජාලිය වික්‍රමසූරිය


Denizkulağı, bir deniz yumuşakçası (Haliotis).

Kabuk, kulak şeklinde yassı ve az spirallidir. İç yüzeyi sedef tabakası ile örtülmüştür. Kabuk ağzı çok büyüktür. Sol tarafında ise bir sıra halinde dizilmiş delikler bulunur. Operkul yoktur. Bir çift ktenidyum içerirler. Bunlardan sağ taraftaki biraz daha küçüktür. Ayağın yanları saçaklıdır. İnci yapabilirler. İnsan besini olarak kullanılmasının yanında, kabukları takı ve dekorasyon malzemesi olarak da kullanılmaktadır.

Haliotis türlerinin çoğu Hindistan ve Avustralya sahillerinde bulunur.

Alttaksonlar (türler)

 Haliotis australis,
 Haliotis ancile,
 Haliotis aquatilis,
 Haliotis asinina,
 Haliotis barbouri
 Haliotis brazieri,
 Haliotis clathrata
 Haliotis coccoradiata,

 Haliotis conicopora,
 Haliotis corrugata,
 Haliotis cracherodii,
 Haliotis crebrisculpta
 Haliotis crebrisculpta,
 Haliotis cyclobates,
 Haliotis dalli,
 Haliotis discus,
 Haliotis dissona
 Haliotis diversicolor supertexta,
 Haliotis diversicolor,
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 Haliotis elegans,
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 Haliotis exigua
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 Haliotis fulgens,
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 Haliotis hargravesi,
 Haliotis howensis,
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 Haliotis jacnensis,
 Haliotis kamschatkana,
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 Haliotis kamtschatkana kamtschatkana
 Haliotis laevigata,
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 Haliotis midae,
 Haliotis multiperforata,
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 Haliotis queketti,
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 Haliotis roei,
 Haliotis rosacea,
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 Haliotis rufescens,
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 Haliotis scalaris,
 Haliotis semiplicata,
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 Haliotis spadicea,
 Haliotis speciosa,
 Haliotis squamata,
 Haliotis squamosa,
 Haliotis thailandis
 Haliotis tuberculata,
 Haliotis unilateralis
 Haliotis varia,
 Haliotis venusta,
 Haliotis virginea,
 Haliotis walallensis,
 Haliotis assimilis,

Yenilebilir yumuşakçalar
Constantine Samuel Rafinesque tarafından adlandırılmış taksonlar

Denizkulağı (hayvan)


Olga Olegowna Koslowa (, geborene Olga Olegowna Simuschina (); * 17. Dezember 1969) ist eine russische Biathletin, die nach einer zunächst recht erfolgreichen Karriere im Olympischen Biathlon eine erfolgreiche zweite Karriere als Bogenbiathletin startete. Mit 13 Titeln bei Bogenbiathlon-Weltmeisterschaften und 20 Medaillen insgesamt sowie drei Gesamtsiegen im Bogenbiathlon-Weltcup ist sie die erfolgreichste Athletin dieser Sportart. Zudem ist sie eine der ganz wenigen Biathleten, die bei Weltmeisterschaften im Olympischen wie im Bogenbiathlon Weltmeisterschaftsmedaillen gewinnen konnte.

Die in Moskau lebende und als Lehrerin arbeitende Olga Koslowa gab ihr internationales Debüt noch unter ihrem Mädchennamen startend nach dem Zerfall der Sowjetunion und der Neuschaffung nationaler Verbände in der Saison 1992/93 in Oberhof. Dort belegte sie sowohl im Einzel wie auch im Sprint in ihren ersten Rennen fünfte Plätze. Mit Swetlana Panjutina, Jelena Belowa und Anfissa Reszowa gewann sie zudem das Staffelrennen des Weltcup-Wochenendes. Auch bei den nächsten Weltcup-Stationen in Antholz, Lillehammer und Kontiolahti erreichte sie mit der Staffel als Zweitplatzierte das Podium. Höhepunkt der Saison wurden die Biathlon-Weltmeisterschaften 1993 in Borowez. Simuschina gewann an der Seite von Swetlana Panjutina, Nadeschda Talanowa und Jelena Belowa hinter den Vertretungen Tschechiens und Frankreichs die Bronzemedaille. Im Mannschaftsrennen verpasste sie eine weitere Medaille mit Reszowa, Panjutina und Belowa als Fünftplatzierte eine weitere Medaille. Ihre beste Platzierung im Weltcup schaffte die Russin in der Folgesaison in Antholz, als sie hinter Swjatlana Paramyhina und Antje Harvey bei einem Sprint Dritte wurde. Zuvor erreichte sie in Ruhpolding mit der Staffel ebenfalls einen dritten Platz. Nach verpasster Olympiaqualifikation beendete sie 1994 zunächst ihre internationale Karriere.

Mittlerweile verheiratet begann Koslowa  einige Jahre eine zweite Karriere im in Russland recht weit verbreiteten und populären Bogenbiathlon. Ihren internationalen Durchbruch hatte die Russin hier bei den Bogenbiathlon-Weltmeisterschaften 2001 in Kubalonka, wo sie vor Stefania D'Andrea und Jekaterina Lugowkina den Titel im Massenstartrennen und mit Lugowkina und Marija Filippowa im Staffelrennen gewann. Zudem wurde sie im Verfolgungsrennen hinter Lugowkina und Nadia Peyrot Dritte. Bei den Europameisterschaften des Jahres in Pokljuka gewann sie in derselben Staffelbesetzung ebenfalls die Goldmedaille, siegte zudem vor ihren Staffelkameradinnen im Verfolgungsrennen, nachdem sie zuvor schon hinter Filippowa und vor Peyrot die Silbermedaille im Sprintrennen gewann. Bei den Weltmeisterschaften 2002 in Pokljuka gewann Koslowa erneut in der Staffelbesetzung des Vorjahres den Titel, ebenso im Sprint- und Verfolgungsrennen. Im Einzel wurde sie hinter Lugowkina und Peyrot Dritte. Mit drei Titeln und insgesamt vier Medaillen war sie erfolgreichste Teilnehmerin der Welttitelkämpfe. Das wurde sie erneut 2003 in Krün, als sie im Sprintrennen hinter Lugowkina und vor Ksenija Malzewa Zweite wurde, im Verfolgungsrennen und im Massenstart die Titel gewann. Das Staffelrennen gehörte erst wieder 2004 in Pokljuka zum Programm, Koslowa gewann dort mit Lugowkina und Malzewa zum dritten Mal in Folge den Titel. Außerdem gewann sie die Titel im Sprint und im Massenstartrennen, im Verfolger musste sie sich Malzewa und Peyrot geschlagen geben. 2005 in Forni Avoltri wurde Koslowa zum dritten Mal in Folge erfolgreichste Starterin bei den Weltmeisterschaften. Sie gewann mit Lugowkina und Walentina Linkowa ihren vierten und letzten Titel mit der Staffel, siegte im Verfolgungsrennen, nachdem sie sich im Sprint noch Linkowa geschlagen geben musste, und wurde Vizeweltmeisterin hinter Natalija Jemelina im Massenstartrennen. Nach einem Jahr Pause wurden 2007 in Moskau zum bislang letzten Mal Weltmeisterschaften im Bogenbiathlon ausgetragen. Koslowa gewann mit dem Titel im Massenstartrennen vor Linkowa und Peyrot ihren 13. Titel. Zudem gewann sie hinter der erfolgreichsten Teilnehmerin dieser Titelkämpfe, Linkowa, und ihrer Dauerkonkurrentin über die Jahre, Lugowkina, die Bronzemedaille im erstmals seit 2002 wieder ausgetragenen Einzel. 2003, 2004 und 2005 gewann Koslowa dreimal in Folge die Gesamtweltcupwertungen, 2006 wurde sie mit Peyrot und D'Andrea hinter Lugowkina und Jemelina Dritte. 2005 gewann sie zudem die Wertungen im Sprint-, Verfolgungs- und mit Jemelina im Massenstart-Weltcup.

Biathlon-Weltcup-Platzierungen

Weblinks
  (Biathlon)
  (Bogenbiathlon)

Biathlet (Russland)
Weltmeister (Bogenbiathlon)
Europameister (Bogenbiathlon)
Sowjetbürger
Russe
Geboren 1969
Frau

Olga Olegowna Koslowa


Siris (sardisk: Sìris) er en by og en kommune (comune) i provinsen Oristano i regionen Sardinien i Italien. Byen ligger i 161 meters højde og har 230 indbyggere (2016). Kommunen har et areal på 6,00 km² og grænser til kommunerne Masullas, Morgongiori og Pompu.

Referencer

Henvisninger

Kommuner i provinsen Oristano

Siris


Sebastián Riep (født 20. februar 1976) er en tidligere argentinsk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Avispa Fukuoka.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Argentina

Sebastián Riep


Dalibor Štys, né le  à Prague, est un scientifique et homme politique tchèque.

Biographie

Situation personnelle

Parcours politique

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Gouvernement Rusnok

Naissance en septembre 1962
Naissance à Prague
Ministre tchèque de l'Éducation
Personnalité politique tchèque
Ministre tchèque
Naissance en Tchécoslovaquie

Dalibor Štys


Samoaktualizacija je izraz koji se koristi u psihologiji, filozofiji, duhovnosti i istočnim religijama. Pojam se definira kao "ostvarivanje svojih apsolutnih potencijala kao ljudske individue"

U jednom pregledu, Mortimer Adler definira samorealizaciju kao slobodu od vanjske prisile, uključujući i kulturološka očekivanja, političke i ekonomske slobode, i slobodu od svjetovnih potreba i želja itd. Paramahansa Yogananda je definirala samorealizaciju kao "znanje - u tijelu, umu i duši - da smo mi jedno s Božjom sveprisutnošću, da ne moramo moliti da dođe do nas, da nismo samo blizu toga već da je Božja sveprisutnost naša sveprisutnost, da smo samo i već sada dio njega. Sve što treba učiniti je poboljšati naše znanje."

Psihologija

Samoaktualizacija


La route régionale 471 () est une route régionale allant de Nojanmaa à Savonlinna jusqu'à Sappu à Heinävesi en Finlande.

Présentation
La seututie 471 est une route régionale de Savonie du Sud.
À Enonkoski, une liaison par bac permet de traverser l'Hanhivirta.

Parcours
 Nojanmaa
 Hannolanpelto
 Makkola
 Simanala
 Enonkoski
 Simanala
 Ihamaniemi
 Leipämäki
 Sappu

Galerie

Références

Annexes

Liens externes

Cartes

Articles connexes
 Seututie

471
Transport à Savonlinna
Transport à Enonkoski
Transport à Heinävesi

Seututie 471


Morphèmes genrés
L'espéranto n'a pas de genre grammatical . Toutefois, certains des morphèmes en espéranto peuvent porter un sens socialement genré. Ainsi, lorsqu'un tel morphème est appris, il faut également apprendre le genre associé. Classiquement, trois genres sont distingués : le neutre, le masculin et le féminin.

Morphèmes genrés neutres

Morphèmes genrés masculins

Morphèmes genrés féminins

Affixes de genre
Grâce à certains affixes, il est possible de fixer le genre d'un mot. Classiquement, trois affixes sont utilisés pour se faire : le suffixe -in-, la racine vir et le préfixe ge-.

Suffixe -in-
Le suffixe -in- est utilisé pour donner un sens féminin au mot. Ainsi on peut former les mots knabino, studentino, hundino (respectivement « fillette », « étudiante » et « chienne »). Lorsque le radical a un sens genré masculin, l'utilisation du suffixe -in- permet d'obtenir le mot au sens féminin équivalent. Ainsi, à partir de reĝo (« roi »), on forme reĝino (« reine »). Si le radical a un sens genré neutre, et que l'on a besoin de préciser le genre, on peut utiliser le suffixe -in-. Par exemple, on peut former aktorino (« actrice »). Enfin, si le radical est genré féminin, il est inutile d'ajouter le suffixe -in-.

Racine vir
La racine vir peut être utilisé de deux façons : soit en tant que préfixe, soit en tant qu'adjectif.

Préfixe ge-

Changement selon le contexte

Classement imprécis

Critiques et évolutions

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Grammaire de l'espéranto
Genre grammatical
Études de genre

Genre en espéranto


An Tillandsia rubroviolacea in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Werner Rauh. An Tillandsia rubroviolacea in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tillandsia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo nangangarat-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Tillandsia

Tillandsia rubroviolacea


Babice es un pueblo de Polonia, en Mazovia. Se encuentra en el distrito (Gmina) de Trojanów, perteneciente al condado (Powiat) de Garwolin. Se encuentra aproximadamente a 4 km al este de Trojanów, 28 km al sureste de Garwolin, y a 83 km al sureste de Varsovia.

Entre 1975 y 1998 perteneció al voivodato de Siedlce.

Referencias

Localidades del voivodato de Mazovia

Babice


Dobro došli u Eden (špa Bienvenidos a Edén) španjolska je televizijska serija koju su za Netflix stvorili Joaquín Górriz i Guillermo López Sánchez.

Premijerno je prikazana 6. svibnja 2022. U veljači 2022., tri mjeseca prije premijere, Netflix je obnovio seriju za drugu sezonu, koja se prikazala 21. travnja 2023.

Radnja
Zoa i još četiri osobe, uz odličnu aktivnost na društvenim mrežama, dobivaju poziv da prisustvuju zabavi na tajnom otoku koju organizira brend pića. Oni koji prihvate poziv započinju uzbudljivu avanturu, shvaćajući da će im to promijeniti život. Iako će, malo po malo, otkriti i da nije sve onako kao što se čini.

Pregled serije

Glumačka postava

 Amaia Aberkaoturi kao Zoa, djevojka koja se upušta u avanturu odlaskom na zabavu.
 Berta Ckaotañé kao Gaby, Zoina sestra, koja ju neprestano traži.
 Albert Baró kao Aldo, jedan od dečkiju koji ide na zabavu Zaklade i sumnjičav je prema Astridinim namjerama.
 Lola Rodríguez kao Maika, djevojka ovisna o tehnologiji i vrlo odana Astrid.
 Guillermo Pfening kao Erik, Astridin suprug i osnivač Zaklade Eden.
 Begoña Vargkao kao Bel, čvrsta i zagonetna djevojka koja živi u Edenu.
 Sergio Momo kao Nico, smiješan tip koji ulazi u Zakladu.
 Ana Mena kao Judith, Zoina najbolja prijateljica, s kojom ide na zabavu Zaklade.
 Berta Vázquez kao Claudia, žena koja je jako dugo u Edenu i koja se povezuje sa Zoom.
 Dariam Coco kao Eva, djevojka koja živi u Edenu, pomalo čudna i pažljiva.
 Belinda kao África, djevojka koja ide na zabavu Zaklade, vrlo popularna influencerica.
 Irene Dev kao Alma, djevojka koja sebe prepoznaje u idealima Zaklade
 Tomy Aguilera kao Charly, jedan od dečkiju koji ide na zabavu Zaklade zaboraviti prošle traume.
 Alex Pkaotrana kao Ulises, hladan i nemilosrdan tip koji će učiniti sve da dobije ono što želi.
 Diego Garisa kao Ibón, Jedan od dečkiju koji ide na zabavu Zaklade da pronađe samoga sebe.
 Jason Fernández kao David, tip koji ide na zabavu na otok i spetlja se sa Zoom na zabavi.
 Joan Pedrola kao Orson, radnik Edena vrlo odan Zakladi.
 Carlos Soroa kao Eloy, gluhonijemi član Zaklade, prijatelj Bele.
 Ana Wagener kao Brisa, privatni istražitelj koju je unajmio Ibónov otac i koja stupa u kontakt s Gaby.
 Claudia Trujillo kao Brenda, djevojka koja čuva ideale Zaklade kako bi se poštovala pravila otoka.
 Blanca Romero kao Roberta, Zoina i Gabyna majka.
 César Mateo kao Lucas, član Zaklade koji se bavi prijevozom početnika na otoku.
 Lucía Guerrero kao Danae, djevojka iz Zaklade koja radi na otoku s Lucasom.
 Martí Atance kao Fran, član Zaklade koji se ne slaže s pravilima otoka.
 Jonathan Alonso kao Saúl, član Zaklade, liječnik i odgovoran za zdravlje ostalih članova.
 Max Sampietro kao Isaac, dječak koji živi na otoku i ima aferu s Astrid i Erikom.
 Anna Alarcón kao Nuria, žena koja se brine o Isaacu.
 Óscar Foronda kao Ernesto
 Josean Bengoetxea kao Pete

Produkcija
Seriju producira Brutal Media studio.

Glavna postava serije potvrđena je u veljači 2022. godine, a čine ju Amaia Salamanca, Amaia Aberasturi, Belinda, Lola Rodríguez, Sergio Momo, Begoña Vargas, Ana Mena i Berta Vázquez.

tri mjeseca prije premijere, Netflix je obnovio seriju za drugu sezonu.

Snimanje
Snimanje serije započelo je 22. veljače 2021. godine i provodilo se na nekoliko španjolskih lokacija kao što su Barcelona, Alicante i Lanzarote. U travnju iste godine snimanje se preselilo u San Sebastián. Krajem svibnja iste godine redatelj Daniel Benmayor objavio je kraj snimanja serije

Emitiranje
U veljači 2022. objavljeno je da će serija biti premijerno prikazana u travnju iste godine, kao i da će otkriti prve slike epizoda. Serija je odgođena kako bi se napravilo mjesta za Heirs to the Land (Los herederos de la tierra) i petu sezonu Élitea, dok je krajem ožujka 2022. objavljeno da će serija konačno stići na Netflixovu platformu 6. svibnja 2022.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Dramske serije
Televizijske serije u Netflixovoj produkciji

Dobro došli u Eden (televizijska serija)


An Trisetum longiglume in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Eduard Hackel. An Trisetum longiglume in nahilalakip ha genus nga Trisetum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Trisetum

Trisetum longiglume


بلدية سانتا مارغاريدا إي إلس مونجوس (بالكاتالانية: Santa Margarida i els Monjos) هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة برشلونة، والتي تقع في منطقة كاتالونيا، شرق إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 6.459 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2007).

مراجع

بلديات في مقاطعة برشلونة

سانتا مارغاريدا إ إلس مونخوس


FK Aquarii (FK Aqr / GJ 867) es un sistema estelar en la constelación de Acuario.
De magnitud aparente media +9,08, se localiza visualmente 1º al este de υ Aquarii.
Se encuentra a 28,3 años luz del sistema solar, siendo Gliese 884, distante 3,0 años luz, la estrella conocida más cercana a ella.

Características
FK Aquarii es, en primera instancia, una estrella binaria cuyas componentes son dos enanas rojas.
Gliese 867 A, la estrella primaria, tiene tipo espectral M1V o M2Ve.
Su temperatura efectiva es de 3416 K y tiene un radio equivalente al 73% del radio solar.
Su acompañante, Gliese 867 B, tiene tipo espectral M1-3Ve.
Giran sobre sí mismas con una velocidad de rotación de al menos 7 km/s y cada una de ellas porta una masa de 0,42 masas solares.

El período orbital de esta binaria es de 4,032 días, estando inclinado el plano orbital 60°.
No constituye una binaria eclipsante.

El sistema se completa con una estrella de baja masa —0,26 masas solares— que emplea 2867 días en completar una órbita alrededor de la binaria.

Variabilidad

FK Aquarii es una variable BY Draconis cuya amplitud de variación es de 0,04 magnitudes.
Estas estrellas poseen cromosferas activas y emiten energía en forma de rayos X; en dicha región del espectro, la luminosidad de FK Aquarii es de 0,013×1024 W.

Se piensa, además, que las componentes de la binaria son estrellas fulgurantes.

Referencias

Enanas rojas
Estrellas variables
Variables BY Draconis
Estrellas fulgurantes
Constelación de Acuario

FK Aquarii


هذه قائمة رؤساء تشيكوسلوفاكيا منذ تأسيسها عام 1918 وحتى انحلالها عام 1993، وتليها قائمة الأمناء العامين للحزب الشيوعي التشيكوسلوفاكي خلال حكم الحزب في الفترة بين عامي 1948-1989 وكانوا أصحاب السلطة الحقيقية في تلك الفترة، أما في الفترات التي كان منصب رئيس الجمهورية شاغرا فقد أنيطت صلاحيات المنصب برئيس الوزراء، على أية حال فالدساتير التشيكوسلوفاكية لم تحدد مصطلحا لرئاسة الجمهورية بالوكالة.

قائمة رؤساء تشيكوسلوفاكيا

قائمة الأمناء العامين للحزب الشيوعي التشيكوسلوفاكي 1948-1989

انظر أيضا
 تشيكوسلوفاكيا
 شيوعية
 الأمن القومي التشيكوسلوفاكي
 ماركسية-لينينية
 الحرب العالمية الثانية
 حلف وارسو

المراجع

تشيكوسلوفاكيون
رؤساء تشيكوسلوفاكيا
قادة الحزب الشيوعي في تشيكوسلوفاكيا
قوائم أصحاب مناصب سياسية في التشيك
قوائم أصحاب مناصب سياسية في تشيكوسلوفاكيا
قوائم أصحاب مناصب سياسية في سلوفاكيا
ت
قوائم متعلقة بالتشيك
قوائم متعلقة بسلوفاكيا

قائمة رؤساء تشيكوسلوفاكيا


මහාද්වීපයක් යනු පෘථිවිය මත ඇති විශාල එකට බැඳුණු භූමි ප්‍රදේශයකි. දැනට පිළිගැනෙන සම්මතයට අනුව ලෝකය මහාද්වීප 7කට බෙදෙන අතර ඒවා විශාලත්වය අඩු වෙන පිළිවෙලට ආසියාව, අප්‍රිකාව, උතුරු ඇමෙරිකාව, දකුණු ඇමෙරිකාව, ඇන්ටාර්ක්ටිකාව, යුරෝපය, සහ ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව වෙයි.

මහාද්වීප ගණන

මහාද්වීප වෙන්කර හඳුනාගැනීම සඳහා ක්‍රම කිහිපයක් වෙයි:

බොහෝ විට ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව තනි මහාද්වීපයක් ලෙස සැළකුණ ද තවත් සමහරෙක් එය ඕෂනියාව නමැති තවත් මහාද්වීපයක කොටසක් ලෙස සළකති. ඔවුන් පවසන අන්දමට ඕෂනියාවට ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව, නවසීලන්තය සහ පැසිපික් දූපත් අයත් වෙයි .

උතුරු ඇමෙරිකාව සහ දකුණු ඇමෙරිකාව එකම මහාද්වීපයක් යැයි සමහරෙක් පවසති. තවත් සමහරෙකුගේ මතය අනුව යුරෝපය සහ ආසියාව යනු යුරේසියාව යන මහාද්වීපයේ කොටස් දෙකකි. යුරේෂියාව සහ අප්‍රිකාව යුරාෆ්‍රේසියාව නමැති විශාල මහාද්වීපයක කොටස් දෙකකැයි මතයක් ද පවතියි.

 The seven-continent model is taught in most English-speaking countries, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and also in Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Pakistan, the Philippines, Suriname, and parts of Europe.
 The six-continent combined-Eurasia model is mostly used in Russia and some parts of Eastern Europe.
 The six-continent combined-America model is taught in some Romance-speaking countries and in Greece.
 The Olympic flag's five rings represent the five inhabited continents of the combined-America model but excludes the uninhabited Antarctica.

In the English-speaking countries, geographers often use the term Oceania to denote a geographical region which includes most of the island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean, as well as the continent of Australia.

චීනය, පෝලන්තය, සහ රුසියාව වැනි, සමහරක් ඉංග්‍රීසි-නොවන භාෂා භාවිතාවන රටවල දී ඕෂනියාව සාමාන්‍ය මහාද්වීපයක් ලෙස සැලකෙයි. එයට හේතුව වන්නේ "මහාද්වීපය" යන්න සඳහා ඔවුන්ගේ වදන "විශාල භූ ස්කන්ධයක් හා බැඳුන බිමක්" (ඉංග්‍රීසි landmass යන පදය දෙසට බරව) යන්න වෙනුවට, "දූපත් ද ඇතුළුව ප්‍රධාන භූමි බෙදීමක්" ලෙස අර්ථ දැක්වෙන (ඉංග්‍රීසි region යන පදය දෙසට බරව) නිසාය.

ආශ්‍රිත

 Boundaries between the continents of Earth
 Dvipa
 Forgotten continent
 List of continent name etymologies
 List of continents and continental subregions by population
 List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent
 List of transcontinental countries
 Lists of cities
 Mainland Australia
 Subregion

මූලාශ්‍ර

භාහිර සබැඳි

  by CGP Grey

 Lost continent revealed in new reconstruction of geologic history

මහාද්වීප

මහාද්වීප