Gualterio VI de Brienne (en alemán: Walter VI von Brienne, holandés: Wouter VI van Brienne, italiano: Gualtieri VI di Brienne; Lecce, Italia 1302-Poitiers, Francia 19 de septiembre de 1356) fue conde de Brienne, Conversano, y Lecce, y titular duque de Atenas. Gualterio era el hijo de Gualterio V, duque de Atenas, y Juana de Châtillon. Sucedió a su padre en 1311 como conde de Lecce y Conversano. Fue educado en la corte del rey Roberto I de Nápoles. Fue enviado por Carlos de Calabria a tomar posesión de Florencia el 17 de mayo de 1326. Reclamó el ducado de Atenas, apoyado por su suegro quien le concedió el título de "Vicario General de Romania". Después de desembarcar en Epiro en 1331, capturó la fortaleza de Vonitsa y la ciudad de Arta. Sin embargo, tuvo menos éxito contra los catalanes y regresó a Italia en 1332. Entró al servicio del partido popular en Florencia, fue elegido capitán de guerra y protector de la ciudad de por vida en 1342, pero fue expulsado el 26 de julio de 1343 después de que su tiránico comportamiento provocara disturbios. Entró al servicio del rey de Francia, fue nombrado condestable de Francia por el rey Juan II el 9 de mayo de 1356, y murió en la batalla de Poitiers luchando contra los ingleses.

Biografía

Gualterio fue el hijo de Gualterio V, duque de Atenas, y Juana de Châtillon (muerta en 1354), hija de Gaucher V de Châtillon, conde de Porcien y condestable del rey Felipe IV de Francia. Como nieto de Hugo de Brienne (muerto en 1296), fue heredero de una extensa propiedad alrededor de todo el Mediterráneo. Después de la muerte de su padre en la batalla de Halmyros el 15 de marzo de 1311, Gualterio se convirtió en conde de Brienne, Lecce, Conversano, y duque de Atenas. Sin embargo, todo el Ducado de Atenas a excepción de Argos y Nauplia había sido invadido por la Compañía Catalana, y Gualterio pasó gran parte de su vida en una infructuosa lucha para recuperar la herencia de la familia de su abuela, hasta la década de 1340 cuando se trasladó a Italia y Francia y dejó que Argos y Nauplia fuera gobernada por guardianes.

El Ducado de Atenas no fue la primera derrota en su familia: el abuelo de Gualterio había sido rechazado de la sucesión de los reinos de Jerusalén y Chipre, y su tatara-tatara-abuelo había sido pretendiente del trono de Sicilia, como esposo de la hermana de Guillermo III de Sicilia. Habían recuperado apenas el Condado de Lecce, y todavía seguían reclamando el Principado de Tarento. Su madre Juana realizó una enérgica lucha contra los catalanes durante su minoría de edad, la cual, sin embargo, tuvo un pequeño efecto militar pero lo empobreció.

Para fortalecer su posición, Gualterio se involucró en un estratégico matrimonio con Margarita, la sobrina del rey Roberto de Nápoles e hija de Felipe I de Tarento con Tamar Angelina Comnena, en diciembre de 1325. En ese momento, Florencia solicitó el apoyo del rey Roberto en la protección de los intereses güelfos en Italia, y eligió a su hijo Carlos, duque de Calabria, como señor de Florencia por un período de diez años. La posición casi principesca de Gautier VI en la corte angevina pronto le ganó el nombramiento como vicario por Carlos de Calabria, un cargo que sólo ejerció durante unos meses en 1326.

En 1329, Gautier obtuvo el apoyo de Roberto de Nápoles y el Papa Juan XXII, que declaró una cruzada para la recuperación de Atenas. Gualterio se embarcó hacia el Este en 1331, pero el precio por la ayuda de Roberto era reducir el Despotado de Epiro, como vicario general del Imperio Latino. Ahí tomó Arta y obligó al déspota Juan Orsini a reconocer la soberanía de Nápoles. Sus intentos de recuperar Atenas y Beocia, sin embargo, se vieron frustrados por la alianza veneciana con los catalanes y fracaso de los catalanes a presentar batalla.

Su único hijo, Gualterio, murió de enfermedad durante la campaña, y regresó a Nápoles en 1332. También se ocupó de sus tierras en Francia, y fue lugarteniente del rey en Thiérache en 1339. Su esposa murió en 1340, y regresó a Italia en 1342, cuando la clase dominante florentina de ricos comerciantes lo llamaron para gobernar la ciudad. Desde 1339, Florencia había estado en las garras de una grave crisis económica provocada por enormes deudas inglesas con las casas de banca florentina, y por las astronómicas deudas públicas incurridas al tratar de obtener la cercana ciudad de Lucca de su señor veronés, Martino Della Scala.

La nobleza florentina miró a las potencias extranjeras para resolver los problemas financieros de la ciudad que parecían imposibles, y encontraron un aliado en Gualterio de Brienne. Aunque la clase gobernante invitó a Gautier para gobernar durante un tiempo limitado, las clases bajas, que estaban hartas de la ineptitud de los predecesores de Gualterio, lo proclamaron inesperadamente señor de por vida.

Gualterio VI gobernó despóticamente, ignorando u oponiéndose directamente a los intereses de la misma clase mercantil que lo había llevado al poder. El "Duque de Atenas" impuso fuertes correctivos económicos sobre los florentinos, incluyendo el impuesto único estimado (impuesto a las ganancias), y el prestanze (aplazamientos de pago a la ciudad por préstamos forzados a los ciudadanos más ricos). Estas medidas enfurecieron tanto a los florentinos, y ayudaron a aliviar la crisis fiscal que se había estado cociendo durante años. Después de sólo diez meses, el gobierno de Gualterio de Brienne se vio interrumpido por una conspiración. Gualterio VI no sólo se vio obligado a dimitir de su cargo, sino que apenas escapó de Florencia con vida.

En 1344 se casó con Juana, hija de Raúl I de Brienne, Conde de Eu. Tuvieron dos hijas, Juana y Margarita, ambas murieron jóvenes. Como no tenía hijos sobrevivientes, era evidente que su hermana heredaría el problema de sus bienes y reclamaciones. Fue nombrado Condestable de Francia en 1356 y en esa capacidad murió el 19 de septiembre de 1356 en la batalla de Poitiers. Fue sucedido en sus títulos y pretensiones por su hermana Isabel y sus hijos. Como había dejado Grecia, el mayor de su sobrinos supervivientes Sohier de Enghien fue heredero del señorío de Argos y Nauplia. Cuando la herencia se dividió después de la muerte de Gualterio VI, el sexto hijo de Isabel Guido de Enghien recibió los pequeños remanentes de ese señorío griego.

Isabel III sobrevivió a su hermano y murió en 1360. Su marido Gautier de Enghien había muerto en 1345. Por unos años, Isabel se convirtió en condesa de Lecce y Brienne, así como la duquesa titular de Atenas y otros títulos reclamados. Dado que su hijo mayor Gualterio había muerto antes que Gualterio VI, su heredero fue su segundo hijo Sohier de Enghien.

Referencias
(R.P./N.S.) Adapted from Ingeborg, Walter. s.v. Brienne, Gualtieri di. vol. 14.
Dizionario biografico degli italiani, Roma: Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana, 1960. pp. 237–251; Schevill, Ferdinand.
The History of Florence from the Founding of the City through the Renaissance, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1936. pp. 217–225.

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Fallecidos en Poitiers
Nobles de Francia del siglo XIV

Gualterio VI de Brienne


ගණිතයෙහි, ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුවක් (සමහරවිට, අව භාවිතයෙන්, වරක් චක්‍රයක්) යනු වීජීය ක්‍රමවේදයක් සඳහා ගුණ කිරීමෙහි කර්මය අර්ථදැක්වීමට භාවිත වන ගණිතමය වගුවකි.

මූලික අංක ගණිතයෙහි අත්‍යාවශ්‍ය අංගයක් ලෙසින් දශාංශික ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුව ලොව පුරා සාම්ප්‍රදායික ලෙසින් උගන්වන ලද්දේ අපගේ දහයේ-පාදය සංඛ්‍යා ක්‍රමයේ අංක ගණිතමය කර්මයන් සඳහා එය විසින් පදනම සපයන බැවිනි. බොහෝ අධ්‍යාපනඥයන් විශ්වාස කරනුයේ 9 × 9 දක්වා වගුව කටපාඩමින් දැන සිටීම අත්‍යාවශ්‍ය බවය. මිනුම් සඳහා අධිරාජ්‍ය සම්මත ක්‍රමය භාවිතා කරන එක්සත් ජනපදය වැනි රටවල දී, 12 × 12 දක්වා වගුව කටපාඩමින් දැන සිටීම ප්‍රයෝජනවත් යැයි බොහෝවිට සැලකෙයි.

සාම්ප්‍රදායික භාවිතය
ක්‍රි.ව. 493 දී ඇක්විටේන් හී වික්ටෝරියස් විසින් ලියැවුනේ, සියලු සංඛ්‍යාවන්හී 2 සිට 50 වරක් දක්වා ගුණිතයන් ( රෝම ඉලක්කම් වලින්) දැක්වුනු තීරු-98 කින් හා "එක් දහසින් ඇරඹී, සිය ගණන් වලින් අවරෝහණයව එක් සියයට පැමිණ, දස ගණන් වලින් අවරෝහණයව දහයට පැමිණ, ඉන්පසු 1/144 දක්වා භාග"දැක්වූ පේළි වලින් සමන්විත වූ ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුවකි. (මහේර් හා මකෝස්කි 2001, පිටුව.383)

ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුව උගෙනගන්නාවූ සාම්ප්‍රදායික පිළිවෙල පදනම් ව තිබූයේ පහත අයුරින් වූ වගුවේ තීරු කටපාඩම් කිරීමෙහිය
   1 × 10 = 10
   2 × 10 = 20
   3 × 10 = 30
   4 × 10 = 40
   5 × 10 = 50
   6 × 10 = 60
   7 × 10 = 70
   8 × 10 = 80
   9 × 10 = 90

  10 x 10 = 100
  11 x 10 = 110
  12 x 10 = 120
  13 x 10 = 130
  14 x 10 = 140
  15 x 10 = 150
  16 x 10 = 160
  17 x 10 = 170
  18 x 10 = 180
  19 x 10 = 190
  100 x 10 = 1000

පළමුව ඉහළින් දැක්වුනු නවීන ජාලකය වෙනුවට, සම්පූර්ණ සංඛ්‍යා වාක්‍යයන් අනුසාරයෙන් ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුවෙහි තීරු ලියා දැක්වීමේ ඉහත ක්‍රමය තවමත් සමහර රටවල භාවිතා වෙයි.

වගුවන්හී රටාවන්
දරුවන් විසින් වගුවන් මතක තබා ගැනුම සඳහා භාවිතා කරන රටාවක් ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුවෙහි දක්නට ඇත.

පහත රූප සටහන බලන්න

     →                 →
   1 2 3             2   4
 ↑ 4 5 6 ↓         ↑       ↓
   7 8 9             6   8
     ←                 ←
     0                 0
   රූපය-1             රූපය-2

නිදසුනක් ලෙසින්, 7 හි සියලු ගුණාකාර මතක තබා ගැනුමට

 ඉහත රූපයෙහි 7 දෙස බලා ඊතලය (පළමු තීරුවෙහි ඉහළට) අනුගමනය කරන්න.
 ඊතලය දිශාවෙහි ඊලඟ සංඛ්‍යාව 4 වේ. එබැවින් 7 න් පසුව 4 න් අවසන් වන ඊලඟ සංඛ්‍යාව එනම් 14 සිහි කර ගන්න.
 ඊතලය දිශාවෙහි ඊලඟ සංඛ්‍යාව 1 වේ. එබැවින් 14 න් පසුව 1 න් අවසන් වන ඊලඟ සංඛ්‍යාව එනම් 21 සිහි කර ගන්න.
 පළමු තීරුව අවසන් වූ පසුව එම දිශාවටම (එනම් ඉහළට) දෙවන තීරුව අරඹන්න. හමු වන සංඛ්‍යාව 8 වේ. එබැවින් 21 න් පසුව 8 න් අවසන් වන ඊලඟ සංඛ්‍යාව එනම් 28 සිහි කර ගන්න.
 මේ ආකාරයට යමින් අවසන් සංඛ්‍යාව වන 3 ට අනුරූප 63 දක්වා සිහි කර ගන්න.
 ඊලඟට පහළ ඇති 0 වෙත අවධානය යොමු කරන්න. එය සිහි කරනුයේ 70 වේ.
 ඊලඟට 7 වෙතින් නැවත අරඹමින් 77 සිහි කරන්න.
 මෙලෙස දිගටම සිදු කරන්න.

රූපය-1 භාවිතා කරනුයේ 1,3,7,9 හි ගුණාකාර සිහි ගැන්වුමට වන අතර රූපය-2 භාවිත වනුයේ 2,4,6,8 හි ගුණාකාර සිහි ගැන්වුමටය.

මෙම රටාව භාවිතා කොට 5 සංඛ්‍යාව හැර 1 සිට 9 දක්වා ඕනෑම සංඛ්‍යාවක ගුණාකාර සිහි ගන්වා ගන්න.

අමූර්තිත වීජතණිතයෙහි
සමූහ, ක්ෂේත්‍ර, වක්‍ර, සහ අනෙකුත් විජීය පද්ධතින්හි ද්වීමය කර්ම අර්ථදැක්වීමද ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුවලින් සිදු කල හැක. එවැනි සන්දර්භයන්හිදී ඒවා හැඳින්වෙන්නේ කේලේ වගු ලෙසිනි. නිදසුනක් සඳහා, ඔක්ටෝනියන් බලන්න.

ඇඑජ හි ප්‍රමිති-පදනම් වූ ගණිත ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණ
සියළු ශිෂ්‍යයන් විසින් උච්ච-තලයේ චින්තන කුසලතා උගෙන ගත යුතුය යන විශ්වාසය මත පදනම ව සිටි ගණිත ගුරුවරුන්ගේ ජාතික මණ්ඩලය (NCTM) විසින්, 1989 දී නව ප්‍රමිතීන් සකස් කරමින් නිර්දේශ කලේ ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුව වැනි කටපාඩම් කිරීම මත රඳා සිටින සාම්ප්‍රදායික ක්‍රමවේදයන් උගැන්වීම කෙරෙහි අව-අවධානයක් යොමු කල යුතු බවය. ඉන්වෙස්ටිගේෂන්ස් ඉන් නම්බර්ස්, ඩේටා, ඇන්ඩ් ස්පේස් (එහි නිර්මාතෘ ටෙක්නිකල් එඩියුකේෂන් රිෂර්ච් සෙන්ටර්ස් හි නාමය ඇසුරින් පුළුල් ලෙසින් TERC ලෙසින් හැඳින්වෙන) වැනි පුළුල් ලෙසින් භාවිතයට පත් පෙළ පොත් තුල ගුණ කිරීමේ වගු වැනි ආධාරක මුලදී අඩංගු නොකෙරිනි. බොහෝ අය  සිතුවේ ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික් ගණන යන්ත්‍ර නිසාවෙන් ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුව කටපාඩමින් දැන ගැනීම සඳහා කාලය වැය කිරීම අනවශ්‍ය හා නිෂ්ඵලදායී බවය. 2006 දී ඔවුන්ගේ අවධානගත කරුණු තුලින් NCTM විසින් පැහැදිලි කෙරුනේ මූලික ගණිත කරුණු උගෙන ගත යුතු වුවද, කට පාඩම් කිරීම හොඳම ක්‍රමයද යන්න පිළිබඳව එකඟතාවයක් නොමැති බවය.

මෙයද බලන්න
 වෛදික කොටුව

බාහිර සබැඳි
 අයිෆෝන් අයිෆොඩ් ටච් ඇප් ටු මෙමරයිස් මල්ටිප්ලිකේෂන්
 වෙබ් බේස්ඩ් ප්‍රොගම් ටු මෙමරයිස් මල්ටිප්ලිකේෂන්

ගුණකිරීම
ගණිත අධ්‍යාපනය
අංක ගණිතය

ගුණ කිරීමේ වගුව


Amacı
Deniz teknolojisi mühendisliği programının amacı, gemi ve deniz taşıtlarının projelendirmesinde, denizin içinde ve dibinde bulunan canlı ve cansız zenginliklerin (petrol, doğalgaz ve deniz ürünlerinin) aranması ve üretilmesinde, deniz kirliliğinin önlenmesinde kullanılan her türlü yapı ve aracın (gemi, platform vb.) tasarımı ve üretilmesi alanında eğitim ve araştırma yapmaktır.

Eğitim

Deniz teknolojisi mühendisliği programında eğitim süresi 4 yıldır. Programda matematik ve fizik gibi temel fen alanları ile ilgili dersler yanında, akışkanlar mekaniği, gemi geometrisi, gemi mukavemeti, imal usulleri, Osenografi, dalga mekaniği, termodinamik, hidrodinamik, deniz kirliliği, kazı yapıları ve deniz hukuku gibi dersler okutulmaktadır.

Gereken nitelikler

Deniz teknolojisi mühendisliği programına girmek isteyenlerin üstün bir akademik yeteneğe sahip, fen derslerine ilgili ve bu alanlarda başarılı, dikkatli bir gözlemci olmaları ve açık havada çalışmaktan hoşlanmaları gerekir.

Kazandıkları unvan ve yaptıkları işler

Deniz teknolojisi mühendisliği programını bitirenlere "Gemi İnşaatı ve Deniz Mühendisi" unvanı verilir. Ayrıca 2009 yılında alınan kararla bölümün adı 'Gemi ve Deniz Teknolojisi Mühendisliği' olarak değiştirilmiştir. Gemi inşaatı mühendisliği unvanı ile tersanelerde, gemi ve yat dizayn bürolarında, deniz taşımacılığı ile ilgili şirketlerde çalışılabilir. Deniz mühendisleri denizde bulunan hammaddelerin bulunması ve işletilmesinde kullanılacak araçları tasarlar ve en ekonomik yolla üretimi planlar. Ayrıca, denizde seyreden taşıtların yapım, onarım ve yönetimi konularında liman ve kıyı yapıları inşaatında ve deniz kirliliğini önleme teknolojisi alanında mühendislik hizmetleri verirler.

Türkiye'de çalışma alanları

Gemi inşaatı ve Deniz mühendisleri tersanelerde, gemi dizayn bürolarında, DSİ'de, TCDD'de, petrol şirketlerinde, Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığının çeşitli birimlerinde, üniversitelerde görev alabilirler.

Kaynakça

!2
Kıyı mühendisliği

Deniz teknolojisi mühendisliği


An Olyra fasciculata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carl Bernhard von Trinius. An Olyra fasciculata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Olyra, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Olyra (Poaceae)

Olyra fasciculata


Die Verdouble (katalanisch und okzitanisch Verdoble) ist ein Fluss in Frankreich, der in der Region Okzitanien verläuft. Sie entspringt im Bergland der Haute Corbières, im Gemeindegebiet von Soulatgé, nahe der Grenze zur benachbarten Gemeinde Cubières-sur-Cinoble, entwässert zunächst generell Richtung Ost bis Südost, wird dann von einem Höhenrücken nach Südwesten abgelenkt und mündet nach rund 47 Kilometern im Gemeindegebiet von Estagel als linker Nebenfluss in den Agly. Auf ihrem Weg durchquert die Verdouble die Départements Aude und Pyrénées-Orientales sowie den Regionalen Naturpark Corbières-Fenouillèdes.

Orte am Fluss
 Soulatgé
 Rouffiac-des-Corbières
 Duilhac-sous-Peyrepertuse
 Padern
 Paziols
 Tautavel

Sehenswürdigkeiten
 Château de Peyrepertuse (Monument historique) – Katharer-Festung aus dem 11. Jahrhundert hoch über dem Flusstal
 Höhle von Arago, prähistorische Fundstätte in der Schlucht Gorges de Gouleyroux

Weblinks

Anmerkungen

Verdouble


Karl Eckert ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Karl Eckert (Heimatforscher) (Karl Martin Eckert; 1888–1975), deutscher Unternehmer und Heimatforscher
 Karl Eckert (Politiker, 1895) (1895–nach 1935), deutscher Theologe und Politiker (NSDAP)
 Karl Eckert (Politiker, 1928) (1928–2004), deutscher Politiker (CDU)
 Karl Eckert (Komponist, II), deutscher Komponist
 Karl Anton Eckert (1820–1879), deutscher Komponist und Kapellmeister

Karl Eckert


The Klamath River (Karuk: Ishkêesh, Klamath: Koke, Yurok: Hehlkeek 'We-Roy) flows  through Oregon and northern California in the United States, emptying into the Pacific Ocean. By average discharge, the Klamath is the second largest river in California after the Sacramento River. It drains an extensive watershed of almost  that stretches from the arid country of south-central Oregon to the temperate rainforest of the Pacific coast. Unlike most rivers, the Klamath begins in the high desert and flows toward the mountains – carving its way through the rugged Cascade Range and Klamath Mountains before reaching the sea. The upper basin, today used for farming and ranching, once contained vast freshwater marshes that provided habitat for abundant wildlife, including millions of migratory birds. Most of the lower basin remains wild, with much of it designated wilderness. The watershed is known for this peculiar geography, and the Klamath has been called "a river upside down" by National Geographic magazine.

The Klamath is the most important North American river south of the Columbia River for anadromous fish migration. Its salmon, steelhead and rainbow trout have adapted to unusually high water temperatures and acidity levels relative to other rivers in the Pacific Northwest. The numerous fish are a major source of food for Native Americans, who have inhabited the basin for at least 7,000 years. The first Europeans to enter the Klamath River basin were fur trappers for the Hudson's Bay Company in the 1820s; they established the Siskiyou Trail along the Klamath and Trinity rivers into the Sacramento Valley. Within several decades of European settlement, native peoples were forced into reservations. During the latter days of the California Gold Rush, increasing numbers of miners began working the Klamath River and its tributaries, causing considerable harm to the environment. Conflict and introduced diseases decimated indigenous tribes, reducing them to only 10% of their original population.

Steamboats operated briefly on the large lakes of the upper basin, contributing to the growth of towns such as Klamath Falls, Oregon, before they were replaced by railroads in the late 19th century. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the upper basin became a productive agricultural region, and many dams were built to provide irrigation and hydroelectricity. In the 1960s, the Klamath River was targeted by much larger but ultimately unsuccessful schemes to augment water supplies in other parts of California. One of these projects, the Klamath Diversion, would have reversed the entire flow of the Klamath River to supply farms and urban areas in central and southern California.

The Klamath is a popular recreational river and an important source of water for agriculture. It includes many of the longest free-flowing stretches of river in California, including excellent stretches of whitewater. However, dams and diversions in the upper basin have often caused water quality issues in the lower half of the river. Environmental groups and native tribes have proposed broad changes to water use in the Klamath Basin, including the removal of some dams on the river to expand fish habitat. They put forth their concerns in what is now the Klamath Basin Restoration Agreement, a water management plan signed by local communities, governments, tribal groups, environmentalists, and fishermen. The proposal has been endorsed by the U.S. Department of the Interior but has not been authorized by the United States Congress.
In 2019, the Yurok tribe declared personhood for the Klamath River.

Course

Upper Klamath Lake, filling a broad valley at the foot of the eastern slope of the southern High Cascades, is the source of the Klamath River. The lake is fed by the Williamson River, which originates in the Winema National Forest, and the Wood River, which rises near Crater Lake National Park. The Klamath River issues from Klamath Lake at Klamath Falls as a short  stream known as the Link River, which flows into the  long Lake Ewauna reservoir formed by Keno Dam. Here, the Klamath is connected by the B canal to the Lost River; as part of the federal Klamath irrigation project, the canal is capable of diverting water between the rivers in either direction as needed.

Below the dam the river flows west, passing the mostly dry Lower Klamath Lake bed and the hydroelectric John C. Boyle Dam. The Klamath River then enters California, where it passes through three more hydroelectric plants and turns south near the town of Hornbrook towards Mount Shasta. However, the river soon swings west to receive the Shasta River and the Scott River, entering a long canyon through the Klamath Mountains.

The route through the Cascade Range and the Klamath Mountains constitutes the majority of the river's course and takes it from the arid high desert climate of its upper watershed towards a temperate rainforest nourished by Pacific rains. Below the Scott River confluence, the Klamath runs generally west along the south side of the Siskiyou Mountains until it takes a sharp southward turn near the town of Happy Camp. From there, it flows southwest over whitewater rapids through the Klamath National Forest and Six Rivers National Forest, receives the Salmon River from the east, and passes the community of Orleans. At Weitchpec, the river reaches the southernmost point in its course and veers sharply north as it receives its principal tributary, the Trinity River. Below this point, the Klamath's current slows as it approaches sea level. For the remainder of its course, the Klamath flows generally northwest, passing through the Yurok Indian Reservation and the town of Klamath (where it is bridged by Highway 101), and meeting the sea at a large tidal estuary  south of Crescent City.  The mouth of the Klamath River is at Requa, in an area shared by the Yurok Reservation and Redwood National Park. The Klamath River estuary is recognized for protection by the California Bays and Estuaries Policy.

Watershed

Extending from arid eastern Oregon to the cool and rainy Northern California coast, the Klamath River watershed drains parts of three Oregon counties and five counties in California and includes a diversity of landscapes. The northernmost part of the watershed is high desert country drained by the Williamson River and the Sprague River, both of which flow generally southwest into Upper Klamath Lake. The middle basin is characterized by extensive wetland, grassland, and agricultural areas, and is partially filled by two major bodies of water: Upper and Lower Klamath Lake. The extensive lower basin, which encompasses over one half of the  watershed, is composed mainly of rugged mountains, forests and canyons.

Several other West Coast and interior drainage basins border on that of the Klamath River. On the northwest are the Rogue River and Umpqua River in Oregon and the Smith River in California. On the east there is the closed Harney Basin and a small portion of the Great Basin. The south side of the Klamath River watershed is bounded by the Sacramento River and its upper tributaries, including the Pit River, and on the southwest side are the Mad River and Redwood Creek. The western boundary of the upper Klamath Basin is formed by the High Cascades and the Klamath Mountains, and the California Coast Ranges cover the southwestern watershed. The Klamath is one of only three rivers that begins east of the Cascades and flows into the Pacific Ocean; the other two are the Columbia and the Fraser.

Most human use of the watershed is limited to the upper basin. Despite the semiarid climate, dams have been built, irrigation water has been supplied from the Klamath and Lost rivers, and plentiful groundwater has been drawn to transform most of the upper Klamath Basin to farmland. At least 11,000 years ago, Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes in the rainy season would combine into one giant freshwater marsh that was nearly  large. This, combined with the over  of Upper Klamath Lake, formed a temporary habitat for millions of migratory birds. These lakes are all remnants of a large Ice Age lake, Lake Modoc, that covered about . Although all of the marshlands have been developed with the exception of Upper Klamath Lake, about 3.7 million migrating birds still pass through the watershed each year.

Despite its plentiful flow in California, the Klamath does not supply significant amounts of water to irrigators and municipal users in central and southern portions of the state. The Klamath Reclamation Project in the Klamath Falls area supplies water to local irrigators, and the Central Valley Project diverts water from the Trinity River to supply irrigation water to the Sacramento Valley. Other tributaries of the Klamath, including the Lost and Shasta rivers, are also diverted for irrigation. Water use of the lower Klamath—one of the last relatively free-flowing rivers in the state of California—has been debated for decades among conservationists, tribes, irrigators, and government agencies, and its eventual fate is still unclear.

Tributaries

Tributaries of the Klamath River are listed below. Numbers (RM/RKM) after the tributary names denote the river miles (river kilometers) where they enter the Klamath, or the specific tributary under which it is listed.

Blue Creek (15.8/25.4)
Trinity River (43.5/70.0)
South Fork Trinity River (31.2/50.2)
Hayfork Creek (30.0/48.3)
New River (42.6/68.6)
North Fork Trinity River (72.5/116.7)
Canyon Creek (79.3/127.7)
Reading Creek (93.8/151.0)
Stuart Fork Trinity River (121.5/195.6)
East Fork Trinity River (135.2/217.7)
Coffee Creek (143.4/230.9)
Red Cap Creek (52.5/84.5)
Boise Creek (55.4/89.2)
Salmon River (California) (66.0/106.3)
Wooley Creek (5.0/8.1)
North Fork Salmon River (19.6/31.6)
Russian Creek (20.1/32.4)
South Fork Salmon River (19.6/31.6)
East Fork South Fork Salmon River (19.9/32.0)
Copper Creek (86.2/138.8)
Clear Creek (98.5/158.6)
Elk Creek (105.5/169.8)
Indian Creek (106.8/171.9)
Scott River (142.0/228.5)
South Fork Scott River (56.3/90.6)
East Fork Scott River (56.3/90.6)
Shasta River (176.3/283.7)
Little Shasta River (14.0/22.5)
Willow Creek (185.0/297.9)
Jenny Creek (194.5/313.1)
Thompson Creek
Lost River Diversion Channel (249.6/401.6)
Lost River (12.0/19.3)
Miller Creek
Link River

Upper Klamath Lake
Wood River
Annie Creek
Sun Creek
Crooked Creek
Williamson River
Sprague River (10.9/17.5)
Sycan River (75.0/120.8)
Klamath Marsh
Big Springs Creek

Flooding
The lower and middle sections of the Klamath River are vulnerable to flooding, and major floods have occurred in years where major flooding has taken place in Northern California, particularly in the wake of Pineapple Express storms that bring large amounts of warm rain to Northern California. Fort Ter-Waw, located at what is now the town of Klamath Glen, was destroyed by the flood in December 1861 and abandoned on June 10, 1862. Other significant floods on the Klamath River have occurred in 1926–1927, 1955, 1964, 1997, and 2005, in several cases changing the course of the river. The Christmas flood of 1964 was particularly devastating. The Klamath River reached flows of ,
submerging the town of Klamath under  of water, with a high water reaching , inundating the towns of Klamath and Klamath Glen under as much as  of water, and destroying most of the Highway 101 bridge crossing the river. The highway bridge was rebuilt in a different location, though entrances to the old bridge still stand.

The mouth of the Klamath and nearby sections of the river are susceptible to oceanic tsunami surges, and fatalities have occurred there during the 1964 and 2011 Japanese tsunami.

Geology
The Upper Klamath Basin, defined by the drainage area of the Klamath River above Iron Gate Dam, is a unique transitional area between the Cascade Range to the west and the Basin and Range Province of the northern Great Basin to the southeast. This region extends from the southern Lower Klamath Lake area into the Lost River and Upper Klamath Lake basins. Crustal stretching and block faulting created a topography with characteristics similar to both regions. Almost the entire basin is a graben region, bearing basin and range characteristics, formed by uplifting and subsidence along several north–south faults.

Pre-Quaternary, igneous and sedimentary rocks compose the Yonna Formation, which crosses much of the region and rises above the surface in large outcroppings of solid rock in many of the ridges. Underlying rocks are generally younger from east to west. The many ridges crossing the upper Klamath Basin divide it into valleys with up to  of vertical relief, and drainage patterns generally follow the topography. An extensive geothermal system occurs deep underground within the upper basin, creating hot springs and artesian springs, but is not well understood. Further south, in the Shasta River area in Siskiyou County, much of the underlying rock is composed of lava flows issuing from the Mount Shasta volcanic region.

The same age pattern is true in the Cascade Range and Klamath Mountains that cover the western half of the Klamath River watershed. As the North American Plate moved slowly southwestward over the past 10 million years, successive oceanic terranes dating from the Cambrian to the late Jurassic were added to the bulk of the North American continent. There are four distinct terranes from west to east. While the coastal mountains date to less than 3 million years ago, the farther inland High Cascades are as old as 7.5 million years. Granite batholiths, overlying sedimentary rock, and volcanic rock were crumpled into the massif of southwestern Oregon and northwestern California.  Instead of being diverted southwards, however, the Klamath continued to flow westward and created a steep-walled gorge through the rising range. One of these terranes brought with it a long north–south band of easily eroded mica that now lies about  inland from the Pacific coast of Northern California. When the Klamath encountered this layer, it began cutting its canyon along the mica instead of continuing southwest to the Pacific, resulting in the sharp northward bend where the Trinity River joins. The lower Trinity also follows portions of the mica and its south fork as well.

History

Early inhabitants and settlers

Human habitation on the Klamath dates to at least 7,000 years ago. Many of the Native American groups along the river depended on the huge runs of Pacific salmon, the third largest on the Pacific coast of what is now the United States. These groups included the Shasta along the middle and upper parts of the river, the Yurok, Hupa, and Karuk along the canyons of the lower river, and the Modoc, Klamath and Yahooskin in the desert valleys of the upper basin. About  of the Klamath River, or half the river's length, was on Shasta territory. The Yurok were the second most prominent group on the river, controlling about  of the lower Klamath River and a large section of the Northern California coast. Along with the Hupa and Karuk, the lower to mid-upper Tribes caught salmon from the river with weirs, basket traps and harpoons. Ishi Pishi Falls, a set of rapids on the Klamath River near the confluence with the Salmon River, has been a traditional fishing ground for thousands of years. Most of the upstream groups had a nomadic hunting-gathering lifestyle and did not depend on salmon as much as downstream tribes. The Klamath River's name was recorded by Europeans in the 19th century derived from the word klamet or the Klamath Tribe. Prior to European contact, the river was called by many different names, including Ishkêesh and Koke. The Klamath Tribe's name came from the Upper Chinookan word /ɬámaɬ/,
literally "they of the river".

The tribes along the Klamath River, in their hunting, fishing, and landscape stewardship practices, employed traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). Traditional ecological knowledge describes the type of natural science information that indigenous people have gathered about the places they live in over the course of hundreds, if not thousands, of years. It encompasses knowledge, beliefs, and practices that native people have accumulated through their immersive stewardship of the natural world. On the Klamath River, tribes have historically, and continue to, use traditional ecological knowledges and practices to care for and manage their landscape.

In the late 1820s, fur trappers of the Hudson's Bay Company traveling south from Fort Vancouver reached the Klamath River basin. The first party to see the Klamath River was led by Alexander McLeod in the winter of 1826–27. In 1828, the Jedediah Smith fur trapping expedition was helped across the Trinity River by the Yurok and camped on the east side of the Trinity River. His clerk, Harrison G. Rogers, wrote, "Mr. Smith purchases all the beaver furs he can from them," suggesting that beaver were then plentiful on the Trinity. Joseph Grinnell, in Fur-bearing Mammals of California, noted that beaver had been present on other Klamath River tributaries such as the Scott River and Shasta River, and further cited a Fish and Game report of beaver from 1915–1917 on High Prairie Creek at the mouth of the Klamath River near Requa, California. Within a matter of years, the plentiful beavers in the Klamath Basin had been mostly wiped out. Beaver dams had previously been an important factor in stream habitat in the Klamath River watershed, helping to moderate the power of floods and creating extensive wetlands. The loss of the beaver dams resulted in detrimental consequences for watercourses in the basin, exacerbating the power of winter floods, and causing severe erosion. Trapping parties eventually moved southwest into the Sacramento Valley and blazed an extension of the Siskiyou Trail, an early path between the Oregon Territory and San Francisco Bay. Despite the environmental implications, extensive and fertile meadows left behind by the draining of beaver ponds attracted many settlers to the region later on.

Gold rush

The 1850s saw discoveries of rich placer and lode gold deposits along the predominantly Shasta areas of the Klamath, Trinity, Shasta and other rivers in northwestern California. The 1850s also brought a greed-fueled murderous rampage upon the indigenous people inhabiting the regions. Villages full of men, women, children, and infants were either hacked up or shot for the potential gold that would be harmfully extracted. The gold is thought to have originated from volcanic activity in the Klamath Mountains. Miners searching for gold in the Klamath Mountains and Trinity Alps in the aftermath of the California Gold Rush first discovered gold along Salmon Creek in the spring of 1850, and additional deposits were found on the main stem by July. Gold was also discovered in great quantities in Shasta lands at French Gulch and Yreka. Several place names in the Klamath Basin originate from this era, including that of the Scott River, which is named for pioneer John Walter Scott. Gold deposits are still present in the Klamath River watershed even though it was mined far past the end of the gold rush.

After the establishment of California in 1850, the state government signed treaties with the Karuk establishing aboriginal territories but the treaties were never ratified in the senate and so the Karuk never got their own reservation land. In 1864, the Native Americans of the Klamath Basin and surrounding area signed a treaty that had them cede  of land to the United States and forced them to move to the newly created Klamath Indian Reservation. This reservation clumped the Yurok, Karuk, and Hoopa tribes into one small area. These reservation lands were created as a result of wars between American settlers and indigenous peoples including the Red Cap War in 1855. The US government wanted to stop these violent clashes and relegate the indigenous people to limited territory where they could be sovereign. This reservation policy was reversed in 1887 with the Dawes Act which designated allotments to individuals of indigenous descent who could stake claim. However into the 1920s many of these individual land owners sold away their allotments to timber companies as they could not affords the taxes. Eventually, the tribes began to profit from the sale of timber produced on the reservation, although unfairly distributed because of the lack of consideration of the three differing tribes. In 1954, however, Congress removed their federal recognition and the reservation was no longer economically successful. The tribes won back federal recognition in the 1970s, but by then poverty was widespread among tribal members. Additionally more indigenous land was lost in the 1970s after the completion of the construction of a section of highway 96 which ran through traditional Karuk territory and paved over cemeteries, villages, spiritual sites and allotments.

Colonization and assimilation
One of the main Klamath tribal land stewardship practices of cultural burning was first disrupted with the beginning of Spanish colonization in California in the 1780s. Spanish colonization led to diseases, genocide, forced removal of indigenous people, relocation to missions, and laws banning burning in the region. In the 1840s many white Americans started moving west into the region with the Gold Rush.  Many more members of the Klamath tribes were displaced or killed in the destruction of villages and a series of wars over territory, among other threats. Into the 20th century, many Klamath children were separated from their tribes and families and forced to attend boarding schools which attempted to assimilate the children by forcing them to speak English and dress in Western clothing and eat Western foods. This led to a generational disconnect and loss of knowledge of many cultural practices.

Industry and development in the 20th century

Beginning in the early 20th century, steamboats began operating on Lower Klamath Lake between Siskiyou County, California, and Klamath Falls, Oregon. The steamboats completed a link between Klamath Falls and a railroad branch line following the McCloud River—the final part of which was called the Bartle Fast Freight Road, after Bartle, California. The end of this line, Laird's Landing, was the beginning of the Lower Klamath Lake steamboat line, which began operating with an  screw steamer in 1905. By 1909, however, the railroad had circumnavigated Lower Klamath Lake directly to Klamath Falls. The steamboat line fell into disuse—and much of Lower Klamath Lake was later drained and filled in.

In the early 1910s and 1920s, logging was a growing industry on the west side of the upper Klamath River valley, especially around Upper Klamath Lake. The Great Northern Railway and Southern Pacific Railroad built a joint-use line running along the eastern shore of the lake, delivering logs from the north side to a sawmill  downstream from the outlet of the lake. Many of the seasonal marshlands surrounding the lake and rivers were diked in this period to host lumber operations. In 1919, the first Link River Dam, a timber crib dam, was constructed at the outlet of Upper Klamath Lake, raising it by about . Steamboats continued mail, passenger and freight operations on Upper Klamath Lake until about 1928, in a period when many of the lumber companies shut down due to drought.

With lumber a declining industry in the upper Klamath Basin, the economy slowly transitioned to agriculture. The Klamath Reclamation Project, established by the Bureau of Reclamation in the early 20th century, involved the construction of two dams on the river and additional dams on many of its tributaries, as well as the final draining of Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes. The Bureau of Reclamation was not the only user of the river during this period; in the late 1950s PacifiCorp and California-Oregon Power Company (COPCO) constructed three more dams on the river downstream. These dams, however, sparked a great controversy over water quality in the lower section of the river and the dependence of the river's annual salmon runs on it.

Klamath River Basin tribes, 21 st century
The Klamath River tribes consist of the Klamath, Yurok, Karuk, Hupa, and Shasta. The movement of forced creation of reservations in the United States resulted in the loss of culturally, ecologically, and economically significant land of indigenous peoples. While many of them are federally recognized sovereign nations, they are still fighting to reclaim the land and resources that were taken from them. The Klamath River tribes mission statements include the preservation of their cultural heritage along with their land and the resources it provides. The Klamath River basin tribes are deeply connected and entwined with their land. The Klamath river, the food it provides and the spiritual significance it holds, is centrally situated in the identities of all four tribes that live along the Klamath.

Yurok
The Yurok tribe has almost 5,000 members, making it the largest federally recognized tribe in California. Federal recognition was given in 1855, in which the Yurok Reservation was created. Throughout the late 1800s, Yurok were moved to several newly established reservations, several of which were later destroyed or closed. The reservation covers around 63,000 acres along the coastal region of the lower Klamath River.

The Yurok people think of the Klamath river as "the Bloodline: the life blood of the people"  relying on it for foods like salmon (ney-ouy), sturgeon (Kaa-ka), candlefish (kwor-ror), and seaweed (chey-gel'). These foods, specifically fish and specifically from the Klamath river are of utmost important to the culture and religion of the Yurok tribe. Located along the river are various villages important to specific ceremonial practices of the Yurok, like the Jump Dance or the annual Salmon ceremony. Yurok culture and religion emphasizes direct connection and communication with the Klamath river. Yurok cosmologies and oral histories emphasize the importance of the Klamath river and its salmon as a gift from the creator to provide for the Yurok people. "Without this river we would not know who we are, where we're from or where we're going" said an elder in the tribal community. For the Yurok people, the health of the river and the salmon is indicative of the health of the tribe, making the current policies surrounding river dams, and declining salmon populations deeply personal. Like with other Klamath Basin Tribes, an annual salmon ceremony takes place to honor and celebrate the salmon, which the Yurok people see as ancestors. The Yurok tribe's ceremonies emphasize the Klamath River, and many traditional practices require close proximity to the river and include some type of bathing in or ingesting of the water. Recreational games are played on constructed "courts" along the river banks.

The cycle of life in the Yurok culture is closely tied to the Klamath and those who have passed away are thought to take one last boat ride upriver.

Like the Karuk, the Yurok language references the Klamath river in their descriptions of direction.

Karuk
The Karuk tribe recognized self-governance in 1994 and gained federal recognition in 1979. As the California legislature rejected treaties to create federal designated land, the Karuk peoples do not have a reservation. The Klamath Forest Reserve was created by the U.S. government in 1905 and claimed Karuk land as public land. Members have been working to reclaim parcels of their original land and place them in trusts.

The concept of World Renewal plays heavily into both Karuk and Yurok  culture. Although the term "world renewal" was coined by anthropologist Kroeber and Gifford, the Karuk tribe has adopted the phrase to refer to their annual ceremony that they view as essential to maintaining the reciprocal and stewarding relationship they  have with the environment. The ceremony is meant to renew and sustain this relationship. Many aspects of the larger ceremony involve being near or on the Klamath river, such as boat dances that take place in canoes and involve giving thanks and gratitude to the river. Salmon are an integral aspect of Karuk identity, culture, and subsistence. Karuk fisherman continue to sustainably fish for Salmon despite their decreasing numbers, drought and myriad other ecological issues. Ishi Pishi falls, located near the town of Somes Bar, remains the traditional location for Karuk men to fish. Karuk fishermen use a traditional dip-net fishing technique using long poles with nets on the end. This style of fishing works to naturally limit the amount of fish caught in a fishing session, thus ensuring that many salmon are able to spawn upstream and resupply the fishery.

The Karuk language also revolves around the Klamath River, and the word "karuk" means "upriver". To indicate uphill, the word maruk is used, meaning away from the river. Conversely, the word saruk, meaning towards the river, is used to indicate downhill.

Hupa
The Hupa Valley Tribe is a federally recognized tribe with around 3,000 members. The reservation spans 80,000 acres and is the largest in California. It is located in the lower area of the Klamath River along the Trinity River. Around 3,000 people reside in the Hoopa Valley Reservation. Spanning around 85,000 acres, it is the largest reservation in California.

The Hupa Valley tribe hold similar ceremonial and religious beliefs regarding the river as the Yurok and Karuk people, including practices of jump dances and cultural/subsistence reliance on the Klamath's salmon runs.

Shasta
Located in Northern California and Southern Oregon, the Shasta tribe is not federally recognized by the U.S. government due to the California legislature rejecting a treaty in 1851 that would have created a Shasta reservation. The tribe is currently in the process of gaining federal recognition.

Shasta people celebrate the first salmon of the season, which they think of as "salmon medicine" with ceremonies similar to the other Klamath basin tribes. Their relationship to the Klamath and its salmon was, and continues to be, deep-seated in their culture.

Klamath
The Klamath Tribes, consisting of the Klamath, Modoc, and Yahooskin-Paiute, are a federally recognized tribe with around 4,800 members. The Klamath and United States federal government created a treaty in 1864 (that was ratified in 1870) which gave the Klamath sovereign rights to the new reservation. However, through the 1954 Termination Act, federal aid to the tribes was halted. After losing federal recognition in 1954, they regained the status in 1986. They are dispersed across Southern Oregon and Northern California. The Klamath Reservation covers around 300 acres along the western coast.

The Klamath Tribes, made up of the Klamath, Modoc and Yahooskin-Paiute people, reside in the Klamath Basin but hold many of their sacred ceremonies along the Sprague River.  The Upper Klamath Lake, and its fish populations, is also an important cultural and subsistence location for the Klamath Tribes.

Relationship to national forests
In 1905, the United States Forest Service, an agency of the Department of Agriculture headed by Gifford Pinchot – a prominent conservationist and staunch opponent of burning – began to manage what was traditionally Klamath lands. The Forest Service oversaw extensive logging, mining, and dam construction, which degraded much of the environment, particularly salmon stocks and redwood forests. In 1947, the lower section of Karuk Aboriginal Territory was made part of the Six Rivers National Forest. In 1964, the first wilderness area in the Klamath basin was designated, effectively banning timber harvesting and road development in the area. Indigenous people were not allowed to steward their traditional territories because the Forest Service believed  they would further deplete the damaged ecosystems. This led to a legal battle in 1970 over whether Klamath tribes could fish in these territories. Not until the late 1990s and early 2000s did the Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management start collaborating with tribal peoples in the Offield Mountain Ceremonial Burning project and Tribal Forest Protection Act to incorporate traditional ecological knowledge and stewardship practices into land management.

Fish and wildlife

The river is considered a prime habitat for anadromous Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), and steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Ancient DNA sequencing of archaeological samples from the Upper Klamath River Basin identified fish remains as Chinook salmon and steelhead trout, and geochemical analysis of strontium/calcium ratios confirmed that the fish were anadromous. These findings confirmed abundant historical observer records indicating that Chinook salmon ascended from the Pacific Ocean to use tributaries of Upper Klamath Lake for spawning, and that steelhead trout also spawned in the Upper Klamath River Basin, defined as the basin above Iron Gate Dam ( east of Hornbrook, California). Historical accounts also indicated that coho salmon and anadromous Pacific lamprey (Entosphenus tridentatus) ascended to the Upper Klamath River Basin to spawn, at least to the vicinity of Spencer Creek,  west of Keno, Oregon. Bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) were once widespread throughout the Klamath River Basin, and were likely supported historically by migrating populations of anadromous salmonids. The offspring of these salmon and trout reared in the Upper Klamath Basin, and likely served as an important prey base for bull trout. Today, bull trout remain in a few tributaries to Upper Klamath Lake: Threemile Creek and Sun Creek to the northwest, and tributaries of the Sycan River and upper Sprague River to the east.

Once the river was the third-largest producer of salmon on the West Coast, after the Columbia and Sacramento Rivers, but the salmon run has been reduced since the construction of six dams between 1908 and 1962. Coho salmon in the Klamath River are listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. In 1963, the upper Trinity River—the largest single tributary to the Klamath—was virtually removed from the Klamath drainage with the completion of the Lewiston and Trinity Dams, diverting 90 percent of the upper Trinity's flow to the Sacramento Valley. From 1963 to 1991, only  from the main stem above the dams was left to flow to the Klamath. In 1991, a minimum annual Trinity flow of  was established, or about .

From the 1920s to the 1960s, four hydroelectric dams were built by the California-Oregon Power Company (COPCO) and its successor PacifiCorp on the Klamath River main stem, blocking salmon and steelhead trout migration and trapping sediment that formerly replenished downstream gravel bars used by spawning salmon. The possible removal of the dams has been a controversial issue in the region in recent years. Despite intense lobbying by local Native American tribes, conservationists, and fishermen, the 2004 renewal application by PacifiCorp for another 50-year federal operating license for the dams did not include any provisions for allowing salmon to return to more than  of former habitat above the dams.  In January 2007, however, the federal government ruled that PacifiCorp must equip four dams with fish ladders, a modification which would potentially cost more than $300 million. PacifiCorp has offered $300 million to upgrade the JC Boyle fish ladder and proposed trucking fish around the Copco Number 1 and Iron Gate dams, after having had been denied a license to build a power generator in Utah. PacifiCorp President Fehrman defended the company's activities in the area, pointing to other benefits.

A separate controversy surrounds the use of water in the Upper Klamath Basin for irrigated agriculture, which was temporarily halted in 2001 to protect endangered salmon and lake fish during a severe drought. Vice President Dick Cheney personally intervened to ensure water to the agriculture industry rather than to environmental flow. In 2002, the federal government, under Interior Secretary Gale Norton, provided full water deliveries to irrigators as the drought continued; despite the fact that Klamath area tribes have treaty rights that predate the settlement of the farmers. Norton argued for a "free market" approach by allowing farmers to sell the water to the Native Americans downstream. That year, the Klamath River system had the largest fish die-off ever recorded.  The House Natural Resources Committee investigated Vice President Cheney for having released extra water to ranchers for possible political gain.

According to biologists from the State of California and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the atypical low flow in the river along with high fish return numbers and high water temperatures allowed for a gill rot disease to kill at least 33,000 salmon in September 2002, before they could reproduce.  The die-off was downstream of the Trinity inflow, and the salmon of the Trinity were impacted to a greater degree than the Klamath as the Trinity run was at its peak. The report does mention that the official fish die-off estimate of 34,056 is probably quite low and could be only half of the actual loss. Klamath River flows as measured at the river gauge in Keno show a low flow of  in September 1908 (before irrigation began). During the 2002 fish kill, flows of  were recorded. During September of the 2001 irrigation shut-off, an average of  was recorded.

In 2011, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approved a plan first introduced in 1992 by California's state government. The plan called for major cleanup of the lower river in order to protect salmon from phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand. It also expressed concern over high water temperatures, algal blooms, and low oxygen levels, although certain fish have adapted to some of these issues. Environmental groups, more than six government agencies, Native American tribes in the basin, and others have worked with the EPA to reduce pollution levels in the Klamath.

Salmon controversy and proposed dam removal

Historically, the Klamath River was once the "third most productive salmon river system in the United States", after the Columbia and the Sacramento. Eutrophication and raised water temperatures induced by the construction of dams have created worsening conditions for migrating salmon, especially in years of drought.
Irrigation along the upper Klamath and the Shasta and Scott rivers, along with the almost-total diversion of the upper Trinity River, have all lowered the total river flow supporting out-migrating young salmon in spring and in-migrating adult salmon in the fall. In the 1960s, a project was proposed to divert the entire Klamath River to Central California and Southern California, an undertaking known as the Klamath Diversion, but this project was defeated. It would have limited salmon to the last  of the entire river. In 2002, a major fish kill took its toll on the river and the Tribes that depend on it. More than 34,000 salmon died alone, due to the low water flow and poor management. In 2005, PacifiCorp applied to the federal government to relicense its four hydroelectric dams on the Klamath for up to 50 years. Environmentalists opposed the relicensing, arguing that the dams should be removed to reopen the upper Klamath to salmon.

The Klamath Basin Restoration Agreement was signed on February 18, 2010.

Two years of closed-door negotiations among farmers, indigenous tribes, fishermen, conservation groups and government agencies had resulted in a plan to work toward a detailed settlement of Klamath water usage. It also called for the removal of four hydroelectric dams—the Iron Gate Dam and Copco dams 1 and 2 (in California), and the John C. Boyle Dam (in Oregon)—now operating along  of the Klamath River, starting in the year 2020, as well as for restoration projects.
A non-binding "Agreement in Principle" (AIP) among four parties—PacifiCorp, the federal government, California, and Oregon—to remove the four dams had been announced on November 13, 2008. PacifiCorp ratepayers would fund part of the plan and the State of California would fund much of the remaining projected cost. Total cost would be around $800 million. The agreement required the federal government to scientifically assess the costs and benefits of the dam removals, determine whether such action is in the public interest, and to make a final determination by March 31, 2012, as to whether the benefits of the project will justify the costs, although that deadline was missed. A local group, the Klamath County Tea Party Patriots, formed to oppose the agreement, and succeeded in unseating local elected officials who were supportive of the deal. On December 31, 2012, the parties renewed their agreement, providing more time for federal, Congressional, and California electorate approval to finalize dam removal.

On April 4, 2013, the U.S. Department of the Interior released its final environmental impact statement on the plan, recommending the removal of all four dams and $1 billion in other environmental restoration to aid native salmon runs on the Klamath. Ron Wyden, the senior U.S. senator from Oregon, introduced the Klamath Basin Water Recovery and Economic Restoration Act of 2014, which was cosponsored by his fellow Oregon senator Jeff Merkley and by Nevada senator Dean Heller.

Klamath River Renewal Cooperation (KRRC) is applying for complete license transfer of the Iron Gate, COPCO 1&2 (California and Oregon Power Company) and JC Boyle Dams to KRRC's jurisdiction. This license transfer is currently pending before the Federal Energy and Regulatory Committee (FERC). FERC should rule on complete license transfer to KRRC sometime in 2020.  Army Corps of Engineers Clean Water Certification will have to be sought as well once FERC grants license surrender orders to Pacific-Corp to KRRC jurisdiction. Kiewit Construction has been hired as the company for actual dam removal in early 2022. Construction costs for dam removal and remediation are estimated at around 450 million.  KRRC will fund and replace the City of Yreka's water supply pipeline that crosses the Klamath River underneath Iron Gate Reservoir.  Klamath River dam removal will represent the largest dam removal in US History for the purpose of restoring historic salmon runs on the Klamath.

On November 17, 2020, a Memorandum of Agreement (MOU) was signed by the states of California and Oregon, the Yurok Tribe, the Karuk Tribe, PacifiCorp and the Klamath River Renewal Corporation that describes how the parties will implement the amended Klamath Hydroelectric Settlement Agreement (KHSA) as negotiated and signed in 2016. The MOU asks FERC to remove PacifiCorp from the license for the project and add California, Oregon and KRRC as co-licensees for carrying out dam removal. The signing parties plan to navigate the final regulatory approvals necessary to allow the project to begin in 2022 with dam removal in 2023. Site remediation and restoration will continue beyond 2023.

Water rights dispute
When the 1864 treaty was signed, the Klamath Tribes, with much less land, became short on the stream water needed for fishing. Although from the 1950s to the 1970s they were not federally recognized, the tribes never lost their water rights, and in 2001, when Klamath Basin farmers twice sued the U.S. Department of the Interior for more access to irrigation water, their rights were upheld. The tribes' water allotments for fishing continue to be a large factor in Klamath Basin water disputes in the 21st century. In 2013, the Tribe's water rights were enforced for the first time, in what is known as a 'Water Call'. The Klamath Tribe called upon their in-stream water right, which was enforced by the Water Master. This resulted in almost all upper-basin irrigation being denied water, except for groundwater irrigators. The Klamath Project, however, was not called upon.

In 2019, the Yurok tribe declared personhood for the Klamath River. In November, a lawsuit Baley v. United States was settled in favor of the U.S. Farmers and ranchers had sued after the U.S. set aside irrigation water for threatened and endangered species.

During the 2020–21 North American drought, tribes, farmers and animals suffered loss of water, increasing their internal conflict.

Recreation

Whitewater rafting and kayaking are popular recreational activities along the upper Klamath River below the J.C. Boyle Dam, and also along the lower Klamath River downstream of the town of Happy Camp. There are long stretches—over  in one instance—of Class I–II whitewater rapids, while there are some Class III–IV rapids in some of the narrower stretches. The most popular section for whitewater rafting is below Happy Camp, from Indian Creek to Coon Creek. Beyond Weitchpec, the river slows down into a wider, deeper channel. About  of the river is designated Wild, and  Recreational.

Sport fishing is also popular on the Klamath River, with steelhead trout being the most popular, though Chinook salmon are also highly sought after when low salmon returns do not prevent fishing. A fly fishing guide said that the Klamath was one of the most productive steelhead rivers on the West Coast of the United States.

Recreational gold mining is popular along the Klamath and some of its tributaries, including the Salmon and the Trinity. Although simple methods such as panning are still used, some methods use suction pumps—a practice involving turning over deposits of sediment and spreading them in order to find gold. Debates over the practice, which opponents contend damage water quality (mercury) and fish habitat, continue. Since at least 2016, suction dredge mining is banned in California.

A variety of national forests and wildlife preserves—including the Klamath National Forest, Six Rivers National Forest, Klamath National Wildlife Refuges Complex, and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge—are located in the Klamath River watershed. The Klamath National Forest is located in Siskiyou County with a small portion in Oregon, and Six Rivers National Forest is located in the southern Klamath watershed, mostly in the Trinity River watershed. The latter two are located in the Upper Klamath Lake-Lower Klamath Lake area. Lava Beds National Monument, which contains a large array of lava tubes and formations, is also in the Lower Klamath Lake area, to the south of the remnants of the lake.

Iron Gate Dam is the lowermost dam on the Klamath River and effectively cuts off migration and spawning habitat of more than 675 kilometers of the Upper Klamath Basin. These dams cut off opportunity for recreation, like guided salmon fishing, in the Upper Klamath Basin. The four major Klamath River dams are on course for removal in the near future. Once these dams are removed they may provide many new opportunities for Tourism development. The hydrology of the river may change dramatically once the dams are removed, this may create new rapids and areas in which NEAT (Nature, Environmental, and Adventure tourism) can take hold and provide more economic opportunities for local residents of the Klamath Basin.

Before the construction of Iron Gate Dam, salmon had access to over 970 km of spawning and rearing habitat in the Upper Klamath Basin. Once the Upper Klamath Basin is opened up for salmon migration this will create a more diverse river ecosystem, providing more opportunities for recreational fishing and new economic opportunities like guided salmon fishing tours. Also opportunities for ecotourism can be maintained to view and help conserve a new habitat for salmon in the Upper Klamath Basin.

Klamath Salmon Festival
An annual festival takes place along the Klamath River to honor the mighty salmon by Yurok people. The Klamath Salmon Festivals are usually in August and include games, meals, parades, and other ways of celebrating.

See also
 List of California rivers
 List of longest streams of Oregon
 List of National Wild and Scenic Rivers
 List of rivers of Oregon

References

Notes

Works cited

External links

 Klamath RiverKeeper
 Mid Klamath Watershed Council
 State of California hydrological monitoring of the Klamath and tributaries.
 NASA Earth Observatory: drought and irrigation shut off in the Klamath Basin
 Earth Island Journal – The Story Behind the World's Biggest Dam Removal – Rough Water
 EcoTipping Points Project Klamath River Restoration
 Klamath Wild and Scenic River - BLM page

Klamath Mountains
Klamath National Forest
Redwood National and State Parks
Rivers of Del Norte County, California
Rivers of Humboldt County, California
Rivers of Klamath County, Oregon
Rivers of Northern California
Rivers of Oregon
Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest
Six Rivers National Forest
Wild and Scenic Rivers of the United States

Klamath River


Parc national des Écrins eller Nationalpark Écrins er en af Frankrigs ti nationalparker. Den ligger i den sydøstlige del af landet i bjergområdet Dauphiné-Alperne, syd for Grenoble og nord for Gap, og ligger i départementerne Isère og Hautes-Alpes. Parken besøges af omkring 800.000 turister om året. Nationalparken ligger i blandt andet Romanche-dalen.

Nationalparken blev grundlagt i 1973 og har en udstrækning på ca. 1.786 km², hvoraf der er en kernezone på 918 km² der er særligt beskyttet. Centrum i nationalparken er Pelvoux-massivet.
Den når op i 4.102 meters højde ved Barre des Ecrins, der er det sydligste bjerg over 4.000 meter i Alperne og omfatter adskillige høje bjergtoppe, gletsjere, alpine græsgange, subalpine skove og søer.

Nationalparken ligger omkring Massif des Ecrins og afgrænses af dalene til floderne Drac, Romanche og Durance.

Kildehenvisninger

Eksterne henvisninger

 Officielt websted
 Turbeskrivelser for Écrins-Nationalpark
 Kort over området

Nationalparker i Frankrig
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes

Parc national des Écrins


Sığla ağacı, Altingiaceae familyasından günümüzde sadece Anadolu, Amerika ve Çin'de doğal olarak yayılış gösteren Liquidambar cinsine ait türlerin ortak adıdır.

Taksonomi
 Liquidambar acalycina, (Güney Çin)
 Liquidambar formosana,  (Güney Çin, Kuzey Kore, Güney Kore, Tayvan, Laos, Kuzey Vietnam).
 Liquidambar orientalis, (Güney Batı Türkiye, Yunanistan: Rodos).
 Liquidambar styraciflua, (Doğu Kuzey Amerika'dan New York ile Teksas ve doğu Meksika ile Guatemala).

Özellikleri
25–40 m'ye kadar boylanan yaprak döken kalın dallı ve geniş tepeli bir ağaçtır. İlk bakışta çınara benzerler. Yaşlandıkça, kabuğu koyulaşır ve derin çatlaklı bir görünüm alır. Elsi loplu yapraklar sürgünlere sarmal dizilmiştir.

Çiçekler küçüktür. Çiçek kurulu 1–2 cm çapında olup küre şeklinde çok sayıda çiçek kümesini bulundurur.

Meyve 2–6 cm çapında çok sayıda kapsülden oluşur ve içerisinde çok miktarda tohum bulunur. Gövdesinden çıkarılan balzam kozmetik ve eczacılıkta kullanılır. Gövdesinden çıkarılan bu balzam kapsül halinde bitkisel besin takviyesi olarak da kullanılmaktadır.

Dış bağlantılar

Liquidambar
Ağaçlar
1753'te tanımlanan bitkiler
Orman Ağaçları

Sığla ağacı


Die Liste der Straßennamen in Lissabon/Santa Maria dos Olivais listet Namen von Straßen und Plätzen der Freguesia Olivais der portugiesischen Hauptstadt Lissabon auf und führt dabei auch die Bedeutungen und Umstände der Namensgebung an. Aktuell gültige Straßenbezeichnungen sind in Normalschrift angegeben, nach Umbenennung oder Überbauung nicht mehr gültige Bezeichnungen in Kursivschrift.

Straßen in alphabetischer Reihenfolge
 Alameda da Encarnação
 1950 benannt nach dem Stadtviertel Encarnação
 Alameda das Comunidades Portuguesas
 1988 benannt nach der Gemeinschaft der im Ausland lebenden Portugiesen
 Alameda dos Oceanos
 2009 benannt nach den Ozeanen, dem Thema der Weltausstellung 1998
 Avenida Cidade de Lourenço Marques
 1967 benannt nach der Stadt Lourenço Marques, Hauptstadt der portugiesischen Kolonie Mosambik
 Avenida Cidade de Luanda
 1969 benannt nach der Stadt Luanda, Hauptstadt der portugiesischen Kolonie Angola
 Avenida Cidade do Porto
 1969 benannt nach der Stadt Porto
 Avenida D. João II
 2009 benannt nach dem portugiesischen König Johann II.
 Avenida da Boa Esperança
 2009 benannt nach dem Kap der Guten Hoffnung
 Avenida de Berlim
 1964 benannt nach der deutschen Stadt Berlin
 Avenida de Pádua
 1966 benannt nach der italienischen Stadt Padua
 Avenida de Ulisses
 2009 benannt nach Odysseus, Held der griechischen Mythologie
 Avenida do Atlântico
 2009 benannt nach dem Atlantischen Ozean
 Avenida do Índico
 2009 benannt nach dem Indischen Ozean
 Avenida do Mediterrâneo
 2009 benannt nach dem Mittelmeer
 Avenida do Pacífico
 2009 benannt nach dem Pazifischen Ozean
 Avenida Doutor Alfredo Bensaúde
 1968 benannt nach dem Mineralogen Alfredo Bensaúde (1856–1941)
 Avenida Dr. Francisco Luís Gomes
 1970 benannt nach dem Arzt, Autor und Politiker Francisco Luís Gomes (1829–1869)
 Avenida Fernando Pessoa ao Parque das Nações
 2009 benannt nach dem Dichter Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935)
 Avenida Infante Dom Henrique
 1948 benannt nach dem portugiesischen Prinzen Heinrich der Seefahrer (1394–1460)
 Avenida Marechal Craveiro Lopes
 1970 benannt nach dem General und Staatspräsidenten Francisco Craveiro Lopes (1894–1964)
 Avenida Marechal Gomes da Costa
 1966 benannt nach dem General und Ministerpräsidenten Manuel de Oliveira Gomes da Costa (1863–1929)
 Azinhaga da Alagueza
 Azinhaga da Fonte (aos Olivais)
 Azinhaga da Quinta das Courelas
 Azinhaga do Casquilho
 Azinhaga do Forno Novo
 Azinhaga dos Ingleses
 Azinhaga dos Moinhos
 Cabeço das Rolas
 Cais das Naus
 Cais do Olival
 Cais dos Argonautas
 Cais Português
 Calçadinha dos Olivais
 Caminho do Arboreto
 Caminho dos Pinheiros ao Parque das Nações
 Circular Norte do Bairro da Encarnação
 Circular Sul do Bairro da Encarnação
 Esplanada D. Carlos I ao Parque das Nações
 Estacada do Arboreto
 Estrada da Circunvalação
 Estrada de Moscavide
 Jardim dos Jacarandás
 Jardim de Água
 Jardim Garcia de Orta ao Parque das Nações
 Jardins Ribeirinhos
 Largo Américo Rosa Guimarães
 Largo Bartolomeu Dias ao Parque das Nações
 Largo Calderon Dinis
 Largo Castro Soromenho
 Largo Diogo Cão ao Parque das Nações
 Largo do Nautilus
 Largo dos Arautos
 Largo Jaime Carvalho
 Largo Maria Judite de Carvalho
 Largo Primeiro Tentente João Rodrigues de Moura
 Largo Ramada Curto
 Passeio da Nau Catrineta
 Passeio das Fragatas
 Passeio das Musas
 Passeio das Tágides
 Passeio de Neptuno
 Passeio de Ulisses
 Passeio do Adamastor
 Passeio do Báltico
 Passeio do Campo da Bola
 Passeio do Cantábrico
 Passeio do Tejo
 Passeio dos Argonautas
 Passeio dos Aventureiros
 Passeio dos Cruzados
 Passeio dos Fenícios
 Passeio dos Heróis do Mar
 Passeio dos Jacarandás
 Passeio dos Navegadores
 Passeio Júlio Verne
 Pátio das Fragatas
 Pátio das Galeotas ao Parque das Nações
 Pátio das Pirogas
 Pátio dos Escaleres ao Parque das Nações
 Porta do Mar
 Porta do Tejo
 Praça Baden Powell
 Praça Carlos Ramos
 Praça Cidade de Dili
 Praça Cidade de Salazar
 Praça Cidade de São Salvador
 Praça Cidade do Luso
 Praça Cottinelli Telmo
 Praça da Viscondessa dos Olivais
 Praça das Casas Novas
 Praça de Bilene
 Praça de Chinde
 Praça do Aeroporto
 Praça do Norte
 Praça do Oriente
 Praça do Tejo
 Praça do Venturoso
 Praça Faria da Costa
 Praça José Queirós
 Praça Mota Veiga
 Praça Príncipe Perfeito
 Praceta Adolfo Ayala
 Rossio dos Olivais
 Rotunda da Expo 98
 Rotunda dos Vice-Reis
 Rua Acúrsio Pereira
 Rua Alberto MacBride
 Rua Alferes Barrilaro Ruas
 Rua Alferes Carvalho Pereira
 Rua Alferes Mota da Costa
 Rua Alferes Santos Sasso
 Rua Alfredo Franco
 Rua Alfredo Portela Santos
 Rua Almada Negreiros
 Rua Alves Gouveia
 Rua Américo de Jesus Fernandes
 Rua António Variações
 Rua Câmara Reis
 Rua Cândido de Oliveira
 Rua Capitão Santiago de Carvalho
 Rua Capitão Tenente Oliveira e Carmo
 Rua Carlos Daniel
 Rua Carlos George
 Rua Carlos Paião
 Rua Catorze (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Cidade da Beira
 Rua Cidade da Praia
 Rua Cidade de Bafatá
 Rua Cidade de Benguela
 Rua Cidade de Bissau
 Rua Cidade de Bolama
 Rua Cidade de Cabinda
 Rua Cidade de Carmona
 Rua Cidade de Gabela
 Rua Cidade de Inhambane
 Rua Cidade de João Belo
 Rua Cidade de Lobito
 Rua Cidade de Malanje
 Rua Cidade de Margão
 Rua Cidade de Moçâmedes
 Rua Cidade de Nampula
 Rua Cidade de Nova Lisboa
 Rua Cidade de Novo Redondo
 Rua Cidade de Porto Alexandre
 Rua Cidade de Porto Amélia
 Rua Cidade de Quelimane
 Rua Cidade de Tete
 Rua Cidade de Vila Cabral
 Rua Cidade do Negage
 Rua Cinco (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Comandante Cousteau
 Rua Contra-Almirante Armando Ferraz
 Rua Corsário das Ilhas
 Rua Costa Malheiro
 Rua da Centieira
 Rua da Nau Catrineta
 Rua da Pimenta
 Rua da Portela
 Rua da Quinta da Fonte
 Rua da Quinta de Santa Maria
 Rua da Quinta do Morgado
 Rua da Vila Pery
 Rua das Bússolas
 Rua das Caravelas
 Rua das Courelas
 Rua das Escolas
 Rua das Galés
 Rua das Musas
 Rua das Urcas
 Rua de Baixo Limpopo
 Rua de Chibuto
 Rua de Macia
 Rua de Manhiça
 Rua de Manica
 Rua de Manjacaze
 Rua de Marracuene
 Rua de Matola
 Rua de Mocímboa da Praia
 Rua de Montepuez
 Rua de Moscavide ao Parque das Nações
 Rua de Vila Alferes Chamusca
 Rua de Vila Fontes
 Rua de Vila Sena
 Rua Dez (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Dezanove (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Dezasseis (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Dezassete (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Dezoito (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua do Adeus Português
 Rua do Bojador
 Rua do Cais das Naus
 Rua do Caribe
 Rua do Congo
 Rua do Conselheiro Ferreira do Amaral
 Rua do Conselheiro Lopo Vaz
 Rua do Conselheiro Mariano de Carvalho
 Rua do Conselheiro Teles de Vasconcelos
 Rua do Dondo
 Rua do Fogo de Santelmo
 Rua do Ibo
 Rua do Kuanza
 Rua do Mar da China
 Rua do Mar do Norte
 Rua do Mar Vermelho
 Rua do Mercado
 Rua do Poço Coberto
 Rua do Pólo Norte
 Rua do Pólo Sul
 Rua do Zambeze
 Rua Dois (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Dom Aleixo Corte-Real
 Rua dos Argonautas
 Rua dos Aventureiros
 Rua dos Cruzados
 Rua dos Eucaliptos
 Rua dos Lojistas
 Rua Doze (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Dr. Costa Sacadura
 Rua Dr. José Saraiva
 Rua Dr. Rui Gomes de Oliveira
 Rua Dra Sara Benoliel
 Rua Eurico da Fonseca
 Rua Fernando Bento
 Rua Finisterra
 Rua Francisco Mantero
 Rua Furriel Galrão Nogueira
 Rua Furriel João Nunes Redondo
 Rua Gaivotas em Terra
 Rua General Silva Freire
 Rua Gonçalo Mendes da Maia
 Rua Henrique Medina
 Rua Humberto Madeira
 Rua Ilha dos Amores
 Rua Jaime Mendes
 Rua Jangada de Pedra
 Rua João Cunha Serra
 Rua João de Castro Osório
 Rua João Pinto Ribeiro
 Rua José Campas
 Rua Major Figueiredo Rodrigues
 Rua Mamadu Sissé
 Rua Manuel Mendes
 Rua Mário Botas ao Parque das Nações
 Rua Mário Viegas
 Rua Menina do Mar
 Rua Nova dos Mercadores
 Rua Nove (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Oito (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Onze (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Padre Abel Varzim
 Rua Padre Joaquim Aguiar
 Rua Padre Joaquim Alves Correia
 Rua Palhaço Luciano
 Rua Pedro e Inês
 Rua Quatro (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Quinze (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Sargento Armando Monteiro Ferreira
 Rua Sargento José Paulo dos Santos
 Rua Seis (Bairro da Ecarnanção)
 Rua Sete (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Sinais de Fogo
 Rua Três (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Treze (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Um (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vasco da Gama Rodrigues
 Rua Vice Almirante Augusto de Castro Guedes
 Rua Victor Cunha Rego
 Rua Vila da Fulacunda
 Rua Vila de Bissorã
 Rua Vila de Bubaque
 Rua Vila de Catió
 Rua Vila de Farim
 Rua Vila de Teixeira Pinto
 Rua Vinte (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vinte e Cinco (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vinte e Dois (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vinte e Nove (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vinte e Oito (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vinte e Quatro (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vinte e Seis (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vinte e Sete (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vinte e Três (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua Vinte e Um (Bairro da Encarnação)
 Rua 1º Cabo José Martins Silvestre
 Terreiro das Ondas
 Travessa Corto Maltese
 Travessa da Canela
 Travessa da Malagueta
 Travessa das Courelas
 Travessa de Beirolas
 Travessa do Açafrão
 Travessa do Adro (Santa Maria dos Olivais)
 Travessa do Gengibre
 Travessa do Gil
 Travessa do Leal
 Travessa do Poço
 Travessa dos Buracos
 Travessa Robinson Crusoé
 Travessa Sandokan
 Travessa Sinbad, o Marinheiro

Weblinks
 Toponímia de Lisboa

Santa Maria dos Olivais
!


Pakistan millî futbol takımı, Pakistan'ı uluslararası arenada temsil eden futbol takımıdır.

Turnuva tarihi

FIFA Dünya Kupası tarihi

Asya Kupası tarihi
 1956 - Çekildi
 1960 - Elemeleri geçemedi
 1964 - Katılmadı
 1968 - Elemeleri geçemedi
 1972 - Katılmadı
 1976 - Çekildi
 1980 - Katılmadı
 1984 - 2011 arası - Elemeleri geçemedi

Kaynakça

Asya'da millî futbol takımları
Millî futbol takımı

Pakistan millî futbol takımı


An Aponogeton gottlebei in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Kasselm. ngan Josef Bogner. An Aponogeton gottlebei in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aponogeton, ngan familia nga Aponogetonaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aponogeton

Aponogeton gottlebei


Ne diši je francuska crna komedija na gruzijskom jeziku redatelja Nina Kirtadzea iz 2014. godine. Prikazan je na odjelu suvremene svjetske kinematografije (Contemporary World Cinema) na Međunarodnom filmskom festivalu u Torontu 6. rujna 2014. godine.

Uloge
 Levan Murtazašvili
 Irma Inaridze

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Filmske komedije
Francuski filmovi 2010-ih

Ne diši (2014.)


Galatya şu anlamlara gelebilir,

 Galatlar tarafından kurulan devlet
 Galatya - Roma eyaleti
 Galatya - Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti'nin İskele İlçesi'nde yer alan kasaba

Galatya (anlam ayrımı)


El subepalo perlado (en Venezuela, Perú y Ecuador) (Margarornis squamiger), también denominado corretroncos perlado (en Colombia), ticotico goteado (en Argentina), pijuí perlado, o titirí goteado (en Argentina), es una especie de ave paseriforme de la familia Furnariidae perteneciente al género Margarornis. Es nativa de la región andina de América del Sur.

Distribución y hábitat
Se distribuye por la cordillera de los Andes desde el oeste de Venezuela hacia el sur, por Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, hasta el centro de Bolivia, con registros en el noroeste de Argentina.

Esta especie es ampliamente diseminada y bastante común en sus hábitats naturales, el subdosel y los bordes de bosques montanos, especialmente entre árboles con muchas epifitas, incluyendo parches de Polylepis cerca del límite de vegetación, entre los 1500 y 3000 m de altitud.

Descripción

Mide entre 15 y 16 cm de longitud y pesa entre 14 y 19 g. El plumaje de las partes superiores es de color castaño, que se hace rojizo en el dorso y las alas. Presenta cejas y garganta blancas y puntos perlados sobre fondo pardo oliváceo en todas las partes inferiores. Cola larga, graduada, con puntas espinosas.

Comportamiento
Anda solitario o en pareja, y es un miembro frecuente y visible de bandos mixtos.

Alimentación
Se alimenta de artrópodos, principalmente de coleópteros. Busca alimento desde los estratos medios del bosque al dosel; trepa a lo largo de ramas con musgos y hacia arriba de los troncos, utilizando su cola como soporte. Recoge sus presas principalmente de epifitas y musgos y menos frecuentemente en la corteza o entre la hojarasca.

Reproducción
Construye con musgo un nido es forma de bola, con una entrada lateral, colocado bajo una rama o una roca.

Vocalización

Emite una variedad de vocalizaciones de timbre alto, desde notas cortas y simples (también dobles o triples) hasta largos rateados, tanto de timbre constante como con ligeros altos y bajos, y con ritmo variable.

Sistemática

Descripción original
La especie M. squamiger fue descrita por primera vez por los naturalistas franceses Alcide d'Orbigny y Frédéric de Lafresnaye en 1838 bajo el nombre científico Anabates squamiger; su localidad tipo es: «Ayopaya, Cochabamba, Bolivia».

Etimología
El nombre genérico masculino «Margarornis» deriva del griego «margaron»: perla y «ornis, ornithos»: pájaro, ave, significando «pájaro perlado»; y el nombre de la especie «squamiger», proviene del latín «squama»: escama, «gerere»: cargar, sigmificando «que tiene escamas».

Taxonomía
La subespecie nominal es morfológicamente distinta de las otras dos por el moteado de la garganta y de las partes inferiores amarillo pálido contra blanco sucio a blanquecino; por la corona castaño liso contra pardo oliva escamado oscuro; y por la cola más corta. Las vocalizaciones no son significativamente diferentes. Se presume que los registros visuales en el noroeste argentino sean de la subespecie nominal, pero pueden referirse a una subespecie todavía no descrita.

Subespecies
Según las clasificaciones del Congreso Ornitológico Internacional (IOC) y Clements Checklist v.2018, se reconocen tres subespecies, con su correspondiente distribución geográfica:

 Margarornis squamiger perlatus (, 1844) – Serranía del Perijá y Andes del oeste de Venezuela (Trujillo, Mérida, Táchira), Colombia (las tres cordilleras), Ecuador, y norte de Perú al norte del río Marañón (Piura, norte de Cajamarca).
 Margarornis squamiger peruvianus , 1913 – Andes del norte y centro de Perú al sur del Marañón (desde el sur de Cajamarca y Amazonas al sur hasta Cuzco).
 Margarornis squamiger squamiger (, 1838) – Andes del sur de Perú (Puno) y Bolivia (hacial el sur hasta el oeste de Santa Cruz); registros visuales en el noroeste de Argentina (Salta).

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Videos, fotos y sonidos de Margarornis squamiger en eBird.
 Sonidos y mapa de distribución de Margarornis squamiger en xeno-canto.

Squamiger
Aves de América del Sur
Taxones descritos por Alcide d'Orbigny
Taxones descritos por Frédéric de Lafresnaye
Animales descritos en 1838

Margarornis squamiger


Prolil endopeptidaza (PE) pripada skupini proteolitičkih peptidaza koje kidaju peptidne veze neterminalnih aminokiselina. Enzim je koji razgrađuje peptide koji sadrže prolin cijepanjem peptidne veze na karboksilnom kraju prolinskih ostataka unutar peptidnog lanca.

Povijest i otkriće prolil-endopeptidaze
Znanstvenik Walter i kolege su 1971. godine pisali o pročišćavanju enzima iz homogenata maternice koji su cijepali prolin-leucin veze hormona oksitocina. Kasnije je dokazano cijepanje veza pomoću ovog enzima i kod angiotenzina II i bradikinina. Pet godina kasnije taj je enzim izoliran i pročišćen iz janjećeg bubrega te je nazvan ˝post-proline cleaving enzyme˝ zbog načina na koji cijepa peptidne veze. U tom su istraživanju naveli kako enzim ima strukturu dimera i molekularnu masu 115 000 Da te su ga svrstali u skupinu serinskih proteaza. Godine 1976. Oliveira i kolege proučavali su cijepanje bradikinina te su djelomično pročistili enzim koji ga cijepa. Izolirali su ga iz mozga kunića i nazvali su ga kininaza B. Utvrdili su molekulsku masu od 68 000 Da. Iste te godine Orlowski u studiji piše o prisustvu enzima u mozgu i drugim tkivima gdje hidrolizira peptidne veze na karboksilnim krajevima prolinskih ostataka. Utvrđena je specifičnost slična post-prolin enzimu te je predloženo ime enzima koje se i danas koristi: prolil endopeptidaza. Imunokemijskim tehnikama je dokazano i zaključeno kako je jedan enzim zaslužan za sve aktivnosti navedene u prethodnim istraživanjima. Kod svih istraženih tkiva PE je jedina prolin specifična endopeptidaza, tj. u svim istraživanjima govori se o istom enzimu. PE je enzim koji ima slična svojstva i enzimatsku aktivnost kod različitih vrsta organizama i kod različitih vrsta tkiva.

Struktura

Od otkrića prolil-endopeptidaze pa do danas, provedena je izolacija tog enzima iz organizama arhejskog, bakterijskog i eukariotskog podrijetla. Godine 1998. prvi je puta, X-kristalografijom prikazana kristalna struktura PE dobivene iz svinje, a ubrzo nakon toga i struktura PE iz bakterija Myxococcus xanthus (MX PEP)  i Sphingomonas capsulata (SC PEP). Dokazano je da se struktura sastoji od dvije domene; jedne jedinstvene domene beta zavojnice sa sedam vrhova i jedne katalitičke domene s alfa/beta naborom. Sama struktura ima cilindričan oblik i veličinu od otprilike 60 A u visinu i promjera 50 A. Katalitička domena ima kanonsku trijadu smještenu u velikoj šupljini između ove dvije domene, a koja se sastoji od Ser554, His680, Asp641 i kovalentno vezanu spiralnu domenu. Aktivno mjesto gdje se veže supstrat otkriveno je proučavanjem PE u kompleksu s inhibitorom Z-Pro-prolinal. Domena beta zavojnice sastoji se od sedmerostrukog ponavljanja 4 antiparalelne beta ploče koje su uvijene i raspoređene radijalno oko središnjeg tunela. Tunel ima izlaz veličine 4 A te još uvijek nije poznato kako veći supstrati neometano ulaze i izlaze. Proučavanjem fleksibilnosti i veza unutar PE predložen je mehanizam vezanja supstrata na aktivno mjesto. Dolazni peptidni supstrati induciraju promjenu konformacije i dolazi do širenja dvije domene. Privremenu, otvorenu strukturu stabiliziraju interakcije između katalitičke domene i supstrata. Nakon katalize PE se vraća u početnu konformaciju.

Funkcija
Prolil-endopeptidaza (PE) enzim je koji cijepa peptidne veze na karboksilnom kraju prolinskih ostataka unutar peptidnog lanca. Aminokiselina prolin inače štiti peptide od proteolitičke degradacije, što čini ove enzime dodatno zanimljivim. PE je aktivna u cijelom tijelu, posebno u mozgu. Kod sisavaca razlikujemo tri vrste: citoplazmatsku, serumsku i membransku PE. Citoplazmatska PE je najviše istražena i o njoj se najviše zna. Izoelektrična točka ovog enzima je 4.5 do 4.9, a optimalnu aktivnost postiže u neutralnom do slabo lužnatom pH. Kako bi se dokazala aktivnost ovog enzima najčešće se radi enzimski test u kojem se na amino kraj peptida dodaje blokirajuća skupina kako bi se spriječilo djelovanje aminopeptidaza, dok se na karboksilni kraj dodaju kromofor  ili fluorofor te se onda prati signal pocijepanog kromofora ili fluorofora.

Zbog svoje velike aktivnosti u mozgu, prolil-endopeptidaza uključena je u sazrijevanje i razgradnju peptidnih hormona i neuropeptida (primjer: tvar P i arginin-vazopresin). Dokazano je da ovaj enzim hidrolizira peptide koji moduliraju bol (primjer: endomorfin i encefalin). Kada dolazi do inhibicije PE, uočena je povećana razina neuropeptida u serumu i uzorcima mozga. Točna fiziološka funkcija i mehanizam djelovanja ovog enzima nisu razjašnjeni. Postavljene su moguće hipoteze mehanizma djelovanja ovog enzima.

Hipoteza I
Prva hipoteza pretpostavlja da je PE povezana s kontrolom sekundarnog staničnog glasnika inozitola. Neki antidepresivi inhibiraju kolaps konusa rasta senzornih neurona i povećavaju površinu konusa rasta, dok inozitol to poništava. Kod PE noukaut mutanata, kao i kod modela kod koji su korišteni PE inhibitiori, također dolazi do poništavanja učinaka ovih lijekova. Pokazalo se da PE nokautirani soj ima povišene razine aktivnosti višestruke inozitol polifosfat fosfataze (MIPP). MIPP kontrolira razgradnju inozitol fosfata višeg reda u inozitol trifosfat (InsP3).Ovo otkriće sugerira da PE vjerojatno regulira aktivnost MIPP-a preko cijepanja prolina u oligopeptidu.

Hipoteza II
Druga hipoteza pretpostavlja da PE ostvaruje svoje djelovanje na temelju citoplazmatske lokacije i odnosa s tubulinom. Ko-lokalizacija PE-a s tubulinom sugerira da bi PE mogao biti uključen u procese povezane s mikrotubulima, kao što je unutarstanični promet, sortiranje i izlučivanje proteina. To je provjereno mjerenjem peptida u ljudskom gliomu. PE u stanicama uzorka je bila inhibirana, te su znanstvenici došli do zaključka da je smanjenje aktivnosti PE dovelo do povećanog izlučivanja drugih proteina. To saznanje sugerira da bi PE mogao biti uključen u regulaciju sekretornih procesa.

Potencijalna meta lijekova
Visoka koncentracije PE u mozgu te njena sposobnost cijepanja neuropeptida čine ovaj enzim potencijalnom terapeutskom metom. Aktivnost PE uočena je kod neuroloških bolesti (Alzheimerova bolest, amnezija, shizofrenije, manije) ali i kod ostalih bolesti (visok krvni tlak, celijakija, anoreksija i dr.) U zadnjem desetljeću proveden je velik broj istraživanja na ovom enzimu i njegovim inhibitorima.

Provedena su mnoga istraživanja PE inhibitora S 17092. Ovaj inihibtor ima velik utjecaj na koncentracije neuropeptida u mozgu i djelovanje na kognitivne funkcije. Iako ovaj pristup zvuči obećavajuće, potrebno je veće razumijevanje djelovanja ovog enzima kako bi lijekovi mogli što specifičnije djelovati.

PE je atraktivni kandidat za lijekove za oralno liječenje celijakije zbog svoje sposobnosti da ubrzava probavu glutena u probavnom sustavu. Različiti testovi, uključujući tekućinsku kromatografiju visoke učinkovitosti (HPLC), masenu spektrometriju, testovi T stanica, anti-glutenski testovi i drugi pokazali su dobro djelovanje ovog enzima u cijepanju glutena. PE izoliran iz Aspergillusa nigera ušao je u kliničku fazu istraživanja.

Potrebna su još brojna istraživanja fiziološke uloge PE, strukture i svojstva kako bi ovaj enzim postao budućnost u liječenju.

Izvori

Bjelančevine

Prolil endopeptidaza


Love bombing ou bombardeio de amor é uma tentativa de influenciar uma pessoa por meio de demonstrações de atenção e afeto. Pode ser usado de diferentes maneiras e para fins positivos ou negativos. Psicólogos identificaram o love bombing como uma possível parte de um ciclo de abuso e alertaram contra isso. Também foi descrito como manipulação psicológica para criar um sentimento de unidade dentro de um grupo contra uma sociedade percebida como hostil. Em 2011, o psicólogo clínico Oliver James defendeu o bombardeio de amor em seu livro Love Bombing: Reset Your Child's Emotional Thermostat, como um meio para os pais corrigirem problemas emocionais em seus filhos.

Definição e análise
A expressão "love bombing" foi cunhada por membros da Igreja da Unificação dos Estados Unidos durante a década de 1970 e também foi usada por membros da Família Internacional. A professora de psicologia Margaret Singer relatou o conceito. Em seu livro de 1996, Cults in Our Midst, ela escreve:

Relacionamentos abusivos
A mídia social moderna pode intensificar o efeito do love bombing, uma vez que dá ao agressor contato e comunicação quase constante com a vítima. Um dos sinais de love bombing no início de um relacionamento é a atenção intensa durante um curto período de tempo e a pressão por um compromisso muito rápido.

O psicólogo Dale Archer identifica as fases do bombardeio de amor com a sigla IDD: "Idealização Intensa, Desvalorização, Descarte (Repita)" e o processo de identificação desse padrão de comportamento como POE: "Pare, Observe e Escute" (SLL; Stop, Look, Listen); depois disso, o rompimento do contato com o agressor pode se tornar mais possível, também buscando o apoio da família e dos amigos.

Outro sinal de bombardeio de amor é ser intensamente regado de carinho, presentes e promessas para o futuro pelo predador para que a vítima sinta ou seja levada a acreditar que tudo isso é um sinal de "amor à primeira vista". Uma vez que tais sinais de afeição e afirmação podem atender às necessidades sentidas e não parecer prejudiciais à superfície, a excitação de um relacionamento tão novo muitas vezes não parece motivo de alarme. No entanto, após a excitação inicial, quando a vítima demonstra interesse ou se importa com qualquer coisa além de seu novo parceiro, o manipulador pode demonstrar raiva, comportamento passivo-agressivo ou acusar as vítimas de egoísmo. Caso a vítima não cumpra as exigências, inicia-se a fase de desvalorização: o agressor retira todo o afeto ou reforço positivo e, em vez disso, pune a vítima com o que achar apropriado – gritos, repreensão, jogos mentais, tratamento silencioso ou até mesmo abuso físico.

Um artigo na Cosmopolitan explica:

A expressão tem sido usada para descrever as táticas usadas por cafetões e membros de gangues para controlar suas vítimas.

Ocorrências benignas
Atenção e afeto excessivos não constituem um bombardeio de amor se não houver intenção ou padrão de abuso adicional. Archer explica:

O autor e psicólogo britânico Oliver James recomendou o bombardeio de amor como uma técnica para os pais ajudarem seus filhos problemáticos. Ele descreveu como "dedicando um tempo individual, mimando e esbanjando seu filho com amor e, dentro do razoável, atendendo a todos os seus desejos". Em 2011, Heidi Scrimgeour, repórter do The Daily Express, experimentou a técnica com seu filho e relatou:

Ver também
 Lavagem cerebral
 Armadilha sexual

Psicologia
Neologismos
Palavras, frases e expressões em inglês

Love bombing


The Sint-Pieters-Leeuw Tower, sometimes called the VRT-toren, although there are several by that name, is a  free standing tower at Sint-Pieters-Leeuw, on the outskirts of Brussels, Belgium, built between 1991 and 1994. It is the tallest free standing structure in Belgium. The tower's location, south-west of Brussels, was chosen for its central location in Belgium and to minimize hindrance to Brussels Airport beyond the opposite end of the city. The tower is owned by Norkring België.

After its construction, it emerged that the tower was built illegally, due to irregularities in the building permits. There were complaints against it as locals feel the unpainted concrete is an eyesore, and it has even been suggested that the tower may be demolished. In April 2007, the irregularities were straightened out and the tower has retroactively acquired the legal permit to be built.

See also
 List of towers
 Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroeporganisatie

References

External links
 http://www.rohde-schwarz.com/WWW/Publicat.nsf/article/n151_fmtv/$file/n151_fmtv.pdf

 https://web.archive.org/web/20051016033436/http://www.vanderspek-bel.com/Casestories/BRTN/enBRTN.htm
  https://web.archive.org/web/20060513100837/http://www.degregorio.be/MiniSite/Pagina.aspx?MSID=140&UID=179

Towers in Belgium
Norkring
1994 establishments in Belgium
Towers completed in 1994

Sint-Pieters-Leeuw Tower


Pokrajina Bingöl (tur.: Bingöl ili)  koja se nalazi u ıstočnjačkenom dijelu Turske.

Prostire se na površini od 8,125 km2 a u njoj živi 281.768 stanovnika (podaci iz 2020.) što iznosi oko 34 stanovnik po km2.

Glavni grad je Bingöl.

Okruzi

Pokrajina Bingöl je podijeljena na 8 okruga:

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Službena stranica pokrajine

Turske pokrajine

Bingöl (pokrajina)


An Telipogon caulescens in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Robert Louis Dressler. An Telipogon caulescens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Telipogon, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Panamá. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Telipogon

Telipogon caulescens


Manuel Moschopoulos (Latinized as Manuel Moschopulus; ), was a Byzantine commentator and grammarian, who lived during the end of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th century and was an important figure in the Palaiologan Renaissance. Moschopoulos means "little calf," and is probably a nickname.

Life
Moschopoulos was a student of Maximos Planudes and possibly his successor as a head of a school in Constantinople, where he taught throughout his life. A mysterious and ill-documented excursion into politics led to his imprisonment for a while.

Works
His chief work is Erotemata grammaticalia (), in the form of question and answer, based upon an anonymous epitome of grammar, and supplemented by a lexicon of Attic nouns. He was also the author of scholia on the first and second books of the Iliad, on Hesiod, Theocritus, Pindar and other classical and later authors; of riddles, letters, and a treatise on the magic squares. His grammatical treatises formed the foundation of the labors of such promoters of classical studies as Manuel Chrysoloras, Theodorus Gaza, Guarini, and Constantine Lascaris. As an editor, while making many false conjectures, he was responsible for clearing many long-standing errors in the traditional texts. His comments when original, are mainly lexicographical.

Moschopoulos' treatise on magic squares is dedicated to Nicholas Rhabdas, his contemporary mathematician.

Other works include an anti-Latin theological pamphlet. A selection from his works under the title of Manuelis Moschopuli opuscula grammatica was published by F. N. Titze (Leipzig, 1822); see also Karl Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897) and M. Treu, Maximi monachi Planudis epistulae (1890), p. 208.

References

External links
 Manuel Moschopoulos at Convergence

 Manuelis Moschopuli cretensis Opuscula grammatica, in quibus et de usitata graecis ex omni aevo diphthongorum pronuntiatione doctrina insignis : E codice nuper in Bohemia reperto nunc primum edidit graece / Praefationem cum diatribe literaria de Moschopulis et animadversiones suas adiecit Franciscus Nicolaus Titze digitised book in Latin and Ancient Greek at the Hathi Trust digital library (original at Harvard).

13th-century births
14th-century deaths
Grammarians from the Byzantine Empire
Magic squares
13th-century Byzantine people
14th-century Byzantine writers

Manuel Moschopoulos


سفورزا (Sforza) عائلة نبيلة ميزت منذ نهاية القرن الرابع عشر التاريخ الإيطالي والأوروبي .

يعود اسم العائلة إلى لقب عرف به مؤسسها موزيو أتيندولو (كوتينيولا، 1369 - بالقرب من بسكارا، 1424) ، فقد كان يدعى سفورزا (قوي) لهيبته، كان قائد رومانيا العسكري في خدمة الأنجويين ملوك نابولي . كانت سلالة من الكوندوتييريين الإيطاليين كان لهم حظ كبير.

مراجع

دوقات ميلانو
عائلات إيطالية نبيلة
عائلات كاثوليكية
عائلات مالكة أوروبية

سفورزا


Nivologia este o disciplină științifică, care se ocupă cu studierea formării, evoluției și transformării zăpezii.

Domenii de studiu

 Zăpada propriu zisă; mai exact formarea, transformarea și dispariția sa, caracteristicile și proprietățile sale fizice și chimice;
 Stratul de zăpadă; compoziția, stratificarea, stabilitatea și deplasarea sa;
 Regimul nivologic; studii de climatologie și istoria climei, studierea zonelor cu zăpezi eterne;
 Avalanșele; producerea, previziunea, evitarea, declanșarea și dinamica lor.

 Studiul nivologic

Nivologia are metode specifice, pragmatice, de studiu. Printre acestea, studierea securității și prevenirii față de căderile masive de nea, prevenirea avalanșelor și viabilitatea hibernală, sunt cele mai importante.

Iată câteva exemple de parametri și elemente de studiu.

 studierea cristalină, fizică și chimică a particulelor de gheață;
 parametrii de studiu sunt densitatea (sau masa volumică) măsurată în kg/m3, gradul de afânare, umiditatea, ș.a.m.d.
 influența temperaturii asupra caracteristicilor și transformării (metamorfozarea) zăpezii și gheții.

 Articole pe teme de glaciologie

 Aisberg
 Alpii înalți
 Antarctica
 Arctica
 Ablație (fenomen)
 Balanța masei unui ghețar
 Banchiză
 Calotă glaciară
 Calotă polară
 Circ glaciar
 Climatul calotelor polare
 Criosferă
 Ecoton, tranziția între două comunități ecologice
 Efectul de trecere, efectul de contrast între mediile diferite ale unui ecosistem
 Efectul Massenerhebung
 Gheață
 Ghețar
 Glaciologie
 Încălzirea globală
 Înzăpezire
 Lac glaciar
 Linia arborilor
 Linia ghețarilor
 Linia înghețului
 Linia de îngheț (astrofizică)
 Linia zăpezii
 Listă de țări în care ninge
 Listă de lacuri din România
 Morenă
 Nivologie
 Sculptura în gheață
 Spărgător de gheață
 Zăpadă
 Zonă de ablație
 Zonă de acumulare
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 Referințe, note

 Legături externe

 Meteo România -- web site-ul oficial al Administrației Naționale de Meteorologie - Meteo Romania''
 Grosimea stratului de zăpadă  în România
  Nivologie  pe site-ul Anena.org
  Despre nivologie

+

Nivologie


Basılı eserler için yayımcılık ve yayımcı maddelerine bakınız.
Balık için yayınbalığı maddesine bakınız.
Yayın; radyo, televizyon, internet gibi herhangi bir aracı (medya) vasıtasıyla bir veri veya programı bir gruba ulaştırma.

Yayın, bir noktadan çok alıcıya yapılan ve ortamı sadece network olmayıp, radyo dalgalarıyla yerel veya uydudan da yapılabilen transmisyon türüdür. Birçok alanda kullanılabilir:

 Radyo yayını
 Televizyon yayını
 GSM yayını
 TCP/IP'de bir ağdaki tüm cihazlara yayın

Ayrıca bakınız
 Yayın ağı
 Çok yöne yayın
 Tek yöne yayın
 Podcast

Yayın


Nikolai Maksimovici Günther (în , n. 17 decembrie [] 1871 la Sankt Petersburg – d. 4 mai 1941 la Leningrad) a fost un matematician rus, cunoscut pentru contribuțiile sale în domenii ca: teoria potențialului, a ecuațiilor integrale și cea a ecuațiilor cu derivate parțiale.

Un mare ciclu de lucrări se referă la problemele fizicii matematice și anume la hidrodinamica lichidelor ideale.
Una din cărțile sale a fost tradusă și în română sub titlul Culegere de probleme de matematici superioare, apărută la Editura Tehnică în 1950.

Note

Nașteri în 1871
Decese în 1941
Specialiști în analiză matematică
Matematicieni ruși
Matematicieni din secolul al XIX-lea
Membri corespondenți ai Academiei Ruse de Științe
Oameni din Sankt Petersburg

Nikolai Günther