In the history of video games, the sixth generation era (in rare occasions called the 128-bit era; see "bits and system power" below) is the era of computer and video games, video game consoles, and handheld gaming devices available at the turn of the 21st century, starting on November 27, 1998. Platforms in the sixth generation include consoles from four companies: the Sega Dreamcast (DC), Sony PlayStation 2 (PS2), Nintendo GameCube (GC), and Microsoft Xbox. This era began on November 27, 1998, with the Japanese release of the Dreamcast, which was joined by the PlayStation 2 on March 4, 2000, the GameCube on September 14, 2001 and the Xbox on November 15, 2001, respectively. In March 31, 2001, the Dreamcast was among the first to be discontinued. Xbox in 2006, GameCube in 2007 and PlayStation 2 was the last, in January 2013. Meanwhile, the seventh generation of consoles started on November 22, 2005, with the launch of the Xbox 360.

The major innovation of this generation was of full utilization of the internet to allow a fully online gaming experience.  While the prior generation had some systems with internet connectivity, such as the Apple Pippin, these had little market penetration and thus had limited success in the area. Services such as Microsoft's Xbox Live became industry standard in this, and future, generations. Other innovations of the Xbox was its being the first system with an internal ethernet port and the first to utilize an internal hard disk drive to store game data. This led to many improvements to the gaming experience, including the ability to store program data (rather than just save game data) that allowed for faster load times, as well as the ability to download games directly from the internet rather than to purchase physical media such as a disk or cartridge.  Soon after its release other systems, like the Sony PlayStation 2, produced peripheral storage devices to allow similar capabilities, and by the next generation internal storage became industry standard.

Bit ratings (i.e. "64-bit" or "32-bit" for the previous generation) for most consoles largely fell by the wayside during this era, with the notable exceptions being promotions for the Dreamcast and PS2 that advertised "128-bit graphics" at the start of the generation. The number of "bits" cited in this way in console names refers to the CPU word size, and had been used by hardware marketing departments as a "show of power" for many years. However, there is little to be gained from increasing the word size much beyond 32 or 64 bits because, once this level is reached, performance depends on more varied factors, such as processor clock speed, bandwidth, and memory size.

The sixth generation of handhelds began with the release of the Bandai's WonderSwan, launched in Japan in 1999. Nintendo maintained its dominant share of the handheld market with the release in 2001 of the Game Boy Advance, which featured many upgrades and new features over the Game Boy. The Game Boy Advance was discontinued in early 2010. The next generation of handheld consoles began in November 2004, with the North American introduction of the Nintendo DS.

The last official Dreamcast games were released in 2002 (North America and Europe) and 2007 (Japan). The last GameCube games were released in 2006 (Japan) and 2007 (North America and Europe). The last Xbox games were released in 2007 (Japan) and 2008 (Europe and North America). Pro Evolution Soccer 2014 was the last game for the PlayStation 2 (in Europe), which was released in November 2013. The last PS2 game, Final Fantasy XI: Rhapsodies of Vana'diel, was released in May 2015, marking the end of this generation.

Home systems

The Sony PlayStation 2
achieved sales dominance in this generation, becoming the best-selling console in history, with over 150 million units sold as of February 2011. The Microsoft Xbox had sold over 24 million units as of May 2006, and the GameCube had sold 22 million units as of September 2010. The Sega Dreamcast, which arrived prior to all of the others and was discontinued in 2001, came in fourth with 9.13 million sold.

The sixth generation began to end when the Xbox was succeeded by the Xbox 360 in late 2005. GameCube hardware was still being produced when the Wii was released in late 2006, but as of June 2008 had also been ceased. PlayStation 2 sales continued to be strong through to the end of 2010, due to the system's large software library, continuing software support, and affordable price.

In February 2008, the PlayStation 2 outsold both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in the United States. Games were still being produced for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, and GameCube as of 2008, while Dreamcast games were officially discontinued in 2003. There were still a few games being produced for the Dreamcast in 2004, but they are essentially NAOMI arcade ports released only in Japan, with small print runs. The PlayStation 2 was still being produced after the launch of the Wii U in 2012, making the sixth generation the second longest generation of all time.

Dreamcast

Sega's Dreamcast is the first console of the generation and had several features to show an advantage from the competition, including Internet gaming as an optional feature through its built-in modem, and a web browser.

The console is credited with restoring Sega's reputation, which had been damaged by the earlier failures of the Sega Saturn, Sega 32X, Genesis Nomad and Sega CD. Despite this, the Dreamcast was discontinued prematurely due to numerous factors. The impending and much-hyped PlayStation 2 slowed Dreamcast sales, mostly due to the fact that the PlayStation 2 had a built-in DVD player and a huge number of PS1 owners looking to upgrade to the new, backwards-compatible console. In addition, Sega's short-lived support/success of its post-Mega Drive products the Mega-CD, 32X and Saturn had left developers and customers skeptical, with some holding out to see whether the Dreamcast or PlayStation 2 would come out on top.

Sega's decision to implement a GD-ROM (though publicly advertised as a CD-ROM) for storage medium did save costs but it did not compare well against the PS2's much-touted DVD capabilities. Sega was either unable or unwilling to spend the advertising money necessary to compete with Sony, who themselves took massive losses on the PlayStation 2 to gain market share. With the announcements of the Xbox and GameCube in late 2000, Sega's console was considered by some to be outdated only two years after its release. The previous losses from the Saturn, 32X, and Sega/Mega-CD, stagnation of sales due to the PlayStation 2, and impending competition from Microsoft and Nintendo caused Sega's revenue to shrink and announce their intention on killing the system in early 2001, dropping the system entirely and leaving the console market in early 2004 in Japan and much earlier in other countries. Sega also announced it would shut down SegaNet, an online gaming community that supported online-capable Dreamcast titles. Due to user outcry over the decision, Sega delayed the service's closure by an additional 6 months. Since the Dreamcast's discontinuation, Sega transitioned to software developing making games as a third-party company.

PlayStation 2

The brand Sony had established with the original PlayStation was a major factor in the PlayStation 2's dominance, both in terms of securing a consumer base and attracting third-party developers, with the gradual increase in one reinforcing the other. The PlayStation 2 was also able to play DVDs and was backwards-compatible with PlayStation games, which many say helped the former's sales. Sony Computer Entertainment secured licensing for key games such as Final Fantasy X, Grand Theft Auto III, and Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, enabling the PS2 to outperform its competitors' launches. The console ended up becoming the top-selling console of this generation, while its competing consoles, the Xbox and the GameCube, went on to be modestly successful consoles.

GameCube

Nintendo struggled with conflicting brand images, particularly the family-friendly one developed during the 1990s. Its arsenal of franchises and history in the industry, though earning it a loyal fan base, failed to give it an advantage against the Xbox and PlayStation 2 which captured audiences seeking 'Mature' titles of which Nintendo had fewer. Nintendo also made little headway into online gaming (releasing a small handful of online-capable games, the most popular of which was Phantasy Star Online Episode I and II, which was an enhanced port of the Dreamcast game with various new features and content), instead emphasizing Game Boy Advance connectivity. As a result, the GameCube failed to match the sales of its predecessor, the Nintendo 64, but the console wasn't a financial failure. Nintendo did however rejuvenate its relationship with many developers, often working in close collaboration with them to produce games based upon its franchises, in contrast to the past where it was frequently seen as bullying developers in the late 1980s, back when the Nintendo Entertainment System was out on the market. As a result, the GameCube had more first and second party releases than its competitors, whose most successful titles were mainly products of third-party developers.

Xbox

Although the Xbox had the formidable financial backing of Microsoft, it was unable to significantly threaten the dominance of the PlayStation 2 as market leader. However, the Xbox attracted a large fanbase and strong third-party support in the United States and Europe and became a recognizable brand amongst the mainstream. The Xbox Live online service with its centralized model proved particularly successful, prompting Sony to boost the online capabilities of the PlayStation 2. Xbox Live also gave the Xbox an edge over the GameCube, which had a near-total lack of online games. The flagship of Xbox Live was the game Halo 2, which was the best-selling Xbox game with over 8 million copies sold worldwide. However, the Xbox failed to gain a following in Japan, with reasons cited including lack of brand recognition,  lack of commitment to the console from Japanese publishers and developers, failure of Microsoft staff to fully understand important cultural differences, and ethnocentric preferences of the Japanese public for native products.

Comparison

Worldwide sales standings

Other consoles
These consoles were created for the mass market, like the 4 consoles listed above. These, however, are less often noted, never saw a worldwide release, and/or have sold fewer units overall, and are therefore listed as 'Other'.

The Panasonic M2 was a sixth generation console developed by The 3DO Company and sold to Panasonic, which then decided to not release the console in 1997.

Bits and system power
Bit ratings for consoles largely fell by the wayside after the fifth generation (32/64-bit) era. The number of "bits" cited in console names referred to the CPU word size, but there was little to be gained from increasing the word size much beyond 32 bits; performance depended on other factors, such as central processing unit speed, graphics processing unit speed, channel capacity, data storage size, and memory speed, latency, and size.

The importance of the number of bits in the modern console gaming market has thus decreased due to the use of components that process data in varying word sizes. Previously, console manufacturers advertised the "n-bit talk" to overemphasize the hardware capabilities of their system. The Dreamcast and the PlayStation 2 were the last systems to use the term "128-bit" in their marketing to describe their capability.

It is not easy to compare the relative "power" of the different systems. Having a larger CPU word size does not necessarily make one console more powerful than another. Likewise, the operating frequency (clock rate, measured in terms of Hertz) of a system's CPU is not an accurate measure of performance either, except between systems of the same or similar architecture.

The Microsoft Xbox uses a 32-bit (general purpose) CISC x86 architecture CPU, with an instruction set equal to that of the Coppermine core Mobile Celeron, though it has less cache (128 kB) than the PC equivalent. It has 64 MB RAM (shared) and runs at 733 MHz. Because the Pentium 3 introduced SSE, the Xbox also had 128-bit SIMD capabilities. Its NV2A GPU, which is very similar to the GeForce 3 Series of desktop GPUs, makes it the only console in its time with traditional vertex and pixel shaders.

The GameCube's IBM Gekko PowerPC CPU runs at 485 MHz, while its "Flipper" graphics processor is comparable to the original ATI Radeon, and it has 43 MB of non-unified memory (24 MB of 1T-SRAM, 3 MB embedded 1T-SRAM, and 16 MB DRAM). The GameCube supports Dolby Pro Logic II.

The PlayStation 2's CPU (known as the "128-bit Emotion Engine") has a 64-bit core with a 32-bit FPU
coupled to two 128 bit Vector Units, The hybrid R5900 CPU is based on MIPS architecture. The PS2 also has an internal 10 Channel DMA Bus which is fully 128 bits wide. Paths between the Emotion Engine, RAM and the Graphics Synthesizer (GS) are also 128 bits wide. The PS2's unique hardware arrangement with no less than 10 processing units were difficult to come to grips with. Many developers struggled initially with programming the hardware. The PS2's Graphics Synthesizer (GS) has fast dedicated video memory, though it is limited in the amount of data it can hold. The 10 Channel 128 bit wide DMA bus could pump data to GS Memory as fast as the screen could update. Consequently, with the main memory being limited to 32MB, many of the PS2's games have reduced textures compared with versions for other consoles. It also does not have a hardware dedicated transform and lighting unit like the ones found in the Xbox and GameCube GPUs.

However the PS2's design allows a remarkable degree of flexibility and choice. For example, program control and general arithmetic could be handled by the CPU, while the Vector Units 0 and 1, could provide parallel processing of physics, clipping and transform and lighting to the scene. The Vector units were noted to be so versatile that Shadow of The Colossus used one of the vector units to do full Pixel shading for the fur of the Collossi.

The Dreamcast has a 64-bit double-precision superscalar SuperH-4 RISC Central processing unit core with a 32-bit integer unit using 16-bit fixed-length instructions, a 64-bit data bus allowing a variable width of either 8, 16, 32 or 64-bits, and a 128-bit floating-point bus. The PowerVR 2DC CLX2 chipset uses a unique method of rendering a 3D scene called Tile Based Deferred Rendering (TBDR): while storing polygons in triangle strip format in memory, the display is split into tiles associated with a list of visibly overlapping triangles onto which, using a process similar to ray tracing, rays are cast and a pixel is rendered from the triangle closest to the camera. After calculating the depths associated with each polygon for one tile row in 1 cycle, the whole tile is flushed to video memory before passing on to render the next tile. Once all information has been collated for the current frame, the tiles are rendered in turn to produce the final image.

Handheld systems

During the sixth generation era, the handheld game console market expanded with the introduction of new devices from many different manufacturers. Nintendo maintained its dominant share of the handheld market with the release in 2001 of the Game Boy Advance, which featured many upgrades and new features over the Game Boy. Two redesigns of this system followed, the Game Boy Advance SP in 2003 and the Game Boy Micro in 2005. Also introduced was the Bandai's WonderSwan, launched in Japan in 1999. South Korean company Game Park introduced its GP32 handheld in 2001, and with it came the dawn of open source handheld consoles. The Game Boy Advance line of handhelds has sold 81.51 million units worldwide as of September 30, 2010.

A major new addition to the market was the trend for corporations to include a large number of "non-gaming" features into their handheld consoles, including cell phones, MP3 players, portable movie players, and PDA-like features. The handheld that started this trend was Nokia's N-Gage, which was released in 2003 and doubled primarily as a mobile phone. It went through a redesign in 2004 and was renamed the N-Gage QD. A second handheld, the Zodiac from Tapwave, was released in 2004; based on the Palm OS, it offered specialized gaming-oriented video and sound capabilities, but it had an unwieldy development kit due to the underlying Palm OS foundation.

A fairly uncommon handheld of the 6th generation was the vtech V.SMILE Pocket. A handheld version of their V.SMILE home console.

With more and more PDAs arriving during the previous generation, the difference between consumer electronics and traditional computing began to blur and cheap console technology grew as a result. It was said of PDAs that they were "the computers of handheld gaming" because of their multi-purpose capabilities and the increasingly powerful computer hardware that resided within them. This capability existed to move gaming beyond the last generation's 16-bit limitations; however, PDAs were still geared towards the typical businessman, and lacked new, affordable software franchises to compete with dedicated handheld gaming consoles.

Handheld comparison

Note: First year of release is the first year of the system's worldwide availability.

Other handhelds

Sales

Trends

Market convergence
Major publishers, such as Activision, Electronic Arts, and Ubisoft adopted a cross-platform strategy, releasing versions of their games for PC, all major consoles, and in some cases, handhelds as well. The sixth generation was the first to help console and computer software grow closer together as well as outperform the arcade market in features, graphics and business. The Dreamcast, which had an official Windows CE Development Kit to help porting games from PCs to Dreamcast, and the Xbox, which was made from off-the-shelf PC parts and hosted many PC ports, factored into this also.

Controversial games

While the sixth generation was not the first to have its share of controversial games, this generation was noted to have extensive criticism by public figures of "objectionable" content in gaming such as sex, crime, violence, profanity, drug use, and social propaganda as well as topics of debate such as religion, politics and economics.

The sixth generation was also notable because it saw the continuation of lawmakers taking actions against the video game industry. The most famous were Rockstar Games' Manhunt and Grand Theft Auto games (Grand Theft Auto III and Grand Theft Auto: Vice City) facing lawsuits over alleged racial slurs and influencing minors to commit crimes, while Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas was briefly given an adult rating and removed from most stores over the availability of an abandoned sex mini-game using the Hot Coffee mod.

The sixth generation also coincided with the September 11 attacks in New York City and the Pentagon, which had a huge impact on the entertainment industry, including the video game industry; in the subsequent market climate, multiple games were edited in response to the sensitivity surrounding the event. Prior to its release, Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty depicted a submersible mobile fortress hijacked by terrorists destroying a good portion of Manhattan in view of the twin towers (this can be found in the "Document of Metal Gear Solid 2" making-of feature). Similarly, several undisclosed modifications were made in Grand Theft Auto III, such as a change to the police cars' color scheme (the old scheme resembled that of NYPD's older blue and white design) and altered cover art (the European release featured the original artwork); Rockstar Games estimates that the changes amounted to 1% in changed content. The Dreamcast game Propeller Arena was never officially released, possibly due to a certain level which was visually very similar to the September 11 attacks.

Emulation and retro gaming

Because of the increased computing power of video game consoles and the widespread usage of emulators, the sixth generation saw the rise of console emulation and retro gaming on a vast scale. Many games for older systems were updated with superior graphics or sound and re-released for current consoles. Commonly emulated games included those released for the Nintendo Entertainment System, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, the Mega Drive/Genesis, the PlayStation (the PS2 can play PS1 games natively), and the Nintendo 64.

Also during this generation, the computing power of handheld consoles became capable of supporting games made for some of the earliest gaming consoles and several companies released remakes of classic games for the handhelds. Nintendo introduced a line of NES and SNES games for its Game Boy Advance handheld, including remakes such as Final Fantasy I & II: Dawn of Souls and Nintendo's Metroid: Zero Mission. Also, an increasing number of third-party developers, including Midway Games, Capcom, Namco, Atari, Tecmo, and Sega, released anthology collections of some of their old games. Additionally, many video games and video game series that were originally confined to Japan were released in North America and Europe for the first time.

Rise of online gaming

Online gaming, which in previous generations had been almost an exclusive domain of PC games, became more prominent in video game consoles during this generation. The Dreamcast initiated this change with its built in modem, internet browsing software, and ability to play certain games online. The PlayStation 2, Xbox and GameCube also offered online gaming, though their approaches and commitment to it varied greatly. The Xbox offered an integrated service called Xbox Live that cost $50 per year and was only compatible with a broadband internet connection. Its ability to connect gamers for online multi-player matches and its ideal experience was a considerable factor in allowing the Xbox to gain a foothold in the western market, especially in the first-person shooter genre. The PlayStation 2 left its online gaming service up to each individual game publisher, and though it was free to use, it was not always an ideal experience, especially with games published by small developers. The SOCOM series was one of the most popular online competitive games for the PS2. The GameCube did not offer online play for any of its first-party titles, with only Sega's Phantasy Star Online series and Homeland making official use of the console's online capabilities. In addition, online capability was not out-of-the-box; an adapter was needed to hook the GameCube to the internet.

Mergers
Many game publishing companies with a long established history merged with their competitors: Microsoft bought second-party developer Rare in 2002; Square merged with Enix to form Square Enix in 2003 and then later bought Taito; Sega merged with Sammy to form Sega Sammy Holdings in 2004; Konami bought a majority share of Hudson Soft; Namco merged with Bandai to form Bandai Namco Holdings in 2006.

Software

Milestone titles
 Dead or Alive 2 (Arcade, DC, PS2) by Team Ninja and Tecmo received universal acclaim with a GameRankings and Metacritic score of 91/100, and is considered as one of the greatest fighting games of all time. It was notable for improving and popularizing the concept of multi-tierd environments. Dead or Alive 3 (Xbox) was a bestseller with over 2 million units sold worldwide, scoring 37 out of 40 on Famitsu, and was notable for improving and expanding on what the previous game offered.
 Final Fantasy X (PS2) by Square (now Square Enix) refined many elements found in its predecessors, adding a completely different battle system. Within four days of its release in Japan the game had sold over 1.4 million copies in pre-orders, setting the record for the fastest-selling console RPG.
 Forza Motorsport (Xbox) by Turn 10 Studios and Microsoft Studios received universal critical acclaim and is considered to have set a new standard for the racing genre. This game received universal acclaim according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
 God of War and God of War II (PS2) by Santa Monica Studio and Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE) were both released to universal acclaim from critics for their gameplay, graphics and story.
 Grand Theft Auto III, Vice City, and Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (PS2, Xbox, PC) by Rockstar popularized "sandbox" style gameplay in an urban crime setting, which has since been widely imitated. In addition, it brought violence and other potentially objectionable content in video games back into the mainstream spotlight, thus reviving the video game controversy.
 Half-Life 2 (PC, Xbox) by Valve was praised for its advanced physics, animation, sound, AI, graphics, gameplay, and narrative, and was named Game of the Decade at the Spike Video Game Awards.
 Halo: Combat Evolved (Xbox, PC) by Bungie and Microsoft Studios was by far the most successful launch title for the Xbox. Halo 2 set records as the fastest grossing release in entertainment history  and was still very successful on the Xbox Live online gaming service until support was dropped in April 2010.
 Jet Set Radio (DC) by Smilebit and Sega received universal acclaim for its arcade-style gameplay, up-tempo music and cel-shaded visuals. It popularized the use of cel-shaded visuals in video games. Jet Set Radio Future (Xbox) improved and expanded on what the original game offered, also receiving critical acclaim.
 The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker (GC) by Nintendo EAD and Nintendo remains one of the most critically acclaimed games of the generation. Critics praised the vivid artistry and timeless gameplay. It has a score of 96% on Metacritic, and is the fourth game to obtain a perfect score from video game reviewer Famitsu. Likewise, The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess (GC) proved to be another important title in the series released this generation. The title is perhaps best remembered for the excitement caused by its announcement trailer at E3 2004. It was released to widespread critical acclaim with an average of 96% on Metacritic. The game drew much praise for its scale and cinematic style with many reviewers declaring it the best game in the series. Likewise, it was seen as a transitional title being released on both the Gamecube and Wii – which resulted in it being the best-selling title in the series since Ocarina of Time.
 Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (PS2, Xbox, PC) and Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater (PS2) by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and Konami improved upon the stealth genre by adding many new abilities, and for the first time in its respective genre made the surroundings nearly completely interactive. Both games achieved widespread critical acclaim, as they improved many elements from their predecessor.
 Metroid Prime (GC) by Retro Studios and Nintendo is one of the generation's highest-rated titles, with a score of 96.3 on GameRankings and a 97 on Metacritic. The game garnered critical praise and commercial success, selling more than a million units in North America alone. It was also the eighth best-selling GameCube game in Australia, and more than 78,000 copies were sold in Japan. It won a number of Game of the Year awards, and it is considered by many critics and gamers to be one of the greatest video games ever made, remaining one of the highest-rated games on Metacritic.
 NFL 2K1 (DC) by Visual Concepts and Sega was the first football game to feature online play.
 Phantasy Star Online (DC, GC, Xbox, PC) by Sonic Team and Sega, the first console MMORPG, has been cited as one of the most groundbreaking and influential games of the generation. It received "generally favorable" reviews per ratings aggregator Metacritic.
 Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire (GBA) Despite the fact that the games received some backlash due to connectivity issues with the older games, which was resolved with the release of future games, these games still received positive reception from critics and a loyal fanbase for adding much more innovation to the Pokémon series. They eventually became the best-selling games for the Game Boy Advance, selling roughly over 16.22 million copies worldwide as of October 2013.
 Resident Evil 4 (GC, PS2, PC) by Capcom Production Studio 4 and Capcom revamped the franchise in a new, more action-oriented direction. It remains one of the highest rated games of the generation.
 Rez (DC, PS2) by United Game Artists and Sega received significant critical acclaim. The game, about a computer virus named Swayzak invading the mainframe of a computer, has been cited as one of the greatest videogames ever made and a significant example of videogames as art.
 Shadow of the Colossus (PS2) by Team Ico and SCE has been frequently cited as an example of video games as art. Many reviewers consider the game's soundtrack to be one of its greatest aspects. In addition to Roar of the Earth won the award for "Soundtrack of the Year" in the US-based video game magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly, GameSpot commented that the musical score conveyed, and often intensified, the mood of any given situation, while it was described as "one of the finest game soundtracks ever" by a reviewer from Eurogamer.
 Shenmue (DC) by Sega AM2 and Sega is regarded as a major step forward for 3D open-world gameplay, introduced the quick time event mechanic in its modern form, and has been widely cited as one of the best and most influential games ever made.
 Sonic Adventure (DC, GC, PC) by Sonic Team was the first main Sonic the Hedgehog game to feature 3D gameplay. It received a perfect score from Computer and Video Games, who called it one of the greatest video games of all time, and GamesRadar wrote it "changed the gaming world forever".
 Soulcalibur (Arcade, DC) by Project Soul and Namco is the first fighting game on any platform to have ever received a perfect 10.0 rating from IGN and GameSpot and also a perfect 40/40 (second of only fifteen games) from Japanese gaming magazine, Famitsu. Soul Calibur II (Arcade, PS2, GC, Xbox) was a bestseller for all three home consoles on which it was released and was notable for featuring exclusive characters for every version released.
 Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic (PC, Xbox) by BioWare and LucasArts has been cited as one of the best games of the generation and greatest games of all time. Its sequel, Star Wars Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords, also garnered critical acclaim.
 Super Mario Sunshine (GC) by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis & Development (Nintendo EAD) and Nintendo is the highest-rated 3D platformer of the generation with a Metacritic score of 92/100. This game was the first 3D Super Mario game which included the ability to ride Yoshi. This feature reappeared in Super Mario Galaxy 2 where the Twisty Trials Galaxy in World S is another recurring theme from Super Mario Sunshine, based on one of the missions "The Secret of Ricco Tower".
 Super Smash Bros. Melee (GC) by Hal Laboratory and Nintendo went on to become one of the most popular and most played games on the GameCube console which is a widely played competitive video game and has been featured in several high-profile tournaments. Many consider it to be the most competitively viable game in the series.
 Tekken Tag Tournament (PS2) was a launch title for the PlayStation 2, and is regarded as one of the best PS2 titles ever, and is also considered one of if not the most significant entry to the Tekken series. Throughout the sixth generation, Tekken Tag was the fighting game of choice for many tournaments. The game was also praised for its graphical leap from the arcade on to the then, new generation of consoles, on the PlayStation 2.
 Virtua Fighter 4 (Arcade, PS2) by Sega AM2 and Sega received universal acclaim, with a Metacritic score of 94/100, and is considered to have set a new standard for 3D fighting games. In Japan, the PlayStation 2 version sold 356,897 during its first week on sale in early 2002. Worldwide sales of the PS2 port exceeded 1.5 million by June 2002. On release, Famitsu magazine scored the PlayStation 2 version of the game a 37 out of 40.

See also

 1990s in video games
 2000s in video games
 Seventh generation of video game consoles
 Fifth generation of video game consoles

Notes

 The Game Boy Player, released in 2003, adds Game Boy Advance functionality to a GameCube. It is also backwards compatible with Game Boy and Game Boy Color games. A few titles are not supported. The Game Boy Player was sold separately upon its launch, but it was later included with select GameCube bundles.

References

History of video game consoles 06
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1990s video games
2000s video games
2010s video games
Video game consoles06
Video game consoles06
Video game consoles06

Sixth generation of video game consoles


Sviće su naseljeno mjesto u sastavu općine Zenice, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine, BiH.

Stanovništvo
Prema popisu 1991. ovdje su živjeli:

 Srbi - 463 (66,91%)
 Muslimani - 140 (20,23%)
 Hrvati - 54 (7,80%)
 Jugoslaveni - 20 (2,89%)
 ostali i nepoznato - 12 (1,63%)

Prema popisu 1981. ovdje je živjelo 639 stanovnika, od čega su bili:

 Srbi - 422 (66,04%)
 Muslimani - 107 (16,74%)
 Hrvati - 70 (10,95%)
 Jugoslaveni - 38 (5,94%)
 ostali i nepoznato - 2 (0,31%)

Prema popisu 1971. ovdje je živjelo 587 stanovnika, od čega su bili:

 Srbi - 420 (71,55%)
 Muslimani - 95 (16,18%)
 Hrvati - 65 (11,07%)
 Jugoslaveni - 7 (1,19%)

Izvor

Naselja u Zeničko-dobojskoj županiji
Zenica

Sviće


Mami Shinkai (jap. , Shinkai Mami; * 7. Juni 1985) ist eine japanische Ringerin. Sie wurde 2008 in Tokio Vize-Weltmeisterin in der Gewichtsklasse bis 67 kg Körpergewicht.

Werdegang

Mami Shinkai begann an einer Oberschule im Alter von 15 Jahren mit dem Ringen. Zwischenzeitlich ist sie Studentin an der Chūkyō-Universität. Dort ist sie Mitglied der Frauenmannschaft im Ringen. Seit sie der japanischen Frauennationalmannschaft im Ringen angehört, ist Kazuhito Sakae der für sie verantwortliche Trainer. Mami Shinkai ist nur 1,58 Meter groß und ringt als Erwachsene meist in der Gewichtsklasse bis 67 kg Körpergewicht. Sie ist mehrfache japanische Meisterin in dieser Gewichtsklasse.

Ihr Debüt auf der internationalen Ringermatte gab Mami Shinkai bei der Junioren-Weltmeisterschaft 2003 in Istanbul. Dort startete sie in der Gewichtsklasse bis 72 kg, kam aber über den 11. Platz nicht hinaus. Sie kam dann erst wieder bei der Asien-Meisterschaft der Junioren 2005 in Jeju/Südkorea zum Einsatz. Dort gewann sie in der Gewichtsklasse bis 67 kg den Titel vor Ma Yanchun aus China und Otschirbatyn Nasanburmaa aus der Mongolei. Kurz danach wurde sie in Vilnius in der gleichen Gewichtsklasse auch Junioren-Weltmeisterin. Im Finale bezwang sie dabei Heather Martin aus den Vereinigten Staaten. Im gleichen Jahr wurde sie auch noch Siegerin bei der Universitäten-Weltmeisterschaft in Izmir, wo sie Hatun Muhcu, Türkei und Stefanie Howourn aus Kanada auf die Plätze verwies.

Bei der Universitäten-Weltmeisterschaft 2006 in Ulaanbaatar unterlag sie im Finale der Gewichtsklasse bis 67 kg gegen Gelegdschamtsyn Narantschimeg aus der Mongolei und belegte deshalb den 2. Platz. Bei weiteren internationalen Meisterschaften wurde sie 2006 nicht eingesetzt.

2007 belegte Mami Shinkai bei der Asien-Meisterschaft in Bischkek hinter Chen Meng aus China und Darja Karpenka aus Kasachstan den 3. Platz und 2008 wurde sie in Jeju erstmals asiatische Meisterin in der Gewichtsklasse bis 67 kg vor Otschirbatyn Nasanburmaa und Darja Karpenka. Im gleichen Jahr stieß sie bei der Weltmeisterschaft 2008 in Tokio nach Siegen über Stefanie Maierhofer aus Österreich, Julija Bartnowskaja, Russland und Otschirbatyn Nasanburmaa in den Endkampf vor, in dem sie allerdings gegen Martine Dugrenier  aus Kanadanach Punkten verlor. Sie wurde damit Vize-Weltmeisterin. Eine Teilnahme an den Olympischen Spielen 2008 in Peking war für Mami Shinkai nicht möglich, da die Gewichtsklasse bis 67 kg Körpergewicht nicht olympisch ist.

2009 wurde Mami Shinkai bei der japanischen Meisterschaft in der Gewichtsklasse bis 67 kg von Yoshiko Inoue geschlagen. Sie kam deshalb in diesem Jahr zu keinem Einsatz bei einer internationalen Meisterschaft. 2010 vertrat sie aber Japan wieder bei der Weltmeisterschaft in Moskau. Sie verlor dort in ihrem zweiten Kampf gegen Martine Dugrenier, schlug dann in der Trostrunde Maja Gunvor Erlandsen aus Norwegen, verlor aber den Kampf um eine WM-Bronzemedaille gegen Ifeoma Iheanacho aus Nigeria. Sie belegte damit den 5. Platz.

2011 verlor Mami Shinkai in der japanischen WM-Ausscheidung in der Gewichtsklasse bis 67 kg im Halbfinale gegen Hiroe Suzuki. Im Laufe des Jahres 2011 wechselte sie dann in die olympische Gewichtsklasse bis 72 kg Körpergewicht. Im Dezember 2011 wurde sie aber in dieser Gewichtsklasse bei der japanischen Meisterschaft im Endkampf von Kyoko Hamaguchi, der früheren fünffachen Weltmeisterin, besiegt. Die Olympischen Spiele 2012 in London sind deshalb für sie in weite Ferne gerückt. Sie wurde aber im Februar 2012 bei den Asien-Meisterschaften in Gumi/Südkorea eingesetzt und gewann dort hinter Güzäl Mänürowa, Kasachstan und Badrachyn Odontschimeg aus der Mongolei eine Bronzemedaille.

International Erfolge

Erläuterungen

 alle Wettbewerbe im freien Stil
 WM = Weltmeisterschaft

Quellen

 Fachzeitschrift Der Ringer
 Website "Foeldeak Wrestling Database"
 Website "www.japan-wrestling.jp"

Weblinks
 Kampf von Mami Shinkai gegen Martine Dugrenier bei der Weltmeisterschaft 2008

Ringer (Japan)
Japanischer Meister (Ringen)
Geboren 1985
Frau
Japaner

Mami Shinkai


Diana Cozma () este actriță, scriitoare, traducătoare, conf. univ. dr. habil. la Facultatea de Teatru și Film din cadrul Universității Babeș-Bolyai din Cluj-Napoca, membră a Uniunii Scriitorilor din România.

Biografie
Diana Cozma urmează cursurile liceului de filologie-istorie Ady-Șincai din același oraș, apoi cursurile Facultății de Filologie, specializarea Limba și literatura română – Limba și literatura engleză din cadrul Universității Babeș-Bolyai din Cluj, pe care le absolvă în 1988. În perioada facultății face parte din trupa de teatru Ars Amatoria și fiii condusă de criticul literar Ion Vartic,  alături de Ioan Gyuri Pascu, Adelina Groșan, Lucian Ștefănescu, Mircea Țicudean. Tot din timpul facultății, 1986, se angajează ca actor-păpușar la Teatrul de Păpuși Cluj, teatru pe care îl va conduce ca director în perioada 1990-1994 și căruia îi va schimba numele în Teatrul de Păpuși Puck. În 1995 își ia licența în Artă teatrală, specializarea Actorie. În 1998 este angajată ca asistent universitar la Universitatea Babeș-Bolyai, Facultatea de Litere, Catedra de Teatru. Din 2007 și până în prezent este conferențiar universitar la Facultatea de Teatru și Film din cadrul aceleiași universități. În anul 2005 își susține teza de doctorat intitulată Dramaturgia europeană privită prin prisma celor patru categorii teatrale ale lui Peter Brook. Între 2009 și 2017 predă cursuri și în cadrul Facultății de Științe Politice, Administrative și ale Comunicării, Departamentul de Jurnalism. În 2017 susține teza de abilitare Dramaturgia acțiunilor scenice și obține Atestatul de abilitare în domeniul de studii universitare de doctorat Teatru și artele spectacolului și în același an se afiliază  Școlii doctorale de Teatru și Film din cadrul Universității Babeș-Bolyai. În perioada 2011-2012 este directoarea proiectului Zilele Odin - pentru o cultură a schimbării care i-a avut ca invitați pe Eugenio Barba și Odin Teatret din Holstebro, Danemarca și s-a desfășurat în Cluj-Napoca, organizator Asociația Spin Work Cluj-Napoca.

Din 1990 participă la numeroase workshopuri, stagii, seminarii, master class-uri internaționale (Odin Teatret, Holstebro, Danemarca; The Workcenter of Jerzy Grotowski and Thomas Richards, Pontedera, Italia; Na Grobli Institute, Wroclaw, Polonia; Centrul de Cercetare Teatrală Arsenic, Lausanne, Elveția; Internationalen Theaterwerkstatt, Wansee Forum, Berlin, Germania; Amsterdam Summer University, Olanda; Dimitri Institute, Verscio, Elveția) conduse de Eugenio Barba, Ludwik Flaszen, Thomas Richards, Mladen Materic, Jean-Jacques Harri, Cristina Wistari Formaggia, Yves Marc.  În cadrul acestor stagii explorează practic tehnici fundamentale ale artei actorului precum: dramaturgia actorului, montajul care se adresează concomitent percepției performerului și spectatorului, tehnica abandonului, seria organică a acțiunilor fizice și vocale, muzicalitatea mișcării corporale, antrenamente corporal-vocale, tehnici de concepere, scriere și interpretare a unei scene. Joacă în peste 40 de roluri în spectacole de teatru, spectacole de teatru de păpuși și filme cu care participă în festivaluri de teatru naționale și internaționale. În filmul Undeva, în Est (1991) regizat de Nicolae Mărgineanu, Centrul Cinematografic Buftea, joacă rolul "Învățătoarea".

Despre dramaturgie
Din 1998, Diana Cozma își intensifică cercetările asupra noțiunii de dramaturgie. Pe de o parte, este preocupată de ipostaza dramaturgului ca și practician al scenei, adică de textul dramatic elaborat de dramaturg - în calitatea sa de unic autor al textului dramatic - în timpul repetițiilor cu actorii și, uneori supus modificărilor, în funcție de reacțiile spectatorilor. În acest sens, dedică studii asupra dramaturgiei concepute de William Shakespeare, Moliere, Carlo Gozzi, Alfred Jarry, Eugene Ionesco, Samuel Beckett. Pe de altă parte, întreprinde cercetări riguroase asupra dramaturgiei lui Eugenio Barba care tratează dramaturgia ca munca acțiunilor scenice și identifică trei nivele de organizare a acesteia: dramaturgia actorului, dramaturgia narativă și dramaturgia evocativă din care face parte și dramaturgia spectatorului. În cartea ei, Eugenio Barba și mărul de aur, Diana Cozma elaborează, în detaliu, dramaturgia spectatorului.

Cărți și traduceri
În 2005, Diana Cozma publică primele ei două cărți, care sunt segmente din teza ei de doctorat: Dramaturgul-practician și Experimentul homo felix – un studiu shakespearian, postfață de Cornel Ungureanu, la Editura Casa Cărții de Știință, Cluj-Napoca, iar în 2006 obține Premiul pentru Debut – Eseu al Uniunii Scriitorilor din România, Filiala Cluj pentru Dramaturgul-practician. În 2007 îi apare cartea Teatrul înlănțuit. Eseu despre teatrul lui Jerzy Grotowski la aceeași editură clujeană. Urmează o perioadă în care se dedică muncii de traducere și astfel între 2008-2012 i se publică următoarele cărți traduse din limba engleză: Eugenio Barba, Casa în flăcări – despre regie și dramaturgie , București, Editura Nemira, Colecția Yorick, 2012; ediția a II-a, 2013; Eugenio Barba, Pământ de cenușă și diamant. Ucenicia mea în Polonia urmată de 26 de scrisori de la Jerzy Grotowski către Eugenio Barba, București, Editura Ideea Europeană, 2010; Yasmine Beverly Rana, Cinci piese de teatru, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Casa Cărții de Știință, 2008.

În septembrie-octombrie 2010 și februarie-martie 2011 participă în calitate de observator la repetițiile pentru spectacolul Viața cronică, dramaturgia și regia Eugenio Barba, Odin Teatret, Holstebro, Danemarca. În urma acestei cercetări scrie cartea Eugenio Barba și mărul de aur, publicată de Editura Ideea Europeană, București, 2013, apărută și în ediție e-book. În 2015 îi apare primul volum de proză scurtă,  Amor în violete, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Tribuna. În perioada 2016-2018 publică cărțile: Lasă-ți bocancii, afară! (monologuri dramatice), prefață de Cornel Ungureanu, Editura Școala Ardeleană & Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2018; Dansul efemer al acțiunilor actorului, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, 2016; Tehnici fundamentale de creație scenică, curs universitar, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, 2016. În 2021 publică prima carte în limba engleză, Eugenio Barba and the Golden Apple: Witnessing Odin Teatret's Rehearsals, foreword by Eugenio Barba, Gloucester, The Choir Press.

Alte activități
Publică articole, studii, eseuri, traduceri, interviuri, proze, texte dramatice în reviste de cultură: Contemporanul, Orizonturi culturale italo-române, Tribuna, E-Creator. Susține conferințe pe teme de specialitate și conduce workshopuri în Cluj-Napoca, România, Chicago, Illinois, SUA și Lexington, Virginia, SUA. Activitatea ei artistică este consemnată în peste 150 de articole, recenzii, cronici, interviuri în țară și străinătate și este cuprinsă în numeroase antologii și dicționare.

Referințe
Spectacole (selecție)
 "Diana Cozma a reușit să concentreze micile drame cotidiene și să dea o importanță gravă firimiturilor de gest prin care personajul își exprimă spaima. O, ce zile frumoase! a prilejuit o demonstrație de forță a actriței. Publicul a reacționat uimitor, aplauzele explodând după clipe lungi de tăcere aproape mistică." - Cristian Marin
 "... Dianei Cozma i-a reușit, uluitor, un personaj diluat până la limita extremă: anume a deplinei concentrări." - Ovidiu Pecican
 "Doamna abracadabrantă (Diana Cozma) dă glas dezideratului de trăire totală, dilatată în interpretarea actoricească, aptă să realizeze, după expresia lui Ion Vartic, o teatralitate de-a dreptul stihială. De un dinamism contaminant, cu surprinzătoare siguranță a mijloacelor, tânăra interpretă are un temperament scenic cu multiple disponibilități, verificate de-a lungul reprezentației în măștile succesive adoptate, imrpimând nerv secvențelor în care evoluează." - Doina Modola
 "... jocul Dianei Cozma conturează nuanțări diabolice ale îngerului-morții..." - Monica Gheț
 "... un gioco scenico che ha per lo meno un momento di straordinaria forza poetica..." - Osvaldo Guerrieri

Cărți (selecție)
 "Lasă-ți bocancii, afară! Imperativele cu care începe cartea – titlul, nu-i așa – sunt legate de o virgulă. Fără virgulă, ar fi vorba de o gospodărească atenție. Îl învățăm pe cititorul, pe partenerul de dialog, să se poarte frumos – să fie om al casei. Al familiei. Ar putea face parte din familia noastră, pentru o ospeție, dacă-și lasă bocancii afară. Dar cu virgulă, așa cum e titlul? Cum scrie negru pe alb? Personajul cu bocancii e dat afară. Cam așa ar trebui citite/văzute monologurile doamnei Diana Cozma. Monologuri despre familia... noastră, despre buna sau incomoda relație dintre El și Ea. Lasă-ți bocancii, afară!!! Ești în cultură, învață să rămâi în cultură. Să pășești... frumos." - Cornel Ungureanu
 "Diana Cozma trăiește teatrul lumii, clipă de clipă, în stare fiind să dramatizeze și cele mai terne și încremenite momente ale zilei." - Irina Petraș
 "Diana Cozma trece peste dogmatismul teoriilor, peste rigiditatea frazelor instituționalizate de științele umaniste; ea reușește cu o retorică ludică și lucidă să restituie o mare parte a culturii lăuntricului uman, conștiinetă fiind că teatrul este dimensiune a culturii, iar cultura reprezintă suma creațiilor umane." - Lucia Dărămuș
 "Dincolo de modelul Brook [...] putem descoperi o performanță intelectual-artistică realizată de un actor capabil de performanțe artistice, dar și de spectacole de cascadorie... uimitoare pentru un pedagog al scenei." - Cornel Ungureanu
 "Un volum care ne-o arată pe Diana Cozma așa cum e: exuberantă, vivace, dăruită meseriei, imaginând înscenări ce pot fi preponderent reale." - Adrian Țion

Workshop-uri (selecție)
 "Diana Cozma, director and acting teacher at Babes-Bolyai University în Romania conducted a productive workshop on Plasticity, action and movement brought European style of physicality combined with Jerzy Grotowski's style unmasking, revealing of the real substance: a totality of physical and mental reaction." -  Ezzat Goushegir

Premii
Pentru munca ei de cercetare reflectată în cărțile publicate și pentru activitatea ei profesională obține premii, distincții, nominalizări, printre care:
 2013, Premiul Teodor Boșca pentru Traduceri al Uniunii Scriitorilor din România, Filiala Cluj pentru Casa în flăcări – despre regie și dramaturgie de Eugenio Barba
 2006, Premiul pentru Debut – Eseu al Uniunii Scriitorilor din România, Filiala Cluj pentru Dramaturgul-practician
 2001, Premiul pentru Cel Mai Bun Spectacol de Grup cu spectacolul Englezește fără profesor, Universitatea de Arte George Enescu Iași
 2001, Premiul pentru Cel Mai Bun Spectacol cu spectacolul Englezește fără profesor, Universitatea Hyperion București
 1996, Nominalizare la Premiul pentru Cea Mai Bună Actriță, pentru rolul Winnie din spectacolul Zile fericite de Samuel Beckett, regia Radu Teampău, Gala Tânărului Actor Costinești.

Note

Vezi și
 Jerzy Grotowski
 Listă de regizori de teatru italieni

Legături externe
 Biografia pe site-ul Uniunii Scriitorilor din România, filiala Cluj-Napoca
 Biografia pe site-ul Universității Babeș-Bolyai din Cluj-Napoca
 Platforma on-line galeriaartistilor.ro pe site-ul Fundației Culturale Ideea Europeană
 Prezentare pe yourtale.ro

Nașteri în 1962
Actori români în viață
Scriitori români contemporani
Dramaturgi români
clujeni
Conferențiari universitari români
Traducători români
Membri ai Uniunii Scriitorilor din România

Diana Cozma


Das Schloss Oberthal liegt in der Gemeinde Thal in der Steiermark. Seine Geschichte reicht bis in die erste Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts zurück. Heute ist es in Privatbesitz.

Lage
Das Schloss steht auf dem östlichen Abhang des Kogelwaldes, eines niedrigen Höhenrückens im südwestlichen Teil der Gemeinde Thal. Es hat die Adresse Schlossallee 2.

Geschichte

Ursprünglich befand sich an der Stelle des Schlosses gegen Ende des 14. Jahrhunderts ein einfacher Bauernhof, der zur Burg Waldsdorf gehörte. Die erste urkundliche Erwähnung des Hofes stammt aus dem Jahr 1322. Als mit Ulrich von Waldsdorf der letzte der Herren von Waldsdorf in der ersten Hälfte des 14. Jahrhunderts starb, verkaufte seine Witwe die Burg mitsamt dem Hof an die Herren von Windisch-Graetz. Diese bauten den Hof zu einem Edelsitz aus, der Oberthal genannt wurde. 1443 ging der Hof Oberthal an Ruprecht von Windisch-Graetz, während die heutige Burg Unterthal an seinen Bruder Sigmund kam.

Durch einen Einfall der Türken im Jahr 1532 dürfte Oberthal zerstört worden sein, da es 1542 als öde bezeichnet wurde. 1563 wurde unter Erasmus von Windisch-Graetz ein größerer Umbau durchgeführt. Erasmus Sigmund Freiherr von Windisch-Graetz verkaufte das Anwesen 1605 an Bernhard Walter von Walthersweil. Da dieser mit den Einkünften der Herrschaft nicht zufrieden war, verkaufte er sie an Philibert Schranz. Von diesem ging das Gut 1624 an Siegmund Friedrich von Trauttmansdorff, welcher von 1660 bis 1674 steirischer Landeshauptmann war. Im Jahr 1660 beauftragte Trauttmansdorff den Baumeister Domenico Rossi mit einem großzügigen Umbau des Anwesens. Im Zuge des Umbaus wurden hinter dem Schloss ein Park im französischen Stil angelegt.

1798 erwarb Leopold von Warnhauser das Schloss Oberthal von der Familie Trauttmansdorff. Zwischen 1841 und 1905 saßen die Freiherren von Walterskirchen auf dem Schloss. Unter ihrer Herrschaft wurde das Schloss 1846 im Stil der englischen Gotik umgebaut. Den Herren von Walterskirchen folgte 1905 eine slowenische Holzhandelsfirma und um 1935 der österreichische Handelsminister Friedrich Schuster im Besitz nach. Schuster ließ das vernachlässigte Schloss renovieren und ließ die historistischen Anbauten des 19. Jahrhunderts entfernen, so dass wieder der ursprüngliche barocke Stil erkennbar wurde. Auch der Arkadenhof wurde im Stil der Renaissance renoviert. 1940 erwarb der Hamburger Reeder John Theodor Essberger Oberthal, was dazu führte, dass es als Deutsches Eigentum nach Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges von den Russen und später von den Engländern besetzt wurde. Bis 1955 war im Schlossgebäude die britische Kommandantur eingerichtet und bis 1957 war ein Teil des Gebäudes an die englische Botschaft vermietet. 1958 ging das Schloss Oberthal wieder an seinen ursprünglichen Besitzer zurück und befindet sich heute im Besitz seiner Nachkommen, der Familie von Rantzau-Essberger.

Beschreibung

Das Schloss ist eine im Kern aus dem 17. Jahrhundert stammende Vierflügelanlage. Sie hat einen zinnenkranzbewehrten Torturm, der genauso wie der ebenfalls mit Zinnen versehen äußere Torbau aus dem 19. Jahrhundert stammt. An der nördlichen Gebäudeseite befinden sich zwei deutlich vortretende, in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts nach englischer Art umgestaltete, achteckige Ecktürme. Über dem, zum Innenhof führenden rustizierte Rundbogenportal befindet sich eine 1661 angebrachte Inschrift, welche auf die unter Sigmund Friedrich von Trauttmansdorff durchgeführten Umbauten hinweist. Darüber findet man in einem gebrochenen Ziergiebel das Wappen des Bauherrns. Der Arkadenhof wird an drei Seiten von dreigeschoßigen Säulengängen umgeben und wurde im 19. Jahrhundert im Renaissancestil renoviert. Ein Hofportal wird auf das Jahr 1563 datiert und weist einen 1515 eingemauerten Rotmarmorstein des Bischofs Andreas von Trauttmansdorff auf. Aus der Zeit um 1563 existiert ein unterirdischer, in Richtung Graz führender Gang, der nur mehr einige hundert Meter begehbar ist.

In den Repräsentationsräumen befinden sich Gemälde aus dem 17. und 18. Jahrhundert. Der Speisesaal ist mit Geweihen, Rüstungen und Waffen ausgestattet. Die mit Stuckdekor verzierte, dem heiligen Johannes dem Täufer geweihte barocke Schlosskapelle wurde 1656 erbaut und hat ein Altarbild mit der Taufe Jesu Christi aus derselben Zeit. An die Kapelle schließen zwei Räume mit Stuckdecken aus der Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts an. Zusätzlich befinden sich in diesen Räumlichkeiten in die Wand eingelassene Leinwandbilder.

Das Schloss wird von einem weitläufigen, von einer Mauer eingegrenzten französischen Park mit Grotten und einem Lusthaus aus der Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts umgeben.

Treibjagd
Am 26. Dezember 2015 protestierten Tierschützer mit Plakaten gegen eine am Areal des Schlosses stattfindende Treibjagd auf im Burgenland gezüchtete Fasane. Auch Anrainer sind dagegen, etwa wegen des Lärms.

Literatur

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Baudenkmal (Steiermark)
Oberthal
Thal (Steiermark)

Schloss Oberthal


සමූහ උත්තේජනය යනු  චිත්‍රපට සඳහා වර්තමානයේ බොහෝ ලෙසින් ත්‍රිමාන පරිගණක චිත්‍රකයන්හී දක්නට ලැබෙන ස්ථිතීන් හෝ චරිත විශාල සංඛ්‍යාවක් චලනය කිරීමට උත්තේජනය සැපයීමේ ක්‍රියාවලියයි. මෙම සමූහ උත්තේජනය කරන අතරතුර, නිරික්ෂිත මානව චර්යාත්මක අන්තර්ක්‍රියා සැලකිල්ලට ගැනෙන්නේ සාමුහික චර්යාව ප්‍රතිවලිත කිරීම සඳහාය.

මෙම සමූහ උත්තේජන අවශ්‍යතාවය ඇතිවන්නේ, සාම්ප්‍රදායික ක්‍රමවේදයන් භාවිතා කිරීමෙන් ප්‍රායෝගික ලෙසින් සජීවීකරණය කල හැකි ගණනට වඩා ඇටසැකිලි/ඇටකටු වැනි පාත්‍ර වර්ගයා   වැඩි සංඛ්‍යාවක අවශ්‍යතාවයක් කිසියම් දර්ශනයක් අපේක්ෂා කරන විටදීය. සමූහ උත්තේජන ක්‍රමවේදය මගින් පිරිවැය සඵලතාව හැකියාව  සලසන අතර එලෙසින්ම උත්තේජිත එක් එක් පාත්‍රවර්ගයා හෝ කාරකය හෝ  වෙන වෙනම පාලනය කිරීමේ හැකියාවද ලබා දෙයි.

සජීවිකාරකයෝ දර්ශීය වශයෙන් සිදුකරනුයේ සම්පූර්ණ පාත්‍රවර්ගයා සඳහා හෝ ප්‍රත්‍යෙක කායික කොටස් සඳහා හෝ චලන පුස්තකාලයක් නිර්මාණය කිරීමයි. සැකසුම සරලීකෘත කරනු වස්, මෙම සජීවිකරණයන් සමහරවිට  රූපකාරකයන් ලෙසින් පැලහීම කරනු ලැබේ. විකල්ප වශයෙන්, මෙම චලනයන්  පටිපාටිමය ලෙසින් ජනිත කල හැක - එනම් මෘදුකාංග තුලින් ස්වයංක්‍රීයව රංග රචනයකල හැක.

සමූහයේ සත්‍ය චලනය සහ අන්තර්ක්‍රියා දර්ශීය වශයෙන් සිදු කෙරෙන්නේ පහත ආකාර දෙකකින් එක් අයුරකිනි:

අංශු චලනය

පාත්‍රවර්ගයා ලක්ෂ්‍යාකාර  අංශූන්ට අමුණා තැබෙන අතර, ඉන්පසු සුළඟ, ගුරුත්වය, ආකර්ෂණ, සහ ගැටුම් සමායිත කිරීමෙන් ඒවා සජීවීකරණය කෙරෙයි. අංශු ක්‍රමය ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීමට සාමාන්‍යයෙන් අධික වැයක් සිදු නොවන  අතර, බොහෝ ත්‍රිමාන මෘදුකාංග පැකේජ තුල එය සිදු කල හැක.  කෙසේ වුවත් මෙම ක්‍රමයේ ප්‍රායෝගික දෝෂයක් වන්නේ අවශ්‍ය ලෙස චරිත යොමු කිරීමට ඇති අපහසුවත් චලන පැතලි තලයකට සිමාවීමත් ය. කෙසේවෙතත්, මෙම ක්‍රමවේදය එතරම් යතාර්ථනිරූපිත නොවන්නේ අවශ්‍ය වූ විටෙක එක් එක් ස්ථිතීන් මෙහෙයවීම අපහසු වන අතර චලිතය සාමාන්‍යයෙන් පැතැලි පෘෂ්ඨයකට සීමා වන නිසාවෙනුත්ය.

සමූහ කෘත්‍රිම බුද්ධිය (ඒ. අයි.)

වස්තුවක් එසේත් නැත්නම් කාරකයට (Artificial intelligence) ලබා දේ. මෙම ක්‍රමය කාරකයක් හට පෙනීමෙන් දැක්ම, මූලික හැගිම්, ශක්ති මට්ටම වැනි දෑ මූලික කර ගනිමින් මෙහෙයවීමක් සිදු කරයි.මෙම කාර්යයන් හට පසුව අරමුණු ලබා දීමේදී ලෝකයේ විශාල පිරිසකගේ එකතුවක් මෙන් අනෝන්‍යව ක්‍රියාකිරීමට අවස්ථාව ලබා දේ. බොහෝ විට එම චරිත වටපිටාවේ අවයවයන්ට අනුව ක්‍රියා කරයි. එනම් කදු නැගීම ඉනිමං වලින් බැසීම වැනි ක්‍රියාකාරකම් සඳහා සැකසුම් කරයි. මෙම ක්‍රමය (partice Mation) ක්‍රමයට වඩා තාත්වික නමුත් වඩා මිල අධික වේ

(AI) ක්‍රමයේ වඩාත් ප්‍රසිද්ධ උදාහරණයක් වන්නේ (New Line cinema's) ද ලෝඩ් ඔෆ් ද රින්ග් (The lord of the ring) චිත්‍රපටයේ සටන් වදින හමුදාවන්ය. මෙහි දී පිරිස් අනුකරණය කර ඇත්තේ (Wera Digital's) (Massive software) මදුකාංගය යොදා ගනිමිනි.

ත්‍රිමාණ සජීවීකරණය

සමූහ උත්තේජනය


Die Latvia International (vormals Latvia Riga District International), auch Riga International oder Riga Open betitelt, sind die offenen internationalen Meisterschaften im Badminton von Lettland. Mit der ersten Austragung in Riga 2005 gehören sie zu den jüngeren internationalen Meisterschaften in Europa. Das Turnier ist nicht zu verwechseln Riga Open, die nicht in den BE Circuit integriert sind. Mit dem Verlassen des angestammten Austragungsortes Riga im Jahr 2016 wurden die Latvia International ins Leben gerufen. Während die ersten beiden Austragungen der Riga International nicht dem BE Circuit angehörten, sind die Latvia International sowohl Bestandteil der europäischen als auch der weltweiten Ranglistenwertungsserien.

Die Sieger

Weblinks
 tournamentsoftware.com

Liste (Badminton)
Erstveranstaltung 2005

Latvia International


Ilgrof eller Ilgrov er navnet på en tidligere landsby og et sogn på den forhenværende nordfrisiske ø Strand, som gik under i stormfloden 1634. Byen skal allerede være gået under i Manddrunkningen i 1362, men blev senere genbygget igen. Den tabte by lå sydøst for Buphever og nord for Rungholt-bugten i Pelvorm Herred, nu beliggende mellem øerne Pelvorm og Nordstrandmose ved Nørre Hever i Vadehavet.

Ilgrof blev første gang nævnt i 1462. Stednavnet betyder igle-grav. Der findes også skrivemåde Igrof. Ved stormfloden i 1634 omkom her 288 memesker. To vindmøller samt kirkens klokketårn bortrevedes af bølgerne. Ilgrof Kirke blev nedbrudt fire år senere. Kirkens alter og prædikestol kom senere til Pelvorm, klokken til hallig Hoge.

Noter

Strand (ø)
Landsbyer

Ilgrof


An Dryadella linearifolia in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Oakes Ames, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Carlyle August Luer. An Dryadella linearifolia in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dryadella, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Dryadella

Dryadella linearifolia


Agrilus viridicephalus é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Fisher, 1929.

Referências

viridicephalus

Agrilus viridicephalus


Angrebet på Sorgenfri Slot fandt sted 29. august 1943. Angrebet blev udført af det tyske nazistregime og var en del af den danske besættelse.

Da Danmark blev besat spillede Sorgenfri Slot en stor rolle i kongefamiliens liv.

Angrebet på Sorgenfri Slot blev udført som en del af Operation Safari, som var en militæroperation gennemført af den tyske værnemagt. Den gik ud på at afvæbne og opløse den danske hær og flåde, så de ikke kunne hjælpe de allierede, hvis en invasion skulle finde sted.

I august 1943 skærpedes modsætningerne i Danmark mellem den tyske besættelsesmagt og det flertal af danskere, som efter de store tyske nederlag ved Stalingrad, Kursk og El-Alamein 1942-43, satte deres lid til, at de allierede snart ville vinde krigen.
Angrebet gik ud på at svække og opløse det danske militær, så man kunne overtage Danmark,  i kølvandet på augustoprøret og samarbejdspolitikkens ophør.

De sænkede flåden og angreb diverse militæranlæg, Sorgenfri Slot inkluderet. Forinden forekom Telegramkrisen, som handlede om at   Hitler opfattede et takketelegram fra Kong Christian 10. som fornærmende kortfattet.

Tyskerne overtog kommandoen over slottet og kongen fik at vide at hvis han ville forlade grunden skulle han have tilladelse af den tyske general. Under stormen af slottet døde syv tyske soldater, mens der ikke faldt nogen danske soldater. Tyskerne stod for sikkerheden på slottene - herunder Sorgenfri - helt ind til 1943, hvor politiet igen overtog kommandoen for at beskytte kongefamilien. Kong Christian og dronning Alexandrine boede efterfølgende på slottet helt ind til 1944, hvor de blev flyttet til Amalienborg, hvor politiet bedre kunne sørge for deres sikkerhed.

Eksterne kilder
 Tyskerne angreb Sorgenfri Slot
 Da Danmark fik nok kristeligt-dagblad.dk
Hørsholms nazister gjorde livet surt for modstandsfolkene
Telegramkrise og rigsdagsvalget 1942-43  danmarkshistorien.dk

Begivenheder i 1943
Danmark under 2. verdenskrig

Angrebet på Sorgenfrislot


Regionalna nogometna liga Bosne i Hercegovine – Južna skupina je bila jedna od tri skupine "Regionalne nogometne lige BiH" (regionalni nogometni savezi Sarajeva, Mostara i Zenice) i liga četvrtog stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1979./80.  Sudjelovalo je 14 klubova, a prvak je bila "Sutjeska" iz Foče.

Ljestvica

 Lištica – tadašnji naziv za Široki Brijeg
 Ilidža – danas dio naselja Sarajevo

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Povezani članci
 Republička liga BiH 1979./80.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 nk-sirokibrijeg.com, Miljenko Karačić: Zlatne godine - Šest desetljeća nogometa u Širokom Brijegu, Široki Brijeg, 2008., str. 45-50, preuzeto 8. siječnja 2019.
 issuu.com, Zvonimir Čilić, Željko Kocaj: 66 godina NK "Vitez", Vitez, 2013., str. 62, preuzeto 8. siječnja 2019.

1979-80 jug
 jug
1979-80 2 jug

Regionalna nogometna liga BiH – Jug 1979./80.


Bowen Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Bowen Township (Madison County, Arkansas)
 Bowen Township (Mississippi County, Arkansas)
 Bowen Township (North Dakota)

Bowen Township


قرية خوز قرية ريفية تقع في قضاء أبو الخصيب في محافظة البصرة جنوب العراق يمر فيها العديد من الأنهار اشهرها نهر خوز والذي تشتهر القرية باسمه وكذلك تشتهر بصناعة حلاوة النهر خوز.

مَراجع

البصرة
قرى محافظة البصرة
قرى العراق

قرية خوز


El Centro de Información Forestal (CIF) del Departamento Forestal de la FAO, que se encuentra en Roma, es una biblioteca especializada que cuenta con aproximadamente 6000 libros y más de 600 títulos de anuarios actualizados y diversas publicaciones seriadas en el sector forestal y áreas relacionadas. También tiene una gran colección de literatura gris -incluida la documentación sobre los proyectos forestales de la FAO y los documentos e informes de las muchas reuniones que se celebran dentro del Comité Forestal de la FAO- muchos de los cuales no están dispone en ninguna otra parte.

Los temas cubiertos incluyen la gestión forestal sostenible, gestión sobre incendios, silvicultura de zonas áridas, salud de los bosques, bosques plantados, recursos genéticos, dendroenergía, cosecha,  industrias, el comercio y los bosques, los productos forestales no madereros, biodiversidad, cambio climático, desertificación, medio ambiente y su utilización, especies exóticas invasoras, los bosques y el agua, los procesos participativos, los bosques y la reducción de la pobreza, género, las empresas de pequeña escala, manejo de conflictos, el cumplimiento de la legislación forestal y la gobernanza, los programas forestales nacionales, la evaluación global de los recursos forestales y otros temas relacionados.

Véase también
 Congreso Forestal Mundial

Enlaces externos
 Página principal de la FAO
 FAO Forestal
 Centro de Información Forestal
 Catálogo de la FAO en-línea
 Reuniones del Departamento Forestal de la FAO

Bibliotecas de Italia

Centro de Información Forestal


Umberslade Hall est un manoir du  transformé en appartements résidentiels situé à Nuthurst près de Tanworth à Arden, dans le Warwickshire. Il s'agit d'un bâtiment classé Grade II*.

Histoire
La famille Archer obtient le manoir d'Umberslade par Henri II au  et en conserve la possession pendant environ 600 ans.

L'ancien manoir est remplacé entre 1695 et 1700 lorsque  construit le nouveau manoir pour Andrew Archer, député du Warwickshire. Le domaine passe à son fils Andrew Archer (2e baron Archer), après sa mort en 1778, il est finalement confié à sa fille Sarah, comtesse de Plymouth. En 1751, Horace Walpole visite le domaine et le qualifie d'endroit odieux .

Le domaine est vendu en 1826 à Edward Bolton King, député de Warwick et du comté de Warwick, au cours duquel l'ancienne chapelle de Nuthurst, près de Hockley Heath est reconstruite et un terrain est donné pour une église et une école à Hockley Heath. À partir de 1850, la maison est louée par George Muntz, député de Birmingham. Après sa mort en 1857, son fils George Frederick achète le domaine et agrandit et améliore considérablement la maison. Pendant ce temps, Muntz junior fait construire une église sur le domaine, l'église baptiste d'Umberslade, qui existe à ce jour séparément de la maison. En 1881 la maisonnée compte trente personnes dont treize domestiques résidents. Frederick Ernest Muntz, qui hérite du domaine en 1898, est haut shérif du Warwickshire en 1902 et sous -lieutenant. Le domaine, très réduit, reste la propriété de la famille Muntz.

À partir des années 1960, la maison est louée à des locataires commerciaux, notamment à partir de 1967 BSA Motorcycles - Triumph Motorcycles, pour fusionner leurs différents départements de conception et de développement en un point central, à peu près à égale distance de leurs bases de fabrication à Meriden, Redditch et Small Heath. Auparavant, le site est utilisé de la même manière par un fabricant industriel de composants automobiles, Wilmot Breedon .

En 1978, il est transformé en douze appartements et deux petites maisons .

Références

Liens externes

Monument classé de Grade II dans le Warwickshire

Umberslade Hall


Chesalles-sur-Moudon es una comuna suiza del cantón de Vaud, situada en el distrito de Broye-Vully. Limita al norte con la comuna de Curtilles, al noreste con Sarzens, al sureste con Brenles, al sur con Chavannes-sur-Moudon, y al oeste con Moudon.

La comuna hizo parte hasta el 31 de diciembre de 2007 del distrito de Moudon, círculo de Lucens.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Sitio oficial de la comuna de Chesalles-sur-Moudon

Comunas de Vaud

Chesalles-sur-Moudon


المطبخ النيوزيلندي هو مطبخ يشتق أطباقه من الكثير من المصادرِ المختلفة، ذو خصوصية بريطانية والبعض من الآمورية في أوائل التاريخ. بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية بدأ يشتق من المطبخ الأمريكي والأسترالي والمطبخ الأمريكي الجديد ومطبخ جنوب شرق آسيا، شرق آسيا، والهند وكل هذا منذ عام 1980.
أفضل مطبخ من نيوزيلندا يؤكّد على النوعية وطراوة المنتج النيوزيلندي المأخوذ من الأرض والبحر والمتوفر بسهولة في الجزيرة التي يستند اقتصادها على الزراعة.
المطبخ النيوزلندي مشابه لمطبخ أستراليا. العشاء هو وجبة الطعام الرئيسية لليوم، عندما تتجمع العوائل وتشترك في مسائهم سوية.

أكلات تم تطويرها في نيوزيلندا
 بسكويت أفغاني
 أوزة استعمارية
 بافولفا
 كعكة المصاصة
 آيس كريم هوكي بوكي
 بسكويت أنزاك

المصادر

 pg 124-128, David Burton, Pavalova Paradise Lost, Cuisine issue 127, March 2008
 'Food, drink and dress' in Te Ara: The Encyclopaedia of New Zealand: http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealandInBrief/Society/9/en

وصلات خارجية
 موسوعة الطبخ النيوزلندي

أطعمة ومشروبات
مطبخ أوقيانوسي
مطبخ نيوزيلندي

مطبخ نيوزلندي


O Dia Internacional dos Monumentos e Sítios, também conhecido como Dia do Patrimônio Mundial, é uma celebração internacional realizada em 18 de abril de cada ano, em todo o mundo. A comemoração compreende diferentes atividades que destacam a importância do patrimônio cultural, incluindo visitas a monumentos e sítios patrimoniais, conferências, mesas redondas e artigos de jornal. A cada ano, a data traz um tema principal, como, por exemplo, o turismo sustentável, em 2017, e as paisagens rurais, em 2019.

História

O Dia Internacional dos Monumentos e Sítios foi proposto pelo Conselho Internacional de Monumentos e Sítios (ICOMOS) em 18 de abril de 1982 e aprovado pela Assembléia Geral da UNESCO em 1983.

O objetivo é conscientizar sobre a diversidade do patrimônio cultural da humanidade, sua vulnerabilidade e os esforços necessários para sua proteção e conservação.

!Artigos novos


L'Impasse est un téléfilm franco-belge réalisé par Delphine Lemoine sur un scénario de Laurent Mondy et Olivier Lécot et diffusé en France le  sur France 2.

Cette fiction, qui est une adaptation du roman du même nom publié par Aurélie de Gubernatis aux éditions Héloïse d'Ormesson, est une coproduction de Je Films, France Télévisions, Be-FILMS et la RTBF (télévision belge) réalisée pour France 2 avec la participation de la Radio télévision suisse (RTS) et de TV5 Monde, ainsi que le soutien de la région Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur.

Synopsis

Estelle Segal, psychiatre spécialiste de l'hypnose, voit Thomas, son ancien amour de jeunesse, hospitalisé dans sa clinique suite à une tentative de suicide, 25 ans après que Thomas l'ait quitté sans un mot d'explication.

Une altercation avec le Dr Franck Cervin, farouche opposant à la pratique de l'hypnose, tourne au drame et se termine par la mort du médecin. Estelle et Thomas se lancent alors dans une folle cavale durant laquelle Estelle continue ses séances d'hypnose pour libérer Thomas de ses lourds secrets.

Distribution
 Gwendoline Hamon : Estelle Segal
 Thierry Neuvic : Thomas Cassagne
 Stéphan Guérin-Tillié : David Segal, le mari d'Estelle
 Grégoire Paturel : Gabriel Segal, le fils d'Estelle
 Andréa Ferréol : Lise Neubourg, la mère de Thomas
 Pierre Deny : Richard Neubourg, le beau-père de Thomas
 Alika Del Sol : Agathe Launay, policière et amie d'Estelle
 Clara Simpson : Sandra Coste
 Philippe Cariou : Paul Fabian
 Nathan Dellemme : Dr Franck Cervin
 Avy Marciano : Joris Delcroix
 Laurent Mouton : Cyril Marguet
 Timéo Drouin : Thomas Cassagne enfant

Production

Genèse et développement
Séduite par le roman, Gwendoline Hamon soumet le projet d'adaptation aux deux productrices Estelle Sanson et Juliette Renaud.

Tournage
Le tournage se déroule du 31 janvier au 28 février 2022 à Marseille et dans sa région.

Fiche technique
 Titre français : L'Impasse
 Genre : Drame, thriller
 Production :
 Sociétés de production : Je Films, France Télévisions, Be-FILMS, RTBF
 Réalisation : Delphine Lemoine
 Scénario : Laurent Mondy et Olivier Lécot
 Musique : Alexandre Lessertisseur
 Décors : Ramora
 Costumes : Sophie Puig
 Photographie : Bruno Privat
 Son : Stéphane Belmudes
 Montage : Sylvie Laugier
 Maquillage : Valérie Carret
 Pays de production :  /
 Langue originale : français
 Format : couleur
 Durée :
 Date de première diffusion :  sur France 2

Accueil

Diffusions et audience
En France, le téléfilm, diffusé le  sur France 2, est regardé par   et se classe 1.

Accueil critique
Pour le quotidien Le Parisien .

Pour l'hebdomadaire Télé Star, le téléfilm est .

Lucie Reeb, du site Allociné, est critique mais nuancée : .

Notes et références

Liens externes

Téléfilm français des années 2020
Téléfilm de France Télévisions
Téléfilm dramatique
Adaptation d'un roman français à la télévision

L'Impasse (téléfilm)


Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC), calculator cu set de instrucțiuni reduse, este o arhitectură a unui microprocesor și calculator cu un set de comenzi simple și rapide, în care viteza crește datorită simplificării instrucțiunilor, astfel încât decodificarea acestora este mai simplă, pentru a oferi performanțe superioare. Arhitectura RISC mai este cunoscută și sub numele de "arhitectură Load/Store", deoarece instrucțiunile care se referă la memoria principală sunt limitate la o singură operație - fie încărcare, fie stocare. Conceptul RISC a dus la un design mai atent al microprocesoarelor, pe 32-bit sau pe 64-bit spațiu de adresare. RISC este o evoluție și alternativă la Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) și până în prezent, este cea mai eficientă tehnologie a arhitecturii CPU. Începând cu anul 2018, 99% din toate cipurile noi utilizează arhitectura RISC.

Istoric
Primele cercetări asupra arhitecturilor de tip RISC au fost inițiate în 1975 la centrul de cercetări Thomas J. Watson Research Center, din Yorktown, New York, sub conducerea lui John Cocke, considerat astăzi autorul conceptului RISC. John Cocke a analizat funcționarea unui calculator IBM System/370, studiind distribuția statistică a utilizării instrucțiunilor. El a constatat că doar un număr mic de tipuri de instrucțiuni sunt folosite foarte frecvent: Load, Store, Add, Substract, Branch; celelalte instrucțiuni, în particular cele care execută operații de mare complexitate, intervin foarte rar în programe. Aceste rezultate au dus la realizarea unui calculator simplu, care avea în setul de instrucțiuni doar pe acelea cu utilizare frecventă, ceea ce a sporit viteza de calcul; pe de altă parte, instrucțiunile complexe au fost înlocuite în program prin serii de instrucțiuni simple, ceea ce a dus la creșterea lungimii programelor.

În 1979, John Cocke realizează primul prototip de calculator bazat pe concepte RISC, IBM 801.Dezvoltând aceste idei, David Patterson, student la Universitatea Berkeley din California, utilizează pentru prima dată termenul RISC. El confirmă că introducerea microcodului constituie un impediment important în creșterea vitezei de calcul a procesoarelor.Printre primele calculatoare care au beneficiat de această descoperire au fost IBM RT PC în 1986, urmat de IBM RS/6000 în 1990 și PowerPC 600 în 1993.

Caracteristici
Unitatea de control este realizată prin "logica de tip cablat"
Instrucțiunile se desfășoară într-o singură stare și durate de timp identice
Numărul de instrucțiuni este mic, sub 128
Dimensiunea este fixă pentru tot formatul instrucțiunilor
Instrucțiunile au format uniform, nu mai mult de 4 tipuri de formate
Numărul modurilor de adresare este mic (sub 4) și nu neapărat simple
Accesul memoriei se face numai cu instrucțiuni de transferuri simple de date între registre și memorie (tip "LOAD" /STORE")
Include numai instrucțiuni simple, executate rapid, de obicei într-un singur tact de ceas, datorită tehnicii pipeline
Tendință de accentuare pe parte software
Mai puține tipuri de date hardware
Prezintă un format uniform al instrucțiunilor, ceea ce conduce la o codificare mai simplă
Minimalizează utilizarea memoriei prin existența unui număr mare de regiștri (datele sunt aduse în și din memorie prin intermediul acestor regiștri) și permiterea utilizării multiple a regiștrilor generali, care sunt identici

Dezavantajele arhitecturii  RISC
Datorită setului redus de instrucțiuni, conduce la dimensiuni mai mari ale codului, în medie cu 30%
Există un număr mare de registre generale, cel puțin 32
Timp de acces mai mare
Tehnici complicate de gestionare a ferestrelor
Salvarea registrelor în contextul multiprocesării, presupune timp mai îndelungat pentru stocare și recuperare în/din memorie
Operațiile de multitasking necesită comutări de multe registre
Unitatea de control a microprocesorului realizată "cablat", este mai puțin flexibilă și mult mai greu de modificat
Formatul redus al instrucțiunilor face imposibilă adresarea directă a unei hărți de memorie mare (ex. adrese fizice sau logice de 32-bit).
Necesită un spațiu mărit de memorie pentru program și date.

Architecturi RISC
ARM - probabil cea mai reușită familie RISC,  se utilizează în sisteme ce necesită performanțe ridicate, consum redus de energie și costuri reduse. ARM Holdings, care proiectează aceste sisteme, nu construiește ea însăși procesoare, ci doar vinde licențe de proiectare clienților săi.
Power - architectură dezvoltată de IBM și Freescale Semiconductor, astăzi cel mai utilizat procesor RISC de vârf, este o arhitectură multifuncțională, pornind de la sisteme integrate de înaltă performanță, cum ar fi imprimantele sau routerele, stații de lucru, supercomputere.
MIPS - utilizată în principal pentru stațiile de lucru Silicon Graphics, servere clasice și console de jocuri (PlayStation, PlayStation 2, Nintendo 64, PlayStation Portable). În prezent, principala zonă de aplicare, sunt sistemele încorporate. Practic, toate stațiile de lucru MIPS și familia de servere au fost acum migrate la  Intel Itanium.
SPARC - (Oracle) (fostă Sun Microsystems) utilizată în primul rând în stațiile de lucru clasice și serverele Sun.
PA-RISC (HP) - procesoarele PA-RISC au fost utilizate în principal în stațiile de lucru și serverele clasice HP.  Înlocuite în prezent cu Intel Itanium.
DEC Alpha - procesoarele Alpha au fost utilizate în principal pe stațiile de lucru și serverele DEC, Compaq și HP. Înlocuite în prezent cu Intel Itanium.
SuperH (Hitachi) - folosită pe scară largă în consolele de jocuri Sega 32X, Sega Saturn și Dreamcast. SuperH, ca și platforma ARM, se folosește în prezent în sistemele încorporate.
AVR (Atmel) - familie demicrocontrolere utilizată în sistemele încorporate (Arduno), console Xbox, și sisteme auto BMW.
XAP - arhitectură de procesoare RISC dezvoltată de Cambridge Consultants încă din 1994.  Procesoarele XAP au fost proiectate pentru utilizarea încircuite integrate de semnal mixt pentru senzori sau aplicații fără fir (Bluetooth , ZigBee, GPS, RFID, Near Field Communication).
OpenRISC - proiect opensource de a crea un microprocesor care rulează Linux disponibil în mod liber.
RISC-V -  un alt proiect de arhitectură RISC opensource, început în 2010 la Universitatea Berkeley din California.

Microprocesoare RISC
Procesoarele bazate pe concepțiile RISC având mai puține tranzistoare în structură, necesită o suprafață de siliciu redusă și au un preț de cost mai mic față de microprocesoarele CISC. Simplificarea structurii a permis printre altele creșterea frecvenței de tact.

Utilizarea procesoarelor de arhitectură ARM în smartphone-uri și sisteme înglobate, cum ar fi dispozitivele Raspberry Pi, a oferit o bază largă de utilizatori pentru sistemele bazate pe RISC. Procesoarele RISC sunt de asemenea folosite în supercomputere.

Printre primele microprocesoare RISC comercializate se pot cita:
Berkeley RISC, DEC Alpha, Fairchild Clipper C100, Motorola 88000, PA-RISC 7000 (HP), ARM (Acorn), Sparc (Sun), AM 29000 (AMD), Transputers (INMOS).

Computerele Apple Macintosh au trecut de la procesoarele seriei Motorola 68000 la procesoarele PowerPC de tip RISC în 1994 și ulterior la procesoarele x86 în 2006.

Vezi și
Arhitectură ARM
Arhitectură Harvard
CISC
Mod de adresare
Set de instrucțiuni

Referințe și note

Legături externe

Războiul procesoarelor. Unora le place RISC-ul
Understanding about RISC and CISC Architectures
RISC vs. CISC Architectures: Which one is better?

Bibliografie

 Lucian N. Vintan: Arhitecturi de procesoare cu paralelism la nivelul instrucțiunilor, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2000, ISBN 973-27-0734-8
Florence Slater: A guide to RISC microprocessors, Elsevier Science, 2014, ISBN: 9780323137720

Arhitectura calculatoarelor
Microprocesoare

Arhitectură RISC


De findes overalt er en dansk propagandafilm fra 1945 med instruktion og manuskript af Peter Lind.

Handling
Propagandafilm for difterivaccination. Filmen viser på drastisk vis, hvor mange smittebærere, der kan findes blandt folk.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1945

Propagandafilm fra Danmark

De findes overalt


ඍග්වේදයේ අන්තර්ගතය

ඍග්වේද ගීතිකා විවිධ දෙවිවරුන් වෙනුවෙන් කැපකර ඇත. ඔවුන් අතුරින් ප‍්‍රධාන වනුයේ සතුරන් නැසීම වෙනුවෙන් වීරත්වයෙන් පැසසුම් ලබන ඉන්ද්‍ර, ගිනි දෙවියා වන අග්නි, සෝම යුශය හෝ එය ලබාගන්නා පැලෑටිය වන සෝම යන දෙවිවරු ය. ආදිත්‍ය හෙවත් අසුරයින් ද මිත‍්‍ර, වරුණ සහ උෂස් (අරුණෝදයේ දෙව`ගන* ද සමාන වැදගත් කම් දරති. තව ද ඍග්වේදයේදී යදිනු ලබන ෙදිවිවරුන් අතර සවිතෘ, විෂ්ණු, රුද්‍ර, පූෂන්, බ‍්‍රහස්පතී හෙවත් බ‍්‍රහ්මනස්පති මෙන් ම දේවත්වාරෝපණයට ලක් කළ ස්වභාවික සංසිද්ධීන් වන ද්‍යවුස් පිතා (බබලන අහස හෝ දිව්‍යමය පියා*, පෘථිවි (මහ පොළොව හෝ මිහිකත*, සූර්ය (සූර්යයා නම් දේවතාවා*, වායු හෝ වාත (සුළ`ග* , ආපස් (ජලය*, පර්ජන්‍ය (අකුණු සහ වර්ෂාව*, වාච් (වචන*, බොහෝ ගංගා (විශේෂයෙන් සප්ත, සින්ධු සහ සරස්වතී යන ගංගාවෝ* ද වෙති.

ඍග්වේදයෙහි අන්තර්ගත මන්ත‍්‍රවල අතිරේක දෙවිවරුන්, පුද්ගලයින්, සංකල්ප සහ සංසිද්ධීන් ද ස`දහන් වන අතර ඓතිහාසික සිද්ධීන් ගැන ද විවිධ තැන්වල කරුණු දැක්වෙයි. වෛදික ආර්යයයන් ලෙස හැ`දින්වූ මුල් කාලීන වෛදික ජනයා සහ ඔවුනගේ සතුරන් ලෙස සැළකෙන දස්‍යුන් අතර පැවැත් අරගලය පිළිබ`ද තොරතුරු මෙහිලා වැදගත් තැනක් ගනී.

ඍග්වේදයේ අන්තර්ගතය


بلدية فيلانيوفا دي قرطبة ، هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة قرطبة إحدى مقاطعات إسبانيا، و التي تقع في منطقة الأندلس جنوب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 9.720 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2007).

مراجع

بلديات قرطبة

فيلانيوفا دي قرطبة (قرطبة)


The Philadelphia Savings Fund Society (PSFS), originally called the Philadelphia Saving Fund Society, was a savings bank headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. PSFS was founded in December 1816, the first savings bank to organize and do business in the United States. The bank would develop as one of the largest savings banks in the United States and became a Philadelphia institution. Generations of Philadelphians first opened accounts as children and became lifelong depositors.

The bank was organized by a group of men led by Condy Raguet, who had read about the concept of savings banks becoming popular in Great Britain. The bank quickly began to expand by adding services and branches, and moving into larger headquarters buildings. By the late 1910s, PSFS had the most depositors of any savings bank in the United States; it was second to the Emigrant Savings Bank in the amount of money deposited. PSFS began programs in the 1920s that encouraged children to put money into savings accounts instead of spending it on treats and school programs, allowing children to open accounts with PSFS.

In the 1970s, changes in the personal finance industry led to smaller banks struggling to stay open. A government solution had such banks merge with healthier ones and in 1982, the Western Savings Fund Society was merged with PSFS. The merger deal and changes in regulations allowed PSFS to expand into new business ventures. PSFS quickly began expanding into other fields such as corporate finance, mutual funds, and real estate development.

In 1984 PSFS began doing business under the name Meritor Financial Group to emphasize its expansion into financial services. The new business venture led to the company losing millions of dollars; it was forced to sell off many of its subsidiaries and PSFS bank branches. Despite the effort, Meritor continued to lose money.

On December 11, 1992, federal regulators seized the 176-year-old bank and placed it into the receivership of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). The FDIC then sold its remaining assets to Mellon Financial for US$335 million. Mellon renamed the former PSFS branches Mellon PSFS, a name which lasted the end of 2001, when the branches were acquired by Citizens Financial Group.

History

Founding
Founded in 1816, the Philadelphia Saving Fund Society was the first savings bank to organize and do business in the United States. Savings banks had existed in Europe for years and in the early 1810s had grown rapidly through Great Britain. This growth became the topic of numerous journals and pamphlets, some of which were brought to the attention of Philadelphia businessman Condy Raguet in late November 1816.

Interested in the idea, Raguet approached associates, Richard Peters, Clement C. Biddle and Thomas Hale on creating a similar institution in Philadelphia. A meeting was held on November 25 to discuss the plan. A total of twelve men agreed to work together to form the bank. Along with Raguet, Peters, Biddle, and Hale, the other men, called associate founders, were Charles N. Bancker, Andrew Bayard, Samuel Breck, John McCrea, William Schlatter, John C. Stocker, John Strawbridge and Roberts Vaux. Over several meetings the group figured out the bank's structure and positions. Andrew Bayard was elected the first president of the bank during the third meeting on November 28. The bank was named the Philadelphia Saving Fund Society because Raguet felt the name "bank" was unpopular and calling it a society would make it easier to receive a charter from the state legislature.

On December 4, 1816, the Articles of Association, which contain the earliest written use of the name Philadelphia Saving Fund Society, were adopted. The Philadelphia Saving Fund Society (PSFS) opened two days before on December 2 in the office of the Saving Fund Society's first Secretary and Treasurer, George Billington. The office was located on the west side of South Sixth Street, between Chestnut and Market Streets. Depositing five dollars, the first depositor was Curtis Roberts, Raguet's African American servant. On February 25, 1819, the Governor of Pennsylvania approved the Pennsylvania legislature's act of incorporating the Philadelphia Saving Fund Society.

Growth
PSFS grew slowly, but as early as August 1817 there were resolutions authorizing setting up branch offices outside of Philadelphia in Northern Liberties and Southwark. At first PSFS was open only on Mondays for receiving deposits and Thursdays for giving payments. While PSFS soon opened daily for business, deposits and payments were still only taken on those days. In 1835 PSFS expanded giving out deposits and payments on both Mondays and Thursdays, and in 1865 it was open for all business daily.

In 1818 PSFS issued its first home mortgage to architect William Strickland for US$7,000. That same year PSFS moved its offices to Sixth and Minor Streets. In the 1820s PSFS moved three more times, to Decatur Street in 1821 and Third and Walnut Streets in 1826. The latter office proved too small, so PSFS quickly bought its own building elsewhere on Walnut Street and moved there on October 2, 1827. By 1833 PSFS again needed more room and PSFS bought property on which the bank built a structure designed by Thomas U. Walter. PSFS moved into the new building in February 1840.

In 1865 PSFS again began looking for a new location and in 1866 a location was found on Seventh and Walnut Streets. Designed by architect Addison Hutton construction began in 1868 and the PSFS Headquarters building was opened for business on October 11, 1869. Forced to expand even more, additions were later made in 1885-86 by Hutton and in 1897–98, designed by Frank Furness.

20th century
By 1917 the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society had the largest number of depositors of any savings bank in the United States and was second only to the Emigrant Savings Bank in the amount of money deposited. In 1923 PSFS began the first in-school banking program at William Penn School for Girls. The program was intended to teach children to save by allowing them to deposit money at the bank. In junior high schools PSFS had students work as tellers to collect and record deposits. PSFS also provided a separate counter just for student accounts at their headquarters. The School Accounts Counter included step stools for the youngest depositors. The program helped several generations of Philadelphians open up accounts as children, leading many to become lifelong customers.

Another way PSFS taught children to save money in savings banks was a program that produced pageants for playgrounds and settlement houses. The pageants included songs about thriftiness set to popular music, cheers, speeches that quoted historical figures' opinions on thriftiness, and a play. In the plays, costumed children warned the audience about spending money on treats, movies, and penny arcades instead of putting the money in a savings bank where it would grow.

By the end of the 1920s PSFS was the third largest savings bank in the United States and in 1935 was ranked thirty-fourth largest savings bank in the world. In 1932 PSFS built a new headquarters building on Market Street. The new PSFS Building was the first international style skyscraper built in the United States. The modern skyscraper was designed by George Howe and William Lescaze and is topped with the Philadelphia Saving Fund Society's initials in  red neon letters.

In 1948 PSFS was the second largest savings bank in the United States with deposits totaling US$594,460,363. In the 1960s PSFS, along with three other Philadelphia savings banks, established a US$20 million pool to finance mainly low and moderate income minority families.

Expansion and crisis
The United States in the 1970s saw numerous changes to personal finance such as the advent of credit cards, money-market funds and automated teller machines. These changes resulted in a crisis for traditional community banks. The crisis prompted the government to step in with a solution to force mergers between troubled banks and healthy banks such as PSFS. In April 1982 PSFS merged with the Western Savings Fund Society, receiving US$294 million in assistance from the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). The merger gained PSFS US$2 billion in assets. FDIC also credited PSFS with US$800 million in "supervisory goodwill".

The deals also allowed the merged banks to expand into new business ventures. PSFS soon began expanding into new services such as equipment leasing, corporate finance and real estate development. In September 1983 PSFS converted from a mutual organization to a stock organization selling 35 million shares at US$11.25 each. In January 1984 PSFS began expanding into financial service by buying a loan portfolio and mortgage business from General Electric Credit Corp. for US$568 million. In April 1985 the company acquired four savings and loans in Florida and began paying five cents per share quarterly dividend to stockholders. In September of that year, PSFS began doing business under the name Meritor Financial Group to emphasize its expansion into financial services. In 1986 Meritor began operating mutual funds through a subsidiary, completing the transition to a full-service financial institution.

In 1986, the bank went to the U.S. Supreme Court to defend itself against a claim sexual harassment. In Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, the court found the bank liable under the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

Things soon took a turn for the worse as the company began losing millions through its new business ventures as its competitors began encroaching on Meritor's home market. Meritor's stock prices continuously dropped from almost the moment they were first issued. In August 1985 Meritor revealed it invested $215 million in a Virginia mortgage company that went bankrupt and in October 1987 Meritor halts its dividend after announcing a third-quarter loss of $379.6 million. That same month the company also announced plans to sell some of its operations.

In January 1988 venture capitalist Frank Slattery bought 5.5 percent of Meritor's stock, becoming the controlling shareholder. Slattery began pushing for changes and in June, with help from others, was able to demote chairman and CEO Frederick S. Hammer to president and replace him with Roger S. Hillas. To try to stanch the losses Hillas sold Meritor's credit-card portfolio and some of its subsidiaries. Continuing to lose money, Meritor sold 54 suburban branches of PSFS, more than half of its branches, to Pittsburgh-based Mellon Bank for US$335 million in 1989. The deal, which included selling Mellon Bank the right to use the name PSFS, shed US$4.9 billion in assets from Meritor. Earlier that year an extra "s" was added to the word "Saving" in the bank branches' name, becoming the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society. When the deal went into effect in 1990 Meritor turned off the PSFS on the PSFS Building saying it was inappropriate to use the sign. Turning off the sign provoked protest from the public, historians and architecture buffs and Meritor and Mellon Bank agreed to relight the sign.

Despite the effort, conditions continued to deteriorate for Meritor and other banks around the United States. Not helping matters was a poor commercial real-estate market that left Meritor with empty Philadelphia office buildings and half-finished suburban strip shopping malls valued at fractions of their original cost. In February 1991 regulators demanded higher capital standards which Meritor failed to meet. A few months later in August, Meritor ending a troublesome dispute with bondholders by giving up 37 percent of its common stock plus cash to redeem US$115 million in debt.

By October 1992 bank analysts had listed Meritor among institutions most likely to be seized by the end of the year. In the next month worried depositors withdrew more than US$100 million from PSFS branches, and on December 4 Meritor sold off its Florida-based savings and loan subsidiary, the company's last out-of-state banking operation. On December 11, 1992, the Office of Thrift Supervision seized Meritor and placed it into the receivership of the FDIC, who sold Meritor's 27 remaining branches to Mellon Bank for US$181 million.

Aftermath

Mellon PSFS
After purchasing the PSFS bank branches and the PSFS name from Meritor, Mellon began operating its bank branches as Mellon PSFS. Acquiring the remainder of the PSFS branches from Meritor in 1992, Mellon continued to expand in the 1990s including the construction of combination Mellon PSFS and Acme Markets branches, the first of which opened in 1994. In 2001 Mellon PSFS had 350 branches and 650,000 customers in Pennsylvania, South New Jersey and Delaware. Mellon PSFS's parent company, Mellon Financial, was interested in abandoning its retail banking assets and focus on high income investments. On July 17 Mellon Financial announced it was selling its retail banking business, including Mellon PSFS, to Citizens Financial Group for US$2 billion. At the end of November 2001, all Mellon PSFS branches became branches of the newly formed Citizens Bank of Pennsylvania.

Lawsuit
The money Mellon Bank paid went to the FDIC, leaving Meritor's stockholders with nothing. In 1993 Slattery, who had long opposed government interference in business, sued the FDIC, claiming regulators reneged on their 1982 promise to permit goodwill in the company's merger with Western Savings Fund Society. The lawsuit kept the stock for the now defunct company alive with speculators buying shares for as little as 5 cents with hopes of a government payout to settle the case. Most of the 55 million outstanding Meritor shares are believed to be owned by speculators or PSFS depositors who had bought shares when the company first went public.

Over the next decade there was little news on the progress of the case, with a website, meritorpsfs.com, the main source of information. On August 16, 2002, a judge ruled that the FDIC was wrong in seizing Meritor and that shareholders were entitled to damages. On February 10, 2006, Meritor investors were awarded US$371.7 million, totaling US$6.75 a share.

In Slattery (Meritor Savings) v. U.S., after losing before a three-judge panel of the Federal Circuit, the government petitioned for a rehearing en banc. The court has agreed to review whether the trial court had the appropriate jurisdiction to hear the breach of contract dispute. The government is further arguing that the FDIC is Non-Appropriated Fund Instrumentality (NAFI), an agency created by the executive branch that receives no funding, and will not receive any funding, from the government. The FDIC receives funding by charging banks fees to member banks. If the en banc court agrees and finds that appropriated funds may not be used to pay judgments against NAFI's, then any judgment in the Meritor Savings case will be produced by the banks regulated by the FDIC and not by Treasury dollars. In other words, the FDIC could be found to be in breach, but it would be entitled to recover the judgment by member banks. In order to find the FDIC a NAFI, the government is arguing that Congress has no obligation to honor its promises to back deposits with the full faith and credit of the United States.

References
Notes

Further reading

External links

MeritorPSFS Shareholders Association, Inc.
Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) documentation, filed under Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, PA:

Banks based in Pennsylvania
Banks established in 1816
1816 establishments in Pennsylvania
Banks disestablished in 1992
1992 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
Companies based in Philadelphia
Defunct banks of the United States
Defunct companies based in Pennsylvania
Historic American Buildings Survey in Philadelphia
History of Philadelphia
American companies established in 1816
American companies disestablished in 1992

ru:Philadelphia Savings Fund Society

Philadelphia Savings Fund Society


جزيرة سيبل هي جزيرة بطول 110 كم تغطيها الثلوج منذ فترة طويلة واقعة إلى الشرق من خليج ريجلي على طول الجرف الجليدي غيتز قبالة ساحل باكوتيس من أرض ماري بيرد ، أنتاركتيكا. ويقع المركز في

مساحتها 6,390 كيلومتر مربع، ويسيطر عليها بركان جبل سيبل ، الذي يرتفع إلى 3,110 م مما يجعلها تحتل المرتبة السابع عشرة في جزر العالم من حيث أقصى ارتفاع .

كانت جزيرة الجبل مسماة من قبل اللجنة الاستشارية في الولايات المتحدة المعنية بالأسماء في أنتاركتيكا (ACAN) في عام 1967 تكريما لمسكتشف المناطق القطبية بول سيبل (1908-1968)، عضو بعثة الاميرال بيرد.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 مركز المسح الجيولوجي الأمريكي، أطلس لبحوث القطب الجنوبي

جزر أرض ماري بيرد

جزيرة سيبل