Acer oblongum es una especie de árbol perteneciente a la familia de las sapindáceas.

Descripción
Acer oblongum es un árbol de hoja perenne que forma un arbusto, pero también puede convertirse en un árbol alcanzando una altura de unos cinco metros. Tiene las hojas coriáceas, que van desde simples a trilobuladas. Las hojas son normalmente de color gris verdoso.

Distribución
Esta especie se encuentra en las regiones montañosas de Asia, al pie del Himalaya occidental, en Nepal, Cachemira, en la India, Pakistán y el suroeste de China.

Taxonomía
Acer oblongum fue descrita por Wall. ex DC. y publicada en Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis 1: 593, en el año 1824.
Etimología
Acer: nombre genérico que procede del latín ǎcěr, -ĕris = (afilado), referido a las puntas características de las hojas o a la dureza de la madera que, supuestamente, se utilizaría para fabricar lanzas. Ya citado en, entre otros, Plinio el Viejo, 16, XXVI/XXVII, refiriéndose a unas cuantas especies de Arce.

oblongum: epíteto latíno que significa "oblongo".
Variedades aceptadas
 ''Acer oblongum var. oblongum
Sinonimia

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Images
 Images

oblongum
Plantas descritas en 1824

Acer oblongum


Johann Jeremias von Renouard (* 30. Juli 1742 in Berlin; † 30. Dezember 1810 in Spandau) war ein preußischer Generalmajor und Chef des Infanterieregiments Nr. 3.

Leben

Herkunft
Renouard entstammte einer Hugenottenfamilie, die unter Friedrich Wilhelm nach Brandenburg gekommen war. Er war der Sohn des Hofrates und Direktors der französischen Kolonie in Potsdam Franz von Renouard (1710–1796) und dessen Ehefrau Susanna Elisabeth, geborene de Felix (1709–1792).

Militärkarriere
Auf Befehl von König Friedrich II. wurde Renouard aufgrund seiner adeligen Herkunft am 11. Juli 1756 als Junker im Infanterieregiment "von Anhalt" der Preußischen Armee angestellt. Er kämpfte im Siebenjährigen Krieg bei Prag und Kay, wo er verwundet wurde. Am 21. September 1759 geriet er bei einem Gefecht bei Korbitz in Gefangenschaft. Dort blieb er bis zum Ende des Krieges. Seit 20. Juni 1775 Kapitän und Kompaniechef, nahm er dann als solcher 1778/79 am Bayerischen Erbfolgekrieg teil. Am 27. Mai 1785 erfolgte seine Beförderung zum Major und zwei Jahre später wurde er Chef des Füsilierbataillons Nr. 18, dass ab diesem Zeitpunkt auch seinen Namen trug. Im gleichen Jahr kämpfte Renouard mit seinem Bataillon in den Niederlanden.

König Friedrich Wilhelm II. verlieh ihm anlässlich der Revue bei Magdeburg am 28. Mai 1789 für die gute Disziplin in seiner Truppe den Orden Pour le Mérite. Am 7. Juni 1792 erfolgte die Beförderung zum Oberstleutnant. Als solcher nahm Renouard während des Ersten Koalitionskrieg an den Kämpfen bei Valmy, Châlons, Hocheim, Bingen, Alsheim und Wachenheim sowie der Blockade von Landau teil. Am 24. Januar 1794 wurde er Oberst und Kommandeur des Infanterieregiments "von Reitzenstein". Der König ernannte ihn am 1. Oktober 1799 zum Chef des Infanterieregiments "von Thadden". Am 20. Mai 1800 erfolgte sein Beförderung zum Generalmajor. Renouard kämpfte 1806 in der Schlacht bei Auerstedt und wurde schwer verwundet. Danach kam er nach Magdeburg und als die Festung vor den Franzosen kapitulierte, unterschrieb auch er den Vertrag. Wegen seiner Rolle bei der Kapitulation wurde er dann nach dem Frieden von Tilsit am 19. November 1809 vor ein Kriegsgericht gestellt und zu zwei Jahren Festungshaft verurteilt. Man inhaftierte ihn in der Festung Spandau, aber Renouard durfte wegen seines schlechten Gesundheitszustandes ab 25. Januar 1810 in die Stadt umziehen. Dort verstarb er Ende des Jahres und wurde am 3. Januar 1811 auf dem Garnisonsfriedhof beigesetzt.

Familie
Renouard hatte am 24. Oktober 1776 in Mukrena Marie von Kotze (1758–1785) geheiratet. Aus der Ehe gingen folgende Kinder hervor:
 Josepha Franziska Sylvia Charlotte (1777–1821) ⚭ 1797 Heinrich von Stein zum Altenstein, preußischer Major im Infanterieregiment Nr. 56
 Henriette Ernestine Augustine Jeannette (1779–1785)
 Julie Johanna Karoline Amalie (1781–1807), Stiftsdame im Jena'schen Fräuleinstift in Halle (Saale)
 Luise Eleonore Emilie Sylvia (1782–1826) ⚭ Friedrich Wilhelm von Preuß, preußischer Hauptmann
 Elisabeth Jakobine Philippine Konradine Ernestine (1783–1786)
 Auguste Friederike Henriette Johanna (1785–1850) ⚭ Johann Ludwig Vitzthum von Eckstädt († 1853), sächsischer Oberstleutnant

Nach ihrem Tod verheiratete er sich mit Auguste von Witzleben (1761–1830). Aus der Ehe gingen folgende Kinder hervor:
 Leopold Franz Heinrich August Karl (1789–1876), preußischer Major a. D. ⚭ Ulrike Hoppe († 1875)
 Johann Gustav Ferdinand (1790–1816), Fähnrich im Regiment Nr. 3
 Jeannette Charlotte Emilie (1791–1867), Stiftsdame im adeligen Fräuleinstift in Bayreuth
 Friederike Karoline Auguste (1792–1809)
 Friedrich Ludwig Maximilian (1797–1883), preußischer Generalmajor ⚭ Mathilde von Bernuth (1802–1888)
 Christiane Friederike Karoline (1798–1800)
 Sophie Wilhelmine Charlotte (1798–1828) ⚭ Alexander Adolf von Hirschfeld (1787–1858)
 Wilhelmine Henriette (1802–1805)
 Karl Wilhelm Gustav (1803–1881) ⚭ Antonie von Gauvain (1811–1862)

Literatur
 Kurt von Priesdorff: Soldatisches Führertum. Band 3, Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt Hamburg, o. O. [Hamburg], o. J. [1937], , S. 75, Nr. 992.
 Gerhard von Scharnhorst, Tilman Stieve: Private und dienstliche Schriften. Band 4, S. 141.
 Handbuch des preussischen Adels. Band 1, S. 478 f.

Weblinks
 http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/biographies/Prussia/PrussianGenerals/c_Prussiangenerals90.html

General der Frühen Neuzeit (Brandenburg-Preußen)
Person im Siebenjährigen Krieg (Preußen)
Regimentsinhaber der Frühen Neuzeit
Träger des Pour le Mérite (Militärorden)
Person in den Koalitionskriegen (Preußen)
Adliger
Geboren 1742
Gestorben 1810
Mann

Johann Jeremias von Renouard


Willis "Gator" Jackson (Miami, Florida, 25 de abril de 1932 - Nueva York, 25 de octubre de 1987) fue un saxofonista tenor y soprano de jazz estadounidense.

En 1947, con sólo quince años, inició su carrera profesional mientras proseguía sus estudios de música (que incluían piano y clarinete). Se incorporó a la big band de Cootie Williams al comenzar la década de 1950, aunque pronto formó su propia banda, con la que realizó grabaciones orientándose hacia el rhythm and blues y el funky, tocando con Brother Jack McDuff y Pat Martino, entre otros. Después realizó múltiples giras acompañando a la cantante Ruth Brown, con la que estaba casado, realizando una gira europea en 1980.

Muy influido en su estilo por Illinois Jacquet, y con un swing enérgico y ardiente, Jackson era capaz, como indica el Diccionario del Jazz de Carles, Clergeat & Comolli, de lo mejor y de lo peor, esto último cuando se hacía acompañar por orquestas de poca calidad.

Referencias

Notas

Bibliografía
 CARLES, Phillipe; CLERGEAT, André & COMOLLI, Jean-Louis: Dictionaire du jazz . Robert Laffont Edt, París, 1988. ISBN 2-221-04516-5

Artistas de Fire Records
Artistas de Muse Records
Artistas de Fantasy Records
Artistas de Delmark Records
Artistas de Prestige Records
Artistas de Atlantic Records
Saxofonistas de jazz de Estados Unidos
Músicos de bop
Nacidos en Miami
Fallecidos por complicaciones cardiovasculares

Willis "Gator" Jackson


Ajanlar Matrix içinde bulunan yapay zekâlı programlardır. Gerçek dünyadan gelenleri teşhis edip yok etmek, son insan şehri Zion'a ulaşmak için gerekli erişim kodlarını elde etmek, anormallikleri gidermek ve Matrix'in gerçek dünya olmadığını ortaya çıkaracak her şeye karşı koymak için programlanmışlardır.

İlk ajanlar

Üç ajan; ilk film The Matrix'de filmin hemen başında tanıştığımız, siyah takım elbise ve gözlükleriyle. İçlerinden Ajan Smith'i serinin kalan filmlerinde de yer aldı.

Ajan Brown
Ajan Brown (Paul Goddard), serinin ilk filminde (The Matrix) Trinity'yi filmin başında çatıda kovalayan ajandır. İlk filmin sonunda Ajan Smith'in yok olmasından sonra bir daha gözükmez. İkinci filmden itibaren makineler ajanları(n sürümlerini) yükseltmişlerdir. Bundan sonra yeni nesil ajanları görürüz. Ajan Brown kaynağa geri gönderilip, sürümü yükseltilmiş ya da silinmiştir.

Ajan Jones
Agent Jones (Robert Taylor) ilk filmin ünlü tanıtım sahnesinde de yer alan, Neo ile bir ajanın ilk kez savaştıkları sahnede oynayan ajandır (Bu sahnede yeni çekim teknikleri kullanılarak Neo'nun en az ajanlar kadar hızlı hareket edip kurşunlardan kurtulması izlenir). Ajan Jones'un da kaynağa geri dönmesi, sürümünün yükseltilmesi ya da silinmesi kuvvetle muhtemeldir.

Ajan Smith
Bu alt başlığın ana maddesi: Ajan SmithAjan Smith (ilk film) The Matrix'te Ajan Brown ve Jones'u Nebuchadnezzar'ın tayfası ele geçirme görevini idare eden programdır. Bu ilk filmde Neo tarafından parçalanmıştır. Lâkin yok edilmek üzere kaynağa döneceğine sürgün olmayı seçmiş ve Matrix'de anormallik yaratmıştır. İkinci filmden itibaren bir ajan değildir, kendini diğer program ve insanlara kopyalayan virüs hâline gelmiştir. Kâhin'e göre Neo'nun dengeleyecisidir yani zıddıdır.

Yeni nesil ajanlar

İkinci filmle  birlikte ajanları(n sürümlerini) yükseltilmiştir. Artık daha kaslı yapılı ve eski (sürümler)ine göre daha kuvvetlidirler. İkinci filmin başındaki çarpışmada yeni sürüm oldukları ve yenmenin zor oldukları anlaşılır.

Ajan Johnson
Ajan Johnson (Daniel Bernhardt), yeni nesil ajanların lideridir. Sadece ikinci filmde yer alır. Karşılaştırma yapılacak olursa Ajan Smith'den daha başarılı olduğu kabul edilmelidir. Morpheus ile otoyolda savaşmış ve Morpheus'a karşı üstünlük kurmuştur

Ajan (Matrix)


حي العنبرية أحد أحياء المدينة المنورة سميت بهذا الاسم نسبة إلى بستان لشخص كبير في الدولة العثمانية اسمه عنبر آغا، وهذا الرجل تبرع بجزء منها إلى الدولة العثمانية لإقامة مبنى الكلية الحربية (ثانوية طيبة حاليا). كانت تسمى حارة النقا أو كما عرفت باسم الدوس. وهي المنطقة التي تبدأ من مسجد الغمامة وحتى منطقة السكة الحديد المعروفة بالأستسيون.

سبب تسمية العنبرية
وتشير بعض الأقاويل إلى أن سبب تسمية العنبرية بهذا الاسم يعود إلى رائحة طيبة كانت قديما تلف هذه المنطقة كل مساء وهي تشبه إلى حد بعيد رائحة العنبر. إلا أن الدكتور عاصم حمدان الذي درج أيام طفولته في أحضان العنبرية نفى تلك الأقاويل، وأرجع سبب هذه التسمية إلى أن أرض العنبرية التي كان اسمها سابقا «بلاد النقا» كما عرفت أيضا باسم «الدوس» كان يملكها في أيام الأتراك والعثمانيين رجل اسمه عنبر آغا ومن هنا جاءت تسمية العنبرية.

أشهر معالم العنبرية
القادم إلى المدينة من جهة عروة يكون مسجد العنبرية على يمينه (سابقا) قبل إنشاء الدوار، ثم الثكنة العسكرية (القشلة) ومقابل لها في الجهة الأخرى مبنى الكلية الحربية الذي تحول إلى نواة لجامعة إسلامية في العهد العثماني ثم أصبح مبنى ثانوية طيبة، وقبله من جهة الشرق التكية المصرية وثم حوش الراعي.
بعد القشلة يساراً باتجاه مسجد الغمامة حوش الجوهري ثم منزل آل غوث يقابله في الجهة الأخرى المدرسة المنصورية و مسجد بهرام آغا ثم على اليسار حوش أبو جنب وفي الجهة المقابلة حوش أبو ذراع ثم نتابع على اليسار حوش سنان أو شنان وفيه الكاتبية جنوبا والسنوسية وحوش معيركة، وفي الجهة المقابلة حوش العبيد والهاشمية وباتجاه مسجد الغمامة، زقاق السلطان وأخر حوش في هذه الجهة حوش الخياري ثم بناء كبير أسفل منه ستوديو العشري ثم تتجه يمينا إلى جهة باب قباء لنصل إلى حوش عميرة ومن بعده حوش مناع.
وأشار الدكتور عاصم في كتابه إلى أن من أبرز المعالم التي اشتهرت العنبرية بها «دكة الترجمان»، حيث في تلك الدكة كان يقوم كتاب المعلمة «زينب مغربل» رحمها الله ويعود لها الفضل الأول بعد الله في تعليم سيدات المجتمع المديني القراءة والكتابة والكثير من العلوم الأخرى وذلك قبل إنشاء مدارس نظامية لتعليم البنات، وإلى جانب هذه الدكة تقع التكية المصرية والاستصيون «محطة سكة الحديد» ومقر الجامعة الإسلامية التي كان السلطان عبد الحميد ينوي انشاءها ولكنها عوض عن ذلك أصبحت مقرا ثانوية طيبة وأيضا فرن العم حجازي الذي انتقل صاحبه فيما بعد إلى حارة الاغوات. ومما ذكره حمدان أن العنبرية في الماضي كانت مكانا للعديد من الأزقة والأحواش أشهرها حوش الجوهري والراعي وابوجنب وسنان وأبو ذراع والهاشمية والسلطان وقد سكنها بعض أفراد قبيلة حرب العريقة وأتباعهم، وكذلك تضم العنبرية مسجد الغمامة ومسجد العنبرية الشهير ومسجد بلال ومبنى الهاتف، وتوجد بها بيوت الخريجي الحجرية والثكنة العسكرية المسماة بـ «القشلة» والكاتبية «السنوسية» التي تقع بالقرب من حوش صغير يعرف بـ «معيركة» ويعرفه أهل المدينة جيدا وسكان العنبرية تحديدا.

من المعالم الحديثة
من المعالم الحديثة الواقعة على طريق عمر بن الخطاب (العنبرية) أمارة المدينة المنورة - أمانة المدينة المنورة - مبنى السكة الحديد (الأستسيون). كما أن هناك مسجد السقيا داخل سور محطة السكة الحديد و مسجد المنارتين وهما من المساجد التي ورد ان النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم صلى بها.

مراجع

عنبرية

العنبرية


5783 (hebraico: ה'תשפ"ג, forma abreviada: תשפ"ג) é o atual ano hebraico correspondente ao período após o pôr do sol de 25 de setembro de 2022 até ao pôr do sol de 15 de setembro de 2023 do calendário gregoriano.

Dados sobre 5783

 Ano comum completo: 355 dias (Shelemah)
 Cheshvan e Kislev com 30 dias
 Ciclo solar: 15º ano do 207º ciclo
 Ciclo lunar: 7º ano do 305º ciclo
 Ciclo Shmita: 1º ano
 Ma'aser Sheni (dízimo para Jerusalém)

Fatos históricos

 1953º ano da destruição do Segundo Templo
 75º ano do estabelecimento do Estado de Israel
 56º ano da libertação de Jerusalém

Calendário judaico

5783 (ano hebraico)


Xuhui é um distrito urbano central de Xangai. Tem uma área de 54,76 km² e uma população de 982.200 habitantes em 2008. O distrito é nomeado em homenagem ao seu homônimo, a área histórica de Xujiahui, que era historicamente uma terra pertencente ao burocrata e cientista da dinastia Xu Guangqi e posteriormente doada à Igreja Católica Romana.

Distritos de Xangai

Xuhui


An Goodyera humicola in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Schltr., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Schltr.. An Goodyera humicola in nahilalakip ha genus nga Goodyera, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Goodyera

Goodyera humicola


Türkiye'de sendikalar, 1938 tarihli Cemiyetler Kanunu'nda "Sınıf esasına dayalı cemiyet kurulamaz." ifadesinin 5 Haziran 1946'da metinden çıkarılmasıyla yasallık kazandı. 7 Aralık 1946 tarihinde sıkıyönetim kararıyla kapatılan sendikalar, 1947'de "İşçi ve İşveren Sendikaları ve Sendika Birlikleri hakkında kanunun kabul edilmesiyle tekrar yasal oldu.Sendika sözlük anlamı: İşçilerin yada işverenlerin ayrı ayrı olmak üzere iş, kazanç, toplumsal ve kültürel konular yönünden çıkarlarını korumak, yeni haklar sağlamak ve onları daha da geliştirmek amacıyla aralarında yasalar uyarınca kurdukları birliktir.

Sendikalaşma oranı
Türkiye'de işçi sendikalaşması oranı, Çalışma ve Sosyal Güvenlik Bakanlığı'nın verilerine göre 2003 yılında %57.5 iken 2014 yılında %9.68 oranına kadar düştü. OECD'ye göre ise sadece %4.5 oranındadır ve OECD ülkeleri arasında en düşük seviyededir. 2022 yılında yayınlanan Çalışma ve Sosyal Güvenlik Bakanlığı verilerine göre sendikalı işçi sayısı 2.189.645 oldu ve sendikalı çalışan oranı Ocak 2022 itibarıyla %14.32'ye ulaştı. Bu oran Avrupa'da ortalama %25-30 arasındadır.

1948-1963

1984-2001

İşçi ve İşveren Sendikaları

İşçi Sendikaları

TÜRK-İŞ'e bağlı sendikalar

DİSK'e bağlı sendikalar

HAK-İŞ'e bağlı sendikalar

AKSİYON-İŞ'e bağlı sendikalar

Bağımsız işçi sendikaları

kaynak : hizmetliler.com https://www.hizmetliler.com/forums/bagimsiz-isci-sendikalari.76/

İşveren Sendikaları

TİSK'e Bağlı Sendikalar

Bağımsız İşveren Sendikaları

Kamu Görevlileri Sendikaları

KESK'e bağlı sendikalar

Türkiye Kamu-Sen'e bağlı sendikalar

Memur-Sen'e bağlı sendikalar

BASK'a bağlı sendikalar

Birleşik Kamu-İş'e Bağlı Sendikalar

Haksen'e bağlı sendikalar

DESK'e bağlı sendikalar

Tüm Memur-Sen'e bağlı sendikalar

Cihan-Sen'e bağlı sendikalar
Ana Madde: Cihan-Sen

Bağımsız Kamu Görevlileri Sendikaları

Kaynakça

Sendikalar

Türkiye'deki sendikalar listesi


Deodoro este un cartier (bairro) din Rio de Janeiro, Brazilia. Situat în zona de est (Zona Oeste) a orașului, este delimitat la nord de Avenida Brasil și la vest de Madureira. Este un cartier de oameni din clasa de mijloc.

Deodoro va fi una dintre cele patru "zone olimpice" din cadrul Jocurilor Olimpice de vară din 2016 și ale Jocurilor Paralimpice din același an. Va găzdui probele de pentatlon modern, rugby în VII, echitație, hochei pe iarbă, tir, ciclism montan, ciclism BMX și caiac canoe slalom.

Note

Referințe

     Venues map: Deodoro  pe rio2016.com

Cartiere din Rio de Janeiro

Deodoro


Rönneholm slot er et svensk slot i Stehag sogn i Eslöv kommune i Skåne. Det ligger ved Rönne å mellem Eslöv og Höör. Slottets oprindelse er ukendt. Det blev i 1811 bygget om til fransk renæssancestil, og i 1882 blev det forsynet med en tredje etage. I 1941 blev slottet hærget af brand, men genopbygget.

På Rönneholm slot har der siden 1996 været behandlingsinstitutioner for kvinder. Det drejer sig dels om Malins Minne for stofmisbrugende mødre med deres børn, dels om Prokrami Kvinnobehandling for kvindelige stofmisbrugere generelt. Hverken slottet eller parken har offentlig adgang.

Historie
Rönneholm hed tidligere Rönningsholm. Det tilhørte i det 16. århundrede slægten Laxmand, men kom i begyndelsen af det 17. århundrede i Jörgen Hondorffs besiddelse via giftermål. Efterkommere af denne ejede slottet til 1681. En af de nærmest følgende ejere var Nils Cronacker, hvorfra slottet gennem giftermål kom i oberstløjtnant Christian Magnus Coyets besiddelse. Det forblev i Coyet-familiens besiddelse til 1918, men jorden var efterhånden blevet afstået. I store dele af det 20. århundrede fungerede slottet som sanatorium. I 1996 blev der foretaget en renovering af hovedbygningen, og i september samme år flyttede Malins Minne ind; organisationen har siden haft sit hovedkvarter her. I sommeren 1997 blev der påbegyndt en renovering af anneksbygningen, og der flyttede Prokrami Kvinnobehandling ind fra Åsljunga i 1998.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Rönneholm slot  på eslov.se

Slotte i Skåne

Rönneholm slot


Dairy farming is a class of agriculture for the long-term production of milk, which is processed (either on the farm or at a dairy plant, either of which may be called a dairy) for the eventual sale of a dairy product. Dairy farming has a history that goes back to the early Neolithic era, around the seventh millennium BC, in many regions of Europe and Africa. Before the 20th century, milking was done by hand on small farms. Beginning in the early 20th century, milking was done in large scale dairy farms with innovations including rotary parlors, the milking pipeline, and automatic milking systems that were commercially developed in the early 1990s.

Milk preservation methods have improved starting with the arrival of refrigeration technology in the late 19th century, which included direct expansion refrigeration and the plate heat exchanger. These cooling methods allowed dairy farms to preserve milk by reducing spoiling due to bacterial growth and humidity.

Worldwide, leading dairy industries in many countries including India, the United States, China, and New Zealand serve as important producers, exporters, and importers of milk. Since the late 20th century, there has generally been an increase in total milk production worldwide, with around 827,884,000 tonnes of milk being produced in 2017 according to the FAO.

There has been substantial concern over the amount of waste output created by dairy industries, seen through manure disposal and air pollution caused by methane gas. The industry's role in agricultural greenhouse gas emissions has also been noted to implicate environmental consequences. Various measures have been put in place in order to control the amount of phosphorus excreted by dairy livestock. The usage of rBST has also been controversial. Dairy farming in general has been criticized by animal welfare activists due to the health issues imposed upon dairy cows through intensive animal farming.

Common types
Although any mammal can produce milk, commercial dairy farms are typically one-species enterprises. In developed countries, dairy farms typically consist of high producing dairy cows. Other species used in commercial dairy farming include goats, sheep, water buffaloes, and camels. In Italy, donkey dairies are growing in popularity to produce an alternative milk source for human infants.

History

While cattle were domesticated as early as 12,000 years ago as a food source and as beasts of burden, the earliest evidence of using domesticated cows for dairy production is from the seventh millennium BC – the early Neolithic era – in northwestern Anatolia. Dairy farming developed elsewhere in the world in subsequent centuries: the sixth millennium BC in eastern Europe, the fifth millennium BC in Africa, and the fourth millennium BC in Britain and Northern Europe.

In the last century or so larger farms specialising in dairy alone have emerged. Large scale dairy farming is only viable where either a large amount of milk is required for production of more durable dairy products such as cheese, butter, etc. or there is a substantial market of people with money to buy milk, but no cows of their own. In the 1800s von Thünen argued that there was about a 100-mile radius surrounding a city where such fresh milk supply was economically viable.

Hand milking

Centralized dairy farming as we understand it primarily developed around villages and cities, where residents were unable to have cows of their own due to a lack of grazing land. Near the town, farmers could make some extra money on the side by having additional animals and selling the milk in town. The dairy farmers would fill barrels with milk in the morning and bring it to market on a wagon. Until the late 19th century, the milking of the cow was done by hand. In the United States, several large dairy operations existed in some northeastern states and in the west, that involved as many as several hundred cows, but an individual milker could not be expected to milk more than a dozen cows a day. Smaller operations predominated.

For most herds, milking took place indoors twice a day, in a barn with the cattle tied by the neck with ropes or held in place by stanchions. Feeding could occur simultaneously with milking in the barn, although most dairy cattle were pastured during the day between milkings. Such examples of this method of dairy farming are difficult to locate, but some are preserved as a historic site for a glimpse into the days gone by. One such instance that is open for this is at Point Reyes National Seashore.

Dairy farming has been part of agriculture for thousands of years. Historically it has been one part of small, diverse farms. In the last century or so larger farms concentrating on dairy production emerged. Large scale dairy farming is only viable where either a large amount of milk is required for production of more durable dairy products such as cheese, butter, etc. or there is a substantial market of people with cash to buy milk, but no cows of their own. Dairy farms were the best way to meet demand.

Vacuum bucket milking

The first milking machines were an extension of the traditional milking pail. The early milker device fit on top of a regular milk pail and sat on the floor under the cow. Following each cow being milked, the bucket would be dumped into a holding tank. These were introduced in the early 20th century.

This developed into the Surge hanging milker. Prior to milking a cow, a large wide leather strap called a surcingle was put around the cow, across the cow's lower back. The milker device and collection tank hung underneath the cow from the strap. This innovation allowed the cow to move around naturally during the milking process rather than having to stand perfectly still over a bucket on the floor.

Milking pipeline

The next innovation in automatic milking was the milk pipeline, introduced in the late 20th century. This uses a permanent milk-return pipe and a second vacuum pipe that encircles the barn or milking parlor above the rows of cows, with quick-seal entry ports above each cow. By eliminating the need for the
milk container, the milking device shrank in size and weight to the point where it could hang under the cow, held up only by the sucking force of the milker nipples on the cow's udder. The milk is pulled up into the milk-return pipe by the vacuum system, and then flows by gravity to the milkhouse vacuum-breaker that puts the milk in the storage tank. The pipeline system greatly reduced the physical labor of milking since the farmer no longer needed to carry around huge heavy buckets of milk from each cow.

The pipeline allowed barn length to keep increasing and expanding, but after a point farmers started to milk the cows in large groups, filling the barn with one-half to one-third of the herd, milking the animals, and then emptying and refilling the barn. As herd sizes continued to increase, this evolved into the more efficient milking parlor.

Milking parlors

Innovation in milking focused on mechanizing the milking parlor (known in Australia and New Zealand as the 'cowshed') to maximize the number of cows per operator which streamlined the milking process to permit cows to be milked as if on an assembly line, and to reduce physical stresses on the farmer by putting the cows on a platform slightly above the person milking the cows to eliminate having to constantly bend over. Many older and smaller farms still have tie-stall or stanchion barns, but worldwide a majority of commercial farms have parlors.

Herringbone and parallel parlors
In herringbone and parallel parlors, the milker generally milks one row at a time. The milker will move a row of cows from the holding yard into the milking parlor, and milk each cow in that row. Once all of the milking machines have been removed from the milked row, the milker releases the cows to their feed. A new group of cows is then loaded into the now vacant side and the process repeats until all cows are milked. Depending on the size of the milking parlor, which normally is the bottleneck, these rows of cows can range from four to sixty at a time. The benefits of a herringbone parlour are easy maintenance, the durability, stability, and improved safety for animals and humans when compared to tie stall  The first herringbone shed is thought to have been built in 1952 by a Gordonton farmer.

Rotary parlors

In rotary parlors, the cows are loaded one at a time onto the parlor as the whole thing rotates in a circle. One milker stands near the entry to the parlor and pre-dips the teats on the udder to help prevent bacteria from entering. The next milker puts the machine on the cow to begin milking. By the time the platform has completed almost a full rotation, the cow is done milking and the unit will come off automatically. The last milker will post-dip her teats to protect them before entering back into the pen. Once this process is done, the cow will back out of the parlor and return to the barn. Rotary cowsheds, as they are called in New Zealand, started in the 1980s but are expensive compared to Herringbone cowshed – the older New Zealand norm.

Automatic milker take-off
It can be harmful to an animal for it to be over-milked past the point where the udder has stopped releasing milk. Consequently, the milking process involves not just applying the milker, but also monitoring the process to determine when the animal has been milked out and the milker should be removed. While parlor operations allowed a farmer to milk many more animals much more quickly, it also increased the number of animals to be monitored simultaneously by the farmer. The automatic take-off system was developed to remove the milker from the cow when the milk flow reaches a preset level, relieving the farmer of the duties of carefully watching over 20 or more animals being milked at the same time.

Fully automated robotic milking

In the 1980s and 1990s, robotic milking systems were developed and introduced (principally in the EU). Thousands of these systems are now in routine operation. In these systems the cow has a high degree of autonomy to choose her time of milking freely during the day (some alternatives may apply, depending on cow-traffic solution used at a farm level). These systems are generally limited to intensively managed systems although research continues to match them to the requirements of grazing cattle and to develop sensors to detect animal health and fertility automatically. Every time the cow enters the milking unit she is fed concentrates and her collar is scanned to record production data.

History of milk preservation methods

Cool temperature has been the main method by which milk freshness has been extended. When windmills and well pumps were invented, one of their first uses on the farm, besides providing water for animals themselves, was for cooling milk, to extend its storage life, until it would be transported to the town market.

The naturally cold underground water would be continuously pumped into a cooling tub or vat.  Tall, ten-gallon metal containers filled with freshly obtained milk, which is naturally warm, were placed in this cooling bath. This method of milk cooling was popular before the arrival of electricity and refrigeration.

Refrigeration
When refrigeration first the equipment was initially used to cool cans of milk, which were filled by hand milking. These cans were placed into a cooled water bath to remove heat and keep them cool until they were able to be transported to collect facilities. As more automated methods were developed for eating milk, hand milking was replaced and, as a result, the milk can was replaced by a bulk milk cooler. 'Ice banks' were the first type of bulk milk cooler. This was a double wall vessel with evaporator coils and water located between the walls at the bottom and sides of the tank. A small refrigeration compressor was used to remove heat from the evaporator coils. Ice eventually builds up around the coils, until it reaches a thickness of about three inches surrounding each pipe, and the cooling system shuts off. When the milking operation starts, only the milk agitator and the water circulation pump, which flows water across the ice and the steel walls of the tank, are needed to reduce the incoming milk to a temperature below 5 degrees.

This cooling method worked well for smaller dairies, however was fairly inefficient and was unable to meet the increasingly higher cooling demand of larger milking parlors. In the mid-1950s direct expansion refrigeration was first applied directly to the bulk milk cooler. This type of cooling utilizes an evaporator built directly into the inner wall of the storage tank to remove heat from the milk. Direct expansion is able to cool milk at a much faster rate than early ice bank type coolers and is still the primary method for bulk tank cooling today on small to medium-sized operations.

Another device which has contributed significantly to milk quality is the plate heat exchanger (PHE). This device utilizes a number of specially designed stainless steel plates with small spaces between them. Milk is passed between every other set of plates with water being passed between the balance of the plates to remove heat from the milk. This method of cooling can remove large amounts of heat from the milk in a very short time, thus drastically slowing bacteria growth and thereby improving milk quality. Ground water is the most common source of cooling medium for this device. Dairy cows consume approximately 3 gallons of water for every gallon of milk production and prefer to drink slightly warm water as opposed to cold ground water. For this reason, PHE's can result in drastically improved milk quality, reduced operating costs for the dairymen by reducing the refrigeration load on his bulk milk cooler, and increased milk production by supplying the cows with a source of fresh warm water.

Plate heat exchangers have also evolved as a result of the increase of dairy farm herd sizes in the United States. As a dairyman increases the size of his herd, he must also increase the capacity of his milking parlor in order to harvest the additional milk. This increase in parlor sizes has resulted in tremendous increases in milk throughput and cooling demand. Today's larger farms produce milk at a rate which direct expansion refrigeration systems on bulk milk coolers cannot cool in a timely manner. PHE's are typically utilized in this instance to rapidly cool the milk to the desired temperature (or close to it) before it reaches the bulk milk tank. Typically, ground water is still utilized to provide some initial cooling to bring the milk to between . A second (and sometimes third) section of the PHE is added to remove the remaining heat with a mixture of chilled pure water and propylene glycol. These chiller systems can be made to incorporate large evaporator surface areas and high chilled water flow rates to cool high flow rates of milk.

Milking operation

Milking machines are held in place automatically by a vacuum system that draws the ambient air pressure down from  of vacuum. The vacuum is also used to lift milk vertically through small diameter hoses, into the receiving can. A milk lift pump draws the milk from the receiving can through large diameter stainless steel piping, through the plate cooler, then into a refrigerated bulk tank.

Milk is extracted from the cow's udder by flexible rubber sheaths known as liners or inflations that are surrounded by a rigid air chamber. A pulsating flow of ambient air and vacuum is applied to the inflation's air chamber during the milking process. When ambient air is allowed to enter the chamber, the vacuum inside the inflation causes the inflation to collapse around the cow's teat, squeezing the milk out of teat in a similar fashion as a baby calf's mouth massaging the teat. When the vacuum is reapplied in the chamber the flexible rubber inflation relaxes and opens up, preparing for the next squeezing cycle.

It takes the average cow three to five minutes to give her milk. Some cows are faster or slower. Slow-milking cows may take up to fifteen minutes to let down all their milk. Though milking speed is not related to the quality of milk produced by the cow, it does impact the management of the milking process. Because most milkers milk cattle in groups, the milker can only process a group of cows at the speed of the slowest-milking cow. For this reason, many farmers will group slow-milking cows so as not to stress the faster milking cows.

The extracted milk passes through a strainer and plate heat exchangers before entering the tank, where it can be stored safely for a few days at approximately  . At pre-arranged times, a milk truck arrives and pumps the milk from the tank for transport to a dairy factory where it will be pasteurized and processed into many products. The frequency of pick up depends and the production and storage capacity of the dairy; large dairies will have milk pick-ups once per day.

Management of the herd
The dairy industry is a constantly evolving business. Management practices change with new technology and regulations that move the industry toward increased economic and environmental sustainability. Management strategies can also loosely be divided into intensive and extensive systems. Extensive systems operate based on a low input and low output philosophy, where intensive systems adopt a high input high output philosophy. These philosophies as well as available technologies, local regulations, and environmental conditions manifest in different management of nutrition, housing, health, reproduction and waste.

Most modern dairy farms divide the animals into different management units depending on their age, nutritional needs, reproductive status, and milk production status. The group of cows that are currently lactating, the milking herd, is often managed most intensively to make sure their diet and environmental conditions are conducive to producing as much high quality milk as possible. On some farms the milking herd is further divided into milking strings, which are groups of animals with different nutritional needs. The segment of the adult herd that are in the resting period before giving birth to their next calf are called dry cows because they are not being milked. All female animals that have yet to give birth to their first calf are called heifers. They will grow up to take the place of older animals in the milking herd and thus are sometimes generally referred to as the replacement herd.

Housing systems
Dairy cattle housing systems vary greatly throughout the world depending on the climate, dairy size, and feeding strategies. Housing must provide access to feed, water and protection from relevant environmental conditions. One issue for housing cattle is temperature extremes. Heat stress can decrease fertility and milk production in cattle. Providing shade is a very common method for reducing heat stress. Barns may also incorporate fans or tunnel ventilation into the architecture of the barn structure. Overly cold conditions, while rarely deadly for cattle, cause increases in maintenance energy requirements and thus increased feed intake and decreased milk production. During the winter months, where temperatures are low enough, dairy cattle are often kept inside barns which are warmed by their collective body heat.

Feed provision is also an important feature of dairy housing. Pasture based dairies are a more extensive option where cows are turned out to graze on pasture when the weather permits. Often the diet must be supplemented with when poor pasture conditions persist. Free stall barns and open lots are intensive housing options where feed is brought to the cattle at all times of year. Free stall barns are designed to allow the cows freedom to choose when they feed, rest, drink, or stand. They can be either fully enclosed or open air barns again depending on the climate. The resting areas, called free stalls, are divided beds lined with anything from mattresses to sand. In the lanes between rows of stalls, the floor is often make of grooved concrete. Most barns open onto uncovered corrals, which the cattle are free to enjoy as the weather allows. Open lots are dirt lots with constructed shade structures and a concrete pad where feed is delivered.

Milking systems

Life on a dairy farm revolves around the milking parlor. Each lactating cow will visit the parlor at least twice a day to be milked. An incredible amount of engineering has gone into designing milking parlors and milking machines. Efficiency is crucial; every second saved while milking a single cow adds up to hours over the whole herd.

Milking machines
Milking is now performed almost exclusively by machine, though human technicians are still essential on most facilities The most common milking machine is called a cluster milker. This milker consists of four metal cups—one per teat—each lined with rubber or silicone. The cluster is attached to both a milk collection system and a pulsating vacuum system. When the vacuum is on, it pulls air from between the outer metal cup and the liner, drawing milk out of the teat. When the vacuum turns off, it gives the teat an opportunity to refill with milk. In most milking systems, a milking technician must attach the cluster to each cow, but the machine senses when the cow has been fully milked and drops off independently.

Milking routine
Every time a cow enters the parlor several things need to happen to ensure milk quality and cow health. First, the cow's udder must be cleaned and disinfected to prevent both milk contamination and udder infections. Then the milking technician must check each teat for signs of infection by observing the first stream of milk. During this processes, called stripping the teat, the milking technician is looking for any discoloration or chunkiness that would indicate mastitis, an infection in the cow's mammary gland. Milk from a cow with mastitis cannot enter the human milk supply, thus farmers must be careful that infected milk does not mix with the milk from healthy cows and that the cow gets the necessary treatment. If the cow passes the mastitis inspection, the milking technician will attach the milking cluster. The cluster will run until the cow is fully milked and then drop off. The milk travels immediately through a cooling system and then into a large cooled storage tank, where it will stay until picked up by a refrigerated milk truck. Before the cow is released from the milking stalls her teats are disinfected one last time to prevent infection.

Nutritional management
Feed for their cattle is by far one of the largest expenses for dairy producer whether it be provided by the land they graze or crops grown or purchased. Pasture based dairy producers invest much time and effort into maintaining their pastures and thus feed for their cattle. Pasture management techniques such as rotational grazing are common for dairy production. Many large dairies that deliver food to their cattle have a dedicated nutritionist who is responsible for formulating diets with animal health, milk production, and cost efficiency in mind. For maximum productivity diets must be formulated differently depending on the growth rate, milk production, and reproductive status of each animal.

Cattle are classified as ruminants because of the amazing construction of their digestive tract. Their symbiotic relationship with the microbes that occupy the fermentation chamber in their stomach, the rumen, allows them to survive on incredibly low quality feed. The rumen is a micro-ecosystem within each dairy cow. For optimal digestion, the environment of the rumen must be ideal for the microbes. In this way, the job of a ruminant nutritionist is to feed the microbes not the cow.

The nutritional requirements of cattle are usually divided into maintenance requirements, which depend on the cow's weight; and milk production requirements, which in turn depend on the volume of milk the cow is producing. The nutritional contents of each available feed are used to formulate a diet that meets all nutritional needs in the most cost effective way. Notably, cattle must be fed a diet high in fiber to maintain a proper environment for the rumen microbes. Farmers typically grow their own forage for their cattle. Crops grown may include corn, alfalfa, timothy, wheat, oats, sorghum and clover. These plants are often processed after harvest to preserve or improve nutrient value and prevent spoiling. Corn, alfalfa, wheat, oats, and sorghum crops are often anaerobically fermented to create silage. Many crops such as alfalfa, timothy, oats, and clover are allowed to dry in the field after cutting before being baled into hay.

To increase the energy density of their diet, cattle are commonly fed cereal grains. In many areas of the world, dairy rations also commonly include byproducts from other agricultural sectors. For example, in California cattle are commonly fed almond hulls and cotton seed. Feeding of byproducts can reduce the environmental impact of other agricultural sectors by keeping these materials out of landfills.

To meet all of their nutritional requirements cows must eat their entire ration. Unfortunately, much like humans, cattle have their favorite foods. To keep cattle from selectively eating the most desirable parts of the diet, most produces feed a total mixed ration (TMR). In this system all the components of the feed are well mixed in a mixing truck before being delivered to the cattle. Different TMRs are often prepared for groups of cows with different nutritional requirements.

Reproductive management
Female calves born on a dairy farm will typically be raised as replacement stock to take the place of older cows that are no longer sufficiently productive. The life of a dairy cow is a cycle of pregnancy and lactation starting at puberty. The timing of these events is very important to the production capacity of the dairy. A cow will not produce milk until she has given birth to a calf. Consequently, timing of the first breeding as well as all the subsequent breeding is important for maintaining milk production levels.

Puberty and first breeding
Most dairy producers aim for a replacement heifer to give birth to her first calf, and thus join the milking herd, on her second birthday. As the cow's gestation period is a little over 9 months this means the cow must be inseminated by the age of 15 months. Because the breeding process is inefficient, most producers aim to first breed their heifers between 12 and 14 months. Before a heifer can be bred she must reach sexual maturity and attain the proper body condition to successfully bear a calf. Puberty in cattle depends largely on weight among other factors. Holstein heifers reach puberty at an average body weight between 550 and 650 lbs. Smaller breeds of cattle, such as Jerseys, usually reach puberty earlier at a lighter weight. Under typical nutritional conditions, Holstein heifers will reach puberty at the age 9–10 months. Proper body condition for breeding is also largely judged by weight. At about 800lbs Holstein heifers will normally be able to carry a healthy calf and give birth with relative ease. In this way, the heifers will be able to give birth and join the milking herd before their second birthday.

Estrous cycle
Puberty coincides with the beginning of estrous cycles. Estrous cycles are the recurring hormonal and physiological changes that occur within the bodies of most mammalian females that lead to ovulation and the development of a suitable environment for embryonic and fetal growth. The cow is considered polyestrous, which means that she will continue to undergo regular estrous cycles until death unless the cycle is interrupted by a pregnancy.

In cows, a complete estrous cycle lasts 21 days. Most commonly, dairy producers discuss the estrous cycle as beginning when the cow is receptive to breeding. This short phase lasting only about a day is also known as estrus or colloquially, heat. The cow will often exhibit several behavioral changes during this phase including increased activity and vocalizations. Most importantly, during estrus she will stand still when mounted by another cow or bull.

Mating and pregnancy
In the United States, artificial insemination (AI) is a very important reproductive tool used on dairy facilities. AI, is the process by which sperm is deliberately delivered by dairy managers or veterinarians into the cow's uterus. Bulls "donate" semen at a stud farm but there is never any physical contact between the cow and the bull when using this method.

This method of insemination quickly gained popularity among dairy producers for several reasons. Dairy bulls are notoriously dangerous to keep on the average dairy facility. AI also makes it possible to speed the genetic improvement of the dairy herd because every dairy farmer has access to sperm from genetically superior sires. Additionally, AI has been shown to reduce spread of venereal diseases within herd that would ultimately lead to fertility problems. Many producers also find it to be more economical than keeping a bull. On the other hand, AI does require more intensive reproductive management of the herd as well as more time and expertise. Detection of estrus, becomes reliant on observation in the absence of bulls. It takes considerable expertise to properly inseminate a cow and high quality sperm is valuable. Ultimately, because dairy production was already a management intensive industry the disadvantages are dwarfed by the advantages of the AI for many dairy producers.

The majority of cows carry a single calf. Pregnancy lasts an average of 280 to 285 days or a little less than 9 and one half months.

Lactation management
After the birth of a calf the cow begins to lactate. Lactation will normally continue for as long as the cow is milked but production will steadily decline. Dairy farmers are extremely familiar with the pattern of milk production and carefully time the cow's next breeding to maximize milk production. The pattern of lactation and pregnancy is known as the lactation cycle.

For a period of 20 days post parturition the cow is called a fresh cow. Milk production quickly increases during this phase but milk composition is also significantly different from the rest of the cycle. This first milk, called colostrum, is rich in fats, protein, and also maternal immune cells. This colostrum is not usually commercially sold, but is extremely important for early calf nutrition. Perhaps most importantly, it conveys passive immunity to the calf before its immune system is fully developed.

The next 30 to 60 days of the lactation cycle is characterized by peak milk production levels. The amount of milk produced per day during this period varies considerably by breed and by individual cow depending on her body condition, genetics, health, and nutrition. During this period the body condition of the cow will suffer because the cow will draw on her body stores to maintain such high milk production. Food intake of the cow also will increase. After peak lactation, the cow's milk production levels will slowly decline for the rest of the lactation cycle. The producer will often breed the cow soon after she leaves peak production. For a while, the cow's food intake will remain high before also beginning a decline to pre lactation levels. After peak milk production her body condition will also steadily recover.

Producers will typically continue to milk the cow until she is two months away from parturition then they will dry her off. Giving the cow a break during the final stages of pregnancy allows her mammary gland to regress and re-develop, her body condition to recover, and the calf to develop normally. Decreased body condition in the cow means she will not be as productive in subsequent milk cycles. Decreased health in the new born calf will negatively impact the quality of the replacement herd. There is also evidence that increased rates of mammary cell proliferation occur during the dry period that is essential to maintaining high production levels in subsequent lactation cycles.

Concerns

Animal waste from large cattle dairies

As measured in phosphorus, the waste output of 5,000 cows roughly equals a municipality of 70,000 people. In the U.S., dairy operations with more than 1,000 cows meet the EPA definition of a CAFO (Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation), and are subject to EPA regulations. For example, in the San Joaquin Valley of California a number of dairies have been established on a very large scale. Each dairy consists of several modern milking parlor set-ups operated as a single enterprise. Each milking parlor is surrounded by a set of 3 or 4 loafing barns housing 1,500 or 2,000 cattle. Some of the larger dairies have planned 10 or more series of loafing barns and milking parlors in this arrangement, so that the total operation may include as many as 15,000 or 20,000 cows. The milking process for these dairies is similar to a smaller dairy with a single milking parlor but repeated several times. The size and concentration of cattle creates major environmental issues associated with manure handling and disposal, which requires substantial areas of cropland (a ratio of 5 or 6 cows to the acre, or several thousand acres for dairies of this size) for manure spreading and dispersion, or several-acre methane digesters. Air pollution from methane gas associated with manure management also is a major concern. As a result, proposals to develop dairies of this size can be controversial and provoke substantial opposition from environmentalists including the Sierra Club and local activists.

The potential impact of large dairies was demonstrated when a massive manure spill occurred on a 5,000-cow dairy in Upstate New York, contaminating a  stretch of the Black River, and killing 375,000 fish. On 10 August 2005, a manure storage lagoon collapsed releasing  of manure into the Black River. Subsequently, the New York Department of Environmental Conservation mandated a settlement package of $2.2 million against the dairy.

When properly managed, dairy and other livestock waste, due to its nutrient content (N, P, K), makes an excellent fertilizer promoting crop growth, increasing soil organic matter, and improving overall soil fertility and tilth characteristics.  Most dairy farms in the United States are required to develop nutrient management plans for their farms, to help balance the flow of nutrients and reduce the risks of environmental pollution.  These plans encourage producers to monitor all nutrients coming onto the farm as feed, forage, animals, fertilizer, etc. and all nutrients exiting the farm as product, crop, animals, manure, etc. For example, a precision approach to animal feeding results in less overfeeding of nutrients and a subsequent decrease in environmental excretion of nutrients, such as phosphorus. In recent years, nutritionists have realized that requirements for phosphorus are much lower than previously thought.  These changes have allowed dairy producers to reduce the amount of phosphorus being fed to their cows with a reduction in environmental pollution.

Use of hormones

It is possible to maintain higher milk production by supplementing cows with growth hormones known as recombinant BST or rBST, but this is controversial due to its effects on animal and possibly human health. The European Union, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and Canada have banned its use due to these concerns.

In the US however, no such prohibition exists, but rBST is not used on dairy farms. Most dairy processors, if not all, will not accept milk with rBST. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration states that no "significant difference" has been found between milk from treated and non-treated cows but based on consumer concerns several milk purchasers and resellers have elected not to purchase milk produced with rBST.

Animal welfare
The practice of dairy production in a factory farm environment has been criticized by animal welfare activists. Some of the ethical complaints regarding dairy production cited include how often the dairy cattle must remain pregnant, the separation of calves from their mothers, how dairy cattle are housed and environmental concerns regarding dairy production.

The production of milk requires that the cow be in lactation, which is a result of the cow having given birth to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation, followed by a "dry" period of about two months of forty-five to fifty days, before calving which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry period that falls outside this time frame can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation.

An important part of the dairy industry is the removal of the calves off the mother's milk after the three days of needed colostrum, allowing for the collection of the milk produced.  On some dairies, in order for this to take place, the calves are fed milk replacer, a substitute for the whole milk produced by the cow.  Milk replacer is generally a powder, which comes in large bags, and is added to precise amounts of water, and then fed to the calf via bucket, bottle or automated feeder.

Milk replacers are classified by three categories: protein source, protein/fat (energy) levels, and medication or additives (e.g. vitamins and minerals).  Proteins for the milk replacer come from different sources; the more favorable and more expensive all milk protein (e.g. whey protein- a by-product of the cheese industry) and alternative proteins including soy, animal plasma and wheat gluten.  The ideal levels for fat and protein in milk replacer are 10-28% and 18-30%, respectively.
The higher the energy levels (fat and protein), the less starter feed (feed which is given to young animals) the animal will consume.  Weaning can take place when a calf is consuming at least two pounds of starter feed a day and has been on starter for at least three weeks.
Milk replacer has climbed in cost US$15–20 a bag in recent years, so early weaning is economically crucial to effective calf management.

Common ailments affecting dairy cows include infectious disease (e.g. mastitis, endometritis and digital dermatitis), metabolic disease (e.g. milk fever and ketosis) and injuries caused by their environment (e.g. hoof and hock lesions).

Lameness is commonly considered one of the most significant animal welfare issues for dairy cattle, and is best defined as any abnormality that causes an animal to change its gait. It can be caused by a number of sources, including infections of the hoof tissue (e.g. fungal infections that cause dermatitis) and physical damage causing bruising or lesions (e.g. ulcers or hemorrhage of the hoof).
Housing and management features common in modern dairy farms (such as concrete barn floors, limited access to pasture and suboptimal bed-stall design) have been identified as contributing risk factors to infections and injuries.

Greenhouse gas emissions

Milk is estimated to have been responsible for 18% of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions in 2014.

Market

Worldwide

There is a great deal of variation in the pattern of dairy production worldwide. Many countries which are large producers consume most of this internally, while others (in particular New Zealand), export a large percentage of their production. Internal consumption is often in the form of liquid milk, while the bulk of international trade is in processed dairy products such as milk powder.

The milking of cows was traditionally a labor-intensive operation and still is in less developed countries. Small farms need several people to milk and care for only a few dozen cows, though for many farms these employees have traditionally been the children of the farm family, giving rise to the term "family farm".

Advances in technology have mostly led to the radical redefinition of "family farms" in industrialized countries such as Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. With farms of hundreds of cows producing large volumes of milk, the larger and more efficient dairy farms are more able to weather severe changes in milk price and operate profitably, while "traditional" family farms generally do not have the equity or income other larger scale farms do. The common public perception of large corporate farms supplanting smaller ones is generally a misconception, as many small family farms expand to take advantage of economies of scale, and incorporate the business to limit the legal liabilities of the owners and simplify such things as tax management.

Before large scale mechanization arrived in the 1950s, keeping a dozen milk cows for the sale of milk was profitable. Now most dairies must have more than one hundred cows being milked at a time in order to be profitable, with other cows and heifers waiting to be "freshened" to join the milking herd. In New Zealand, the average herd size increased from 113 cows in the 1975–76 season to 435 cows in 2018–19 season.

Worldwide, the largest cow milk producer is the United States, the largest cow milk exporter is New Zealand, and the largest importer is China. The European Union with its present 27 member countries produced  in 2013(96.8% cow milk), the most by any politico-economic union.

Supply management
The Canadian dairy industry is one of four sectors that is under the supply management system, a national agricultural policy framework that coordinates supply and demand through production and import control and pricing mechanisms designed to prevent shortages and surpluses, to ensure farmers a fair rate of return and Canadian consumer access to a high-quality, stable, and secure supply of these sensitive products. The milk supply management system is a "federated provincial policy" with four governing agencies, organizations and committees—Canadian Dairy Commission, Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee (CMSMC), regional milk pools, and provincial milk marketing boards. The dairy supply management system is administered by the federal government through the Canadian Dairy Commission (CDC), which was established in 1966 and is composed mostly of dairy farmers, administers the dairy supply management system for Canada's 12,000 dairy farms. The federal government is involved in supply management through the CDC in the administration of imports and exports. The Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee (CMSMC) was introduced in 1970 as the body responsible for monitoring the production rates of milk and setting the national Market Sharing Quota (MSQ) for industrial raw milk. The supply management system was authorized in 1972 through the Farm Products Agencies Act. Supply management ensures consistent pricing of milk for farmers with no fluctuation in the market. The prices are based on the demand for milk throughout the country and how much is being produced.  In order to start a new farm or increase production more share into the SMS needs to be bought into known as "Quota".  in this case farmers must remain up to or below the amount of "quota" they have bought share of.  Each province in Canada has their own cap on quota based on the demand in the market. There is a cap on the countries quota known as total quota per month. In 2016 the total butter fat produced per month was 28,395,848 kg.

World Milk Production

United States

In the United States, the top five dairy states are, in order by total milk production; California, Wisconsin, New York, Idaho,  and Texas. Dairy farming is also an important industry in Florida, Minnesota, Ohio and Vermont. There are 40,000 dairy farms in the United States.

Pennsylvania has 8,500 farms with 555,000 dairy cows. Milk produced in Pennsylvania yields an annual revenue of about US$1.5 billion.

Milk prices collapsed in 2009. Senator Bernie Sanders accused Dean Foods of controlling 40% of the country's milk market. He has requested the United States Department of Justice to pursue an anti-trust investigation. Dean Foods says it buys 15% of the country's raw milk. In 2011, a federal judge approved a settlement of $30 million to 9,000  farmers in the Northeast.

Herd size in the US varies between 1,200 on the West Coast and Southwest, where large farms are commonplace, to roughly 50 in the Midwest and Northeast, where land-base is a significant limiting factor to herd size. The average herd size in the U.S. is about one hundred cows per farm but the median size is 900 cows with 49% of all cows residing on farms of 1000 or more cows.

European Union

Climate change and milk yields

See also

Alfa Laval
Animal husbandry
  Camel milk
Dairy cattle
Dairy products
Factory farming
Family farm
 List of dairy products
Managed intensive grazing
Ubre Blanca, a record milk-producing cow
Veal
 Veganism

References

External links

 World milk production 1980–2003 (FAO diagram)
Respiratory hazards in dairy and beef farming by D Sewell and others. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/95/06
Climate Change, Heat Stress, and U.S. Dairy Production United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service

Milk
Cattle

Dairy farming


Bükceğiz, Samsun ilinin Kavak ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
köyün tarihi 1867 yılına dayanmaktadır. Çarlık Rusya'sı tarafından yurtlarından sürülen Çerkesler yoğun olarak Türkiye'ye göç etmişler ve en fazla Samsun iline yerleşmişlerdir. Atalarımız da mahallesimüzü yerleşim yeri olarak seçmişlerdir. Köy nüfusu tamamen Ubihlardan oluşur.

Coğrafya
Samsun iline 58 km, Kavak ilçesine ise 8 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar
 Bükceğiz Köyü Resmi İnternet Sitesi

Kavak'ın mahalleleri

Bükceğiz, Kavak


.
بونكا  هي قبيلة هندية في أمريكا الشمالية من عرق السيو، وكانوا في البداية جزءا من قبيلة أوماها وعاشوا معهم قرب النهر الأحمر في الشمال، ثم طردهم الداكوتا إلى الغرب وتوقفوا عند نهر بونكا في داكوتا، وبعد العديد من المعاهدات وقرارات الإبعاد وضعوا في المحميات على مصب نهر نيوبرارا، حيث ازدهرت زراعتهم ولكن أخذت هذه الأرض بالقوة ونقلوا إلى المقاطعة الهندية في أوكلاهوما. وخلال رحلتهم أصيب العديدون منهم بالأمراض فثاروا عام 1878 ورجعوا إلى ارض اوماها. ثم قبض عليهم مرة أخرى ولكن الرأي العام جاء لمصلحتهم وحرروا عام 1880، بعد محاكمة طويلة أعلنوا فيها مواطنين، ويعيش معظمهم الآن في أوكلاهوما وكان تعدادهم في بداية القرن العشرين 700 نسمة.

مراجع

بونكا
أمريكيون أصليون
قبائل أمريكية أصلية في نبراسكا
قبائل الأمريكيين الأصليين في أوكلاهوما
مجموعات عرقية في الولايات المتحدة

بونكا


Panagiotis "Panos" Kammenos (, * 12. Mai 1965 in Athen) ist ein griechischer Politiker. Er begann seine politische Karriere bei der Nea Dimokratia. Er wurde im Zusammenhang mit der griechischen Schuldenkrise aus der Partei entlassen und gründete die Partei Anexartiti Ellines (ANEL), deren Vorsitzender er ist. Kammenos war vom 27. Januar 2015 bis 28. August 2015 und erneut von 23. September 2015 bis Mitte Januar 2019 Verteidigungsminister im Kabinett von Alexis Tsipras.

Kammenos studierte Wirtschaft und Psychologie an der Universität Lyon. Er ist verheiratet und Vater von fünf Kindern.

Politische Laufbahn
Bei der Parlamentswahl vom 10. Oktober 1993 wurde Kammenos erstmals als Abgeordneter der Nea Dimokratia ins griechische Parlament gewählt. Am 16. November 2011 wurde er von der von Andonis Samaras einberufenen Kommission "Pflichtkodex" aus der ND-Fraktion ausgeschlossen, nachdem er bei einer Vertrauensabstimmung gegen die Koalitionsregierung von Ministerpräsident Loukas Papadimos gestimmt hatte. Am 13. Februar 2012 wurde er mit 20 anderen Abgeordneten aus der Partei entlassen, da auch sie gegen das "Memorandum 2" gestimmt hatten, das Voraussetzung für das zweite Hilfspaket der EU war. Am 24. Februar 2012 gründete er eine neue Partei mit dem Namen "Anexartiti Ellines" (Unabhängige Griechen), die ein Ende der Troika in Griechenland anstrebte. Das Partei-Motto lautete: "Wir sind viele, wir sind unabhängig, wir sind Griechen." ().

Kammenos bekräftigte vor der Wahl im Mai 2012, er würde sich "nicht einmal tot" an einer Regierung beteiligen, die sich dem "Sparwahn der Troika" unterwerfen würde; eine Zusammenarbeit seiner Partei mit der Nea Dimokratia sowie der PASOK und LAOS schloss er in jeglicher Form aus.

Einen Tag nach der vorgezogenen Parlamentswahl im Januar 2015 bildete seine Partei zusammen mit SYRIZA unter Alexis Tsipras eine Koalitionsregierung. Kammenos erhielt das Amt des Verteidigungsministers.

Erneut bildete Kammenos' Partei nach der vorgezogenen Parlamentswahl im September 2015 mit der SYRIZA eine Koalitionsregierung; er wurde wieder zum Verteidigungsminister ernannt. Im Juni 2018 erklärte Kammenos, dass seine Partei den zuvor gefundenen Kompromiss im Streit um den Namen Mazedonien ablehne. Zwei Tage, nachdem das mazedonische Parlament mit der notwendigen Zweidrittelmehrheit einer Umbenennung ihres Landes in Republik Nordmazedonien zugestimmt hatte, trat er am 13. Januar 2019 als Verteidigungsminister zurück. Designierter Nachfolger ist der bisherige Chef des Generalstabs, Vangelis Apostolakis.

Ehrungen
Er wurde mit dem "Orden der Ehre" des Jerusalemer griechisch-orthodoxen Patriarchats ausgezeichnet.

Positionen
Kammenos stellte die Gründungserklärung für seine neue Partei im Februar 2012 in Distomo vor, einem Dorf, in dem 1944 Teile der Waffen-SS ein Massaker verübten. Kammenos setzte damit die Erinnerung an Deutschland als Feind ein. Er fordert von Deutschland die Zahlung von Reparationen und die Rückzahlung der während des Zweiten Weltkriegs erzwungenen Kriegskredite. In diesem Zusammenhang warf er der damaligen Regierung Landesverrat vor, bezeichnete die Troika als Besatzer und versprach, "die Nazis erneut zu vertreiben". Er ist der Meinung, Griechenland sei von der EU und den Banken besetzt und der neue Darlehensvertrag mit der Troika sei verfassungswidrig. Er will von den griechischen Staatsschulden nur 110 Milliarden Euro zurückzahlen. Kammenos fordert einen überparteilichen Ausschuss, der, mit Notstandsbefugnissen ausgestattet, klären soll, wie Griechenland in die Wirtschaftskrise geführt wurde. Er proklamiert ein "nationales Erwachen und Aufstehen" und vermutet, dass Griechenland einer "internationalen Verschwörung" zum Opfer gefallen sei. Die EU wolle die Mitgliedstaaten wie "Kurtisanen" halten und Griechenland absichtlich in die Armut treiben, um dann seine Bodenschätze ausbeuten zu können. Die Staaten des europäischen Nordens würden einen "Krieg" gegen die südlichen Staaten führen. Letztere sollten sich zu ihrer Verteidigung zusammenschließen.

Nach Einschätzung des Journalisten Niels Kadritzke möchte Kammenos die bedroht geglaubte christlich-orthodoxe Identität Griechenlands wiederherstellen und lehnt daher die Einbürgerung von im Land geborenen Migrantenkindern ab. Er steht anderen Religionen wie dem Judentum und dem Islam misstrauisch gegenüber und spricht sich gegen die rechtliche Gleichstellung homosexueller Paare aus. Wirtschaftspolitisch vertritt er eher neoliberale Ideen, außenpolitisch hofft er auf eine orthodoxe Allianz mit Serbien und Russland.

Weblinks

 Biografie auf der Website des griechischen Parlaments (engl.)

Fußnoten

Verteidigungsminister (Griechenland)
Abgeordneter (Griechenland)
Parteivorsitzender (Griechenland)
Mitglied der Nea Dimokratia
Träger des französischen Nationalverdienstordens (Ritter)
Grieche
Geboren 1965
Mann

Panos Kammenos


Cette page concerne les évènements en 1998 en Finlande  :

Évènement
  :  (bilan : dix morts et )
  :  (bilan : )

Sport
 Championnat de Finlande de football 1998
 Championnat de Finlande de hockey sur glace 1997-1998
 Championnat de Finlande de hockey sur glace 1998-1999
 Participation de la Finlande aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de Nagano.

Culture

Sortie de film
 Aller simple pour Inari
 I Love L.A.
 Kuningasjätkä

Création
 Aarni

Dissolution
 FinnPa

Naissance
 , footballeuse.
 Aksel Kankaanranta, chanteur.
 Niilo Mäenpää, footballeur.
 , volleyeuse.

Décès
 Helvi Hämäläinen, écrivaine.
 Olli Kivinen, architecte.
 , journaliste.
 , acteur.
 , designeuse.
 , écrivain et journaliste.

Notes et références

1998 en Finlande

1998 en Finlande


Estetik, güzel duygu ya da bedii, güzelliği ve güzelliğin insan belleğindeki ve duygularındaki etkilerini konu olarak ele alan felsefe dalıdır.

Estetik, Antik Çağ'dan bugüne kadar felsefe tarihi boyunca birçok filozof tarafından incelenmiştir. Antik Çağ'da Platon ve Aristoteles, Aydınlanma Çağı'nda ise Leonardo Da Vinci, Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten ve Immanuel Kant, felsefenin estetik dalıyla ilgilenen filozoflar arasında yer almaktadır.

Etimoloji

Estetik, Antik Yunanca duymak ve algılamak anlamına gelen aísthēsis (αἴσθησις) sözcüğünden gelmektedir. Güzelin değerlendirilmesi, beğenilerin yargılanması ve duyusal değerlerin incelenmesi gibi konular üzerine çalışmalarda bulunan bir felsefe dalıdır.

Sanat felsefesiyle yakından ilişkilidir. Sanatın yanında kültür ve doğa gibi alanları da kapsaması bakımından sanat felsefesinden ayrılmaktadır.

Estetik, ilk kez 1750 yılında Alman filozof Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten tarafından, konusu duyusal yetkinlik olan duyusal bilgi bilimi olarak tanımlanmıştır. Baumgarten'a göre estetik, güzel üzerine düşünmek, gerçekleştirilmek isteneni incelemek ve güzel olanı aramak gibi anlamlara gelmektedir.

Baumgarten'dan önce estetiği bir felsefe dalı olarak tanımlayan önemli filozofların başında Immanuel Kant gelmektedir.

Sanat nedir?

Yansıtma olarak sanat
Yansıtma olarak sanat, taklit kuramı ya da mimesis kuramı, sanatçıların doğayı taklit etmesi sonucunda sanatın oluştuğunu öne sürmektedir. Platon ve Aristoteles'in sanat üzerine ortaya koyduğu görüşlere dayanmaktadır.

Platon, ontolojide idealar ve görüntüler dünyası arasında yaptığı ayrımı temel alarak, sanatın görüntüler dünyasının bir taklidi olduğunu dile getirmiştir. Aristoteles ise, sanatın doğanın taklidi olduğuna katılmakla birlikte, sanatçının olanı değil olması gerekeni yansıtmakla sorumlu olduğunu düşünmüştür.

Başlıca temsilcileri: Platon ve Aristoteles

Yaratma olarak sanat
Yaratma olarak sanat, sanatçıların doğayı yeniden yaratması sonucunda sanatın oluştuğunu savunmaktadır. Benedetto Croce'nin doğanın sanatçı için model değil, esin kaynağı olması gerektiği görüşü üzerine kuruludur.

Yaratma olarak sanat, doğa ve hayal gücünün birleşimi yoluyla mükemmelliğe ulaşmayı amaçlayan idealist bir sanat anlayışı ortaya koymaktadır.

Başlıca temsilcileri: Benedetto Croce

Oyun olarak sanat
Oyun olarak sanat, gündelik yaşamdan uzaklaşma ve özgür bir dünya oluşturma amacıyla sanatın yapıldığını öne sürmektedir. Friedrich Schiller, sanatın insanı zamandan uzaklaştıran bir etkinlik olarak, fayda beklentisi olmadan yapılması gerektiğini savunmuştur.

Başlıca temsilcileri: Friedrich Schiller

Güzel nedir?

Antik felsefe
Platon, görüntüler dünyasındaki güzeli idealar dünyasına dayandırmıştır. Özgün ve sürekli olan bir güzel anlayışı ortaya koymuştur.

Aristoteles, güzelin matematiksel olarak ölçülü ve kurallı olduğunu savunmuştur.

Plotinus, ilahi aklın evrende ışıması sonucunda güzelin oluştuğunu dile getirmiştir.

Modern felsefe
Immanuel Kant, etikte iyiliğin karşılık gözetilmeden yapılması gerektiği görüşünü temel alarak, güzelden de beklenti içerisinde olunmadan hoşlanılması gerektiğini düşünmüştür. Objenin amacına uygun olması şeklinde değerlendirdiği güzeli, subjektif olarak ele almıştır.

Friedrich Schiller, güzelliği duygusal güzellik ve akli güzellik olarak ikiye ayırmıştır.

Hegel, tabiatın soyut bütünlüğünün duyusal görünüşünün güzeli oluşturduğunu savunmuştur.

Estetik ve sanat felsefesi
Estetik ve sanat felsefesi, bazı durumlarda birbirlerinin yerine kullanılmakla birlikte, aralarında farklılıklar bulunan iki felsefe dalıdır.

Estetik, felsefenin güzeli inceleyen dalıdır. Doğal güzellik ve sanatsal güzellik, estetiğin konusudur. Sanat felsefesi ise, felsefenin yalnızca sanatsal güzelliği inceleyen dalıdır. Bu durumda, estetiğin inceleme alanının sanat felsefesine göre daha geniş olduğu söylenebilmektedir.

Sanat felsefesinin diğer inceleme alanları arasında sanatın toplumdaki yeri ve işlevi, sanatın insan üzerindeki etkisi ve sanatsal eserlerin anlamları gibi konular da yer almaktadır.

Estetiğin sınıflandırılması
Felsefenin bir dalı olan estetik, bazı ölçütlerden hareketle edebiyat estetiği ve resim estetiği gibi alt dallara ayrılabilmektedir. Bu alt dallar da kendi içerisinde şiir estetiği, öykü estetiği, roman estetiği, eleştiri estetiği, drama estetiği ve masal estetiği şeklinde detaylandırılabilmektedir. Edebiyat estetiği, yabancı kaynaklarda en çok incelenen estetik alt dallarından biridir. Bu alanda ortaya konulan eserlerden bazıları aşağıdaki gibidir:
 Horst Redeker, Edebiyat Estetiği (Çev. Aziz Çalışlar), Kuzey Yayınları, Ankara, 1986, 286 s.
 Stein Haugom Olsen, "Edebiyat Estetiği ve Edebiyat Uygulaması" (Çev. Yrd. Doç. Dr. Adem Çalışkan), Studies of the Ottoman Domain / Osmanlı Hakimiyet Sahası Araştırmaları, C. 5, S. 9, Ağustos 2015, ss. 1-29.
 Stein Haugom Olsen, "Edebiyat Teorisi ve Edebiyat Estetiği" (Çev. Yrd. Doç. Dr. Adem Çalışkan), Studies of the Ottoman Domain / Osmanlı Hakimiyet Sahası Araştırmaları, C. 5, S. 9, Ağustos 2015, ss. 30-52.

Estetiğin temel soruları
 Güzel nedir?
 Güzellik nesnel midir?
 Güzelliğin iyi veya kötüyle ilişkisi var mıdır?
 Güzel denen nesneleri güzel kılan şey nedir?

Kaynakça

Estetik


Die Liste der Biografien führt alle Personen auf, die in der deutschsprachigen Wikipedia einen Artikel haben. Dieses ist eine Teilliste mit 6 Einträgen von Personen, deren Namen mit den Buchstaben "Fui" beginnt.

Fui

Fuik
 Fuiko, Franz (* 1964), österreichischer Koch

Fuis
 Fuisting, Georg (1611–1668), Abt des Benediktinerklosters Liesborn

Fuit
 Fuith, Dieter (* 1940), österreichischer Politiker (SPÖ), Landtagsabgeordneter im Burgenland
 Fuith, Karl (1884–1966), österreichischer Politiker (CS), Landtagsabgeordneter
 Fuith, Michael (* 1977), österreichischer Schauspieler
 Fuith, Simone (* 1973), österreichische Schauspielerin

Liste der Biografien/Fui


Resiquimod (R848) (Hersteller Spirig Pharma) ist ein noch in der Entwicklung befindlicher Arzneistoff aus der Gruppe der Immunmodulatoren (immune response modifier, IRM), der in der Behandlung von kleinem, oberflächlichem Basalzell-Hautkrebs (Weißer Hautkrebs; Basaliom), aktinischer Keratose, dem kutanen T-Zell-Lymphom und Feigwarzen (Condylomata acuminata) eingesetzt werden soll.

Es handelt sich bei Resiquimod um eine niedermolekulare Verbindung (small molecule).

Klinische Angaben

Anwendungsgebiete (Indikationen)
Resiquimod wird derzeit in verschiedenen Indikationen geprüft, in erster Linie zur Behandlung der aktinischen Keratose. Auch bei Herpes simplex-Virusinfektionen (Genitalherpes) zeigt es Wirkung, darüber hinaus wird die Wirksamkeit als Adjuvans in der Therapie anderer viraler Erkrankungen, wie beispielsweise Hepatitis C studiert.

Laufende Studien
Prospektive, randomisierte, teilweise verblindete, teils plazebokontrollierte multizentrische klinische Prüfung zur Untersuchung der geeigneten Dosierung, der Sicherheit, Verträglichkeit und Wirksamkeit eines äußerlich anwendbaren Resiquimod-Gels bei Patienten mit multiplen Läsionen einer aktinischen Keratose.

Wirkungsmechanismus (Pharmakodynamik)
Resiquimod bindet an zwei Toll-like Rezeptoren TLR7 und TLR8, und gilt als Nachfolgesubstanz von Imiquimod, welches einen ähnlichen, aber schwächeren Wirkmechanismus besitzt und nur an TLR7 bindet.

Geschichtliches
Resiquimod wurde von 3M Drug Delivery Systems entwickelt und 2010 an das schweizerische Pharmaunternehmen Spirig Pharma AG auslizenziert.

Literatur
 K. Hattermann, S. Picard u. a.: The Toll-like receptor 7/8-ligand resiquimod (R-848) primes human neutrophils for leukotriene B4, prostaglandin E2 and platelet-activating factor biosynthesis. In: FASEB journal. Band 21, Nummer 7, Mai 2007, S. 1575–1585, doi:10.1096/fj.06-7457com, PMID 17264163.
 D. H. Dockrell, G. R. Kinghorn: Imiquimod and resiquimod as novel immunomodulators. In: The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy. Band 48, Nummer 6, Dezember 2001, S. 751–755. PMID 11733457 (Review).

Einzelnachweise

Arzneistoff
Ether
Beta-Aminoalkohol
Aminoaromat
Chinolin
Imidazol

Resiquimod


Zheng Zhilong (kinesisk: 郑芝龙, pinyin: Zhèng Zhīlóng, født 1604 i Nan'an i provinsen Fujian i Kina, død 1661), også kendt som Iquan eller Yiguan (一官), var en kinesisk handelsmand, sørøver og admiral fra Ming-dynastiet. Han var fader til Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga).

Liv og virke
Han forlod sin familie og drog til Macau, da han var 18 år gammel. Der konverterede han til katolicismen og blev døbt, og fik døbenavnet Nicolas Gaspard. Senere arbejdede han for den kinesiske handelsmand Dan Li i Nagasaki. Der giftede han sig med japanerinden Tagawa Matsu. I 1622 gik nederlændingene i land på Pescadores-øerne, og Dan Li sendte da Zheng Zhilong til dem for at være deres tolk. Nederlændingene håbede på at få kontrol med handelen mellem Kina og Japan og samarbejdede i dette øjemed med kinesiske pirater som Zheng Zhilong.

Hans søn Zheng Chenggong blev født i 1624, samme år som Zheng flyttet sin forretningsvirksomhed til Taiwan. Han etablerede ti handelsposter langs øens sydvestlige kyst, men efter nederlændingenes landgang der, blev han udvist. Zheng etablerede sig da på en ø ud for Fujian-kysten, og der opbyggede han en stor sørøverflåde, som hærgede langs Kinas og Vietnams kyster.

I 1625, efter Dan Lis død, blev Zheng Zhilong de kinesiske sørøveres nye leder. Han vandt over Dan Lis søn og formåede således at vinde kontrol over hele dennes forretningsimperium. Han fortsatte tidvis sit samarbejde med nederlændingene.

I 1628 udnævnte Ming-kejseren ham til admiral (游击将军), og han fortsatte at tjene Ming-imperiet selv efter Beijings fald i 1644. Fra 1633 var forholdet til nederlændingene alvorlig skadet. Af frygt for, at Zheng skulle monopolisere søhandelen, havde de angrebet Zhengs hovedkvarter.

Efter, at Qing-styrkerne erobrede Nanjing i 1645, accepterede Zheng Zhilong et tilbud om at blive kommandant for de Ming-kejserlige flådestyrker og fik til opgave at forsvare den nye Ming-hovedstad Fuzhou under prinsen af Tang. I 1649 tillod Zheng Zhilong manchuernes styrker at okkupere Fuzhou.

Han blev henrettet af manchuerne i 1661.

Noter

Litteratur
 Tonio Andrade: Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China's First Great Victory over the West, Princeton University Press, 2011. .

Kinas historie
Erhvervsfolk fra Kina
Militærfolk

Zheng Zhilong


Bora Bora este un film românesc din 2011 regizat de Bogdan Mirică. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Alexandru Potocean, Mirela Zeta.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 2011 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 2011
Filme regizate de Bogdan Mirică

Bora Bora (film)


Sir Roger Williams (1539–1540 – 12 December 1595) was a Welsh soldier of fortune and military theorist, who served the Protestant cause, fighting against the Spanish in several theatres of war. Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester said that as a soldier he was "worth his weight in gold". He was later a close associate of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, and became a national hero because of his exploits fighting the Catholic League. He has been described as "an obstreperous, opinionated Welsh soldier" who was "Essex's devoted confederate and agent".

In his writings on the art of war, Williams was a strong advocate of the modernisation of armies and the exploitation of new military technologies.

Some Shakespeare scholars have suggested that he was the basis for the pugnacious Welsh captain Fluellen in William Shakespeare's Henry V, a character who is also both argumentative and unflinchingly loyal.

Life
Born in Penrhos, Monmouthshire, Williams was the son of Thomas Williams and his wife, Eleanor, daughter of Sir William Vaughan. He was said by Anthony Wood to have attended Brasenose College, Oxford. He spent most of his life soldiering, mainly on the continent. In his own writings he says that his first experience of war was as a page under William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, participating in the storming of St. Quentin in 1557. Williams may have pursued his career in the service of Spain, before becoming associated with its enemies, though Sidney Lee thinks this is "doubtful". He is said to have risen to the rank of Colonel in the Spanish forces.

Whether or not he ever served Spain, in 1572 Williams took part in a raid during the siege of Goes, South Beveland, an outpost of the main Spanish base at Middelburg which was also under siege. The garrison was far larger than they had expected and the attack failed, with many of the raiding party being killed. Williams and Rowland Yorke escaped by crawling out through ditches on their stomachs. In 1577 he joined John Norreys' expedition of English volunteers to the Low Countries, serving as Norreys' military adviser.

In the 1580s he was in the Netherlands fighting on behalf of William the Silent, Prince of Orange, against Spain. He was present when the Prince was assassinated in 1584, and helped capture the assassin, Balthasar Gérard. In 1585 he joined Earl of Leicester's command in the Netherlands, to confront the Spanish forces under the Duke of Parma. Though the campaign was not a success, Leicester wrote: "Roger Williams is worth his weight in gold, for he is noe more valiant than he is wise and of judgement to govern his doings". He was duly knighted after the Battle of Zutphen in 1586 by Leicester.

He also fought for the Protestant Elector of Cologne, Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, and fought with the Dutch soldier of fortune, Martin Schenck von Nydeggen in Westphalia. During the Siege of Venlo in 1586 Schenck and Williams came very close to killing the Duke of Parma.

In 1587, Williams and his regiment were in Sluys (Sluis) when the Duke of Parma laid siege to the town. After a heroic defence, the English and Dutch defenders were forced to surrender on 4 August. Parma gave generous terms; the garrison marched out with all their banners and baggage and all the honours of war. Parma sought Williams out and offered him a command where he would not have to fight either his fellow-countrymen or his co-religionists. Williams replied politely that if he ever fought in the service of any other than his queen, Elizabeth, it would be in the service "of that hero of the Protestant cause, King Henry of Navarre."

Williams was in England to assist in the fight against the Spanish Armada in 1588. Williams accompanied Sir Francis Drake in the expedition to Spain and Portugal 1589, and later fought on behalf of the French Huguenots. He met the Earl of Essex in 1589, and the two became close when they were sent by Queen Elizabeth to lead an army as allies of Henry of Navarre against the Catholic League during the Spanish occupation of Brittany in 1592. He went on to serve Henry against the League during the late 1580s and 1590s, scored a major victory at the Battle of Arques. After Essex returned to England Williams became overall commander of the English forces supporting Henry and de facto envoy of the Queen. Shortly afterwards he captured Aumerle with only 600 men. During the Siege of Rouen in 1592, he almost killed Albanian-Italian leader Giorgio Basta in personal combat, slicing his neck and driving him and his men from the field. These actions made Williams a famous hero in England, and pamphlets of his exploits were published. Sir Henry Umton stated that King Henry was full of praise for Williams and his men, "I never heard him give more honour to any service nor to any man than he doth to Sir Roger Williams and the rest".

He returned to England permanently in 1594, but broken in health he died the following year and his death elicited a great show of public mourning. He left his property to the Earl of Essex. He was buried in St Paul's Cathedral with "full military honours" in an expensive funeral funded by the Earl.

Writings and assessments
Williams was recognised as an expert on military matters by his contemporaries, and wrote A Brief Discourse of War, with his opinions concerning some part of Martial Discipline (1590). He also wrote Newes from Sir Roger Williams (1591). After his death his account of his experiences in the Netherlands was published as Actions of the Low Countries in 1618. Williams gave detailed analyses of the different methods and effectiveness of the Dutch and Spanish forces in the Netherlands, commending the discipline of Parma's troops. He also examined methods of creating effective fortifications. Williams was a strong advocate of new weaponry, emphasising that the English army had to adapt to the new technology, as the traditional English longbow would soon be made obsolete by improved firearms. He argued that a combination of fireams and close-quarter deployment of pikes represented the future of warfare.

Williams has been called a "fiery Welshman", who was "rough around the edges, bloody minded, often lacking in self-control and, at times, slightly mad", but he was widely regarded as "a soldier of the highest integrity". Amos Miller considered his A Brief Discourse of War to be one of the most important contributions to military theory of its day. Sidney Lee says that "His letters and literary work prove him to have possessed command of a blunt and forcible vocabulary as well as much sagacity as a student of the art of war."

Petition anecdote
According to an anecdote recorded by the Camden Society, Williams once appeared before the queen with a petition she wished to avoid. When he pressed the matter, she dismissed him with the excuse that his new boots smelled too strongly of tanning.

The story includes the implausible assertion that Williams was a tailor before he was a soldier, which may result from a confusion about the pun on "suit[e]", but Lee notes that his family, though members of the gentry, were relatively poor.

Fluellen
The similarity between the character of Williams and Shakespeare's Fluellen (the pedantic Welsh officer obsessed by military "disciplines" in Henry V) was noted by the Victorian military historian Julian S. Corbett, who wrote that Williams, "with his professional pedantry, his quaint and forcible turns of speech, his vanity and cool valour, was another 'Fluellen'.". Likewise, Lee says that "Like Shakespeare's Fluellen, he was constitutionally of a choleric temper and blunt of speech".

Shakespeare scholar J. Dover Wilson made the leap from this to suggest that the character of Fluellen was in fact based on Williams. Wilson insisted that Fluellen was "a careful and unmistakable portrait—a real portrait—of Sir Roger Williams, the Welsh soldier who had accompanied Essex during the French campaign of 1592 and had died, tended by Essex to the last, in 1595." He went on to claim that this was evidence that the play promoted the Earl of Essex's 1599 expedition to Ireland: "That this old friend [of Essex] should reappear in a stage-representation of Agincourt four years later is strong evidence that the play was intended to be associated with the hope of England." Wilson also argued that Williams was the author of the Martin Marprelate tracts.

E. K. Chambers accepted that "Wilson has made a fair case for finding, traits of the Welsh soldier Sir Roger Williams in Fluellen". The connection has been supported by some other commentators. Several critics have noted that, while the characterisation of Fluellen may have been influenced by Williams, there is a major problem with equating the two, because Fluellen is a strong advocate of military tradition, unlike Williams, who was a moderniser. Fluellen's debates with his colleagues appear to parody the war of words between Williams and his critics, but Fluellen supports the position of Williams' main opponent Sir John Smythe.

References

1540 births
1595 deaths
Welsh soldiers
British people of the Eighty Years' War
16th-century Welsh military personnel
Welsh Protestants
16th-century Protestants
16th-century soldiers
Welsh mercenaries
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford
People from Monmouthshire
Military writers

Roger Williams (soldier)


Antiguo egipcio puede referirse a:
 la lengua egipcia antigua;
 una persona del Antiguo Egipto.

Antiguo egipcio


Samson is a Biblical figure known for his superhuman strength, derived from his hair.

Samson may also refer to:

Arts and entertainment

Fictional characters
 the title character of Samson Agonistes, a 1671 closet drama by John Milton based on the biblical story
 Samson, a character from Need for Speed: Carbon
 Samson, a character from The Bronze Bow

Films and television
 Samson, a lion character in the 2006 Disney animated film The Wild
 Samson Clogmeyer, from the Cartoon Network series Camp Lazlo
 Brock Samson, from the animated series The Venture Bros
 Samson the bear, from Sesamstraße, the German-language version of children's show Sesame Street
 Edgar "Samson" Leonhardt, from the American TV series Carnivàle
 one of the title characters of the Hanna-Barbera cartoon Samson & Goliath
 a talking dog in the  Belgian children's show Samson en Gert
 a character from the British children's series Thomas & Friends
 a character from the comedy film Half Baked

Comics
 Samson (Fox Feature Syndicate), a Golden Age character
 Black Samson, one of the Guardians of the Globe from Invincible
 Doc Samson, a Marvel superhero
 Mighty Samson, a Gold Key Comics character
 Samson, a member of the Marvel Comics team the Morlocks

Plays and films
 Samson (play), a 1908 play by the French writer Henri Bernstein, basis of the 1915, 1923 and 1936 films below
 Samson (1914 film), an American short
 Samson (1915 film), an American production
 Samson (1923 film), an Italian movie
 Samson (1936 film), a French film directed by Maurice Tourneur
 Samson (1961 Polish film), directed by Andrzej Wajda
 Samson (1961 Italian film), by Gianfranco Parolini
 Samson (2018 film), an American film by Bruce Macdonald

Music
 Samson (Handel), an oratorio by George Frideric Handel
 Samson (opera), a 1734 lost opera Jean-Philippe Rameau, libretto by Voltaire
 Samson (band), a British hard rock band, formed in 1977 by guitarist and vocalist Paul Samson

Songs
 "Samson" (Emly Starr song), Belgian entry in the Eurovision Song Contest, 1981
 "Samson" (Regina Spektor song), 2006
 "Samson", by Godley & Creme from Birds of Prey, 1983
 "Samson", by V V Brown from Samson & Delilah, 2013

Companies
 Samson AG
 Samson Ceramics, reproduction ceramics, 1845–1969
 Samson Tractor, a division of General Motors from 1917 to 1922, which also made trucks
 Samson, an Irish film production company, producers of Once
 Samson Technologies, a US-American audio equipment company; see Wireless microphone

People
 Samson (name), a list of people with the given name or surname
 Samson (rapper) (1987–2020), English rapper and Cannabis activist
 Samson, English stage name of Santo (1917–1984), Mexican wrestler and film actor
 Samson, ring name of female Muay Thai boxing champion Siriporn Thaweesuk

Places
 Samson, Isles of Scilly, United Kingdom
 Samson, Alabama, United States
 Sầm Sơn, Vietnam
 Samson, Western Australia, a suburb of Perth
 Samson, Doubs, France
 Samson Indian Reserve No. 137, Alberta, Canada

Military
 Samson Option, a deterrence strategy of massive retaliation with nuclear weapons, especially as applied to Israel
 Samson Unit, a special forces unit within the Israel Defense Forces (1988–1995)
 Samson Remote Controlled Weapon Station, an Israeli remote weapon system
 Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules, a transport aircraft known as the "Samson" in Israeli service
 FV106 Samson, a British Army armoured recovery vehicle

Vehicles

Locomotives
 Samson, an 1831 locomotive of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway
 Samson (locomotive), built in 1838, Canada's oldest locomotive
 Sampson (1855–1884), a South Devon Railway Tornado class steam locomotive
 Samson, an 1874 steam locomotive at Cornish Hush Mine

Other vehicles
 Samson (crane barge), wrecked on the Irish coast in 1987
 La Mouette Samson, a French ultralight trike design
 City of New York (1885 ship), originally the Norwegian ship Samson

Other uses
 SAMSON (Software for Adaptive Modeling and Simulation Of Nanosystems), a software platform for computational nanoscience
 Samson (dinosaur), a dinosaur skeleton with the most complete Tyrannosaurus rex skull ever found
 Samson (gorilla) (1949–1981), a male silverback western lowland gorilla
 Samson (magazine), a Japanese gay magazine featuring chubby and older men
 Samson fish, a jack of the genus Seriola
 Samson and Goliath (cranes), twin shipbuilding gantry cranes in Queen's Island, Belfast, Northern Ireland
 Samson Ultra, a trademark name for .50 Action Express preloaded handgun ammunition
 Samson, a name for the ND-5000 32-bit processor made by Norsk Data
 Samson, an alternative name for the wine grape Cinsaut
 "Samson", a 1988 art installation by Chris Burden

See also
 Samson and Delilah (disambiguation)

 Sampson (disambiguation)
 Sansom, a surname
 Sanson (disambiguation)
 Samsun, Turkey
 Samsung, a South Korean multinational conglomerate

Samson (disambiguation)


රනිල පිටි (බොහෝ කොට උඳු පිටි) වලින් සාදන රසවත් පෝෂ්‍යදායී ආහාරයකි.

ආශ්‍රිත

මාංශ සහ රනිල ඇට

පපඩම්


La saison 2022 de Super Rugby est la vingt-septième édition de cette compétition de rugby à XV. Elle est disputée par douze franchises, cinq d'Australie, six de Nouvelle-Zélande et une des Fidji.

La nouveauté est le passage de dix à douze équipes, entraînée par l'arrivée des Moana Pasifika, basés en Nouvelle-Zélande mais représentant les îles du Pacifique, et les Fijian Drua fidjiens. La compétition n'est plus disputée en conférence ou poules géographiques comme les années précédentes, mais possède désormais un classement unique.

Organisation
Par rapport à la saison précédente, le format de la compétition est réorganisé, avec un passage de dix à douze équipes. La première des deux nouvelles franchises est les Moana Pasifika, affiliée à la fédération néo-zélandaise et basée à Auckland, et qui a pour but de représenter les nations du Pacifique, particulièrement les Samoa et Tonga. La seconde est la franchise fidjienne des Fijian Drua, qui a auparavant disputé le championnat national australien.

La compétition se déroule cette fois-ci en une seule phase de poule, unique aux douze franchises. La saison régulière se déroule sur quinze journées, avant des phases finales se faisant affronter les huit premiers du classement. L'équipe la mieux classée recevant alors systématiquement.

Franchises participantes
La compétition oppose douze franchises issues d'Australie, de Nouvelle-Zélande et des Fidji. Chaque franchise représente une aire géographique.

La compétition

Classement phase régulière

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Attribution des points : victoire : 4, match nul : 2, défaite : 0 ; plus les bonus (offensif : 3 essais de plus que l'adversaire ; défensif : défaite par 7 points d'écart ou moins).

Résultats détaillés

Les points marqués par chaque équipe sont inscrits dans les colonnes centrales (3-4) alors que les essais marqués sont donnés dans les colonnes latérales (1-6). Les points de bonus sont symbolisés par une bordure bleue pour les bonus offensifs (trois essais de plus que l'adversaire), orange pour les bonus défensifs (défaite par moins de sept points d'écart), rouge si les deux bonus sont cumulés.

Phase finale

Quarts de finale

Demi-finales

Finale

Résumé

Statistiques
Les statistiques incluent la phase finale.

Meilleurs réalisateurs

Meilleurs marqueurs

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Lien externe
  Site officiel

2022
Rugby à XV en 2022
Sport en Australie en 2022
Sport en Nouvelle-Zélande en 2022
2022 aux Fidji

Saison 2022 de Super Rugby