Shaped-medical devices, e.g. stents, having improved mechanical properties and structural integrity are disclosed. The devices comprise shaped polymeric hydrogels which are both ionically and non-ionically crosslinked and which exhibit improved structural integrity after selective removal of the crosslinking ions. Process for making such devices are also disclosed wherein an ionically crosslinkable polymer is both ionically and non-ionically crosslinked to form a shaped medical device. When implanted in the body, selective in-vivo stripping of the crosslinking ions produces a softer, more flexible implant having improved structural integrity.

1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to medical devices comprising polymer hydrogels having improved mechanical properties.
2. Description of Related Art
Medical devices adapted for implant into the body to facilitate the flow of bodily fluids, to serve as vascular grafts or for other purposes have been developed. Typically, these devices include stents, catheters or cannulas, plugs, constrictors, tissue or biological encapsulants and the like.
Typically, many of these devices used as implants are made of durable, non-degradable plastic materials such as polyurethanes, polyacrylates, silicone polymers and the like, or more preferably from biodegradable polymers which remain stable in-vivo for a period of time but eventually biodegrade in-vivo into small molecules which are removed by the body by normal elimination in the urine or feces.
Typical of such biodegradable polymers are polyesters, polyanhydrides and polyorthoesters which undergo hydrolytic chain cleavage, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,085,629; crosslinked polysaccharide hydrogel polymers as disclosed in EPA 0507604 A-2 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,057,606 and other ionically crosslinked hydrogels as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,941,870, 4,286,341 and 4,878,907.
EPA 0645150 A-1 describes hydrogel medical devices prepared from ionically crosslinked anionic polymers, e.g. polysaccharides such as calcium alginate or ionically crosslinked cationic polymers such as chitosan, cationic guar, cationic starch and polyethylene amine. These devices are adapted for more rapid in-vivo disintegration upon the administration of a chemical trigger material which displaces crosslinking ions.
Hydrogels offer excellent biocompatibility and have been shown to have reduced tendency for inducing thrombosis, encrustation, and inflammation. Unfortunately, the use of hydrogels in biomedical device applications has often been hindered by poor mechanical performance. Although many medical device applications exist where minimal stresses are encountered by the device in-vivo, most applications require that the device survive high stresses during implantation. Hydrogels suffer from low modulus, low yield stress and low strength when compared to non-swollen polymer systems. Lower mechanical properties result from the swollen nature of hydrogels and the non-stress bearing nature of the swelling agent, e.g., aqueous fluids.
Accordingly, there is a need in the art to provide shaped medical devices which not only offer the advantages of polymer hydrogels in terms of biological compatibility, but which also have improved mechanical properties, e.g. improved strength and modulus properties, such that they retain their shape and stiffness during insertion into the body, such as by delivery through an endoscope, and which also can swell and soften inside the body to enhance patient comfort.
This invention provides a means of boosting the mechanical performance of shaped medical devices comprising polymer hydrogels, such as stents, so that they may be more easily inserted into the body, and at the same time provides a means to soften such devices in-vivo while retaining the structural integrity of the device.
The invention provides a process for improving the mechanical properties and structural integrity of a shaped medical device comprising a crosslinked polymeric hydrogel, said process comprising subjecting an ionically crosslinkable polymer composition to crosslinking conditions such that both ionic and non-ionic crosslinks are formed resulting in a polymeric hydrogel, wherein a medical device of improved structural integrity is obtained upon selective removal of said crosslinking ions from said polymeric hydrogel.
In addition, the invention also provides a process for improving the mechanical properties and structural integrity of a shaped medical device comprising a polymeric hydrogel, said process comprising:
a) providing a crosslinked polymeric hydrogel composition containing a non-ionic crosslink structure, said hydrogel polymer characterized as being ionically crosslinkable and having a primary shape;
b) imparting a secondary shape to said hydrogel polymer composition; and
c) subjecting said hydrogel polymer to ionic crosslinking conditions to ionically crosslink said hydrogel polymer while retaining said secondary shape.
A medical device substantially conforming to the primary shape of said hydrogel is obtained upon selective removal of the crosslinking ions from said crosslinked polymeric hydrogel, such as by removal of said ions after the device is implanted into the body.
The invention also provides a shaped medical device having improved mechanical properties comprising a cross-linked polymeric hydrogel, said hydrogel containing both an ionic and a non-ionic crosslink structure. The device is characterized by improved structural integrity after selective removal of said ionic crosslinking ions as compared with an otherwise identical device containing only an ionic structure.
The invention further provides a medical procedure comprising insertion of the above-described medical device into a human or animal body to form an implant, followed by the selective removal of at least a portion of the crosslinking ions from the implant in-vivo to soften the implant. Where the implant is later surgically removed, it may be once again subjected to ionic crosslinking conditions to ionically re-crosslink the implant prior to removal from the body.
The ionically crosslinkable polymers from which the medical devices of this invention may be fabricated may be anionic or cationic in nature and include but are not limited to carboxylic, sulfate, hydroxy and amine functionalized polymers, normally referred to as hydrogels after being crosslinked. The term xe2x80x9chydrogelxe2x80x9d indicates a crosslinked, water insoluble, water containing material.
Suitable crosslinkable polymers which may be used in the present invention include but are not limited to one or a mixture of polymers selected from the group consisting of polyhydroxy ethyl methacrylate, polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylamide, poly (N-vinyl pyrrolidone), polyethylene oxide, hydrolysed polyacrylonitrile, polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid, polyethylene amine, alginic acid, pectinic acid, carboxy methyl cellulose, hyaluronic acid, heparin, heparin sulfate, chitosan, carboxymethyl chitosan, chitin, pullulan, gellan, xanthan, carboxymethyl starch, carboxymethyl dextran, chondroitin sulfate, cationic guar, cationic starch as well as salts and esters thereof. Polymers listed above which are not ionically crosslinkable are used in blends with polymers which are ionically crosslinkable.
The most preferred polymers include one or a mixture of alginic acid, pectinic acid, carboxymethyl cellulose, hyaluronic acid, chitosan, polyvinyl alcohol and salts and esters thereof. Preferred anionic polymers are alginic or pectinic acid; preferred cationic polymers include chitosan, cationic guar, cationic starch and polyethylene amine.
Other preferred polymers include esters of alginic, pectinic or hyaluronic acid and C2 to C4, polyalkylene glycols, e.g. propylene glycol, as well as blends containing 1 to 99 wt % of alginic, pectinic or hyaluronic acid with 99 to 1 wt % polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid or polyvinylalcohol. Preferred blends comprise alginic acid and polyvinylalcohol.
The crosslinking ions used to crosslink the polymers may be anions or cations depending on whether the polymer is anionically or cationically crosslinkable. Appropriate crosslinking ions include but are not limited to cations selected from the group consisting of calcium, magnesium, barium, strontium, boron, beryllium, aluminum, iron, copper, cobalt, lead and silver ions. Anions may be selected from but are not limited to the group consisting of phosphate, citrate, borate, succinate, maleate, adipate and oxalate ions. More broadly, the anions are derived from polybasic organic or inorganic acids. Preferred crosslinking cations are calcium, iron, and barium ions. The most preferred crosslinking cations are calcium and barium ions. The most preferred crosslinking anion is phosphate. Crosslinking may be carried out by contacting the polymers with an aqueous solution containing dissolved ions.
As indicated above, the polymer hydrogels forming the shaped medical device of this invention are also crosslinked by non-ionic crosslinking mechanisms to produce a device having a higher crosslink density and one which has improved mechanical properties, i.e., improved stiffness, modulus, yield stress and strength. This may be accomplished by additionally subjecting the ionically crosslinkable polymer to non-ionic crosslinking mechanisms such as high energy radiation (gamma rays) or treatment with a chemical crosslinking agent reactive with groups present in the polymer such that covalent bonds are formed connecting the polymer network. Another non-ionic crosslinking mechanism useful with respect to some classes of hydrogel polymers is physical crosslinking which is typically accomplished by crystal formation or similar association of polymer blocks such that the polymer molecules are physically tied together and prevented from complete dissolution. Non-ionic crosslinking may be carried out prior to, subsequent to or concurrently with ionic crosslinking.
The most preferred method for non-ionic crosslinking is contact of the ionically crosslinkable polymer with a chemical crosslinking agent, because the degree of crosslinking can be more readily controlled, mainly as a function of the concentration of the crosslinking agent in the reaction medium. Suitable crosslinking agents are polyfunctional compounds preferably having at least two functional groups reactive with one or more functional groups present in the polymer. Preferably the crosslinking agent contains one or more of carboxyl, hydroxy, epoxy, halogen or amino functional groups which are capable of undergoing facile nucleophilic or condensation reactions at temperatures up to about 100xc2x0 C. with groups present along the polymer backbone or in the polymer structure. Suitable crosslinking reagents include polycarboxylic acids or anhydrides; polyamines; epihalohydrins; diepoxides; dialdehydes; diols; carboxylic acid halides, ketenes and like compounds. A particularly preferred crosslinking agent is glutaraldehyde.
One of the unique properties of the polymer hydrogels of this invention is that the ionic crosslinks can be easily and selectively displaced in-vivo after implantation of the device in the body, resulting in a swelling and softening of the device in the body which enhances patient comfort. Since the non-ionic crosslinks are not significantly displaced, the device will retain its original non-ionically crosslinked shape configuration to a large degree and will not disintegrate.
For example, a biliary or urethral stent can be fabricated which has improved modulus (stiffness) properties due to the dual crosslinking treatment of this invention. Such a stent will be robust enough and be sufficiently resistant to buckling such that it can be readily inserted into the appropriate part of the body with an endoscope. Once inserted, the ionic crosslinks present in the device can be selectively at least partially stripped either directly by the physician, by dietary means or by means of natural body fluids such as bile or urine. As the ionic crosslinks are removed, the modulus of the device will be lowered and the device will soften and swell in body fluids, resulting in a more comfortable and conformable element and a larger lumen through which body fluids may flow. An enlarged lumen is typically preferred in tubular shaped devices to allow higher flow rates, to provide anchoring force to the body and to decrease the likelihood of occlusion during service.
Displacement of the crosslinking ions can be accomplished by flowing a solution containing a stripping agent around and/or through the medical device in-vivo. The stripping agent serves to displace, sequester or bind the crosslinking ions present in the ionically crosslinked polymer, thereby removing the ionic crosslinks. The choice of any particular stripping agent will depend on whether the ion to be displaced is an anion or a cation. Suitable stripping agents include but are not limited to organic acids and their salts or esters, phosphoric acid and salts or esters thereof, sulfate salts and alkali metal or ammonium salts.
Examples of stripping agents include, but are not limited to, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, ethylene diamine tetraacetate, citric acid and its salts, organic phosphates such as cellulose phosphate, inorganic phosphates, as for example, pentasodium tripolyphosphate, mono and dibasic potassium phosphate, sodium pyrophosphate, phosphoric acid, trisodium carboxymethyloxysuccinate, nitrilotriacetic acid, maleic acid, oxalate, polyacrylic acid, as well as sodium, potassium, lithium, calcium and magnesium ions. Preferred agents are citrate, inorganic phosphates and sodium, potassium and magnesium ions. The most preferred agents are inorganic phosphates and magnesium ions.
Specific methods for introduction of the stripping agent include introduction through the diet of the patient or through parenteral feeding, introduction of a solution directly onto the device such as by insertion of a catheter which injects the agent within the device, or through an enema.
For example, one dietary technique for stripping urinary device such as an implanted calcium alginate ureteral stent strippable by phosphate anions would be to include in the patient""s diet materials which bind phosphate e.g., calcium salts, to lower the content of PO4xe2x88x923 present in the urine which can be normally up to about 0.1%. When it is desired to strip the medical device, phosphate binders can be eliminated from the diet and also replaced by foods or substances which generate phosphate ions in the urine. Achievement of levels of phosphate in the urine of from 0.2 to 0.3% will result in the in-vivo stripping of the calcium ions from the calcium alginate stent. Lower levels of phosphate in the urine will also result in a more gradual stripping of the calcium ions, but higher levels are preferred for rapid stripping of the calcium.
Another advantage of the invention is that the stripping process may be reversed to re-stiffen the medical device which facilitates surgical removal of the device from the body. This may be accomplished by flowing a source of crosslinking ions through and/or around the implant to ionically re-crosslink the implant, essentially the reverse of the stripping process described above. Dietary modifications can also be used to re-crosslink the medical device in-vivo.
In another embodiment of the invention, a secondary shape can be imparted to the medical device prior to implant in the body. This is accomplished by deforming the primary shape of a device which is crosslinked at least non-ionically, setting the device in the deformed shape by ionic crosslinking and implanting the device in the body in the deformed shape. Stripping the ions in-vivo as described above will cause the device to revert in-vivo to its primary non-ionically crosslinked shape. In accordance with one aspect of this embodiment, an ionically crosslinkable polymer is formed into a primary shape and subjected to non-ionic crosslinking conditions to form a non-ionically crosslinked hydrogel having said primary shape. Non-ionic crosslinking can be carried out by the methods described above, and is preferably carried out by extruding the polymer into a bath containing a sufficient amount of one or more of the non-ionic crosslinking agents to form a shape-retaining hydrogel. Next, a secondary shape is imparted to the non-ionically crosslinked hydrogel and the hydrogel is then subjected to ionic crosslinking conditions to ionically crosslink the hydrogel while retaining this secondary shape.
In another aspect of this embodiment, an ionically crosslinkable polymer is formed into a primary shape and subjected to both non-ionic and ionic crosslinking conditions to form a hydrogel having said primary shape and containing both an ionic and non-ionic crosslink structure. In accordance with this second aspect, an ionically and non-ionically crosslinked shaped hydrogel is prepared as above. Then, the shaped hydrogel is selectively stripped ex-vivo of at least a portion or essentially all of the crosslinking ions; the shaped hydrogel is conformed to a secondary shape, e.g., bent around a wire, stretched, compressed or the like; and the shaped hydrogel is ionically re-crosslinked while retained in the secondary shape. Release of the crosslinking ions in-vivo will cause the implanted device to revert substantially to the original primary, non-ionically crosslinked shape. The stripping step described above can occur immediately prior to or subsequent to the secondary shaping step, but preferably subsequent such step but prior to the ionic recrosslink step.
This embodiment is particularly useful where the medical device is of hollow, tubular configuration, such as a stent. Where the stent is both ionically and non-ionically crosslinked, it is selectively stripped of the crosslinking ions. The stent is stretched to form a narrower stent which facilitates insertion into the body, ionically crosslinked or re-crosslinked in the stretched state to fix the stent in the stretched state, implanted in the body and then re-stripped in-vivo of the ionic crosslinks to produce a softer implant having a wider lumen. Other stent shapes such as pigtail ends, flaps, curves and the like can be developed in-vivo by subjecting devices having these primary initial shapes to the process described above, i.e., deforming the primary shape ex-vivo and reforming the primary shape in-vivo.
The stripping step described above is preferably accomplished by dipping or spraying the crosslinked device with an aqueous electrolyte solution for an appropriate time to selectively strip the crosslinking ions from the device. Preferred electrolytes for ex-vivo stripping are chlorides of monovalent cations such as sodium, potassium or lithium chloride, as well as other stripping salts described above. The concentration of the electrolyte salt in the solution may range from about 1 wt % up to the solubility limit. The solution may also contain plasticizing ingredients such as glycerol or sorbitol to facilitate inter and intra polymer chain motion during and after secondary shaping.
Secondary shaping of the medical device may be done by hand, i.e., using pinning boards or jig pins, or by using shaped presses or molds.
The device may be ionically crosslinked or re-crosslinked in the secondary shape by contacting the device, while retaining the secondary shape, with an aqueous solution containing the crosslinking ions described above. After crosslinking, the device will essentially retain the secondary shape.
Medical devices which may be fabricated in accordance with this invention include stents, catheters or cannulas, plugs and constrictors, for both human and animal use. The invention is particularly applicable to medical stents of tubular configuration which come in contact with one or more body fluids such as blood, urine, gastrointestinal fluids and bile. The devices are particularly applicable for use in gastrointestinal, urogenital, cardiovascular, lymphatic, otorhinolaryngological, optical, neurological, integument and muscular body systems.
The devices may optionally include fillers, disintegration agents, additives for medical treatment such as antiseptics, antibiotics, anticoagulants, or medicines, and additives for mechanical property adjustment of the device.
Linear device or pre-device configurations such as fibers, rods, tubes or ribbons can be manufactured in accordance with the present invention by using a spinning device in which an aqueous solution of an ionically crosslinkable matrix polymer is forced through a shaping die into a crosslinking bath containing the crosslinking ions. The product after crosslinking is typically described as a hydrogel. The hydrogel may be used as made, or further given a three dimensional shape through treatment in a crosslinking solution after being forced into the desired shape. After equilibration, the hydrogel will retain the new three dimension shape. The device may be used in its hydrogel form or in a dehydrated form. During dehydration, the three dimensional shape is retained.
Another process for manufacturing the articles of the present invention comprises introducing a solution comprising ionically crosslinkable polymer through a die to form a tube, simultaneously pumping a solution comprising crosslinking ion through the formed tube, and extruding the formed tube from said die into a solution comprising crosslinking ion. In this process, the crosslinking step may involve shaping of the device as in wet spinning of a tubular device. Alternatively, the device may be prepared by molding a latent crosslinking composition using a one or two part reaction injection molding system. The term xe2x80x9ctubularxe2x80x9d as used herein, includes not only cylindrical shaped devices having circular cross sections, but also devices having different cross sections as long as such articles have a hollow passageway, which distinguishes a tube from a rod.
The ionically crosslinked, shaped polymer prepared as above is then subjected to non-ionic crosslinking, e.g. high energy radiation or by contact under appropriate acidic or basic conditions with the appropriate chemical crosslinking agent. Crosslinking is preferably carried out by soaking the polymer in an aqueous solution containing a water soluble crosslinking agent such as glutaraldehyde, ethylene diamine or a lower alkylene glycol. Generally, the concentration of crosslinking agent in solution may range from about 0.25 to about 10 wt %, more preferably from about 0.5 to 5.0 wt %. The degree of non-ionic crosslinking is controlled as a function of the concentration of the crosslinking agent in solution. The level should be selected such that a stiffer, higher modulus device is produced which will revert to a soft, stretchy, shape retaining device after removal of the ionic crosslinks. Some trial and error may be required to determine optimum levels depending on the particular polymer and the identity of the crosslinking agent.
The crosslinking process may also be conducted by first crosslinking the polymer non-ionically, followed by ionic crosslinking, essentially the reverse of the process described above.
Where the ionically crosslinkable polymer composition includes polymers which are partially water soluble, it is preferred to include in the aqueous spinning solution and treatment solutions described above one or more additives which retard the tendency of the solution to dissolve the polymer, i.e., provide non-solvent conditions. Example of such conditions include high salt concentrations, or inclusion in the solution of additives such as borax, boric acid, alkali metal salts and/or a lower alcohol such as methanol.
The various steps may be performed at any suitable temperature, e.g., at room temperature or at temperatures up to about 100xc2x0 C. Preferably, soaking steps are conducted at room temperature. Moreover, the steps may be performed one immediately after another, or a drying step (e.g., air-drying) may be interposed between one or more steps. Additionally, the shaped medical device may be sterilized after the sequence of secondary-shaping steps.
The medical device may be stored wet or dry. For example, the medical device may be stored in a suitable aqueous solution or may be dried prior to storage. For example, the medical device could be stored in deionized water, or in water containing water soluble agents such as glycerol, sorbitol, sucrose and the like.
Exemplary hydrogel systems which may be prepared in accordance with this invention can be prepared by the following procedures:
a) Alginate which has been covalently and ionically crosslinked.
A solution of sodium alginate is extruded through a tube die into a calcium chloride bath while calcium chloride solution is simultaneously introduced through the lumen of the tube. This ionically crosslinked tube is then covalently crosslinked by treatment with an aqueous solution containing glutaraldehyde. The now covalently and ionically crosslinked gel has a higher crosslink density and therefore higher modulus than a similar tube having only the covalent or only the ionic crosslinks. The tube therefore has higher stiffness and improved resistance to buckling than a tube having the covalent or ionic crosslinks alone. After insertion into the body, exposure of the tube to ions in body fluids will remove the calcium crosslinks, lower the modulus of the gel and therefore reduce the stiffness of the tube, allowing for maximum patient comfort and biocompatibility. Suitable ions which will displace the calcium crosslinking ions include phosphate, sulfate, carbonate, potassium, sodium and ammonium. The implanted device may be stiffened and strengthened during removal from the body via exposure of the device to an infusion fluid which contains a solution of the crosslinking ions (calcium).
b) Polyvinyl alcohol and alginate.
A blend of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium alginate may be dispersed or dissolved in water, extruded into a bath containing calcium ions, said bath also containing non-solvent conditions for the polyvinyl alcohol. The polyvinyl alcohol component of the formed article may then be covalently crosslinked with an aqueous solution containing glutaraldehyde. The article is now ready for insertion or implantation. After implantation, the article may be softened and swollen by removal of the ionic crosslinks as above. Removal of the ionic crosslinks may also optionally allow the alginate to fully or partially dissolve in the body fluids, leaving behind a less dense, more porous hydrogel. The morphology of the final hydrogel device may be controlled through judicious selection of polyvinyl alcohol molecular weight, degree of crosslinking, solvent composition, alginate molecular weight, alginate salt used, state of the alginate salt (dissolved, particulated, gel), alginate monomer makeup, temperature, pressure, mix time, solution age, and rheological factors during manufacture.
c) Polyvinyl alcohol and alginatexe2x80x94shape memory.
The blend of PVA and sodium alginate described in (b) above may be used to make a stent having a shape memory feature to gain increased lumen size after deployment in-vivo. A tube is made by extruding the mixture through a tube die into a concentrated calcium chloride bath, optionally containing other salts and boric acid. The tube is then transferred into a bath which contains calcium chloride and a chemical crosslinker (glutaraldehyde). After allowing for reaction, the tube will become a covalently crosslinked PVA/calcium alginate system. The tube is immersed in concentrated potassium chloride solution to remove the calcium crosslinks from the alginate while preventing the alginate from dissolving. The tube is then stretched to form a longer length tube having a more narrow lumen. While in this stretched configuration, the tube is immersed into concentrated calcium chloride solution to re-crosslink the alginate. The tube is frozen into the longer length, narrow lumen configuration. Upon insertion into the body, the tube will return to it""s original shorter length, large lumen configuration as the calcium is stripped from the alginate. The alginate may eventually dissolve, leaving behind a more porous glutaraldehyde crosslinked PVA tube. Other imposed shapes may be used to accommodate body insertion in a compact form, followed by shape change upon displacement of the ionic crosslinks.
d) Propyleneglycol alginate.
Propyleneglycol alginate may be covalently crosslinked with ethylene diamine under basic conditions and ionically crosslinked with calcium ions. This covalently and ionically crosslinked material will exhibit higher stiffness than the material crosslinked with covalent linkages only. Removal of the ionic crosslinks will occur in-vivo after deployment in body fluid. A stent, catheter or cannula can be manufactured from this material, implanted while both ionically and covalently crosslinked, then in-vivo the device will soften as the ionic crosslinks are displaced. A device of this construction would provide stiffness for implantation and softness for patient comfort.

Medical devices comprising ionically and non-ionically crosslinked polymer hydrogels having improved mechanical properties


A method of reconstituting an animal embryo involves transferring a diploid nucleus into an oocyte which is arrested in the metaphase of the second meiotic division. The oocyte is not activated at the time of transfer, so that the donor nucleus is kept exposed to the recipient cytoplasm for a period of time. The diploid nucleus can be donated by a cell in either the G0 or G1 phase of the cell cycle at the time of transfer. Subsequently, the reconstituted embryo is activated. Correct ploidy is maintained during activation, for example, by incubating the reconstituted embryo in the presence of a microtubule inhibitor such as nocodazole. The reconstituted embryo may then give rise to one or more live animal births. The invention is useful in the production of transgenic animals as well as non-transgenics of high genetic merit.

This invention relates to the generation of animals including but not being limited to genetically selected and/or modified animals, and to cells useful in their generation.
The reconstruction of mammalian embryos by the transfer of a donor nucleus to an enucleated oocyte or one cell zygote allows the production of genetically identical individuals. This has clear advantages for both research (i.e. as biological controls) and also in commercial applications (i.e. multiplication of genetically valuable livestock, uniformity of meat products, animal management).
Embryo reconstruction by nuclear transfer was first proposed (Spemann, Embryonic Development and Induction 210-211 Hofner Publishing Co., New York (1938)) in order to answer the question of nuclear equivalence or do nuclei change during development?. By transferring nuclei from increasingly advanced embryonic stages these experiments were designed to determine at which point nuclei became restricted in their developmental potential. Due to technical limitations and the unfortunate death of Spemann these studies were not completed until 1952, when it was demonstrated in the frog that certain nuclei could direct development to a sexually mature adult (Briggs and King, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 38 455-461 (1952)). Their findings led to the current concept that equivalent totipotent nuclei from a single individual could, when transferred to an enucleated egg, give rise to xe2x80x9cgenetically identicalxe2x80x9d individuals. In the true sense of the meaning these individuals would not be clones as unknown cytoplasmic contributions in each may vary and also the absence of any chromosomal rearrangements would have to be demonstrated.
Since the demonstration of embryo cloning in amphibians, similar techniques have been applied to mammalian species. These techniques fall into two categories:
1) transfer of a donor nucleus to a matured metaphase II oocyte which has had its chromosomal DNA removed and
2) transfer of a donor nucleus to a fertilised one cell zygote which has had both pronuclei removed. In ungulates the former procedure has become the method of choice as no development has been reported using the latter other than when pronuclei are exchanged.
Transfer of the donor nucleus into the oocyte cytoplasm is generally achieved by inducing cell fusion. In ungulates fusion is induced by application of a DC electrical pulse across the contact/fusion plane of the couplet. The same pulse which induces cell fusion also activates the recipient oocyte. Following embryo reconstruction further development is dependent on a large number of factors including the ability of the nucleus to direct development i.e. totipotency, developmental competence of the recipient cytoplast (i.e. oocyte maturation), oocyte activation, embryo culture (reviewed Campbell and Wilmut in Vth World Congress on Genetics as Applied to Livestock 20 180-187 (1994)).
In addition to the above we have shown that maintenance of correct ploidy during the first cell cycle of the reconstructed embryo is of major importance (Campbell et al., Biol. Reprod. 49 933-942 (1993); Campbell et al., Biol. Reprod. 50 1385-1393 (1994)). During a single cell cycle all genomic DNA must be replicated once and only once prior to mitosis. If any of the DNA either fails to replicate or is replicated more than once then the ploidy of that nucleus at the time of mitosis will be incorrect. The mechanisms by which replication is restricted to a single round during each cell cycle are unclear, however, several lines of evidence have implicated that maintenance of an intact nuclear membrane is crucial to this control. The morphological events which occur in the donor nucleus after transfer into an enucleated metaphase II oocyte have been studied in a number of species including mouse (Czolowiska et al., J. Cell Sci. 69 19-34 (1984)), rabbit (Collas and Robl, Biol. Reprod. 45 455-465 (1991)), pig (Prather et al., J. Exp. Zool. 225 355-358 (1990)), cow (Kanka et al., Mol. Reprod. Dev. 29 110-116 (1991)). Immediately upon fusion the donor nuclear envelope breaks down (NEBD), and the chromosomes prematurely condense (PCC). These effects are catalysed by a cytoplasmic activity termed maturation/mitosis/meiosis promoting factor (MPF). This activity is found in all mitotic and meiotic cells reaching a maximal activity at metaphase. Matured mammalian oocytes are arrested at metaphase of the 2 nd meiotic division (metaphase II) and have high MPF activity. Upon fertilisation or activation MPF activity declines, the second meiotic division is completed and the second polar body extruded, the chromatin then decondenses and pronuclear formation occurs. In nuclear transfer embryos reconstructed when MPF levels are high NEBD and PCC occur; these events are followed, when MPF activity declines, by chromatin decondensation and nuclear reformation and subsequent DNA replication. In reconstructed embryos correct ploidy can be maintained in one of two ways; firstly by transferring nuclei at a defined cell cycle stage, e.g. diploid nuclei of cells in G1, into metaphase II oocytes at the time of activation; or secondly by activating the recipient oocyte and transferring the donor nucleus after the disappearance of MPF activity. In sheep this latter approach has yielded an increase in the frequency of development to the blastocyst stage from 21% to 55% of reconstructed embryos when using blastomeres from 16 cell embryos as nuclear donors (Campbell et al., Biol. Reprod. 50 1385-1393 (1994)).
These improvements in the frequency of development of is reconstructed embryos have as yet not addressed the question of nuclear reprogramming. During development certain genes become xe2x80x9cimprintedxe2x80x9d i.e. are altered such that they are no longer transcribed. Studies on imprinting have shown that this xe2x80x9cimprintingxe2x80x9d is removed during germ cell formation (i.e. reprogramming). One possibility is that this reprogramming is affected by exposure of the chromatin to cytoplasmic factors which are present in cells undergoing meiosis. This raises the question of how we may mimic this situation during the reconstruction of embryos by nuclear transfer in order to reprogram the developmental clock of the donor nucleus.
It has now been found that nuclear transfer into an oocyte arrested in metaphase II can give rise to a viable embryo if normal ploidy (i.e. diploidy) is maintained and if the embryo is not activated at the time of nuclear transfer. The delay in activation allows the nucleus to remain exposed to the recipient cytoplasm.
According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of reconstituting an animal embryo, the method comprising transferring a diploid nucleus into an oocyte which is arrested in the metaphase of the second meiotic division without concomitantly activating the oocyte, keeping the nucleus exposed to the cytoplasm of the recipient for a period of time sufficient for the reconstituted embryo to become capable of giving rise to a live birth and subsequently activating the reconstituted embryo while maintaining correct ploidy. At this stage, the reconstituted embryo is a single cell.
In principle, the invention is applicable to all animals, including birds such as domestic fowl, amphibian species and fish species. In practice, however, it will be to non-human animals, especially non-human mammals, particularly placental mammals, that the greatest commercially useful applicability is presently envisaged. It is with ungulates, particularly economically important ungulates such as cattle, sheen, goats, water buffalo, camels and pigs that the invention is likely to be most useful, both as a means for cloning animals and as a means for generating transgenic animals. It should also be noted that the invention is also likely to be applicable to other economically important animal species such as, for example, horses, llamas or rodents, e.g. rats or mice, or rabbits.
The invention is equally applicable in the production of transgenic, as well as non-transgenic animals. Transgenic animals may be produced from genetically altered donor cells. The overall procedure has a number of advantages over conventional procedures for the production of transgenic (i.e. genetically modified) animals which may be summarised as follows:
(1) fewer recipients will be required;
(2) multiple syngeneic founders may be generated using clonal donor cells;
(3) subtle genetic alteration by gene targeting is permitted;
(4) all animals produced from embryos prepared by the invention should transmit the relevant genetic modification through the germ line as each animal is derived from a single nucleus; in contrast, production of transgenic animals by pronuclear injection or chimerism after inclusion of modified stem cell populations by blastocyst injection produces a proportion of mosaic animals in which all cells do not contain the modification and may not transmit the modification through the germ line; and
(5) cells can be selected for the site of genetic modification (e.g. integration) prior to the generation of the whole animal.
It should be noted that the term xe2x80x9ctransgenicxe2x80x9d, in relation to animals, should not be taken to be limited to referring to animals containing in their germ line one or more genes from another species, although many transgenic animals will contain such a gene or genes. Rather, the term refers more broadly to any animal whose germ line has been the subject of technical intervention by recombinant DNA technology. So, for example, an animal in whose germ line an endogenous gene has been deleted, duplicated, activated or modified is a transgenic animal for the purposes of this invention as much as an animal to whose germ line an exogenous DNA sequence has been added.
In embodiments of the invention in which the animal is transgenic, the donor nucleus is genetically modified. The donor nucleus may contain one or more transgenes and the genetic modification may take place prior to nuclear transfer and embryo reconstitution. Although micro-injection, analogous to injection into the male or female pronucleus of a zygote, may be used as a method of genetic modification, the invention is not limited to that methodology: mass transformation or transfection techniques can also be used e.g. electroporation, viral transfection or lipofection.
In the method of the invention described above, a diploid nucleus is transferred from a donor into the enucleated recipient oocyte. Donors which are diploid at the time of transfer are necessary in order to maintain the correct ploidy of the reconstituted embryo; therefore donors may be either in the G1 phase or preferably, as is the subject of our co-pending PCT patent application No. PCT/GB96/02099 filed today (claiming priority from GB 9517780.4), in the G0 phase of the cell cycle.
The mitotic cell cycle has four distinct phases, G, S, G2 and M. The beginning event in the cell cycle, called start, takes place in the G1 phase and has a unique function. The decision or commitment to undergo another cell cycle is made at start. Once a cell has passed through start, it passes through the remainder of the G1 phase, which is the pre-DNA synthesis phase. The second stage, the S phase, is when DNA synthesis takes place. This is followed by the G2 phase, which is the period between DNA synthesis and mitosis. Mitosis itself occurs at the M phase. Quiescent cells (which include cells in which quiescence has been induced as well as those cells which are naturally quiescent, such as certain fully differentiated cells) are generally regarded as not being in any of these four phases of the cycle; they are usually described as being in a G0 state, so as to indicate that they would not normally progress through the cycle. The nuclei of quiescent G0 cells, like the nuclei of G1 cells, have a diploid DNA content; both of such diploid nuclei can be used in the present invention.
Subject to the above, it is believed that there is no significant limitation on the cells that can be used in nuclear donors: fully or partially differentiated cells or undifferentiated cells can be used as can cells which are cultured in vitro or abstracted ex vivo. The only limitation is that the donor cells have normal DNA content and be karyotypically normal. A preferred source of cells is disclosed in our co-pending PCT patent application No. PCT/GB95/02095, published as WO 96/07732. It is believed that all such normal cells contain all of the genetic information required for the production of an adult animal. The present invention allows this information to be provided to the developing embryo by altering chromatin structure such that the genetic material can re-direct development.
Recipient cells useful in the invention are enucleated oocytes which are arrested in the metaphase of the second meiotic division. In most vertebrates, oocyte maturation proceeds in vivo to this fairly late stage of the egg maturation process and then arrests. At ovulation, the arrested oocyte is released from the ovary (and, if fertilisation occurs, the oocyte is naturally stimulated to complete meiosis). In the practice of the invention, oocytes can be matured either in vitro or in vivo and are collected on appearance of the 1st polar body or as soon as possible after ovulation, respectively.
It is preferred that the recipient be enucleate. While it has been generally assumed that enucleation of recipient oocytes in nuclear transfer procedures is essential, there is no published experimental confirmation of this judgement. The original procedure described for ungulates involved splitting the cell into two halves, one of which was likely to be enucleated (Willadsen Nature 320 (6) 63-65 (1986)). This procedure has the disadvantage that the other unknown half will still have the metaphase apparatus and that the reduction in volume of the cytoplasm is believed to accelerate the pattern of differentiation of the new embryo (Eviskov et al., Development 109 322-328 (1990)).
More recently, different procedures have been used in attempts to remove the chromosomes with a minimum of cytoplasm. Aspiration of the first polar body and neighbouring cytoplasm was found to remove the metaphase II apparatus in 67% of sheep oocytes (Smith and Wilmut Biol. Reprod. 40 1027-1035 (1989)). Only with the use of DNA-specific fluorochrome (Hoechst 33342) was a method provided by which enucleation would be guaranteed with the minimum reduction in cytoplasmic volume (Tsunoda et al., J. Reprod. Fertil. 82 173 (1988)). In livestock species, this is probably the method of routine use at present (Prather and First J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. 41 125 (1990), Westhusin et al., Biol. Reprod. (Suppl.) 42 176 (1990)).
There have been very few reports of non-invasive approaches to enucleation in mammals, whereas in amphibians, irradiation with ultraviolet light is used as a routine procedure (Gurdon Q. J. Microsc. Soc. 101 299-311 (1960)). There are no detailed reports of the use of this approach in mammals, although during the use of DNA-specific fluorochrome it was noted that exposure of mouse oocytes to ultraviolet light for more than 30 seconds reduced the developmental potential of the cell (Tsunoda et al., J. Reprod. Fertil. 82 173 (1988)).
As described above enucleation may be achieved physically, by actual removal of the nucleus, pro-nuclei or metaphase plate (depending on the recipient cell), or functionally, such as by the application of ultraviolet radiation or another enucleating influence.
After enucleation, the donor nucleus is introduced either by fusion to donor cells under conditions which do not induce oocyte activation or by injection under non-activating conditions. In order to maintain the correct ploidy of the reconstructed embryo the donor nucleus must be diploid (i.e. in the G0 or G1 phase of the cell cycle) at the time of fusion.
Once suitable donor and recipient cells have been prepared, it is necessary for the nucleus of the former to be transferred to the latter. Most conveniently, nuclear transfer is effected by fusion. Activation should not take place at the time of fusion.
Three established methods which have been used to induce fusion are:
(1) exposure of cells to fusion-promoting chemicals, such as polyethylene glycol;
(2) the use of inactivated virus, such as Sendai virus; and
(3) the use of electrical stimulation.
Exposure of cells to fusion-promoting chemicals such as polyethylene glycol or other glycols is a routine procedure for the fusion of somatic cells, but it has not been widely used with embryos. As polyethylene glycol is toxic it is necessary to expose the cells for a minimum period and the need to be able to remove the chemical quickly may necessitate the removal of the zona pellucida (Kanka et al., Mol. Reprod. Dev. 29 110-116 (1991)). In experiments with mouse embryos, inactivated Sendai virus provides an efficient means for the fusion of cells from cleavage-stage embryos (Graham Wistar Inst. Symp. Monogr. 9 19 (1969)), with the additional experimental advantage that activation is not induced. In ungulates, fusion is commonly achieved by the same electrical stimulation that is used to induce parthogenetic activation (Willadsen Nature 320 (6) 63-65 (1986), Prather et al., Biol. Reprod. 37 859-866 (1987)). In these species, Sendai virus induces fusion in a proportion of cases, but is not sufficiently reliable for routine application (Willadsen Nature 320 (6) 63-65 (1986)).
While cell-cell fusion is a preferred method of effecting nuclear transfer, it is not the only method that can be used. Other suitable techniques include microinjection (Ritchie and Campbell, J. Reproduction and Fertility Abstract Series No. 15, p60).
In a preferred embodiment of the invention, fusion of the oocyte karyoplast couplet is accomplished in the absence of activation by electropulsing in 0.3M mannitol solution or 0.27M sucrose solution; alternatively the nucleus may be introduced by injection in a calcium free medium. The age of the oocytes at the time of fusion/injection and the absence of calcium ions from the fusion/injection medium prevent activation of the recipient oocyte.
In practice, it is best to enucleate and conduct the transfer s soon as possible after the oocyte reaches metaphase II. The time that this will be post onset of maturation (in vitro) or hormone treatment (in vivo) will depend on the species. For cattle or sheep, nuclear transfer should preferably take place within 24 hours; for pigs, within 48 hours; mice, within 12 hours; and rabbits within 20-24 hours. although transfer can take place later, it becomes progressively more difficult to achieve as the oocyte ages. High MPF activity is desirable.
Subsequently, the fused reconstructed embryo, which is generally returned to the maturation medium, is maintained without being activated so that the donor nucleus is exposed to the recipient cytoplasm for a period of time sufficient to allow the reconstructed embryo to become capable, eventually, of giving rise to a live birth (preferably of a fertile offspring).
The optimum period of time before activation varies from species to species and can readily be determined by experimentation. For cattle, a period of from 6 to 20 hours is appropriate. The time period should probably not be less than that which will allow chromosome formation, and it should not be so long either that the couplet activates spontaneously or, in extreme cases that it dies.
When it is time for activation, any conventional or other suitable activation protocol can. be used. Recent experiments have shown that the requirements for parthogenetic activation are more complicated than had been imagined. It had been assumed that activation is an all-or-none phenomenon and that the large number of treatments able to induce formation of a pronucleus were all causing xe2x80x9cactivationxe2x80x9d. However, exposure of rabbit oocytes to repeated electrical pulses revealed that only selection of an appropriate series of pulses and control of the Ca2+ was able to promote development of diploidized oocytes to mid-gestation (Ozil Development 109 117-127 (1990)). During fertilization there are repeated, transient increases in intracellular calcium concentration (Cutbertson and Cobbold Nature 316 541-542 (1985)) and electrical pulses are believed to cause analogous increases in calcium concentration. There is evidence that the pattern of calcium transients varies with species and it can be anticipated that the optimal pattern of electrical pulses will vary in a similar manner. The interval between pulses in the rabbit is approximately 4 minutes (Ozil Development 109 117-127 (1990)), and in the mouse 10 to 20 minutes (Cutbertson and Cobbold Nature 316 541-542 (1985)), while there are preliminary observations in the cow that the interval is approximately 20 to 30 minutes (Robl et al., in Symposium on Cloning Mammals by Nuclear Transplantation (Seidel ed.), Colorado State University, 24-27 (1992)). In most published experiments activation was induced with a single electrical pulse, but new observations suggest that the proportion of reconstituted embryos that develop is increased by exposure to several pulses (Collas and Robl Biol. Reprod. 43 877-884 (1990)). In any individual case, routine adjustments may be made to optimise the number of pulses, the field strength and duration of the pulses and the calcium concentration of the medium.
In the practice of the invention, correct ploidy must be maintained during activation. It is desirable to inhibit or stabilise microtubule polymerisation in order to prevent the production of multiple pronuclei, thereby to maintain correct ploidy. This can be achieved by the application of a microtubule inhibitor such as nocodazole at an effective concentration (such as about 5 xcexcg/ml). Colchecine and colcemid are other microtubule inhibitors. Alternatively, a microtubule stabiliser, such as, for example, taxol could be used.
The molecular component of microtubules (tubulin) is in a state of dynamic equilibrium between the polymerised and non-polymerised states. Microtubule inhibitors such as nocodazole prevent the addition of tubulin molecules to microtubules, thereby disturbing the equilibrium and leading to microtubule depolymerisation and destruction of the spindle. It is preferred to add the microtubule inhibitor a sufficient time before activation to ensure complete, or almost complete, depolymerisation of the microtubules. Twenty to thirty minutes is likely to be sufficient in most cases. A microtubule stabiliser such as taxol prevents the breakdown of the spindle and may also therefore prevent the production of multiple pronuclei. Use of a microtubule stabiliser is preferably under similar conditions to those used for microtubule inhibitors.
The microtubule inhibitor or stabiliser should remain present after activation until pronuclei formation. It should be removed thereafter, and in any event before the first division takes place.
In a preferred embodiment of the invention at 30-42 hours post onset of maturation (bovine and ovine, i.e. 6-18 hours post nuclear transfer) the reconstructed oocytes are placed into medium containing nocodazole (5 xcexcg/ml) and activated using conventional protocols. Incubation in nocodazole may be continued for 4-6 hours following the activation stimulus (dependent upon species and oocyte age).
According to a second aspect of the invention, there is provided a viable reconstituted animal embryo prepared by a method as described previously.
According to a third aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of preparing an animal, the method comprising:
(a) reconstituting an animal embryo as described above; and
(b) causing an animal to develop to term from the embryo; and
(c) optionally, breeding from the animal so formed.
Step (a) has been described in depth above.
The second step, step (b) in the method of this aspect of the invention is to cause an animal to develop to term from the embryo. This may be done directly or indirectly. In direct development, the reconstituted embryo from step
(a) is simply allowed to develop without further intervention beyond any that may be necessary to allow the development to take place. In indirect development, however, the embryo may be further manipulated before full development takes place. For example, the embryo may be split and the cells clonally expanded, for the purpose of improving yield.
Alternatively or additionally, it may be possible for increased yields of viable embryos to be achieved by means of the present invention by clonal expansion of donors and/or if use is made of the process of serial (nuclear) transfer. A limitation in the presently achieved rate of blastocyst formation may be due to the fact that a majority of the embryos do not xe2x80x9creprogramxe2x80x9d (although an acceptable number do). If this is the case, then the rate may be enhanced as follows. Each embryo that does develop itself can be used as a nuclear donor at the 32-64 cell stage, alternatively, inner cell mass cells can be used at the blastocyst stage. If these embryos do indeed reflect those which have reprogrammed gene expression and those nuclei are in fact reprogrammed (as seems likely), then each developing embryo may be multiplied in this way by the efficiency of the nuclear transfer process. The degree of enhancement likely to be achieved depends upon the cell type. In sheep, it is readily possible to obtain 55% blastocyst stage embryos by transfer of a single blastomere from a 16 cell embryo to a preactivated xe2x80x9cUniversal Recipientxe2x80x9d oocyte. So it is reasonable to hypothesise that each embryo developed from a single cell could give rise to eight at the 16 cell stage. Although these figures are just a rough guide, it is clear that at later developmental stages the extent of benefit would depend on the efficiency of the process at that stage.
Aside from the issue of yield-improving expediencies, the reconstituted embryo may be cultured, in vivo or in vitro to blastocyst.
Experience suggests that embryos derived by nuclear transfer are different from normal embryos and sometimes benefit from or even require culture conditions in vivo other than those in which embryos are usually cultured (at least in vivo). The reason for this is not known. In routine multiplication of bovine embryos, reconstituted embryos (many of them at once) have been cultured in sheep oviducts for 5 to 6 days (as described by Willadsen, In Mammalian Egg Transfer (Adams, E. E., ed.) 185 CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. (1982)). In the practice of the present invention, though, in order to protect the embryo it should preferably be embedded in a protective medium such as agar before transfer and then dissected from the agar after recovery from the temporary recipient. The function of the protective agar or other medium is twofold: first, it acts as a structural aid for the embryo by holding the zona pellucida together; and secondly it acts as barrier to cells of the recipient animal""s immune system. Although this approach increases the proportion of embryos that form blastocysts, there is the disadvantage that a number of embryos may be lost.
If in vitro conditions are used, those routinely employed in the art are quite acceptable.
At the blastocyst stage, the embryo may be screened for suitability for development to term. Typically, this will be done where the embryo is transgenic and screening and selection for stable integrants has been carried out. Screening for non-transgenic genetic markers may also be carried out at this stage. However, because the method of the invention allows for screening of donors at an earlier stage, that will generally be preferred.
After screening, if screening has taken place, the blastocyst embryo is allowed to develop to term. This will generally be in vivo. If development up to blastocyst has taken place in vitro, then transfer into the final recipient animal takes place at this stage. If blastocyst development has taken place in vivo, although in principle the blastocyst can be allowed to develop to term in the pre-blastocyst host, in practice the blastocyst will usually be removed from the (temporary) pre-blastocyst recipient and, after dissection from the protective medium, will be transferred to the (permanent) post-blastocyst recipient.
In optional step (c) of this aspect of the invention, animals may be bred from the animal prepared by the preceding steps. In this way, an animal may be used to establish a herd or flock of animals having the desired genetic characteristic(s).
Animals produced by transfer of nuclei from a source of genetically identical cells share the same nucleus, but are not strictly identical as they are derived from different oocytes. The significance of this different origin is not clear, but may affect commercial traits. Recent analyses of the mitochondrial DNA of dairy cattle in the Iowa State University Breeding Herd revealed associated with milk and reproductive performance (Freeman and Beitz, In Symposium on Cloning Mammals by Nuclear Transplantation (Seidel, G. E. Jr., ed.) 17-20, Colorado State University, Colorado (1992)). It remains to be confirmed that similar effects are present throughout the cattle population and to consider whether it is possible or necessary in specific situations to consider the selection of oocytes. In the area of cattle breeding the ability to produce large numbers of embryos from donors of high genetic merit may have considerable potential value in disseminating genetic improvement through the national herd. The scale of application will depend upon the cost of each embryo and the proportion of transferred embryos able to develop to term.
By way of illustration and summary, the following scheme sets out a typical process by which transgenic and non-transgenic animals may be prepared. The process can be regarded as involving five steps:
(1) isolation of diploid donor cells;
(2) optionally, transgenesis, for example by transfection with suitable constructs, with or without selectable markers;
(2a) optionally screen and select for stable integrantsxe2x80x94skip for micro-injection;
(3) embryo reconstitution by nuclear transfer;
(4) culture, in vivo or in vitro, to blastocyst;
(4a) optionally screen and select for stable integrantsxe2x80x94omit if done at 2axe2x80x94or other desired characteristics;
(5) transfer if necessary to final recipient.
This protocol has a number of advantages over previously published methods of nuclear transfer:
1) The chromatin of the donor nucleus can be exposed to the meiotic cytoplasm of the recipient oocyte in the absence of activation for appropriate periods of time. This may increase the xe2x80x9creprogrammingxe2x80x9d of the donor nucleus by altering the chromatin structure.
2) Correct ploidy of the reconstructed embryo is maintained when G0/G1 nuclei are transferred.
3) Previous studies have shown that activation responsiveness of bovine/ovine oocytes increases with age. One problem which has previously been observed is that in unenucleated aged oocytes duplication of the meiotic spindle pole bodies occurs and multipolar spindles are observed. However, we report that in embryos reconstructed and maintained with high MPF levels although nuclear envelope breakdown and chromatin condensation occur no organised spindle is observed. The prematurely condensed chromosomes remain in a tight bunch, therefore we can take advantage of the ageing process and increase the activation response of the reconstructed oocyte without adversely affecting the ploidy of the reconstructed embryo.
According to a fourth aspect of the invention, there is provided an animal prepared as described above.
Preferred features of each aspect of the invention are as for each other aspect, mutatis mutandis.

Unactivated oocytes as cytoplast recipients of quiescent cell nuclei while maintaining correct ploidy

The Minister of Agricultural, Fisheries and Food

Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council