A method for detoxifying spent CCA (copper, chromium, arsenic) treated wood, from which CCA is efficiently removed from the wood, allowing both the CCA and the wood to be reused has been developed. The method comprises the steps of (1) microwave-enhanced acid extraction of CCA, (2) separation of the acid-containing CCA solution from the wood, (3) separation/precipitation of CCA from the acid extract, (4) recovery and regeneration of CCA-bearing precipitant for reuse in the wood preservation industry, (5) recycling recovered acid solution, (6) microwave-assisted liquefaction of the extracted wood, and (7) use of detoxified liquefied wood to form polymeric materials such as polyurethanes and phenolic resin adhesives. The recovered CCA may be used to treat wood. The recovered acids may be used to extract CCA from CCA-treated wood, and the liquefied wood may be used as phenolic or polyurethane resins.

Preservatives are well known to significantly prolong the service life of wood and thereby extend forest resources and enhance their sustainability. For many years, chromated copper arsenate (CCA) has been widely used as a wood preservative. In this use, it appears that copper functions as a fungicide, arsenic functions as an insecticide and co-fungicide, and hexavalent chromium helps bind arsenic and copper to the wood. During the process of CCA fixation, it is believed that the hexavalent chromium is reduced to trivalent chromium, and copper and arsenic are precipitated within the wood as low soluble complex compounds.
Demand for CCA-treated wood products has increased since the early 1970's for residential applications such as decks and fences, and for industrial products such as utility poles, timbers, and marine pilings. During 2001, approximately 150 million pounds of CCA preservatives were used in the production of preservative-treated wood. About 28.8 million pounds of CCA (dry oxide concentrate basis) were consumed by the US wood treating industry in 2004. However, in 2002, the US and Canadian wood preservation industry agreed to voluntarily withdraw the use of CCA-treated wood for residential and consumer products by the end of 2003. CCA-treated wood continues to be used in industrial applications (e.g., utility poles, timbers, and marine pilings). The amount of spent CCA-treated wood is expected to increase from 3-4 million m3/yr. currently to about 12 million m3/yr. during the next 15 years. Since the expected average service life of CCA-treated wood is between 20-40 years, spent CCA-treated wood is expected to continue to be disposed for decades.
The environmental and human health impacts of CCA-treated wood have received attention because of the toxicity of copper, chromium, and arsenic. CCA-treated wood has been disposed primarily in construction and demolition (C&D) debris landfills or in municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills. Thus, there is increased concern about contamination of soil and groundwater with copper, chromium, and arsenic from disposal sites.
Alternative waste management strategies and technologies, other than landfills, for spent CCA treated wood have been developed.
Reuse Without Chemical Treatment
Because a CCA-treating solution does not penetrate the heart wood of large dimension treated products, untreated portions of treated wood products can be obtained by re-sawing or shaving the treated exterior and then re-using the heart wood. The option of re-sawing treated wood appears to be feasible for industrial products, but of limited potential for residential products. Further, mechanical abrasion of the treated exterior may cause fine wood particles contaminated with metals to become airborne, which may raise environmental concerns.
Spent CCA-treated wood may be reused in wood based composites, wood-cement composite, or other composite materials. The CCA-metals, however, tend to interfere with adhesives, and thus adversely affect the physical and mechanical properties of such composites.
Solvent Extraction of CCA
Hot sulfuric acid, hot nitric acid, aqueous ammonia solutions, acetic acid, and formic acid may be used to extract CCA. Such extraction techniques appear to convert the metals into water soluble salts. Solvent extraction, however, typically is not complete for all three CCA metals. In addition, strong acids also tend to cause excessive decomposition of the wood components.
Lianzhen et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 7,160,526) discloses a method of recovering CCA by liquefying the treated wood at high temperature with a strong acid, followed by precipitation of the metals or complexation of the metals. This method requires a temperature between about 100° C. to 250° C., which may cause vaporization of arsenic. This method also may require several hours to obtain reasonable extraction.
U.S. Pat. Application No, 2006/0292309 discloses a method to detoxify treated wood by using an aqueous solution of an alkali metal mono- or di-carboxylate as an extractant.
Another extraction method uses chelating agents, such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), oxalic acid, or citric acid to remove reactive metals.
U.S. Pat. Application No. 2007/0036699 discloses use of a lixivant, for example, a chelating agent, to extract Cu, Cr, and As from treated wood. There are several disadvantages for detoxifying spent CCA-treated wood products using chelating agents, including, large amounts of chemical solvent required, long extraction times typically required, and resulting extraction solutions that are difficult to handle.
Bioremediation
Bioremediation, comprising microbial metal removal from toxic wastes, has been used to extract (CCA from spent treated wood. Several varieties of brown-rot fungi have been used to remove metals from CCA-treated wood. It is believed that oxalic acid, which is thought to act as a leaching agent, is secreted from the fungi. Some metal-tolerant bacteria are effective in removing 93% Cu and 45% As, but are ineffective for removing Cr. Bioremediation also is limited by the time-consuming nature of the process and by the high cost of the nutrient culture medium.
While detoxification technology has focused primarily on removing CCA from the wood, few methods have included recycling of treated wood or recovering chromated copper arsenate for reuse.
There remains an unfilled need for a method for detoxifying CCA-treated wood that is economically effective, environmentally sound, provides for recycling spent treated wood, and allows reuse of recovered chromate copper arsenate.
We have developed a method for detoxifying CCA-treated wood that comprises microwave-enhanced acid extraction of CCA. This method allows removal of over 99% of all these metals, allows detoxified wood to be used as a base material for forming polymeric materials, and allows reuse of recovered chromated copper arsenate for treatment of untreated wood.

Process for rapid microwave-enhanced detoxification of CCA-treated wood

Board of Supervisors of Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College LSU Inc


An imaging panel includes a photoelectric conversion layer on a side of one of surfaces of a substrate. Further, the imaging panel includes an electrode connected to one of surfaces of the photoelectric conversion layer, a bias line connected with the electrode, and a protection film that is made of a material resistant against an etching agent containing hydrofluoric acid, and covers side surfaces of the bias line.

An X-ray imaging device that picks up an X-ray image with an imaging panel that includes a plurality of pixel portions is known. In such an X-ray imaging device, for example, p-intrinsic-n (PIN) photodiodes are used as photoelectric conversion elements, and irradiated X-rays are converted into charges by the PIN photodiodes. Converted charges are read out by thin film transistors (hereinafter also referred to as TFTs) that are caused to operate, the TFTs being provided in the pixel portions. With the charges thus read out, an X-ray image is obtained. JP-A-2014-078651 discloses a photoelectric conversion element array unit in which such PIN photodiodes are used.
Incidentally, a bias line is connected to the anode electrode of the PIN photodiode, and a bias voltage is applied to the anode electrode through the bias line. If the bias line has a high resistance, the bias voltage is not applied appropriately to the PIN photodiode, which causes the performance of the device as an X-ray sensor to decrease. The thinner line width of the bias line than a desired line width, which occurs in the steps for producing the imaging panel, can be considered as a cause that increase the resistance of the bias line. In other words, for example, in a case where the bias line is exposed to hydrofluoric acid or the like in a step after the bias line is formed, if the material of the bias line is not resistant against hydrofluoric acid or the like, the bias line is etched by hydrofluoric acid or the like, and tends to have a smaller line width and a higher line resistance.

Imaging panel and method for manufacturing same


A housing for a blower, fan or pump or turbine, the housing adapted to be associated with a rotor adapted in use to cooperate with fluid flowing through the housing wherein the housing comprises a shroud for guiding the fluid moving in association with the rotor, the rotor having at least one vane adapted to cooperate with the fluid to drive or to be driven by the fluid, wherein the shroud is configured to promote vortical flow of the fluid through the housing.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to a housing or chamber for a fan for moving air, pump for inducing fluid flow or torque generator, which is responsive to fluid flow such as a turbine. In particular it is directed to providing an improved housing for such apparatus to improve the efficiency of such devices.
2. Description of the Related Art
Centrifugal fans, blowers, pumps turbines and the like represent approximately half of the world's fan, pump and turbine production each year. As fans or pumps, they are used to produce higher pressure and less flow than axial impellers and fans. They are used extensively where these parameters must be satisfied. They have also been used advantageously where installation limitations might not permit an axial fan to be used.
For example, applications such as domestic exhaust fans require greater flow with a relatively low pressure difference. Such an application would normally be satisfied by an axial type of fan. However, in many cases, a centrifugal fan is used to turn the flow path at right angles so that it can fit into a roof or wall cavity. An axial fan will not fit into the cavity and maintain efficiency. In another example, the exhaust ducting in many buildings is only 3 or 4 inches in diameter. It is impractical to fit an effective high-output axial fan to such a small duct.
While centrifugal fans have been used for a long time, little attention has been given to the design of the housing in which the rotor is retained. Where issues of efficiency and noise are investigated, the designer's attention is given primarily to the impeller. Historically, such housings have not been optimized for: 1. fluid flow drag reduction; 2. noise reduction; 3. adjustment of the pressure/flow relationship. Additionally, the housings of typical centrifugal fans, blowers, pumps turbines and the like cause the incoming fluid to turn sharply before leaving the housing. Such shapes are detrimental to efficient performance of the device overall, often introducing significant turbulence.
In the previous disclosure of the applicant for a Fluid Flow Controller as published in W003056228, the applicant has noted the benefits that can be obtained by allowing fluid to flow in the manner followed in Nature.

Housing for a centrifugal fan, pump, or turbine


A spacecraft propulsion system includes a plurality of wires (102) or other electrically conductive elongated members deployed from a main body (101) into respective radial directions. An electric potential generator (605) generates an electric potential on board the main body (101). The electric coupling between the electric potential generator (605) and the elongated members is controlled (604) so that all or some of the elongated members (102) assume a high positive potential. An auxiliary propulsion system (203) rotates the main body around a rotational axis (502) that is perpendicular to the radial directions, thus creating a centrifugal supporting force to the elongated members.

A spacecraft propulsion system is a subsystem of a spacecraft whose purpose is to change the state of motion of the spacecraft from its natural Keplerian motion. The Keplerian motion is due to the gravity field of the solar system bodies. Among the figures of merit of a propulsion system are the payload mass fraction and the delta-v the propulsion system can produce. Larger is better for both figures of merit. The payload mass fraction is the payload mass divided by the total initial mass (payload mass plus initial propulsion system mass) of the spacecraft. The delta-v is the time integral, computed over the working time of the propulsion system, of the non-gravitational acceleration provided by the propulsion system.
Conventional propulsion systems include chemical rockets and electric propulsion. For payload mass fraction of ⅓ the best chemical rocket bipropellant (liquid hydrogen plus liquid oxygen) provides a delta-v of about 1 AU/year, where AU means one astronomical unit, essentially equal to 150 million kilometres. Higher delta-v values are possible but with exponentially decreasing payload mass fraction. For electric propulsion systems a firmer delta-v value does not exist, but typical values for realized missions are 2-4 AU/year. These delta-v values are not sufficiently high for many purposes, e.g. for reaching outer solar system targets in a reasonable time. While somewhat higher delta-v values can be generated by reducing the payload mass fraction to a minimum, for a fixed payload this means an exponential growth of the initial mass and corresponding exponential increase of the mission cost.
For producing propulsive force alternative solutions exist that take advantage of naturally occurring phenomena in space. A solar sail is a large sheet of thin membrane that the spacecraft deploys once outside the Earth's atmosphere. Photons originating from the Sun hit the sail as a continuous stream, thus transferring momentum to it. A magnetic sail consists of one or more large-area loops of (preferably super conductive) wire, through which an electric current is driven in order to create a magnetic field. The field interacts dynamically with the solar wind and generates a propulsive force. A magnetic sail is known from the prior art publication R. M. Zubrin, D. G. Andrews: "Magnetic sails and interplanetary travel", Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 197-203, published in 1991.
The idea of using solar wind for generating propulsion is also known from the publication P. Janhunen: "Electric Sail for Spacecraft Propulsion", Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 763-764, published in 2004 and incorporated herein by reference. Solar wind means the continuous stream of charged particles, mostly high-energy electrons and protons, that the Sun emits continuously to essentially all radial directions. An electric sail is an electrically conductive structure that is held at a positive potential with respect to the solar wind plasma. In contrast to the solar sail which extracts momentum from the Sun's electromagnetic radiation and not the solar wind, the electric sail does not need to be a continuous sheet. Said prior art publication presents an example in which the electric sail is a mesh of wires with a spacing less than or equal to the so-called Debye length of the plasma. The Debye length is a measure of the distance over which an Individual charged particle can exert an effect.
Although the usability of an electric sail for spacecraft propulsion has thus been theoretically shown, there are no known practical solutions that would be applicable to implement the principle on actual space missions.

Electric sail for producing spacecraft propulsion


This invention is a process for detecting low levels of nitrogen oxides (NO.sub.x) in a flowing gas stream (typically an exhaust gas stream) and a catalytic NO.sub.x sensor which may be used in that process.

Exhaust gases produced by burning fuels using air as the source of oxidant typically contain small but significant amounts of various nitrogen oxides (NO, NO.sub.2, N.sub.2 O.sub.3, etc.) collectively and interchangeably known as NO.sub.x. NO.sub.x is a participant in the photochemical reaction creating modern "smog" and, therefore, is undesirable.
There are a number of ways in which the NO.sub.2 may be removed, treated, or even its initial synthesis prevented; however, each such process strongly benefits from use of an accurate monitor for detecting low levels of NO.sub.x. The detector may be used in a variety of processes, e.g., closed-loop procedures controlling one or more reaction parameters (such as catalyst temperature, NO.sub.x reductant concentration, or exhaust gas recirculation) all based on NO.sub.x concentration.
There are, however, few low level NO.sub.x sensors available which are practically suitable for inclusion in closed-loop controllers. A major problem of the prior measurement devices has been the lack of sensitivity. An ability to measure NO.sub.x content in combustion gases below 150 ppm with some accuracy is desirable. The major currently available on-line NO.sub.x process analyzers capable of measuring low levels of NO.sub.x are the chemiluminescent analyzers. Such analyzers are expensive, require extensive pretreatment of the gas to be analyzed, and historically have proven to be high maintenance devices. The accuracy of many NO.sub.x sensors, including chemiluminescent sensors, suffer because of interference from other gases which may be found in a combustion gas stream, e.g., SO.sub.2, CO, H.sub.2, H.sub.2 O, and various hydrocarbons.
There are a number of methods known for detecting NO.sub.x in flowing gas streams. Perhaps the most well-known of the processes currently used involve the chemiluminescent reaction of nitric oxide and ozone. Ozone is highly reactive and often raises reactivity problems with analyzer components, e.g., O-rings, metals used in the analyzer, and the like. The process operates by the reaction of injected ozone and the nitric oxide in a sample within a reaction chamber having a transmissive window through which the light produced by the chemiluminescent reaction is monitored by a detector. The window in the reaction chamber must be kept clean to maintain analyzer sensitivity and calibration. Water causes substantial problems in these devices. Typical apparatus used in this process may be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,967,933 to Etess et al.; 4,236,895 to Stahl; 4,257,777 to Dymond; 4,315,753 to Bruckenstein et al.; and 4,822,564 to Howard. The use of a chemiluminescent nitrogen oxide monitor device in controlling a nitrogen oxide removal unit the outlet of a boiler is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,188,190 to Muraki et al. The devices and processes disclosed herein could be substituted for the nitrogen oxide analyzers shown in Muraki et al.
Another procedure involves the use of an infrared beam, detector, and a comparator chamber. In U.S. Pat. No. 4,647,777 to Meyer a beam of infrared light is passed through a gas sample and into a selective infrared detector. The beam is split and one portion passes through a chamber containing a fluid which absorbs the spectral wavelengths of the selected gas. The two beams are compared and the difference between the two beams gives an indication of the amount of selected gas in the sample. Although such instruments can measure NO and NO.sub.2, they suffer from the same shortcomings as do the chemiluminescent analyzers in that they require clean optical surfaces, significant sample pretreatment, and have high maintenance requirements.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,012 to Doty et al. shows a semiconductor device made up of a photovoltage cell which, upon exposure to light, develops a voltage or current which varies as a function of the type of gas sorbed. The device requires a "thin light-transmitting gas-absorbing metal Schottkey layer having electrical properties which vary with the type of gas absorbed". Detection of CO, hydrocarbon, water vapor, etc. is suggested; detection of NO is not.
Other methods of determining the trace elements of NO.sub.x which may be present in a gas stream are known. For instance, U.S. Pat. No. 3,540,851 to Vree et al. suggests a process in which a gaseous mixture containing substituents such as carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and oxygen is separated into two streams. One stream is desirably mixed with a ballast gas and sent into a reference arm of a measuring apparatus; a second stream is passed after mixing both with nitrogen and a carrier gas, such as helium, and subjected to an electric discharge. The thus treated gases are passed through a conventional electrometer. The excited NO.sub.x passes to an ionic state and gives off a measurable electron.
U.S Pat. No. 4,115,067 to Lyshkow suggests a process for using a substrate which is sensitive to the pollutant to be measured and monitoring the change in color or reflectivity of the sensitized substrate. Lyshkow suggests the use of a substrate upon which silica which has been impregnated with a mixture of sulfanilic acid and N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride. The mixture reacts with NO.sub.2, changes the color of the substrate, and decreases the reflectivity of the substrate having the silica gel coating. Lyshkow suggests that the treated substrate be contacted with the gas to be measured and moved at a constant rate past a device which measures the change of reflectivity of the surface. In this way the amount of NO.sub.2 is measured.
The U.S. Pat. No. 4,778,764 to Fine describes a device and a process in which a sample is injected with a solvent into a chromatographic column to separate the various materials present in the sample. The output of the column is then burned in the presence of a variety of detectors for one or more of NO.sub.x, SO.sub.2, CO.sub.2, and halogens.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,840,913 to Logothetis et al. suggests a method for sensing nitrogen oxides, particularly in the exhaust flow of an internal combustion engine. The gas is passed through an oxidation catalyst which is formed over an oxide sensor. The oxidation catalyst is intended to oxidize all reducing species (CO, H.sub.2, hydrocarbons, alcohols, etc.) which are carried in the gas to be measured. Nitrogen monoxide is oxidized to NO.sub.2 as well. The oxidized gas passes to an oxide sensor such as a SnO.sub.2 or ZnO.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,473,536 to Carberg et al. suggests a process for controlling a NO.sub.x reduction process using a NO.sub.x sensor.
None of the above disclosures suggest a process or an apparatus in which a catalytic sensor element is used to detect the presence of a gaseous component.
The concept of using the temperature rise of a gas as it passes through a catalyst bed as an indicator of the content of a component of that gaseous mixture has been shown. For instance, in U.S. Pat. No. 2,751,281 to Cohen, a method is taught for measuring low concentrations of gas impurities (such as oxygen) in the range of 0.0001% to 0.001%. A thermocouple is placed such that a cold reference junction is on the upstream side of a bed of catalyst and the hot junction is placed on the downstream side of that bed. As the gas flows across the catalyst, the temperature of the gas rises, is detected, and the content of the incoming gas calculated. U.S. Pat. No. 3,488,155 to Ayers shows a similar process in which the temperature on each side of a hydrogenation catalyst bed is measured during the flow of a gas containing hydrogen. The temperature difference is related to the hydrogen content of the incoming gas stream.
The U.S. Pat. No. 3,537,823 to Ines suggests a process for measuring the quantity of "smog forming hydrocarbons in a gas sample" by measuring the temperature rise in an oxidation catalyst bed. Moreover, a related process is found in U.S. Pat. No. 3,547,587 also to Ines.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,607,084 to Mackey et al. teaches a process for the measurement of a combustible gas content by locating a pair of wires in a small chamber containing a volume of gas with combustibles therein. One wire is coated with a catalytic mixture of a metal oxide and a powdered metal of the platinum group and the other is apparently uncoated. Electrical power supplies heat to both wires. The difference in resistance caused by the change in temperature of the wire coated with the catalytic mixture provides an indicator of the amount of combustibles in that gas chamber.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,170,455 to Henrie also suggests a method for the monitoring of the hydrogen or oxygen content of a gas stream by measuring the temperature upstream and downstream of an oxidation catalyst.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,343,768 to Kimura shows a gas detector formed using semiconductor technology. The detector uses dual heating elements over a channel adapted for gas flow. One of the heating elements is coated with a "catalytic or gas responsive film" which may be platinum or palladium. The increase in the temperature of the catalytic film is detected in terms of the variation in electrical resistance in the content of the gas stream calculated.
Finally, U.S. Pat. No. 4,355,056 to Dalla Betta et al. suggests a differential thermocouple combustible sensor in which one junction of the thermocouple is catalytically coated and the other junction is not. The gas stream contains such gases as carbon monoxide and hydrogen and is said to be "insensitive to contaminants such as SO.sub.2 and NO".
None of these disclosures teaches the necessity for satisfying the dimensionless criteria specified here nor are any of the processes disclosed sensitive to the presence of NO.sub.x, particularly when used with a reductant such as those disclosed here.
This invention is a sensor assembly having a functionally specific configuration of a catalytic element having an integral thermally isolate temperature measuring device, e.g., a thermistor or RTD (Resistance Temperature Device). Another portion of the sensor may be a temperature reference element.
This sensor configuration, particularly in conjunction with the inventive process, permits fast resolution of the NO.sub.x content of the gas passing by the sensor to a high degree of accuracy and is insensitive to interference from other gas components in the measured stream.

NO.sub.x sensor and process for detecting NO.sub.x


A VVT mechanism is comprised of an internal rotor 29 connected to a cam shaft 12 and a housing 28 connected to an output shaft of an engine, and is further provided with a lock mechanism 43, 49 for restricting the relative rotation of the internal rotor 29 and the housing 28. An electronic control unit (ECU) 17 controls the driving of the VVT mechanism 11, and when changing over the direction of the relative rotation at a specific relative angle of rotation for actuating the lock mechanism 43, 49, after executing holding control for supplying a predetermined amount of oil to the advanced-angle side and delayed-angle side hydraulic chambers for a predetermined time duration, the ECU 17 effects a changeover to advanced-angle control. During the changeover, oil pressure necessary for canceling the lock mechanism is constantly supplied, so that it is possible to prevent unprepared actuation of the lock mechanism.

The present invention relates to a valve timing controlling apparatus for an internal combustion engine for making variable the opening/closing timing of an intake valve or exhaust valve of the internal combustion engine.
The valve timing controlling apparatus for an internal combustion engine adjusts the opening/closing timing of the intake valve or exhaust valve by changing the rotational phase of a cam shaft. As a result, it becomes possible to maximize the opening/closing timing of the intake valve or exhaust valve in correspondence with the operating state of the internal combustion engine, such as the load or the number of revolutions. Accordingly, it is possible to improve the fuel consumption, output, emission, and the like of the internal combustion engine in a wide range of operating states.
Various types of variable valve timing mechanisms for changing the valve timing in the above-described manner are present, and "Valve Opening/Closing Adjusting Apparatus" disclosed in Unexamined Japanese Patent Application No. Hei. 1-92504 can be cited as one example.
The variable valve timing mechanism of the type such as the one described in the aforementioned publication has a first rotating body for receiving a driving force from the crank shaft of the internal combustion engine and a second rotating body which rotates integrally with the cam shaft.
In a recessed portion formed in either one of the two rotating bodies, vanes formed in the other rotating body are disposed. As the recessed portion is partitioned by the vanes, a first hydraulic chamber and a second hydraulic chamber are formed on both sides of each vane.
By changing the oil pressure within the first arid second hydraulic chambers, the second rotating body is made to undergo relative rotation with respect to the first rotating body. As a result of this relative rotation, the relative angle of rotation of the second rotating body changes with respect to the first rotating body, with the result that the opening/closing timing of the intake or exhaust valve opened or closed by the cam shaft is changed.
More specifically, when the first rotating body and the second rotating body are made to undergo relative rotation, oil pressure is supplied to either of the first and second hydraulic chambers, and oil pressure is released from the other hydraulic chamber at the same time. On the basis of the pressure difference occurring in the supply and release of the oil pressure, the vanes move toward the hydraulic chamber side of low oil pressure, so that the first rotating body undergoes relative rotation with respect to the second rotating body.
When the aforementioned relative angle of rotation assumes an appropriate phase, oil pressure control is effected so that the oil pressures in the first and second hydraulic chambers become uniform. Consequently, the movement of the vanes is restricted, and the relative angle of rotation is fixed.
The variable valve timing mechanism having the above-described construction is generally referred to as the "vane-type variable valve timing mechanism."
With this vane-type variable valve timing mechanism, there are cases where oil pressure cannot be sufficiently supplied to the variable valve timing mechanism such as at the time of starting the internal combustion engine, in which case the operation of the variable valve timing mechanism becomes unstable. To prevent this situation, as disclosed in Unexamined Japanese Patent Application No. Hei. 1-92504, a lock mechanism is provided to fix the relative rotation of the second rotating body with respect to the first rotating body when oil pressure supplied to the variable valve timing mechanism is insufficient such as at the time of starting the internal combustion engine.
As this lock mechanism, a mechanism is widely adopted which comprises a retaining hole formed in either of the two rotating bodies and a lock pin which is accommodated in an accommodating hole formed in the other rotating body and can be fitted into the retaining hole by being urged by a spring. The lock mechanism having such a lock pin is provided with a first unlocking hydraulic chamber and a second unlocking hydraulic chamber communicating with the aforementioned first and second hydraulic chambers. As oil pressure is supplied into these unlocking hydraulic chambers, the lock pin moves against the urging force of the spring, and is disengaged from the retaining hole, thereby canceling the locked state.
However, with the valve timing controlling apparatus having such a lock mechanism, at the time of changing over the direction of relative rotation of the second rotating body with respect to the first rotating body, there were cases where the cancellation of the locked state of the lock mechanism was impossible. Such a state in which unlocking is impossible hampers smooth valve timing control.
Hereafter, the mechanism of the occurrence of this problem will be described more specifically by citing an example.
Here, a description will be given of the case where a changeover is effected from the state in which the vanes are urged toward the second hydraulic chamber side by supplying oil pressure to the first hydraulic chamber to the state in which the vanes are urged toward the first hydraulic chamber side by supplying oil pressure to the second hydraulic chamber.
In an initial state, the interior of the first hydraulic chamber has been supplied with oil pressure, and oil pressure within the second hydraulic chamber has been released. At this time, on the basis of the oil pressure supplied into the first hydraulic chamber, the lock pin has been moved against the urging force of the spring, so that the lock mechanism is in the unlocked state.
In this state, if a control command is issued for changing over the direction of relative rotation, the oil pressure passage communicating with the first hydraulic chamber is opened, and the supply of oil pressure to the oil pressure passage communicating with the second hydraulic chamber is started at the same time. Consequently, the locked state of the lock mechanism is canceled on the basis of the release of oil pressure in the first hydraulic chamber and the first unlocking hydraulic chamber communicating with that hydraulic chamber is discharged, the supply of oil pressure into the second hydraulic chamber, and the supply of oil pressure into the second unlocking hydraulic chamber.
However, in reality the above-described series of operation is not carried out simultaneously, and is accompanied by slight time lags.
The release of the oil pressure in the first hydraulic chamber and the first unlocking hydraulic chamber communicating therewith is effected immediately.
Since the supply of oil pressure into the second hydraulic chamber is executed by lagging behind the release of the oil pressure from the first hydraulic chamber and the like since the flow of oil into the second hydraulic chamber is started after the oil pressure passage communicating with the second hydraulic chamber is first filled with the oil pressure.
The cancellation of the locked state of the lock mechanism on the basis of the supply of oil pressure to the second unlocking hydraulic chamber is executed by further lagging behind the aforementioned supply of oil pressure to the second hydraulic chamber.
Thus there is a time lag from the time there ceases to be no oil pressure in the first unlocking hydraulic chamber until the oil pressure in the second unlocking hydraulic chamber rises to a sufficient level. For this reason, at the time of directly changing over the direction of relative rotation of the second rotating body with respect to the first rotating body, unlocking is impossible even though temporarily.
Therefore, if the aforementioned direction of relative rotation is changed over at a relative angle of rotation at which the positions of the lock pin and the retaining hole are aligned with each other, the lock pin may be fitted into the retaining hole temporarily.
Furthermore, a situation can also occur in which the oil pressure within the second hydraulic chamber rises and the relative rotation of the second rotating body with respect to the first rotating body is started, before the oil pressure within the second unlocking hydraulic chamber rises and the lock pin is completely disengaged from the retaining hole. In such a case, since the lock pin is caught, the lock pin cannot be disengaged from the retaining hole, so that the relative rotation of the second rotating body with respect to the first rotating body cannot be effected smoothly.

Valve timing controlling apparatus for internal combustion engine


The invention is a method for the production of a composite multilayer material having a backing layer, a bearing metal layer of a copper alloy or an aluminum alloy, a nickel intermediate layer and an overlay consisting of about 0-20 wt. % copper and about 0-20 wt. % silver, the combined maximum wt. % of copper and silver being about 20 wt. %, the rest being bismuth, and the layer thickness of the nickel layer amounts to more than 4 μm by electrodeposition, in which the overlay is deposited from methyl sulphonic acid-based electrolyte.

1. Field of the Invention
The invention relates to a composite multilayer material, in particular for plain bearings or bushings, having a backing layer, a bearing metal layer of a copper alloy or an aluminum alloy, a nickel intermediate layer and an overlay. The invention additionally relates to a method for the production of the composite multilayer material, the production of plain bearings or bushings and uses for the composite multilayer material.
2. Related Art
Conventional composite multilayer materials with the structure comprising steel backing as backing layer, lead-bronze as bearing metal layer and overlay of lead-tin-copper, as described for example in Glyco-Ingenieurberichte 1/91 (Glyco Engineering Reports 1/91), have proven themselves as a result of their high reliability and mechanical load carrying capacity. In such a structure, the overlay is electrodeposited. Such an overlay is a multifunctional layer, in which foreign particles may be embedded, which serves as corrosion protection, which exhibits emergency running characteristics and which is particularly suitable for running-in or conforming of the sliding partners.
The bearing metal layer also exhibits adequate emergency running characteristics, in case the overlay is completely worn away, at least in places.
Conventional composite multilayer materials comprise a lead-based overlay, a common alloy being for example PbSn10Cu2. Such overlays exhibit low hardnesses of around 12-15 HV (Vickers Hardness), for which reason they have good embedding properties and are insensitive to seizure. For reasons of industrial safety and environmental protection, it is nonetheless desirable to replace the lead, which is a heavy metal, with other suitable materials.
One approach is to use hard layers as overlays in heavily loaded bearing systems. For example, aluminum-tin layers with hardnesses of around 80 HV are deposited using PVD (physical vapor deposition) methods. These are lead-free, but are very expensive to produce. Such bearings are highly wear-resistant, but they exhibit almost no embeddability and are therefore generally combined with soft, lead-containing layers as a counter-shell. However, it is also desirable to replace the lead in counter-shells with other materials.
Attempts have been made to use pure tin as a sliding surface. With a hardness of roughly 10 HV, however, pure tin is even softer than the conventional lead alloys and is therefore incapable of absorbing the loads which arise for example in crankshaft main bearings and connecting rod bearings.
DE 197 28 777 A1 describes a composite multilayer material for sliding elements, the overlay of which consists of a lead-free alloy containing tin and copper, wherein the copper content amounts to 3-20 wt. % and the tin content to 70-97 wt. %. This overlay is electrodeposited by means of a methylsulfonic acid electrolyte with grain refining additives. The overlay produced in this way has the characteristics of ternary lead-based overlays. In order further to improve wear resistance, DE 197 28 777 A1 additionally proposes providing hard material particles dispersed in the electrolyte bath, these being incorporated into the layer. However, this is associated with additional effort and cost. Between the bearing metal and the overlay it is possible to provide a 1-3 μm thick nickel layer together with a 2-10 μm thick nickel-tin layer as diffusion barrier layer.
DE 197 54 221 A1 discloses a composite multilayer material with an overlay comprising 3-30 wt. % copper, 60-97 wt. % tin and 0.5-10 wt. % cobalt. In this way, the mechanical load carrying capacity is further increased and embrittlement of the bonding layer between overlay and nickel diffusion barrier layer is prevented. The cobalt reduces the tendency of the tin to diffuse towards the nickel. The addition of cobalt to the alloy, however, makes the electrodeposition process more complex, which reduces process reliability. Furthermore, as in DE 197 28 777 A1 the 1-3 μm thick nickel layer may be combined with a 2-10 μm thick nickel-tin layer as diffusion barrier.
EP 1 113 180 A2 describes a composite multilayer material for plain bearings, whose overlay has a tin matrix into which tin-copper particles are incorporated, said particles consisting of 39-55 wt. % copper with the rest being tin. A characteristic feature of the composite multilayer material is, in addition, that not only is an intermediate layer of nickel of a thickness of 1-4 μm provided, but also a second 2-7 μm thick intermediate layer of tin and nickel is arranged between the nickel intermediate layer and the overlay. By means of the intermediate layers of nickel and tin-nickel, a system is produced which adapts itself to the load applied, load carrying capacity being increased, according to thermal conditions, by growth of the tin-nickel layer. This composite multilayer material may be used to produce products for higher loads in modern, highly supercharged diesel engines. However, the additional layer is associated with greater processing complexity during production of the composite multilayer material and thus higher costs.
A plain bearing is known from DE 100 32 624 A1 which comprises a bearing metal and an overlay of bismuth or bismuth alloy, which is intended to exhibit improved compatibility and fatigue strength. A crucial factor is a particular preferential orientation of the bismuth crystals, which is intended to have reduced brittleness and improved conformability relative to a random orientation of the crystals and relative to single crystals. Possible alloys to which reference may be made are alloys of bismuth with soft materials such as tin, indium, antimony and the like. However, these exhibit the risk that, where these materials are not distributed uniformly in the matrix, i.e. in the event of variations in concentration, low melting eutectics are formed. Therefore, the quantities added should be limited to 5 wt. %. In practice, however, it has become clear that eutectic formation occurs even below the 5 wt. % limit.
The object of the present invention is to overcome the disadvantages of the prior art.

This patent is subject to a terminal disclaimer.

Layered composite material for plain bearings, production and use thereof


The invention pertains to adhesive compositions comprising water glass, at least one oligosaccharide with more than three saccharide units, and at least one mono-, di- or tri-saccharide. Preferably, the oligosaccharide is a low-molecular weight dextrin. Such compositions demonstrate not only a high curing rate and a good wet tack, but also an excellent storage stability. The compositions are useful as a glue or sizing agent. When they are used as a glue, improved crush values of the finished products are observed.

There is a demand for adhesives, especially of the kind used for cementing or sizing cardboard and paper, with an increased dry solid weight content and good storage stability. An increased dry solid weight content will not only result in faster curing rates but also leads to reduced water uptake by the substrates to be cemented. Typically, fillers are added to increase the dry solid weight content. However, these fillers reduce the "wet tack" and the curing rate. Moreover, such formulations often are not storage stable at ambient temperature and have a too high viscosity for normal processing. The poor storage stability typically manifests itself in the floating out of one or more of the ingredients. In the case of known water glass-dextrin products, very often the dextrin floats out. Also, the use of solid fillers in the formulation is less desired, because such a solid, especially when used in a high quantity, may settle during storage and because it may affect the equipment. Since it often is an abrasive, it may for instance cause an increased wear of the pumps.
Moreover, there is a need for cemented articles with a higher crush value than is presently obtained when, for instance, plain water glass is used as the adhesive. Such higher crush values will allow the use of thinner-walled articles, with attendant savings.
Therefore, there is still a need for new water glass based adhesive compositions with improved properties.
It is noted that U.S. Pat. No. 3,767,440 discloses a composition comprising water glass, dextrin, and a clay slurry. It is stated that known formulations containing water glass and more than 0.5% of dextrin, as in, for instance, U.S. Pat. No. 3,343,691, are not storage stable. This reference teaches to use 4.5-12 % by weight of a clay slurry in the formulation to improve the storage stability. As mentioned above, such a high qauntity of a solid filler is not desired. It is not disclosed or suggested to use a composition comprising a mono-, di- and/or tri-saccharide to improve the performance and the storage stability.

Adhesive compositions comprising water glass, an oligosaccharide, and a mono-, di- or tri-saccharide

van de Heisteeg; Bartholomeus Johannes Jozef


The spraying can with preassembled dispenser valve includes a can body with which a dispenser valve is associated. An advantageous feature is constituted by the fact that the can body has, at its mouth, a cylindrical neck in which the dispenser valve is inserted; the valve has a cup-like body to which an upper cap is coupled; the cap defines, in cooperation with the cup-like body, a cavity in which a shutter, which protrudes from the upper cap, can move. The cylindrical neck is seamed onto a protruding ridge of the upper cap to sealingly couple the dispenser valve to the can body.

The present invention relates to a spraying can with a preassembled dispenser valve, for dispensing fluids in general.
As is known, currently commercially available spraying cans with dispenser valve, commonly termed "spray-cans", have a dispenser valve provided with a cup or bottom made of metallic material which is associated with the body of the valve to seam the valve onto the can; the can is appropriately provided with an opening having a folded edge to allow the seaming of the cup or bottom.
Furthermore, with this type of application, in practice the valve body is assembled during the coupling of the bottom to the can.
This embodiment, although commonly in use, presents various drawbacks, the first of which is constituted by the fact that the cup or bottom is a metallic part subjected to various shaping processes which entail considerably high costs which significantly affect the overall cost of the valve.
A further drawback is constituted by the fact that the assembly operations are relatively complicated, with a consequent considerable effect on the cost of the final product.

Spraying can with preassembled dispenser valve


The present invention provides compounds that can modulate the activity of a target protein, such as a phosphatase, that selectively binds phosphorylated peptides or proteins. The present compounds can be useful in treating diseases or disorders, including, for example, diabetes and obesity, that are connected directly or indirectly to the activity of the target protein.

Coordinated, reversible protein phosphorylation is a mechanism by which the activity of enzymes in cellular metabolic pathways is often regulated. Kinases and phosphatases catalyze the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of substrates, respectively. A dynamic balance between the activities of kinases and phosphatases modulates a plethora of intracellular signaling pathways, including pathways responsive to hormones such as insulin and leptin. In the classic model, kinases act as positive regulators, whereas phosphatases serve to negatively regulate these signaling pathways; however, phosphatases have also been shown to positively regulate some pathways. Phosphatases are generally classified into three groups: the serine-threonine phosphatases, tyrosine phosphatases, and the dual-specificity phosphatases, the latter of which dephosphorylate serine, threonine and tyrosine phosphoamino acids (see, e.g., van Huijsduijnen et al., Drug Discov. Today, 2002, 7, 1013–1019).
Several proteins that bind to phosphorylated tyrosines, threonines, or serines have been identified; some are known as adaptor molecules for their presumptive role in mediating the physical interaction of signaling pathway components. Protein domains known as src-homology 2 (SH2) domains and phosphotyrosine binding (PTB) domains have been found to mediate the interaction between phosphorylated amino acid residues of activated plasma membrane-spanning receptor molecules and intracellular adaptor proteins. As one example, the classic adaptor molecule, growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (GRB2), features a hallmark SH2 domain through which GRB2 interacts with phosphotyrosine-containing activated receptors. The potential antiproliferative effects of inhibiting signal transduction with the use of agents (small peptides and macrocycles) which specifically block the interaction between adaptor proteins and phosphorylated residues of activated receptors represents an active area of anticancer therapeutic research (see, e.g., Gao et al., Bioorg Med Chem Lett, 2001, 11, 1889–1892; Groves et al., Biochemistry, 1998, 37, 17773–17783; Liu et al., J Med Chem, 1999, 42, 3737–3741; Schoepfer et al., Bioorg Med Chem Lett, 2001, 11, 1201–1203; Yan et al., FEBS Lett, 2002, 513, 67–70).
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPases) which reverse the phosphorylation of activated growth factor receptors are another means of attenuating signal transduction cascades. For example, autophosphorylation of the insulin receptor is essential for mediating the effects of insulin in a variety of cell types. Insulin signaling is initiated when insulin binds to extracellular subunits of the heterotetrameric insulin receptor tyrosine kinase (IRTK) and induces rapid autophosphorylation of several tyrosine residues in the intracellular part of the receptor, thus activating it. A fully phosphorylated IRTK transmits a signal to downstream cellular substrates, and activity of the phosphorylated IRTK can be reversed by dephosphorylation. The phosphotyrosine residues functioning as a control switch of IRTK activity appear to be tightly regulated by PTP-mediated dephosphorylation. The phosphatase PTP1B, first cloned from human placenta (Tonks et al., J Biol Chem, 1988, 263, 6722–6730), is believed to downregulate the insulin receptor (Faure et al., J Biol Chem, 1992, 267, 11215–11221; Zinker et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2002, 99, 11357–11362).
Insulin regulates important metabolic processes and plays a key role in control of blood glucose levels. The role of the adipocyte-derived hormone, leptin, appears to be the regulation of body mass, via suppression of food intake and increased energy expenditure. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity are characterised by resistance to hormones insulin and leptin, attributed to attenuated or diminished receptor signaling. A large body of data from cellular, biochemical, mouse and human genetic and chemical inhibitor studies have identified PTP1B as a major negative regulator of both insulin and leptin signaling, implicating PTP1B in both insulin resistance and leptin resistance (Cheng et al., Dev Cell, 2002, 2, 497–503; Cook and Unger, Dev Cell, 2002, 2, 385–387; Ukkola and Santaniemi, J Intern Med, 2002, 251, 467–475; Zabolotny et al., Dev Cell, 2002, 2, 489–495).
Additionally, evidence suggests that insulin and leptin action can be enhanced by the inhibition of PTP1B. Because PTP1B dephosphorylates and thereby downregulates signaling by IRTK and the leptin receptor, specific inhibition, deletion or disruption of PTP1B function would be expected to lead to undiminished insulin receptor and leptin receptor signaling, and, therefore, insulin sensitivity and resistance to obesity. This hypothesis is strongly supported by the observation that mice lacking the PTP1B gene are generally healthy but exhibit increased insulin sensitivity and are able to maintain glucose homeostasis with about half the level of circulating insulin, making them resistant to diet-induced obesity. In response to insulin administration, PTP1B deficient mice exhibit a significant increase in insulin receptor phosphorylation in liver and muscle compared to wild type controls. The insulin-sensitive phenotype of the PTP1B knockout mouse is reproduced when the phosphatase is knocked down with an antisense oligonucleotide in obese mice (Zinker et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2002, 99, 11357–11362).
Inhibitors of PTPases, in general, are currently under intense study as potential therapeutic agents for treatment of obesity, diabetes, autoimmune diseases, infectious disease, inflammation, osteoporosis, cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Because blocking PTPases with non-specific inhibitors results in massive and rapid stimulation of kinase-catalyzed phosphorylation cascades, the presiding assumption is that blocking individual PTPases could result in stimulation of specific pathways (van Huijsduijnen et al., Drug Discov Today, 2002, 7, 1013–1019). PTP1B appears to be a very attractive candidate for the design of pharmacological agents capable of inhibiting these negative regulator(s) of the insulin and leptin signaling pathways and therefore beneficial for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes and obesity. Furthermore, PTP1B has also been reported to regulate neurite extension mediated by cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion molecules (Pathre et al., J Neurosci Res, 2001, 63, 143–150) and to be a major player in catalyzing the dephosphorylation and activation of c-Src in human breast cancer cell lines (Bjorge et al., J Biol Chem, 2000, 275, 41439–41446). Thus, PTP1B has emerged as an ideal target for these inhibitors, not only for the management or treatment of diabetes and obesity, but also cancer and neurodegeneration, (Asante-Appiah and Kennedy, Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2003, 284, E663–670; Ukkola and Santaniemi, J Intern Med, 2002, 251, 467–475; van Huijsduijnen et al., Drug Discov Today, 2002, 7, 1013–1019).
Some small molecules such as insulinomimetics, phosphotyrosine mimetics, substituted carboxylic acids, non-carboxylic acid-containing ligands, difluromethylphosphophonates, and hydroxamido vanadates have been studied as inhibitors of PTPases (Burke et al., Biochemistry, 1996, 35, 15989–15996; Faure et al., J Biol Chem, 1992, 267, 11215–11221; Jia et al., J Med Chem, 2001, 44, 4584–4594; Larsen et al., J Med Chem, 2002, 45, 598–622; Liu et al., J Med Chem, 2003, 46, 3437–3440). Many reported inhibitors of PTPases have been phosphorus-containing compounds, tight-binding inhibitors, and/or inhibitors that covalently modify the enzymes (Iversen et al., J Biol Chem, 2002, 277, 19982–19990; Leung et al., Bioorg Med Chem, 2002, 10, 2309–2323; Shen et al., J Biol Chem, 2001, 276, 47311–47319; Zhang et al., J Biol Chem, 2000, 275, 34205–34212). In a search for a general, reversible, competitive PTP inhibitor that could be used as a common scaffold for lead optimization for specific PTPs, 2-(oxalylamino)-benzoic acid (OBA) was identified and reported to be a competitive inhibitor of several PTPs (Andersen et al., J Biol Chem, 2000, 275, 7101–7108). However, as with many PTPase inhibitors, OBA exhibits a lack of specificity for inhibition of PTP1B. Thus, OBA has been used as a starting point in a screen for selective PTP1B inhibitors (Iversen et al., J Biol Chem, 2000, 275, 10300–10307).
Reports of various phosphatase inhibitors have been published in WO 04/062664; WO 04/041799; WO 03/82841; WO 03/092679; WO 02/18321; WO 02/18323; WO 02/18363; WO 03/37328; WO 02/102359; WO 02/04412; WO 02/11722; WO 02/26707; WO 02/26743; WO 01/16122; WO 01/16123; WO 00/17211; WO 00/69889; WO 01/46203; WO 01/46204; WO 01/46205; WO 01/46206; WO 01/70753; WO 01/70754; WO 01/17516; WO 01/19830; WO 01/19831; WO 98/27065; WO 00/53583; WO 99/11606; WO 03/32916; WO 01/16097; WO 98/27092; WO 98/56376; WO 03/33496; WO 99/58514; WO 99/58518; WO 99/58519; WO 99/58521; WO 99/58522; WO 99/61410; WO 97/40017; and U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,166,069; 6,310,081; 6,110,963; 6,057,316; 6,001,867; and 5,7983,74. Other compounds have been reported in U.S. 2003/0060419 U.S. 2004/0167188 and WO 98/53814.
Thus, PTP1B is an ideal therapeutic target for intervention in type 2 diabetes and obesity, as well as, neurodegenerative and anarchic cell proliferative diseases such as cancer, and there remains a long felt need for inhibitors of proteins that bind to tyrosine phosphonates, threonine phosphonates or serine phosphonates, and in particular, inhibitors of PTP1B with modified or improved profiles of activity.

Inhibitors of proteins that bind phosphorylated molecules


A distributed method and apparatus for assigning a unique identifier number to devices connected in a sequential fashion and determining a total device count is presented. Additionally, a method and apparatus for enabling the support of a variable number and type of time slots within a time division multiplexed serial protocol is presented.

Time division multiplexing (TDM) has been used as a protocol for serial interface with coders/decoders (codecs) for an extended period of time. In a TDM system, each device (in this case, each codec) connected to the system is assigned a particular time slot within a frame through which it communicates and exchanges data with a controller. The arrangement of the time slots in the frame is called a frame structure. An advantage for using. TDM is that a single serial connection can be shared among several codecs, negating the need to provide a separate connection between each of the codecs and the controller. Another advantage of TDM is its relative ease of implementation. Techniques such as frequency division multiplexing (FDM) and code division multiplexing (CDM) are more complex than TDM and require greater amounts of hardware and software to implement.
However, current implementations of TDM protocols for serial interfacing between codecs and the controller are quite inflexible. By its very nature, TDM is very rigid. A time slot is typically assigned to a codec and the codec can only communicate during its assigned time slot. Changes to the total number of codecs used in the system would necessitate a change in the design of the TDM system because the TDM frame structure would require modification to support the larger (or smaller) number of codecs. In many systems, when the number of codecs in the system is reduced, then the time slots previously assigned to those codecs remain in the system (but will be idle) although they are no longer being used. This leads to wasting a significant amount of the available bandwidth in the serial connection.
An additional disadvantage due to the inflexibility of the typical TDM implementation is that the actual frame structure itself cannot be modified in order to provide greater bandwidth depending upon application requirements. For example, a typical TDM frame structure includes both data slots and control slots. The data slots are used to transmit data while the control slots are used to transmit control and program information. However, there are applications that require a continuous stream of data. The presence of the control slot results in additional overhead for the controller due to the need to service the commands in the control slots.
Another requirement of a TDM system is that every codec in the system be assigned a unique identifier, usually, a unique number. Each codec requires a unique identifier because the controller must be able to address individual codecs. In TDM systems where the number of codecs and time slots do not change, i.e., static systems, techniques used in the assignment of the unique identifiers have included physical address pins and software routines to write and store device identifiers for each device. The use of physical address pins makes the TDM system even more inflexible due to the physical pins while software routines consume valuable processing power because address translation is required each time a codec is addressed.
A need has therefore arisen for a TDM system that provides flexibility in the number of codecs supported, increase bandwidth usage, and a simple way to assign codec addresses without requiring additional hardware or software support.

Distributed device identifier numbering and total device counting algorithm with smart time division multiplexed serial port


A semiconductor light source control device includes a driver circuit, which generates a drive current Iout flowing through a plurality of LEDs connected in series and which performs control such that the amount of the drive current is brought close to a target value, and bypass switches, which are on-off controlled by a control signal, the bypass switches being connected in parallel with the corresponding LEDs. The semiconductor light source control device is configured such that when the control signal indicates the off-state of the bypass switches, a voltage across the corresponding LEDs is clamped at an upper limit by using the bypass switches.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to a light source control device for controlling a light source.
2. Description of the Related Art
Over recent years, semiconductor light sources, such as light emitting diodes (LEDs), featuring longer operating life and low power consumption have been in use in substitution for the conventional halogen lamps having filaments. The degree of luminescence, namely the brightness, of LED depends on the amount of electric current supplied to the LED. For this reason, a lighting circuit for regulating the current flowing through the LED is required when the LED is utilized as the light source.
In Patent Document 1 in the following Related Art Documents, the present applicant proposes the technology where for the purpose of varying the light distribution of a headlamp and performing a fine-tuned control of light distribution, an array of LEDs are employed as the light sources, and these LEDs are separately turned on and off. In the lighting circuit cited in Patent Document 1 (Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2011-192865), a bypass switch is provided in parallel for each LED, and the on/off of the respective bypass switches individually turn on/off the respective LEDs.
Where such a bypass method as described in Patent Document 1 is employed, the wiring around the LED gets comparatively complicated. The complicated wiring may increase the chance of the conduction failure such as contact failure and disconnection to occur.


An image forming apparatus includes a controller and an imaging unit having a developing device to develop a latent image on a surface of a latent image carrier with toner. When control target value of control parameters that influence a developing ability of the imaging unit becomes inappropriate, the controller performs target value correction processing of correcting the control target value to bring the control target value close to an appropriate value for stabilizing a development density of the imaging unit. In the target value correction processing, the controller corrects a control target value of a second control parameter having a response speed, obtained when the developing ability is changed by the correction, faster than a first control parameter, correct the control target value of the first control parameter, and then turn the control target value of the second control parameter back to the original value.

1. Field
The present invention relates to an image forming apparatus to perform target value correction processing to stabilize a development density by correcting a control target value of a control parameter, which influences a developing ability of an imaging unit.
2. Discussion of the Related Art
The image forming apparatus described in JP-H09-006120-A has been known as this type of image forming apparatus. In the case where a predetermined retention time or more has passed, the image forming apparatus corrects a control target value of toner concentration of a two-component developer used for development as a control parameter, which influences a developing ability of an imaging device including a photoreceptor and a developing device. Specifically, the retention time is a time period during which an image forming operation is continuously stopped. During the retention time, the two-component developer in the developing device is left to stand without being stirred. As the retention time becomes longer, toner charge amount (Q/M) of the two-component developer decreases. As a result, the output from a toner concentration sensor shifts from the actual toner concentration to a lower concentration, which leads to misdetection of low toner concentration. Then, in the case of the image forming operation performed after the predetermined retention time or more, the image forming apparatus described in JP-H09-006120-A performs target value correction processing for correcting the control target value of the toner concentration to a value lower than a normal value. As a result, the toner concentration can be kept at an appropriate value even after the predetermined retention time or more.
As a result of intensive studies, the inventors have found that, after a predetermined retention time or more, it is desirable to correct a control target value of toner concentration not only because the output from the toner concentration sensor shifts to a lower concentration than usual but also for the reasons below. That is, when the retention time becomes quite long, the toner charge amount (Q/M) of the two-component developer decreases to a significant level. Then, electrical adhesion of toner particles attracting to the carrier in the two-component developer is considerably weakened, which causes the toner particles to easily detach from the carrier surface and adhere to the electrostatic latent image. As a result, the developing ability of the imaging device including the photoreceptor and the developing device becomes high so as to make the development density excessively dense. Thereafter, when the image forming operation is performed thereafter, the two-component developer is stirred in the developing device, which promotes triboelectric charging of toner. Thus, the toner charge amount (Q/M) starts to increase, but the development density is still rather dense until the toner charge amount (Q/M) reaches a high value to some extent. Therefore, in the image forming operation after the predetermined retention time or more, it is desirable to make the development density appropriate by decreasing the control target value of the toner concentration lower than the actual value to decrease the developing ability.
However, it has been found that, once the development density is made appropriate in the above manner, the image forming apparatus is likely to have a poor development density in future. Specifically, when the image forming operation is performed after the target value correction processing is performed in the state where the toner charge amount (Q/M) has decreased after a long retention time to greatly decrease the control target value of the toner concentration, the toner charge amount (Q/M) of the two-component developer starts increasing to an average value. Since the developing ability will be too low in due time, it is required to raise the developing ability by increasing the control target value of the toner concentration. However, even if the control target value of the toner concentration is increased, it takes a certain period of time for the toner concentration of the two-component developer to increase to the corrected control target value. Since the toner concentration of the two-component developer is much lower than the appropriate value during that period of time, the developing ability is too low to achieve a sufficient development density.
Meanwhile, not only in the case where the image forming operation is performed after a long retention time, but when the control target value of the toner concentration is greatly corrected, it takes a certain period of time for the toner concentration of the two-component developer to reach the same value as the corrected control target value. During that period of time, the development density may be excessive or may be too low. For example, temperature and humidity influence the developing ability of the imaging device. This is because, as temperature or humidity becomes lower, the triboelectric charging property of toner in the two-component developer becomes higher to increase the toner charge amount (Q/M). Therefore, when the temperature and humidity rapidly changes due to, for example, starting of an air conditioner, it is desirable to correct the control target value of the toner concentration according to the temperature and humidity change. However, even though the control target value of the toner concentration is greatly corrected in accordance with the great change in the temperature and humidity, the toner concentration still greatly deviates from the appropriate value until the toner concentration of the two-component developer reaches the corrected control target value. As a result, the development density becomes excessive or too low.
Moreover, the occurrence of a time lag between a great correction of the control target value and the reflection of the correction on practical developing ability of the imaging device is not limited to the correction of the control target value of the toner concentration. For example, it is assumed that the control target value of the laser intensity of a laser optical system that optically writes an electrostatic latent image to a clear background surface (hereinafter just "surface") of the photoreceptor is greatly corrected. In this case, the electric potential of the electrostatic latent image to be written after the control target value of the laser intensity is greatly corrected can be corrected to the target electric potential. However, an electrostatic latent image has already been written on the surface of the photoreceptor before the control target value of the laser intensity is greatly corrected. Specifically, the electrostatic latent image is optically written on an optical writing position at a predetermined position in the circumferential direction of the photoreceptor, and then, as the photoreceptor rotates, the electrostatic latent image enters a development area opposite from the developing device and is developed. In the case where the control target value of the laser intensity is greatly corrected, the electrostatic latent image which has already entered the developing area and the electrostatic latent image which is present between the optical writing position and the development area at the time of correction are written with the uncorrected laser intensity, and therefore, their electric potentials deviate from the target value. As a result, a certain time lag exists from when the control target value of the laser intensity is corrected and until the electrostatic latent image written with the corrected laser intensity is developed, i.e., until the correction is reflected on the practical developing ability of the imaging device. As such, some control parameters of the image forming apparatus cause time lags between when the control target values are corrected and when the corrections are reflected on the actual developing ability of the imaging device.


A converter for television signals formed of a television signal converter, a selection position changer and a position display. The television signal converter converts a first television signal corresponding to a selected portion of a picture of a first television system to a second television signal of a second television system so that the selected portion of the picture of the first television system fills the entire screen of the second television system. The aspect ratios of the first and second television system are different. The selection position changer changes the position of the selected portion of the picture of the first television system. The position display displays information about the position of the selected portion of the picture of the first television system.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to the field of television signal conversion and, in particular, is directed to a converter which converts a first television signal in a first television system to a second television signal for use in a second television system, wherein the second television signal has a different aspect ratio than the first television signal.
2. Description of the Related Art
Various high definition television (HDTV) systems having different aspect ratios than the aspect ratios in conventional television systems are presently being proposed. One such system is known as the Hi-Vision system and has an aspect ratio of 16:9 compared to the 4:3 aspect ratio in a conventional system. A signal converter is thus required in order to watch a Hi-Vision program on a conventional television.
Such converters normally provide wide and zoom modes of display when a Hi-Vision program is displayed on a conventional receiver.
In the zoom mode, a portion of the picture area of the Hi-Vision picture fills the entire receiver screen.
FIG. 1 illustrates a Hi-Vision picture 22 displayed on a Hi-Vision system television screen. Picture 22 having an aspect ratio of 16:19 (A:B=16:9) is formed of zoom portion 20 and side portions 101 and 102. When Hi-Vision picture 22 is displayed on a conventional television receiver in the zoom mode, portion 20 is converted to fill the entire picture screen. In the wide mode of operation, the full Hi-Vision picture, i.e., portion 20 and side portions 101 and 102 are converted to fill a conventional receiver screen. The wide mode will be described in more detail with reference to FIG. 2.
FIG. 2 illustrates a picture 32 displayed on a conventional television receiver. Picture 32 is formed of portion 30 and upper and lower portions 201 and 202. Portion 30 corresponds to a full Hi-Vision picture. In the wide mode, all portions of the Hi-Vision picture 22 having an aspect ratio of 16:9 are displayed, for example, in the center area of the screen with an aspect ratio of 4:3.
In the zoom mode, the screen position of a portion 20 taken from Hi-Vision picture 22 can be freely selected. That is, as shown in FIG. 3, the position of selected portion 34 of a Hi-Vision picture 36 is located to the right of the screen rather than the center. When portion 34 is displayed on a conventional television receiver, there is no indication provided to the user with respect to the selected position from which portion 34 was taken from the Hi-Vision picture. Such an indication would, of course, be useful to the user as it would enable the user to have more effective control over the conversion and display process for the Hi-Vision picture. Accordingly, prior art converters are deficient in this regard.

Television signal converter for converting high definition television (HDTV) signals to conventional television signals


A shale oil modifier is made of a crude shale oil dehydrogenated sufficiently to attain a viscosity of between about 1200-1800 poise at 60.degree. C. The crude shale oil has sufficient basic nitrogen content so that the dehydrogenated crude shale oil exhibits non-Newtonian properties when mixed with asphalt cements. Preferably, the basic nitrogen content is about 2%-2.5% by weight. The shale oil modifier is made by a process which includes providing a crude shale oil and subjecting the crude shale oil to a two stage distillation followed by a vacuum distillation and collecting the residual fraction. The residual fraction is dehydrogenated with air until a select viscosity, preferably between about 1200-1800 poise at 60.degree. C. is obtained.

1. Technical Field
The present invention is directed toward asphalt pavements, and more particularly toward an asphalt rejuvenater and an asphalt pavement composition including recycled asphalt pavement
2. Background Art
The following definitions will apply to terms used herein. Hot mix asphalt concrete ("HMAC") means an asphalt pavement for application to a roadbed. HMAC consists of three primary constituents: 1) aggregate of various geologic sources and sizes; 2) asphalt cement (or asphalt binder) which consists of asphaltine hydrocarbons; and 3) one or more modifiers to enhance water resistance or improve wear, and which could include shale oil modifier ("SOM") discussed in greater detail below. Recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) means HMAC which has been milled off an existing paved roadbed. HMAC containing RAP means hot mix asphalt concrete which includes recycled asphalt pavement During the past several years, the recycling of asphalt pavements has become a more commonly practiced and attractive pavement rehabilitation technique. In 1993, the U.S. Government reported that 91 million tons/year of recycled asphalt pavement ("RAP") were being produced in the U.S., of which 73 million tons/year were being recycled for highway applications.
There are several obvious benefits associated with pavement recycling. Typically, and from a cost point of view, the use of RAP results in a lower first cost of rehabilitation due to the savings realized from the reutilization of materials (i.e., aggregate and asphalt binder). From a structural engineering point of view, this technique permits the removal of all or a portion of the defects in the preexisting pavement, which defects might otherwise reduce the effectiveness and longevity of resurfacing treatments. Moreover, this technique permits the preservation of the surface geometry, which often is important in cases where changes in elevation cannot be tolerated or are too expensive to accommodate. Lastly, the reuse of the materials removed from the preexisting pavement offers certain environmental and conservation benefits through a reduction in the problems associated with the disposal of this material and through the utilization of the asphalt cement or asphalt binder content of the RAP.
The techniques presently used for the recycling of asphalt pavements commonly are classified as surface recycling, in-place surface and base recycling and central plant recycling. Surface recycling involves the application of a rejuvenating treatment to the surface of the existing pavement. In-place recycling refers to the removal and immediate replacement of some or all of the preexisting pavement. Central plant recycling, as the name implies, refers to the removal of some or all of the existing pavement to a central plant location, where all or a portion of this material is reprocessed with varying proportions of virgin aggregate and/or virgin binder and then reused for paving applications. Each of these techniques may employ either a hot or cold process.
The use of RAP presents several technical challenges. In this regard, the most likely reason that an asphalt pavement is in need of rehabilitation is due to the aged, or hardened, condition of its asphalt binder, which is manifested in the degradation of the rheological properties of the asphalt binder, in particular, an increase in viscosity. This condition reduces the pavements ability to resist the loss of adhesion between the binder and the aggregate and to resist cracking due to fatigue and thermal cycling. Hence, and in order for the preexisting pavement to be effective for reuse, some process must be devised to restore the Theological properties of the aged binder in the RAP to a condition that is more typical of an unaged, or virgin, binder. In the industry, the term of art that commonly is used to describe this process of restoration is "rejuvenation".
While several methods of rejuvenation have been devised and practiced, generally all involve the application of heat or the use of a rejuvenating agent. With regard to the latter, there are a myriad of products presently being marketed and used in the U.S., which products generally are classified as either flux oils, viscosity graded asphalt cements, emulsified asphalts or a host of brand-named products of proprietary formulation. The selection of the type and usage rate of these products, for the most part, is based on the properties of the aged asphalt in the RAP, the percentage of RAP to be used in the new mix, and the recycling technique to be employed.
There are certain problems inherent in the in-place methods. Absent the addition of significant quantities of virgin aggregate or virgin mix, the quantity of rejuvenating agent that can be added to the RAP without suffering a reduction in the stability and associated strength of the relaid HMAC containing RAP pavement is relatively small (i.e., typically less than 1% of the weight of the RAP). Stated differently, the asphalt content and aggregate gradation of the RAP often are such that very little, if any, rejuvenater can be added to the RAP without adversely affecting the void content, and thus the stability and strength, of the recycled mix Hence, it is not always possible to achieve the desired degree of rejuvenation when in-place methods of recycling are employed.
Furthermore, the degree of "apparent" rejuvenation that can be achieved with emulsified asphalts and many of the brand-named products is greater than the degree of rejuvenation demonstrated with low viscosity graded asphalt cements. The word "apparent" is used to reflect that the effectiveness of some of these products is reported to be temporary in nature, with little if any lasting effect on the restoration of the rheological properties of the aged asphalt. Nonetheless, in-place recycling methods typically employ some form of these products in an effort to effect the desired degree of rejuvenation.
When emulsified asphalts are used, care must be taken to ensure that the new mix has had sufficient time to "cure" before being subjected to traffic loading. While this problem can be mitigated through use of "rapid cure" emulsions, it is not uncommon for these recycled pavements to require several days, if not months, of curing before their maximum strengths are realized. In addition, caution must be exercised to ensure that the rejuvenating agent does not contain a high percentage of low boiling range volatiles, particularly when hot recycle processes are to be employed.
Because of these problems with in-place recycling techniques, central plant recycling techniques offer certain advantages, particularly with regard to mix design and quality control. Although the initial cost of central plant recycling may exceed that of in-place recycling techniques, if the problems associated with in-place recycling result in a pavement with reduced service life, then its advantage of lower first cost may be negated by the higher cost of future rehabilitation requirements.
One problem with central plant recycling techniques is that the addition of even low viscosity graded asphalt cements ("AC's") often fails to meet the objective of rejuvenating the Theological properties of the aged asphalt in the RAP to close to that of virgin asphalt. As a result, the viscosity of the binder in the recycled asphalt pavement is higher than desirable, leading to reduced resistance to thermal and fatigue cracking and reduced service life.


A semiconductor structure for forming FinFETs is described. The semiconductor structure includes a semiconductor substrate, a plurality of odd fins of the FinFETs on the substrate, and a plurality of even fins of the FinFETs on the substrate between the odd fins of the FinFETs. The odd fins of the FinFETs are defined from the substrate. The even fins of the FinFETs are different from the odd fins of the FinFETs in at least one of the width and the material, and may be further different from the odd fins of the FinFETs in the height.

1. Field of Invention
This invention relates to a semiconductor process, and particularly relates to a method for fabricating fin-type field-effect transistors (FinFETs), and a semiconductor structure that is fabricated using the method.
2. Description of Related Art
MOS is a basic structure widely applied to various semiconductor devices, such as memory devices, image sensors and display devices.
The traditional MOS transistor is difficult to scale down due to the limitation of the fabricating process, so double-gate transistors with better properties are developed. One example is the FinFET, which has a 3D gate structure to enhance the control on the channel and inhibit the leakage current caused by the punch-through effect, and thus has a higher gate control capability than the conventional MOS transistor.
However, in the current FinFET process, the density of the fin patterns of the FinFET array is quite high and the thickness of the photoresist layer is quite large, so that the pattern development is difficult and an accurate pattern transfer is impossible.

Semiconductor structure with different fins of FinFETs


This specification discloses a complete method to manufacture polyester articles from freshly harvested ligno-cellulosic biomass. The process steps include pretreating the biomass and the converting the lignin to one of several possible organic steams by deoxygenating and dehydrogenating the lignin in the presence of a Raney Nickel catalyst, separating the organics, and then processing the organics into polyester feedstocks and converting those feedstocks to polyester.

There is a long history trying to convert lignin from ligno-cellulosic (lignocellulosic) biomass into useful components. Three categories of lignin isolation from biomass can be broadly classified.
The first is the Organosolv process which extracts the lignin with organic solvents and then treats the extracted lignin. The drawback of this process is the presence and use of organic solvents which must later be removed from the products.
The second is the various Kraft processes used in the paper and pulp industry. Kraft lignin has been extracted from the ligno-cellulosic biomass using acids and bases and thus requiring removal and neutralization of the excess acids and bases.
The third is the base depolymerization of the lignin, again attacking the lignin and leaving the base as a contaminant to deal with.
However, with the advent of second generation biomass facilities, the lignin containing by-product streams contain high amounts of water, cellulose, and lignin as opposed to the first generation facilities which relied upon purified starches from grains as the sugar(s) for fermentation, leaving very little lignin.
The second generation processes remove the sugars from the ligno-cellulosic polymers, in particular, the C6 sugars which are known to be harder to extract and convert to the respective oligomer and monomers. In any event, the second generation systems typically ferment the sugars in the presence of the lignin, with the lignin being present in a by-product stream with a high water content.
There exists therefore the need for a process to convert the lignin from second generation ligno-cellulosic biomass conversion process to usable compounds.


To provide a spark plug with improved heat resistance and an internal combustion engine in which that spark plug is mounted where there is good conduction of the heat near the opening on the combustion chamber side of the mounting hole for the spark plug provided in the engine and the effects of thermal stress occurring near that opening are mitigated. A cylindrical part without threads formed thereon is provided on the leading end side of a metal housing of a spark plug and the thermal stress applied to a mounting hole is mitigated by avoiding close contact with the mounting hole of an engine head. Furthermore, the spark plug has a mounting structure in which the leading end surface of the cylindrical part is disposed 1.55 mm or more to the base end side in a mounting hole in the direction of the axial line O with respect to the wall surface inside the combustion chamber. By this means, the metal housing does not easily take up the heat that accompanies combustion of the air-fuel mixture inside the combustion chamber at the cylindrical, part so there may be good heat conduction.

Conventionally, spark plugs are used for ignition in internal combustion engines such as automobile engines. A typical spark plug has a central electrode that forms an electrode for spark discharge on its leading end side, an insulator that holds that central electrode in an axial hole and a metal housing that surrounds and holds the radial periphery of this insulator. Furthermore, the spark plug is mounted in the engine by screwing the threads formed on the outer peripheral surface of the metal housing into the female threads provided in a mounting hole in the engine head, and an air-fuel mixture is ignited by the spark discharge.
In recent years there has been progress in increasing the output and reducing the fuel consumption of internal combustion engines, and while the engines are getting smaller, there have been increases in the diameter of exhaust valves to improve exhaust efficiency and denser formation of the water jacket to improve cooling efficiency. The diameter of the mounting holes for spark plugs has been reduced to be able to assure freedom of design on the engine side, and for the spark plugs mounted in these mounting holes, small ones where the nominal diameter for the threads is 12 mm or less are used.
Furthermore, the thickness of the engine head has been reduced because of the reduction in size, and the same heat load has a larger effect at the periphery of the mounting hole where the spark plug is affixed than it did conventionally. This is because there has been a relative reduction in the heat capacity because of the reduction in the thickness of the engine head. Since the temperature on the combustion chamber side of the mounting hole is particularly high in the vicinity of the opening, the thermal stress caused by the combustion of the air-fuel mixture is large. In addition, the effects of the mechanical load that the spark plug applies to the mounting hole because of the screwing in of the threads are especially great, and there is a danger of damage in the vicinity of the opening on the combustion chamber side of the mounting hole. The engine head has become more susceptible to thermal stress overall in the area around the mounting hole that secures the spark plug. To solve this problem, it is good to eliminate or reduce the part where the spark plug is in close contact in the vicinity of the opening on the combustion chamber side of the mounting hole. Here, for example, with the reduction in the inside diameter of the mounting hole in the engine head for the purpose of increasing the freedom of engine design, there are spark plugs where no threads are formed on the outer peripheral surface on the leading end side and threads that are difficult to reduce in diameter are formed on the base end side of the outer peripheral surface of the metal housing (for example, Published Unexamined Patent Application No. JP 2003-308945. If this spark plug is used, the part where the mounting hole and spark plug are in close contact can be eliminated in the vicinity of the opening on the combustion chamber side of the mounting hole, and the effects of the thermal stress that may arise at the mounting hole can be mitigated.
By the way, the heat accompanying combustion of the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber that is taken up by the grounding electrode and metal housing mainly escapes via the threads. If no threads are formed on the outer peripheral surface on the leading end side of the metal housing, there is a reduction in the contact surface area of the metal housing and mounting hole. Therefore, there is a danger that sufficient heat conduction from the metal housing to the engine head will not occur, and the heat resistance of the spark plug will be reduced.
It is an object of the present invention to solve the problems described above and provide a spark plug with improved heat resistance and an internal combustion engine in which that spark plug is mounted where good heat conduction in the vicinity of the opening on the combustion chamber side of the mounting hole for the spark plug provided in the engine head occurs while mitigating the effects of thermal stress that may arise in the vicinity of that opening.

Spark plug and internal combustion engine in which the spark plug is disposed


An apparatus for holding items, and more specifically an elastic band and clip apparatus is disclosed. The apparatus for holding items includes a band and a clip. The clip includes: a recessed portion provided in a facing surface of the clip which is structured to accommodate a medallion; fixing structures to fix the band to the clip; and a locking mechanism which is structured to lock portions of the clip together.

Conventional methods of holding money and credit cards include a wallet or a money clip, as examples. The wallet can be bulky and cumbersome; whereas, money clips do not securely hold credit cards or other items. What is thus needed is a means of holding money and credit cards and other items in a secure manner.


An image display apparatus according to an embodiment of the present technology includes a base, a light emission body, a dichroic film, and a heat conduction member. The light emission body is provided on the base, and emits visible light by being excited by excitation light. The dichroic film reflects at least a part of the visible light emitted from the light emission body. The heat conduction member is provided on the base, and diffuses heat transmitted from the light emission body to the base.

In recent years, there has been a growth in the number of products which adopt not a mercury lamp, a xenon lamp, and the like conventional used but a solid-state light source such as an LED (Light Emitting Diode) and an LD (Laser Diode) for a light source to be used for a projector for the purpose of presentation or digital cinema. A solid-state light source such as an LED has a long life, and thus a conventional lamp exchange is unnecessary. Further, a solid-state light source has such an advantage as to be lighted immediately after being turned on.
For example, Patent Literature 1 describes a projector that uses a laser light source. The projector described in Patent Literature 1 uses a phosphor wheel obtained by applying phosphor on a substrate, a center portion of which is opened. The phosphor of the phosphor wheel is irradiated with laser light emitted from the laser light source, and fluorescence is generated by excitation. A part of the laser light and the generated fluorescence are emitted as illumination light, thereby generating an image. It should be noted that on the phosphor wheel, a heatsink is provided. This cools heat generated from the phosphor due to illumination with the laser light.

Image display apparatus and light source apparatus