The inventive technology includes methods and apparatus for the generation and application of segregated catalytic additives for the pre-combustion treatment of carbonaceous fuel and/or feedstocks. The application of such segregated additives results in the reduction of environmentally harmful emissions during combustion as well as gasification processes. Specifically, pre-combustion treatment of carbonaceous materials with the inventive additives results in the reduction of NOx and/or mercury emissions by least 20% and 40% respectively.

Enormous industrial and technical efforts have been exhausted with varying degrees of success grappling with the problem of environmental pollution generated from the processing of carbonaceous material. For example, the combustion of coal has provided the backbone of industrial and energy since the start of the industrial revolution. It is estimated that the world currently consumes over 4050 MT of coal per year. Such coal is utilized by a variety of sectors including: power generation; iron and steel production; cement manufacturing; and as a liquid fuel. For example, it is currently estimated that approximately 45% of all US electrical production is derived from coal combustion, while coal-fired power plants generate approximately 40-50% of global electricity. In some countries, coal generates an even higher percentage of electricity. For example, China produces approximately 80% of its electrical output from coal combustion, while South Africa generates over 90% of its total electricity from coal.
Despite renewed emphasis on alternative energy sources, with the existence of significant coal resources around the world capable of meeting large portions of the world's energy needs into the next two centuries, coal remains and will continue to be a core energy source. However, despite its prevalence, there exist various environmental and regulatory concerns, specifically related to the emission of harmful and unwanted chemical compounds generated from the combustion process. Apart from being one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, coal combustion is a significant source of NOx, SOx and elemental as well as oxidized Hg and other heavy metals. (As described hereafter, carbonaceous material emissions may also be generally referred to as "Carbon Combustion by-Product's" (CCB's).) Such CCB emissions generally require remediation steps to prevent their release into the atmosphere upon combustion. For example, the emissions of SOx and NOx from U.S. power plants are regulated as part of Title IV of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA). (It should be noted that the purpose of this application, the term NOx generally encompasses all reactive compounds and/or gases which contain nitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts, such as nitrogen oxides. The term SOx generally encompasses all reactive compounds and/or gases which contain sulfur and oxygen in varying amounts, such as sulfur oxides. However, the terms NOx and SOX may also encompass any nitrogen or sulfur containing emission generated during the combustion, gasification or other processing method of carbonaceous materials respectively.)
As detailed below, such traditional systems are limited in their effectiveness as well as cost. Clearly an inexpensive, comprehensive solution to the aforementioned problems would represent a significant leap forward in the industry. One area of development is the use of additives that may facilitate non-formation and/or removal of emissions resulting from the consumption of carbonaceous and/or feedstock based processes as discussed above. By way of example, several U.S. patents have been issued relating to coal combustion byproduct removal. However, the present invention overcomes many of the operational and cost disadvantages associated with current processes involving pre-combustion additives. For example, past efforts to develop pre-combustion additives to coal, such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,988,939, 7,758,827 (Comrie references) and Zhao Yi, et al. reference each hereby incorporated by reference herein, have not afforded the various advantages and other combinations of features as presented herein. Indeed, in the prior art systems, disadvantages often exist that can create problems in a variety of areas.
For example, the Comrie references teach halogen based sorbents for coal combustion to facilitate Hg removal from the flue gas; however, such references rely on the addition of halogenated compounds, such as calcium-bromides to coal prior to combustion. Apart from being expensive, such halogenated compounds are also hazardous chemicals making their transport, use and disposal of limited desirability within the industry. Such, halogenated compounds further generally require additional remediation and disposal steps creating additional undesired cost and liabilities. For example, none of the Comrie references teach the use of segregated particulate matter, such as fly ash, and/or segregated calcium source compounds, such as limestone to achieve the synergistic catalytic removal or prevention of nitrogen, sulfur and Hg emissions resulting from coal combustion. In addition, the Comrie references are not applicable to other carbonaceous and/or feedstock based processes, such as gasification and the like. The use of these compounds may also cause slagging, fouling or corrosion of boiler tubes in a combustion furnace.
In another limited example, the Zhao Yi, et al. reference is also limiting as it uses lime as a sorbent to effectuate desulfurization and denitrification. However, use of hydrated lime as an additive is practically and commercially limited. Apart from the obvious undesirable caustic chemical profile of using such hydrated lime species, such as calcium hydroxide, such calcium sources are generally more expensive further limiting their usefulness. In addition, the Zhao Yi, et al. reference fails to provide optimal surface area understanding to any pre-combustion additives as well as their addition to a combustible fuel source reducing their actual effectiveness and preventing some functioning. Again, the Zhao Yi, et al. reference is not applicable to other carbonaceous and/or feedstock based processes, such as gasification and/or partial oxidation gasifying reactor systems (PDX).
One exemplary application of the inventive technology may include the treatment of carbonaceous materials such as coal to generate a catalytically enhanced low emission carbonaceous fuel. In one embodiment, the invention provides compositions and methods for reducing emissions of NOx, SOx and Hg among others CCB's that arise from the combustion of coal. In particular, coal burning facilities such as those used by electrical utilities may be used as one exemplary model of the current invention. In a preferred embodiment, for example a typical pulverized coal-fired facility may be appropriate for the current invention. In a typical pulverized coal fired facility, coal may be combusted in an atmospheric air combustion environment, additionally in an oxygen-fired facility, coal is combusted in an enriched oxygen environment by using pure oxygen diluted with combustion air or gas or perhaps flue gas (Hot/Cold RFG).
Again, as shown in FIG. 1, flue gas (FG), which may be a combination of combustion gases, air and various particulate matter such as fly ash may be shunted through a convection pathway where heat may be removed from the flue gases. It should be noted that, as shown in FIG. 2, such a convection pathway is generally characterized by a plurality of "heat" zones characterized by the temperature of the gases and combustion products in each zone with greater temperatures nearer the combustion event and falling generally downstream. As noted in FIG. 1, such a convective pathway may contain a variety of combustion gases, perhaps containing NOx, SOx and Hg species as well as particulate matter such as fly ash and other constituents moving away from the combustion event. In typical conventional systems as shown in FIG. 2 below, this flue gas may undergo various post-combustion treatments, such as chemical scrubbers. Post-combustion sorbant injections may be applied to the flue gas to remove undesired chemical constituents and the like prior to environmental release.
For example, again as shown in FIG. 2, typical post-combustion flue-gas treatments may include post-combustion selective catalytic reaction (SRC) treatment, traditional sorbent injection, and post-combustion flue gas desulfurization (FGD). In addition, as shown generally in FIGS. 2-3, further along in the convective pathway, the flue gas and fly ash may pass through lower temperature zones until a baghouse or electrostatic precipitator is reached before the gases may be emitted to the stack. In the US, typical remediation steps generally need to be accomplished prior to environmental release of the flue gas through the stack.
As an initial matter, coal-fired power plants generate steam produced in a boiler which is further used to generate electricity. In a steam boiler, water is heated under pressure to produce high-temperature and high pressure steam, which then passes through a steam turbine that spins an electric generator. The heat required to produce steam is obtained by burning coal. As noted above, flue gas formed after burning the coal contains hazardous emissions which are typically treated with pollutant control devices placed after combustion. There are a number of traditional post-combustion remediation methods.
Mercury speciation may have a strong impact on its capture by air pollution control techniques. Depending on the flue gas conditions Hg may be present in the flue gas as elemental mercury vapor (Hg0), as an oxidized mercury species (Hg2+), and as particulate-bound mercury (Hgp). Elemental Hg, released into the exhaust gas, can then be oxidized to Hg2+ via homogeneous and heterogeneous oxidation reactions. Among these Hg species, Hg0 may be difficult to capture due to its insolubility in water, high volatility and chemical inertness. Different control technologies such as filters, desulfuration units and sorbent injection can be applied to decrease Hg emissions. As one example, mercury is at least partially volatilized upon combustion of coal. As a result, the mercury tends not to stay with the ash, but rather becomes a component of the flue gases. If remediation is not undertaken, the mercury tends to escape from the coal burning facility into the surrounding atmosphere. Depending on the type of coal combusted and Hg speciation, Hg removal efficiency can show significant variation making it difficult to find a consistent Hg removal technology for different types of coal burned in different types of boilers or furnaces or other fuels or fuel uses whether combustion or not.
Two common mercury removal technologies are the addition of scrubbers and carbon injection. However, each of these methods has significant technical and economical drawbacks that limit their effectiveness. In a typical carbon injection remediation process activated carbon is injected into the flue gas stream to adsorb mercury before it exits the stack. While this approach may reduce mercury emissions, it can also produce a significant amount of solid potentially hazardous waste. For example, the activated carbon systems may lead to carbon contamination of the fly ash collected in exhaust air treatments such as the bag house and electrostatic precipitators. Furthermore, since the fly ash may now contain activated carbon, it can no longer be useable in cement and/or concrete applications, one of the major post combustion utilization markets. Finally, use of such activated carbon systems tends to be associated with high treatment costs and elevated capital costs. As noted above, another typical Hg remedial technique involves the treatment of the flue gas with wet scrubber or Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems, However, again these approaches are also capital intensive—in materials and implementation—and further use hazardous materials such as anhydrous ammonia, and also produce undesired and perhaps hazardous waste products which must be disposed of, often at great expense. Moreover, the present invention may assist utilities in complying with new mercury emission regulations without the high capital equipment costs associated with current mercury remediation technologies.
Flue gas NOx emissions may be typically controlled by Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems processes. In an exemplary SCR process, ammonia (NH3) reacts with NO and NO2 gases such as on the catalyst surface and reduces to nitrogen (N2) and water vapor (H2O). Ammonia may be diluted with air or steam and this mixture may be injected into the flue gas upstream of a metal catalyst bed where it reacts with the flue gas. Oxides of vanadium, titanium, tungsten, or zeolites typically catalyze such as in the following reactions:4NO+4NH3+O2→4N2+6H2O2NO2+4NH3+O2→3N2+6H2ONO+NO2+2NH3→2N2+3H2O
However, such methods of NOx reduction are again limited as such processes are typically expensive and require the use of, and also generate hazardous compounds/waste that may require further remediation and/or disposal. Again, the present invention may assist utilities in complying with new NOx regulations without the high capital equipment costs associated with current NOx remediation technologies.
In another remediation example, flue gas SOx removal systems may be generally separated into dry and wet removal systems depending on the particular coal's sulfur content. Plants burning low-sulfur coal typically use dry systems where lime and water are added to the flue gas and the following reactions occur:CaO+H2O→Ca(OH)2 Ca(OH)2+SO2→CaSO3.½H2O+½H2O
Typically the solids formed from the SO2 reaction may be captured by electrostatic precipitators or filtration devices such as bag houses. A typical "wet" SOx removal system may typically be used in plants where high-sulfur coal is burned. Here, water sprayers may be used to saturate the flue gas, while calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is injected into the flue gas stream. Sulfur dioxide in flue gas may react with the CaCO3 and calcium sulfite (CaSO3.½H2O) may be formed. CaSO3.½H2O may be oxidized in a subsequent reaction forming calcium sulfate (CaSO4.2H2O), also known as gypsum, perhaps through the following reactions:CaCO3+SO2+½H2O→CaSO3.½H2O+CO2CaSO3½H2O+½O2+ 3/2H2O→CaSO4.2H2O
Typical "wet" SOx removal systems however can be limited as they generally employ forced oxidation methods to push desulfurization type reactions to maximize gypsum formation. Both dry and wet SOx removal systems have high capital costs due to the need for expensive non-corrosive materials in the systems. The present invention may assist utilities in complying with new SOx regulations without the high capital equipment costs associated with current SOx remediation technologies.
The present invention may assist utilities or other users in reducing the amount of CO2 that is produced in a combustion furnace or gasification processes due to the catalytic process which improves carbon conversion efficiency. For example, particulate matter (PM) emissions consist primarily of fly ash and unburned carbon produced from burning of coal in a coal fired furnace or boiler and is generally a powdery particulate matter made of the components of coal that do not volatize upon combustion. The content and amount of ash are a function of coal properties, furnace-firing configuration and boiler operation. Depending on the boiler type, approximately 50% to 80% of the total ash exits the boiler as fly ash. PM emissions can also be formed from the reactions of SO2, NOx compounds and unburned carbon particles. PM emissions in coal-fired power plants is normally carried off in the flue gas and is usually collected from the flue gas using conventional apparatus such as electrostatic precipitators, filtration devices such as bag houses, and/or mechanical devices such as cyclones. This production of large amounts of fly ash may be used for secondary products or uses or disposed of. Various attempts to create secondary product streams from this fly ash waste, such as cement production have been met with some limited success, however, often the vast bulk of fly ash is simply land filled.
As shown above, the generally known systems and techniques for coal combustion generated NOx, SOx, Hg as well as particulate removal are limited in several significant ways. First, such systems are generally expensive requiring significant capital cost and require not only expensive but sometime dangerous chemicals. As noted above, such systems also generally produce hazardous byproducts that must be disposed of increasing such systems incremental costs. Furthermore, such systems typically require additional compliance with government regulations further driving up the cost.
Second, such systems are post-combustion processes requiring additional expensive application and removal capabilities. In addition, the effectiveness of such systems is variable and inconsistent based on the type of coal utilized at a particular plant limiting the range of coal inputs available for use at a specific plant without significant retro-fitting. Third, as noted, while some synergies do exist, no single comprehensive system exists to effectively deal with the various combustion byproducts sought to be removed.
In addition, as noted above other processes, such as gasification may also consume carbonaceous and/or other feedstocks. Such exemplary processes can occur in the presence of air, which contains nitrogen. As such, gasification reactors can create by-products that need to be treated or disposed of due to environmental concerns. For example, during the combustion process, carbon dioxide and nitrogen- and/or sulfur-containing compounds, such as oxides of nitrogen and amines, can be formed. Environmental regulations more frequently require the collection and sequestration of carbon dioxide. Amine separator units which are necessary to remove acidic compounds, such as, for example, H2S and CO2, are very energy intensive, are large and thus have a massive footprint, and can be very costly to operate and maintain. As noted above, the following invention may not only, in some embodiments reduce harmful emissions resulting from the process, but may also improve CO formation, perhaps through a catalytic and/or sorbing process or other process as will be explored below.
Additional embodiments of the inventive technology may include the treatment of carbonaceous and/or other feedstocks for use in gasification, pyrolysis and/or reformation processes. For example, "gasification" herein generally relates to a variety of gasifier systems such as GE gasifier and/or Texaco gasifier referenced generally in the attached IDS and herein incorporated in their entirety by reference. Such systems may generally utilize carbonaceous materials such as for example coal or coke to form select product gas components such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen gas or synthesis gas (syngas), which can be used to produce electricity in an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) process or as a starting point in many chemical processes.
Gasification emphasis again came to the forefront due to the energy crisis of the 1970's. Gasifier technology was perceived as a relatively cheap alternative for small-scale industrial and utility power generation, especially when sufficient sustainable biomass resources were available. By the beginning of the 1980's nearly a dozen (mainly European) manufacturers were offering small-scale wood and charcoal fired "steam generation" power plants. In Western countries, coal gasification systems began to experience expanded interest during the 1980's as an alternative for the utilization of natural gas and oil as the base energy resource. Technology development perhaps mainly evolved as fluidized bed gasification systems for coal, but also for the gasification of biomass. Over the last 15 years, there has been much development of gasification systems directed toward the production of electricity and generation of heat in advanced gas turbine based co-generation units.
As shown in FIG. 1, generally the gasification process may involve the controlled heating of carbonaceous fuels and/or feedstock in the absence of oxygen or reduced oxygen, resulting in thermal decomposition of the fuel into volatile gases and solid carbon material by-product. As noted above, a typical gasifier may convert carbonaceous fuels and/or feedstock into gaseous components by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam.
A traditional gasifier differs from a combustor in that the amount of air or oxygen available inside the gasifier may be controlled so that only a relatively small portion of the fuel burns completely. This "partial oxidation" process provides heat to further the process. Rather than burning, most of the carbon-containing feedstock is chemically broken apart by the gasifier's heat and pressure, setting into motion chemical reactions that produce primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and other gaseous constituents. Such gasifier systems may involve combustion while others do not involve a combustion pathway. Gasification reactors can convert generally solid feedstocks into gaseous products. For example, gasification reactors can gasify carbonaceous feedstocks, such as coal and/or petroleum coke, to produce desirable gaseous products such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide and some amounts of methane. Gasification reactors generally need to be constructed to withstand the significant pressures and temperatures required to gasify solid feedstocks. Generally, carbon in the coal or coke can be converted into gas by partial combustion with oxygen.
In an exemplary gasification process, carbonaceous or other feedstocks undergo a combustion process as the volatile products and some of the char may react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and perhaps a small amounts of carbon monoxide, which may further provide heat for the subsequent gasification reactions.C+O2→CO2 andC+½O2→CO
In this process carbon also can react with water in an endothermic water gas reaction to perhaps produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen, via the reaction.C+H2O→H2+CO
A shift reaction may then convert all or part of the carbon monoxide into hydrogen to reach equilibrium.CO+H2O→CO2+H2
The results of this final mixture may comprise hydrogen and carbon monoxide and may be referred to generally to as synthesis gas or syngas. Additional general reference to various gasification examples may be found in U.S. Pat. No. 7,638,070 and the accompanying provisional IDS incorporated herein in their entireties by reference.
As will be discussed in more detail below, the present invention overcomes the limitations of the prior art and provides a novel and previously unrecognized improved treatment of carbonaceous fuel and/or feedstock sources that may result in the reduction and/or prevention of NOx, SOx and Hg emissions among other CCB's.

Methods and apparatus for the utilization of treated carbonaceous fuels and feedstocks


An off-axis backscreen visual display system with rotating backscreen and projector assembly. The system includes a full color projector for projecting the image beam, and a backscreen which redirects the image beam from the projector onto a collimating mirror. The mirror in turn reflects the beam toward the observer eye point. The backscreen and projector are mechanically integrated together to form an integrated assembly which is mounted for rotation about a pivot point. The collimating mirror is oversized relative to the nominal beam size so as to present mirror surface to the beam redirected by the backscreen through a range of rotation of the integrated assembly. An actuator system rotates the integrated assembly about the pivot point to obtain increase vertical field of view. The backscreen can alternatively be fixed in position, with only the projector assembly rotating. The projector can include electronic image positioning capabilities, so that the active area for the image is located in a lower projector area or in an upper projector area, to provide a virtual rotational capability.

Off Axis Backscreen/Mirror Visual Display (OABD) systems are employed in simulator applications, e.g. simulators used for training pilots and other aircraft crew members. These systems typically have the drawback of a limited vertical field of view (FOV), usually about 40 degrees FOV. This limited FOV is often not enough to provide vision in areas necessary for multiple training tasks, such as the large downward FOV needed for landing training and large upward FOV needed for refueling training.
There is presently no known technique for obtaining a field of view larger than about 40 degrees in collimated visual displays such as the OABD system application. Although the use of a larger radius mirror might allow some increase in vertical FOV, mirror sizes much greater than those currently in use are just not practical due to several factors, including limitations in facility size, payload limitations (for systems on motion platforms), mirror manufacturing limitations, brightness impact, and cost.
Most OABD systems are also limited in resolution by both the projection device and the image generation system. Any increase in instantaneous vertical FOV negatively impacts the resolution of the system.
FIG. 1 shows one method used in the past few years whereby the entire display system is rotated about the observer eyepoint. This technique for increasing instantaneous vertical FOV is very complex because it requires moving structures, including mirrors, with a total system weight of almost 5,000 pounds in one application.
It would therefore be an advantage to provide an economical way to provide increased FOV for OABD systems.
A further advantage would be provided by an economical way to increase the total vertical FOV without impacting resolution.
Still another advantage would be provided by a system which increases the system resolution while maintaining the existing total FOV.

Rotating backscreen and/or projectors for off-axis large field of view display


A TWA measuring apparatus includes: a grouping section which is configured to group electrocardiogram waveforms of a subject in increments of a first beat number, to generate a plurality of first groups; a storage section which is configured to store the electrocardiogram waveforms; a testing section which is configured to test a statistical intergroup difference of measurement values of the electrocardiogram waveforms of the first groups; a heartbeat condition determining section which is configured to determine that a heartbeat condition is unstable, when a significant statistical difference exists between the first groups; and a TWA measuring section which is configured to measure variation in heartbeat by using the stored electrocardiogram waveforms, when it is determined that the heartbeat condition is unstable.

The presently disclosed subject matter relates to a TWA measuring apparatus and TWA measuring method which can accurately measure the presence of TWA (T-wave alternans).
TWA appears at onset of illness such as QT prolongation syndrome, variant angina, acute myocardial ischemia, electrolyte abnormality, paroxysmal tachycardia, bradycardia, or pericardial fluid accumulation. TWA is a phenomenon in which the amplitude and polarity of the T wave appearing in an electrocardiogram are alternately changed, and an index effective to predict sudden cardiac death. TWA is not a phenomenon which can be always observed with the naked eye, and therefore its application in clinics is limited.
From the 1980s, consequently, techniques for enabling minute TWA (Microvolt TWA: MTWA) to be measured by a computer have been developed.
Examples of currently proposed techniques for measuring TWA are a measurement technique based on the MMA (Modified Moving Average) method of General Electric (GE) Company, and that based on the periodogram of Cambridge Heart (CH), Inc. which are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,668,189 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,935,082, respectively.
The measurement technique of GE Company is directed to a method of analyzing a time waveform in a time region, and is said to have resistance to noises. However, the technique does not have a long history as a measurement technique, and it is required to watch its clinical effect.
By contrast, the measurement technique of CH Inc. which is a technique in a frequency region has been used from the 1980s, and hence its effectiveness in clinics has been proved. Today, therefore, it is considered that the measurement technique based on the periodogram of CH Inc. is clinically more useful than that based on the MMA method of GE Company.
With respect to the measurement technique based on the periodogram of CH Inc., after its announcement, various techniques for performing new processes, such as a technique of measurement electrodes are added, and still now the added latest techniques have been used.
In the technique of measuring TWA, a value (alternans voltage) indicative of the magnitude of TWA, and a value (alternans rate) indicative of the reliability of the measurement of TWA are calculated, and, when the magnitude of the value indicative of the reliability of the measurement of TWA is equal to or larger than 3.0, it is determined that TWA exists.
The index in which the magnitude of the value indicative of the reliability of the measurement of TWA is equal to or larger than 3.0 was derived based on experimental results. In the case where noises are mixed in measured electrocardiogram waveforms, even when TWA exists, therefore, it is often that the magnitude of the value indicative of the reliability of the measurement of TWA is not equal to or larger than 3.0, and the determination is determined to be impossible.
As a result of a test for evaluating the existing technique of measuring TWA, it has been known that the rate of the determination which is determined to be impossible is from 10% to 40% (see is Microvolt T-wave Alternans the Answer to Risk Stratification in Heart Failure?: Circulation: 2007: 116: 2984-2991). With respect to a positive herd in which a group that is determined to be indeterminable is added to a group that is determined that TWA exists, and a negative herd configured by only a group that is determined that TWA does not exist, their prognoses (medical expectations for the disease process) were observed, and it has been found that the prognosis of the positive herd is worse than that of the negative herd (see Prognostic Value of T-wave Alternans in Patients With Heart Failure Due to Nonischemic Cardiomyopathy: J. Am. Coll. Cardiol: 2007: 50: 1896-1904).
Therefore, it is anticipated that a patient having a poor prognosis exists among patients who are determined to be indeterminable, and confusions occur in the interpretation of a determination result of indetermination.


A material estimation apparatus which estimates physical properties of an object including two materials contacting each other by performing a simulation for the object, comprising: a transition area setting part which sets a virtual transition area to a contact portion between the two materials; and a power calculation unit which calculates consumption power due to a contact resistance of the transition area based on potential difference of the transition area.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to a material estimation apparatus, a material estimation program and a method of estimating materials which estimates physical properties of objects while taking a contact resistance into consideration.
2. Related Background Art
A device simulation is inevitable for effective design of LSIs. It is necessary for the device simulation to incorporate various phenomenons in a semiconductor device as a part of an estimation system. There is a contact resistance as one of the phenomenons.
FIG. 1 shows a typical cross sectional view of an insulated gate transistor (hereinafter, called as a MISFET). There is a contact portion between a metal and a semiconductor in most of the semiconductor devices. In the case of FIG. 1, a surface between a source silicide and a source diffusion layer, and a surface between a drain silicide and a drain diffusion layer correspond to contact portions. The contact resistance occurs in these contact portions. The contact resistance causes current drop and heat generation.
In the conventional technique, the simplest method taking the contact resistance into consideration is to provide an external resistor connected to a terminal electrode as shown in FIG. 21. In this method, it is impossible to take into consideration influences of potential drop due to the contact resistance in the device and heat generation.
As a method of performing simulation by importing the influence of the contact resistance in the device, there is a method as shown in FIG. 22. That is, the value of the contact resistance ρc indicated by user or automatically calculated is converted into the electric resistivity ρs. That is, a grid interval Δx is provided between the metal and the semiconductor. The electric resistivity ρs obtained by dividing the value ρc of the contact resistance by the grid interval is set to the grid interval.
According to this method, even if the grid interval Δx changes, the amount of the current is hardly affected as shown in FIG. 23. The reason is because the electric resistivity ρs is set in accordance with the grid interval Δx so that the potential difference at the contact portion hardly changes, even if the grid interval Δx changes, as shown in FIG. 24. In FIG. 24, the voltage difference is Δφ1 in the case of the grid interval Δx=5 nm, and the voltage difference is Δφ2 in the case of the grid interval Δx=50 nm. As shown in FIG. 24, even if the grid interval changes, it turns out that the voltage difference is almost equal.
Thus, even in the conventional technique, without being affected on the grid interval, it is possible to perform the simulation which allows the value of the contact resistance to reflect to the amount of the current.
However, according to the method of FIG. 22, there is a problem in which the amount of the heat generation due to the contact resistance depends on the grid interval.
FIG. 25 shows grid temperature distribution in the substrate surface portion of a MISFET. Grid temperature in a contact portion between the silicide and the diffusion layer changes in accordance with the grid interval. The reason is because the value of electrical field is different from each of the grid intervals affected by the contact resistance.
More specifically, in FIG. 25, when the grid interval affected by the contact resistance is Δx, and the voltage difference is Δφ, Δφ does not largely change depending on Δx. However, consumption power in the contact portion between the silicide and the diffusion layer is calculated by the current density J and the electric field E, and the electric field E is given by (−Δφ/Δx). Because of this, even if Δφ is constant, if Δx is different, the consumption power is different from each other. As a result, the difference of the grid temperature distribution appears, as shown in FIG. 25.
Thus, conventionally, even if the simulation is performed while taking the contact resistance into consideration, the results of the simulation relating to the grid temperature differs in accordance with the grid interval, and the prediction result of tolerance such as breakdown due to heat generation of the contact resistance portion also changes in accordance with the grid interval.

Material estimation apparatus, material estimation program and method of estimating materials


The problem to be solved by the present invention is to provide an aqueous coating composition having an excellent finished appearance, such as smoothness and distinctness of image, as well as metallic feel and no metallic mottling when the composition comprises an effect pigment; excellent coating film performance, such as water resistance; and excellent storage stability. The present invention provides an aqueous coating composition comprising (A) acrylic resin particles, (B) a water-soluble acrylic resin, and (C) a phosphoric acid compound represented by a specific formula and having hydrocarbon (and optionally polyoxyalkylene); and also provides a method for forming a coating film, comprising applying the aqueous coating composition, as well as an article coated with the aqueous coating composition.

On vehicle bodies, particularly exterior panels thereof, multilayer coating films each comprising an undercoating film with excellent anticorrosion properties, an intermediate coating film with excellent smoothness and chipping resistance, and a top coating film with an excellent appearance, are generally formed, in order to impart high anticorrosion properties and an excellent appearance.
Of these coating films, the top coating film can be formed by various methods usually using a colored coating composition, a colored base coating composition, a clear coating composition, etc. Examples of such methods include a 1-coat 1-bake process comprising applying a colored coating composition, followed by baking and curing; a 2-coat 1-bake process comprising applying a colored base coating composition containing an effect pigment, a color pigment, or like pigment, applying a clear coating composition over the uncured colored base coating film, and then simultaneously baking and curing the colored base coating film and the clear coating film; a 3-coat 1-bake process comprising applying a colored base coating composition containing a color pigment, applying an effect base coating composition containing an effect pigment with iridescence or the like over the uncured colored base coating film, applying a clear coating composition over the effect base coating film, and then simultaneously baking and curing the colored base coating film, the effect base coating film, and the clear coating film; and the like.
Generally, the 1-coat 1-bake process is often used for forming a coating film of a so-called solid color, such as white or black; the 2-coat 1-bake process is often used for forming a coating film of a so-called metallic color comprising an effect pigment, such as aluminum pigment; and the 3-coat 1-bake process is often used for forming a coating film of a so-called pearl color that presents iridescence.
Conventionally, as the colored coating composition, the colored base coating composition, and the effect base coating composition, organic solvent-type coating compositions are often used; however, large amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are produced due to the vaporization of the organic solvent during baking of the coated coating film. The use of aqueous coating compositions has recently been promoted, in terms of dealing with environmental pollution.
Top coating compositions applied to the exterior panels of vehicles have been further required in recent years to be capable of forming coating films with a high-grade design.
However, coating films obtained from the above aqueous coating compositions generally have inferior smoothness, distinctness of image, etc., as compared with organic solvent-type coating compositions.
Moreover, aqueous coating compositions containing an effect pigment have problems such that metallic feel, such as flip-flop property, is inferior, and metallic mottling is more likely to occur, as compared with organic solvent-type coating compositions.
To address these problems, PTL 1 discloses an aqueous coating composition comprising an aqueous resin dispersion and an effect material, the aqueous resin dispersion being obtained by solution-polymerizing a monomer mixture A having an acid value of 30 to 150 and a hydroxy value of 10 to 100 in water to obtain an aqueous solution resin for emulsion polymerization, and then emulsion-polymerizing a monomer mixture B having an acid value of up to 20 and a hydroxy value of up to 100 using the aqueous solution resin for emulsion polymerization as a protective colloid, thereby synthesizing a core resin in the protective colloid. The aqueous coating composition can form a coating film having an excellent appearance, particularly an excellent flip-flop property. However, the production of the aqueous resin dispersion requires a number of processes, resulting in a high production cost. Further, the coating film formed from this aqueous coating composition has inferior smoothness, and may have metallic mottling.
PTL 2 discloses a method for forming a composite coating film, comprising applying an aqueous base coating composition to a substrate, and applying a clear top coating composition thereon, wherein the aqueous base coating composition contains a polyether polyol having 0.02 or more primary hydroxyl groups per molecule on the average, a number average molecular weight of 300 to 3000, and a water tolerance of 2.0 or more; and an emulsion resin obtained by emulsion-polymerizing an α, β-ethylenically unsaturated monomer mixture containing 65 wt. % or more of (meth)acrylic acid ester in which the ester portion has 1 or 2 carbon atoms, and having an acid value of 3 to 50. According to this method for forming a coating film, a coating film particularly having an excellent flip-flop property can be formed. However, the coating film formed by this method has inferior smoothness, and may have metallic mottling.
PTL 3 discloses an aqueous coating composition comprising (A) a hydroxy-containing resin, (B) a curing agent, (C) a specific diester compound, and a pigment. This aqueous coating composition can form a coating film having an excellent appearance, particularly having an excellent flip-flop property and less metallic mottling. However, the coating film formed from this aqueous coating composition has inferior smoothness, and may have inferior water resistance.
PTL 4 discloses an aqueous metallic coating composition comprising a coating film-forming resin containing a specific acrylic resin emulsion, a specific hydrophobic melamine resin aqueous dispersion as a curing agent, an effect pigment, and a reactive thickener. This aqueous metallic coating composition can form a coating film particularly having an excellent flip-flop property. However, the coating film formed from this aqueous metallic coating composition has inferior smoothness, and may have inferior water resistance.
The 2-coat 1-bake process, in which the clear coating composition is applied while the base coating film is uncured, has problems such that the formation of a mixed layer easily occurs in the interface between the base coating film and the clear coating film, and such that the reduction of distinctness of image and/or metallic mottling are likely to occur.
As a method for preventing the formation of a mixed layer between the base coating film and the clear coating film in the 2-coat 1-bake process described above, PTL 5 discloses using an aqueous base containing a specific tertiary amine, thus providing a multilayer coating film with excellent gloss and water-resistant adhesion. However, the coating film formed by this method for forming a coating film may have metallic mottling.


Restoring a database image of a secondary database system comprises initializing the database image from a recovery image that includes metadata logs and non-metadata logs, of which at least one metadata log includes an undo log of non-committed data that is applied to the initialized database image. A first pagelist and first indexes are then rebuilt based on first data segments of the database image and the corresponding metadata objects. The database image is then updated by replaying the metadata redo log generated from the undo log, the metadata logs, and the non-metadata logs. Then, a second pagelist and second indexes for the database system are rebuilt based on second data segments of the database image and the corresponding non-metadata objects, while each of the first data segments is statically separated from the second data segments in physical memory space. Related apparatus, systems, techniques and articles are also described.

A database system includes a database and a database management system (DBMS). A database is an organized collection of data. A DBMS comprises computer software that executes on one or more processors and interacts with users, other applications, and a database to capture and analyze data. A DBMS may allow for the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases.
Database systems rely on data replication and synchronization to maintain continuous system availability. Typically, in such a system, a complete copy of the database is stored at a first datacenter and the same complete copy of the database is stored at a second datacenter. The first and second datacenters may be in different locations or they may be in the same location. Since the data in the second datacenter needs to be the same as the data in the first datacenter, a synchronization mechanism is typically employed to handle synchronization of the data. If there is a failure associated with the first datacenter, the system can switch to using the database at the second datacenter without significant issues.
Since the second datacenter may be asked to perform all of the same tasks as the first datacenter, typically, the second datacenter has the same hardware and software requirements as the first datacenter. Sometimes more than two datacenters may be included within a database. In addition, many database systems function as in-memory computing platforms that perform complex analytics on the data stored or exchanged with its client applications. Synchronization and recovery of these database systems involve logging, i.e., communicating changes in data and metadata between the datacenters through log files.
In database systems, metadata is generally used to describe various forms of data that are handled by the database systems. Metadata typically refers to data that provides information about other data. In the case of database systems, metadata includes information about database objects used by its client applications or its internal calculation engine that performs complex analytics on the database objects. Metadata can be broadly characterized as structural metadata, descriptive metadata, and administrative data.
Thus, there is a need for systems and methods that simplify implementing solutions for database systems and their client applications that deal with efficient logging of various types of metadata and database objects.

Physio-logical logging for in-memory row-oriented database system


A method of forming an isolation layer of a semiconductor device includes forming first trenches in an isolation region of a semiconductor substrate. A spacer is formed on sidewalls of each of the first trenches. Second trenches are formed in the isolation region below the corresponding first trenches. Each second trench is narrower and deeper than the corresponding first trench. A first oxide layer is formed on sidewalls and a bottom surface of each of the second trenches. The first trench is filled with an insulating layer.

The present invention relates to semiconductor devices and, more particularly, to a method of forming an isolation layer of a semiconductor device employing a Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) process.
In the process of manufacturing semiconductor devices, an isolation layer is formed in order to electrically insulate semiconductor devices (such as transistors) formed over a substrate. Conventionally, the isolation layer was formed by a LOCOS process of a local oxidation method. As the level of integration of devices has increased, the isolation layer is currently formed by a STI process.
The STI process is performed such that an isolation region of a semiconductor substrate is etched to form trenches. The trenches are filled with an insulating material. The STI process for manufacturing semiconductor devices overcomes the occurrence of a bird's beak in the LOCOS process. However, as the level of integration of devices increases, the width of each trench decreases. This makes it difficult to fill the trenches with insulating material.

Method of forming isolation layer of semiconductor device


A wire tensioner maintains wire in a winding machine at a substantially constant tension during the process of winding coils for electrical components such as armatures. The tensioner has a pulley wheel that is driven by a bidirectional drive unit. During operation, the pulley wheel either feeds wire toward a workpiece or draws wire back, depending on the nature of the tension correction required.

This invention relates to wire tensioners, and particularly to tensioners used to regulate wire tension during the process of winding coils for electrical components such as electric motor armatures and stators.
The process of manufacturing armatures, stators, and similar electric motor parts involves several wire winding steps, including coiling wire around a workpiece and forming connections to lead terminations such as the commutator of an armature. A typical armature winder, for example, dispenses wire from a flyer that rotates around a stationary armature. During the winding process, it is important to keep the tension of wire leaving the flyer fairly high in order to create a sufficiently compact and orderly coil about the armature and to ensure the correct attachment of the wire to various types of commutator connections. However, wire tension can vary sharply during winding due to accelerations and decelerations of the flyer, particularly between process steps, when the flyer changes its direction of rotation and when winding at high speeds. This can result in a wire break unless a wire tensioner is used to maintain the wire at a constant tension.
Typically, wire tensioners regulate tension using either a spring and pulley arrangement or a source of variable drag to apply tension to the wire being wound. With the spring arrangement, when wire tension rises, excess tension is absorbed by stretching the spring. When tension drops, pressure from the spring or additional drag from the variable drag element maintains the wire sufficiently taut.
The performance of winding machines is enhanced by the incorporation of wire tensioners, as a more stable wire tension allows machines to be operated at higher speeds without risking wire breaks due to tension transients. Nevertheless, the degree of tension control supplied by previously known wire tensioners has generally not been sufficient for all winding applications. It would thus be desirable to be able to provide an improved wire tensioner that is capable of generating faster and stronger corrective tensions than previously possible so that winding machine performance may be increased.

Wire tensioner with program controlled bidirectional pulley wheel


Provided is an oil-based ink composition comprising at least a colorant, titanium oxide, a solvent including propylene glycol monomethyl ether and ethanol, a polyvinylbutyral resin and a ketone resin.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to an oil-based ink composition and a writing instrument using the same. More specifically, the present invention relates to an oil-based ink composition which is excellent in a coating film glossiness (or drawn line glossiness), a drawn line-fixing property, a drawn line-drying property and an aging stability of the ink and a writing instrument using the same.
2. Description of the Prior Art
An oil-based marking pen including a paint marker charged with an oil-based ink composition which can write on ink-non-absorbing faces such as a plastic face, a resin film face, a metal face and the like in addition to paper, and many kinds of the products have so far been known.
Known as an oil-based ink composition used for the above writing instrument is, for example, an oil-based ink composition for a white marking pen prepared by dissolving at least one resin selected from a ketone resin and an alkylphenol resin in at least one organic solvent selected from the group consisting of aliphatic lower alcohol having 1 to 3 carbon atoms and monoether of glycol having 2 or 3 carbon atoms and aliphatic lower alcohol having 1 to 3 carbon atoms and dispersing thereinto at least one additive selected from the group consisting of titanium oxide, fine powder silica and fine powder magnesium carbonate (refer to Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. Hei 6-313140 (Claims, Examples and the like) as a prior art).
Further, known are an ink for a writing instrument which is an ink used for free ink type valve writing instrument and comprises at least a volatile solvent, 5 to 30% by weight of a fixing agent and 8 to 20% by weight of a pigment and which has a viscosity of 30 to 2000 mPa·sec at 20° C. (refer to Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2002-161227 (Claims, Examples and the like) as a prior art) and an oil-based ink comprising at least a colorant, one or plural solvents selected from propylene glycol monomethyl ether, dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether and aliphatic alcohol having 4 or more carbon atoms, a resin having a hydrophilic group and a resin having a hydrophobic group which are soluble in the solvent described above and which are not compatible with each other (refer to Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. Hei 4-139273 (Claims, Examples and the like) as a prior art).
However, the oil-based ink compositions described in the three patent documents described above still have the problem that they are inferior in a coating film glossiness and a drawn line-fixing property on an ink-non-absorbing face such as a plastic face, a resin film face and the like. Further, the ink disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. Hei 6-313140 has the problem that the drawn lines are dent-shaped and are inferior in a drying property, and the inks disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2002-161227 and Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. Hei 4-139273 have the problem that titanium oxide having a masking property is not contained, so that vivid and clear drawn lines can not be obtained.

Oil-based ink composition and writing instrument using the same


A sensing device includes a pair of sensing electrodes disposed within a medium and a circuit connected to the sensing electrodes via impedance matching networks for producing an output signal which varies in response to a capacitive change in the medium. The circuit includes a first circuit portion including the sensing electrodes and a second circuit portion including the oscillator. The first and second circuit portions are tuned to match their impedance for more accurately measuring the capacitive changes.

The demand for water in irrigation systems in this country has been relentless. Increasing demand for water has forced us to replace grass and vegetation with concrete, brick and rock. Wet land farming is being substituted for dry land farming, and conservation of all kinds has been encouraged to help replenish water supplies and underground springs. Technology which is capable of conserving water is constantly being sought, but there has been very little improvement, even with the advent of sophisticated new electronics.
Soil moisture detection has been used for monitoring and evaluating construction sites, landscape sites, mining operations, forest areas, flood control areas, and farming districts. The ability to determine the moisture content of granular, or packed powder media is also important in the manufacturing of cement, plaster, gravel or brick. Moisture content measurements are additionally important to sampling grain water content, field water content, and storage water content. Direct probe measurements of produce, such as growing potatoes, can provide valuable information related to moisture content, temperature, and ionic conductance activity which relate to chemical changes during the growth cycle.
Moisture sensors are often used in conjunction with sprinkler controls to regulate the flow of water in proportion to the watering needs of grass and plants. For low dielectric media, such as soil, it has been recognized that the moisture content affects the overall dielectric content of the media to a detectable degree. It is widely known that water has a relatively high dielectric constant of about 80, while dry soil typically has a much lower dielectric constant of approximately 5 or 6. The water content of soil is therefore one of the major contributors to the overall dielectric constant of the soil.
There have been many moisture sensors which have been developed for reacting to the dielectric properties of a soil sample. One popular technology employs capacitance test probes such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,445,178, 4,929,885 and 4,545,396, which are hereby incorporated by reference. No capacitive devices were found that are not strongly susceptible to effects of conductance. These devices use conductive surfaces of a probe which are imbedded in the soil. The soil is used as a dielectric, which forms a capacitor with the conductive surfaces. The capacitance provided by one of these emersed probe surfaces is used as part of an LC oscillator circuit having an oscillation frequency which varies when the dielectric property of the soil sample changes due to moisture conditions. While such devices have had limited success in measuring water content, some have had difficulty in accurately deciphering moisture contents in soils having varying degrees of salinity i.e., Salinity affects conductivity.
Early water sensing devices were not very accurate since they rarely measured the soil's capacitance without significant errors caused by temperature dependencies, or high conductivity. Saline-tainted soil and other, more unique soil types, have a definite significant effect on the measurement. The simplified electrical analogy of the medium is that of impedance, a parallel resistor and capacitor combination. Moisture sensing circuitry is therefor based on the measurement of the conductance of the resistive component and/or the reactance of the capacitive. The varying conductivity properties of the medium tends to adversely interfere with the ability of LC and RC oscillator, or frequency oriented measurement systems to accurately indicate the moisture content of the medium. Both components, created by the impedance of the medium tend to affect the oscillation frequency of some circuits, rendering it almost impossible to separate the effects of the medium's conductivity properties from those related to the medium's dielectric properties. Errors due to conductivity are further complicated by its inherent temperature dependence.
If the medium to be monitored is agricultural soil, it may contain various non-soil components, such as fertilizer, buffers, salts and the like. The complex electrical analogy of a soil/water medium results in an inaccurate indication of the moisture concentration if the circuitry is designed to produce a water content measurement based on a corresponding change in the dielectric of the medium as a function of a change in water content in the medium. Very simply, the ability of the circuitry to measure water content by the change in dielectric method, must provide evidence that the circuit is designed to isolate, remove, or be insensitive to conductivity.
Accordingly, a significant need exists for an inexpensive, water monitoring system which is capable of being sensitive to soil water content, electrical conductance and temperature even if the soil contains materials which greatly affect dielectric properties.

Moisture sensor having low sensitivity to conductance changes


To align an aperture (16) in a nut (12) with a hole (18) in a threaded stud (14), the nut (12) is rotated on the stud (14) to move the aperture (16) over the hole (18). Light is projected into the aperture (16) as the aperture (16) approaches the hole (18). The light is sensed when it projects from the aperture (16) through the hole (18) upon movement of the aperture (16) into alignment with the hole (18). Rotation of the nut (12) is stopped in response to sensing of the light.

A ball joint in a vehicle steering linkage may include a castellated nut and a threaded stud with a diametrically extending hole. The nut is screwed onto the stud to a position in which a pair of opposed castellation notches in the nut are aligned with the hole in the stud. A fastener, such as cotter pin, is inserted through the hole and the aligned notches to fasten the nut to the stud.
When a nut is fastened to the stud of a ball joint in the foregoing manner, it connects components of the vehicle steering linkage. Accordingly, the installer must tighten the nut against the linkage component at a specified level of torque and advance the nut to align a pair of castellation notches with the hole in the stud. This can be a difficult and time-consuming procedure.

Method and apparatus for screwing a nut onto a stud


A method is disclosed for tuning each channel of a high-speed SerDes cable link interface arranged in a configuration linking a local side physical layer to a remote side physical layer. The method includes initiating an operational state of high-speed SerDes cable link interface, identifying flow-control packet Op codes not cited for use by operational high-speed SerDes cable link interface, transmitting a flow control signal from the local side physical layer to the remote side physical layer to control the remote side physical layer to monitor the bit error rate (BER) of the channels used by the local side physical layer to transfer data to the remote side physical layer, monitoring the BER in the channels used for data transfer, transferring BER data acquired in the monitoring to the local side physical layer and processing the BER data by the local side physical layer to generate equalization setting adjustments.

The present invention relates to monitoring bit error rate (BER), and more particularly relates to monitoring high-speed serializer-deserializer (SerDes) link channels and based on the monitoring, adjusting adaptive equalization settings, if possible, to improve channel or link processing.
System architectures such as Infiniband and PCI Express utilize high-speed serializer-deserializer (SerDes) links to transmit data packets across serial links. These architectures are migrating to SerDes links that support link speeds at single data rate (SDR), double data rates (DDR) and quad data rates (QDR). In doing so, each architecture defines and provides for link-training methods that enable a high-speed SerDes link to support transmitting data at the higher data rates. One such architecture, Infiniband, provides for link operation at such higher data rates.
The Infiniband specification, Vol. 2, Rel. 1.2, supports adaptive equalization to compensate for signal distortion at the higher data rates. The Infiniband specification, section 5.6.4, Link Training State Machine, defines a procedure to enable adaptive equalization in the Infiniband system. The Link Training State Machine specification defines a 2 ms period to negotiate each side of a link's capabilities to support the SDR, DDR and QDR speeds. Once the negotiation process is completed, the Infiniband specification defines a 100 ms period to allow the default, or any of the 16 other possible (possibly available) adaptive equalization settings to be implemented across the entire link width, i.e., all of the link channels.
This solution is limited, however, in that one setting is selected for the entire link width (i.e., all of the channels). Link widths can be 1, 4, 8 and 12 channels wide using the Infiniband architecture, and up to 16 channels wide for the PCI express link architecture. In an ideal SerDes link system, every channel would be uniform and the above-mentioned method would be fine. In reality, however, this is hardly the case. That is, each medium or channel comprising the link has it own set of impedance characteristics and tolerances. The Link Training State Machine method (Infiniband) does not take into the account the varying characteristics between each channel. By limiting each channel to one set of adaptive equalization settings, some of the channels are not optimized at DDR/QDR speeds. For example, at DDR/QDR speeds, real-time operation may find that only 8 channels out of the 12 available channels in an Infiniband design are operating effectively, which would result in a significant performance degradation.
What would be desirable, therefore, is a new structure and process that allows for each channel within a high-speed Infiniband or PCI Express architecture to be independently monitored for BER, and allows the channel's adaptive equalization setting to be modified where necessary to adjust the BER in the channel in accordance with the monitored BER.

Method for monitoring BER in an infiniband environment

International Business Machines Corporation


A system manages a progressive jackpot associated with designated gaming machines. The progressive jackpot is funded from a source of funds, and at a funding rate, independent of the paytables of the associated gaming machines. The system determines whether a player playing the associated gaming machine is eligible for the progressive jackpot using player eligibility rules, and further selects a winning player from among the eligible players (or from the associated gaming machines). The system uses funding rate rules to control the rate at which the progressive jackpot is incremented.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates generally to progressive promotional systems for casino gaming machines, and more particularly to progressive promotional systems that are funded independently of the underlying gaming machines to which they are coupled, and operate and increment independently of the outcomes on such gaming machines.
2. Description of Background Art
Progressive jackpot systems are widely recognized as adding an exciting second chance to win feature for gaming machines. In a progressive jackpot system, a number of casino gaming machines are linked together over a network. The jackpot is "progressive" because each such linked game contributes a portion of the money bet by the player to the progressive jackpot. Thus over time, with many machines on a progressive system, the jackpot can grow to millions, even tens of millions of dollars. Generally, each individual linked game determines whether the player wins the progressive jackpot. Further, in order to win the progressive jackpot, the player at the linked machine must win the jackpot on the gaming machine itself, and must have bet the maximum amount that the gaming machine allows. it is incrementally funded with a small percentage of each player's bet (coin in) on each play. Progressive jackpot systems can be either local, such as operating only in a single casino, or wide area, such as operating across multiple casinos. Because wide area progressive systems include more gaming machines, they will tend to have larger jackpots and thereby draw more players, and thereby support larger jackpots similar to lotteries sweepstakes.
As mentioned, conventional progressive jackpot systems fund the jackpot amount from a small percentage of each player's bet. Another way of saying this is that the amount that increments the progressive jackpot is calculated into the pay table of the gaming machine. The pay table defines amount paid out for each type of win, represented to the player as a winning combination of symbols on a slot machine. For example, if the hold percentage on a progressive machine is 9%, some amount of this, say 6%, is the base hold rate used to fund the pay table, and the remaining 3% is the progressive hold rate that is directed to the progressive jackpot. Thus, for each dollar bet, 3 cents goes into the progressive jackpot. If 10 players are playing the gaming machines, and averaging ten, $1 bets per minute, then the progressive jackpot is being funded at a rate of $3 per minute. Again, this increment process is dependent on the portion of the hold that is directed into the progressive jackpot, as multiplied by the number of players, and the amount bet per minute.
This way of funding the progressive jackpot impacts the overall payout by the gaming machine. Between two otherwise identical machines with a base hold rate of 6%, the non-progressive machine returns on average 94% to the player, but the progressive machine with 3% going into the progressive pot returns only 91%. The retained 3% is directly taken from the casino's revenue, and the casino has no control over these funds. Further, in the case of a wide area progressive, the operator has no control in determining in which casino the jackpot will be awarded.
In order to obtain the progressive jackpot, a player must make the maximum bet only certain gaming machines. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide a progressive jackpot system that did not fund the progressive jackpot directly from the paytable for the specific gaming machine, but funded it independently thereof. It would be further desirable to have a progressive jackpot available on any gaming machine as determined by the casino operator.
Because progressive jackpots can offer a life-changing outcome, they remain very attractive to many players, who continue to desire their availability. However, progressive systems are not entirely beneficial to the casinos that operate them. This is because the wide area progressive jackpot systems are not generally owned by the casino. Rather they are owned by the gaming machine manufacturers themselves, who profit directly from the players' contribution to the progressive jackpot. Nevertheless, the casino must still pay for at least some of the maintenance, service, and operation of the progressive machines. On the one hand, players demand that casino operators provide progressive jackpot machines. On the other hand, most of the profit from a progressive jackpot system goes to the game machine manufacturer not the casino. For this reason many casino operators feel forced to provide progressive systems, even though they do not significantly profit from them. Further, because of player demand, these machines are typically placed in the more valuable locations on the casino floor, further depriving the casino operator of maximizing its revenue using other types of games.
The casino operators' dilemma results from the particular technological design of conventional progressive systems. Because a game manufacturer owns the progressive system, it typically restricts which gaming machines can be linked to the progressive system. In addition, a game manufacturer can prevent a casino operator from using the game manufacturer's most popular games in other company's progressive systems. These restrictions prevent the casino operator from deciding for itself which game machines are to be coupled with a progressive system. To achieve this control, most game manufacturers use proprietary hardware and software to operate their progressive systems and their games. By using a proprietary approach, the game manufacturer can retain complete control over the progressive system, and can require use of its own gaming machines in its progressive system. This constrains the casino operator to use specific gaming machines from a particular manufacturer if it wants to have a particular progressive jackpot system. Accordingly, it would be desirable for a casino operator to be able to couple any gaming machines of its choosing to a progressive system, to reward play at such gaming machines.

Progressive promotional marketing system


An image forming apparatus includes: an image forming unit; and a controller. The image forming unit includes: an image bearing member; a charging member; a transfer member; and a cleaning member. The controller selectively applies first and second transfer biases to the transfer member. A first transfer current flows between the image bearing member and the transfer member upon application of the first transfer bias. A second transfer current flows therebetween upon application of the second transfer bias. The controller selectively applies first and second charging biases to the charging member. The image bearing member has a first surface potential upon application of the first charging bias, and a second surface potential upon application of the second charging bias. The controller applies the first charging bias when applying the first transfer bias, and applies the second charging bias when applying the second transfer bias.

There is known, as the image forming apparatus using an electrophotographic method, a printer provided with a photosensitive member carrying a developer image thereon and a transfer member for transferring the developer image formed on the photosensitive member onto a sheet.
For example, there is proposed a printer provided with a photosensitive member carrying a toner image thereon and a transfer roller for transferring the toner image formed on a surface of the photosensitive member to a recording sheet.
In this printer, transfer bias is made to increase in accordance with an increase in a resistance value of the transfer roller due to an increase in the number of recorded sheets. This configuration can maintain an electric field between the photosensitive member and the transfer roller, thereby preventing degradation in transfer efficiency.

Image forming apparatus provided with cleaning member capable of reliably cleaning image bearing member


A method for determining stress-dependent permeability includes providing a core sample in a pressurized core container of a testing apparatus and generating a steady-state flow of gas from an upstream reservoir in the testing apparatus along an axial direction through the pressurized core container into a downstream reservoir in the testing apparatus. During the steady-state flow, an inlet pressure at an inlet to the core sample, an outlet pressure at an outlet of the core sample, and a midpoint pressure at a midpoint of the core sample are measured. The stress-dependent permeability is calculated from a flow rate of the gas through the core sample and the measurements of the inlet pressure, the outlet pressure, and the midpoint pressure.

During hydrocarbon production, the pore pressure within an unconventional reservoir will decrease with time and thus the effective stress will also change accordingly as a function of time and location. Previous studies have indicated that permeability in an unconventional reservoir is sensitive to stress changes. The evolution of reservoir permeability owing to the stress change is used for predicting the hydrocarbon production from an unconventional reservoir and for managing the reservoir.
The dependency of permeability on stress is generally investigated in the laboratory. The current laboratory techniques for unconventional rock permeability measurement follow a "point-by-point" approach, which includes measuring one permeability data point for one test run, and multiple test runs to obtain a permeability-pressure curve. Thus, such approach is time consuming when trying to determine a permeability-pressure curve. The "point-by-point" approach uses laboratory techniques that are based on linearized gas flow theory requiring only small pore pressure disturbances to the experiment system.
Another methodology for investigating permeability is based on nonlinear gas flow theory for transient flow and allows for direct measurement of a permeability-pressure curve with a single test run involving transient flow through the core sample. However, this methodology has relatively strict requirements for the hardware of the system to produce accurate results. For example, it requires a close-to-zero dead volume for pressure transducers connected to a sample between the inlet and outlet of the sample and for the related connections. The dead volume is the space volume within the transducers and the related connections. A large dead volume will unfavorably disturb the transient flow process in the sample being tested.

Method and apparatus for measuring stress dependency of shale permeability with steady-state flow


A hybrid powerplant can include a fuel cell cycle system configured to generate a first power using a fuel and an oxidizer. The powerplant can also include a supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO2) cycle system operatively connected to the fuel cell cycle to receive heat from the fuel cell cycle to cause the sCO2 cycle system to generate a second power.

Changes to conventional jet engine cycles have been incremental, e.g., with geared turbofan thermal efficiency of about 52%. Eco-friendly flight is becoming increasingly important as governments increase regulations on emissions (e.g., NOx, CO2, sulphur oxides, etc.) near cities. In addition, regulations on total emitted CO2 throughout a mission are becoming more important. Power generation cycles that have less emissions, that have more efficient power generation, and that can decrease mission fuel burn would be both financially attractive and would provide a path to meeting emissions standards.
Such conventional methods and systems have generally been considered satisfactory for their intended purpose. However, there is still a need in the art for improved power generation systems. The present disclosure provides a solution for this need.


An apparatus, program product and method utilize a nonvolatile solid state memory organized so as to store variable amounts of configuration data for a logically-partitioned computer in an efficient, compact and cost-effective manner. A nonvolatile solid state memory is partitioned into fixed size blocks that are linked together into chains for the purpose of storing variable amounts of configuration data for a plurality of logical entities, e.g., logical partitions, hardware devices, networks, and other resources. A chain of fixed size blocks is used to maintain configuration data for a given type of logical entity, with each block in a chain storing configuration data for a particular logical entity of the associated entity type. The fixed size blocks include full blocks and shared blocks, with full blocks storing data for a single logical entity, and shared blocks storing data for multiple logical entities of a common entity type.

Given the continually increased reliance on computers in contemporary society, computer technology has had to advance on many fronts to keep up with increased demand. One particular subject of significant research and development efforts is parallelism, i.e., the performance of multiple tasks in parallel.
A number of computer software and hardware technologies have been developed to facilitate increased parallel processing. From a software standpoint, multithreaded operating systems and kernels have been developed, which permit computer programs to concurrently execute in multiple "threads" so that multiple tasks can essentially be performed at the same time. Threads generally represent independent paths of execution for a program. For example, for an e-commerce computer application, different threads might be assigned to different customers so that each customer's specific e-commerce transaction is handled in a separate thread.
From a hardware standpoint, computers increasingly rely on multiple microprocessors to provide increased workload capacity. Furthermore, some microprocessors have been developed that support the ability to execute multiple threads in parallel, effectively providing many of the same performance gains attainable through the use of multiple microprocessors.
One logical extension of parallel processing is the concept of logical partitioning, where a single physical computer is permitted to operate essentially like multiple and independent "virtual" computers (referred to as logical partitions), with the various resources in the physical computer (e.g., processors, memory, input/output devices) allocated among the various logical partitions. Each logical partition executes a separate operating system, and from the perspective of users and of the software applications executing on the logical partition, operates as a fully independent computer.
With logical partitioning, a shared program, often referred to as a "hypervisor" or partition manager, manages the logical partitions and facilitates the allocation of resources to different logical partitions. For example, a partition manager may allocate resources such as processors, workstation adapters, storage devices, memory space, network adapters, etc. to various partitions to support the relatively independent operation of each logical partition in much the same manner as a separate physical computer.
In connection with managing logical partitions, configuration data typically must be maintained for each logical partition, as well as for any resources that are allocated to each logical partition. This configuration data is often required both during runtime, and during initialization of the computer upon startup. As a result, the configuration data typically must be persistently maintained in some form of persistent storage so that the information is protected from data loss in the event of a system failure.
Conventionally, configuration data for a logically-partitioned computer has been maintained in mass storage, e.g., on a disk drive or other magnetic media coupled to the computer. Mass storage typically has the benefit of relatively low cost per byte, which from the perspective of configuration data storage, effectively places no limitations on the amount of configuration data that may be maintained in mass storage. As a result, the amount of storage space occupied by the configuration data for a logically-partitioned computer has not been a significant concern for system designers.
In some circumstances, however, it may be desirable to store configuration data in another form of persistent memory. For example, a nonvolatile solid state memory such as flash memory has been found to be at least an order of magnitude faster than mass storage. Were such a memory used to store configuration data, it is believed that substantial performance gains could be realized over the use of mass storage in terms of storing and retrieving configuration data. Furthermore, access to flash memory may be handled at a much lower level in a computer than a mass storage device, as the latter of which typically requires the use of relatively higher levels of software to manage the transfer of data to and from the device. Particularly when configuration data is required at the earliest stages of the startup of a computer, accessing mass storage to retrieve such data may be significantly more complex and time consuming.
Despite the significant performance advantages of flash memory and other forms of nonvolatile solid state memories, to date the comparatively higher costs of such memory have made such memory cost prohibitive for many applications. The costs of such memory continues to fall, however, and as a result, nonvolatile solid state memories have become more economically feasible for some applications, including for storing configuration data. Given the economic constraints placed on system designers, however, a significant need has arisen for optimizing the manner in which configuration data is stored in a nonvolatile solid state memory so that the amount of nonvolatile solid state memory used in a particular system design can be minimized. Moreover, for configuration data utilized in connection with logical partitioning, the amount of configuration data required for a logical partition can vary based upon partition type, as well as based upon the addition or removal of resources to and from the logical partition. As a result, it can be difficult to predict how much configuration data will be required for a given customer installation.

Storage and access of configuration data in nonvolatile memory of a logically-partitioned computer


In the transition into the logarithmic range, not the entire bit width of the result linearly dependent upon the square of the value must be considered. Rather, it is possible to scale the result of a value with x bits such that a representation with less than x bits of the result is sufficient to receive the logarithmic representation based thereon. The effect of the scaling factor on the resulting logarithmic representation may be compensated for by adding or subtracting a correction value received by the logarithm function applied to the scaling factor to or from the scaled logarithmic representation without any loss of dynamics. This way, a method and an apparatus for creating a representation of a result linearly dependent upon a square of a value are provided so that the calculation is simple and/or possible with little hardware expenditure.

In modern, filterbank-based audio encoding methods, such as MPEG Layer-3 or MPEG AAC, a psychoacoustic model is used in the encoder. In this psychoacoustic model, the total spectrum of the audio signal transformed into the frequency range is divided into individual frequency groups of varying widths and/or varying numbers of frequency lines per frequency group. For the calculation of the psychoacoustic listening thresholds, for the decision if center/side stereo encoding should be used, and for the evaluation and/or calculation of the scale factors in the quantization module of the audio encoder, the signal energies of the audio signal portions in the individual frequency groups are calculated in the psychoacoustic model. This is effected by squaring each individual frequency line, resulting in the line energies, and subsequent summation of all line energies in a frequency group to form the band energy of a frequency group, of which there may be about 40 to 60 per audio channel in the case of for example MPEG AAC.
In the following, the special application of an implementation of such a method in a fixed-point processor shall be considered.
In fixed-point representation, the frequency lines are represented with a word width of for example 24 bits or 32 bits. A word width of only 16 bits is not sufficient. A global scaling factor or a shifting factor is used, which applies to all frequency lines of an audio channel and also to all frequency lines of all audio channels processed in an encoder, and which determines by how many positions each frequency line value must be shifted to the left or the right so that the original scaling may again be obtained, which is referred to as block-floating-point representation. This is to say that all frequency lines of at least one audio channel are equally gated out and/or are on the same scaling level. In consideration of the generally high dynamics of the individual amplitudes of the frequency lines, this has some of the frequency lines represented with relatively high accuracy, such as for example 22 valid bits with a word width of 24 bits or 30 valid bits with a word width of 32 bits, whereas others are represented with only few valid bits and therefore rather inaccurately.
In the implementation of the above-mentioned filterbank-based audio encoding method in a fixed-point processor, problems as described below will arise.
Firstly, the problems concern the representation of the signal energies themselves. By means of the squaring, the signal energies, that is the summed up squares of the frequency lines, have obtained dynamics double those of the frequency lines if the total accuracy is to be maintained.
There are indeed various possibilities to represent the signal energies. One possibility is the representation of the signal energies by a data type having a word width double that of the data type used for the representation of the frequency lines, that is for example a data type with a width of 48 bits or 64 bits. Imagine, for example, a frequency line with 22 valid bits represented by a 24-bit data type. Based on the summation, the signal energy would, together with the other frequency lines, have at least 44 valid bits and would be represented in a 48-bit data type. This procedure, however, is not feasible at least for 64-bit energies, that is in cases, in which the frequency lines are represented in a 32-bit data type, as most conventional fixed-point processors either do not support a 64-bit data type at all or else memory access operations and calculations using a 64-bit data type are extremely slow compared to, for example, 32-bit access operations and calculations. In addition, memory consumption is significantly higher in the case of 64-bit data.
Another possibility of the representation of the signal energies is the representation by a floating-point data type by means of mantissa and exponent. Again assume the above-mentioned exemplary case that a frequency line with 22 valid bits it represented in a 24-bit data type. The signal energy of the respective group would then be represented in a standardized or proprietary floating-point data type with 16-bit mantissa including sign bit and 8-bit exponent. Here, it is immaterial if a standardized floating-point data type, such as IEEE-P754, or a proprietary floating-point data type with arbitrarily chosen mantissa and exponent widths, is concerned. On a fixed-point processor without a floating-point calculating unit, calculations with floating-point data types will have to be emulated by several calculation steps and will therefore be extremely slow, so that this procedure is not feasible.
A further problematic field in the implementation of the above-mentioned filterbank-based audio encoding method in a fixed-point processor is the reprocessing of the signal energies in the course of the encoding method. The signal energies and the listening thresholds derived therefrom are used in the further routine of the audio encoder at numerous different places in the algorithm, for example in order to calculate ratios or quotients, for example between signal energy and listening threshold. The necessitated division is not easy to perform on a fixed-point processor.
One possibility of performing a division on a fixed-point processor is the use of single-bit division commands, which are implemented in some fixed-point processors and supply an additional bit of accuracy in the quotient per call. For a division with an accuracy of for example 48 bits, 48 individual division commands for one single division of two signal energies or a signal energy and a listening threshold would therefore be necessitated. This is not feasible and very inefficient because of the high calculating time expenditure involved.
Another possibility of implementing a division in a fixed-point processor is the use of tables, possibly in connection with subsequent iteration steps for increasing the accuracy of the division results. This procedure, however, is often not feasible as for the necessitated accuracy of the division result, either a very large table must be used or subsequent iteration steps will in turn have a high demand for calculating time.
Both methods mentioned may be used in a fixed-point processor in connection with fixed-point data types or floating-point data types emulated per software, which, however, in none of the cases provides for a sufficiently efficient application with respect to calculating time and memory consumption with simultaneous result accuracy.
The above-mentioned problems would not occur if a GPP (General Purpose Processor) were used. For many applications, however, the use of processors having a higher performance than fixed-point processors without a floating-point calculating unit is automatically out of the question because of the high pricing pressure and the high number of pieces. Examples of such applications are mobile phones and PDAs.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,754,618 B1 responds to the problem of the SMR calculation, that is the calculation of the ratio between signal energy and listening threshold, and does so against a backdrop of the use of fixed-point DSP chips. In accordance with the procedure proposed therein, first the usual windowing and subsequent Fourier transformation for the decomposition of an audio signal into its spectral constituents is performed, following which the energy of each input signal and/or frequency line signal, that is, the line energy, is calculated from the real and imaginary portions of the respective frequency line value. Without going further into the creation of signal energies of the groups of frequency lines, the method could also be continued based on the signal energies of these groups. The content of this document is the attempt to remove the problem that the input data, that is the energies, mostly have dynamic range that is too large, as most fixed-point DSP chips comprise a data width of only 16 to 24 bits, whereas the MPEG standard would necessitate a data width of 34 bits, that is a dynamic range of 101 dB. Therefore, the energies would first have to be scaled. In particular, a proposition is made to digress from the former procedure and use two different scaling values. More precisely, in accordance with this document, the energy is compared to a threshold and scaled upward or downward, respectively, in order to be able to represent the logarithm result with sufficient 16 bits at a transition into a logarithmic range, and in order to be able to calculate the SMR ratio in the logarithmic range with 16 bits. Depending on whether an upward or a downward scaling is performed, a different table for the thresholds is used. For taking the logarithm, a common logarithm times 10 is used, so that the unit dB will be obtained. If the result of taking the logarithm of the upwardly scaled line energies is zero, the SMR ratio will be calculated by taking the logarithm of the upwardly scaled line energy minus the logarithm of the threshold energy times 10. Otherwise, the results of the upwardly scaled line energy and of the downwardly scaled line energy are combined with each other.
The procedure proposed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,754,618 B1 avoids some of the above-mentioned problems with respect to the reprocessing of the signal energies by proposing to calculate the SMR ratio in the logarithmic range. This removes the complex division calculation. This procedure, however, is disadvantageous in that the logarithm calculation is still relatively complex as the value range for a 16-bit fixed-point representation as suitable for 16-bit DSP fixed-point processors, is laid out only after the logarithm calculation, while the taking of the logarithm as such is still performed on the energies present with high dynamics, which results in the necessity of as much as two takings of the logarithm per energy value.
It is therefore desirable to simplify the transition into the logarithmic range also, without there occurring a loss in dynamics.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,608,663 deals with the fast execution of parallel multiplications of floating-point numbers by means of conversion into a logarithmic fixed-point format, addition in the logarithmic range and subsequent back conversion.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,197,024 generally deals with an exponential/logarithm calculation and a respective apparatus.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,732,071 deals with an efficient solution for a rate control in audio encoding, and for the determination of the quantization parameter value uses a loop iteration with a completion condition, according to which the quantization parameter value is compared to a term derived from a logarithm dualis of a term depending on a maximum frequency line value.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,351,730 describes the use of a logarithm dualis for a gain calculation within audio encoding. The gain values are used for the bit allocation in an MDCT-encoded audio codec.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,764,698 describes the use of a natural logarithm for the representation of audio signal energies. A more detailed description of the transition into the logarithmic range is not given.

Method for creating a representation of a calculation result linearly dependent upon a square of a value

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