A vest of the type having an inflatable bladder providing selectable degrees of buoyancy, such as for snorkeling. The vest comprises an elastic upper body garment for encircling the chest and back of the user and an airtight inflatable bladder, secured at discrete locations to the chest-covering region of the garment by at least a pair of elastic straps for limited movement relative to the garment. The bladder is substantially flat against the garment when deflated and is free to move relative to the garment while being inflated. Attachment of the bladder to the underlying garment is provided by means of a plurality of elastic straps which permits the relative movement of the bladder and the underlying vest-shaped garment. As a result, inflation of the bladder has little or no effect upon the fit of the underlying garment on the user. Attachment of the bladder and the underlying vest-shaped garment is also provided by an area of Velcro fasteners on the mating surfaces of the bladder and underlying garment. In the preferred embodiment of the invention a Velcro surface is on the back of an integral mesh pocket, formed at the lower-most portion of the frontal region of the bladder. An optional crotch member is provided to limit the movement of the vest on the user, particularly when the bladder thereof is inflated and the user is in the water.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates generally to the field of floatation devices or buoyancy compensators, and more specifically, to a snorkeling vest of improved comfort and utility which may be advantageously used by swimmers for selectively adjusting their buoyancy, particularly while snorkeling.
2. Prior Art
The sport of snorkeling is becoming ever more popular as more and more people realize the beauty of submerged animal and plant life one may observe with the aid of a face mask and a snorkeling tube. While snorkeling may be accomplished with or without the benefit of buoyancy compensating devices, it is usually less tiring and thus more enjoyable to carry out snorkeling with the aid of a buoyancy compensating device. An inflatable vest provides selectable buoyancy and relieves the swimmer of the need to concentrate on staying afloat, so that his or her snorkel tube extends above the surface of the water. Buoyancy compensating devices are well known in the swimming and diving art, as well as for use as safety devices, such as life jackets. Unfortunately, buoyancy compensating devices used for scuba diving and as safety devices, such as in life jackets, tend to be overly complex or quite bulky and thus not entirely suited to be worn for snorkeling which requires a significant amount of freedom of movement, particularly of the arms and chest. Furthermore, bulky buoyancy compensating devices, because of their weight and interference with the freedom of movement, typically are removed by the snorkeler when he or she exits the water even temporarily, because of the inherent incumberence of such bulky and heavy compensating devices. Even those buoyancy compensation devices which are more preferably configured for snorkeling activity, tend to be bulky and thus relatively uncomfortable in use because of the effect that an inflated bladder has on the fit of the buoyancy device on the user. The most relevant prior U.S. patents known to the applicant and that are relevant to the invention described herein include the following:
U.S. Pat. No. 4,097,947 to Kiefer discloses an inflatable, wearable flotation device which utilizes both front and back chambers containing a buoyant material, such as PVC foam, as well as a deflatable bladder located in two front panels. When the bladder is inflated, restraining devices are automatically opened by the force exerted by the expanding bladder. These restraining devices normally hold certain pleats in a closed configuration so that the pleats are held out of the way of the wearer during normal use. The restraining devices can be snaps or Velcro. The bladder can be inflated by oral inflation or by a CO.sub.2 cartridge. In one embodiment of the invention disclosed therein, the bladder can be located outside the front chambers of the vest and held directly to the vest by restraining devices. However, there does not appear to be an actual physical separation of the bladder from the vest, except to the extent needed to inflate the bladder.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,498,882 to Everett relates to a hybrid personal flotation device having a mass of buoyant material, as well as an inflatable buoyancy chamber having an interior zone and a peripheral zone. A portion of the interior zone is cooperatively connected to the chest portion. The peripheral zone is unattached to the chest portion, whereby the peripheral zone may be folded and when the buoyancy chamber is folded, the buoyancy chamber covers a smaller area than when it is unfolded. A covering panel has outer edges releasably connected to the chest portion, whereby when the buoyancy chamber is uninflated, the outer edge of the covering panel is secured to the chest portion and the buoyancy chamber is folded and hidden from view by the covering panel. When the buoyancy chamber is inflated, the outer edges of the covering panel are released and the buoyancy chamber expands, unfolds and is visible.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,523,914 to Faulconer et al discloses a conformable buoyancy compensator having an outer textile material which encloses a bladder. The bladder provides a series of gussets in the front and back which divide the bladder into a pair of channels or airbags. The channels and gussets hold the back and front portions of the buoyancy compensator into snug relationship on the user's chest to prevent unwarranted expansion and extension of the buoyancy compensator.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,623,316 to Ratliff discloses a floatation vest which may be integrated with a scuba tank and backpack and which uses a parachute-style harness configured to assure that a user will float on the water surface in a stable head-up and out-of-the-water position.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,913,589 to Faulconer et al discloses a buoyancy compensator and backpack for divers which is relevant to the present invention because it provides an independent suspension described as a neoprene spider incorporating two respective shoulder resting areas and two respective belt or waiststrap areas.
Unfortunately, all of the aforementioned prior art, as well as all other prior art known to the applicant relevant to buoyancy compensating devices, comprises a structure which is too complex and a configuration which is too cumbersome to best serve the needs of a snorkeler for buoyancy control, while at the same time, providing a comfortable garment configuration that can be worn advantageously both in and out of the water.


An exemplary hinge assembly (300) for use in a flat display monitor includes a support member (10), a rotational base (20) and a pivot mechanism (30) for rotatably connecting the rotational base to the support member. The rotational base includes a fixing board (22) and a side board (24) disposed at an end of the fixing board, the side board defining an engaging hole (242) and forming an inwardly bent portion (240) at a distal end edge thereof. The support member includes an extending seat (16) defining a round pivoting hole (1601), and a retaining portion (161) extending from an exterior side of the extending seat. The retaining portion of the side board is configured for blocking the inwardly bent portion of the side board so that a range of rotation of the rotational base relative to the support member is between a first utmost position and a second utmost position.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention generally relates to hinge assemblies and, particularly, to a hinge assembly typically used for a flat display monitor.
2. Discussion of the Related Art
With the widespread use of a variety of computers, display devices configured for use with such computers come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and weights. In general, a typical cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitor includes a display panel for displaying an image, a vacuum tube coupled to the rear of the display panel, and an electron gun coupled to the rear of the vacuum tube. This configuration is the predominant factor that determines the total volume and final weight of the CRT monitor. In addition, the CRT monitor has a significant drawback in that a user is easily fatigued when viewing the CRT monitor over several hours due to its low image quality. Because of this problem alone, many users have switched from a CRT monitor to a flat screen display monitor such as a liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor. Such flat display monitors generally offer the advantages of a greatly reduced overall size, reduced weight, and high image quality. Furthermore, flat display monitors may help to overcome space limitations and constrictions through folding over (such as with a laptop computer) or rotating (such as with a desktop monitor) so as to facilitate easy adjustment of the position of the flat display monitor relative to the user.
The rotating or folding-over functions of a flat display monitor are realized with a hinge assembly. A typical hinge assembly includes an L-shaped fixed seat, a pivotal axle, and a number of oiled washers. The fixed seat has a retaining hole defined therein. The pivotal axle is pivotally connected with the fixed seat. The pivotal axle has a retaining shoulder formed at a middle portion thereof, a connecting end portion integrally formed at a first end of the retaining shoulder, and a fixing end portion integrally formed at a second end of the retaining shoulder. The connecting end portion of the pivotal axle extends through a retaining hole of the fixed seat along with the oiled washers, and is fastened in the fixed seat by a fastening piece. The hinge assembly limits a maximum inclination angle of the flat display monitor by means of the retaining hole in the fixed seat. However, in general, a high degree of precision is required in manufacturing the retaining hole, and this tends to increase the cost of manufacturing. In addition, edges of the fixed seat around the retaining hole are liable to be abraded. As a result, the flat display monitor might be rotated beyond the maximum inclination angle, and/or the flat display monitor may not remain stable at the inclination angle selected by a user. Furthermore, during use, a user may need to exert great effort in order to be able to rotate the hinge assembly.
Therefore, a new hinge assembly is desired in order to overcome the above-described shortcomings.

Hong Fu Jin Precision Industry (ShenZhen) Co., Ltd.


In one aspect, a server that receives, from a client terminal via a network, a request to initiate a verbal conversation using natural language that is in a spoken or textual format, extracts information during the verbal conversation, determines a context of the verbal conversation, receives an inquiry during the verbal conversation, processes the inquiry, acquires response information based on the determined appropriate response, and transmits to the client terminal the response information.

The "background" description provided herein is for the purpose of generally presenting the context of the disclosure. Work of the presently named inventors, to the extent it is described in this background section, as well as aspects of the description which may not otherwise qualify as prior art at the time of filing, are neither expressly or impliedly admitted as prior art against the present invention.
The present specification relates generally to digital assistants, and more specifically, to a server, method, and computer-readable storage medium implementing a digital assistant.
Recently, voice- or text-based digital assistants have been introduced into the marketplace to handle various tasks such as web searching and navigation. However, often times, these digital assistants do not provide accurate results in an efficient and robust manner.

This patent is subject to a terminal disclaimer.


Optimal decision metric approximation in bit-soft decisions. The present invention provides for calculation of the decision metrics/branch metrics for determining whether an incoming analog signal should be transformed into a 1 or a 0 in the digital realm. In performing these decisions, there is some probability associated with the decision to map the incoming signal to a value of 1 or 0. These decisions made in extracting bits from a particular symbol are typically referred to as bit-soft decisions. In making these bit-soft decisions, decoders commonly use decision metrics/branch metrics as mentioned above. Whereas prior art approaches typically are very computationally intensive to calculate these values, the present invention provides for a much improved and simplified calculation of decision metrics/branch metrics that may be used in bit-soft decisions. The optimal metric approximation may be implemented using a few mathematical operations and simple comparison logic circuitry.

1. Technical Field
The invention relates generally to communication systems; and, more particularly, it relates to system and method that are operable to perform an efficient approximately of decision metrics used in bit-soft decisions.
2. Related Art
Communication systems transmit digital data through imperfect communication channels. These symbols may undergo some undesirable corruption due to the imperfection of the communication channel. One effort to try to avoid such situations is focused on performing forward error correction (FEC) coding. However, there is typically some difficulty in extracting the information contained within these symbols after they have been undesirably altered within the communication channel. There exist some methods that seek to curb the effect that the communication channel has had on the data; one such method includes employing using Decision Feedback Equalizers (DFEs). However, even after the incoming signal has been equalized, the extraction of the data, that has undergone some alteration due to the channel effects, is still a probabilistic determination.
Many communication systems, particularly in a receiver, need to perform the analog to digital transformation of an incoming signal. In doing so, there is oftentimes an uncertainty in whether a sample of the incoming analog signal is properly transformed into a 1 or a 0 in the digital realm; for example, there is not a 100% certainty that an incoming signal is actually a 1 or actually a 0—there is some probability associated with the decision. In higher-level encoding/decoding systems, e.g., QPSK/4 QAM, 16 QAM, 64 QAM, 256 QAM, 1024 QAM etc., there are several bits per symbol that need to be transformed to either a 1 or a 0. In 16 QAM applications, a receiver extracts 4 bits of data from each symbol. In the QAM modulation scheme, each symbol includes an in-phase component and a quadrature component. For the 16 QAM modulation type, the decision block maps the in-phase and quadrature components contained in the symbol to a 16 QAM constellation and decides the values of the four bits that are carried by the symbol.
The decisions made in extracting bits from a particular symbol are referred to as "bit-soft decisions." Bit-soft decisions not only map the symbol into bits but also produce a decision metric/branch metric related to the probability that the decision was correct based upon how well the symbol maps into the constellation. The terminology of "branch metric" is often used interchangeably with "decision metric," and this convention will be followed in this document. The decoder operates based on the premise that there are only a finite number of possible states of the encoder and that given a certain number of consecutive states, the input bit may be predicted that would have caused a particular state transition. The decoder generates a "branch metric" (or "decision metric") for each of the possible "state transitions" from one state to another. The coding method maintains a "decision metric" associated with every state which is the sum of the metric at its predecessor state and the metric associated with the branch that caused the state transition. This metric may be termed the cumulative metric, accumulated metric, or path metric, and the decoder generates the cumulative metric for all of the states. The different states and the transition from one state to another can be represented in a diagram, namely, a trellis diagram. For various possible allowable state transition sequences through the trellis (the allowable paths through the trellis), the decision metric associated with the sequence of branches of the trellis diagram are summed together, and the smallest sum is selected as the actual state transition and enables the identification of the best estimate of the decoded data. It is noted that with a sign change on each decision metric, the largest sum identifies the best path.
Prior art approaches to calculate decision metrics/branch metrics used in decoding systems typically are either very computationally intensive or deviate noticeably from the optimal metric. The computational intensiveness of the prior art approaches prohibits their implementation into many applications, particularly those that have relatively tight real estate and power consumption budgets. Again, these branch metrics are used to determine whether the mapping of a sample should be to that of a value of 1 or a value of 0. Many higher order coding schemes employ mapping of symbols into a constellation. In such situations, the various bits contained in the symbol, e.g., least significant bit (LSB), . . . most significant bit (MSB), etc. may be considered separately. For example, in the 16 QAM scheme, the in-phase component carries two bits while the quadrature phase component carries two bits. By considering separately each of the bits of the in-phase and quadrature components, the decision metrics may be employed in deciding whether the particular bit is a 1 or a 0, in making these bit-soft decisions.
One prior art approach is to employ the maximum a priori (MAP) approach, in which a probability of the source symbol is computed, based on information relating to the received, distorted symbol sequence. The bit-soft decision output of the MAP approach is termed a log-likelihood ratio (LLR) that is the logarithmic ratio of the probability of receiving a 1 divided by the probability of receiving a 0; these probabilities of determining the receipt of either a 1 or a 0 are often performed using Bayes Rule to the problem to determine the probability to reach a certain encoder state after receipt of a certain number of symbols and the probability to get from one encoder state to another with the received symbol sequence.
This is where the branch metrics come in; the branch metrics may be viewed as being the probabilities of the transitions from one encoder state to another. The branch metrics are a function of the received symbols and the model of the channel over which the symbols have been communicated. To illustrate the complexity of the prior art approach to calculating the decision metrics/branch metrics (that often involves the calculation of the LLR), a 16 QAM example is illustrated as shown below. One rail, containing 2 bits and 4 levels, is examined. The received voltage on the rail is Vrec. The 4 possible transmit levels are: constpa, constpb, constpc, and constpd. In the following equations, the levels constpta and constptb correspond to an MSB value of 0, and the variables constptc and constptd correspond to an MSB value of 1. To begin with, the log-likelihood function of a simple constellation point is as follows:−ln(e−(Vrec−constpta)2/2σ2)
Then, the log-likelihood function for MSB=0 is as follows:−ln(e−(Vrec−constpta)2/2σ2+e−(Vrec−constptb)2/2σ2)
A prior art method of calculating the log likelihood ratio of an optimal bit-soft decision (ODM) for the MSB is as shown below:ODM={−ln(e−(Vrec−constpta)2/2σ2+e−(Vrec−constptb)2/2σ2)}−{−ln(e−(Vrec−constptc)2/2σ2+e−(Vrec−constptd)2/2σ2)}
The ODM shown above, which is the LLR of the MSB bit-soft decision, is the optimal decision metric for 16 QAM, one rail, for the most significant bit (MSB). Clearly, the LLR may be taken as a logarithm of a ratio or a difference of logarithms; the difference is shown above. The implementation of such non-linear equations can be very complex. To calculate these decision metrics accurately using the above-described methods is typically very difficult (theoretically) and is even more difficult to apply. Therefore, these decision metrics are simply not employed in most communication systems.
Further limitations and disadvantages of conventional and traditional systems will become apparent to one of skill in the art through comparison of such systems with the invention as set forth in the remainder of the present application with reference to the drawings.


A power generation system for a drilling tool includes a turbine, an alternator, a converter and a first active rectifier control (ARC). The turbine is adapted to be driven by a fluid flow in a well. The alternator is coupled to the turbine and generates an alternative current (AC). The converter converts the AC to direct current (DC) and carries out active rectification. The first active rectifier control (ARC) controls the active rectification of the converter.

Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are dispatched to identify geologic reservoirs and to create holes that allow the extraction of oil or natural gas from those reservoirs. Once a well has been drilled, the drilling rig is moved off of the well and a service rig that is purpose-built for completions is moved on to the well to get the well on line. This frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the operation.
A typical drilling rig is equipped with a downhole drilling tool, which is powered by a power generation system. The power generation system is typically constructed with a turbine of the drilling tool, an alternator driven by the turbine, one or more converters that convert AC voltage output from the alternator to DC voltage, and other electrical components. Due to various technical challenges, the power generation systems in drilling tools suffer several drawbacks, e.g., poor power factor, low efficiency, high current harmonic distortion, or the like. Accordingly, there is a need for a power generation scheme that provides a regulated DC supply, minimum input current harmonic distortion and unity power factor, wide input voltage range, and fast dynamic control.

Dynamic generator voltage control for high power drilling and logging-while-drilling


A semiconductor device and method of manufacturing the semiconductor device are disclosed. The semiconductor device includes: a substrate including an active region and at least one groove isolation region formed on the substrate, wherein the at least one groove isolation region is formed adjoining the active region, a gate structure formed on a first portion of the active region, and at least one local interconnection layer formed on a portion of the substrate, wherein the at least one local interconnection layer is located on a side of the gate structure, and covers at least a second portion of the active region and a portion of the groove isolation region adjoining the active region.

Advancements in semiconductor technology have led to miniaturized semiconductor devices. However, further miniaturization of semiconductor devices poses scaling challenges, particularly in the fabrication of the semiconductor devices. For example, the miniaturization of semiconductor devices may be limited by process and design rules.
The scaling challenges will be briefly described with reference to FIG. 1, which shows a cross-section view of a conventional semiconductor device in the prior art.
As shown in FIG. 1, the conventional semiconductor device may include an active region 103 and one or more isolation regions 105/107 formed in a substrate 101. Agate structure may be formed on a portion of the active region 103. The gate structure may include a gate insulation layer 109, a gate 111, and one or more spacers 113.
As further shown in FIG. 1, silicide layers 121 and 123 may be formed on exposed surfaces of the active region 103. A silicide layer 125 may also be formed on a top surface of the gate 111.
An insulation layer 115 may be formed over the substrate 101, and contact holes may be formed through the insulation layer 115 to the silicided active region 103 and gate 111. Contacts 117 may then be formed in the contact holes, so as to enable electrical connectivity to the silicided active region 103 and gate 111.
In semiconductor device scaling, it is desirable to increase device density by increasing the number of devices within a given area. This may be achieved, for example, by reducing the distances X1 and X2 between the respective groove isolation regions 105/107 and edges of the gate 111 (shown in FIG. 1).
Before the distances X1 and X2 may be reduced, the following dimensions need to be first taken into consideration: (1) a lateral size of each spacer 113, (2) a lateral size of each contact hole (or contact 117), and (3) a distance from each contact hole (or contact 117) to the respective groove isolation regions 105/107. The above dimensions determine the minimum "coverage" of the contacts 117 over the active region 103, as required by contact-to-active region design rules.
As a result, reductions in the distances X1 and X2 may be constrained by process and design rules. For example, due to restrictions imposed by gate current leakage, etc., the lateral size of the spacers 113 may not be reduced below a minimum size. Additionally, the process and design rule limitations may require certain minimum dimensions for the size of the contact holes (or contacts 117) and/or the distances from the contact holes (or contacts 117) to the respective groove isolation regions 105/107.
In some instances, although the dimensions X1 and X2 may be reduced using advanced reticle technologies (in lithography and etching), these next-generation semiconductor process technologies may be costly, and therefore may not provide a cost-effective solution in further miniaturization of semiconductor devices.

Semiconductor device and manufacturing method thereof

SEMICONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING INTERNATIONAL (SHANGHAI) CORPORATION


A collector ring comprising a non-electrically conductive, non-rotatable slip ring base having a plurality of slip rings mounted thereon with the slip rings decreasing in diameter from the lower end of the base to the upper end of the base. Electrical wires are secured to the slip rings and extend therefrom for connection to a source of power. A slip ring brush holder is rotatably secured to the slip ring base and has a plurality of brush holders mounted thereon which engage the slip rings on the base. Electrical wires extend from the brushes outwardly from the brush holder.

1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to a collector ring assembly and more particularly to a small collector ring assembly which is easier to assemble than conventional collector ring assemblies and which has a smaller number of parts than conventional collector ring assemblies.
2. Description of the Related Art
Collector ring assemblies, sometimes called slip ring assemblies, are commonly used to permit the supply of electrical power from a stationary component to a rotatable component. Collector rings are extensively used on cranes, center pivot irrigation machines and on electrical cable reels. The electrical cable reels normally utilize a relatively small collector ring assembly to permit electrical power to be transmitted from a non-rotatable hub to a rotatable reel. Even though the conventional collector rings used on cable reels are small, they have a large number of parts which may be difficult to fabricate and assemble.


A system for generating cold plasma is presented, suitable for use in in-vivo treatment of biological tissue. The system comprising: a control unit connectable to an elongated member at a first proximal end of the elongated member. The elongated member comprises a plasma generating unit at a second distal end thereof and gas and electricity transmission channels extending from said first proximal end towards said plasma generating unit. The control unit comprises a gas supply unit configured to provide predetermined flow rate of selected gas composition through said gas transmission channel and a power supply unit configured to generate selected sequence of high-frequency electrical pulses, typically in mega Hertz range, directed through said electricity transmission channel, thereby providing power and gas of said selected composition to the plasma generating unit for generating cold plasma.

References considered to be relevant as background to the presently disclosed subject matter are listed below:                G. Friedman, et al., [Plasma Chem. Plasma Process 27, 163 (2007)];        J. Schlegel, et al., [Clinical Plasma Medicine 1, 2 (2013)];        E. Robert, et al., Clinical Plasma Medicine 1, 8 (2013)];        M. Keidar et al., [Br. J. Cancer, 105, 1295 (2011) and Phys. Plasma 20, 057101 (12013)];        Adam M. Hirst, et al BioMed Research International, Volume 2014, Article ID 878319;        Low temperature plasma biomedicine: A tutorial review, to David B. Graves, Physics of Plasmas (1994-present) 21, 080901 (2014); doi: 10.1063/1.4892534.
Acknowledgement of the above references herein is not to be inferred as meaning that these are in any way relevant to the patentability of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Technion Research & Development Foundation Limited


A fiber optic transmitter comprising a digital driver adapted to adjust the crossing point of a digital base signal, an optical source adapted to receive the digital base signal and produce a frequency modulated optical signal, and an optical spectrum reshaper adapted to convert the frequency modulated optical signal to an amplitude modulated optical signal.

For the purposes of this patent application, a chirp managed directly modulated (CMDM) laser transmitter comprises a directly modulated laser and an optical spectrum reshaper (OSR). In a chirp managed directly modulated (CMDM) laser transmitter, the bias current of a semiconductor laser is modulated with digital data and the resulting light output is passed through an optical spectrum reshaper (OSR). For the purposes of this patent application, an optical spectrum reshaper (OSR) is an optical element that has a transmission function which varies with optical frequency and which can be used to convert frequency modulation to amplitude modulation. The optical spectrum reshaper (OSR) may also impart a phase on the input optical signal. An optical filter is an example of an optical spectrum reshaper (OSR). With signal transmission systems of the type applying to the present invention, the input to the optical spectrum reshaper (OSR) is configured to have a small amplitude modulation and sufficiently large frequency modulation. As a result, the optical spectrum reshaper (OSR) increases the extinction ratio of the output by converting frequency modulation to amplitude modulation. In a fiber optic transmission system, which is limited by fiber dispersion, the chirp managed directly modulated (CMDM) laser provides a low chirp output in a compact package. Such a transmitter is described in pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/289,944, filed Nov. 6, 2002 by Daniel Magherefteh et al. for POWER SOURCE FOR A DISPERSION COMPENSATION FIBER OPTIC SYSTEM, which patent application is hereby incorporated herein by reference.
One of the difficulties in implementing a chirp managed directly modulated (CMDM) laser transmitter is the distortion caused by conversion of thermal chirp to amplitude fluctuation after passage through the optical spectrum reshaper (OSR), which results from unwanted heating of the semiconductor laser upon current injection. The injection current used to modulate the semiconductor laser heats the active region of the laser and increases its temperature, which in turn shifts the wavelength of the laser though a change in the refractive index of the semiconductor material. Heat is generated through inter-valence band absorption in the quantum wells, as well as by joule heating in the cladding regions. This poses a particular problem in telecommunication applications, inasmuch as the laser is modulated by a "random" (i.e., variable, and hence unpredictable) stream of digital data. In this case the temperature of the laser, and hence its output wavelength, undergoes "random" (i.e., unpredictable) changes. The changes in wavelength resulting from the temperature variations in the operating laser may be referred to as "thermal chirp". The data stream-dependent changes in temperature (and wavelength) occur in time increments on the order of approximately 10-100 ns on average. Thus, even though the temperature of the laser is typically held "constant" by a thermoelectric cooler (TEC), the reaction time of the thermoelectric cooler (TEC) is typically quite slow (on the order of a few seconds) relative to the event times of the aforementioned thermal chirp. As a result, the thermal electric cooler (TEC) cannot react quickly enough to correct for the faster temperature changes brought about by the injection current, i.e., the thermal electric cooler (TEC) cannot effectively eliminate thermal chirp. These random thermal wavelength shifts are therefor converted to amplitude (i.e., intensity) fluctuations after passage through the optical spectrum reshaper (OSR), thus leading to "noise" on the 1's and 0's of the digital data stream.
The optical spectrum reshaper (OSR) can comprise a variety of filters such as, but not limited to, a coupled multi-cavity (CMC) filter, a periodic multi-cavity etalon, a fiber Bragg grating, or any other optical element having a wavelength-dependent loss. In principle, the optical spectrum reshaper (OSR) can also comprise a fiber, a Gire-Tournois interferometer, or some other element with chromatic dispersion. Chromatic dispersion also converts frequency modulation to amplitude (i.e., intensity) modulation, so that thermal chirp can be converted to unwanted "noise" on the 1's and 0's of the data stream, which in turn causes degradation of the bit error rate (BER) in a telecommunications system. It is, therefore, desirable to eliminate the thermal chirp of a directly modulated laser to the extent possible.
In "long haul" fiber optic communication systems, the signal is generally transmitted through hundreds of kilometers of fiber. In these systems, loss of signal along the fiber (typically about 0.25 dB/km) is compensated for by an optical amplifier, typically an erbium-doped fiber amplifier. This optical amplifier restores the amplitude of the signal, but at the cost of adding noise to the signal. After undergoing several amplified spans, the optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) degrades, causing the bit error rate (BER) to increase. Non-linearity and dispersion, as well as other fiber transmission impairments, also degrade the quality of the signal as it passes down the fiber, and cause errors in the data stream. The maximum transmission distance is, therefore, generally dictated by a maximum acceptable bit error rate (BER), typically 10−9. Because of the noise added by the optical amplifiers, the signal at the receiver end may have a low optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR). System performance is usually characterized by either the bit error rate (BER) or, alternatively, by Q (in dB) as a function of the optical signal-to-noise (OSNR) ratio. Here Q is defined by Q=20 log(efrc−1(2BER)), where erfc−1 is the inverse complementary error function. For example, BER=10−9 corresponds to Q=15.6 dB. Thus, a system with a higher Q indicates a lower bit error rate (BER), i.e., a system with less signal degradation. It is, therefore, desirable to increase the value of Q in an amplified system with low optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR).

Method and apparatus for transmitting a signal using thermal chirp management of a directly modulated transmitter

Abstract: A method for transmitting a signal, comprising:                adjusting the crossing point of a digital base signal;        providing the adjusted signal to an optical source to produce a frequency modulated optical signal; and        providing the frequency modulated optical signal to an optical spectrum reshaper to convert the frequency modulated optical signal to an amplitude modulated optical signal.


A semiconductor device having a laminated wiring layer composed of an Al or Al alloy layer and a high melting point conductive layer, wherein the laminated wiring layer has narrowed portions at which the stress tolerance of the Al or Al alloy is reduced. The controlled breakage of the Al or Al alloy layer at the narrowed portion results in a laminated wiring layer of a predetermined resistance component.

1. Industrial Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to a semiconductor device such as an LSI semiconductor device etc., particularly to a laminated wiring structure on the semiconductor device which is composed of an aluminium or aluminium alloy layer and a high melting point conductive layer.
2. Description of the Related Art
A single layer wiring structure using an Al, Al-Si alloy, Al-Si-Cu alloy, etc. has been employed in a wiring for a semiconductor integrated circuit device.
In order to realize the production of a high integration of semiconductor integrated circuit device, however, a laminated structure using an Al or Al alloy layer and a high melting point conductive layer (e.g. TiN, TiW, WNW, WSi.sub.2, MoSi.sub.2 etc.) has recently been employed as a wiring layer. This is because the breakage of wire is liable to occur in the single layer wiring structure using an Al or Al alloy alone, due to stress-migration or electro-migration during heat treatment as the wiring layer employs finer wiring and thinner film. A laminated wiring structure composed of an Al or Al alloy layer and a high melting point conductive layer can prevent the failure of the whole semiconductor integrated circuit device, even if the Al or Al alloy layer is broken, since a high melting point conductive layer maintains its electrical conductivity. However, if the Al or Al alloy wirings are broken at uncertain places, irregular variations between the wiring resistance components affect the operating speed and operational timing of the internal circuits. As a result, the entire characteristics of the semiconductor integrated circuit device are deteriorated.

Multi-layer wiring structure having narrowed portions at predetermined length intervals


There is disclosed a silver halide color photographic material which comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of sparingly water-soluble epoxy compounds represented by formula (I), (II), or (III) given below and a dye-forming coupler in a layer on a base. ##STR1## wherein R.sup.1, R.sup.2, and R.sup.3 each represent an alkyl group or a halogen atom, L.sup.1 and L.sup.2 each represent a divalent aliphatic organic group, M represents an oxygen or nitrogen atom, A represents a polyvalent linking group, a, b, and c each are an integer of 0 to 4, x and y each are a real number of 0 to 20, l is 1 or 2, and m is an integer of 2 to 4.

When color photographic materials are stored as records semipermanently, the extent of light-fading and dark-fading should be suppressed as much as possible and the color balance of three-color-fading among the yellow, magenta, and cyan dye images should be retained as in the initial state. However, the extent of light-fading and dark-fading of the yellow, magenta, and cyan dye images differs from dye image to dye image, and after long-term storage, the color balance of three-color-fading is lost and the image quality of the dye images deteriorates.
Dark-fading of the yellow dye image and the cyan dye image in an environment high in humidity is greater than that of the magenta dye image, and the color balance is lost considerably in some cases. Further, when the photographic material is stored under such conditions, mold occurs on the photographic material surface and the cyan dye image and the yellow dye image are faded extremely by organic acids (e.g., acetic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, and gluconic acid) secreted from the fungi, thereby leaving red spots in the image, for example, of a color print. Such a defect is often found in areas high in both temperature and humidity, for example, in the southern district of Japan (e.g., Okinawa and Shikoku), and in the case of important photographs which are desired to be preserved as records, such as wedding photographs, although a measure of laminating the photographs is taken, not only is the operation complicated and laborious, but deterioration of the image quality cannot be obviated anyway. Even if mold does not occur, when the pH of the surface of the produced photographic image is low due to the type or scatter of conditions of the development processing, bleach-fix processing, or stabilization processing, fading of the cyan dye image and the yellow dye image is also promoted.
To solve such problems, with respect to cyan dye images, for example, JP-B ("JP-B" means examined Japanese patent publication) No. 45017/1983 and JP-A ("JP-A" means unexamined published Japanese patent application) Nos. 75447/1987, 129853/1987, 172353/1987, 196657/1987, and 21447/1989, and with respect to yellow dye images, for example, JP-A Nos. 50048/1989, 50049/1989, and 4041/1986, disclose the use of cyclic ether compounds or epoxy-group-containing compounds, and although it is recognized that these compounds have an effect to a certain extent on the improvement of fastness to dark-fading and acid-fading, the improvement is still unsatisfactory, and in some cases there are injurious effects that fading or insufficient color restoration occurs due to the leuco dye formation of a cyan dye formed when the photographic material is processed in a bleach-fix bath containing an exhausted solution.
The cyan dye image obtained from phenol couplers having as a ballasting group a straight-chain or branched alkyl group, described in JP-A No. 39045/1986, is excellent in fastness to light and heat, but it has defects that it is poor in fastness to the above-mentioned acids and the unexposed part (white background) is colored cyan with long-term storage. A method for solving the latter problem by additionally using a certain epoxy compound is described in JP-A No. 21447/1989, but the method is insufficient for improvement in the former problem: acid-fading.

Silver halide color photographic material


A cell search method for handover between an asynchronous mobile communication system's base station and a synchronous mobile communication system's base station. A border base station, which is an asynchronous base station neighboring a synchronous mobile communication network, acquires information on a GPS satellite time, a reference time of the synchronous mobile communication network, generates base station frame number (BFN) synchronized to the satellite time and a system frame number (SFN) having a predetermined offset for the BFN for each cell, generates a system information block including a difference value between the BFN and the SFN, and transmits the system information block over a common channel along with the SFN. A dual-mode mobile station receives an SFN for each cell and a system information block from the border base station, acquires the satellite time synchronization, extracts a neighbor list of synchronous base stations, including PN offset information, from the system information block, searches a neighbor cell of a synchronous system at times when the PN offsets have elapsed from the satellite time synchronization, and reports the search result to the border base station. The cell search method contributes to rapid and efficient cell search during inter-system handover.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates generally to a handover method in a mobile communication system, and in particular, to a cell search method for handover between an asynchronous mobile communication system's base station (or asynchronous base station) and a synchronous mobile communication system's base station (or synchronous base station).
2. Description of the Related Art
3rd generation (3G) mobile communication systems employ code division multiple access (CDMA) technology, and provide consistent service capable of transmitting packet-based text, digitized voice and video, and multimedia data at a high rate of over 2 Mbps no matter where a user of a mobile phone or terminal is in the world. Such 3G mobile communication systems are classified as either universal mobile telecommunication service (UMTS) adopted as the European standard or international mobile telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000), adopted as the U.S. standard.
UMTS is an asynchronous mobile communication system employing CDMA modulation based on global system for mobile communication (GSM) and general packet radio services (GPRS) technologies which are extensively used in Europe and other regions. IMT-2000 is a synchronous mobile communication system based on a 2nd generation (2G) CDMA system such as IS-95 and J-STD008, which is used in South Korea, the United States, and Japan. The two systems are moving toward harmonization, and accordingly, research is being conducted on several technologies that offers compatibility between the two systems. One important field of research is directed towards technology related to handover which may occur while a mobile station travels between the two systems.
Handover is the term used for technology that enables a user to perform communications without dropping calls, even though a mobile station travels from one cell to another in a cellular mobile communication system. Handover is classified into two types: soft handover and hard handover. In a soft handover situation, the mobile user is performing communications while using a plurality of channels in an area where two or more cells overlap with each other. If the quality of a particular channel decreases below a predetermined threshold, one of the channels, the corresponding channel, is dropped. In a hard handover situation, the channel to the previous cell (i.e., the cell the mobile user is moving away from) is dropped and then access to a neighbor cell is attempted as the mobile station moves between cells.
A mobile station undergoing communication measures information on neighbor cells and reports the measured information to a base station in at least two situations: first, if a level of a received pilot signal is lower than or equal to a threshold; and, second, at the request of the base station. The operation of measuring information on neighbor cells is called "cell searching." The reported information is used to determine when handover should occur. During standby, handover is automatically performed in a mobile station without direction of the system. During a call, a handover direction is transmitted to the mobile station over a traffic channel in the case of a synchronous mobile communication system, and over a dedicated channel in the case of an asynchronous mobile communication system.
When a dual-mode mobile station moves from an asynchronous mobile communication system to a synchronous mobile communication system, hard handover occurs. This is because it is impossible for the mobile station to simultaneously connect channels to the two different systems. When hard handover is performed, communication between a mobile station and an asynchronous mobile communication system is discontinued for a time when the mobile station is searching information on neighbor cells.
In a mobile communication system employing CDMA technology, a terminal performs cell search during idle-state handover or active-state handover. In a synchronous CDMA system, all base stations are synchronized using a global positioning service (GPS) satellite. Each base station can then inform the mobile stations of pseudo-random noise (PN) offset information for a pilot from its neighbor cell. This enables the mobile stations to perform neighbor cell search at a time when the corresponding PN offset has elapsed from a reference time. Knowing the PN offset time allows the mobile station to complete the neighbor cell search in a short period of time. Cell search during initial power on requires a long time, however, since time alignment with the base station is necessary.
When a mobile station moves from a service area of an asynchronous mobile communication system to a service area of a synchronous mobile communication system, the mobile station must perform all the same procedures as those performed during the initial cell search. This is because the mobile station does not have timing information for a synchronous base station. During cell search for a synchronous base station (hereinafter referred to as "CDMA cell search"), a mobile station first searches a pilot signal. Thereafter, the mobile station decodes a message on a synchronization channel to acquire information (e.g., PN offset and system time information), so that the mobile station can communicate with the synchronous base station, and then matches its synchronization to the synchronous base station.
The synchronization information message on a synchronization channel is written in a synchronization channel frame transmitted from a synchronous base station. Since the synchronization channel has 96 transmission bits per 80 ms frame, and a synchronization signal message including PN offset information is 221 bits in length, a mobile station requires at least 240 ms (it takes 2 full frames (2×96=198)+23 bits of a third frame, to transmit all 221 bits; therefore, 3 frame transmission time periods are needed. 80 ms×3=240 ms) for a message analysis time. In addition, when a reception start point is not identical to a message start point, the mobile station needs to interrupt communication for about 513.3 ms. This includes the time it waits for a start point of the synchronization signal message, even though it is assumed that a received frame has no error. An increase in the cell search time may cause a loss of communication data between an asynchronous mobile communication system and a mobile station.
For the same reason, a mobile station in communication with an asynchronous mobile communication system cannot perform a CDMA cell search, simply with a compressed mode for monitoring other frequency bands for an idle period of a frame, secured by data compression. This is because a CDMA cell search generally requires a long search time, and cannot be completed in the relatively short idle period (usually shorter than 10 ms) of a frame.

Cell search method for inter-system handover in a mobile station


The present disclosure relates to a data processing method and device. The data processing method comprises steps of: performing detector response calibration based on a detector response obtained by an incidence of rays with known energy into a detector to obtain a detector response model; obtaining a photon counting model of the detector between incident energy spectrum data of the detector and detected energy spectrum data of the detector based on the detector response model; and performing a deconvolution operation on counts of photons in respective energy regions in the detected energy spectrum data of the detector based on the photon counting model of the detector, to obtain real counts of photons in respective energy regions in the incident energy spectrum data of the detector.

A photon counting detector is a detector that can distinguish energy of incident photons by the mode of photon counting, and can obtain number of photons in different energy regions in one scan.
However, the mode of photon counting is affected by a detector response. The detector response varies depending on crystal material of the detector, and generally includes K-shell electron escaping, charge sharing, and pulse stacking. In order to take advantage of the photon counting detector, it is necessary to model and calibrate the detector response. There is no mature method at present.


A system for starting a turbine engine is provided. The system may comprise a gearbox, a first starter, and a second starter. The gearbox may have an gearbox input shaft. The gearbox input shaft may be rotationally coupled to a spool of the turbine engine. The first starter may have a first-starter shaft. The second starter may have a second-starter shaft. The second-starter shaft may be coaxial with the first-starter shaft. The first starter and the second starter may each be coupled to the gearbox input shaft independently of one another.

Turbine engines extract energy to perform work by compressing a working fluid, mixing a fuel into the compressed working fluid, igniting the fuel/fluid mixture, and expanding the combusted fuel/fluid mixture through a turbine. When a turbine is operating, a portion of the extracted energy is provided as the work input to the engine's compressor, thereby making turbine operation self-sustaining. Prior to reaching this self-sustaining point, the work input to drive the compressor must be supplied by some system other than the turbines of the engine. These other systems often incorporate a starter—such as an electric starter or an air turbine starter—that provides the motive force to turn the engine compressor, thereby providing an airflow to the turbine that can, eventually, provide enough work output to drive the compressor. Such starters are often connected to the spool housing the compressor through gearboxes and shafting.

Coaxial starter/generator and air turbine starter

Rolls-Royce North American Technologies, Inc.


A composition and method for rapidly inducing a state of endogenous ketosis, the composition including: about 26.66-28.57 percent by mass of alpha lipoic acid; about 0.01-0.02 percent by mass of chromium picolinate; about 47.61-49.99 percent by mass of L-arginine; and, about 23.33-23.81 percent by mass of calcium carbonate. The method includes restricting carbohydrate consumption to a maximum dosage of about 20 grams prior to consumption of the composition and wherein consumption of the composition is on an empty stomach. About thirty minutes after consumption of the composition the user performs moderate intensity exercise. About three hours after consuming a first dose the user tests for a presence of ketones in urine utilizing at least one sodium nitroprusside urine ketone reagent strip.

Approximately 34.9% of all Americans are obese and this percentage of the United States population represents more than 78.6 million American adults. Currently, the CDC estimates that at least 70.7% of American adults over the age of twenty are overweight which is defined as a BMI of 25-29.9 with a BMI of 30 and above indicating obesity. Two of the leading causes of mortality in the United States are cardiac associated conditions and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, both of which have been directly linked to obesity through increased risk. The CDC estimates that the annual cost of obesity, in 2008 dollars, in the United States, exceeds more than $147 billion with obese adults requiring additional medical expenses of $1,429.00 over their non-obese adult counterparts.
World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that the obese world population has doubled since 1980. The WHO lists current world obesity statistics on their website and makes three statements concerning obesity: 1.) 42 million children were overweight or obese in 2013; 2.) More than 1.9 billion adults were overweight or obese in 2014; and, 3.) Obesity is preventable. Clearly an obesity pandemic exists, and two important questions must be considered. Why has the world overweight and obese population continued to grow even though new medical technology is continuously produced and dietary guidelines continuously updated? Why have the majority of diets recommended by health professionals failed to have an impact on the obese population or slow the growth of the overweight population? The answers to the above questions are quite complex and include not only the various etiologies of obesity itself such as genetics, medical comorbidities, lack of exercise, or simple overeating; but also a widespread, misunderstanding of fundamental human biochemistry coupled with practice and propagation, through education, of flawed nutritional principles.
Low Calorie Diets
At the very foundation of the low-calorie diet is the energy balance equation in which weight change is dependent only on calories consumed vs. calories used for metabolism, essentially calories in vs. calories out. Low-calorie or calorie-restricted diets are arguably the most practiced diet methodology in the world today and are staunchly founded in energy balance equation theory. The basic principle of any reduced calorie diet is as follows: To lose weight, specifically from fat, an individual must reduce caloric intake thereby creating a caloric deficit which the body must then make-up for by relying on its fat stores to produce the calories needed for basal energy production. For example, it is widely taught by nutrition field professionals that 1 lb. of fat contains 3,500 calories and by reducing caloric intake by 500 calories per day for 7 consecutive days an individual may lose 1 lb. of fat per week (−500 Cal/day*7 days/week=−3,500 Cal/week=−1 lb./week). Relying upon this method, an individual who wished effect a 10 lb. weight loss over a 10 week period must simply consume 3,500 fewer calories, per week, for 10 consecutive weeks creating an overall deficit of 35,000 calories. Further, the deficit required is 500 calories per day overall and calories may be cut from any major nutrient group—lipids, carbohydrates, or proteins. The reality is that the 3,500 calorie principal is nothing more than simple mathematics used to visualize the loss of a so-called pound of fat. The idea of cutting 3,500 calories from the diet to effect the loss of 1 lb. of fat could not be further from the truth when considering principals of human biochemistry and human adipose tissue composition.
The 3,500 calorie theory originated in the late 1950s by Max Wishnofsky MD, who concluded, after reviewing previous studies on the subject, that one pound of human adipose tissue contains approximately 3,500 calories of stored energy and is composed of approximately 87% lipid.
Interesting to note, is that several other researchers in the same field concluded, through similar studies, that the lipid content of human adipose tissue is highly variable and ranges anywhere from 61-94%. 1 lb. of human tissue contains 453.6 g and fat, in particular, contains 9 calories per gram. Using Wishonfskys method it can be shown that 1 lb. of adipose tissue contains approximately 3,500 calories: (453.6 g/lb.*0.87% lipid*9 Cal/g=3,551.7 Cal/lb.). However, applying the range of lipid makeup percentages to this number gives an extensive variation of how many fat calories actually make up 1 lb. of adipose tissue, 2490.3-3537.5 calories. Protein may also contribute calorically to adipose tissue and was found in studies to be roughly 1-6.5% of adipose tissue make-up. Therefore, the total caloric content of 1 lb. of human adipose tissue, accounting for lipid and protein make-up, ranges from 2508.4 Cal/lb.-3655.4 Cal/lb.
Other studies have concluded that human adipose tissue makeup is highly variable with the water, lipid, nitrogen, and protein portions being age dependent with lipid content increasing over time as the other components decrease. It is clear to see that without intimate knowledge of one's own adipose tissue makeup, simply reducing caloric intake by 3,500 calories per week could potentially result in a diet roller-coaster with unexpected results. Further, the 3,500 calorie rule assumes body weight changes linearly over time during a dieting period with steady decreases in body fat percentage. This concept of linear weight change in the form of weight loss is simply not true as both total body weight and fat composition may fluctuate up or down during dieting periods while the body attempts to adapt to the diet. Concerning the digestion of food in general, the energy balance equation simply states that to achieve optimal energy balance calories burned through metabolism must equal calories consumed. The definition of one calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree Celsius.
The problem with calories as they relate to nutrition is that the scientific definition as given above applies to closed systems and not human biometabolism and this is exactly the reason that 500 calories of broccoli and 500 calories of sugary soda are processed differently by the body. Throwing fuel on an already out of control fire, food industry companies often promote 100 calorie portion sized snacks as healthy due to reduced calorie content however the difference between a 100 calorie apple and a 100 calorie bag of chocolate chip cookies cannot be overlooked and to state that the two are equal is pseudoscience. Further, it is scientific fact that the digestion of protein, due to its chemical structure, requires more energy expenditure than digestion of carbohydrate or fat and this completely flies in the face of the widespread belief that a calorie is a calorie regardless of its nature.
The fallacy of the low-calorie ideology is further manifest by a 2003 publication from the Nutrition Department at Harvard's School of Public Health. The study compared the weight loss potential of various diets based on caloric intake by placing participants on one of three diets for 12 weeks: low-fat-low-calorie, low-carbohydrate-low-calorie, or low carbohydrate-high-calorie. The results of the study showed the group that lost the most weight, 23 lbs. vs. 17 lbs., was the low-carbohydrate-high-calorie group and they lost more weight while eating 25,000 more calories over then 12 week period than the low-fat-low-calorie group. Further, of the two carbohydrate groups the one that ate the most calories lost the most weight, 23 lbs. vs. 20 lbs. Clearly it can be said that dietary caloric restriction or intake is not the determining factor in either weight loss or weight gain.
The reasons that the ideology of cutting calories to lose weight has persisted are several, and include resistance to change by the nutritional community, publication of flawed principals in textbooks and on internet webpages, and lack of a thorough understanding of how the human body is known to work today. A simple internet search will suffice to show the degree to which the population at large relies upon the flawed idea of cutting 3,500 calories to lose 1 lb. of fat as numerous health and fitness websites advocate this method as a means to improving health and an example of this is that as of this writing, the Mayo Clinic and The Cleveland Clinic, two highly respected medical field institutions, teach the 3,500 calorie principal to the public through their respective websites as an adequate means of weight loss from fat.
Further, the 3,500 rule makes no provision for gender, exercise, compliance to diet, individual adipose tissue makeup, or intake of various nutrients now known to promote fat deposition such as excess refined carbohydrate. While following a reduced calorie diet many individuals lose weight initially and then subsequently hit a plateau; this plateau of decreased weight loss has been shown to be due to caloric deficit as the body slows its metabolism with caloric restriction. If calories are reduced too drastically for an extended period of time weight loss occurs in the form of broken down muscle mass due the body metabolizing protein for energy production through a process called gluconeogenesis. Important to note is that not all amino acids will yield glucose via gluconeogenesis; on average, 1.6 g of amino acids are required to synthesize 1 g of glucose. Thus, to keep the brain supplied with glucose at rate of at least 120 g/day, the breakdown of 160 to 200 g of protein (roughly 1 kg of muscle tissue) would be required.
Certain types of muscle tissue, due to their permanent nature, cannot be replaced if broken down for energy production via conversion to glucose and two of the most important types of muscle tissue, cardiac and skeletal muscle, fall into this category.
One could contend that if reducing caloric intake slows the body's metabolism and results in loss of muscle mass via protein metabolism, what is the point of cutting calories to lose weight from fat in the first place? Some of the most common side effects of cutting calories are fatigue, hunger, headache, sluggish feeling, and cold intolerance, all signs of a metabolism that has ground to a halt. From a human biochemical standpoint it can be argued that cutting calories to lose weight from fat is absolutely counterproductive to the body's normal homeostatic mechanisms.
Low-Fat Diets
A second type of diet that is commonly practiced, but flawed in the extreme, is the low-fat diet. Advocates of this diet maintain that excess dietary fat directly promotes weight gain and obesity and this is due to their belief that high fat foods such as steak, eggs, and dairy products like cheese, milk, and butter will cause vascular disease in the form of plaques that occlude arteries or be deposited as excess fat in adipose tissue. This "bad fat" idea originated in the mid-20th century when a University of Minnesota researcher by the name of Ancel Keys examined the dietary lipid intake of individuals from several countries and concluded that diets high in fat and cholesterol resulted in an increased deposition of atherosclerotic plaques and increased rates of cardiovascular disease. However, Keys conclusion and subsequent publication was shown to be flawed as he was chastised by fellow researcher Jacob Yerushalmy, among a host of critics, for limiting his findings at publication to six countries instead of including data from more than twenty countries he examined in his research. Yerushalmy showed that Keys effectively relied upon researcher bias to draw his conclusions due to the fact that when data was analyzed from all countries in Keys study there was no correlation whatsoever between lipid consumption and cardiovascular disease. Keys presented his findings to the scientific community and a further study was carried out known as the Seven Countries Study which focused on dietary fat consumption and heart disease in individuals in seven countries from four geographic regions: Northern Europe, Southern Europe, The United States, and Japan. This multi-country study concluded that excess dietary lipid intake increased the risk of cardiovascular disease and obesity secondary to lipid deposition in the vasculature. This study, like Keys previous study, was flawed for multiple reasons including how the study attempted to establish causality without even a significant correlation, although Keys denied this, and how it provides no explanation for low cardiovascular disease rates in countries that consume high amounts of dietary lipid as seen in a typical Mediterranean diet. Regardless of flaw, the study was the first of its kind and received a massive amount of media attention and helped to foster similar studies by health field entities as well as the U.S. government that reached similar conclusions.
One similar study, the Framingham Heart Study, is an ongoing study based on the previously postulated correlation between dietary lipid intake and cardiovascular disease. This study is known for identifying heart disease risk factors such as smoking, high blood pressure, lack of exercise, and high cholesterol even though the link between high cholesterol and heart disease has been criticized as being weak. The highly publicized findings of the study indicate that overweight individuals generally have higher blood cholesterol levels and are at a greater risk for heart disease. However, not highly publicized is the finding that participants who consumed more dietary cholesterol and saturated fat had overall lower blood cholesterol levels, exactly the opposite of what the study expected to find from the beginning. Indeed, a former director of the study, Dr. William Castelli stated: "For example, in Framingham, Mass., the more saturated fat one ate, the more cholesterol one ate, the more calories one ate, the lower the person's serum cholesterol. The opposite of what one saw in the 26 metabolic ward studies, the opposite of what the equations provided by Hegsted et al and Keys et al."
Further, the Framingham study includes second and third generation offspring of the original participants and it has been clearly established that over 70% of individuals suffering from hyperlipidemia do so because of genetic inheritance alone. The question should be posed that if diseases such as familial hypercholesterolemia and other genetic dyslipidemias contribute to abnormal lipid profile and cardiovascular disease more than any other factor, including dietary lipid intake, why do health and nutrition field experts continue to warn individuals to limit their dietary lipid intake? Further, the genetic dysregulation of lipid homeostasis by the liver is exactly the reason individuals with hyperlipidemia derive the most benefit from lipid lowering drugs that inhibit the HMG-CoA reductase and PCSK9, two enzymes directly involved in cholesterol production and metabolism in the body; not by reducing dietary lipid consumption or trimming the fat off of their steak.
The end result of this type of research was a fear of dietary lipid instead of an honest effort to understand its role in human metabolism. Thus in lieu of consuming dietary fat nutritionists and physicians recommended a low-fat, high carbohydrate diet with carbohydrate content making up some 60% or more of the new recommendations. There immediately arose a huge market industry for low-fat food products, but these products came with catastrophic nutritional repercussions. Low-fat food products often have excess added sugar which has been shown to be the real cause of weight gain. Indeed, a study on the consumption of sugar intake and obesity rates in 1,700 individuals in Norfolk, UK concluded that the individuals who consumed the most sugar were 54% more likely to be obese. Further, the individuals in the study who were found to be obese misrepresented the amount of sugar they actually consumed daily through underreporting of the amount consumed. The only conclusion that can be drawn from the study is that excess sugar consumption is directly linked to obesity and the average individual does not know how much sugar they are consuming daily which results in unexpected weight gain with increased body fat percentage.
A 1999 study on low-fat diets and low-fat food products found that they were not associated with improved cholesterol levels, quite the opposite, these diets were associated with worse overall LDL (bad cholesterol) levels. In a 2015 meta-analysis of research into the low-fat diet and low-fat dietary guidelines Harcombe et al found that there was absolutely no scientific basis to the 1977 and 1983 U.S. McGovern committee guidelines cautioning individuals to refrain from or limit dietary fat intake. A similar reversal of stance has recently been adopted by the American College of Cardiology and the American Heart Association on the dietary intake of cholesterol since it was blacklisted for years by nutritionists as extremely harmful to health. A 2010 meta-analysis, of twenty-one different studies involving 347,747 patients, on the relationship between saturated fat intake and cardiovascular disease concluded that there is no evidence to suggest that saturated fat contributes to cardiovascular disease. However, in a study examining the consumption of low-fat food products and their effect on overall health the conclusion was clear: excess sugar found in low-fat diet food products contributed directly to obesity which directly increases risk of cardiovascular diseases.
One of the major problems of applied nutrition concerning any diet regimen is the compliance of dieters. This lack of compliance can easily be observed when dieting individuals experience negative diet associated symptoms such as headache, fatigue, hunger, weakness, frustration, or lack of progress and discontinue their diet. Medical field advancements have come about in the form of gastric bypass surgeries for individuals who are obese; however, these procedures are invasive and often require a basal loss of weight before it is safe for a patient to undergo surgery. Also, patients who undergo gastric bypass surgery often have lifelong complications such as dumping syndrome, chronic constipation, and malabsorption that are surgery induced secondary gastrointestinal tract manipulation. From a pharmacological standpoint, medications have been researched and formulated to aid in weight loss by speeding up metabolism to burn more calories, but virtually all medications have side effects which may negatively impact a patient's nervous system, immune system, endocrine system, or psychiatric state. Concerning medical intervention, some individuals may be afraid or intimidated by surgical procedures or drug regimens and in some instances medical intervention is recommended when it may not even be indicated.
Having discussed two major diets as well as surgical and drug intervention that healthcare professionals often prescribe and dieters willingly undertake it can plainly be seen that the current obesity pandemic will continue unless some serious intervention occurs. This intervention must occur via two pathways: 1)—Proper education of nutrition and healthcare professionals, as well as patients, on research proven causes and treatments of obesity. 2)—Application of nutritional principles or vehicles for weight loss that have been shown to be current, efficacious, and science based.
Considering the previous information there currently exists a non-traditional diet regimen, known as the low-carbohydrate or ketogenic diet, that allows an individual to lose weight from fat, spare muscle mass, and avoid common symptoms of hunger, fatigue, headache, and frustration which are associated with other diets. Important to understand is that there are multiple variations of low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diets and examples include the Atkins diet, South Beach diet, the Paleo diet, and cyclic ketogenic diet. Many individuals will argue that these diets are completely different from one another, however at the micronutrient and cellular levels all low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diets are essentially the same as all rely upon a foundation of restricting excess sugars, in the form of carbohydrates, to induce fat metabolism for weight loss. When excess dietary carbohydrate is restricted the body must find a way to compensate for energy requirements and does so thorough the production of energy intermediates known as ketones. For the purposes of this invention, any diet, regardless of specific name, that restricts carbohydrate to a minimum and results in fat metabolism with endogenous ketone production will be referred to as a ketogenic diet.
Ketogenic Diets
Under normal conditions, the body mainly depends on the metabolism of glucose to supply the energy needed for cellular function, and the required glucose is normally derived from the consumption of dietary carbohydrates. These carbohydrates can be from multiple sources and be either simple or complex such as table sugar or starch. Once ingested, carbohydrates are degraded into their respective sugars, mainly glucose, and distributed to cells across the body via the bloodstream. Cells with the aid of the hormone insulin take up glucose from the blood and convert it to an intermediate known as acetyl-CoA which is then used to produce adenosine-triphosphate (ATP), the high energy compound used by cells for metabolic function. While all cells in the body rely on glucose for immediate energy production the majority of cell types do not have the capacity to store glucose for future use. However skeletal muscle and liver cells can use glucose to form glycogen, a polymer of glucose molecules linked together and sequestered for future use. Further, glycogen stored within individual muscle cells can only be degraded and used by that cell; liver glycogen however functions as a total body reserve of glucose. This specific ability of the liver to function as a total body glycogen/glucose reserve is due to the presence of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase in the liver. After liver glycogen has been degraded into individual glucose molecules, glucose-6-phosphatase catalyzes the transformation of these molecules so that they can exit the liver and enter the blood stream; through this mechanism the liver works to maintain normal blood glucose levels and provide a source of glucose to all tissues as needed. Muscle and liver glycogen storage capacities vary with individual, but total body muscle glycogen storage capacity is around 400 g and the liver stores around 90-110 g. The liver functions to maintain a specific blood glucose level in order to provide cells with a constant energy source and normal blood glucose ranges from 80-100 mg/dL or about 4 g of total glucose in the blood at any given time. The brain requires around 6-7 g of glucose per hour or at least 120 g per day, and red blood cells function solely on glucose derived from the blood. As blood glucose levels fall due to utilization by tissues glycogen is degraded in the liver and glucose is released into circulation for cellular uptake. Constant output of glucose by the liver can deplete its glycogen stores quickly if not replenished through carbohydrate consumption as the liver, containing roughly 90-110 g of glycogen can only meet the body's metabolic needs for a short period of time on its own. In the fed state when the muscles and liver have stored their capacity of glycogen and ATP levels are high, excess glucose is shuttled into adipocytes and stored as fat. As the intake of carbohydrate increases beyond the body's needs muscle and liver glycogen stores stay at maximum capacity and excess dietary carbohydrate is converted into glucose and subsequently fat and stored at a higher rate. The excess production and storage of fat in adipose tissue results in obesity with its secondary comorbidities such as metabolic syndrome, diabetes, heart disease, neurodegenerative diseases, and vascular diseases. In most Western diets, the major form of dietary nutrient consumed is carbohydrate in excessive amounts. The National Academies Health and Medicine Division Food and Nutrition Board set the recommended daily allowance (RDA) and adequate intake (AI) for macronutrients in the United States and Canada and recommend an intake of 130-210 g/day of carbohydrate for men and women as well as women who are pregnant or lactating and the U.S. FDA recommends a minimum intake of 300 g. In view of these recommendations excess carbohydrate consumption in the United States is easily seen as the sugar content of the most popular size soda, the one serving, twenty ounce bottle, from two of the most popular soft drink companies contains 69 g and 79 g of sugar respectively which represents 25% or more of the total daily recommendation. Indeed, studies have shown that more than half of all individuals in the United States consume sugary drinks such as soda on a daily basis and sugary drinks have been shown to make-up the top calorie source of the average teenage diet. This overconsumption of carbohydrate correlates directly with the current obesity numbers seen in the United States and the world at large.
In periods of fasting, extended exercise, or restricted carbohydrate intake muscle and liver glycogen stores are depleted. The result of glycogen depletion, without restoration, is that the body must find a way to compensate for energy requirements and does so through hepatic beta-oxidation of stored fat with subsequent production of energy intermediates known as ketones and ketones can be used by every cell in the body for energy production purposes.
Concerning ketone production, there are three molecules generally and historically referred to as ketones or ketone bodies which are produced from beta-oxidation of fatty acids within the liver—acetone, acetoacetate (AcAc), and beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB). However, before the function of these molecules is put forth their origin must be discussed as there currently exists a literal myriad of confusion regarding the terms ketone and ketone body.
Acetone and acetoacetate are structurally and functionally ketones according to the chemical definition of a ketone—a carbonyl carbon bound to two other hydrocarbon groups. Acetoacetate can further be classified as a ketoacid due to the fact that it contains a ketone group and a carboxyl group. Beta-hydroxybutyrate is chemically classified by structure as a carboxylic acid or hydroxyacid and referring to the compound as a ketone, ketoacid, or even ketone body is erroneous as it has no ketone component. The terms "ketone body" or "ketone bodies" have come to be widely used for purposes of referring to all three molecules as a group, however this term is archaic and somewhat confusing due to differences in both structure and function of all three molecules.
The origin of the term ketone body dates to the turn of the 20th century. In 1908 a researcher by the name of Magnus Levy discovered that diabetic or fasting patients had a fruity odor component to their breath which was characterized as that of the ketone acetone. Unknown to researchers at the time was that acetoacetate is the first ketone produced by the liver in a ketogenic state and is a highly unstable molecule which undergoes spontaneous decarboxylation to form the ketone acetone or is converted to the carboxylic acid beta-hydroxybutyrate. Early 20th century researchers did not understand the complex interaction between acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. However, researchers did know that diabetics suffered from severe acidosis with accompanying acetone breath and they labeled the uncharacterized substances that accumulated in the blood and urine of diabetic patients' acetone bodies. The term acetone bodies was later changed to ketone bodies because acetone is a ketone. Indeed, a 1904 publication titled Clinical Urinology details the examination of several substances in the urine of diabetics while referring to them as acetone bodies while attempting to characterize their nature and function.
Acetone bodies is a term that had its roots in earlier research related to the discovery of acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate. In 1865 acetoacetate was discovered in the urine of diabetic patients and in 1884 researchers, Minkowski and E. Kulz simultaneously discovered and isolated the substance β-oxybutyric acid, or beta-hydroxybutyric acid. Further investigation showed that mild oral supplementation of beta-hydroxybutyric acid resulted in the urinary excretion of acetoacetate and acetone and high volume supplementation of beta-hydroxybutyric acid led to the excretion of all three substances. Due to the fact that administration of beta-hydroxybutyric acid resulted in the production and excretion of acetoacetate and acetone, beta-hydroxybutyrate was thought to be the parent molecule of the three. Later Magnus Levy went on to deduce that the increased level of breath acetone present in diabetic or fasting patients was secondary to breakdown of fatty acids and occurred along with production of acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate which were measurable in the urine and blood and the three molecules became an inseparable trio for better or worse. Finally, in the 1950s researchers Kaplan and Lipmann discovered that acetoacetate was the central molecule which underwent chemical change to form acetone or beta-hydroxybutyrate, however by this time the term ketone bodies had stuck and continues to be used today.
The problem arising from utilization of the term ketone bodies has to do with the fact that because acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate have been referred to as ketone bodies for so long beta-hydroxybutyrate has actually come to be erroneously referred to as a ketone itself. This mislabeling can be seen in the way beta-hydroxybutyrate is referred to not only as a ketone body, but as a ketone in numerous publications including scientific articles and nutrition text books, health and fitness magazines, and internet websites and this is due to the assumption that a substance with a ketone-body must naturally contain a ketone component which should be the case but it is not. Further, the mislabeling of beta-hydroxybutyrate as a ketone or ketone body is highly misleading for those individuals not familiar with the chemical structure or biological function of the molecule as these individuals automatically think that an increased blood beta-hydroxybutyrate level, regardless of the source, is indicative of a state of nutritional ketosis with all of its normally ascribed health benefits which is simply not true as will be discussed later.
For the purposes of the present invention the molecules acetoacetate and acetone will be referred to as ketones as will any other molecule meeting the chemical definition of a ketone while the molecule beta-hydroxybutyrate will be referred to as a carboxylic acid due to its chemical structure and function.
As previously mentioned, when ketone production occurs acetoacetate is the very first ketone produced and has three fates: 1)—Conversion to acetyl-CoA and entry into the citric acid cycle for energy production, 2)—spontaneous decomposition to the ketone acetone, and 3)—reversible conversion to the carboxylic acid beta-hydroxybutyrate in the presence of D-beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase when cellular NADH levels are high. Important to note here is that of the three, only acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate have significant value for energy production in the body. Further, only acetoacetate is a substrate for conversion to acetyl-CoA which enters the citric acid cycle as there is no interconversion between beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetyl-CoA and unless beta-hydroxybutyrate can become acetoacetate it holds no value for energy production.
For the purposes of the present invention the described relationship between acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate cannot be emphasized enough and this is due to the fact that only endogenous production of true ketones occurring within the liver secondary to the breakdown of the body fat facilitates weight loss with improvements in lipid profile.
For the purposes of the present invention a ketogenic state refers to a metabolic state wherein the liver produces ketones from fatty acid oxidation for energy purposes. Once acetoacetate has been produced in the liver a portion of it is converted to beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetone and these substances are released into the blood. As more and more acetoacetate, acetone, and beta-hydroxybutyrate are released into circulation the concentration of these molecules in the body rises and as state known as ketosis is reached. For the purposes of the present invention the terms "ketosis" and "nutritional ketosis" refer to a subject being in a state of endogenous ketone production with elevated blood levels of ketones in the urine, breath, or blood. Nutritional ketosis is described as a state in which all tissues capable of relying upon ketones for energy are actively doing so and typically occurs after an individual has been in a state of ketosis for one or more weeks. There are various conventional ways of measuring if an individual has entered a state of ketosis and they include analysis of urine, breath, and blood. When ketone production in the liver begins acetoacetate is the first ketone produced and as this ketone enters the blood it is filtered by the kidneys and excreted in the urine and easily measured. Therefore, it is conventionally understood that when an individual has a urine acetoacetate concentration of at least 5 mg/dL they are said to have entered a state of endogenous ketosis. A state of endogenous ketosis is also understood to have been reached when the blood concentration of beta-hydroxybutyrate rises to at least 0.5 mmol/L secondary to acetoacetate production in the liver, not because beta-hydroxybutyrate is itself a ketone. Likewise, acetoacetate is spontaneously decarboxylated to acetone and shuttled through the blood to the lungs for disposal in the breath. Non-ketogenic individuals typically have a breath acetone level of <2 ppm while breath acetone levels of ppm indicate endogenous ketogenesis if they occur in the absence of other potential false positives such as alcohol consumption. For the purposes of the present invention it is assumed that any acetone, acetoacetate, or beta-hydroxybutyrate present in the breath, urine, or blood at levels indicative of ketosis is secondary to fatty acid oxidation and ketone production in the liver. Of note is that because acetoacetate is the first ketone produced detectible concentrations of both acetone and beta-hydroxybutyrate typically lag behind measurable levels of urinary acetoacetate. This physiologic lag is the very reason that urinalysis for acetoacetate using nitroprusside urine ketone reagent strips is a speedy and inexpensive way to detect initial entry into ketosis and is the method of detecting entry into ketosis with respect to the present invention.
It is imperative to note here that the state of nutritionally induced ketosis should not be confused with Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA). DKA is a state experienced by diabetics who have a high blood concentration of beta-hydroxybutyrate from uncontrolled acetoacetate production in the liver with a drop in blood pH secondary to lack of insulin, infection, trauma, or other malnutrition. In contrast to the low blood beta-hydroxybutyrate levels experienced in dieting individuals those suffering from DKA may have blood beta-hydroxybutyrate levels of 25 mmol/L with accompanying electrolyte, pH, and metabolic disturbances. Confusion of DKA with nutritional ketosis is virtually impossible unless one has an incomplete understanding of either state.
A ketogenic diet is one that is high in dietary fat and low in carbohydrate with only moderate protein intake at 1-2 g/kg of body weight per day. Classically, ketogenic diets are composed of 75-85% of calories from fat, 15-25% of calories from protein, and 5-10% of calories from carbohydrate. Typically ketogenic diets require a dietary carbohydrate restriction of less than 50 g per day for a number of days for individuals to enter a state of sustained nutritional ketosis and utilize their fat stores for fuel. One of the highly researched and written about benefits of a ketogenic diet is that it allows an individual to lose weight from fat while preserving total body protein stores i.e. muscle tissue. Cox et al, in a paper on exercise performance and ketosis, concluded that a state of nutritional ketosis had the ability to increase anabolic muscle metabolism and recovery in athletes secondary to sparing protein utilization for energy production purposes. The ability to preserve total body protein while losing weight from fat has huge potential over traditional diets as the preservation of protein typically does not occur in a diet that simply cuts calories or is low in fat due to protein being converted to glucose for energy. Bergs Biochemistry, 5th edition, contains the following statement:
"Even under starvation conditions, the blood-glucose level must be maintained above 2.2 mM (40 mg/dl). The first priority of metabolism in starvation is to provide sufficient glucose to the brain and other tissues (such as red blood cells) that are absolutely dependent on this fuel. However, precursors of glucose are not abundant. Most energy is stored in the fatty acyl moieties of triacylglycerols. Recall that fatty acids cannot be converted into glucose, because acetyl-coA cannot be transformed into pyruvate. The glycerol moiety of triacylglycerol can be converted into glucose, but only a limited amount is available. The only other potential source of glucose is amino acids derived from the breakdown of proteins. However, proteins are not stored, and so any breakdown will necessitate a loss of function."
Thus preservation of total body protein can be a state that is conducive not only to weight loss from actual fat, but also recovery from medical conditions and surgeries as well as bodybuilding and sports nutrition. Another positive aspect of a ketogenic diet is that due to the high individual intake of fat and protein satiety is prolonged and hunger is not experienced while weight loss occurs. This lack of hunger is one of the strong points of a ketogenic diet due to the fact that lack of hunger makes the diet easier to complete than a typical low-calorie, or low-fat diet. Finally, ketogenic diets themselves have been shown to improve insulin resistance, improve lipid panel, and facilitate weight loss; all of which contribute to diabetes and metabolic syndrome when dysregulation occurs.
Despite the researched and reported health benefits of the ketogenic diet the major barrier that prevents individuals from maintaining a state of ketosis long enough to lose significant weight from fat are the requirements for entering ketosis and maintaining ketosis. Normally, to enter ketosis an individual must restrict carbohydrate intake to 50 g or less per day for a period of time adequate to reduce blood glucose levels and deplete glycogen stores for transition to the production of ketones for energy. The length of time required to complete the task of entering ketosis is highly variable and depends upon several factors such as individual glycogen storage capacity, metabolic rate, and exercise. For example, an individual with a low resting metabolic rate who does not exercise may be required to consume 20 g or less of carbohydrate per day to enter ketosis; individuals with higher metabolic rates may be able to consume more carbohydrate and enter ketosis while completing little or no exercise. Studies conclude that the average American consumes roughly 270 g of carbohydrate per day, although this amount is criticized as being low, in the form of breads, pastas, sodas, and other processed food. Therefore, restricting carbohydrate intake to 50 g is usually difficult for the average person with further reductions being much more difficult to achieve. Typically, a person may have to consume this low level of carbohydrate, 50 g or 20 g, for two days to a week or more to enter a ketogenic state that can be measured via the common methods which are urine, breath, or blood. This period of carbohydrate reduction with no apparent generation of measurable ketones typically produces hunger, fatigue, light-headedness, and frustration as side effects while the body switches from utilizing glucose to ketones and is the major reason individuals do not adhere to the ketogenic diet long enough to see any noticeable effect. Symptoms of transitional hypoglycemia are described as irritability, foggy-thinking, headache, fatigue, and light-headedness and are commonly experienced between day one of a restricted carbohydrate diet and initiation of ketogenesis.
As previously stated this transitional hypoglycemic state may last for days depending on how fast an individual can enter ketosis. Thus the ability for mass numbers of individuals to enter a ketogenic state is severely retarded by the duration of carbohydrate restriction required to enter ketosis and the subsequent perceived difficulties of transitioning to a ketogenic state. Another perceived difficulty of the ketogenic diet is re-entering ketosis after a carbohydrate loading day or a cheat day. Acute carbohydrate consumption after a carbohydrate depleted state can double an individual's glycogen stores which would then require several days of carbohydrate restriction to re-enter ketosis. A similar difficulty is that some individuals will be kicked out of ketosis if they consume just a few grams of carbohydrate over their limit required for maintaining ketosis while on the diet itself.
Therefore, a need exists to overcome the problems with the prior art as discussed above, and particularly for a more efficient way to enter into and maintain a ketogenic state.

Composition and method for rapidly inducing an endogenous ketosis


A method and a device for signaling several items of information relevant for operating a motor vehicle are provided, which are registered by the driver of the vehicle in a particularly reliable manner, and which do not distract the driver from the traffic. To this end, different items of information are represented by unambiguous haptic signals, particularly having a maximum, at different positions of a control element of the vehicle, particularly an accelerator pedal.

Methods and devices for signaling several items of information relevant for operating a motor vehicle are already known. For example, a visual display for the current fuel consumption is already provided standard in many vehicles and promotes the consciousness for an economical driving style. For this purpose, different fuel consumption values can be represented visually.

Method and device for signaling several pieces of information that are relevant for operating a motor vehicle