A multi-input multi-output (MIMO) system considers either reliability for each antenna or a time/frequency location, and transmits a signal at an unequal ratio for each antenna according to the consideration result. The method for use in the MIMO system including multiple antennas includes processing a signal according to an unequal ratio transmission scheme employing the multiple antennas at an unequal ratio, and transmitting the processed signal via the multiple antennas.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a MIMO-OFDM system employing multiple transmission/reception (Tx/Rx) antennas.
A transmission end 1000 of the MIMO-OFDM system is shown in the left of the MIMO-OFDM system of FIG. 1. In this case, if the transmission end 1000 is an entity capable of transmitting a signal, it may be any one of a Node-B or a user equipment (UE). In the transmission end 100, a channel encoder 100 attaches redundant bits to a data packet to protect information bits from a negative influence of a channel or noise. A mapper 110 converts data bit information into data symbol information. A serial-to-parallel (S/P) converter 120 converts serial data into parallel data. A MIMO encoder 130 converts data symbols into space-time signals. The multi-antenna 140 for use in the transmission end 1000 transmit the space-time signals to channels.
A reception end 1500 of the MIMO-OFDM system is shown in the right side of the MIMO-OFDM system of FIG. 1. In this case, if the reception end 1500 is an entity capable of receiving a signal, it may be any one of a Node-B or a user equipment (UE). The Rx antenna receives a signal from a channel. A MIMO decoder 160 converts the received space-time signals into the data symbols. The de-mapper converts the data symbols into information bit. The P/S converter 180 converts a parallel signal into a serial signal. The channel decoder 190 decodes a channel code, and data is estimated at 195.
In the above-mentioned MIMO-OFDM system, space-time codes have been frequently used to maximize the spatial diversity gain. Several types of space-time codes that can provide considerable performance gain according to the number of transmit antennas and/or spatial multiplexing rate are shown in the following Table 1:
TABLE 1# of Txspace-time codes (Scheme)Rateantenna            (      1      )                                            1                  2                                  [                                                            S                1                                                                    -                                  S                  2                  *                                                                                S                2                                                                    S                1                *                                                    ]                                    or                                        1                  2                                  [                                                            S                1                                                                    S                2                                                                                -                                  S                  2                  *                                                                                S                1                *                                                    ]                      12       (    2    )                          1              2                        [                                                  S              1                                                                          S              2                                          ]      22                     (        3        )                                                              1                                    2                                            (                                  1                  +                                      r                    2                                                  )                                                                      [                                                                                S                    1                                    +                                      jr                    ·                                          S                      4                                                                                r                    ·                                          S                      2                                                        +                                      S                    3                                                                                S                    2                                    -                                      r                    ·                                          S                      3                                                                                jr                    ·                                          S                      1                                                        +                                      S                    4                                                                                ]                                        ,                            r      =                                                  5                ±                  1          /          2                              22             (      4      )                                            1        2                          [                                                            S                1                                                                    S                2                                                                    S                3                                                                    S                4                                                                                S                2                *                                                                    -                                  S                  1                  *                                                                                S                4                *                                                                    -                                  S                  3                  *                                                                                S                3                                                                    -                                  S                  4                                                                                -                                  S                  1                                                                                S                2                                                                                S                4                *                                                                    S                3                *                                                                    -                                  S                  2                  *                                                                                -                                  S                  1                  *                                                                    ]                      14             (      5      )                                            1                  2                                  [                                                            S                1                                                                    S                2                                                    0                                      0                                                                          -                                  S                  2                  *                                                                                S                1                *                                                    0                                      0                                                          0                                      0                                                      S                3                                                                    S                4                                                                        0                                      0                                                      -                                  S                  4                  *                                                                                S                3                *                                                    ]                                    or                                        1                  2                                  [                                                            S                1                                                                    S                2                                                    0                                      0                                                          0                                      0                                                      S                3                                                                    S                4                                                                                -                                  S                  2                  *                                                                                S                1                *                                                    0                                      0                                                          0                                      0                                                      -                                  S                  4                  *                                                                                S                3                *                                                    ]                      14             (      6      )                                            1        2                          [                                                            S                1                                                                    -                                  S                  2                  *                                                                                S                5                                                                    -                                  S                  6                  *                                                                                S                2                                                                    S                1                *                                                                    S                6                                                                    S                5                *                                                                                S                3                                                                    -                                  S                  4                  *                                                                                S                7                                                                    -                                  S                  8                  *                                                                                S                4                                                                    S                3                *                                                                    S                8                                                                    S                7                *                                                    ]                      24
In the table 1, space-time codes (1), (2) and (3) are designed for 2Tx antenna system with different diversity and multiplexing tradeoff. In addition, space-time codes (4), (5) and (6) are designed for 4Tx antenna system. Rows and columns of the above-mentioned space-time codes may be differently used according to individual situations. Rows of individual space-time codes may be considered to be a space domain (i.e., transmit antenna) and columns may be considered to be a time (i.e., OFDM symbol) or a frequency domain (i.e., subcarrier) in OFDM based system.
Each space-time code of Table 1 may be represented by a Space-Time Block Code (STBC) or a Space-Frequency Block Code (SFBC). For example, the space-time code (5) of Table 1 may be represented by the following equation 1:
                    Transmit                                                            antenna          ↓                      1                          2                                                                    [                                                                                S                    1                                                                                S                    2                                                                    0                                                  0                                                                                -                                          S                      2                      *                                                                                S                    1                    *                                                                    0                                                  0                                                                              0                                                  0                                                                      S                    3                                                                                S                    4                                                                                0                                                  0                                                                      -                                          S                      4                      *                                                                                S                    3                    *                                                                        ]                                →            Time                                              [                  Equation                                                              1                ]                                Transmit                                                            antenna          ↓                      1                          2                                                                    [                                                                                S                    1                                                                                S                    2                                                                    0                                                  0                                                                                -                                          S                      2                      *                                                                                S                    1                    *                                                                    0                                                  0                                                                              0                                                  0                                                                      S                    3                                                                                S                    4                                                                                0                                                  0                                                                      -                                          S                      4                      *                                                                                S                    3                    *                                                                        ]                                →                          Frequency                                                                                or                                                                                subcarrier                                                          [                  Equation                                                              2                ]
In Equation 1, each column of the space-time code is considered to be a time, so that it is denoted by "STBC". In Equation 2, each column of the space-time code is considered to be a frequency or a sub-carrier, so that it is denoted by "SFBC".
The above Equation 1 indicates a scheme for transmitting symbols processed by individual columns in time domain. Therefore, in a high-speed mobility channel, inter-symbol interference could be significantly increased due to channel aging between two columns in Equation 1 and that may result in severe performance degradation.
The OFDM system of the above Equation 2 selects a space-time code for each sub-carrier using similar channel characteristics between neighboring sub-carriers, and transmits symbols processed by the selected space-time code to another Tx antenna. Compared with Equation 1, the space-frequency block code (SFBC) can acquire a higher performance under a high-speed mobile environment having a rapidly-changing channel.
The STBC expression of Equation 1 and the SFBC expression of Equation 2 can be applied to all kinds of space-time codes of Table 1.

Method for transmitting a signal in multi-antenna communication system


A liquid sample introduction system for a plasma spectrometer includes a sample container for holding a liquid sample, a surface acoustic wave (SAW) nebulizer, arranged to receive a liquid sample from the sample container, an electronic controller for supplying electrical power to the SAW nebulizer so as to produce a surface acoustic wave on a surface of the SAW nebulizer, for generating an aerosol from the supplied sample liquid, and an aerosol transport arrangement for receiving the aerosol from the SAW nebulizer and carrying it into a plasma or flame of a spectrometer. The electronic controller is further configured to control the electrical power to the SAW nebulizer so as to permit adjustment of the aerosol parameters, and to control the aerosol transport arrangement so as to permit adjustment of the aerosol delivery into the plasma or flame of the spectrometer.

Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (OES) and Plasma Mass Spectrometry (MS) are well known techniques for the analysis of trace elemental concentrations in liquids. A plasma may be formed using microwaves (e.g., Microwave Induced Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (MIP-OES) or Microwave Induced Plasma Mass Spectrometry (MIP-MS)), or by using an inductively-coupled system (e.g., Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) or Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)), each being examples of techniques employing atmospheric-pressure plasmas. Typically, detection limits extend to parts per billion (ppb) levels for ICP-OES, and to parts per trillion (ppt) levels for ICP-MS. Atomic Absorption (AA) and Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy (AFS) are also well known techniques, utilizing a flame for atomizing sample material. These various techniques are often used in conjunction with one another in the laboratory. For clarity and consistency in the following text, the term plasma spectrometer is employed, but it is to be understood that this encompasses any device that includes a torch for producing a plasma or flame.
The torches employed in the various analytical techniques above differ in their details. However the principle is common to each: liquid samples are usually diluted and aspirated using a nebulizer or some form of droplet generator, and are then propelled out of an outlet of the nebulizer or droplet generator into an inert or flame gas stream which carries droplets of the sample-containing liquid into a torch and thereby into the plasma or flame. The plasma discharge is sufficiently hot to cause the droplets of liquid entering the plasma to be progressively vaporized, atomized and then partially ionized. Atomized and ionized material is excited and relaxes to emit characteristic wavelengths of light detected by the optical spectrometer in the case of ICP-OES, and ionized material is directed into a vacuum system, through an ion optical system and a mass analyzer in the case of ICP-MS.
Typically the sample-containing liquid is formed into a stream of droplets using a pneumatic nebulizer utilizing a stream of gas, such as argon in the case of ICP. Pneumatic nebulizers produce droplets with a wide range of sizes. However both plasmas and flames are inefficient at dissociating significant quantities of large droplets. The maximal diameter of the droplets in an aerosol suitable for ICP spectrometry may be estimated or determined empirically. The specific size depends on a variety of factors, such as the total amount of the aerosol delivered into the plasma (plasma loading) and also on the characteristics of the ICP generator, the plasma torch and the load coil design employed. In a multidrop aerosol, 10 μm seems to be a typically size limit. Larger droplet sizes can apparently be employed in single droplet introduction systems—e.g., in S. Groh et al., Spectrochimica Acta Part B, vol. 64, pp. 247-254, 2009, droplet sizes up to 70 μm were used, and in K. Shigeta et al., Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, vol. 30, pp. 1609-1616, 2015, droplets even up to 300 μm were shown to generate an analytical signal in ICP, although using a specially designed torch. Furthermore it is generally recognized that, in order to obtain optimal analytical figures of merit, the droplet size distribution should be as narrow as possible.
To address the problem presented by larger droplet sizes, a spray chamber is typically placed between the nebulizer and the torch, to separate the larger droplets from the smaller droplets, the latter being preferentially carried by the flow of gas into the torch. As a result, typically no more than 1-2% of the nebulized sample-containing liquid (in the cases of ICP-OES and ICP-MS), is in the form of sufficiently small droplets suitable for processing within the torch. Such low efficiency in pneumatic-based sample introduction systems (SIS) is however undesirable: for example, the analysis of microsamples (either carried out directly or using hyphenated techniques) using such apparatus is very challenging. Low efficiency also results in the production of large quantities of waste material, and in serious memory effects, which in turn limits sample throughput. Recent developments in pneumatic nebulizers have resulted in an increase in input efficiency (say, up to 10%) but at the cost of reduced sample throughput.
As well as maximum droplet size, and droplet size distribution limitations, droplet number density (or aerosol concentration) and initial droplet velocity are important parameters in sample introduction systems. Droplet number density and initial droplet velocity define to a great extent the course of secondary and tertiary processes in spray chambers, and therefore the properties and amount of the aerosol entering the plasma. It is considered desirable that these parameters are as small as possible.
Maximizing the amount of sample supplied to the plasma per unit of time is desirable, because higher sample delivery rates result in better sensitivity. On the other hand, excessive volumes of liquid can cool or, in worst cases, extinguish the plasma (plasma loading). Higher sample delivery rates also increase the unwanted effects of matrix species within the analysis. So, there is an optimal value or range of sample delivery rates that trades off these competing properties. This value or range is determined by many factors, such as sample type (analyte type, matrix, solvent, relative concentrations etc.), and plasma parameters (power, gas flow rate, etc.). A typical range of sample delivery rates for current pneumatic nebulizer based SISs, with water solutions, might span 10-150 μL/min. At the same time, sample constituents concentrations may vary across orders of magnitude. For one element, the concentration might be at the detection limit of the analyzer, whereas another element might be so abundant as to place the detector into a non-linear range.
The central channel gas flow rate used to transfer sample aerosol into the plasma has also fundamental constraints. It should be high enough that a channel is formed on the plasma axis, which is a prerequisite for effective introduction of aerosol droplets into the hot and dense plasma. But, again, an excessive amount of central gas degrades the plasma robustness by deteriorating its excitation/ionizing properties. The optimum central channel gas flow rate, from the point of view of the plasma conditions, can be estimated from experiments with dry plasma, when the sample is introduced in waterless form e.g. using laser ablation, and lies (for ICP plasma) at about 0.4 L/min. It is clear that, for wet plasma, this value should be even less. So the range 0.2-0.3 L/min is seen as very promising for achieving "super-robust" conditions in ICP plasma.
Pneumatic nebulizers suffer from a lack of flexibility (variability). Adjustment of sample delivery rates requires time consuming equipment changes. Moreover, the fundamentally stochastic nature of the pneumatic nebulization technique, and its strong dependence on both gas flow and sample liquid parameters, can often result in sample delivery rate instability together with control problems, both of which in turn can lead to degraded analytical performance.
In order to address the issues of unfavorable aerosol properties and inflexibility, other forms of sample nebulization have been proposed. One such technique employs an electronically controlled piezoelectric actuator, the nebulization efficiency of which is independent of gas flow rates. The electronic control also permits power tuning, for sample delivery rate adjustment, thus addressing the invariability drawbacks of pneumatic nebulizers. Moreover, the inherent stability of the electronics improves the droplet generation stability.
Piezoelectric driven dispensers (PEDDs) can be broadly categorized into two groups: so called "drop on demand" (DoD) devices that produce single isolated droplets for sequential transmission to the plasma, see for example WO-A-2014/056807, and aerosol devices which produce multiple small droplets for simultaneous introduction into the plasma. DoD PEDDs can produce larger droplets (20-100 μm diameters) that are extremely reproducible, have a precisely known diameter, and are highly directional. The signal to noise and signal to background ratios are high. Their downside is a relatively slow sample delivery rate. Aerosol PEDDs, by contrast, can generate large numbers of smaller droplets (diameters of between 5 and 10 μm or less), but the direction of travel of generated droplets is harder to control and this leads to a non-optimized transport efficiency, with consequential reductions in sensitivity and increases in memory effects.
Nevertheless, aerosol PEDDs overcome the main drawbacks of pneumatic nebulizers: they produce droplets that are easy to transport into the plasma (because of their relatively small size) and some of them are free from clogging. They are also robust, simple, compact and inexpensive to build.
Aerosol PEDDs proposed for commercial use in analytical spectrometry can themselves be subdivided into two: vibrating mesh nebulizers (VMNs) and ultrasonic nebulizers (USNs). In VMN, the aerosol is produced with the assistance of a membrane having μm-diameter holes formed in it, by for example chemical or laser etching. The membrane is then mechanically attached to an electronically controlled piezo actuator.
In USN, the aerosol is produced as a result of bulk acoustic waves deriving from the nebulizer body. SIS employing USNs are commercially available, e.g., the U5000AT+ and U6000AT+ from Teledyne Cetac Technologies, of Omaha, Nebr., USA. They are characterized by a relatively narrow droplet size distribution, a resistance to clogging, and wide liquid uptake range, leading to highly sensitive analytical results.
The main drawback of such USN PEDD nebulizers though is their cost and start up time. There is a relatively high electrical power requirement (20-50 W), and redundant power dissipates also on the actuator surface leading to deterioration in long term stability as well as matrix effects. Liquid feeding is also not optimal in a USN PEDD.
The present invention seeks to address these problems with the prior art. In particular, aspects of the present invention seek at least to ameliorate one or more of the problems of matrix effects (which limit analytical accuracy), short and long term signal instability defining the precision of analysis, insufficient sensitivity in respect of certain elements, limited signal dynamic range, and memory effects which can influence analytical time.

Liquid sample introduction system and method, for analytical plasma spectrometer


A method and apparatus are provided for insulating electrical connections to a resonator from fluid downhole under extreme pressure and temperature conditions downhole. The method and apparatus provide a pliable insulator that maintains electrical isolation between resonator electrical connections during exposure to high pressures downhole. The insulator is evacuated or placed in a vacuum prior to curing to remove bubbles from the insulator material. The insulator is then heat cured. The insulator is substantially chemically non reactive so that the insulator maintains electrical isolation between the resonator electrical connections during exposure to fluids downhole. The insulator has a thermal coefficient of expansion in a range so that the insulator maintains electrical isolation between the resonator electrical connections during exposure to high temperatures downhole.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to the field of downhole fluid analysis in hydrocarbon producing wells for determining fluid density, viscosity, and other parameters for a fluid downhole in a borehole during monitoring while drilling or wire line operations. More particularly, the present invention relates to a method and apparatus for insulating electrical connections to a resonator from conductive fluid downhole.
2. Background Information
U.S. Pat. No. 6,938,470 by DiFoggio et al. describes a downhole method and apparatus for using a mechanical resonator, for example, a tuning fork to provide real-time direct measurements and estimates of the viscosity, density and dielectric constant of formation fluid or filtrate in a hydrocarbon producing well. As shown generally in DiFoggio et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,938,470), a resonator, such as a piezoelectric tuning fork is placed downhole as an addition to a fluid analyzer module.
One obstacle to the successful use of resonators such as tuning forks downhole has been electrical shorting of resonator electrical connections when exposed to conductive fluids downhole. Downhole fluids are under the extreme pressure and temperature encountered downhole. Downhole pressure can exceed 30,000 pounds per square inch (PSI) and temperature can exceed 350° F. Fluid downhole under high pressure and temperature can force downhole fluid into the electrical insulation around a resonator and short out the electrical connections to the resonator.

This patent is subject to a terminal disclaimer.

Method and apparatus for insulating a resonator downhole


A communications switching system such as a PBX, central office switch and the like, responds to an incoming call to a called party by signaling a paging device as well as some other communications device having communications capability different from that of the paging device. In the disclosed embodiment, which pertains to a private branch exchange (PBX), this other communications device is one which provides two-way voice communications. Advantageously, the paging device may also be provided with the capability of signalling the communications system that the called party will shortly answer the call via a communications device possessing two-way voice communications. Upon receipt of this pager-transmitted signal, the communications system, if desired, can be provided with the ability to provide an announcement to the calling party of the called party's intent to answer the call. Once the called party reaches any voice communications device connected to the system, the incoming call is redirected to that device upon the called party providing a predetermined identification to the communications system.

A variety of wired and wireless communications devices, each offering a panoply of capabilities, are available to suit an individual's needs. Wired communications devices are those which require a signal-conducting path, other than air, between the communications device and a communications system, such as a central office switch or private branch exchange (PBX). The signal-conducting path can take many physical forms, including a number of different kinds of metallic conductors or optical fibers. In contrast, wireless communications devices, such as paging and cellular radio communications devices, utilize the air as the medium to transport signals to and from the communications system. The distinction between paging and cellular radio devices resides in their communications capabilities. Paging devices are portable one-way communications devices which respond to associated radio signals which are broadcasted while cellular radio devices provide full two-way communications capabilities.
With a paging device, the reception of a predetermined radio signal typically activates an audible and/or visual alarm to indicate that the person carrying the pager should make a call to a predetermined telephone number to receive a message. Or, in the alternative, the paging device may have the capability to receive an incoming message which can be displayed. This message communicates a predefined amount of information which may be the telephone number of a calling party.
There are many situations where an individual may have a pager as well as a wired or wireless communications device possessing full two-way communications capabilities to receive incoming calls. Such situations include a hospital, manufacturing, education and general office environments where it is desirable that an individual be notified of incoming calls independent of whether that individual is in close proximity to his/her associated full, two-way communications device. In such situations, it is necessary that a communications system have the capability of notifying a called party of an incoming call by signalling any paging device associated with that called party. Present techniques which provide such signalling broadcast a signal to the paging device associated with the called party. The shortcoming of this technique is that a telephone number different from that associated with the called party must be dialed in order to activate such a broadcast. As a result, a calling party must dial two different telephone numbers, the first associated with the called party's wired full two-way or wireless communications device and then, if the called party does not answer, dials a second number to alert the called party via his/her paging device. If the second number is dialed, the calling party must also wait for a return call from the called party since the paging device cannot provide two-way communications capabilities. This scenario often results in considerable telephone tag, i.e., situations where two individuals periodically try to contact one another and fail because the other person is unavailable.
While the use of cellular communications devices with full two-way communications devices can alleviate much of the foregoing problems associated with paging devices, cellular radio devices give rise to a set of other problems. One such problem is that cellular telephones are expensive and this expense is not merely that of the portable communications device but also that of the necessary transceivers which must be disposed to provide substantially uniform communications coverage within a given environment. It should be noted in this regard that the requirements of supporting apparatus associated with two-way cellular radio devices are considerably more sophisticated than those associated with paging devices because the former must provide intelligible two-way communications. Another problem is that the requirements for cellular two-way radio devices may be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve in certain noisy environments. Still another problem is that the required radio spectrum to provide cellular radio communications may not be available in certain environments or geographical areas.
In light of the foregoing, there are still considerable applications for paging devices and it would be desirable if a scheme could be devised which would eliminate the problems associated with the use of such devices.

Integration of wireless paging in a communication system


Disclosed are anhydrous antiperspirant cream compositions that are substantially free of polymeric or inorganic thickening, and have improved product stability and spreading performance. These compositions have a rheology profile characterized by select product hardness (from about 75 gram force to about 500 gram force), delta stress (from about 300 dyne/cm.sup.2 to about 8,000 dyne/cm.sup.2) and static yield stress (at least about 1,000 dyne/cm.sup.2 ) values. The new rheology profile is preferably applied to antiperspirant cream compositions comprising from about 0.1% to about 20 % by weight of a crystalline gellant, from about 10% to about 80% by weight of an anhydrous liquid carrier for the crystalline gellant having a solubility parameter of from about 3 to about 13 and, from about 5 % to about 35% by weight of a particulate antiperspirant active. Also disclosed are methods of using and making the compositions, and packaged compositions having a shear force delivery means for applying the composition to the axilla or other area of the skin. The disclosed compositions are especially effective at minimizing or eliminating solvent syneresis during packaging, storage, transport or during extrusion through a perforated mesh cap or other shear force delivery means.

There are many types of topical antiperspirant products that are commercially available or otherwise known in the antiperspirant art. Most of these products are formulated as sprays, roll-on liquids, creams, or solid sticks, and comprise an astringent material, e.g. zirconium or aluminum salts, incorporated into a suitable topical carrier. These products are designed to provide effective perspiration and odor control while also being cosmetically acceptable during and after application onto the axillary area or other areas of the skin.
Within this product group, antiperspirant creams have become increasingly more popular as an effective alternative to antiperspirant sprays and solid sticks. These creams can be applied by conventional means, or packaged into topical dispensers to make topical application more efficient and less messy. Perspiration and odor control provided by these products can be excellent. Many of these creams, however, are cosmetically unacceptable to a large number of antiperspirant users. Application of these creams can be messy, difficult to spread and wash off, and even when a cream applicator is employed, the applied areas often feel wet or sticky for several minutes after application. These compositions are especially difficult to uniformly spread over hairy areas of the skin. Many consumers have therefore preferred antiperspirant sticks for ease of administration and drier skin feel immediately after application, although the antiperspirant sticks typically leave an undesirably high residue on the skin.
One method for making improved antiperspirant creams involves the formulation of particulate antiperspirant actives in a mixture of volatile and nonvolatile silicones or other carriers. The use of such volatile solvents in these mixtures helps reduce stickiness, improve dry-down times after application onto skin, improve ease of spreading, and improve wash-off characteristics. To maintain physical stability of these creams, however, inorganic thickening agents such as bentonite clays, hectorite clays, colloidal or finned silicas are often needed. The inorganic thickening agents, however, contribute a grainy texture to the product and are not especially effective in maintaining physical stability when higher concentrations of volatile silicone or nonsilicone solvents, or lower viscosity nonvolatile silicone or nonsilicone solvents are used. This physical instability results in solvent syneresis (weeping of solvent from the cream matrix) during packaging, storage or shipping.
Product instability in the form of solvent syneresis can be minimized or eliminated in these soft creams by simply formulating the product into a harder, more conventional, antiperspirant stick. Many consumers, however, prefer the lower residue cosmetics associated with the soft creams, especially when these creams are applied with a cream applicator device having a perforated cap through which the soft cream is extruded and applied to the skin. Antiperspirant sticks are too hard to be extruded through most perforated caps, and typically result in higher visible residue on the skin than soft antiperspirant creams.
Other methods of preparing soft antiperspirant creams involve compositions comprising a volatile silicone solvent, suitable gellant, and antiperspirant active, which compositions are prepared by select processing methods. Components of the compositions are mixed together and heated above the melt point of the gellant, and then cooled to below the normal solidification point of the composition while subjecting the composition to continuous mixing or shear. The continuous mixing or shear prevents the product from forming a solid matrix at its normal solidification point, and thus forms a soft creamy matrix with continuous mixing below its normal solidification point. The continuous mixing thus prevents the composition from solidifying into a harder gel stick, and thus transforms it into a soft cream instead. These compositions, however, tend to be physically unstable during storage and result in substantial solvent syneresis during storage, shipping or even during application of the soft cream when applied through a perforated cap.
It has now been found that new antiperspirant creams can be prepared that deliver improved cosmetics, product stability, and reduced solvent syneresis, without reliance on the use of inorganic or polymeric thickening agents. The new antiperspirant creams are anhydrous systems that are substantially free of inorganic or polymeric thickening agents, wherein the composition has a penetration force value of from about 75 gram.force to about 500 gram.force, a delta stress value of from about 300 dyne/cm.sup.2 to about 8,000 dyne/cm.sup.2 as measured after extrusion of the composition through a shear force delivery means, and a static yield stress value of at least about 1,000 dyne/cm.sup.2 as measured after extrusion of the composition through a shear force delivery means. These creams are soft enough for application through a mesh top or other perforated application cap but act as antiperspirant sticks in having minimal or no syneresis during storage. When stress is applied to the new antiperspirant creams, preferably by extruding the cream through a perforated cap or other shear force delivery means, prior to application, the cream becomes more fluid-like and easier to apply topically to the skin. These improved creams are effective at maintaining product stability and minimizing solvent syneresis, especially when used in combination with higher concentrations of volatile solvents or lower viscosity nonvolatile solvents.
It has also been found that these anhydrous antiperspirant creams are especially effective when prepared by select processing methods. In particular, it has been found that these creams can be made by 1) preparing a flowable liquid composition containing from about 5% to about 35% by weight of a particulate antiperspirant active, from about 0.1% to about 20% by weight of a crystalline gellant, and from about 10% to about 80% of an anhydrous liquid carrier for the crystalline gellant having a solubility parameter of from about 3 to about 13; and 2) solidifying the flowable composition without application of continuous shear force at or beyond the point of solidification, wherein the solidified composition is substantially free of inorganic or polymeric thickening agents, and has a penetration force value of from about 75 gram.force to about 500 gram force, a delta stress value of from about 300 dyne/cm.sup.2 to about 8,000 dyne/cm.sup.2 as measured after extrusion of the composition through a shear force delivery means, and a static yield stress value of at least about 1,000 dyne/cm.sup.2 as measured after extrusion of the composition through a shear force delivery means.
It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide an anhydrous antiperspirant cream composition with improved stability and spreading performance that is substantially free of inorganic or polymeric thickening agents. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide such a composition in combination with a perforated cap or other shear force delivery means which provides for improved topical application of the composition onto skin. It is also an object of the present invention to provide a method for preparing such improved antiperspirant cream compositions.

Antiperspirant cream compositions having improved rheology


A method and test kit for determining tumor cell apoptosis by inhibition of 12-lipoxygenase is described. A method for selectively inducing tumor cell apoptosis by inhibiting 12-lipoxygenase is also described. The preferred compounds are selected from the group consisting of a cyclic hydroxamic acid; and an aryl aliphatic acid; nordihydro guaiaretic acid (NDGA) and N-benzyl-N-hydroxy-5-phenylpentanamide (BHPP).

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to methods for the identification and use of chemical compounds that can selectively kill tumor cells by inducing cell apoptosis. Apoptosis is a natural process for normal cells and means programmed cell death. Tumor cells can avoid apoptosis and thus are able to survive and develop in the body. The method is significant in cancer therapy, since it can detect novel candidate chemotherapeutic drugs that could be used for the clinical treatment of cancer patients. In particular, the present invention relates to the methods using chemical compounds that are targeted to inhibit 12-lipoxygenase in inducing the tumor cell apoptosis.
2. Description of Related Art
Normal tissue homeostasis is maintained by balanced cell proliferation and cell death, which occurs most frequently in the form of apoptosis or programmed cell death. Tumor cells differ significantly from their normal counterparts with respect to the control of cell growth and proliferation. Most tumor cells demonstrate a self-dominant growth pattern either due to their abnormal response to environmental stimuli (hormones, growth factors, cytokines, etc.) or due to an autonomous nature of growth (i.e., autocrine stimulation). Tumor cells also demonstrate abnormal apoptotic responses. Many factors have been shown to regulate apoptosis, including (i) growth factors and growth factor receptors such as retinoid acid, interleukin-3, stem cell factor, interferon-.gamma., erythropoietin, NGF/NGF (nerve growth factor) receptor, TNF-.alpha./Fas (tumor necrosis factor-.alpha.), steel factor/Kit receptor, TGF-.beta./TGF (transforming growth factor) receptor, insulin, EGF/EGFR (epidermal growth factor), IGF-1/IGF (insulin-like growth factor) receptor, and PDGF/PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor receptor); (ii) intracellular signal transducers such as protein kinase C, PI-3 (phosphoinositol-3) kinase, Ras and GTPase, PLC-.gamma. (phospholipase C-.gamma.), tyrosine kinases and protein phosphatases, lipid signaling molecules such as eicosanoids, sphingosine, ceramide, and Ca.sup.2+ ; (iii) cell cycle regulators exemplified by Cdc-2 and E2F-1; (iv) reactive oxygen species or other free radicals; (v) extracellular matrix regulators/cell adhesion molecules (extracellular matrix proteins such as fibronectin and transmembrane integrin receptors) ; and (vi) specific endonucleases such as Ca.sup.2+ - and Mg.sup.2+ -dependent DNase and cytoplasmic proteases typified by ICE (interleukin 1.beta.-converting enzyme) family. Many of these regulators have been associated with various human malignancies and apoptosis. For example, studies on human tumors including neuroblastoma, glioma, lymphoma, breast carcinoma, colorectal adenocarcinoma, melanoma and gastrointestinal malignancies have demonstrated an overall positive correlation between increased expression of Bcl-2 (or Bcl-X.sub.L) or decreased expression of Bax and uncontrolled tumor cell growth, and, in some cases, with tumor progression and a poor prognosis of cancer patients. Another example is p53, a phosphoprotein known to modulate gene transcription, police cell cycle checkpoints, control DNA replication and repair, and maintain genomic stability. Wild type p53 also positively regulates apoptosis. p53 gene mutations have been linked to attenuated apoptosis in multiple cancers represented by Wilms' tumor, colon cancer, cervical carcinoma and breast cancer. Since apoptosis plays a critical role in multiple steps (transformation, progression and survival of metastases) of tumorigenesis as well as in tumor cells' response to chemotherapeutic drugs or radiation therapy, many chemoprevention and therapeutic regimens attempting to manipulate apoptotic process have been proposed to aid in the clinical treatment of cancer patients (Fesus, L., et al., J. Cell Biochem. 22:151-161 (1995); Lotan, R., J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 87:1655-1657 (1995); van Zandwijk, N., J. Cell Biochem. 22:24-32 (1995)).
Arachidonic acid (AA) is an essential component of the cell membrane phospholipids. AA released through the action of phospholipase A.sub.2 is metabolized via three major biochemical pathways: (i) the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway leading to the generation of prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and thromboxane; (ii) the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway giving rise to various hydroperoxy (HPETEs) and hydroxy (HETEs) fatty acids as well as leukotrienes; and (iii) the P450-dependent epoxygenase pathway generating EETs. Mammalian LOX display varying degrees of substrate specificity for insertion of molecular oxygen into arachidonic acid at carbon positions 5, 12, and 15. The enzymes, based on the abundance of the majority products have thus been termed 5, 12, and 15 lipoxygenases, respectively. The 12-LOX catalyzes the transformation of AA into 12(S) -hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HPETE) and its 12(S)-hydroxy derivatives i.e. 12(S)-HETE!. Three types of mammalian 12-LOX enzymes have so far been reported. The first is human platelet-type 12-lipoxygenase expressed normally in platelets, HEL (human erythroleukemia) cells, and umbilical vein endothelial cells (Funk, C. D., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 87:5638-5642 (1990); Funk, C. D., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 89:3962-3966 (1992)). Platelet-type 12-LOX metabolizes only AA (but not C-18 fatty acids such as linoleic acid) to form exclusively 12(S)-HETE (Funk, C. D., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 87:5638-5642 (1990) Marnett, L. J., et al., Adv. Prostaglandin Thromboxane Leukotriene Res. 21:895-900 (1990)). The second is porcine leukocyte-type 12-LOX which metabolizes both AA and linoleic acid thus generating 12(S)-HETE as well as small amounts of 15(S)-HETE (Hada, T., et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1083-1087 (1991)). The third type of 12-LOX (sometimes termed epithelial 12-lipoxygenase) has been isolated from bovine tracheal epithelial cells (De Marzo, N., et al., J. Physiol. 262:L198-L207 (1992)); rat brain (Watanabe, S., et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 212:605-612 (1993)), and murine macrophages (Freier-Moar, J., et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 1254:112-116 (1995)), which shares more homology with 15-LOX and leukocyte-type 12-LOX than with platelet-type 12-LOX. This type of 12-LOX, like reticulocyte 15-LOX and leukocyte-type 12-LOX, catalyzes the formation of both 12(S)-HETE and 15(S)-HETE.
The role of AA metabolites in regulating cell proliferation has been recognized for more than two decades. Numerous studies have demonstrated a strong positive correlation between growth factor- (EGF, insulin, PDGF, etc.) promoted cell proliferation and generation of various COX products, primarily prostaglandins (Skouteris, G. G., et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 178:1240-1246 (1991); Nolan, R. D., et al., Mol. Pharmacol. 33:650-656 (1988); Smith, D. L., et al., Prostaglandins Leukotrienes Med., 16:1-10 (1984)). Similarly, it has been found that various eicosanoids derived from LOX pathways as well as epoxygenase pathways of AA metabolism play an essential role in mediating the growth factor-stimulated normal cell and tumor cell growth. Examples include 15-HETE as a mitogenic regulator of T-lymphocyte (Bailey, J. M., et al., Cell Immunol., 67:112-120 (1982)), 12-HETE and LTB.sub.4 as growth stimulators of epidermal cells (Chan, C., et al., J. Invest. Dermatol., 85:333-334 (1985)), 12-HETE stimulation of keratinocyte DNA synthesis (Kragballe, K., et al., Arch. Dermatol. Res., 278:449-453 (1986)), 15-/12-HETEs as mediators of insulin and EGF-stimulated mammary epithelial cell proliferation (Bandyopadhyay, G. K., et al., J. Biol. Chem., 263:7567-7573 (1988)) and as synergistic effectors of bFGF- (basic fibroblast growth factor) and PDGF-regulated growth of vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells (Yamaja Setty, B. N., et al., J. Biol. Chem., 262:17613-17622 (1987); Dethlefsen, S. M., et al., Exp. Cell Res., 212:262-273 (1994)), 12(S)-HETE as a regulator of EGF- and insulin-stimulated DNA synthesis and protooncogene expression in lens epithelial cells (Lysz, T. W., et al., Cell Growth & Differ., 5:1069-1076 (1994)) and as the mediator of angiotensin II-induced aldosterone synthesis in adrenal glomerulosa cells (Nadler, R. D., et al., J. Clin. Invest., 80:1763-1769 (1987)).
The present inventors have long been interested in the modulatory role of various eicosanoids in tumorigenesis and metastatic process. Early work demonstrated an important function for prostacyclin (PGI.sub.2) and thromboxane (TxA.sub.2), two major cyclooxygenase (COX) products of AA metabolism derived primarily from vascular endothelial cells and platelets, respectively, in regulating the hematogenous spreading of malignant tumor cells (Honn, K. V., et al., Science 212:1270-1272 (1981); reviewed in Schneider et al., Cancer metastasis Rev. 13:349-364 (1994)). Later, systematic in vitro and in vivo studies have led to the discovery that many LOX metabolites also play a key role in modulating the phenotypic properties of tumor cells as well as tumor cell-vasculature interactions (Reviewed in Honn, K. V., et al., Cancer Metastasis Rev. 11:353-375 (1992); Honn, K. V., and D. G. Tang, Seminar Thromb. Hemost., 18:392-415 (1992); Tang, D. G. and K. V. Honn, Invasion Metastasis 14:109-122 (1995)). Prominently, a small hydroxy fatty acid molecule derived from the LOX pathway of AA metabolism, i.e., 12(S)-HETE 12(S)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid!, has been observed to possess a wide-spectrum of biological activities including, among others, inducing platelet aggregation, stimulating insulin secretion, suppressing renin production, chemoattracting leukocytes, facilitating macrophage adhesion, inhibiting prostacyclin biosynthesis by vascular endothelial cells (Spector, A. A., et al., Prog. Lipid Res. 27:271-323 (1988); Sekiya, K., et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 105:1090-1095 (1982), modulating tumor cell interactions with extracellular matrix, promoting tumor cell motility, facilitating tumor cell release of proteolytic enzyme cathepsin B, reorganizing tumor cell cytoskeleton, promoting tumor cell adhesion on endothelial cells via upregulating integrin expression on tumor cells and/or endothelial cells, and inducing endothelial cell retraction thus enhancing tumor cell extravasation from the vasculature (reviewed in Honn, et al., Seminar Thromb. Hemost. 18:390-413 (1992); Honn, K. V., et al., Cancer Metastasis Rev., 13:365-396 (1994); Tang, D. G. and K. V. Honn, Annals New York Acad. Sci., 744:199-215 (1994); Tang, D. G. and K. V. Honn, Invasion Metastasis 14:109-122 (1995)). Very recently, the inventors have reported 12(S)-HETE as a mitogenic factor for microvascular endothelial cells (Tang, D. G., et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 211:462-468 (1995a)) and a transactivator of integrin .alpha.v (Tang, D. G., et al., J. Cell Sci. 108:2629-2644 (1995b)). Significant progress has been made in delineating the molecular mechanisms of the 12(S)-HETE effects. 12(S)-HETE, possibly through binding to a cell surface receptor(s), triggers phosphoinositol lipid hydrolysis (Liu, B., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 92:9323-9327 (1995)) leading to the intracellular activation of protein kinase C (PKC; Liu, B., et al., Cell Regul. 2:1045-1055 (1992)) and/or protein tyrosine kinase (PTK; Tang, D. G., et al., J. Cell. Physiol. 165:291-306 (1995c)). The interactions of these phosphorylated protein kinases with various intracellular molecular targets (e.g., cytoskeletal proteins, adhesion molecules, signaling molecules, etc.) largely explain the versatility of the 12(S)-HETE effects.
Both COX and LOX products of AA metabolism may also be involved in modulating tumor cell survival and apoptosis. Thus, many prostaglandins such as PGE.sub.2 (prostaglandin E.sub.2) (Brown, D. M., et al., Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 63:221-229 (1992) ), PGA.sub.2 and .DELTA..sup.12 -PGJ.sub.2 (Kim, I-K, et al., FEBS Lett. 312:209-214 (1993)) have been shown to induce apoptosis of leukemia or lymphoma cells as well as solid tumor cells. Similarly, TxA.sub.2 induces apoptotic cell death of immature thymocytes by binding to the cell surface TxA.sub.2 receptors (Ushikubi, F., et al., J. Exp. Med. 178:1825-1830 (1993) ). Interestingly, PGE.sub.2 also has been reported to protect cells from apoptosis induction (Goetzel, E. J., et al., J. Immunol. 154:1041-1047 (1995)). On the other hand, various COX inhibitors (NSAID) (Non-steroidal anti-inflammation drugs) have been consistently demonstrated to trigger apoptosis of cultured cells. Thus, indomethacin, sulindac sulfide and sulfone inhibit colon carcinoma cell (HT-29) growth by inducing apoptosis (Shiff, S. J., et al., J. Clin. Invest. 96:491-503 (1995); Piazza, G. A., et al., Cancer Res. 55:3110-3116 (1995); Shiff, S. J., et al., Exp. Cell Res. 222:179-188 (1996)). Likewise, multiple NSAIDs including diflunisal, indomethacin, acemethacin, diclofenac, mefenamic acid, flufenamic acid, niflumic acid, ibuprofen, and carprofen cause apoptosis in chicken embryo fibroblasts (Lu, X., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 92:7961-7965 (1995)). These observations suggest that the COX/COX metabolites may play a dual role in regulating cell survival and apoptosis. Under certain circumstances the COX products (e.g., PGE.sub.2 and cyclopentenone prostaglandins) can either directly trigger cell death or mediate apoptosis induced by, e.g., TNF-.alpha. (Larrick, J. W., and S. C. Wright, FASEB J. 4:3215-3223 (1990)). In a different scenario, the COX activity/function are critical for cell survival since inhibition with various inhibitors leads to cell death (see above). Consistent with this, overexpression of COX-2 has been observed to confer resistance in rat intestinal epithelial cells to apoptosis induction by butyrate (Tsujii, M., and R. DuBois, Cell 83:493-501 (1995)).
Similar to the COX system, some LOXs and their products may also play a dual regulatory role in cell survival and apoptosis. Exogenous lipid hydroperoxides such as 15-HPETE induces HIV-infected human T cells (Sandstrom, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269:798-802 (1994)) due to their inability to convert 15-HPETE to 15-HETE owing to a reduction in the glutathione peroxidase activity, LOX metabolites have been proposed as the actual mediators of TNF.alpha.-induced apoptosis of multiple cells since LOX inhibitors such as ETYA and NDGA could inhibit its cytotoxicity (Chang, D. J., et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 188:538-546 (1992); O'Donell, V. B., et al., Biochem. J. 310:133-141 (1995)). On the other hand, 5-LOX inhibitors can cause apoptosis of human leukemia blast cells (Anderson, K. M., et al., Prosta. Leuko. Essent. Fat. Acids 48:323-326 (1993)) and interruption of 5-LOX-mediated growth factor signaling inhibits the growth of lung cancer cells due to apoptosis induction (Avis, I. M., et al., J. Clin. Invest. 97:806-813 (1996)), suggesting that in some cells 5-LOX pathway may function as a critical survival factor.
There has been no literature report relating to the potential role of mammalian 12-LOX in regulating tumor cell survival and apoptosis. Based on extensive studies by the inventors on the role of 12(S)-HETE in regulating tumor cell growth and on the relationship between 12-LOX expression and the metastatic capacity of a variety of tumor cells, it is hypothesized that 12-LOX system may also be involved in regulating tumor cell survival and apoptosis.

Method for induction of tumor cell apoptosis with chemical inhibitors targeted to 12-lipoxygenase


This invention has as its object to efficiently encode an image. To this end, for example, an image undergoes a color reduction process using a dither matrix with a predetermined size. A print control command is output. A compression parameter designation command that designates an up copy vertical offset value (a value according to the matrix size), a near left copy horizontal offset value (a value according to the matrix size), and a far left copy horizontal offset value (a value according to the period of background patterns), which are used in encoding, is output. Image data is encoded according to an encoding sequence.

Upon rasterizing print data output from an application program which arranges and outputs identical background patterns called a wallpaper or texture and printing the image data, when this image data is compressed to reduce its data size, it is easy to compress the entire image data if the background pattern itself can be compressed well. However, the background pattern itself cannot often be compressed well, and it is not easy in such case to compress the entire image data well.
FIG. 10 shows an example of such print data, in which the background is formed by arranging identical patterns, as shown in FIG. 11.
As conventional compression techniques, an encoding method such as runlength or delta-law coding which refers to neighboring pixels using strong tendency that a pixel value has the same value as neighboring pixels, and compresses these pixels if they have identical values is known.
Also, an encoding method such as LZ77 coding or LZ78 coding that refers to pixels within a broad range to detect a pixel sequence having identical values, and compresses data by utilizing such pixel sequence is available. According to these methods, since pixels which are located at considerably distant positions and have identical values can be detected and used in compression, the aforementioned wallpaper can be compressed well.
Also, an encoding method such as JPEG coding, which can compress a background pattern itself well, is known.
Japanese Patent Application No. 2000-76424 discloses a compression method by detecting the period of a texture.
However, according to the runlength or delta-law coding, when the aforementioned wallpaper or the like is compressed, since its repetition period assumes a value as large as, e.g., 1024 pixels, the wallpaper or the like cannot be compressed well if only neighboring pixels are referred to.
According to LZ77 or LZ78 coding, since pixels within a broad range must be referred to upon encoding, the computation volume is large, and the time required to encode is long. According to these methods, since pixels within a broad range must be referred to upon decoding, a large-size buffer memory is required, and such methods cause an increase in cost, when a decoding function is provided to a printer.
According to JPEG, since the computation volume upon encoding is large, the time required to encode is long. Also, according to this method, the computation volume upon decoding is also large, and this method causes an increase in cost when a decoding function is provided to a printer.
According to Japanese Patent Application No. 2000-76424, since a huge volume of computations are required using background pattern data since it is based on Fourier analysis or autocorrelation function, it is impossible to achieve high-speed encoding.
The present invention has been made in consideration of the aforementioned problems, and has as its object to compress the entire image at a high speed and high compression ratio upon encoding an image having periodicity, especially, image data formed by arranging identical background patterns such as a wallpaper or the like.
It is another object of the present invention to reduce the circuit scale of a decoding circuit that decodes codes obtained by encoding an image formed by arranging identical background patterns such as a wallpaper or the like, and to implement low-cost decoding without requiring any large-size buffer memory.
In a method of compressing data, when data of interest matches a previous data sequence, the runlength of the same data is encoded; otherwise, the data itself is encoded.
For example, in LZ77 compression, when data of interest matches a data sequence at an arbitrary position within a moving window of a predetermined size, the position of that data sequence and the runlength of the same data are encoded; otherwise, the data itself is encoded.
On the other hand, upon compressing image data, the following method is known. That is, when data of interest matches data at one or a plurality of predetermined positions, e.g., a data sequence at an upper or left position of the data to be encoded, the runlength of the same data is encoded; otherwise, the data itself is encoded.
On the other hand, a method disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 6-242924 is known. In this method, data which appears latest is stored in a cache buffer, and if a cache hit has occurred, an index where the data that matches is stored is encoded, thus encoding data to a shorter code than that obtained by encoding data itself.
However, in the above method, when the frequency of occurrence of matching of data sequences is low, many codes are obtained by encoding data themselves, and the compression ratio drops considerably.
On the other hand, in the method disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 6-242924, even when data of interest matches a previous data sequence, that redundancy cannot be used in compression, and it is difficult to obtain a high compression ratio.
The present invention has been made in consideration of the aforementioned problems, and has as its object to obtain a high compression ratio-by utilizing redundancy if data of interest matches a previous data sequence, and can minimize any compression ratio drop even when the frequency of occurrence of matching of data sequences is low.
Upon rasterizing print data output from an application program which arranges and outputs identical background patterns called a wallpaper or texture and printing the image data, when this image data is compressed to reduce its data size, it is easy to compress the entire image data if the background pattern itself can be compressed well.
However, the background pattern itself cannot often be compressed well, and it is not easy in such case to compress the entire image data well. FIG. 10 shows an example of such print data. According to the prior art, image data of a text part can be compressed well, but image data of a background pattern cannot be compressed well since it has an irregular pattern and has low correlation with neighboring image data. Since the background pattern normally has a broad area, and one page has a large proportion of the background pattern, if the background pattern cannot be compressed well, the entire page cannot be compressed well, either.
The present invention has been made in consideration of the aforementioned problems, and has as its object to provide an image processing method that includes an encoding method which can compress image data having a background pattern well, even when the background pattern has low correlation with neighboring pixel data, and a decoding method which decodes codes obtained by that encoding method.
Conventionally, upon compressing image data, by utilizing the tendency that pixels having identical pixel values successively appear in the horizontal and vertical directions, it is a common practice to encode data with reference to a pixel at a left or upper neighboring position having high correlation with the position of interest.
On the other hand, when image data to be compressed has undergone a color reduction process using a dither matrix, since neighboring pixels undergo different arithmetic operations in the color reduction process, a pixel of interest has higher correlation with pixels separated by the period of the dither matrix used in the color reduction process than neighboring pixels. Therefore, in such case, if the period of the dither matrix used in the color reduction process is known, encoding is done with reference to data at a left or upper position separated by the period of the dither matrix from the position of interest.
However, according to the above method, if the period of image data is different from that of the dither matrix, since the correlation between the position of interest and reference position is not so high, efficient compression is disturbed. For example, such problem is often posed when image data to be compressed has undergone the color reduction process after resolution conversion of an original image having a different resolution.
The present invention has been made in consideration of the aforementioned problems, and has as its object to efficiently encode an image using especially a short code.

Image data coding apparatus, image data decoding apparatus, image data coding method and image data decoding method


A data access system including a processor having (i) one or more levels of cache, and (ii) a storage system that includes a main memory and a cache module. The cache module includes a controller and a final level of cache to be accessed by the controller prior to accessing the main memory. In response to data required by the processor not being cached within the one or more levels of cache of the processor, the processor generates an address of a physical location within the storage system. The controller converts the address of the physical location within the storage system into an address of a virtual location within the final level of cache. The address of the virtual location is useable by the cache module to determine whether the data required by the processor is cached within the final level of cache.

The background description provided herein is for the purpose of generally presenting the context of the disclosure. Work of the presently named inventors, to the extent the work is described in this background section, as well as aspects of the description that may not otherwise qualify as prior art at the time of filing, are neither expressly nor impliedly admitted as prior art against the present disclosure.
Devices such as computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc. typically include a system-on-chip (SoC). FIG. 1 shows an example of a device 10 that includes a SoC 12 and one or more dynamic random access memories (DRAMs) 14. The DRAMs 14 can be implemented as one or more integrated circuits that are connected to but separate from the SoC 12. The device 10 can also include one or more storage drives 16 connected to ports 17 of the SoC 12. The storage drives 16 can include flash memory, solid-state drives, hard disk drives, and/or hybrid drives. A hybrid drive includes a solid-state drive with solid-state memory and a hard disk drive with rotating storage media.
The SoC 12 can include one or more image processing devices 20, a system bus 22 and a memory controller 24. Each of the image processing devices 20 can include, for example: a control module 26 with a central processor (or central processing unit (CPU)) 28; a graphics processor (or graphics processing unit (GPU)) 30; a video recorder 32; a camera image signal processor (ISP) 34; an Ethernet interface such as a gigabit (Gb) Ethernet interface 36; a serial interface such as a universal serial bus (USB) interface 38 and a serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) interface 40; and a peripheral component interconnect express (PCIe) interface 42. The image processing devices 20 access the DRAMs 14 via the system bus 22 and the memory controller 24. The DRAMs 14 are used as main memory. For example, one of the image processing devices 20 provides a physical address to the memory controller 24 when accessing a corresponding physical location in one of the DRAMs 14. The image processing devices 20 can also access the storage drives 16 via the system bus 22.
The SoC 12 and/or the memory controller 24 can be connected to the DRAMs 14 via one or more access ports 44 of the SoC 12. The DRAMs 14 store user data, system data, and/or programs. The SoC 12 can execute the programs using first data to generate second data. The first data can be stored in the DRAMs 14 prior to the execution of the programs. The SoC 12 can store the second data in the DRAMs 14 during and/or subsequent to execution of the programs. The DRAMs 14 can have a high-bandwidth interface and low-cost-per-bit memory storage capacity and can handle a wide range of applications.
The SoC 12 includes cache memory, which can include one or more of a level zero (L0) cache, a level one (L1) cache, a level two (L2) cache, or a level three (L3) cache. The L0-L3 caches are arranged on the SoC 12 in close proximity to the corresponding ones of the image processing devices 20. In the example shown, the control module 26 includes the central processor 28 and L1-L3 caches 50. The central processor 28 includes a L0 cache 52. The central processor 28 also includes a memory management unit (MMU) 54, which can control access to the caches 50, 52.
As the level of cache increases, the access latency and the storage capacity of the cache increases. For example, L1 cache typically has less storage capacity than L2 cache and L3 cache. However, L1 cache typically has lower latency than L2 cache and L3 cache.
The caches within the SoC 12 are typically implemented as static random access memories (SRAMs). Because of the close proximity of the caches to the image processing devices 20, the caches can operate at the same clock frequencies as the image processing devices 20. Thus caches exhibit shorter latency periods than the DRAMS 14.
The number and size of the caches in the SoC 12 depends upon the application. For example, a handset (or mobile phone) may not include an L3 cache and can have smaller sized L1 cache and L2 cache than a personal computer. Similarly, the number and size of each of the DRAMs 14 depends on the application. For example, mobile phones currently have 1-4 gigabytes (GB) of DRAM, personal computers currently have 4-16 GB of DRAM, and servers currently have 32 GB-512 GB of DRAM. In general, cost increases as the amount of DRAM increases.
In addition to the cost of DRAM, it is becoming increasingly more difficult to decrease the package size of DRAM for the same amount of storage capacity. Also, as the size and number of DRAMs incorporated in a device increases, the capacitances of the DRAMs increase, the number and/or lengths of conductive elements associated with the DRAMs increase, and buffering associated with the DRAMs increases. In addition, as the capacitances of the DRAMs increase, the operating frequencies of the DRAMs decrease and the latency periods of the DRAMs increase.
During operation, programs and/or data are transferred from the DRAMs 14 to the caches in the SoC 12 as needed. These transfers have higher latency as compared to data exchanges between (i) the caches, and (ii) the corresponding processors and/or image processing devices. For this reason, accesses to the DRAMs 14 are typically avoided due to the longer latency periods.
During boot up, programs can be transferred from the storage drives 16 to the DRAMs 14. For example, the central processor 28 can transfer programs from the storage drive 16 to the DRAMs 14 during the boot up. During the boot up, the central processor 28 can attempt to access data stored in the DRAMs 14. The percentage of hits associated with this access attempt may initially be near or equal to 0%. However, the percentage of hits approach 100% by the end of the boot up.

Method and apparatus for accessing data stored in a storage system that includes both a final level of cache and a main memory


Disclosed is a new single-phase passive harmonic filter for one or more nonlinear loads. The filter improves the total system performance by drastically reducing the line side current harmonics generated by nonlinear loads. The filter includes two inductive portions across one of which is connected a tuning capacitor. The parallel combination of one inductive portion with the tuning capacitor forms a series tuned filter configuration while the second inductive portion is used for harmonic attenuation. A shunt capacitor is employed for shunting higher order harmonic components. A single-phase passive voltage regulator provides the needed voltage bucking to prevent over voltage at the load terminals of the filter. The filter provides an alternate path for the harmonic currents generated by nonlinear loads. The over voltage caused by the increased capacitive reactance is controlled by either capacitor switching or by the use of the passive voltage regulator or a combination of the two. Capacitor switching is dependent upon load conditions.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to filters for alternating current circuits, and more particularly relates to passive filters to remove undesirable harmonics generated on a single-phase alternating current power line servicing non-linear loads.
2. Description of Related Art
The IEEE "Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control and Electrical Power Systems", IEEE standard 519-1992; IEEE press April 1993, indicates that harmonic currents generated by nonlinear loads create problems in an industrial/commercial multi-user environment. Single-phase AC to DC rectifier circuits such as the rectifier circuits including diodes D1-D4 illustrated in prior art drawing, FIG. 1, which are connected to DC filter capacitors C as part of and in parallel with the load R, draw pulsating currents from the alternating current source (AC source). The shape of the current pulses is shown in FIG. 2A which indicates that pulses are 180 degrees apart. Using Fourier analysis, it can be shown that such wave forms are rich in "triplen" harmonics, i.e. wave forms having frequency components which are odd multiples of three (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.). The current wave form is also rich in the other odd order harmonics (for example, the 5th and the 7th harmonics). The magnitude of the pulse currents and hence the magnitude of the harmonics is a function of the load R connected across the DC filter capacitor C.
Some typical problems associated with current harmonics generated by nonlinear loads are: (1) increased heating in transformers supplying the nonlinear load; (2) the requirement for increased "ampacity" (capability of conductors to carry current) of conductors; (3) radio and telephone interference, and; (4) interference with other electronic controllers. Moreover, an alternating current source charging a DC filter capacitor without intervening impedance or low impedance generates a flat-topped or distorted AC voltage wave form. Flat topping or clipping is a principal cause for voltage harmonics at the input of the load and can translate to network resonance problems farther back along the line.
In addition to the aforementioned problems created by nonlinear or distorted wave forms is that the power supplied to nonlinear loads, such as to a personal computer, fax machines, telephones, data communication equipment and the like, may be violative or could lead to a violation of the recently commissioned European standards and the IEEE 519 1992 harmonic recommendations. Single-phase harmonic filters will therefore soon be essential to circuits with single-phase, nonlinear loads.
It is accepted in the art that the harmonic content in a given wave form is best depicted by the term "Total Harmonic Distortion" (THD). THD is used to define the effective harmonics on the power system. THD is defined as the ratio of the root-mean-square of the harmonic content to the root-mean-square value of the fundamental quantity (i.e., in a AC power line, 50/60 Hz component) expressed in percent. Mathematically this is in equation 1 below. ##EQU1##
Shunt tuned harmonic filters such as taught in U.S. Pat. No. 4,930,061 issued on May 29, 1990 to Slack, et al., are commonly used for trapping harmonics generated by diode rectifier circuits with DC filter capacitors such as shown in FIG. 1. These single-phase harmonic filters are generally tuned to a cut-off frequency approaching the third harmonic. This type of filter, such as shown in FIG. 3 of U.S. Pat. No. 4,930,061 offers only capacitive impedance at the fundamental frequency. This capacitive impedance creates an overvoltage across the line terminals which affects other equipment connected across the same line. A further disadvantage of shunt tuned harmonic filters is that they tend to import harmonics from other nonlinear loads connected to the same network causing overloading of the filter. In the circuit of FIG. 1, in addition to the third harmonic components, a bridge rectifier also generates higher order odd harmonics (5th, 7th) that require the addition of extra tuned branches in the shunt tuned harmonic filter to filter out the higher order harmonics. Such a shunt tuned harmonic filter employing 7th harmonic, 5th harmonic and high pass sections is illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 3,555,291 issued on Jan. 12, 1971 to Dewey.
Shunt tuned harmonic filters, moreover, are also notorious for setting up harmonic resonance within a power system if improperly designed.
In order to overcome detuning of shunt tuned harmonic filters and also to remove residual ripples which the tuned filters are unable to remove, hybrid filtering techniques have been employed. In one such scheme discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,849,677, issued on Nov. 19, 1974 to Stacey et al., a shunt active path is provided. While this technique may be effective, it is cumbersome and requires additional components and thus increased expense because each shunt harmonic filter has to have at least one shunt active portion.
An entirely active approach has also been employed and is illustrated in the prior art in U.S. Pat. No. 4,812,669 issued on Mar. 14, 1989. While such techniques are moderately successful, the systems still are complicated, have a higher component or part count and require passive filters to filter out higher order harmonic currents.
In U.S. Pat. No. 5,444,609 issued on Aug. 22, 1995 to the present inventor (Swamy et al.), the harmonic filter disclosed therein includes series inductance, a parallel capacitance and a transformer. The filter disclosed therein is specifically adapted for variable frequency drives and is not applicable to single-phase nonlinear loads as presented in the present application. Moreover, there exists no series blocking tuned filter, as in the present application.
Another approach to reducing harmonic content in voltage and current wave form sources has been the "boost converter techniques" which shape the wave on the input AC current. This has been well documented in "An Active Power Factor Correction Technique for Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers" by A. R. Prasad, P. D. Ziogas, and S. Manias, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, January 1991, Volume 6, No. 1, pages 83-92; and in "Analysis and Design of a New Three-Phase Power Conditioner Providing Sinusoidal Input Currents and Multiple Isolated DC Outputs", by Johann W. Kolar, Hans Ertl, and Franz C. Zach as documented in the Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Power Conversion, Nurnberg, Germany, June 1993, pages 151-165. However, with boost converter techniques, the switching stress is high and there is in general about a 40% higher voltage on the DC side than is normally acceptable. Thus, boost type AC to DC converters are not as popular with rectifier type loads. However, arc discharge and fluorescent lamps require higher voltages to trigger and hence such technology is acceptable with such loads in order to mitigate the effects of harmonics.


The invention relates to a method of assessing real estate properties comprising: (a) obtaining geocodes for the real estate properties based on the addresses or assessor parcel numbers; (b) obtaining at least two images of the real estate properties from an aerial vendor; (c) inputting the list of real estate properties, the addresses or assessor parcel numbers of the real estate properties, the geocodes for the real estate properties, and detailed images of the real estate properties into a database; (d) providing a computer having access to the database via a graphical user interface; (e) displaying the images of the real estate properties; and (f) rating the real estate properties. The described method of assessing real estate properties may further include steps of receiving a list of real estate properties; and obtaining the addresses or assessor parcel numbers for the real estate properties included in the list.

In the past, performing active diligence on large portfolios of residential and commercial real estate properties required significant time and financial investment. One technique used to investigate real estate properties in question is a "drive-by" technique, where an individual is paid to drive by the properties and take several photographs. These photographs must then be analyzed usually by the institution personnel. In addition to the cost of such analyses, the photographer is paid for the time and effort; usually about $65.00 per property. A secondary method, used under certain circumstances, involves obtaining a real estate "broker price opinion" (BPO), which is essentially a "mini-appraisal." Obtaining a BPO costs about $150.00 per property. Thus, if a lending institution, government agency or other entity needs to look at several thousand properties, the financial burden is potentially enormous. In addition, the number of employees required to accurately analyze the photographs requires additional financial and time investment. Further, it is difficult to keep an ongoing surveillance on properties over the entire life of the loan, or asset. For these and other potential reasons, none of these prior art options is timely or cost-effective. Thus, there is a need, especially in today's economy, for an inexpensive and time-efficient method and system of investigating and evaluating the status of real estate properties.

System and method for mass visualization of real estate properties


An electrode structure for a semiconductor device is formed on the semiconductor device, consisting of silicon formed on a substrate to detect a physical quantity of the substrate and converting it into an electric signal, and transfers the converted electric signal to the outside. The electrode structure for the semiconductor device has a barrier layer consisting of a high-melting metal nitride and formed on a contact area of the semiconductor device and an electrode wiring formed on the barrier layer. The barrier layer has different composition ratios of the high-melting metal nitride in correspondence to each stage in the thickness of the barrier layer, in which the composition ratios are a composition ratio making a powerful bond performance at a bonding border area with the electrode wiring, and a composition ratio in which a metal element of the electrode wiring does not diffuse into the semiconductor in the barrier layer.

1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to an electrode structure for a semiconductor device, having a semiconductor device consisting of silicon formed on a substrate to detect any physical quantity of the substrate and to convert it into an electrical signal; and an electrode wiring formed on the semiconductor device to transfer the electric signal to the outside, and also to a method for producing the same, which is allowed to be used for example as a pressure sensor chip for pressure detection of a high-temperature vapor, pressure detection in a combustion engine system, detection of molding pressure in resin injection, and so on.
2. Background of the Invention
Conventionally, a sensor chip, which has a semiconductor device formed on a small silicon substrate or the like and converting a physical quantity of the substrate into an electrical signal, and electrode wiring formed on the semiconductor device and transferring the electrical signal to the outside, is used as a sensor used for a built-in control and so on. The small sensor as described above does not need a large space for attachment, so that multiple measuring points are located in case of necessity, resulting in a control system with the high-precision. For example, there is the pressure sensor for the existing built-in control shown in FIG. 8, which has a built-in pressure sensor chip therein.
A pressure sensor 1 is composed of a main body 2, a fluid introduction 3 connected to one end of the main body 2, and a lead wire accommodation 4 connected to the other end of the main body 2.
A pressure-sensor module 11 is accommodated in the main body 2. A fluid introducing port 5 is formed in the fluid introduction 3 to guide fluid which its pressure is measured. A lead wire 6, transferring an electric signal to a signal processing means provided at the outside (not shown in FIG. 8), is accommodated and secured in the lead wire accommodation 4.
The pressure-sensor module 11 is, in turn, composed of a pressure-sensor chip 21 detecting the pressure of the fluid and converting it into the electric signal, a support 12 supporting the pressure-sensor chip 21, a case 13 covering the pressure-sensor chip 21 to be adhered to the support 12, and a pedestal 14 provided between the pressure-sensor chip 21 and the support 12.
The support 12 has a hole 15 which connects the fluid introducing port 5 from the bottom of the hole 15 to a through-hole 16, formed in the pedestal 14, from the top of the hole 15. The fluid to be measured is guided through the fluid introducing port 5, the hole 5 of the support 12 and the through-hole 16 of the pedestal 14 to the pressure-sensor chip 21.
A repeating base 17 is provided to the case 13 to go through the inside to the outside of the case 13. An inner wiring 18 links the repeating base 17 to the pressure-sensor chip 21. And further, an I/O terminal 19 for connecting to the lead wire 6 is provided on the outside of the repeating base 17.
As shown in FIG. 9, the pressure-sensor chip 21 is, in turn, composed of a diaphragm 31 secured on the pedestal 14, a semiconductor device 41 and an electrode wiring 51, which are formed on the diaphragm 31.
The diaphragm 31 has a leg 32 jointed to the pedestal 14, and a substrate 33, which deforms in response to the pressure change of the measured fluid, to work as a pressure sensing device. The semiconductor device 41 is formed on the substrate 33 on an insulation film 34. A protective film 35, having an opening for connecting to the electrode wiring 51, covers the upper face of the semiconductor device 41. The electrode wiring 51 is formed on the protective film 35 to connect through the opening, formed on the protective film 35, to the semiconductor device 41.
As shown in a schematic view of FIG. 10, the four semiconductor devices 41 are formed on the substrate 33, which are mutually linked by means of the electrode wiring 51, thereby forming a bridged circuit 52 in which the four semiconductor devices 41 compose a distortion meter. And the inner wiring 18 is connected to an I/O terminal 53 provided at the end of the bridged circuit 52.
The aforementioned deformation of the substrate 33 is converted into the electric signal by the semiconductor device 41. The converted electric signal is transferred through the electrode wiring 51, the inner wiring 18, the repeating base 17, the I/O terminal 19 and the lead wire 6 to signal processing means placed outside.
The pressure-sensor 1 having the aforementioned structured can be used for detecting the pressure of the high-temperature vapor, the pressure in a combustion engine system, or the molding pressure of the resin injection. Under the high-temperature condition in the aforementioned cases, an SOI (Silicon On Insulator) type pressure-sensor chip, such as the aforementioned pressure-sensor chip 21 in which the insulation film 34 is formed between the substrate 33 and the semiconductor device 41, is used.
As shown in a fragmentary enlarged sectional view of FIG. 11, in an electrode structure 71 for the semiconductor device of the conventional SOI type pressure-sensor chip 21, a contact area 42 is formed by incorporating boron in a part of the silicon semiconductor device 41. The aluminium-made electrode wiring 51 is connected to the contact area 42.
In the pressure-sensor chip 21 having the above structure, when the temperature of the atmosphere of the pressure sensor 1 is raised up to the high-temperature atmosphere of more than 300.degree. C., the aluminium of the electrode wiring 51 diffuses by reacting with the silicon of the semiconductor device 41, so that the resistance of the semiconductor device 41 is partially changed, thus making it difficult to obtain an accurate distortion resistance value under the high-temperature condition.
For this reason, as shown in FIG. 12, Japanese Patent Application Laid-open No. Hei4-350973 discloses an electrode structure 171 for the semiconductor device in which a barrier layer 61, formed of high-melting nitriding metal (titanium nitride), and a high-melting metal (titanium) layer 62 are provided between the contact area 42 and the electrode wiring 151 formed by using any one of gold (Au), platinum (Pt), and nickel (Ni).
According to the above electrode structure 171 for the semiconductor device, metal which forms the electrode wiring 151 does not diffuse into silicon of the semiconductor device 41 because of the barrier layer 61, so that the distortion resistance value of the semiconductor device 41 does not change under the high-temperature condition. Incidentally, the titanium layer 62 as the high-melting metal layer is provided in order to ensure an ohmic contact with the contact area 42.
However, in the electrode structure 171 for the semiconductor device, the electrode wiring 151 and the barrier layer 61 are bonded, but the touched faces may be peeled from each other because of the weak bonding force of the high-melting metal nitride (titanium nitride) and Au, Pt or Ni, thus making it difficult for the sensor chip to get stable performance for detecting a physical quantity such as distortion.
The object of the present invention is to provide an electrode structure for a semiconductor device and a method for producing the same, in which it is allowed that electrode wiring does not diffuse into silicon of the semiconductor device and a bonding force between a contact area of the semiconductor device and the electrode wiring is secure.

Electrode structure for a semiconductor device