A water-based metal surface treatment composition for forming a lubricating film with excellent marring resistance, characterized in that it comprises (a) a water-compatible urethane resin which contains bisphenol skeletons and carboxyl groups in the resin backbone and has an average molecular weight of 3,000 or higher and which has been synthesized through reaction of an isocyanate in which the content of nitrogen atoms participating in the isocyanate reaction is 2 to 13 wt. % and the ratio of nitrogen atoms participating in urea bond formation to the nitrogen atoms participating in the isocyanate reaction is 10/100 to 90/100, (b) a hardener, (c) silica, and (d) a polyolefin wax, and that the sum of the ingredients (a) and (b) is 50 to 95 wt. % based on the whole composition (e) on a solid basis, the amount of functional groups contained in the ingredient (b) is 0.10 to 1.00 equivalent to the carboxyl groups contained in the backbone of the ingredient (a), the amount of the ingredient (c) is 3 to 40 wt. % based on the composition (e) on a solid basis, and the amount of the ingredient (d) is 2 to 30 wt. % based on the composition (e) on a solid basis.

The present invention relates to a water-based metal surface treatment composition for forming a lubricating film with excellent marring resistance.
Manufacturers of home electrical appliances, automobiles, building materials, and so forth have often made use of cold-rolled or galvanized sheet steel in the past, and these sheets are most often painted after undergoing press molding or other such forming. Some materials, however, do not lend themselves well to forming, so the desired formability is achieved by coating them with a lubricating oil, typically a press oil, in the course of the forming. When this forming is to be followed by painting, the applied lubricant must be one that can be removed in a degreasing process.
Accordingly, in an effort to reduce the number of steps entailed, lower the cost, and improve the working environment, manufacturers have been offering sheet steel that comes already coated with a wax-based lubricant, so that a press oil need not be used. A wax-based lubricant, however, must be removed in a subsequent degreasing process, and while this is indeed an improvement over using a press oil in terms of the press environment, there is still room for improvement. Functional surface treated sheet steel having a better lubricated surface has therefore been developed. This sheet steel is coated with a thin film of a composition whose main component is an organic resin with good lubricity, and can therefore be formed without having to be coated with a press oil or other lubricant, and furthermore this surface treated sheet steel does not need to undergo any subsequent degreasing or undercoating treatment.
Prior art pertaining to this functional surface treated sheet steel has been disclosed in (1) Japanese Laid-Open Patent Applications S61-231177, S61-279687, and S62-33781, (2) Japanese Laid-Open Patent Application S62-289274, (3) Japanese Laid-Open Patent Application S60-103185, (4) Japanese Patent Publication H6-92567, (5) Japanese Patent Publication H6-104799, and (6) Japanese Laid-Open Patent Application H6-292859, which will be summarized below.
The art disclosed in the publications of (1) is related to a surface treated steel sheet, characterized in that a film, comprising a silane coupling agent and/or a titanium coupling agent, a chromate, silica sol, a microparticle coloring pigment, and a solid lubricant contained in an emulsion polymer composed of a monomer expressed by the general formula CH2xe2x95x90CR1xe2x80x94COOR2, an xcex1,xcex2-unsaturated carboxylic acid monomer, and a monomer that is copolymerizable with these, is formed on the steel sheet surface. A film obtained in this manner is effective for relatively light forming, such as bending and offsetting, but during intense working such as squeezing and drawing, typified by press forming, a sliding surface temperature can exceed 100xc2x0 C., at which point the resin film layer is prone to separation, and resin dust clings to the surfaces of the mold or press formed article, which adversely affects the appearance of the formed article.
The publication disclosed in (2) is characterized in that a film layer whose main component is a composite or mixture of a urethane-based resin and silicon dioxide is provided over a galvanized steel sheet. Here, the term xe2x80x9curethane resinxe2x80x9d refers to a mixture of a urethane resin and another resin (such as epoxy, acrylic, or phenol). The film obtained in this manner is effective in forming that involves low-speed sliding (10 mm/sec or less), but film separation occurs in press forming and other high-speed sliding forming (approximately 500 mm/sec), so the targeted high lubricity cannot be achieved.
The publication disclosed in (3) relates to a two-layer chromate treated steel sheet, characterized in that a special chromate layer is provided over a steel sheet plated with zinc or a zinc compound, and over this is formed a composite chromate film composed of an amino-terminated urethane modified epoxy resin, a silicone resin, molybdenum disulfide, a polyolefin wax, a chromate-based rustproof pigment, and composite aluminum phosphate. Because this film makes use of a self-crosslinking type of amino-terminated urethane modified epoxy resin, relatively stable performance can be obtained even without a crosslinking agent, but the targeted level of performance cannot be achieved.
The publication disclosed in (4) is characterized in that an electroconductive substance, a chromium compound, and a lubricating substance are compounded with a resin composition composed of a resin selected from among epoxy resins, polyester resins, and acrylic resins, and a polyisocyanate or an amino resin that serves as a hardener component. With a film obtained in this manner, the targeted marring resistance during high-speed sliding cannot be achieved because the wear resistance of the film itself is inadequate.
The publication disclosed in (5) is characterized in that a film comprising a polyethylene wax with an average molecular weight of 2000 to 8000 contained in a polyester resin and a crosslinking agent is formed over the surface of a steel sheet. With a film obtained in this manner, the targeted level of performance (corrosion resistance and paint adhesion) cannot be achieved because the hydrolysis resistance of the film itself is inadequate.
The publication disclosed in (6) is characterized in that a film containing a urethane resin having active hydrogen in its molecules, an epoxy resin of the type that crosslinks at normal temperature, spherical polyethylene wax, and linear colloidal silica is formed over the surface of a steel sheet. There are no restrictions on the urethane resin used for this film, and there are numerous cases when the performance of the resulting film does not meet the targeted level.
Therefore, at present there has yet to be obtained a water-based paint composition that has good marring resistance during intense working, as well as excellent corrosion resistance and paint adhesion.
The present invention was conceived in an effort to solve the above-mentioned problems encountered with prior art, and it is an object thereof to provide a water-based lubricating paint composition for a highly functional surface treated sheet that has good marring resistance during intense working, as well as excellent corrosion resistance and paint adhesion.
As a result of diligent research aimed at solving the above-mentioned problems encountered with prior art, the inventors perfected the present invention upon discovering that it is favorable to use a water-based metal surface treatment composition containing a water-based urethane resin with a specific structure, a hardener, silica, and a polyolefin wax.
Specifically, the present invention provides a water-based metal surface treatment composition for forming a lubricating film with excellent marring resistance, characterized by containing (a) a water-based urethane wax, in which average molecular weight of the water-based urethane is at least 3000 and the resin skeleton includes a bisphenol skeleton and a carboxyl group, the content of nitrogen participating in an isocyanate reaction during the synthesis of said resin is between 2 and 13 wt %, and the ratio of the nitrogen in urea bonds to the nitrogen participating in the isocyanate reaction, which is the proportion of nitrogen atoms pertaining to urea bonds out of the nitrogen atoms participating in the isocyanate reaction during the synthesis of said resin, is between 10/100 and 90/100; (b) a hardener; (c) silica; and (d) a polyolefin wax, wherein the combined amount of components (a) and (b), as solids with respect to the total solid weight (e), is 50 to 95 wt %, the equivalent ratio of functional groups in component (b) with respect to the equivalent of carboxyl groups contained in the skeleton of component (a) is 0.10 to 1.00, the solid weight of component (c) with respect to (e) is 3 to 40 wt %, and the solid weight of component (d) with respect to (e) is 2 to 30 wt %.
The nitrogen content of the water-based urethane resin of the present invention is preferably 5 to 10 wt %. It is also preferable in the surface treatment composition of the present invention if said hardener includes at least one type of functional group selected from among epoxy groups and isocyanate groups. It is also preferable in the surface treatment composition of the present invention if the amount of carboxyl groups in said water-based urethane resin is 10 to 50 calculated as the acid value for the solids of said resin. It is also preferable in the surface treatment composition of the present invention if the saponification value of said polyolefin wax is 30 or less, or zero, and the structure is branched. It is also preferable in the surface treatment composition of the present invention if said polyolefin wax has an average particle size of 0.1 to 7.0 xcexcm.
The present invention will now be described in detail.
The first characteristic feature of the present invention is that a type of resin that is suitable as a base resin is compounded in a specific weight ratio. This resin is a component that must strike a good balance between adhesion, elongation, shear strength, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and chemical resistance. The resin of the present invention can be used favorably to satisfy all of these performance requirements. The inventors have previously succeeded at obtaining good corrosion resistance and working strength by compounding a urethane resin with an epoxy resin and by compounding a special wax, but further research has revealed that particularly outstanding performance can be attained by specifying the structure of the urethane resin.
To achieve good workability and high corrosion resistance, it is important that a good balance be struck between the strength and elongation of a coating film. It was discovered that when a urethane resin with an average molecular weight of at least 3000 is used with a hardener, the basic properties are easier to control than with a film produced by the crosslinking of resins with a low molecular weight, and that uniform properties are easy to obtain even with a thin film with a dry film weight of 0.3 to 5.0 g/m2. Low molecular weight urethane resin as used here refers to those including various types of isocyanate-based hardener.
Examples of the bisphenol skeleton that serves as the skeleton of the water-based urethane resin used in the surface treatment composition of the present invention include methylene bisphenol, ethylidene bisphenol, butylidene bisphenol, isopropylidene bisphenol, alkylene oxide (such as propylene oxide or butylene oxide) adducts of these, and epoxy modified polyols obtained by reacting an organic amine with an epoxy resin having a bisphenol skeleton. Incorporating this skeleton into a resin greatly improves corrosion resistance, adhesion, and so on. There are no particular restrictions on the number of added moles of alkylene oxide, but zero or no more than 10 is preferred. If 10 is exceeded, the molecular weight of the glycol will be too high, so the resulting resin film will be strongly hydrophilic and corrosion resistance and paint adhesion will suffer. Examples of organic amines include dimethylamine, diethylamine, dipropylamine, diisopropylamine, dibutylamine, diamylamine, dimethanolamine, diethanolamine, and methylethanolamine.
In addition to a polyol having a bisphenol skeleton, a polyester polyol compound or a polyether polyol may be used concurrently as a skeleton in the water-based urethane resin used in the present invention. Examples of polyester polyol compounds include polyester compounds having terminal hydroxyl groups and obtained through a reaction between ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, 1,2-propylene glycol, 1,3-propylene glycol, 1,2-butylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, 1,4-butylene glycol, hexamethylene glycol, trimethylolpropane, glycerol, or another such low molecular weight polyol with succinic acid, glutamic acid, adipic acid, sebacic acid, phthalic acid, isophthalic acid, terephthalic acid, tetrahydrophthalic acid, hexahydrophthalic acid, endomethylenetetrahydrophthalic acid, or another such polybasic acid. Examples of polyether compounds include ethylene oxide and/or propylene oxide high adducts of ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, 1,2-propylene glycol, 1,3-propylene glycol, 1,2-butylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, 1,4-butylene glycol, hexamethylene glycol, hydrogenated bisphenol A, trimethylolpropane, glycerol, and other such low molecular weight polyols, polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polyethylene/polypropylene glycol, and other such polyether polyols, polycaprolactone polyols, polyolefin polyols, and polybutadiene polyols.
Another characteristic feature is that the water-based urethane resin used in the present invention contains carboxyl groups in its skeleton. Another urethane resin that does not contain hydrophilic groups such as carboxyl groups cannot be made water-based because it will not be sufficiently hydrophilic. Introducing a sulfonate into a side chain is a known method for making a compound water-based without introducing carboxyl groups, but the water resistance of the resulting film is decreased because the sulfonate is too highly hydrophilic. Another known method is to use an emulsifier to forcibly render the compound water-based, but the water resistance of the resulting film is again decreased because the activators that are used are generally strongly hydrophilic. Accordingly, the preferred method is to introduce a carboxyl group into the resin skeleton and neutralize this with ammonia, triethylamine, or another alkali to effect self-emulsion. The suitable amount of carboxyl groups is 10 to 50 calculated as the acid value for the urethane resin solids. If this acid value is less than 10, adhesion will be inadequate and workability and corrosion resistance will be inferior. On the other hand, if the acid value is over 50, water resistance and alkali resistance will be inferior, so corrosion resistance will decrease. There are no particular restrictions on the method for introducing the carboxyl groups into the water-based urethane resin, but the most common way is to use a dimethylolalkanoic acid (such as 2,2-dimethylolpropionic acid, 2,2-dimethylolbutyric acid, or 2,2-dimethylolvaleric acid).
The water-based urethane resin used in the present invention is characterized in that the content of nitrogen participating in an isocyanate reaction during the synthesis of said resin is between 2 and 13 wt %. A preferable range is 5 to 10 wt %. If the nitrogen content is less than 2 wt %, there will be a decrease in the concentration in the water-based urethane resin of bonds that participate in an isocyanate reaction, so the excellent wear resistance that is characteristic of a urethane resin will be compromised. On the other hand, if the nitrogen content is over 13 wt %, the concentration in the water-based urethane resin of bonds that participate in an isocyanate reaction will be too high, the resulting film will be brittle and unable to accommodate the elongation resulting from the plastic deformation of the material, and the film, will be damaged, resulting in a decrease in corrosion resistance and paint adhesion.
Another major characteristic feature of the water-based urethane resin used in the present invention is that the ratio of the nitrogen in urea bonds to the nitrogen participating in the isocyanate reaction, which is the proportion of nitrogen atoms pertaining to urea bonds out of the nitrogen atoms participating in the isocyanate reaction during the synthesis of said resin, is between 10/100 and 90/100. A preferable range is 40/100 to 80/100. If this ratio is less than 10/100, tensile strength will be inadequate during high-speed sliding, that is, at high temperatures, so this will result in film separation and a decrease in marring resistance. On the other hand, if this ratio is greater than 90/100, the film will be too hard and unable to accommodate the elongation resulting from the plastic deformation of the material, and the film will again be damaged, resulting in a decrease in corrosion resistance and paint adhesion. There are no particular restrictions on the method for introducing the urea bonds into the resin skeleton, but known methods include reacting isocyanate groups with amino groups during the synthesis of a urethane prepolymer, and reacting water with a urethane prepolymer having terminal isocyanate groups. Examples of compounds having amino groups that can be used here include ethylenediamine, propylenediamine, hexamethylenediamine, tolylenediamine, xylylenediamine, diaminodiphenylmethane, diaminocyclohexylmethane, pirerazine, 2-methylpirerazine, isophoronediamine, succinic acid dihydrazide, adipic acid dihydrazide, and phthalic acid dihydrazide. As long as the ratio of the nitrogen in urea bonds to the nitrogen participating in the isocyanate reaction ends up being between 10/100 and 90/100, the water-based urethane resin component used in the present invention may be two or more types of resin raw material having the specified molecular weight and a bisphenol skeleton and carboxyl groups in the resin skeleton.
If a hardener is not used together with the water-based urethane resin, crosslinking will be inadequate and corrosion resistance and solvent resistance will be inferior, which is why a hardener is used in the present invention. This hardener can be an epoxy compound, oxazoline compound, aziridine compound, isocyanate compound, or the like. To obtain superior corrosion resistance and solvent resistance, though, it is best to use an aqueous dispersion type or water-soluble epoxy resin or isocyanate compound as the hardener. Other hardeners often have an acrylic, ester, or other component as the skeleton, but this is undesirable because the resulting film properties are affected by the above components, so there may be a decrease in corrosion resistance or paint adhesion. For example, if an epoxy resin is used as the hardener, a crosslinking reaction will readily occur because of the high reactivity of the terminal epoxy groups. If an isocyanate compound is used, the crosslinking density in the molecules will be raised by the reaction of the terminal isocyanate groups, and it is believed that as a result the tensile strength, solvent resistance, heat resistance, and so forth are improved. Out of all these hardeners, an epoxy resin having a bisphenol skeleton is particularly favorable.
The hardener is preferably used in an amount such that the proportion of functional groups in the hardener with respect to the carboxyl groups contained in the skeleton of the water-based urethane resin is 0.10 to 1.00. A range of 0.30 to 1.00 is even better. The effect of adding the hardener will be minimal if this proportion is less than 0.10, but if 1.00 is exceeded the characteristics of the resin of the present invention cannot be fully realized, and furthermore, some of the crosslinking agent will remain unreacted with the water-based urethane resin and have a plasticizing effect, so the corrosion resistance and solvent resistance will suffer.
The weight percentage of hardener solids with respect to the total solid weight is preferably 30% or less. The inherent performance of the water-based urethane resin cannot be extracted and performance such as corrosion resistance and paint adhesion decreases if the added amount is over 30%. During intense working such as squeezing and drawing, typified by press forming, a sliding surface temperature can exceed 100xc2x0 C., so it is preferable for the Tg of the crosslinked film to be between 40 and 150xc2x0 C. If the Tg of the crosslinked film is lower than 40xc2x0 C., tensile strength will be inadequate during high-speed sliding, that is, at high temperatures, so this will result in film separation and a decrease in marring resistance. On the other hand, if the Tg of the crosslinked film is over 150xc2x0 C., the film will be too hard and unable to accommodate the elongation resulting from the plastic deformation of the material, and the film will again be damaged, resulting in a decrease in corrosion resistance and paint adhesion.
It is preferable in the water-based paint composition of the present invention if the combined weight percentage of components (a) and (b), as solids with respect to the total solid weight (e), is 50 to 95 wt %. A range of 55 to 75% is even better. The binder effect will be inadequate if the proportion is less than 50%, so the desired corrosion resistance will not be obtained. On the other hand, the desired corrosion resistance and marring resistance will not be obtained if 95% is exceeded.
Silica (SiO2) is added to the water-based metal surface treatment composition of the present invention in an amount of 3 to 40% (with respect to the total solid weight percentage) in order to improve corrosion resistance. A range of 10 to 30% is even better. The improvement in corrosion resistance will be slight if the weight percentage of silica solids with respect to the total solid weight percentage is less than 3%, but if 40% is exceeded the binder effect of the resin will be minimal and corrosion resistance will decrease. 3 to 30 nm is a suitable particle size of the silica. The targeted corrosion resistance and paint adhesion cannot be obtained if the average particle size is less than 3 nm or greater than 30 nm. There are no particular restrictions on the type of silica in the present invention, but there are liquid phase colloidal silica and vapor phase silica.
Lubricating performance is generally improved by the addition of a lubricating additive to a metal surface treatment composition, but problems remain unsolved with the lubricants such as lead and molybdenum disulfide that have been used in the past, including environmental protection and the elimination of the degreasing step after forming in an effort to shorten the process. Accordingly, with the present invention, it is preferable for a lubricating component to be contained in an amount of 2 to 30 wt % with respect to the total solid weight percentage (e) of the water-based paint composition. A range of 10 to 25 wt % is even better. It is also preferable if the saponification value of the above-mentioned polyolefin wax is 30 or less, or zero, and the structure is branched. The effect of improving workability will be minimal if the polyolefin wax is added in an amount of less than 2 wt %, but if the amount is over 30 wt %, the wax will scatter onto the press apparatus and the surrounding area during forming, which is undesirable from the standpoint of the working environment, and corrosion resistance is also decreased. If the wax saponification value is over 30, the polarity will be high and the wax will be very miscible in the resin, making it difficult to form the film on the surface of the resin, so this is unsuitable when a high level of working performance is required. More preferable is a wax with a saponification value of zero, which has no ester bonds and very little miscibility with the resin. The average particle size of the wax is preferably 0.1 to 7.0 xcexcm. Workability will be unsatisfactory if the average particle size is less than 0.1 xcexcm, but exceeding 7.0 xcexcm is undesirable because the distribution of the solidified wax will be uneven. It is preferable for the wax to have a melting point of 110 to 160xc2x0 C. Because the temperature of the sheet surfaces can exceed 100xc2x0 C. during press forming, adequate lubricity cannot be obtained if the melting point of the wax is lower than 110xc2x0 C., but conversely, the lubricity had by the wax will not be manifested during forming if the melting point of the wax is over 160xc2x0 C. As to the shape of the wax particles, spherical is best in order to obtain good workability.
A surfactant (called a wettability improver) or a thickener can also be added to the surface treatment composition of the present invention in order to obtain a uniform film on the coated surface, a conductive substance can be added to improve weldability, or a coloring pigment or the like can be added to improve the appearance of the product.
Examples of the material that is coated with the water-based metal surface treatment composition of the present invention include cold rolled steel sheets, galvanized steel sheets, and stainless steel sheets. A primer treatment is preferable in order to improve corrosion resistance. Suitable primer treatments include known chromate treatments and phosphate treatments. It is favorable for this primer film to be coated with the above-mentioned surface treatment composition such that the dry film weight is 0.3 to 5.0 g/m2, which affords good performance such as marring resistance, corrosion resistance, and solvent resistance. There are no particular restrictions on the coating method in the present invention, but examples include roll coating, dipping, and electrostatic coating.

Water-based metal surface treatment composition for forming lubricating film with excellent marring resistance


An ingestible dosage form includes a pill containing a pharmaceutical content and an RF tag associated with the pill. The RF tag is configured to output a wireless response signal in response to a wireless excitation signal received by the RF tag from an RF reader. The ingestible dosage form includes memory for storing pill identifying information. The wireless response signal includes the pill identifying information which may be received and processed by the RF reader. A system for monitoring patient medicine intake compliance includes a monitoring device placed within communicative proximity of ingestible dosage forms to transmit the wireless excitation signal and receive the wireless response signal including pill identifying information from the ingestible dosage forms. A device for determining an identity of a pill and quantity thereof ingested by an individual includes a nasogastric/orogastric tube having an RF tag reader attached thereto for detecting RF tagged pills.

1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates generally to a pill having a radio frequency tag associated therewith that allows for monitoring patient medicine intake compliance and determining an identity of the pill and quantity thereof ingested by an individual.
2. Description of the Related Art
Despite the life-saving benefits of many prescription medications, only 30%-70% of patients adhere to the prescribed intake of their medications, and less than 50% reliably adhere to long-term prescriptions. Medication non-adherence affects the healthcare industry at both a patient level and at a pharmaceutical corporate level. Patients are deprived of the benefits of the medications, which can result in increased hospitalizations and mortality. It has been estimated that medication non-adherence accounts for 11% of all hospitalizations for the elderly, with more significant consequences in sub-groups of patients with severe illnesses such as heart failure where 24%-43% of all hospital admissions have been attributed to medication non-adherence. Non-adherence also has financial consequences to pharmaceutical companies due to lost revenue. It has been estimated that the yearly loss of revenue for cholesterol lowering medications due to non-adherence is $3.9 billion with close to $70 billion lost for all drug classes.
Identification of patients who do not adhere to medical therapy is challenging because patients underestimate the frequency with which they fail to take medications. Although some drugs can be detected by diagnostic serum or urine assays, such tests are not a feasible way of monitoring long-term adherence because few medications can be detected with existing tests and the cost and logistics of routinely performing such tests would be prohibitive. Specifically, although a chemical agent may be added to pills which could be detected for adherence, there are several significant problems with this approach. First, a large number of additives would need to be identified given the thousands of prescription medications currently available. Second, these agents would need to be absorbed and detected in blood or urine analysis, or if not absorbed, then be detected in feces. Absorbed chemicals would have to undergo extensive regulatory review to be deemed safe, and then the levels of the chemicals would need to be correlated with liver and kidney dysfunction, which are common in people taking medications. Collection of non-absorbed chemicals or markers would also be challenging. Even if a suitable number of unique, well-absorbed, biologically inert chemicals were identified, in-vivo detection would be logistically difficult and expensive. It is unlikely that a patient who proves to be non-adherent with taking pills would be more compliant with regularly scheduled blood or urine analysis.
Because most medications are in the form of a pill, monitoring of medication decanting may be used to monitor compliance. Specifically, electronic Medication Event Monitoring Systems (MEMS) have been used in studies to assess medication compliance, and in several instances have been used as an adjunct to outpatient monitoring in an effort to improve medication compliance. For example, U.S Pat. Publication No. US 2004/0008123 to Carrender et al. discloses a sensing device integrated into a pill container to sense the opening thereof. Similarly, U.S. Pat. No. 5,016,172 to Dessertine discloses a patient compliance and status monitoring system that utilizes a cap-opening counting device to record the number of cap openings. A further example is disclosed in U.S Pat. Publication No. 2003/0009088 to Korth et. al wherein a pill dispenser is equipped with a transmitter configured to transmit a message that a drug has been removed from the dispenser. However, as is evident in the prior art, MEMS devices only record the number of times a bottle was opened, and not how many, if any, pills were removed or what pharmaceutical content was contained in those pills. Additionally, MEMS devices have been found to be. incompatible with complex medical regimens and frequently interfere with personal adherence strategies. Finally, widespread implementation of MEMS devices would require significant logistical support at a pharmacy/pharmacist level.
Due to patients not accurately reporting medication adherence and the fact that monitoring of adherence at the level of the medication dispensing container is unlikely to be feasible, it is increasingly clear that other forms of medication adherence may be appropriate. It is, therefore, desirable to overcome the above problems and others by providing a system and method for quickly, efficiently and accurately qualifying and quantifying patient medication to not only monitor patient medicine intake compliance, but also to determine an identity of any pills and quantity thereof ingested by an individual.

Radio frequency identification pharmaceutical tracking system and method


The present invention provides a method and apparatus for discovering a home link in mobile IP, wherein the method includes: an access network assigns an address for a UE when the UE is attached to the network; the UE acquires a home address from the network; the UE compares the address assigned by the access network with the home address, and confirms that the UE is attached to the home link in the case that the address assigned by the access network and the home address are the same. Therefore, with the present invention, it is not necessary to configure the UE in advance, and the participation of the user is also not required. Thus improved application flexibility is provided.

The I-WLAN (Interworking Wireless Local Area Network) is a WLAN network interacting with the 3GPP (the 3rd Generation Partnership Project) network. The I-WLAN mainly comprises a WAN (WLAN Access Network), a WAG (WLAN Access Gateway), a PDG (Packet Data Gateway) and other supporting nodes. The purpose for interacting is to enable the cooperation between the WLAN access technology and the facilities of the 3GPP core network, so that the WLAN subscriber can access the 3GPP packet service through the WLAN access network.
The GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) access network comprises a 3GPP wireless access network (GSM EDGE Radio Access Network/UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, GERAN/UTRAN for short), an SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node), a GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node) and other support nodes.
A mobile subscriber having the access capability for the I-WLAN and GPRS Access Network requires to keep service continuity when switching between the two access networks. The 3GPP Standard Organization has determined to employ DSMIPv6 (Dual-Stack Mobile Internet Protocol version 6) as the solution to keep service continuity. The solution enables the mobile subscriber to keep IP address unchanged after the mobile subscriber switches between the I-WLAN and GPRS Access Network, so as to realize the continuity of the service.
FIG. 1 is the architecture diagram of the mobility solution (I-WLAN Mobility) between the I-WLAN network and 3GPP Network.
As shown in FIG. 1, a UE (User Equipment) can access the I-WLAN network and 3GPP network. Both the GGSN and PDG can be considered to be ARs (Access Routers). An HA (Home Agent) and corresponding 3 interfaces, i.e., H1 (between the HA and UE), H2 (between the HA and 3GPP AAA Server), and H3 (between the HA and AR) are added between the above mentioned I-WLAN network and 3GPP network.
3GPP EPS (Evolved Packet System) is consisted of an evolved UTRAN (Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network, E-UTRAN for short), an S-GW (Serving Gateway), a PDN GW (Packet Data Network Gateway, PDN GW or P-GW for short) and other supporting nodes. The S-GW is an access gateway device connected to the E-UTRAN, which forwards data between the E-UTRAN and PDN GW, and is in charge of buffering the paging waiting data; the P-GW is a border gateway between the EPS and the PDN (Packet Data Network) network, and is in charge of the functions, such as the accessing of the PDN and the data forwarding between the EPS and the PDN.
FIG. 2 is the architecture diagram for a non-3GPP network accessing the EPS network.
As shown in FIG. 2, the EPS supports the interaction with a non-3GPP network. The P-GW functions as an anchor during the switch between the 3GPP network and the non-3GPP network. The subscriber uses an S2c interface when accessing the EPS network using the terminal-based mobile IP protocol, wherein the S2c interface is an interface between the UE and the P-GW.
The mobile IP protocol is a network layer scheme for providing mobile function on Internet, so that the node can not interrupt the ongoing communication when switching a link Especially, the mobile IP provides an IP routing mechanism, which enables the mobile node to be visited through its home address when it accesses a foreign link.
Some important special terms related to the mobile IP will be explained hereafter.
Mobile node is a node in the mobile IP which can move from one connection point to another connection point of a link and still can be visited through its home address.
Home agent is a router in the home link of the mobile node. When the mobile node leaves the home link, it can intercept, on its home link, the data package whose destination address is the home address of the mobile node, and forward the data package to the care of address registered by the mobile node via a tunnel.
Home Address (HoA for short) refers to a permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node and belongs to the home link of the mobile node. A standard IP routing mechanism can transmit the packet to be sent to the home address of the mobile node to another home link. The Home Network Prefix is (HNP for short) is the prefix of the IPv6 home address. In present Specification, the HoA allocated by the HA can be the HNP.
Care of Address (CoA for short) refers to an IP address acquired by the mobile node at the time of visiting a foreign link. The sub-network prefix of such an IP address is a foreign sub-network prefix.
Home Link is a network corresponding to the home sub-network prefix of the mobile node.
Foreign Link is any link other than the home link.
Binding refers to the correlation between the care of address and the home address of the mobile node.
When a UE, as a mobile node, accesses the I-WLAN Mobility system or EPS network, the mobile IP protocol (DSMIPv6) is used to keep the IP address of the subscriber unchanged, so as to maintain the continuity of the subscriber service When the UE accesses the I-WLAN Mobility system and EPS network, the network is composed of an access router (AR) and a home agent (HA). The GGSN, PDG and P-GW, as the access routers of the subscriber, assign an access network address to the UE, wherein the address is used as the CoA when the UE uses mobile service, When the UE uses mobile service, the UE initiates IKEv2 (Internet Key Exchange version 2) to establish security association with the HA, and during the IKEv2, the HA will assign an IP address (HoA) for the UE and send this address to the UE.
The UE does not utilize the mobile IP protocol when accessing the Home Link, and does not bind the HoA and the CoA at the HA. The I-WLAN Mobility system can configure the GPRS or I-WLAN as the home link of the UE; the home link of the UE can be configured as the EPS access network (E-UTRAN) in the EPS network. When the UE accesses the home link configured above, there are three methods to enable the UE to discover whether the current access link is the home link in the prior art.
Method 1, information, such as home agent address, home address of the UE is statically configured in the UE, the UE detects the router broadcast on the current IP link, if a link address prefix in the broadcast content is consistent with a prefix of its home address, then it is considered that the home link is accessed;
Method 2, the UE link layer detects the current access technology, and determines whether the current access network is the home link according to the previously configured information and informs the IP layer;
Method 3, when the UE receives the current access information, the subscriber selects whether the current access link is the home link.
Method 1 and Method 2 require to configure corresponding information in the UE and thus reduces the flexibility of the use; Method 3 requires the participation of the subscriber and thus increases the complexity and affects subscriber experience.

Method and apparatus for discovering a home link in mobile IP


A method for optical evaluation of a sample includes scanning a beam of coherent radiation over the sample, whereby the radiation is scattered from the sample, while directing a portion of the scanning beam toward a diffraction grating so that the portion of the beam is scanned over the grating, whereby a frequency-shifted reference beam is diffracted from the grating. The scattered radiation and the frequency-shifted reference beam are combined at a detector to generate an optical heterodyne signal.

Heterodyne detection is a well-known method of optical signal processing. It is described, for example, by Vanderlugt in Optical Signal Processing (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992), Chapters 9-10, which are incorporated herein by reference. Typically, to perform heterodyne detection, a laser beam is split into a probe beam and a reference beam. The reference beam, of amplitude A0, is frequency-shifted by a known carrier frequency fc, typically using an acousto-optic modulator operating in the radio frequency (RF) range. The probe beam is incident on the sample, and is modified in amplitude and phase as a result, so that the beam reflected (or transmitted) by the sample has amplitude A1(t) and phase φ(t). The probe and reference beams are recombined and mutually interfere to give an optical signal whose intensity has the form:I(t)=A02+A12+2A0A1(t) cos [2πfct−φ(t)]  (1)
This combined signal is incident on a detector, and the detector output is filtered to extract the signal component at frequency fc. This heterodyne component is linear in the amplitude change A1(t) caused by the sample, and also contains the phase change data Φ(t). Therefore, information regarding the structure and characteristics of the sample is typically more easily extracted from the heterodyne signal than from simple (homodyne) intensity-based detection.
Interferometric measurements are known in the art of optical inspection of patterned substrates, such as semiconductor wafers. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,052,478, whose disclosure is incorporated herein by reference, describes an automated photomask inspection apparatus that uses transmitted or reflected interferometry to measure phase shifts produced by such masks. Variations in the phase shifts are indicative of defects due to undesired thickness variations in the photomask.

Laser scanner with amplitude and phase detection


A method of prevention and treatment of microbial infections that occur on, or just below, the skin and nails of a person consisting of electromagnetic radiation to inactivate the microbes thus rendering them harmless. The treatment consists of irradiating an area of the skin and nails for a period of time long enough to inactivate the organisms. Some additional features which are not integral to the treatment but increase the safety of the treatment include shielding of non-infected areas from irradiation and a cover to prevent damage to sight which may result from viewing the electromagnetic radiation.

1. Field of Invention
This invention relates to preventing and treating skin and nail infections using germicidal radiation to inactivate and kill organisms that cause such infections.
2. Background of the Invention
The germicidal effects of certain types of light have been recognized for many years. As early as the late 1890's certain types of ultraviolet light were found to have a germicidal effect. However, the wavelengths of light found to be germicidal have very little power to penetrate which limited their usefulness in treating infections. The most germicidal band, labeled UVC and extending from 240 to 280 nm, is totally absorbed by the atmosphere before it reaches the Earth's surface. Published research indicates that UVC can only penetrate the skin about 0.1 mm. Although germicidal light was found useful to sterilize air or water and to treat hard surfaces such as laboratory benches, its lack of penetration made it appear unsuitable to treat skin and nail infections.
Niels Finsen received the 1903 Nobel Prize in Medicine for his discovery that light in the ultraviolet region could be used to treat skin tuberculosis, a very serious disease at that time. The treatment as described in the 1903 Nobel Prize acceptance speech consisted of concentrating the rays of the sun and eliminating its longer heat producing rays or using a carbon arc lamp. The skin is exposed for an hour or so until it becomes red and inflamed. This treatment was repeated as necessary until the skin scarred over and then later grew in clear. The treatment was described as having no unpleasant effects, but was expensive, and required constant supervision. The light used had a very low percentage of UVC and it was thought that the main effect of the light used was to stimulate the body's natural defenses. It was thought that germicidal light could not effectively penetrate the skin to treat the infection but that the main purpose of the light was to stimulate the body's natural defenses.
This type of treatment for skin tuberculosis and several other skin diseases continued through the 1950's but was eventually replaced by the use of antibiotics. Early use of ultraviolet light was much more of an art than a science. In the early 1900's science was just beginning to form its modern theory of the composition of light and the science of genetics was many decades off. Thus researchers did not have the theoretical knowledge of how germicidal light damages genetic material to guide them in their treatments.
Early practitioners of phototherapy for the treatment of skin infections were aware of the germicidal effects of light but did not think they contributed significantly to UV phototherapy. In Ultra-Violet Radiation and Actinotherapy (Russel, 1933) it was noted that 'Ultraviolet light is absorbed by the protoplasm of the organism, and in a culture, or on the surface of a wound, one bacterium will protect a second lying under it; so in a lesion like lupus very little beneficial therapeutic effect can be considered to be due to the bactericidal effects of the rays. It is due rather to the increased lymphocytosis in the part, and stimulation of cicatrisation.' (Russel, 1933, pg. 288). The text also notes that 'the absorption by the skin of very short wave-length, is very great, all rays shorter than 3000 angstroms [300 nm] being absorbed by a later of epidermis 0.1 mm in thickness' (Russel, 1933, pg. 272-273). The lamps which were used to treat skin infections had at least 95% of their energy emitted at wavelengths over 300 nm and thus had very little energy in wavelengths considered germicidal. This compares to modern low pressure mercury germicidal lamps where 95% of light is emitted at 254 nm—almost the exact opposite of earlier lamps used to treat skin disorders.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,856,969 by Reiter and Gabor in 1932 describes a type of phototherapy to modulate living tissue that was used as part of empirically based treatment of skin disorders. The patent describes the use of UV to stimulate the natural defenses of the body and includes a filter to prevent light less than 320 nm from reaching the skin since light below 320 nm was felt to be detrimental to treatment. This patent illustrates that most early UV therapy was focused on the stimulating effects of UV and not on its germicidal qualities since the wavelengths considered germicidal (less than 315 nm) were considered to be detrimental to treatment.
Treatment of skin diseases continued on an empirical basis through the 1950's with a multiplicity of units being produced each with different approximated guidelines of how to best use them for various disorders and infections. The empirical basis of treatment of these disorders was based on judiciously applying ultraviolet light to cause erythema (redness) to develop. The treatment was then adjusted to bring about various degrees of sunburn depending on the disorder being treated. Mild erythema (slight redness) was assigned a value of E-1 while the most sever erythema (blistering and third degree burns) was assigned an E-4. The most serious infections often merited a treatment bringing about an E-4 erythema for a sustained period. The induced erythema was thought to stimulate the body's defenses, particularly increasing the bactericidal ability of the blood. Although this was the most prevalent theory of why this treatment was efficacious there was no absolute consensus. The lack of consensus with regard to how this type of treatment worked and the large number of lamps that were being marketed in the first half of the twentieth century was probably bewildering to many doctors. Nevertheless, in the absence of modern antibiotics, even the empirical use of ultraviolet light to treat skin infections.
Electrotherapy and Actinotherapy; A Textbook for Student Physiotherapists authored by E. B. Clayton and published in 1952 (2nd edition) shows of the state of the art of phototherapy before use of modern antibiotics caused this form of treatment to lose favor. This 451 page textbook covers all aspects of phototherapy beginning with the theory, the type of equipment used, and treatment of various types including skin disorders. Portions of the treatment section for skin tuberculosis read as follows, "The Finsen-Lomholt water cooled carbon arc or the Kromayer lamp is employed. The latter has the disadvantage that its spectrum includes a quantity of abiotic rays which are not required and merely increase the superficial inflammation . . . . The initial exposure is commonly five times a fourth degree erythema." (pgs. 413-414). This extract of the book notes that abiotic (germicidal) light is not considered helpful for treatment. It also shows that dosages for treatment were based on empirically derived rules of thumb related to how severe the produced erythema was. Although almost 100 pages are devoted to describing various treatments there is no mention of dosage in terms of the amount of energy applied nor is there mention of any specific wavelengths.
Empirical use of ultraviolet light had a number of undesirable side effects including a wide spectrum of light including high amounts of UVB light now known to be carcinogenic. The relative amount of germicidal light was extremely low which made any possible benefit due to its inclusion very small and probably undetectable. Also, the cure rate was also much lower than can be expected with a well understood theory of how germicidal light inactivates organisms. Thus, when safer and more effective antibiotics were introduced in the 1950's the practice of empirically using ultraviolet light to treat skin infections was quickly abandoned by the medical profession in general. While ultraviolet light may still be used to empirically treat skin infections in isolated areas of the world its general use has been abandoned.
There appears to have been no application of the recent advances in genetics, air handling, and water and wastewater disinfection to transform the use of germicidal light to scientifically treat skin infections. The present invention combines these advances in other fields to develop a novel and unique approach to scientifically treat skin and nail infections in a manner that increases the efficacy of treatment while minimizes the side effects of such treatments.
It should be noted that there is no indication that this type of treatment was ever applied to treating nails. While the text discuss a number of different disorders affecting different parts of the body (including skin, nose, throat, anus, etc.) the mention of nails is not found in any text. This is understandable given the limited ability of nails to transmit light in the ultraviolet range and the fact that nail diseases in general are less life threatening than skin infections.
With the discovery of DNA and RNA in the 1950's and the subsequent development of the science of genetics, scientists discovered that each cell contained a highly sophisticated code to permit the cell to reproduce. Later, it was found that certain kinds of ultraviolet light could damage this genetic material and prevent a cell from reproducing. This knowledge was applied in many different fields including water and wastewater treatment (where it was used to disinfect water), to sterilize surfaces, and to sterilize air. However, it was not applied to treat skin infections. This was perhaps due to several reasons including the following:                The widespread knowledge that UV cannot penetrate deeply made it a less than ideal candidate to treat an infection that may not be totally on the surface of the skin. Since it is well documented that light less than 300 nm cannot penetrate below the first 0.1 mm of the epidermis, its penetrating power was thought insufficient to treat infections.        The old empirical use of UV light made use of lights of varying characteristics and strengths. It is likely that these lights cause some pain and tenderness due to their non-specificity. Also, since there was no knowledge of how the light cleared infections, it was applied in a broad manner and probably had significant side effects due to overdosing including cancer due to high level of carcinogenic UVB.
While Niels Finsen is cited as the founder of phototherapy by many authors, the industry has all but abandoned the use of ultraviolet light to treat infections and has instead concentrated on the visible and infrared part of the spectrum from 400 nm to 1000 nm. The invention disclosed in this application builds on Finsen's work and extends it in new and innovative ways by combining new knowledge of genetics and advances in the use of ultraviolet light to disinfect air and water. The combination of diverse knowledge that the invention builds on is not generally known to those skilled in the art of phototherapy and when this new knowledge is combined with the existing empirical base provided by Finsen and other early phototherapists, new and unobvious applications of this knowledge to prevent and treat skin and nail infections emerge.
The germicidal effects of electromagnetic radiation have been recognized for many years. Currently, germicidal radiation (also called germicidal light) is being used more frequently at water and wastewater treatment plants to render water-borne pathogens harmless. Additionally, germicidal light is used to sterilize and purify air, particularly in laboratories and medical establishments. It is also used to sterilize equipment at such establishments. Germicidal light has been used for several years to sterilize and disinfect food products and has also been used to sanitize the hands to prevent the spread of germs to other persons. Over the years a large body of knowledge concerning germicidal radiation has been developed but has not been systematically applied to address important problems with respect to treating skin and nail infections.
While germicidal light is not used by itself to treat skin and nail infections, certain types of light that are considered non-germicidal are frequently combined with other additional chemical compositions to treat existing psoriasis, rashes, and other non-infectious skin disorders. It is believed that this type of treatment, termed phototherapy, is effective because it has an immunosuppressive effect that permits the body to heal itself. Recently, lasers alone have been successfully used to treat psoriasis by clearing localized chronic plaque. Phototherapy is also used to treat jaundice which is also a non-infectious disorder. However, no method of using germicidal light alone has been discovered to successfully treat existing microbial infections nor has this type of light been used as a preventative treatment for infections.
Perceived Inability of Germicidal Light to Penetrate Skin and Nails
The main reason that germicidal light alone has not been used to prevent and treat skin and nail infections is that the most potent germicidal light is in the UVC range (240 nm to 300 nm) and this type of light cannot penetrate the skin and nails deeply. Significantly less than 1% of UVC light can penetrate nails or the deeper than 0.1 mm of skin (i.e. does not penetrate the epidermis).
UVB (280 nm 315 nm) while not generally considered germicidal also has some limited germicidal ability particularly in the 280 nm to 300 nm part of the spectrum. However, it also has limited penetrability. For example UVB it is estimated that less than 5% of light at 315 nm penetrates the epidermis (approx. 0.125 mm deep) or nails. The perceived inability of germicidal light to penetrate the skin and nails is one of the major reasons that this type of light has not been used to prevent and treat infections. If the light cannot penetrate skin or nails and reach the infectious organisms it is of no use for treating infections. However, it is this difference between no penetration and little penetration that the disclosed invention makes innovative and unobvious use of. Although less than 1% of UVC light can penetrate nails or can penetrate skin deeper than 100 mm, the less than 1% of light that is able to penetrate deeper is sufficient to prevent and treat skin and nail infections when applied properly.
Less than 8% of UVB at 315 mm can penetrate nails or skin deeper than 0.1 mm. This is much greater than the penetration ability of UVC, however, given its lower germicidal ability it does not appear to be as effective treatment for infections. Nevertheless, UVB can be used germicidally to treat infections if it is of sufficient strength or if it is accompanied by use of UVC light.
There is a large amount of literature that teaches that germicidal light cannot penetrate well. The Physics Society in its July 1998 paper titled "Ultraviolet Radiation and the Public Health" notes that "UVC, used in germicidal lamps, causes almost no damage because of its low penetration of the skin." INTERSUN, the global UV project sponsored by the United Nations indicates only 5% of UVC (at 254 nm) can penetrate to approximately a quarter of the depth of the epidermis and less than 1% can penetrate more than half the depth of the epidermis. Many other sources indicate that UVC cannot penetrate the skin or can do so only to a very limited depth. However, this depth is sufficient to treat infections since organisms are particularly susceptible to germicidal radiation. Also, with respect to nail infections, the additional radiation required to penetrate the nail is not harmful to the nail since it is composed of dead keratin.
UVC Dose Necessary to Inactivate Microbes
A second major reason the use of UV has not been contemplated are the relatively high doses necessary to kill some types of organisms. However, it has been found that it is not always necessary to kill organisms to render them harmless. It has been shown that organisms can be inactivated and rendered harmless using far less radiation than is necessary to kill them completely. Therefore, although its use as a treatment for has been overlooked in the past, electromagnetic radiation of sufficient strength can be used to treat human and animal infections.
There are several publications that note that organisms can be rendered harmless with less energy than is necessary to kill them. The inactivation of organisms by damaging RNA and DNA and preventing them from reproducing is a method used for disinfection of highly transparent potable water and is discussed in more detail in U.S. Pat. No. 6,129,893 to Bolton. The patent describes a method for preventing the replication of Cryptosporidium parvum using ultraviolet light. This patent indicates that ultraviolet light can inactivate bacteria (as measured by infectivity studies) at doses that are 3% to 10% of the dose necessary to actually kill the organisms (as measured by microscopic examination of ruptured membranes). The method of inactivation is described as damage to the DNA and RNA that prevents the organisms from replicating. Since organisms are not long-lived in themselves, they are unable to continue to cause infection if they are unable to replicate. This discovery is applied to the inactivation of a pathogen in drinking water to render it safe for consumption. However, the method is only to irradiate one type of organism and then only in highly transparent drinking water.
The EPA guidance manual on Alternate Disinfectants and Oxidants (April 1999) devotes Chapter 8 to a discussion of germicidal UV as a disinfectant for drinking water. The manual notes that a UV wavelength of 240 to 280 nm is highly absorbed by the RNA and DNA of a microorganism. The absorbance of UV by the organisms results in the damage to the organism's ability to reproduce. The damage is often caused by the dimerization of pyrimidine molecules. A dimer is a molecule consisting of two identical simpler molecules and dimerization is the process of linking the two molecules together. Dimerization of the pyrimidine molecules distorts the DNA helical structure. The EPA guidance manual also notes that the dose to inactivate 90% of most types of organisms is very low with a typical range of 2 to 6 mJ/cm2. The manual notes that the germicidal radiation can be generated by a number of sources including a low pressure mercury lamp emitting at 254 nm, a medium pressure lamp emitting at 180 to 1370 nm, or lamps that emit at other wavelengths in a high intensity pulsed manner.
It should also be noted that it is not necessary to kill and inactivate all organisms in order to effect a cure for an infection. If a substantial amount of the organisms that have caused an infection are destroyed or rendered inactivated, the body's natural defenses will often work to clear the infection. Thus, doses of radiation necessary to effect a cure for an infection may be much lower than those necessary to sterilize an area by total destruction of all organisms.
While germicidal light is often said to inactivate organisms by damaging their genetic material and preventing them from reproducing, germicidal light can be applied in higher dosages to damage enough of the genetic material in the cell and prevent it from being able to properly function, thus leading to its death. For example, mRNA (messenger RNA) is used to control cellular processes, however, if it is severely damaged it cannot perform this function.
UVB as Germicidal Light
While UVB light has some germicidal qualities it is not often used to inactivate or kill organisms. Although approximately 10 times more UVB light can penetrate a given depth of skin and nails than UVC light, its lower germicidal ability does not make it as attractive a choice. UVB is also considered the band of UV that causes the most damage to skin, and is therefore considered more carcinogenic, and is thus avoided where possible. Additionally, UVB light is more difficult to generate than UVC light which is easily produced by a mercury vapor light (which is similar in manufacture to a fluorescent light). Nevertheless, UVB can be used germicidally and it may be desirable to use it particularly in conjunction with UVC light. The portion of the UVB range that adjoins the UVC range (UVB between 280 nm and 300 nm) is almost as germicidal as some bands of UVC. Practitioners of photobiology sometimes term UV light between 200 nm and 300 nm as 'Far UV' light (as opposed to 'Near UV' light which is often listed in the range of 300 to 400 nm). The current invention makes use of UVB for treatment of skin and nail infections even though most literature ignores its germicidal ability and teaches that UVB does not penetrate deeply. The invention also encompasses Near UV light in the range of 200 nm to 300 nm due to its germicidal nature.
Other Types of Germicidal Radiation
U.S. Pat. No. 5,900,211 shows that it is not only UVC and UVB that can be used to sterilize water and food. Dunn discusses the use of pulsed polychromatic light to inactivate organisms. Dunn uses much lower amounts of energy to inactivate an organism than would be necessary to destroy it by excessive heat. However, Dunn applies this technology only to the sterilization of food and other materials and does not contemplate it for treatment of skin or nail infections. This is presumably because of the perceived inability of the light to penetrate the skin or nails. (Dunn indicates that the effectiveness of the light is dependent on its ability to penetrate a medium effectively.)
Prior Art Using UVC to Kill and Inactivate Organisms
U.S. Pat. No. 6,254,625 shows an apparatus to sterilize hands to prevent the spread of infectious organisms. This apparatus makes use of light to sanitize the surface of the hands to prevent infections from spreading form person to person. In all of its embodiments it consists of at least two items. It makes use of light to kill organisms along with either additional light to recuperatively heal the skin that has been irradiated or the use of ozone to increase the efficiency of killing organisms. The recuperative healing light uses the phenomenon of photoreactivation whereby cells and organisms that have been damaged can repair the damage using such light of a different wavelength. The inclusion of this source of light as part of the apparatus indicates that the disease causing organisms are killed and not merely inactivated otherwise they too could repair damage by photoreactivation. Additionally, the patent does not contemplate the use of the apparatus to treat an infected area of the skin and it makes no mention of treating any infection of the nails using electromagnetic radiation. The apparatus relies on the use of ozone to kill any organisms under the nails or shielded by debris and notes incorrectly that UVC radiation will not penetrate the nail. Rosenthal appears to be unaware that germicidal UV can penetrate the skin and nails and is used to treat infections.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,283,986 discusses the use of UVC radiation to treat wounds. However, Johnson only applies radiation to open wounds, which can be readily exposed, and notes that "given the short wavelength of UVC, no penetration of the underlying tissue would be expected." The patent makes no mention of skin infections and mention of the nails is totally absent from the application although nail infections comprise a large part of total dermal infections. Possibly, the reason the patent only applies to wounds is that by their nature wounds are open and therefore capable of having their surfaces irradiated. It appears that Johnson is also unaware of the ability of germicidal radiation to penetrate the skin and nails.
It is the misconception that germicidal light cannot penetrate skin and nails which has in part prevented the discovery that germicidal radiation, including UVC, can indeed penetrate to a depth sufficient to be used successfully to treat skin and nail infections. While it is true that skin and nails will absorb a large percentage of UVC, enough can penetrate to successfully treat and prevent infections.
Nail Infections and Treatment
Nail infections are a particularly significant problem in the general population, affecting an estimated 5% to 15% of the overall population (approximately 15 to 45 million people). This percentage is significantly higher in the elderly age group and among athletes and other individuals who have high moisture in the area of their feet. Nail infections are often caused by fungus and this type of infection is termed onychomycosis. Currently, the preferred method for the prevention and treatment of skin and nail infections relies on application of topical medications or ingestion of medications. These medications are used to treat an existing infection, not for the prevention of an infection. Cost of treatment using medication can be between $600 and $1200 per course of treatment and can last three to six months. This is the amount of time it takes the medication to be incorporated into the nails. Another one to six months is then required for the nail to become free of infection. It should be noted that the cost noted above does not take into account doctors visits or diagnostic testing to determine if the patient can tolerate the medication (many medications can cause liver and other damage).
The problems associated with oral anti-fungal medications can be illustrated by several quotes from the clinical testing results for Itraconazole capsules (marketed under the trademark name SPORANOX® manufactured by Janssen Pharmaceutica, Inc.) which was the most prescribed anti-fungal in the U.S. in 1996. The success rate for treatment of onychomycosis of the toenail is reported as follows—"Results of these studies demonstrated mycological cure . . . in 54% of the patients. Thirty-five (35%) of patients were considered an overall success (mycologic cure plus clear or minimal nail involvement with significantly decreased signs) and 14% of patients demonstrated mycological cure (clearance of all signs, with or without residual nail deformity)." With respect to adverse reactions—"SPORANOX® has been associated with rare cases of serious hepatoxicity, including liver failure and death. Some of the cases had neither pre-existing liver disease nor a serious underlying medical condition." In a study of 602 patients treated for systemic fungal disease, "treatment was discontinued in 10.5% of the patients due to adverse events."
Although it is relatively rare, death is another serious side effect of oral antifungal medications. The two most popular antifungal medications used to treat nail infections were implicated in a total of 35 deaths in the U.S. between 1996 and 2001. This caused the FDA to issue a health advisory for these medications in May of 2001.
Although the currently preferred method of treating nail infections is the use of oral medication, there are several other treatments in use. There are several topical applications that are used to treat fungal infections of the nails. However, these have an even poorer success rate than oral medications and the infections tend to re-occur.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,090,788 to Lurie shows destruction of fungal infections of the nails by introducing a pigment into an infected area and then heating the pigment in the infected area with a laser in order to raise the temperature high enough to kill the organisms that have caused the infection by excessive heating. The energy listed in the preferred embodiments is from 5 to 15 J/cm2 and it has a relatively long wavelength (generally 500 to 700 nm) in order to penetrate the nail. The high amount of energy and long wavelength of light is great enough to cause excessive heating of the surrounding area thus destroying the organism. However, such high energy levels also have undesirable effects on the surrounding tissue such as redness and swelling.
Lurie incorrectly notes that typical fungi do not have pigment and, therefore, cannot absorb light. However, the fact is that all cells will absorb light at a wavelength of between 240 and 280 nm since the DNA in the organism will absorb light at this wavelength. Also, Lurie is not cognizant of the fact that organisms can be inactivated at much lower doses than those necessary to destroy them by excessive heat. Due to the complicated nature of the treatment, U.S. Pat. No. 6,090,788 is proposed as a method to treat an infection, not to prevent one.
Lurie also notes that the light he uses for treatment must easily penetrate the skin which is something that UV does not do. Thus it would not be a natural extension of Lurie's treatment to use UV light to directly treat nail infections.
Lurie notes "there is a widely recognized need for, and it would be highly advantageous to have, a phototherapy method for treating skin and nail pathogens and a pharmaceutical composition to effect same." It may be added that there is even a greater need to treat skin and nail infections using germicidal radiation only, particularly if said radiation could be effective at a much lower dose and not have the side effects associated with high energy lasers.

Prevention and treatment of skin and nail infections using germicidal light


The present invention relates to prevention and/or treatment of infection by a platelet-targeting microbe in a subject. The present invention provides for methods, combinations and pharmaceutical compositions for preventing and/or treating (and/or related uses) infection by a platelet-targeting microbe in a subject, using, inter alia, an effective amount of a nanoparticle comprising a) an inner core comprising a non-cellular material, b) an outer surface comprising a cellular membrane derived from a platelet; and optionally c) an agent for preventing said infection, treating said infection, diagnosing said infection, prognosing said infection and/or monitoring prevention or treatment of said infection. Exemplary platelet-targeting infections include infections by a bacterium, a virus, a fungus and/or a parasite.

Development of functional nanoparticles can be encumbered by unanticipated material properties and biological events, which can negatively impact nanoparticle effectiveness in complex, physiologically relevant systems1-3. Despite the advances in bottom-up nanoengineering and surface chemistry, reductionist functionalization approaches remain inadequate in replicating the complex interfaces present in nature and cannot avoid exposure of foreign materials.
New methods and compositions for preventing and/or treating (and/or related uses) infection by a platelet-targeting microbe in a subject are needed. The present disclosure addresses this and the related needs in the art.

Treating infection by a platelet-targeting microbe using nanoparticles

The Regents of the University of California


A solar cell includes a plurality of nanowires arranged such that diameters of the nanowires sequentially increase in a first direction along a path of incident light. In a method of forming nanowires, a catalyst layer is formed on a substrate, a plurality of nanoparticles are formed by thermally processing the catalyst layer, and nanowires are grown from the plurality of nanoparticles. The catalyst layer has a thickness that increases in a first direction, and the plurality of nanoparticles have diameters that increase in the first direction.

1. Field
Example embodiments relate to solar cells having nanowires and methods of fabricating nanowires.
2. Description of the Related Art
Conventionally, a solar cell is fabricated by doping an impurity into a substrate such as a silicon wafer. A solar cell fabricated in this way exhibits an efficiency from about 15% to about 20% because of single band gap limits and losses due to defects. Recently, research for controlling a band gap by forming a solar cell including nanostructures such as nanowires, or for manipulating physical characteristics of nanostructures, are being performed for improving efficiency of a solar cell.
Meanwhile, when growing a nanostructure such as a nanowire, a metal catalyst layer is formed having a desired thickness on a surface of a substrate by using a method such as nanoparticle coating, resistive heating, electron beam deposition, or sputtering, to control the diameter of the nanostructure. In this case, only nanostructures having the same diameter may be grown from the catalyst layer because the metal catalyst layer is formed having a uniform thickness on the substrate. Moreover, it is relatively difficult to fabricate nanostructures having different diameters.

Solar cells having nanowires and methods of fabricating nanowires


An isolated switched-mode power converter converts power from an input source into power for an output load. A digital controller senses a secondary-side voltage, such as a rectified voltage, of the power converter. The secondary-side voltage is divided down using a high-impedance voltage divider. The resultant divided-down voltage is provided to a voltage sensor within the digital controller. The voltage sensor level shifts the provided voltage, and buffers the resulting level-shifted voltage. The buffered, level-shifted voltage is provided to a tracking analog-to-digital converter (ADC) for digitization. The buffered signal provided to the tracking ADC has a high current capability, such that the voltage input to the tracking ADC may quickly converge before the tracking ADC outputs a digital value for the sensed secondary-side voltage.

Isolated switched-mode direct-current (DC) to DC power converters use a transformer to convert power from an input source into power for an output load. Such power converters include power switches that convert DC input power into alternating current (AC) power that is fed to the primary side of the transformer. AC power supplied on the secondary side of the transformer is rectified and filtered so as to provide DC power to the output load. The primary-side power switches are typically controlled by pulse-width-modulated (PWM) control signals. A controller generates the PWM control signals with a frequency and duty cycle that are appropriate to meet the power needs of the output load.
The controller typically uses a linear closed-loop feedback technique to maintain the output voltage near a desired target. The controller may be implemented using analog or digital circuitry, and may be located on the primary or secondary side of the power converter. So as to maintain the integrity of the isolation barrier of the power converter, any signals crossing between the primary and secondary sides must pass through isolators, e.g., transformers, opto-couplers. Isolated switched-mode power converters increasingly use digital controllers that are located on the secondary side, so as to avoid passing the output voltage, which must be sensed by the controller for linear closed-loop feedback control, through an analog isolator at the primary-to-secondary boundary. Furthermore, locating the controller on the secondary side allows for ready communication between the controller and components of the output load, e.g., for load management, without requiring isolators.
However, some techniques used by the controller may require information regarding the input voltage or current of the primary side of the power converter. For example, a linear feedback control technique may be augmented with feedforward control techniques so as to quickly compensate for input voltage transients. However, feedforward control techniques require use of the input voltage, or an estimate thereof, from the primary side. Similarly, the controller may need to detect primary-side fault conditions, which also requires information regarding the input voltage or current. The input voltage or current may be directly sensed by a secondary-side controller, but this requires an analog isolator which is preferably avoided. Alternatively, the input voltage or current may be estimated based upon the output voltage or current, which may be sensed on the secondary side of the power converter. However, the output voltage is low-pass filtered, typically by an output capacitor and the load resistance. The delay incurred by the low-pass output filter means that changes in the input voltage are only detectable in the output voltage after a considerable time lag. Such a lag may make use of the output voltage unfeasible for purposes of feedforward control and/or detection of primary-side faults.
A rectified voltage is typically available on the secondary side of an isolated power converter prior to the output filter, i.e., between the transformer and the output filter. Input voltage transients may be detected in the rectified voltage without incurring the delay of the output filter. Hence, the rectified voltage may be used to estimate the input voltage with only a minimal delay. The rectified voltage may also be used for other purposes, including estimating the magnetic flux of the transformer and measuring the time delay between issuance of PWM control signals and corresponding pulses in the rectified voltage.
To meet such goals, circuits and methods are needed that are capable of accurately sensing secondary-side voltages, including a rectified voltage, which may be rapidly changing. Such sensing should be power efficient and the associated circuitry should be feasible for implementation within a digital controller on the secondary side of an isolated power converter

Circuits and methods for secondary-side rectified voltage sensing in isolated switched-mode power converters


A semiconductor device including a semiconductor substrate having first and second device regions. A first trench is formed in the first region and a second trench is formed in the second region. The first trench and the second trench have different widths and different depths. The first trench and the second trench define device isolation regions and active regions.

(a) Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to a semiconductor device, and in particular, to a semiconductor device having a gate to which different voltages are applied and a method for fabricating the semiconductor device.
(b) Description of the Related Art
As semiconductor devices have been implemented for various applications, different device characteristics are required. For example, there can be a device such as a logic and central processing unit (CPU) merged with Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) or Static Random Access Memory (SRAM). Accordingly, a high voltage device and low voltage device are formed in a single substrate.
The operation voltage of the chip varies according to the characteristics of respective devices integrated in the single chip. Thus, even though some components perform identical functions, their volume and size differ from each other according to the input voltages.
FIG. 1 is a cross sectional view illustrating a conventional CMOS of a high voltage region.
Referring to FIG. 1, P and N wells 102 are formed in an active region defined by a device isolation region 110 which is formed by filling a trench (T) formed within a substrate 100. Below the device isolation region 110, channel stop regions 112 are formed by doping the impurity ions of a type identical to those of the wells 102, respectively.
An NMOS transistor is formed in the P well of the high voltage region. An active region divided by the device isolation region 110 and a PMOS transistor is formed in the N well. In the drawing only a gate 114 and a gate dielectric layer 113 of the respective thin layer transistor are depicted. The channel stop regions 112 are positioned below the device isolation region between the P type transistor and the N type transistor and prevent the two devices from affecting each other.
However, the conventional method has drawbacks in that the fabrication processes are so complicated. The conventional processes are also limited in miniaturizing the size of the device, because the sizes of the device isolation region and the active region should be designed in consideration of the channel stop region.

Method for fabricating a semiconductor device


The present invention relates to a sole with at least one receptacle and at least one stud, which can be releasably mounted within the receptacle by inserting a fastening projection of the stud into the receptacle. The fastening projection includes a first locking member, and the receptacle includes a flexible wall having a second locking member. The flexible wall is deflected when the fastening projection is inserted into the receptacle until the first and the second locking members engage.

This application incorporates by reference, and claims priority to and the benefit of, German patent application serial number 10118986.9, which was filed on Apr. 18, 2001.
The present invention relates to an article of footwear, the outsole of which is provided with exchangeable studs. In particular, the present invention relates to a sole with at least one receptacle and at least one stud that can be releasably mounted in the receptacle.
It is known to provide sports shoes or walking boots, and in particular soccer shoes, with studs in order to increase the grip of the shoe, in particular, on soft ground such as grass. The term xe2x80x9cstudsxe2x80x9d is to be understood in the context of the present invention as meaning all possible elements which are arranged on outsoles of footwear in order to increase grip. The term xe2x80x9cstudsxe2x80x9d is intended to include, for example, studs for soccer shoes, spikes for golf shoes, and studs for walking boots.
If the shoes are to be used on changing ground conditions, it is advantageous if the stud is releasably attached to the sole. It has been known to attach studs to the soles of soccer shoes by means of threads. In addition to being able to adapt the shoe to a particular ground condition, worn studs can be replaced so that a new shoe is not necessary. If, however, during a soccer game (or a golf tournament) the studs must be replaced in a very short time due to changing weather conditions and/or changing ground conditions, screw studs anchored by screw threads or by additional pins or expanding elements, etc., are disadvantageous due to the time required to change the studs.
Other attachment systems exist where, for example, the stud can be xe2x80x9cclippedxe2x80x9d into a corresponding receptacle of the sole simply by inserting the stud without having to perform any additional assembly step. Such constructions are, for example, disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,638,615 and 4,035,934, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties
U.S. Pat. No. 5,638,615 discloses a metal socket with a circular snap ring provided therein. The snap ring is made from flexible steel and, together with the socket, is embedded in a receptacle for the stud during the manufacture of the sole. When a base portion of the stud to be mounted is inserted, the snap ring is expanded before it snaps into an annular groove of the base portion and thereby fastens the stud. The rotationally symmetric form of the receptacle and the stud allows for rotation of the mounted stud in the receptacle.
Similarly, U.S. Pat. No. 4,035,934 discloses two metal spring pins arranged in a receptacle, which are deflected during insertion of a base member of the stud and engage a corresponding groove of the base member when the base member is completely inserted. The complete receptacle with the spring pin and other components is preassembled on a plate during the manufacture of the sole and is subsequently attached in a corresponding bore of the sole.
Disadvantages of the studs of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,638,615 and 4,035,934 include the manufacturing complexity and the resulting costs. As previously mentioned, an initial preassembly of the receptacle assembly is required and the receptacle assembly is subsequently connected to the sole in a further manufacturing step. Also, the large number of small parts used renders automation difficult, such that a substantial amount of manual work is required. Further, there are metal parts used in the receptacle assembly that are susceptible to rust, and there is always the danger of losing a spring or a snap ring when the studs are replaced.
It is, therefore, an object of the invention to provide a sole for the releasable attachment of at least one stud, which combines the advantages of an easy mounting of the stud with a simple and cost efficient manufacture of the sole and which does not require the use of a large number of small parts.
The present invention relates to a sole with at least one receptacle and at least one stud, which can be releasably mounted in the receptacle by insertion. A fastening projection extending from the stud and including a locking member is insertable into the receptacle, thereby deflecting a flexible wall within the receptacle. The flexible wall also includes a locking member that engages the stud locking member to prevent inadvertent release of the stud.
The flexible wall of the receptacle acts like a xe2x80x9cspring element,xe2x80x9d allowing interlocking of the locking members when the fastening projection of the stud is inserted. Because the flexible wall is an integral part of the sole, no additional components are required, in contrast to the prior art. On the contrary, a sole in accordance with the invention may be manufactured as a single piece, including the receptacle with the flexible wall and the locking member. Typically, a cavity is provided in the sole adjacent to the receptacle, so that the flexible wall is deflected into the cavity during insertion of the fastening projection. This facilitates elastic deflection of the wall, without having to provide special, highly elastic materials in the receptacle.
The fastening projection of the stud can be oblong and the wall between the cavity and the receptacle can be generally parallel to a longitudinal axis of the fastening projection. Thus, the stud is secured against rotation in the receptacle. This is desirable, especially if the studs have a distinct asymmetric shape in order to meet specific functional requirements. Further, if desired, a key and slot or other mating structure can be provided on the projection and in the receptacle so that the stud can be inserted in solely a single orientation.
In one aspect, the invention relates to a sole including a bottom surface defining a receptacle and a stud removably inserted therein. The receptacle includes a flexible wall and a first locking member disposed on an internal surface of the flexible wall. The stud includes a ground-engaging portion and a fastening projection extending therefrom. The fastening projection includes a second locking member disposed on an external surface thereof and is for insertion into the receptacle. The fastening projection deflects the flexible wall when inserted into the receptacle until the first locking member and the second locking member engage.
In another aspect, the invention relates to an article of footwear including an upper and a sole. The sole includes a bottom surface defining a receptacle and a stud removably inserted therein. The receptacle includes a flexible wall and a first locking member disposed on an internal surface of the flexible wall. The stud includes a ground-engaging portion and a fastening projection extending therefrom. The fastening projection includes a second locking member disposed on an external surface thereof and is for insertion into the receptacle. The fastening projection deflects the flexible wall when inserted into the receptacle until the first locking member and the second locking member engage.
In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a stud for a shoe sole. The stud includes a ground-engaging portion and a fastening projection extending from the ground-engaging portion. The fastening projection includes a locking member disposed on an external surface thereof and is insertable into a receptacle disposed in the shoe sole. The fastening projection deflects a flexible wall of the receptacle when inserted into the receptacle until the locking member engages a mating locking member disposed within the receptacle.
In various embodiments of the foregoing aspects of the invention, the sole forms a cavity disposed adjacent the flexible wall of the receptacle. The cavity can receive the flexible wall when deflected by the fastening projection. The first locking member can be a protuberance and the second locking member can be a mating recess for engaging the protuberance when the fastening projection is inserted into the receptacle. In another embodiment, the first locking member can be a recess and the second locking member can be a mating protuberance for engaging the recess when the fastening projection is inserted into the receptacle. During insertion of the fastening projection, the flexible wall is pressed into the cavity until the protuberance and the corresponding recess are aligned and engage each other. In one embodiment, the cavity can be formed as a recess, open to a top surface of the sole.
In other embodiments, the receptacle can include a second flexible wall and an additional first locking member disposed on an internal surface of the second flexible wall. The fastening projection can include a corresponding additional second locking member disposed on the external surface of the fastening projection. The sole can further form a second cavity disposed adjacent the second flexible wall of the receptacle. The second cavity can receive the second flexible wall when deflected by the fastening projection.
Furthermore, the receptacle, the cavity, and the flexible wall can be integrally formed with the sole. In one embodiment, the fastening projection of the stud has a generally oblong shape. The flexible wall(s) of the receptacle can be substantially parallel to a longitudinal axis of the fastening projection. In one embodiment, at least one side of the receptacle is at least partially circumscribed by the cavity and the flexible wall. The first flexible wall and the second flexible wall can be generally disposed on opposite sides of the receptacle. The two second locking members can be disposed on a first longitudinal side and a second longitudinal side of the fastening projection, respectively, and the two first locking members can be disposed on the corresponding flexible walls of the receptacle.
In addition, the ground-engaging portion of the stud can optionally include an engagement feature for facilitating removing the stud from the receptacle. The engagement feature can include at least one recess disposed on an external surface of the ground-engaging portion. Alternatively, the engagement feature can include two recesses generally disposed on opposite sides of an external surface of the ground-engaging portion. In one embodiment, the receptacle is disposed at least partially within a downwardly projecting base member disposed on the bottom surface of the sole. The base member can optionally include an insert disposed within a distal end of the receptacle. The insert can optionally include a metal ring. The sole can include a plurality of receptacles and a plurality of corresponding studs.
These and other objects, along with advantages and features of the present invention herein disclosed, will become apparent through reference to the following description, the accompanying drawings, and the claims. Furthermore, it is to be understood that the features of the various embodiments described herein are not mutually exclusive and can exist in various combinations and permutations.