London Street Photography is published in association with The Museum of London to coincide with the major exhibition on show at the Museum until September 2011. Street photography thrives in London today. It documents the movement, diversity and seeming incoherence of the most multicultural city in the world. Its defining characteristic is the keen eye of the photographer catching the moment of a chance encounter, a fleeting expression or a momentary juxtaposition in a decisive click. However, photographing life on London's streets is nothing new. The first 'instantaneous' London street scenes were taken in the early 1860s, and by the 1890s candid street photographers were snapping Londoners unawares. The 20th century saw many photographers, famous and lesser-known, continue to capture the daily life of London. London Street Photography showcases the Museum of London's unique historic collection of photographs. It contains the work of more than seventy photographers and is a fascinating view of London street life of the last 150 years. It includes the work of well-known photographers such as Paul Martin, John Thomson, Humphrey Spender, Bert Hardy, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Roger Mayne and Tony Ray-Jones as well as the work of many anonymous photographers whose contribution has been just as important in recording the story of the city. The book includes an introduction by Mike Seaborne, Senior Curator of Photographs at the Museum, in which he outlines the history of street photography in the Capital, exploring the shifts in approach as well as the impact of new cameras that could allow photographers to capture the wealth of detail to be found in London's teeeming streets.


Success is highly dependent on the ability of a company to efficiently produce optimal designs. In order to achieve this companies must minimize time to market and possess the ability to make fully informed decisions at the early phase of the design process. Such decisions may include the choice of component and suppliers, as well as cost and maintenance considerations. Computer modeling and electronic catalogues are becoming the preferred medium for the selection and design of mechanical components. In utilizing these techniques, the designer demands the capability to identify, evaluate and select mechanical components both quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitative decisions generally encompass performance data included in the formal catalogue representation. It is in the area of qualitative decisions that the use of what the authors call 'Informal Information' is of crucial importance. Thus, 'Informal Information' must often be incorporated into the selection process and selection systems. This would enable more informed decisions to be made quicker, without the need for information retrieval via discussion with colleagues in the design environment. This paper provides an overview of the use of electronic information in the design of mechanical systems, including a discussion of limitations of current technology. The importance of Informal Information is discussed and the requirements for association with web based electronic catalogues are developed. This system is based on a flexible XML schema and enables the storage, classification and recall of Informal Information packets. Furthermore, a strategy for the inclusion of Informal Information is proposed, and an example case is used to illustrate the benefits.


Male-limited gonadotropin-independent precocious puberty (MPP) is frequently associated with mutations of the human LH/CG receptor (hLHR) that result in constitutively active hLHRs. Many such activating mutations have been identified in transmembrane 6 of the hLHR, with the substitution of Asp-578 being the most frequently observed mutation. Mutagenesis of a transmembrane helix of a G protein-coupled receptor can cause local alterations in the conformation near the mutated residue, allosteric changes elsewhere in the protein, and/or changes in the interhelical packing of the receptor. Therefore, while it has been hypothesized that activation of the receptor by mutations of Asp-578 may arise via alterations in the interactions of helix 6 with other transmembrane helices and/or by allosterically altering the conformation of the third intracellular loop, it has not been possible to ascertain the role of the sixth transmembrane helix per se in activating Gs in the mutated full-length receptor. Recently, however, we have shown that a peptide KMAILIFT, corresponding to the juxtacytoplasmic portion of helix 6 of the hLHR, is capable of activating Gs. These results suggest that helix 6 itself can directly interact with Gs. Importantly, the KMAILIFT peptide did not include Asp-578, which lies just C-terminal to this sequence. We show herein that a peptide extended to include Asp-578 (KMAILIFTDFT) is a poor activator of Gs. However, if the peptide is synthesized with the aspartate replaced with either a glycine or tyrosine, substitutions that are found in some patients with MPP, these peptides have Gs-stimulating activity. Additionally, a transmembrane 6 peptide with the substitution of Ile-575 with leucine, another mutation found in MPP, mimicked the activating effects of this mutation in the full-length receptor. The ability of peptides in which Asp-578 or Ile-575 is substituted to mimic the activating effects of these mutations in the full-length receptor suggests that the sixth transmembrane helix represents a site for direct interaction with Gs. In addition to the stimulatory effects of transmembrane 6 peptides, peptides corresponding to the juxtacytoplasmic portions of the fourth, fifth, and seventh helices were also able to stimulate Gs. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the transmembrane helices may form a pocket for interaction with Gs and that constitutive activation of the hLHR may involve the opening of the pocket formed by these helices, thus exposing Gs-binding sites on these helices.


The high-frequency intensity noise spectra of mid-infrared diode lasers have been investigated. Theoretical estimates are compared with experimental results of spectral noise measurements. Lasers with different lateral structures showed comparable characteristics, although at different noise levels. Relative intensity noise as structures 10−17 Hz−1 was observed; this is close to the quantum noise limit for detection and hence suitable for small as trace-gas analysis systems.


An exploration of the ways that technology increasingly alters our understanding of self and the world in which we live points to the unfolding of what computer theorist Peter Lunenfeld (2000) calls a hyperaesthetics. In this article, the author correlates theories of art and artmaking with burgeoning real time aesthetics through theoretical comparison and interpretational modes of critical inquiry. Traditional artistic strategies such as perspective, multiple representations, and media transparency reveal connections with-and therefore ways of understanding-such contemporary technological conditions as transparent hypermediacy, multiplicity, erasure, and networked identity. Using case studies from a university Art Appreciation course, the author attempts to launch a quest for a hyperaesthetics theory. This process of examining practice yet to be played, language still unspoken and unread, and theory as yet ungrounded, serves to both initiate and challenge a new discussion concerning the place of art education within a technomediated world.


Insufficient diffusion of new technologies has been quoted as one possible reason for weak productivity performance over the past two decades (Andrews et al., 2016). This paper uses a novel data set of digital technology usage covering 25 industries in 25 European countries over the 2010-16 period to explore the drivers of digital adoption across two broad sets of digital technologies by firms, cloud computing and back or front office integration. The focus is on structural and policy factors affecting firms' capabilities and incentives to adopt -- including the availability of enabling infrastructures (such as high-speed broadband internet), managerial quality and workers skills, and product, labour and financial market settings. We identify the effects of structural and policy factors based on the difference-in-difference approach pioneered by Rajan and Zingales (1998) and show that a number of these factors are statistically and economically significant for technology adoption. Specifically, we find strong support for the hypothesis that low managerial quality, lack of ICT skills and poor matching of workers to jobs curb digital technology adoption and hence the rate of diffusion. Similarly our evidence suggests that policies affecting market incentives are important for adoption, especially those relevant for market access, competition and efficient reallocation of labour and capital. Finally, we show that there are important complementarities between the two sets of factors, with market incentives reinforcing the positive effects of enhancements in firm capabilities on adoption of digital technologies


SIR,-I find it difficult to understand the reasons for the British Medical Association withdrawing from membership ofHealth Concern, an organisation which -it helped to form and whose aims, according to its chairman, Lord Ennals, are "to campaign for more resources, coordinate comment on government plans for the National Health Service, and exchange information on research." Other members of the committee include the Confederation of Health Service Employees, the National Union of Public Employees, and the Transport and General Workers Union and newspaper reports suggest that the finance and general purposes committee oftheBMA finds the trends of its activities "too political" for continued membership and that doctors have "perfectly good" access to the health department through existing channels. I believe that the headquarters of the BMA deludes itself on both counts. If the BMA had consulted more widely among its members it would have discovered that there is dissatisfaction at another walkout by the BMA from what could have become an important forum for the interchange of views. Surely it is not in dispute that services to patients have deteriorated in the past few years and that our existing channels to the health department are far from adequate. By opting out again the Bridsh Medical Association has shown its political prejudices by declining the opportunity of discussionswith, among others, union representatives. Myown expenences, including membership ofa district management team and regional medical advisory committee, suggest both the value of careful discussions with a broad spectrum of pressure groups and the fact that "existing channels" are becoming increasingly blocked by a new style ofmanagement, whoseincliations are to avoid, or even dismiss, consultations as being ofno value. May I therefore suggest two new year resolutions for the British Medical Association in 1986? Firstly, stop walking out of discussions, and, secondly, find a more effective way of consulting among the membership.


The aim of this study is to examine the analyses the socio-economic effects whichfinance, marriage and land have on three different families over a time period of two hundred years; from 1642-1850. Three estates in southern England were chosen where the same family had occupied their estates continuously since 1700. The three estates were Wardour and Pythouse near Tisbury in Wiltshire, and Shillinglee on the Surrey/Sussex border. Socially the people owning the estates were from different backgrounds: the Arundells at Wardour were an old landed family originating in Cornwall who had moved to Wiltshire in the 15th century, the Benetts at Pythouse had been yeomen farmers in Wiltshire before the 15th century and the Turnours at Shillinglee were descended from wealthy merchants and professional workers in the City of London.
This study examines different aspects of their lives including their financial position, settlements and their landholdings, but also considers their housing, responsibilities and religious affiliation. Comparisons are made between the three estates to ascertain whether their social origins made any difference to the decisions they made concerning their overall lifestyle, and how they solved them.
The families" origins were found to affect the ways in which they lived their lives between 1642 and 1850. The Arundells found it difficult to adapt to the social and
economic changes in England, and failed to match their lifestyle to their falling income. London continued to be an important part in the lives of the Turnours; even after Shillinglee House had been built. They too built up serious debts, which they had difficulties clearing. The Benetts, despite rising both socially and economically, continued see farming as their main occupation. Although, like the other families, they had serious debts on occasions they tried to clear them in each generation.
It is concluded that the original socio-economic background of each family had a considerable effect on the ways in the decisions they made concerning finance, marriage and the land. The Arundells appear to have maintained the same lifestyle and despite several financially advantageous marriages, their debts continued to increase, making it necessary for the sale of many outlying estates. The Arundells" Catholic faith, however, put some constraints on their lifestyle. The Turnours during the time span of this study acquired a title which, in effect, moved them into a
different socio-economic group. The land, however, was never an important part of their life and they continued to spend most of their life in London. The Benetts were
influenced by their origins, and despite rising fortunes and positions of responsibility, remained true to the land.


In this age of confrontation, the secular Turkish model has been seen as a bridge between Islam and the West as well as the link between Europe and Asia. Now that model faces the most severe test in its history. How the current crisis is settled will frame future relations between Islam and the West no less than the events of 9/11.


Water can be stored in nominally anhydrous minerals as substitutional hydroxyl, generating vast but commonly unrecognized H2O reservoirs in ostensibly dry regimes. Researchers have long known that hematite (α-Fe2O3) can accommodate small concentrations of hydroxyl through the substitution of Fe3+ by 3H+. Our study of natural hematite has demonstrated the occurrence of "hydrohematite" phases that are 10–20 mol% deficient in Fe and accordingly contain 3.6–7.8 mol% structural water. Intergrown with natural hydrohematite samples were superhydrous goethite-like phases exhibiting an Fe deficiency of 10–20 mol% relative to endmember goethite (α-FeOOH). We synthesized hydrohematite in alkaline solutions (pH 9–12) at low temperatures (T < 200 °C) using fresh ferrihydrite as the transient precursor, and we observed a nonclassical crystallization pathway involving vacancy inoculation by Fe as nanocrystals evolved. The high level of incorporation of H2O in iron (hydr)oxides dramatically alters their behaviors as catalysts and pigments, and the presence of hydrohematite in rocks may rule out high-T diagenesis. We propose that hydrohematite is common in low-T occurrences of Fe oxide on Earth, and by extension it may inventory large quantities of water in apparently arid planetary environments, such as the surface of Mars.


Abstract This study addresses effects of handling and air exposure during harvest and transport on mortality and gonad growth of Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis in a proceeding roe enhancement trial. Two experimental factors: (1) handling (gentle and rough) and (2) degree of air exposure (wet and dry) were combined to form 4 different treatments; gentle/dry (GD), rough/dry (RD), gentle/wet (GW) and rough/wet (RW). In the proceeding roe enhancement trial, the highest mortality, exceeding 25%, was observed in the GD treatment. Mortality was 1.5% in RW and RD treatments, whereas no mortality was observed in the GW treatment. Mortality only occurred during the first 4 weeks after harvest. Desiccation appears to be the main cause of mortality. There was a significant increase in gonad index for all treatments during the roe enhancement trial; from 7.6% (median) at the beginning of the trial to 15.7, 14.5, 13.5 and 11.2% (median) at the end for GW, RW, GD and RD respectively. However, the increase in gonad index was significantly lower in the RD compared with the others. The lower gonad growth in RD was probably caused by the high frequency of individuals with visual injuries, a frequency that was an order of magnitude higher than in the other treatments. Overall, there was a clear relationship between visual injuries and gonad index, where individuals with injuries had a significantly lower gonad index at the end of the experiment (median; 10.4%) compared individuals without visual injuries (median; 14.5%). The lower feed consumption and higher feed conversion factor observed in RD indicate that individuals with injuries have a reduced gonad growth caused by a combination of reduced appetite and lower feed conversion efficiency. Regeneration of spines and lesions may have resulted in less resources allocated to gonad growth.


An indirect filed-oriented induction motor (IM) position servo drive with adaptive rotor time-constant estimation and an on-line trained neural network controller is presented. First, the rotor time-constant is estimated real-time on the basis of the model reference adaptive system (MRAS) theory. Next, a linear model-following controller (LMFC) is designed according to the estimated plant model to allow the state responses of the plant to follow the reference model. Then an augmented signal generated from the proposed neural network controller, whose connective weights are trained on-line according to the model-following error of the states, is added to the LMFC system to preserve a favorable model-following characteristic under various operating conditions.


Palynology of exhumed Pliocene marine turbidites and marl beds on the island of Timor provide insights into crustal deformation in the Indonesian region. Between ca. 4.5 and ca. 3 Ma, palynomorphs were sourced primarily from Australia and New Guinea, with increasing swamp and mangrove elements sourced from an emerging proto-Timor. Following ca. 3.1 Ma, pollen and charcoal evidence track the rapid uplift of Timor to a high island, with the progressive appearance of montane and dry, lee-side floristic elements. Early- to mid-Pliocene uplift rates of 0.5-0.6 mm yr(-1) increased to 2-5 mm yr(-1) in the latest Pliocene. The rapid topographic development of Timor-Leste initiated earlier but followed a pattern similar to that of more westerly localities in the Timor sector of the Banda Arc. Timor's emergence from the marine environment is closely correlated with the timing of closure of the Indonesian seaway to deep-dwelling foraminfera.


Genome-wide association (GWA) study aims to identify the genetic factors associated with the traits of interest. However, the power of GWA analysis has been seriously limited by the enormous number of markers tested. Recently, the gene set analysis (GSA) methods were introduced to GWA studies to address the association of gene sets that share common biological functions. GSA considerably increased the power of association analysis and successfully identified coordinated association patterns of gene sets. There have been several approaches in this direction with some limitations. Here, we present a general approach for GSA in GWA analysis and a stand-alone software GSA-SNP that implements three widely used GSA methods. GSA-SNP provides a fast computation and an easy-to-use interface. The software and test datasets are freely available at http://gsa.muldas.org. We provide an exemplary analysis on adult heights in a Korean population.


Pressure on natural resources and the global environment have been identified as the most important challenges to maintain prosperity and improve environmental care. Agriculture is responsible for only a small proportion of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, but the sector is more closely associated with emissions of other greenhouse gases such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). The global warming potential of agricultural activities defined as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in CO2 equivalents is relatively low in Hungary, when calculated per land area. However this difference decline, when a GHG emission is calculated per product unit, as yields are lower then in West European countries. Environmental load caused by agriculture is also low in Hungary, where increasing part of EU resources are used for the long-term preservation of natural resources and for the raising of awareness of sustainable farming. The strength of the environmental situation of Hungary, consist of several elements, such as the rich bio-diversity, the significant size of territories falling under natural protection, the extent and importance of forests and the low environmental load from crop production. Among the weaknesses the nitrate load of the animal husbandry farms, the increasing water and wind erosion, the soil compaction and degradation have to be taken into consideration. Climate change has high risk potential and the mitigation activities of the New Hungary Rural Development Programme (HRDP) are investigated in this paper with the aim to increase mitigation activities in rural area and reduce the causes of climate change.


The Holliday junction (HJ) is a central intermediate of various genetic processes, including homologous and site-specific DNA recombination and DNA replication. Elucidating the structure and dynamics of HJs provides the basis for understanding the molecular mechanisms of these genetic processes. Our previous single-molecule fluorescence studies led to a model according to which branch migration is a stepwise process consisting of consecutive migration and folding steps. These data led us to the conclusion that one hop can be more than 1 basepair (bp); moreover, we hypothesized that continuous runs over the entire sequence homology (5 bp) can occur. Direct measurements of the dependence of the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) value on the donor-acceptor (D-A) distance are required to justify this model and are the major goal of this article. To accomplish this goal, we performed single-molecule FRET experiments with a set of six immobile HJ molecules with varying numbers of bps between fluorescent dyes placed on opposite arms. The designs were made in such a way that the distances between the donor and acceptor were equal to the distances between the dyes formed upon 1-bp migration hops of a HJ having 10-bp homology. Using these designs, we confirmed our previous hypothesis that the migration of the junction can be measured with bp accuracy. Moreover, the FRET values determined for each acceptor-donor separation corresponded very well to the values for the steps on the FRET time trajectories, suggesting that each step corresponds to the migration of the branch at a defined depth. We used the dependence of the FRET value on the D-A distance to measure directly the size for each step on the FRET time trajectories. These data showed that one hop is not necessarily 1 bp. The junction is able to migrate over several bps, detected as one hop and confirming our model. The D-A distances extracted from the FRET properties of the immobile junctions formed the basis for modeling the HJ structures. The composite data fit a partially opened, side-by-side model with adjacent double-helical arms slightly kinked at the four-way junction and the junction as a whole adopting a global X-shaped form that mimics the coaxially stacked-X structure implicated in previous solution studies.


ABSTRACT Objectives: Prenatal and postnatal smoke exposures are associated with many lung diseases in children due to impaired lung function, increased inflammation, and oxidative stress. We aimed to determine the influence of secondhand tobacco smoke exposure on the levels of nasal glutathione, IL-8, IL-17, MMP-9, and TIMP-1, as well as serum surfactant protein-D (SP-D) in wheezy children. Methods: We enrolled 150 children with recurrent wheezing and recorded wheezing characteristics at enrollment. We measured the levels of serum cotinine, SP-D, nasal glutathione, IL-8, IL-17, MMP-9, and TIMP-1. Serum cotinine levels between 3 and 12 ng/mL, and above 12 ng/mL were defined as lower and higher level secondhand tobacco smoke exposure, respectively. The ANOVA test, Pearson's correlation analysis and multivariate analysis with a linear regression test were used for the statistical analysis. Results: Ninety-one children had been exposed to lower level secondhand tobacco smoke, while 24 children were exposed to higher level secondhand tobacco smoke. Thirty-five children were not exposed to cigarette smoke. Wheezing symptom scores were higher in exposed children (p = 0.03). Levels of other biomarkers showed no significant difference. Conclusions: Secondhand tobacco smoke exposure is associated with more severe respiratory symptoms in wheezing children. However, levels of nasal or serum inflammatory markers fail to explain this association, either because of different mechanical factors in the process or due to low levels of the biomarkers especially in nasal secretions.


The poetry does not matter. --T. S. Eliot, "East Coker" II So much scholarly work about literature has little to do with the human impulses that are the primary reasons people read literature. This is particularly ironic, even sad, with texts like Four Quartets which have been so personally meaningful for so many readers. Though what is "personally meaningful" certainly differs from person to person, the question of personal meaningfulness ought to be explicitly addressed at the least. Doing academic research in the humanities should not mean not talking about things that humans care about but rather talking about those things with a sense of rigor. Literary scholars ought not to abandon the traditional purposes of literature ("to delight and instruct") to the casual reader but rather ought to be far ahead of the casual reader in those very things. On the whole, recent scholarly writing about literature falls short of the reasons that people read literature and falls short of the description of writing in T. S. Eliot's Four Quartets. This is particularly ironic when it comes to scholarship written about Four Quartets. However, if we read those passages in Four Quartets that deal with language and writing in light of this disconnect, we may find some ways to move forward in our scholarly practice. In particular, we can read the poem as inspiration and exhortation to wrestle more deeply with words and meanings in our scholarly work, with the craft of writing and with the implications of what we write and what we write about. Why People Read Four Quartets Obviously, no single answer can do justice to all of the different purposes and motivations people have for reading literature. But certain reasons come up again and again--people read to develop empathy, cultivate imagination, gain wisdom, find enjoyment, and so on. In other words, people read because they find that reading matters for their lives. These reasons have been particularly so for many readers of Four Quartets which is undoubtedly an artistic masterpiece and for some a spiritual masterpiece as well. I first read Four Quartets as an undergraduate because a respected professor told me that it had been spiritually important to him for many years. When he and his wife adopted an infant girl who turned out to be severely autistic, their lives became incredibly difficult and they entered an intense period of personal darkness and isolation. Reading Four Quartets, he told me, played an important part in bringing him out of that darkness. His story imbued Four Quartets with deep personal meaning for me even before I read it. When I read it for the first time, though I did not understand a single thing it said, I knew I was doing something important. So I reread it. Then I listened to a recording of T. S. Eliot reading it. And I reread parts of it again and again until I finally found a way into the poem. Almost by chance, I noticed a parallel between some of the passages in the poem and something else I was reading about the via negativa. From there, I slowly built my own framework for understanding the poem. I spent several days at my desk mapping out charts and graphs of the structure of the poem as I saw it, something like a sine wave with increasing high and low points. For about a year afterwards, I went around quoting the poem as if it were a gospel. What I came to understand the text to say, to do, and to be spoke to me at a deep level. It expressed some things I deeply believed, and at the same time it challenged what I believed. And it was beautiful. David Finn's journey with the poem is similar to mine, but more intense and over a longer period of time. In the introduction to Evocations of Four Quartets, his book of paintings in response to the poem, he relates that he happened upon a book of commentary on Four Quartets on a friend's coffee table. Reading that book led to reading the poem which led to rereading and rereading it. …


Two popular approaches to forming bounds in approximate Bayesian inference are local variational methods and minimal KullbackLeibler divergence methods. For a large class of models we explicitly relate the two approaches, showing that the local variational method is equivalent to a weakened form of Kullback-Leibler Gaussian approximation. This gives a strong motivation to develop efcient methods for KL minimisation. An important and previously unproven property of the KL variational Gaussian bound is that it is a concave function in the parameters of the Gaussian for log concave sites. This observation, along with compact concave parametrisations of the covariance, enables us to develop fast scalable optimisation procedures to obtain lower bounds on the marginal likelihood in large scale Bayesian linear models.


Differential Power Analysis Resistance In-Practice for Hardware Implementations of the Keccak Sponge Function Nathaniel Graff The Keccak Sponge Function is the winner of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) competition to develop the Secure Hash Algorithm-3 Standard (SHA-3). Prior work has developed reference implementations of the algorithm and described the structures necessary to harden the algorithm against power analysis attacks which can weaken the cryptographic properties of the hash algorithm. This work demonstrates the architectural changes to the reference implementation necessary to achieve the theoretical side channel-resistant structures, compare their efficiency and performance characteristics after synthesis and place-and-route when implementing them on Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), publish the resulting implementations under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) open source license, and show that the resulting implementations demonstrably harden the sponge function against power analysis attacks.


In this work, the flow over an elliptic cylinder near a moving wall is investigated for Reynolds numbers less than 150. Here, the ratio between the gap (i.e., the distance between the cylinder and the wall) and the length of the semi-major axis of the elliptic cylinder varies from 0.1 to 5. This ratio is hereafter denoted as the gap ratio. The resulting Karman vortex street, the two-layered wake, and the secondary vortex street have been investigated and visualized. Numerical simulations show that for the steady flow, the wake is composed of two asymmetric recirculation vortices, while a decrease in the gap ratio suppresses the vortex shed from the lower part of the cylinder. For the unsteady flow, the wake can be classified into four different patterns based on the wake structures (the Karman vortex street, the two-layered wake, and the secondary vortex street). The regions of these wake patterns are given in the gap ratio and Reynolds number space, showing that the critical Reynolds number for the transition between different patterns increases as the gap ratio decreases. An overall increase in the mean drag coefficient with increasing gap ratios is observed, except for a sudden drop that occurs within a small gap ratio range. Moreover, as the gap ratio increases, the onset location of the two-layered wake first decreases due to a decrease in flow velocity in the gap and then increases due to the weakening of the wall suppression effect.


The contributions of six important reading-related skills (phonological awareness, rapid naming, orthographic skills, morphological awareness, listening comprehension and syntactic skills) to Chinese word and text reading were examined among 290 Chinese first graders in Hong Kong. Rapid naming, but not phonological awareness, was a significant predictor of Chinese word reading and writing to dictation (i.e., spelling) in the context of orthographic skills and morphological awareness. Commonality analyses suggested that orthographic skills and morphological awareness each contributed significant amount of unique variance to Chinese word reading and spelling. Syntactic skills accounted for significant amount of unique variance in reading comprehension at both sentence and passage levels after controlling for the effects of word reading and the other skills, but listening comprehension did not. A model on the interrelationships among the reading-related skills and Chinese reading at both word and text levels was proposed.


English as spoken as a second language in India (IE) has developed different sound patterns from other varieties of English. While most descriptions of IE have focused on the English of speakers whose first languages belong to the Indo-Aryan or Dravidian families, in this study, I examine the phonetic and phonological characteristics of the English produced by speakers of three Indian L1s from the Tibeto-Burman language family (Angami, Ao, and Mizo). In addition to describing aspects of Tibeto-Burman Indian English, a previously unreported Indian English variety, I also examine how and why this variety of English differs from General Indian English. The English of Tibeto-Burman L1 speakers seems to form a variety distinct from Indian English, most noticeably in terms of the lack of retroflexion of coronal consonants, the devoicing of word-final obstruents, the simplification of consonant clusters, the presence of post-vocalic [p], and the reduced set of vowel contrasts. Most of these can be traced to transfer from the L1 phonology, with the coda devoicing and cluster reductions reflecting simplification in terms of markedness, following developmental sequences found in second language acquisition.


ABSTRACT Our objective was to study reproductive biology, seed germination and regeneration, through morphoanatomical and field observations and controlled experiments, to assess reproductive strategies in six rare Flourensia endemic to Central Argentina (F. campestris, F. hirta, F. leptopoda, F. niederleinii, F. oolepis, F. tortuosa). Structure of capitula, flowers, and achenes was described. Capitula were visited by a variety of insects. Achenes required 30–45 days to mature. Fruit set varied significantly among species. Flourensia campestris and F. oolepis were self-incompatible. Seed viability decreased after 19 months and was lost after 32 months. Flourensia oolepis and F. campestris had the highest germination percentages (>60%); the addition of gibberellic acid in 2-months old seeds did not influence germination. The remaining species had lower germination percentages (<30%). All species had xylopodia that were root and stem modifications. Burned individuals of F. campestris actively regenerated from underground buds of xylopodia, being suitable for restoration of degraded or burned areas. Flourensia campestris and F. oolepis had better reproductive success, but the remainder species can be considered at risk. Strategies should be implemented to protect them, such as to preserve its habitat together with attempts to increase their population sizes and maintain their pollinators.


Rare outcrops of Miocene-Pliocene buried hillslopes and colluvium present in proximal basin-fill exposures in the arid southwestern United States, in settings free of tectonic influences, reveal hillslope-sediment production and delivery to piedmonts that vary as a function of climate change. A petrologic weathering index for sand, clay-mineral data, and stratigraphic relations indicates that episodes of greater production and delivery of colluvium from hillslopes coincide with more intense chemical weathering and thus greater effective moisture. Strata recording limited colluviation, less intense weathering, and piedmonts dominated by eolian processes very likely correspond to drier conditions. The mode of climate-driven hillslope and piedmont landscape responses evident in these older stratigraphic records corroborates the conceptual model developed by Quaternary researchers for arid environments—even though climate change was operating at higher amplitudes and different frequencies in the Quaternary. This evidence of long-term continuity in the mode of landscape response to climate change provides a new level of support for using the geologic record to understand the effects of future climate change.


Two deep level defects (2.25 and 2.03 eV) associated with oxygen vacancies (Vo) were identified in ZnO nanorods (NRs) grown by low cost chemical bath deposition. A transient behaviour in the photoluminescence (PL) intensity of the two Vo states was found to be sensitive to the ambient environment and to NR post-growth treatment. The largest transient was found in samples dried on a hot plate with a PL intensity decay time, in air only, of 23 and 80 s for the 2.25 and 2.03 eV peaks, respectively. Resistance measurements under UV exposure exhibited a transient behaviour in full agreement with the PL transient, indicating a clear role of atmospheric O2 on the surface defect states. A model for surface defect transient behaviour due to band bending with respect to the Fermi level is proposed. The results have implications for a variety of sensing and photovoltaic applications of ZnO NRs.


INTRODUCTION With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, American, Western European and Asian firms moved quickly to be among the first to establish business enterprises in that region. Their enthusiasm was appropriate given the strategic advantages which often accrue to "first movers" (Liberman & Montgomery, 1988; Wernerfelt & Karani, 1987). The foreign firms offered expertise and capital in exchange for access to markets, low cost labor and favorable economic conditions. A number of articles have reviewed separately factors which contribute to the evolving business climate in Eastern Europe. These include, for example, studies of marketing issues (Joachinsthaler and Nueno, 1991; Shama, 1992), political and economic issues (Shama, 1991), or managerial issues (Shama, 1993). One limitation of such studies is that none, by itself, can provide an overall assessment of the business climate. In addition, analyses may be based on an authors' personal interpretations of interview data (Shama, 1993), raising issues of validity and replicability. This paper adds to the literature by simultaneously analyzing survey data from four states concerning six distinct issues in the external environment: economy, management, marketing, government, labor and finance. Data on perceived differences in business factors were gathered in late 1991 and early 1992 from Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Yugoslavia. (Data collection preceded the formal separation of Czechoslovakia into the Czech and Slovak republics and the fragmentation of Yugoslavia. References to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia in this manuscript refer, of course, to the former Yugoslavia and former Czechoslovakia.) Differential Advantages of Eastern European Location The identification and exploitation of sustainable competitive advantage (SCA) are widely regarded as central to successful strategic management (Barney, 1991; Reed & DeFelippi, R.J., 1991). Firm resources, including in some cases geographic location, is one of several classes of resources which organizations may seek to exploit for SCA (Barney, 1991). Sustainable competitive advantage may accrue to firms which are able to establish off-shore relationships early on to take advantage of lower labor rates, locational or other advantages (Fatehi-Sedeh & Safizadeh, 1989). However, a myriad of factors, including political and economic instability, low labor productivity or a weak infrastructure can negate expected advantages of foreign business activities (Valentine, 1988). Demographics Potential product demand is a major consideration of firms contemplating foreign direct investment (Porcano, 1993). The populations of the Eastern Europe states in this study vary significantly from about 10.5 million for Hungary, to about 40 million for Poland. Other things being equal, demand in more populous states should be perceived more favorably by foreign firms because of their larger potential internal markets. Thus on the basis of population, Poland should be the most favorably perceived state and Hungary the least. However, the ethnic diversity of the Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia populations, in comparison to the more homogeneous populations of Hungary and Poland, add another dimension to the situation (Held, 1992). Government Politics is a major concern of firms considering foreign investment (Subranamian, Motwani and Ishak, 1993). Although definitions of the political risk construct vary, political stability is widely regarded as an important, if not the most important issue. Factors such as tax policy and labor policy are of less importance. The political situations in Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia have been especially troublesome. However, all of the states have had to grapple with elements of the political climate such as legislation regarding privatization of state enterprises, compensation to rightful owners for assets seized under communism, taxation policies and similar matters (Held, 1992). …


With the widespread use of social networking sites, it is easy to acquire a great deal of personal information about someone before meeting them. How do people use this information when initiating relationships? In the present study, participants either had access to an unknown partner's Facebook profile or did not, and were instructed to get their partners to like them in a short instant messaging conversation. Participants used social network and profile information in two ways: probes, asking questions whose answer they already knew, and implicit mentions, referencing information that made them seem more similar to their partner. These strategies successfully increased interpersonal attraction. Participants, however, frequently rated these strategies as deceptive, raising important concerns about the use of asymmetrical personal information for interpersonal gain.


Syzygium cumini (syn. Eugenia jambolana) commonly known as "Jamun" having promising therapeutic value with its various phytoconstituents such as Tannins, Alkaloids, Steroids, Flavanoids, Terpenoids, Fatty acids, Phenols, Minerals, Carbohydrates and Vitamins. Crateva nurvula (Varuna) is also known to be used in Ayurvedic medicine since ancient times in India as it also contains different phytochemical constituents. In the present investigation, seeds of Jamun and bark of Varuna were investigated for their antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. Different solvent extracts of both the plant (s) parts were prepared according to decreasing polarity. The methanol extracts of both the plants were found to be most potent antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent in comparison to other solvent extracts. Methanol extracts (200 mg/ml) of Jamun showed maximum potency against Aspergillus niger but showed moderate activity against other pathogens. These extracts also showed predominant in vitro antioxidant activity and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan induced animal models at a dose of 120 mg/kg. Methanol extracts (200 mg/ml) of Varuna showed maximum potency against Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans but showed moderate activity against other pathogenic microorganisms. These extracts were having predominant in vitro antioxidant activity and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity at a dose of 50 mg/kg in carrageenan induced animal models. The methanol extracts of the plants were also screened for their hemolytic activity against sheep erythrocytes but the extracts showed negative hemolysis


Speaking of the works created by or using artificial intelligence (AI) either in form of specialized software (as the portrait of Edmond Belamy) or an interactive platform (as the DeepArt's or Humtap's outcomes), there is an indisputable role of humans. Within such an AI-included creative process, we can find a lot of subjects interacting with an AI, either as (i) the author of an AI per se, (ii) the authors of all the datasets used for creating a basic framework, which serves as an environment for creating the works, or (iii) the users of an AI providing input data for it to create the works. All these subjects have potential IP rights to the resulting works, even if there is no strict answer to who is the real author of the work. Therefore, the paper analyses the question of how relevant their contribution to the creative process and to the work per se is, and what could be their potential authorship claim.


Flexible free-standing hollow Fe3O4/graphene (H-Fe3O4/GS) films were fabricated through vacuum filtration and thermal reduction processes, in which graphene formed a three-dimensional conductive network, with hollow and porous Fe3O4 spindles being captured and distributed homogeneously. Using the films as binder-free and free-standing electrodes for lithium-ion batteries, H-Fe3O4/GS with 39.6 wt% graphene exhibited a high specific capacity (1555 mA h g−1 at 100 mA g−1), enhanced rate capability and excellent cyclic stability (940 and 660 mA h g−1 at 200 and 500 mA g−1 after 50 cycles, respectively). The superior electrochemical performance of this novel material can be attributed to two factors. One is that the three dimensional (3D) graphene network formed is very helpful for keeping H-Fe3O4 in good electrical contact. Another is the short transport length for both lithium ions and electrons due to the porous nature which accommodates volume change and favors electrolyte penetration. It is believed that the strategy for preparing free-standing H-Fe3O4/GS films presented in this work will provide new insight into the design and synthesis of other metal oxide/GS electrodes for flexible energy storage devices.


The increasing importance of the filarial diseases and the difficulties in their early clinical diagnosis have created a need for a simple rapid method of demonstrating microfilariae when they are present in the blood stream in small numbers.
Using the microfilariae of Dirofilaria immitis (the dog heart worm), we have examined the various methods of microscopic diagnosis which have been described in the literature (table 1). Because no method seemed at once simple, rapid, capable of giving quantitative concentration of larger amounts of blood and also adapted to a non-fatiguing examination of a large number of samples, the following method was evolved.
Four ml. venous blood are drawn and ejected into a tube containing 0.01 ml. heparin solution (Liquaemin, Roche-Organon Inc. 1 ml. contains 10 mgm. purified heparin). Four ml. 2 per cent saponin in distilled water are added and the contents of the tube are gently mixed until hemolysis is complete.


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This investigation was aimed at determining the impact of environmental stresses such as high temperature, low irradiance and drought on reproductive development in sweet pepper, particularly var. Blue Star. Special attention was given to abscission of the primary and secondary flowers. The role of assimilate accumulation and partitioning and the endogenous growth regulator ethylene in mediating stress effects on flower abscission were investigated. The hypothesis that flower abscission is promoted by these stress factors and that abscission is mediated by increased ethylene production and reduced assimilate partitioning to the flowers was tested.

Imposition of a mean daily temperature (26 °C) from the third true leaf stage accelerated the development of the first primary flowers to anthesis when combined with high irradiance (4.9 MJ m-² d-¹). However, abscission was increased by 17 % as compared to lower temperature treatments at the same irradiance. The combination of high temperature and low irradiance (2.4 MJ m-² d-¹) induced complete abscission of the primary flowers. Although flower abscission was reduced at the lowest temperature examined (14 °C), development of the primary flowers to anthesis was slower than at higher temperatures.

Both varieties, Blue Star and Bell Boy, were able to grow over a wide range of temperatures, as indicated by the large difference (c. 35 °C) between the base and maximum temperatures for growth indicated by a germination trial. In Blue Star, the base (Tb), optimum (To) and maximum (Tm) temperatures were 6.0, 27.5 and 41.5 °C respectively, whereas in Bell Boy, the corresponding values were 8.5, 23.0 and 44.0 °C.

Severe water stress imposed progressively after the appearance of the first flower bud promoted the initial development of the primary, but not the secondary flowers to anthesis, but induced early and increased abscission of both primary and secondary flowers shortly afterwards. The high percentage abscission of the primary flowers was partially offset by the lower abscission of secondary flowers. Percentage abscission increased as the severity and duration of water stress increased. However, short exposures to stress did not reduce abscission, or advance anthesis. A more advanced stage of flower development (4.0 mm diameter) proved more susceptible to early abscission than younger flower buds (1.0 mm) when exposed to severe stress. Temporary osmotic adjustment occurred soon after the imposition of water stress, during which osmotic potential decreased sharply from -1.15 to -1.80 MPa, and noticeable reductions in turgor were observed in all treatments between 11 - 22 d after the imposition of stress. Although water stress reduced vegetative growth under low irradiance, complete flower abscission occurred after anthesis.

The advancement of anthesis in stressed plants was associated with a decrease in dry matter accumulation in the leaves and stems. However, at the onset of flower abscission, assimilate accumulation and partitioning were not significantly affected by water stress, and flower abscission was not directly related to any reduction in assimilate production or its distribution within the shoot. Instead, prior to flower abscission in severely stressed plants, ethylene evolution in the flowers increased by 8-fold as compared to unstressed plants, and by 40-fold relative to severely stressed plants measured just before anthesis. The application of the ethylene releasing substance, 2 chloroethylphosphonic acid (CEPA), mimicked the effects of severe water stress, as reflected by a surge in ethylene evolution prior to abscission, followed by increased bud abscission. Sweet pepper flowers were also capable of forming abscission zones at the base of their pedicels in response to elevated ethylene production, whilst mature leaves were apparently incapable of this response. Foliar application of silver thiosulphate (STS) to water stressed plants and STS pre-treatment of plants subsequently sprayed with CEPA blocked the action of elevated ethylene resulting from severe stress or CEPA application in inducing flower abscission.


Abstract Global climate warming forced by anthropogenic activities is widely touted in popular media and is the basis of international energy policy development. Fossil energy use is decried as the underlying cause of alarming and rapid climate warming. Natural climate change is generally regarded as being of little significance in the political debate. The debate has taken place largely without rigorous examination of data, assumptions, or the real natural world. This brief study suggests that anthropogenic global warming is of little significance and may be a scientific theory given political rather than clinical credibility. There are clear signs that the climate is changing, but viewed in a historical perspective, the changes may be both predictable and desirable. This contrarian view suggests that long-term trends are not discernible and may be either warming or cooling.


For monoclonal antibodies, mathematical models of target mediated drug disposition (TMDD) are often fit to data in order to estimate key physiological parameters of the system. These parameter estimates can then be used to support drug development by assisting with the assessment of whether the target is druggable and what the first in human dose should be. The TMDD model is almost always over-parameterized given the available data, resulting in the practical unidentifiability of some of the model parameters, including the target receptor density. In particular, when only PK data is available, the receptor density is almost always practically unidentifiable. However, because practical identifiability is not regularly assessed, incorrect interpretation of model fits to the data can be made. This issue is illustrated using two case studies from the literature.


A known synthetic route was used to prepare two known hydrazine-bridged phosphine ligands and four new ligands with variable groups on the hydrazine bridge (methyl and ethyl), as well as positions on the aryl phosphine groups (phenyl, methoxyphenyl, dimethylaminophenyl). A range of gold(I) and silver(I) complexes were synthesized utilizing these phosphine ligands. Both the phosphine-bridged dimetal and cationic bis(diphosphine) metal complexes were isolated. An interesting phenomenon of the spontaneous oxidation of gold(I) to gold(III) (and reduction of gold(IIII) to gold(I)) upon complexation with ((N,N-dimethyl)-4-aminophenyl)dialkylhydrazine ligands is described. Thirteen of the synthesized complexes were subjected to anticancer activity screening against HeLa, Jurkat, A2780, cisplatin-resistant A2780, CoLo 320 DM and MCF7. Most of the complexes were found to inhibit the cancerous cells at low µM concentrations and in some cases nM concentrations. Two of the complexes were tested for their ability to reduce the mitochondrial membrane potential of PBMC cells as a possible mechanism of action of anticancer activity.


Abstract A need exists for local (ie, bladder-specific) interventions to treat overactive bladder (OAB) with low risk of unwanted postprocedural outcomes. Gene therapy targeted to leverage endogenous physiology in bladder cells may assist in restoring normal cell and organ function. Herein, we review the potential promise of gene therapy for treating OAB, focusing on gene transfer of URO-902, a non-viral naked plasmid DNA expressing the big potassium (BK) channel. We searched PubMed for articles concerning functional aspects of the BK channel and its potential use for gene transfer as local OAB treatment. Results from preclinical, phase 1, and phase 2 studies of URO-902 for erectile dysfunction and phase 1 studies of URO-902 for OAB are included. The BK channel has been extensively studied; however, URO-902 is the first gene therapy used in clinical trials directed toward treating OAB via the BK channel. In both URO-902 studies, there were no serious adverse events considered treatment related and no adverse events leading to early withdrawal. Both studies included secondary efficacy endpoints with promising results suggesting improvement in OAB symptoms, and quality of life, with use of URO-902 versus placebo. Gene therapy involving the BK channel, such as gene transfer with URO-902, has demonstrated promising safety and efficacy results in women with OAB. Findings warrant further investigation of the use of URO-902 for OAB treatment.


The inhibiting effect of leaf extracts of Hyppocratea pallens planhc.ex oliv on the corrosion of mild steel in 1.0 M HCl and 0.5 M H2SO4 solutions has been investigated by weight loss, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) techniques. The effect of temperature on the corrosion and inhibition processes was studied in the temperature range 303-333K. The presence of this plant extract reduced considerably the corrosion rate of mild steel in acidic media and the corrosion inhibition efficiency increased with extract concentration up to 1000 mgL-1. The results suggest that the extract inhibited the corrosion reaction via adsorption of the organic matter on the metal surface, following the Langmuir isotherm and inhibited both the anodic and cathodic partial reactions.


In the course of experimental infection of Penaeus monodon with white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) for virus isolation and purification, one unexpected virus was found to be dominant in purified virus samples prepared from shrimp hemolymph. Under electron microscopical observation, the virus was enveloped, rod-shaped and measured 140-200 nmt35-50 nm. Pure virions with a density of 1.154-1.162 g/mL in sucrose gradient were obtained and at least three viral structural proteins of 20, 63 and 110 kDa were observed when analyzed by SDS-PAGE. Injection of P. monodon with this purified virus demonstrated rapid and mass mortality. By ordinary histological studies, the cells with densely basophilic inclusions were found in the lymphoid organ, gill, stomach, hepatopancreas and heart. By electron microscopy, ultrathin sections of lymphoid organs from infected shrimp showed that numerous enveloped virions and nucleocapsids scattered or enclosed in the vesicles within the cytoplasm. The morphology, histopathology and structural proteins of this virus closely resemble those of the yellow head virus (YHV) from Thailand. Moreover, the results of RT-PCR diagnosis using primers specific to the 135 bp of YHV also suggest that this virus is closely related to YHV. PCR diagnosis of YHV and WSSV in P. monodon sampled from culture farms in Taiwan between 1996 and 1999 demonstrated that YHV has been present in P. monodon for at least 3 years and that all of the samples, which were diagnosed as YHV positive, were also co-infected with WSSV.


This paper estimates the effect of voting eligibility on civic engagement measured along three dimensions: political motivation, political activities, and political knowledge. These outcomes originate in the AmericasBarometer 2004-2016 surveys of eligible voters. To identify the effects the paper exploits variation in field survey dates relative to election dates, given country-specific voting age laws. It is found that voter enfranchisement increases self-reported interest in politics, political socialization, and attendance of political meetings; however, consumption of political news is not statistically different between eligible and non-eligible citizens. Some evidence indicates that the political activities voters engage in translate into increased political knowledge, in contrast with the view that voters are rationally ignorant. The effects are larger in countries with enforced mandatory voting.


Abundant popular discourses surround the O. J. Simpson double murder case. By contrast, Darnell M. Hunt scrutinizes these very discourses in order to further our understanding of the interests underlying them. Exploring the relationships between O. J.'s trial, the social location of television viewers (their race, gender and class) and everyday consciousness of social issues, his textual and audience analyses consider the incredible allure of the trial as 'media event'. Looking beyond the obvious explanations of celebrity, scandal and voyeurism, Dr Hunt asks: why was America so obsessed by this case? Why were so many people interested in particular outcomes? and what are we to make of the apparent racial divide in attitudes about the case, as shown in the opinion polls? O. J. Simpson Facts and Fictions incorporates insights from sociology and cultural studies to examine the implications for race relations in the United States at the dawn of the new millennium.


Currently, detecting potential threats in air passenger baggage heavily depends on the human examination of X-ray images of individual luggage items. In order to improve the performance of airport security personnel in searching images of air passenger luggage it is important first to understand fully the requirements of the demanding task. Here, an experiment is reported where eye movements of naive observers and screeners were recorded when they searched 30 X-ray images of air passenger luggage for potential terrorist threat items such as guns, knives and improvised explosive devices. Compared with novices, the advantages of the screeners were speed and accuracy in detecting threats. Eye position data revealed that screeners were faster to fixate on target areas and once they fixated on targets their hit rate was significantly higher. Most of the lEDs were missed by both naive observers and screeners due to interpretation errors which indicated the importance of training. Stimulus salience at the first fixation locations of naive observers and screeners was compared to investigate expertise development. It was found that experience did not change attention preference on stimuli properties at the beginning of the observers visual search. The implications and further studies are discussed.


A study has been made of the salivary glands of the rat following an injection of a sublethal dose of actinomycin D. Body weights and weights of the parotid and submandibular glands showed significant decreases during the first 7 to 14 days. The loss in weight was the greatest in the parotid gland.

Histological and cytological observations indicated that the changes in secretory cells occurred in the following order: (1) beginning of nuclear pyknosis with a rapid decrease in number and size of nuclei by 24 hours after the injection; (2) advanced stages of nuclear pyknosis with concomitant decrease in cytoplasmic basophilia and granules by day 3; (3) apparent vacuolization and rarification of cytoplasm by day 7; (4) beginning of nucleolar and nuclear recovery by day 10; and (5) complete cytoplasmic recovery by the end of experiment as evidenced by the return of basophilia and disappearance of vacuoles.

Paralleling the weight changes, cytological damages were greater in the parotid than in the submandibular acini. This was thought to be related to differences in nature of secretory products by the two organs. A decrease in number and pronounced irregularity in size of the granules in salivary ducts of the submandibular gland were observed but at a later time than the above mentioned changes in the acini. The significance of these changes has been discussed in light of the recently gained knowledge on the biosynthesis of nucleic acids and proteins as related to the chemical mechanism of actinomycin D in the inhibition of m-RNA synthesis.


Growing concerns regarding sustainability have led the construction sector to adopt various policy instruments for reducing the impacts caused by construction activities. One such policy instrument includes impact assessment, which enables the construction sector to evaluate the environmental consequences of proposed developments at project (environmental impact assessment) and strategic (strategic environmental assessment) level. In recent years, the construction sector has also adopted green public procurement, which is a process whereby contracting authorities aim to procure services and products that meet environmental requirements. In certain contexts, green public procurement has extended to sustainable public procurement, which involves the incorporation of both environmental and social considerations in the procurement of services and products. Promoting sustainability in the constructor sector is a significant challenge. This challenge is primarily due to the requirement of high levels of cooperation among project stakeholders, on the one hand, and a lack of coordination between project planning and implementation on the other hand. Therefore, procurement plays a significant role as it establishes the tone for the interaction between contracting authorities and contractors. The overall aim of this thesis is to bolster the knowledge of promoting sustainability in the construction sector, with the specific aim of analysing the ways in which policy instruments such as environmental impact assessment and green public procurement can be reinforced to improve the coordination between planning and the implementation of sustainability considerations. This thesis conceptualises an inter-link between impact assessment and green public procurement, and identifies the opportunities to develop the inter-link. It is appropriate to plan for green public procurement at the pre-decision phase of an environmental impact assessment. The inter-link can be strengthened by involving contractors in planning for green and sustainable public procurement. One way to involve contractors is with the aid of competitive dialogue procedure, which is a procurement procedure that allows contracting authorities to hold discussions with contractors regarding the authority's requirements. This study strengthens the conceptualisation that competitive dialogue procedure can facilitate green and sustainable public procurement. The various elements in a competitive dialogue procedure can enable the contracting authorities to ensure the consistency between the weight for environmental considerations in contract award criteria and the relevant preferences. This thesis also discusses key concerns for progress towards sustainable public procurement, which includes among others the incorporation of sustainability values in procurement decisions. In addition, this study identified certain discourses on future trends for green and sustainable public procurement. The discourses provide an opportunity for reflection, and thereby indicate that analytical support is required to develop criteria in a way that enables the evaluation of sustainable public procurement against the background of sustainability and justice regarding natural capital. Innovation must be promoted with a focus on sustainability values. Moreover, green or sustainable public procurement must be discussed between contracting authorities and contractors in light of its contribution to sustainability.


Current radio frequency power amplifiers in 3G base stations have very high power consumption leading to a hefty cost and negative environmental impact. In this paper, we propose a potential architecture design for future wireless base station. Issues associated with components of the architecture are investigated. The all-digital transmitter architecture uses a combination of envelope elimination and restoration (EER) and pulse width modulation (PWM)/pulse position modulation (PPM) modulation. The performance of this architecture is predicted from the measured output power and efficiency curves of a GaN amplifier. 57% efficiency is obtained for an OFDM signal limited to 8 dB peak to average power ratio. The PWM/PPM drive signal is generated using the improved Cartesian sigma delta techniques. It is shown that an RF oversampling by a factor of four meets the WLAN spectral mask, and WCDMA specification is met by an RF oversampling of sixteen.


Background: The heart pump allows blood to flow where the network of arteries, capillaries, and veins throughout the body regulates the rate of circulation of the blood. Parameters that determine the fitness level of the cardiovascular system include heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), VO2 max, fatigue, etc., The calf muscle pump is the most important of the lower limb, as it is the most efficient and has the largest capacitance. It has been suggested that increased leg strength, independent of cardiovascular training, may augment an aerobic endurance performance. Aim: The aim of this study is to determine the effect of strength training of gastrocnemius and soleus muscles on cardiovascular parameters. Materials and Methods: An experimental study carried out at MRIIRS Institution for 1 year. Forty-five recreational players aged between 20 and 30 years were selected after obtaining informed consent. Participants were divided equally into three groups by a convenient chit method. They were assessed for cardiovascular parameters of HR, BP, VO2 max, fatigue, and FI at baseline and after 8 weeks training program. Group A participated in gastrocnemius and soleus; Group B participated in gastrocnemius, and Group C participated in the soleus muscle training program. Results: Paired t-test for pre–post training shows a significant difference P < 0.05 for all the groups. ANOVA used between groups pre–post training were found to be significant for HR and systolic BP (SBP), and nonsignificant for diastolic BP (DBP) and VO2 max. Kruskal–Wallis test used between groups before and after training was found to be significant for fatigue and fitness index (FI). Jonckheere-trend test Post hoc analysis showed that Group A performed better than Group C and B. Wilcoxon signed-rank test for fatigue and FI showed a significant difference for all the groups. Conclusion: Eight weeks of leg muscle training on cardiovascular parameters have an effect on cardiovascular parameters of HR, SBP, FI, and fatigue. The results showed no significant effects on DBP and VO2 max.


Background: Platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) is a bioactive biomaterial wherein cytokines are enmeshed within the interconnecting fibrin network. PRF can be fabricated into a patch to augment healing of the interface between a tendon graft and bone tunnel. Hypothesis: The bioactivity of a PRF scaffold is preserved after PRF is mechanically compressed into a patch. A bioactive PRF patch could promote the incorporation of a tendon graft within the bone tunnel through the formation of a tendon-bone healing zone composed of both fibrocartilaginous tissue and new bone. Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: Bioactivity of PRF was evaluated through treatment of rabbit tenocytes with PRF-conditioned medium and cultivation of cells on a PRF patch. Cellular morphologic features, viability, and differentiation were analyzed accordingly. In an animal study, a rabbit tendon-bone healing model was established through use of New Zealand White rabbits. The implanted tendon graft was enveloped circumferentially with a bioactive PRF patch before being pulled through a bone tunnel in the proximal tibia. Micro–computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging and histological and biomechanical analyses of the tendon-bone interface were performed at 12 weeks postoperatively. Results: PRF improved the viability of the cultured tenocytes. The effects of PRF on in vitro mineralization of tenocytes were comparable with the effects of standard culture medium. The gene expressions of type I collagen and osteopontin were upregulated upon PRF treatment. For the in vivo study, micro-CT images revealed significant new bone synthesis at the tendon-bone interface in the PRF-enveloped group. The tendon-bone healing zone was characterized by abundant fibrocartilage tissue and new bone formation as demonstrated by histological analysis. Biomechanical testing showed significantly higher ultimate loads in the PRF-enveloped group. Conclusion: Bioactive PRF could effectively augment healing of tendon graft to bone by inducing the formation of a transitional tendon-bone healing zone composed of fibrocartilage and bone. Clinical Relevance: Complete healing of the tendon graft in the bone tunnel is a prerequisite for successful ligament reconstruction, which would allow early and aggressive rehabilitation and rapid return to preinjury activity level. From a translational standpoint, the PRF-augmented healing in this rabbit animal model showed a promising biological approach to enhance tendon graft to bone healing via promotion of the functional anchorage between the 2 different materials.


Due to the raising dependence of people on critical applications and wireless networks, high level of reliability, security and availability is claimed to assure secure and reliable service operation. Wireless ad hoc networks (WANETs) experience serious security issues even when solutions employ preventive or reactive security mechanisms. In order to support both network operations and security requirements of critical applications, we present SAMNAR, a Survivable Ad hoc and Mesh Network ARchitecture. Its goal lies in managing adaptively preventive, reactive and tolerant security mechanisms to provide essential services even under attacks, intrusions or failures. We use SAMNAR to design a path selection scheme for WANET routing. The evaluation of this path selection scheme considers scenarios using urban mesh network mobility with urban propagation models, and also random way point mobility with two-ray ground propagation models. Results show the survivability achieved on routing service under different conditions and attacks.


This report describes the process of optimizing an existing design for a chemical plant that produces the chemical intermediate ethylbenzene. For an engineer, economic optimization involves manipulating the design variables of a chemical process in order to improve the economic outcome of the project. In this case, the objective of the optimization was to maximize the net present value of the ethylbenzene plant. After analyzing the net present value of the existing design, the team conducted subsequent analyses on the operation of the process, adjusting variables such as temperature, pressure, and flow rate in order to minimize the costs of manufacturing.
 The most important tool in the analysis of this chemical process was SimSci Pro/II process simulation software, which allowed the team to determine the effects of varying many different process parameters simultaneously. The team made all decisions about the final design of the process according to what would be the most economical design and still be within the constraints of the project.
 The team found that the most economical design would use both a new catalyst with higher selectivity and a lower grade benzene feed. The new catalyst would suppress the production of chemical by-products, thereby reducing the extent of the purification process. Using the lower grade benzene feed would allow the plant to save a significant amount of money on raw materials. The team also made other recommendations for optimization of the process equipment.
 The final optimized design is estimated to have a net present value of $50.9 million, a substantial improvement from the base case net present value of -$10.7 million. However, the team recommends many more detailed analyses of this design before any action is taken.


Bulk geochemical data from the NERC Rapid Global Geological Events project are used to appraise the pattern of variation in mean organic content through the cymodoce to rotunda zones of the type Kimmeridge Clay Formation in southern Dorset. There is a symmetrical stratigraphic pattern in mean and modal total organic carbon (TOC) values, which increase from 1–2% at the top and base to a peak of 8–9% in the middle of the formation. To remove distortion caused by the strong positive skewness of the TOC values, the mean TOC per zone was recalculated for the first mode of the TOC distribution only, and combined pragmatically with pyrolysis estimates of the reactive (marine) TOC fraction to derive marine TOC values; these also vary symmetrically from c. 0.5% to peak values of c. 5.0%. The mean TOC is negatively correlated with sedimentation rate, indicating that dilution is a significant controlling variable. Mean palaeoproductivity was assessed using modern marine sediment relationships between carbon burial efficiency, sedimentation rate (derived from RGGE cyclostratigraphic analyses), the likely dissolved oxygen range, and water depth. Best estimates of palaeoproductivity range from 40 to 150 g C m−2 a−1 (low to moderate by comparison with present-day shelves) and are positively but nonlinearly correlated with mean δ13CTOC values.


Sustained release microparticles used for parenteral drug delivery must be well characterized in terms of their size range, morphology and function. It is widely understood that the chemistry and morphology of microparticles have a degree of interdependence which strongly affects drug release behaviour from microparticles.
This thesis investigates, for the first time, the use of mid-IR imaging along with the development and optimisation of relevant multivariate image analysis methods for studying the real-time degradation of pharmaceutically relevant biodegradable polymer microparticles and the real-time release of protein based drugs from such microparticle
systems.
The application of attenuated total reflection - Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic(ATR-FTIR) imaging and analysis to monitor the degradation of a single microparticle is optimised and the developed methodology is detailed. A series of time resolved images of a PLGA microparticle undergoing hydrolysis at 70 °C are obtained using ATR-FTIR imaging for the first time. A novel partially supervised non-linear curve fitting (NLCF) tool is developed and the output from the NLCF is evaluated by direct quantitative comparison with a traditional peak height (PH) data analysis approach and multivariate curve resolution alternating least squares (MCR-ALS) analysis for the same images, in order to develop an image analysis strategy. The NLCF method is shown to facilitate the calculation of hydrolysis rate constants for both the glycolic (kG)and lactic (kL) segments of the PLGA copolymer. This results in improved spatial resolution on time-resolved microparticle images, so providing better insight into the dimensions of hydration layers and particle dimension changes during hydrolysis when
compared to images derived from both PH measurements and MCR-ALS. The MCRALS routine is shown to be faster than NLCF and its images are found to provide sufficient contrast to be used for qualitative comparison.
The optimised mid-IR-ATR procedures are then applied to investigate several factors influencing the hydrolytic degradation of a family of PLGA microparticles. Degradation
rate constants for glycolic and lactic units are shown to increase (whilist maintaining a ~1.3 ratio between each other) with increasing initial glycolic content of the copolymer,temperature or γ-radiation exposure. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) results indicate a chain scission based degradation in PLGA upon γ exposure. The distribution of lactic acid is probed with IR during the hydrolysis of a PLA microparticle for the first time, showing a diffusional pathway from the degrading microparticle outwards into surrounding water.
Utilising the chemical selectivity of the infrared methodology, ATR-FTIR imaging is applied for the first time to monitor the redistribution and release of human growth
hormone (hGH) from a range of CriticalMixTM processed PLGA/PLA microparticles during a set of dissolution experiments at 37 °C in D2O. Increasing the γ dose is shown
to have a profound influence on the release mechanism, with higher γ doses leading to a dramatic increase in the initial burst release followed by retardation in the sustained release and a lower total level of hGH release over the dissolution experiment. These changes are shown to be the result of: (i) protein aggregation as a function of applied γ-dose as studied by size exclusion chromatography; (ii) decrease in overall porosity as studied by SEM; (iii) decrease in Mw of all of the component polymers post γ irradiation indicating a chain scission mechanism as studied by GPC and DSC; and (iv) the increase in the number of oxygenated components in the Poloxamer 407 excipient,
thereby increasing the strength of interaction between the microparticle and the entrapped hGH. These findings suggest that any γ sterilisation dose should be less than
25 kGy and that other sterilisation methods may need to be considered, due to the stability of the studied formulations.


The aim of this study was to describe and find out motivational English language learning strategies through computers among Iranian EFL learners and find out how learners' motivations change towards English language learning through computers.The mixed method approach (quantitative and qualitative) was employed in this study. A total of 84 (out of 130) female freshman university learners from a university in Isfahan were randomly selected to fill out the questionnaire reflecting their motivational English language learning strategies through computers.They were aged between 18 and 20 years old and were native speakers of Persian. They were all in intermediate level based on their English proficiency levels. Also, a group of 6 out of these 84 learners were purposefully selected for the semi-structured interview in order to get more in-depth information. The descriptive analysis revealed that the learners all used high level of motivational strategies while learning English as a foreign language. It also demonstrated that the learners' motivational strategies related to the use of learners' general feelings towards computers were more frequently identified. The findings of the interviews also revealed that the use of computers motivate and stimulate learners to learn their courses as well as to communicate with one another more effectively. The implication of this study is to use computers as a teaching tool in classes and the learning motivational strategies through computers should be utilized in learning environments.


Micro-vacuum and wipe sampling methods are routinely used to measure surface dust contamination in both occupational and environmental settings. Both methods are subject to variability in their efficiency of dust collection resulting primarily from textural surface characteristics and dust loading. As part of a study to determine contamination levels of asbestos and other World Trade Center related contaminants in the wall cavity of a high-rise office building, paired samples were collected from 15 locations. The surface type of 14 locations was concrete-masonry block; the remaining surface type was a polyvinyl chloride coating. Micro-vacuum wipe pairs were obtained from the same wall component at contiguous locations. A template was used to ensure that equal 100-cm2 areas were consistently sampled. Micro-vacuum and wipe samples were collected and analyzed for asbestos using ASTM Methods D5756 and D6480, respectively. The average surface concentration reported by the micro-vacuum samples was numerically higher than the wipe samples, but the difference was not statistically significant (P=0.195). Both methods yielded an equal number of samples below the analytical sensitivity; the false-negative rates were the same for each method. Micro-vacuum and wipe sample concentrations were not correlated (R2=0.207). The length and width of asbestos structures collected by wipe samples was significantly larger than by micro-vacuum samples (P=


Spin Transfer Nano-Oscillators (STNOs) are a novel type of Radio Frequency (RF) oscillators that make use of the Spin Transfer Torque (STT) effect in a magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) device to produce high-frequency auto-oscillations. STNOs are attractive for applications in wireless communications due to their nanometric size and their frequency tuning capabilities via either a dc current or an applied field. This frequency tuning permits to encode the information via frequency shift keying (FSK) by digital modulation of the current or applied field between two discrete values without the need of an external RF mixer, leading to potentially less complex RF components. In this thesis, the feasibility of the digital frequency modulation (frequency shift keying (FSK)) using in-plane magnetized MTJ STNOs has been studied. For this, the maximum modulation rate, up to which a signal can be modulated or the frequency can be shifted between two discrete values, is an important aspect that need to be characterized.The characterization of the maximum modulation rate for in-plane magnetized MTJ STNOs has been studied via numerical macrospin simulation for different modulation configurations, i.e. modulation by a sinusoidal RF current and a sinusoidal RF field. It revealed that the maximum modulation rate under RF current modulation is given by the amplitude relaxation frequency fp of the STNO. Under RF field modulation, i.e. an RF field applied parallel to the easy axis, an enhanced modulation rate above fp can be achieved since the frequency is modulated directly via the field and not via the amplitude. This suggests an important strategy for the design of STNO-based wireless communications and to achieve high data rates. Besides numerical simulation, experimental studies of frequency shift keying (FSK) by current modulation in STNOs have been also demonstrated. The first demonstration is the FSK in standalone STNOs. The analysis confirmed that the FSK was successfully observed with a frequency shift around 200MHz (the frequency shift between ≈8.9 GHz and ≈9.1 GHz) at the modulation rate of 10Mbps. This modulation rate is however less than the upper limit, which is given by the relaxation frequency fp of the STNO as predicted in the numerical simulation, because of the relatively high phase noise of the device measured. In order to test the feasibility of the STNO within microwave systems, the FSK modulation of STNOs was performed on a printed circuit board (PCB) emitter. FSK with a frequency shift around 300MHz (the frequency shift between ≈9 GHz and ≈9.3 GHz) was observed with a modulation rate of 20 Mbps. The data rate here was limited by characteristics of the PCB emitter and not intrinsic to the STNO. The simulation and experiment studies of frequency modulation of STNOs demonstrate that the data rate of is adequate for wireless communication used in WSN. However, further improvements in materials and nanofabrication of STNOs are required to enhance the output power and improve the spectral characteristics of the oscillations to push the data rates to higher values with large frequency shift.


The geopolitcal interests of EU Member States in the Sahel have long lead to interventions aimed at the securitisation of the region that can be dated back to the early postcolonial period. In the wake of recent instability, however, the recourse to such interventions has intensified (Harmon, 2015: 233). Since the launch of the European Agenda on Migration in May 2015, however, we have also seen a convergence of these pre-existing geopolitical interests with an ever-expanding EU preoccupation with the so-called refugee 'crisis'. This convergence has often taken the form of an increased humanitarian posturing (Davitti, 2017) vis-à-vis the refugee debate, irreversibly conflated with a securitisation framing of both the refugee themselves and of any response devised to reverse migratory flows. The same refugees that recent EU debates depict as a 'security threat approaching the external EU border' (Andersson 2014: 68) are also presented as in need of 'saving' and 'protecting' (Vaughan-Williams, 2015: 20). It is crucial to understand the escalation of the EU's rhetoric—of 'saving migrants' lives at sea' and 'preventing migrants from embarking in perilous journeys'— as a tool which fundamentally attempts to justify an increased militarisation of key 'partner' countries of origin and transit, not least in the Sahel. This policy brief wishes to problematise this approach by examining the way in which EU policies have crystallised the securitisation of migration and intensified military intervention in the Sahel. The brief analyses the implications of such policies on the ground, paying particular attention to Niger which has become, once again, a strategic country for the EU and its Member States.


The X-ray absorption fine structure method was applied for the quantitative analysis of hexavalent Cr in electronic products. The pre-edge peak intensity of the Cr K-edge increased according to the hexavalent Cr amount, and the hexavalent Cr ratio was calculated quantitatively by using the intensity. By combining with inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy measurement results that gave the total Cr amount, the absolute amount of hexavalent Cr in chromate conversion coating and plastic samples could be evaluated. The results obtained by this method were in good agreement with those obtained by the chemical analysis method. This method can be successfully applied for the determination of hexavalent Cr amount in electronic products such as chromate conversion coating and plastic.


Health technology The study compared four general anaesthetic agents for induction/maintenance in adult day surgery, and two general anaesthetic agents in paediatric day surgery. The anaesthetics used for adults were propofol/propofol, propofol/isoflurane, propofol/sevoflurane and sevoflurane/sevoflurane. Those used for children were propofol/halothane and sevoflurane/sevoflurane. The induction dose of anaesthetic and use of lignocaine was left to the discretion of the anaesthetist. The fresh gas flow rate was set at a rate according to a predetermined protocol. Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) and pain were treated according to standardised protocols.


Oral anticoagulation is the mainstay of therapy for stroke prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation. Vitamin K antagonists such as warfarin reduce the risk of cardioembolic stroke by approximately two-thirds compared with no treatment, but are limited by their unpredictable anticoagulant effect and narrow therapeutic index. Warfarin therapy requires routine coagulation monitoring, which is inconvenient for patients and costly for the healthcare system. The limitations of the vitamin K agonists have spurred the development of new oral anticoagulants that selectively inhibit thrombin or factor Xa. The Randomized Evaluation of Long-Term Anticoagulation (RE-LY) trial of 18,113 patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation and at least one additional risk factor for stroke demonstrated that dabigatran etexilate given at a dose of 150 mg twice daily compared with warfarin, reduced the rate of stroke or systemic embolism by one-third with a similar rate of major bleeding, whereas dabigatran etexilate given at a dose of 110 mg twice daily compared with warfarin had a similar rate of stroke or systemic embolism and reduced the rate of major bleeding by one-fifth. Both doses of dabigatran etexilate reduced intracranial bleeding by approximately two-thirds compared with warfarin. Based on the results of the RE-LY trial, both the US FDA and Health Canada recently approved dabigatran etexilate for the prevention of stroke and systemic embolism in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation.


The origin and evolution of magnetic fields in the Universe is still an open question. Their observations in galaxies suggest strong magnetic fields already at high redshift as well as at present time. However, neither primordial magnetic fields nor battery processes can account for such high field strengths, which implies the presence of a dynamo process with rapid growth rates in high-redshift galaxies and subsequent maintenance against decay. We investigate the particular role played by feedback mechanisms in creating strong fluid turbulence, allowing for a magnetic dynamo to emerge. Performing magnetohydrodynamic simulations of isolated cooling gas haloes, we compare the magnetic field evolution for various initial field topologies and various stellar feedback mechanisms. We find that feedback can indeed drive strong gas turbulence and dynamo action. We see typical properties of Kolmogorov turbulence with a k-5/3 kinetic energy spectrum, as well as a small-scale dynamo, with a k3/2 magnetic energy spectrum predicted by Kazantsev dynamo theory. We also investigate simulations with a final quiescent phase. As turbulence decreases, the galactic fountain settles into a thin, rotationally supported disc. The magnetic field develops a large-scale well-ordered structure with even symmetry, which is in good agreement with magnetic field observations of nearby spirals. Our findings suggest that weak initial seed fields were first amplified by a small-scale dynamo during a violent feedback-dominated early phase in the galaxy formation history, followed by a more quiescent evolution, where the fields have slowly decayed or were maintained via large-scale dynamo action.


Trailer has lots of applications in today"s world. In industrial and domestic considerations, tippers can pull a variety of products including gravel, grain, sand, fertilizer, heavy rocks, etc. By considering wide scope of the topic, it is necessary to do study and research on the topic of tipper mechanism in order to make it more economical and efficient. In existing system, tipper can unload only in one side by using pneumatic jack or conveyor mechanism. By this research it is easy for the driver to unload the trailer and also it reduces time and fuel consumption. For making tipper mechanism with such above conditions hydraulic jack mechanism can be used. This paper has mainly focused on above difficulty. Hence a prototype of suitable arrangement has been designed. The vehicles can be unloaded from the trailer in three axes without application of any impact force. The Direction control valves which activate the ram of the hydraulic cylinder which lifting the trailer cabin in require side. By this research it is easy for the driver to unload the trailer and it reduces the time.


Turbocharger performance significantly affects the thermodynamic properties of the working fluid at engine boundaries and hence engine performance. Heat transfer takes place under all circumstances during turbocharger operation. This heat transfer affects the power produced by the turbine, the power consumed by the compressor, and the engine volumetric efficiency. Therefore, non-adiabatic turbocharger performance can restrict the engine charging process and hence engine performance. The present research work investigates the effect of turbocharger non-adiabatic performance on the engine charging process and turbo lag. Two passenger car turbochargers are experimentally and theoretically investigated. The effect of turbine casing insulation is also explored. The present investigation shows that thermal energy is transferred to the compressor under all circumstances. At high rotational speeds, thermal energy is first transferred to the compressor and latter from the compressor to the ambient. Therefore, the compressor appears to be "adiabatic" at high rotational speeds despite the complex heat transfer processes inside the compressor. A tangible effect of turbocharger non-adiabatic performance on the charging process is identified at turbocharger part load operation. The turbine power is the most affected operating parameter, followed by the engine volumetric efficiency. Insulating the turbine is recommended for reducing the turbine size and the turbo lag.


In 1993, the nation's health care costs rose to $884.2 billion, up 7.8 percent from 1992. As a share of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), this accounted for 13.9 percent (HHS 1994, p.1) compared to 5.9 percent of GDP in 1965 (NCHS 1993, p. 161), the year in which the federal government initiated Medicare and Medicaid. As health care costs and usage rose, much of the burden of funding health care shifted to business and government. The business share of health services and supplies grew from 16 percent in 1965 to 28 percent in 1981, and remained fairly stable thereafter (Cowan and McDonnell 1993, p. 229). The federal government's share, however, continued to grow (12.2 percent average yearly increase for 1989-1993), and in 1993 comprised 31.7 percent of the national health care bill (HHS 1994, table 1). Consumer expenditures for health insurance premiums also have increased recently, probably due, in part, to the shifting of premium costs from employer to employee. The Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey (CE) shows that the percentage of families reporting health insurance expenditures has risen steadily from 55 percent in 1988 to 61 percent in 1993. The CE also shows that premiums have increased from 39 percent of the average family's health care spending in 1988 to 45 percent in 1993. In actual dollars, average premium spending rose 69 percent over this period. Jacobs and Shipp (1993) show that as a share of current consumption, 1 out-of-pocket health care expenditures peaked at 6.7 percent in 1960-61, declined to 5.4 percent in 1972-73, 2 and rose to 5.7 percent in 1988-89. In 1993, it was 6.9 percent. Rising health care prices, increased usage, changing demographics, and perennial concerns about government fiscal austerity continually spark debates over health care funding. Households, which have avoided much of the burden of the increase in health care expenditures, are likely to pay a larger share in the future. It is therefore important to examine household expenditure patterns to assess the effect that a transfer of health care costs to consumers may have.