The "Down syndrome critical region" (DSCR) is a chromosome 21 segment purported to contain genes responsible for many features of Down syndrome (DS), including craniofacial dysmorphology. We used chromosome engineering to create mice that were trisomic or monosomic for only the mouse chromosome segment orthologous to the DSCR and assessed dysmorphologies of the craniofacial skeleton that show direct parallels with DS in mice with a larger segmental trisomy. The DSCR genes were not sufficient and were largely not necessary to produce the facial phenotype. These results refute specific predictions of the prevailing hypothesis of gene action in DS.


To prepare for an urban influx of 2.5 billion people by 2050, it is critical to create cities that are low-carbon, resilient, and livable. Cities not only contribute to global climate change by emitting the majority of anthropogenic greenhouse gases but also are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and extreme weather. We explore options for establishing sustainable energy systems by reducing energy consumption, particularly in the buildings and transportation sectors, and providing robust, decentralized, and renewable energy sources. Through technical advancements in power density, city-integrated renewable energy will be better suited to satisfy the high-energy demands of growing urban areas. Several economic, technical, behavioral, and political challenges need to be overcome for innovation to improve urban sustainability.


What can you do to improve your health and at the same time improve the health of our home planet? Do you want to be a healthier and more sustainable consumer? In this straightforward, easy-to-understand and entertaining book, dietitian and environmentalist Dr. Dana Ellis Hunnes outlines the actions we can all take. Many people feel overwhelmed by the scope of climate change and believe that only large, sweeping changes will make any difference. Yet the choices we make every day can have effects on climate change, the oceans, the land, and other species. This book outlines the problems we are facing, and then presents ideas or 'recipes' to empower us, to help us all make a difference. Recipe For Survival provides the guidance that you can use right now to improve your health, your family's health, and the health of the environment simultaneously.


Since the 19th century, it has been recognized that the anterior chamber of the eye permits the prolonged, and sometimes permanent, survival of foreign tissue and tumor grafts. It was initially believed that the absence of patent lymphatics draining the interior of the eye prevented antigens from reaching regional lymphoid tissues. However, sequestration of intraocular antigens alone cannot account for ocular immune privilege, and a clear picture is now emerging that a constellation of anatomical, physiological, and dynamic immunoregulatory factors contribute to ocular immune privilege. Ocular fluids contain a potpourri of immunosuppressive and immunoregulatory factors that suppress T-cell proliferation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. The interior of the eye is decorated with Fas ligand (CD95L), which induces apoptosis of infiltrating inflammatory cells. Antigens introduced into the eye induce a unique immune deviation in which TH1 responses, namely delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), are actively suppressed. Thus, ocular immune privilege is sustained by factors that suppress immune cell proliferation and purge immune cells that enter the eye and by a dynamic immunoregulatory process that suppresses antigen-specific DTH. Suppression of certain inflammatory responses is an important adaptation for preventing immune-mediated injury to ocular tissues that have little or no capacity to regenerate. Thus, immune privilege is a crucial adaptation for preserving vision.


This paper addresses two critiques by Mian and Sufi (2015a, 2015b) that were released in response to the results documented in Adelino, Schoar and Severino (2015). We confirm that none of the results in our previous paper are affected by the issues put forward in these critiques; in particular income overstatement does not drive any of our results. Our analysis shows that the origination of purchase mortgages increased across the whole income distribution during the 2002-2006 housing boom, and did not flow disproportionately to low-income borrowers. In addition, middle- and high-income, as well as middle- and high-credit-score borrowers (not the poor), represent a larger fraction of delinquencies in the crisis relative to earlier periods. The results are inconsistent with the idea that distortions in the origination of credit caused the housing boom and the crisis and are more consistent with an expectations-based view where both home buyers and lenders were buying into increasing housing values and defaulted once prices dropped.


The thyroid stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) has been suggested to be a "domestication locus" in the chicken, due to a strong selective sweep over the gene found in domesticated chickens, differentiating them from their wild ancestor the Red Junglefowl (RJF). We investigated the effect of the mutation on development (incubation time), behaviour and thyroid hormone levels in intercross chickens homozygous for the mutation (d/d), wild type homozygotes (w/w) or heterozygotes (d/w). This allowed an assessment of the effect of genotype at this locus against a random mix of RJF and WL genotypes throughout the rest of the genome, controlling for family effects. The d/d genotype showed a longer incubation time, less fearful behaviours, lower number of aggressive behaviours and decreased levels of the thyroid hormone T4, in comparison to the w/w genotype. The difference between TSHR genotypes (d/d vs. w/w) in these respects mirrors the differences in development and behaviour between pure domesticated White Leghorns and pure RJF chickens. Higher individual T3 and T4 levels were associated with more aggression. Our study indicates that the TSHR mutation affects typical domestication traits, possibly through modifying plasma levels of thyroid hormones, and may therefore have been important during the evolution of the domestic chicken.


We read with interest the report by Petit et al (1997) demonstrating the transfer of maternal cells into the fetal circulation during the third trimester of pregnancy. The authors were unable to detect maternal DNA sequences in their single second-trimester sample at a gestation age of 20 weeks. In order to investigate whether there is passage of maternal nucleated cells into the fetal circulation in the second trimester of pregnancy, we studied nine women undergoing elective termination of pregnancy for social indications at the Fetal Medicine Unit, Homerton Hospital, London, U.K. Informed consent was obtained in each case. Ethics approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee at Homerton Hospital. Maternal blood samples were collected from the antecubital fossae of the patients prior to any invasive procedure. Fetal blood sampling was performed under ultrasound guidance immediately before termination of pregnancy as previously described (Abbas et al, 1993). 2– 5 ml of amniotic fluid was taken prior to fetal blood sampling as a control for maternal bleeding during the procedure. Extraction of DNA from fetal and maternal blood samples (Lo et al, 1996) and amniotic fluid samples (Rebello et al, 1991) was as previously described. Three polymorphic systems were used for the detection of maternal DNA sequences in fetal blood, based on the detection of polymorphisms in a region 5 to the human delta-globin gene (the RT region), the glutathione S-transferase M1 locus (GSTM1) and the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene (Lo et al, 1996). These polymorphic systems were all bi-allelic: the R and T alleles for the RT region, the presence (GST) or absence (GST) of the gene for the GSTM1 system, and the insertion (I) and deletion (D) of a 287 bp fragment in intron 16 of the ACE gene. To be informative for the detection of maternal DNA sequences in fetal blood, the fetus should be homozygous for at least one of these polymorphisms and the mother heterozygous for the same polymorphism. Detection of maternal DNA was then performed by amplifying the maternal allele which was not possessed by the fetus. Of the nine cases, RT, GSTM1 and ACE genotyping revealed five informative scenarios (Table I: cases 1, 2, 5, 7 and 9). Maternal DNA sequence was detected in the fetal blood sample obtained from case 7 at a gestation age of 13 weeks. The PCR analysis was repeated with the same result. The amniotic fluid sample taken before fetal blood sampling in this case was negative for maternal DNA sequences, thus demonstrating that the result was not an artefact of maternal bleeding during the invasive procedure. Other negative controls, including water blanks and control DNA samples not containing the amplified allele, were consistently negative. These results demonstrate that the prenatal transfer of nucleated maternal cells into the fetal circulation can occur as early as the 13th week of gestation. This represents the earliest documented case of maternofetal cell transfer in humans. This prenatal cell trafficking is a potential mechanism for the mother to influence the development of the immune system of the fetus. This may be one of the explanations why certain individuals exhibit a degree of tolerance to the noninherited maternal HLA antigens (Claas et al, 1988). It also provides a possible route for the prenatal transmission of infectious agents from the mother to the fetus.


Purpose: Bevacizumab is a VEGF-specific angiogenesis inhibitor indicated as an adjunct to chemotherapy for the treatment of multiple cancers. Hypertension is commonly observed during bevacizumab treatment, and high-grade toxicity can limit therapy or lead to cardiovascular complications. The factors that contribute to interindividual variability in blood pressure rise during bevacizumab treatment are not well understood. Experimental Design: To identify genomic regions associated with bevacizumab-induced hypertension risk, sequencing of candidate genes and flanking regulatory regions was performed on 61 patients treated with bevacizumab (19 cases developed early-onset grade 3 hypertension and 42 controls had no reported hypertension in the first six cycles of treatment). SNP-based tests for common variant associations and gene-based tests for rare variant associations were performed in 174 candidate genes. Results: Four common variants in independent linkage disequilibrium blocks between SLC29A1 and HSP90AB1 were among the top associations. Validation in larger bevacizumab-treated cohorts supported association between rs9381299 with early grade 3+ hypertension (P = 0.01; OR, 2.4) and systolic blood pressure >180 mm Hg (P = 0.02; OR, 2.1). rs834576 was associated with early grade 3+ hypertension in CALGB 40502 (P = 0.03; OR, 2.9). These SNP regions are enriched for regulatory elements that may potentially increase gene expression. In vitro overexpression of SLC29A1 in human endothelial cells disrupted adenosine signaling and reduced nitric oxide levels that were further lowered upon bevacizumab exposure. Conclusions: The genomic region between SLC29A1 and HSP90AB1 and its role in regulating adenosine signaling are key targets for further investigation into the pathogenesis of bevacizumab-induced hypertension. Clin Cancer Res; 24(19); 4734–44. ©2018 AACR.


This article takes as a touchstone the concept of location as it has been articulated through anthropology's reflections on its history and positioning as a field, and in relation to shifting engagements with contemporary technoscientific, political, and ethical problems. A second touchstone is one specific anthropological relocation—that is, into worlds of professional technology design. With figures of location and design in play, I describe some perspicuous moments that proved both generative and problematic in my own experience of establishing terms of engagement between anthropology and design. Though design has been considered recently as a model for anthropology's future, I argue instead that it is best positioned as a problematic object for an anthropology of the contemporary. In writing about design's limits, my argument is that, like anthropology, design needs to acknowledge the specificities of its place, to locate itself as one (albeit multiple) figure and practice of transformation.


This paper describes the CASOAR corpus, the first manually annotated corpus that explores the impact of discourse structure on sentiment analysis with a study of movie reviews in French and in English as well as letters to the editor in French. While annotating opinions at the expression, the sentence or the document level is a well-established task and relatively straightforward, discourse annotation remains diffcult, especially for non experts. Therefore, combining both annotations poses several methodological problems that we address here. We propose a multi-layered annotation scheme that includes: the complete discourse structure according to the Segmented Discourse Representation Theory, the opinion orientation of elementary discourse units and opinion expressions, and their associated features. We detail each layer, explore the interactions between them and discuss our results. In particular, we examine the correlation between discourse and semantic category of opinion expressions, the impact of discourse relations on both subjectivity and polarity analysis and the impact of discourse on the determination of the overall opinion of a document. Our results demonstrate that discourse is an important cue for sentiment analysis, at least for the corpus genres we have studied.


Background/Context Policy documents such as Title I of the No Child Left Behind Act [NCLB] (2001) direct schools and school systems to funnel resources to students based on their socioeconomic and linguistic status, as well as according to performance on standardized measures of achievement. Such conversations in the US about serving "at risk" students are powerful influences in schools' efforts to advocate for the academic and social success of their increasingly diverse student populations. In this sense, advocacy involves organizing curricula, programs, and resources to support the learning and development of students whose academic performance is perceived as threatened. Focus of Study An important question that must be addressed is, "To what degree are school reform initiatives able to articulate a vision of advocacy without lapsing into historical narratives of racial division and individualism, the results of which are continued differential achievement and unequal treatment of students based on socioeconomic, cultural, and linguistic markers?" It is equally important to understand how advocacy policies are translated at the school level. The advocacy policy of the reform we examine serves as an example of a vision grounded in an individually focused, colorblind policy, and the translation process as an example of how colorblindness precludes true reform focused on equity. Thus, this work adds to literature in both educational policy and in implementation of reform. Research Design Analyses of policy and enactment of policy in a whole-district school reform effort examined educators' translation of national and local policy discourses. We pinpoint why the crafting and translation of advocacy policy came out the way it did, and how it could have been different. We connect policy and practice by identifying points of translation where true reform focused on equity might have been undertaken. Conclusions/Recommendations District staff, principals, and teachers first translated the district office's advocacy policy by hybridizing institutional, historical discourses of the individual with discourses of racial difference, and then these same teachers and principals translated their interpretation at the level of their own school setting by hybridizing race-based advocacy with assimilationist ideologies of the purpose of school. We argue for expansion of such individually focused notions of advocacy to capture the fact that students experience schooling differentially based on their membership in social class, ethnic/racial, cultural, and/or linguistic groups. Implications of individually focused, colorblind advocacy policies for the success of this reform in particular and school reform in general are explored.


The Homeland Security Presidential Directive 20 (HSPD-20) requires all local, state, tribal and territorial government agencies, and private sector owners of critical infrastructure and key resources (CI/KR) to create a Continuity of Operations/Continuity of Government Plan (COOP/COG). There is planning and training guidance for generic transportation agency COOP/COG work, and the Transportation Research Board has offered guidance for transportation organizations. However, the special concerns of the state-level transportation agency's (State DOT's) plan development are not included, notably the responsibilities for the entire State Highway System and the responsibility to support specific essential functions related to the State DOT Director's role in the Governor's cabinet. There is also no guidance on where the COOP/COG planning and organizing fits into the National Incident Management System (NIMS) at the local or state-level department or agency. This report covers the research conducted to determine how to integrate COOP/COG into the overall NIMS approach to emergency management, including a connection between the emergency operations center (EOC) and the COOP/COG activity. The first section is a presentation of the research and its findings and analysis. The second section provides training for the EOC staff of a state-level transportation agency, using a hybrid model of FEMA's ICS and ESF approaches, including a complete set of EOC position checklists, and other training support material. The third section provides training for the COOP/COG Branch staff of a state-level transportation agency, including a set of personnel position descriptions for the COOP/COG Branch members.


This paper addresses foreign direct investment (FDI) entry strategies of multinational enterprises (MNEs) by analysing both establishment mode (greenfield investment vs. acquisition) and ownership mode (wholly owned subsidiary vs. joint venture) strategies together. It contributes to extant IB literature by being one of the first to specifically address influences of economic freedom distance on both FDI establishment and ownership mode strategies of MNEs. The novel empirical sample consisting of 348 FDIs made by 146 Nordic (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) MNEs in the less researched transitional periphery of the European Union (EU), i.e. Common Wealth of Independent States (CIS) and SouthEastern Europe (SEE), during 1990-2009 further enhances the contribution of our study. The study results revealed that high economic freedom distance leads to preference of greenfield investments and JVs by Nordic MNEs in the full sample. Further in depth analysis by dividing the sample into FDIs in the Russian Federation vs. other host economies lead to more interesting insights into the establishment and ownership mode strategies of Nordic MNEs.


This brief sets out key considerations for protecting informal urban settlements from the spread and impacts of COVID-19. There is heightened concern about these settings because of the combination of population density and limited infrastructure. This briefing discusses what is known about vulnerabilities and how to support local action. It can be viewed in conjunction with the Science in Humanitarian Action Platform (SSHAP) briefings on quarantine and social media. 1


A survey was conducted in August and September 2008 in Yaoundé, Cameroon to assess vegetable consumption attitudes, constraints and factors that stimulate households' consumption. Stratified sample based on district size, socioeconomic status and ethnics groups were used. Three hundred households were interviewed using a questionnaire and there were four times as many women as men in the sample. Data were analyzed using SNAP. More than 80% of the respondents were educated at the secondary (54%) and tertiary (30%) levels. The respondents were generally the wife (35%) or children (30%), and sometimes the husband (20%). More than 50% of the respondents were landlords living in their own homes and the rest were tenants. On average, the population of Yaoundé consumed vegetables frequently (2 to 4 times per week). Tomato, onion, carrot, and chili pepper were the most preferred exotic vegetables while bitter leaf (>80%) and okra (>70%), were the most preferred traditional vegetables. Attitudes towards vegetables varied according to socioeconomic and ethnic group. Main constraints to vegetable consumption were preparation time for respondents in the upper class (30%) and social taboos (amaranth is an ominous crop and can cause impotency in men; okra can inhibit the traditional treatment of some diseases) for the middle and lower classes. Freshness, wholesomeness, and color of the fruit or leaves determined the decision to purchase vegetables. Diversification of diet which is good for health, the preference of family members, and taste were the main reasons for consuming vegetables. Taste, degree of sliminess (okra), and smell after cooking were factors that increased satisfaction during consumption. Two-thirds of the respondents knew the benefits of vegetable consumption but their knowledge was not specific and is influenced by social taboos. Willingness to pay for processed traditional vegetables was higher among respondents in the upper income class (56.9%) than the lower (45.8%) and middle (37.1%) classes. The study revealed a need to further promote the consumption vegetables and inform consumers of their nutritional benefits.


Routing packets over multiple disjoint paths towards a destination can increase network utilization by load-balancing the traffic over the network. In wireless mesh networks, multi-radio multi-channel nodes are often used to create a larger set of interference-free paths thus increasing the chance of load-balancing. The drawback of load-balancing is that different paths might have different delay properties, causing packets to be reordered. This can reduce TCP performance significantly, as reordering is interpreted as a sign of congestion. Packet reordering can be avoided by letting the network layer forward traffic strictly on flow-level. This would avoid the negative drawbacks of packet reordering, but will also limit the ability to achieve optimal network throughput. On the other hand, there are several proposals that try to mitigate the effects of reordering at the transport layer. In this paper, we perform an in-depth evaluation of such TCP reordering mitigations in multi-radio multi-channel wireless mesh networks when using multi-path forwarding. We evaluate two TCP reordering mitigation techniques implemented in the Linux kernel. The transport layer mitigations are compared using different multi-path forwarding strategies. Our findings show that, in general, flow-level forwarding gives the best TCP performance and that transport layer reordering mitigations only marginally can improve performance.


A theorem is proved concerning the existence of a halftrajectory in the neighborhood of a semi-invariant set of a general dynamical system. A corollary of this theorem strengthens a result of P. Mendelson. The theorem is further used to obtain a necessary and sufficient condition for a compact positively invariant set to be positively asymptotically orbitally stable, and the condition is compared with another one due to S. Lefschetz.


With the death of Arnold Lobel at the age of only 54 in 1987 America lost one of its best and most popular children's book creators. "Easy readers," books designed for beginning readers, seldom win the major children's literature awards because they are usually thought to contain too few words to establish the literary distinction necessary to win the Newbery and too many words to allow for the illustrational distinction needed to merit the Caldecott. Lobel's efforts as an artist-writer of easy readers have, however, been singled out for both Caldecott and Newbery honors, as well as for numerous other awards. The universality and whimsicality of Lobel's tales contribute to their popularity, as do the inexpensive standardized format and effective marketing employed by Harper & Row (now known as HarperCollins) for all its easy-reader paperbacks. It is safe to say that every public library in America (and a multitude of homes) are in possession of well-worn copies of "I Can Read" books by Arnold Lobel. The Frog and Toad series is by far the most popular, but his books with grasshopper, owl, mouse and elephant protagonists also have wide appeal.In a number of the most characteristic books of Arnold Lobel the central personalities are handled i one of three ways: either there is a solitary, highly emotional (one might even say foolish) individual, a solitary reasonable individual, or there are two complementary personalities, one more foolish and the other relatively more reasonable. It would be tempting to call the foolish personality childish or child-like as opposed to the presumably more adult demeanor of the reasonable personality, but Lobel would be quick remind us that children and adults are not, at bottom, different kinds of persons. Adults and children have the same kinds of hopes, fears and foolishnesses even though the details of what they are concerned about may differ. Lobel pointed out in a 1971 interview in The Lion and the Unicom that "a child's sense of humor and an adult's sense of humor are rather the same. And if you don't have a sense of humor when you're a child, you're not going to have one when you're an adult" (84).It might be expected that the punch line of my essay would have to be an argument for the superiority of the stories that reconcile emotional and reasonable perspectives by striking a balance or partnership between them, but I find myself unable to judge just one of the three strategies consistently preferable in either human or artistic terms. The Frog and Toad books, where reason and emotion are somewhat reconciled and held in balance, and Owl at Home, where the foolish one does without reasonable advice, are, in my estimation at least, more or less equally satisfying and successful. Likewise, Grasshopper on the Road, which will be my primary example of a book featuring a solitary reasonable protagonist, can also readily be judged a persuasive and deftly satirical piece of fiction.It should be remembered that the most interesting characters in Lobel's work are like real people in that they have hints of both reasonableness and foolishness in their personalities. For instance, even the quite reasonably avuncular Uncle Elephant is a bit of a silly in some of his ways. Thus, I should provide advance warning that my thesis cannot be insisted upon too rigorously.Most of my examples will be drawn from the books Lobel did for Harper and Row's "I Can Read Series." The format of that series proved to be perfect for his talents. These collections of brief stories encouraged experimentation, since no one story had to stand alone. Lobel could indulge his whimsical imagination freely in this format without fear that the eccentricity of any particular episode would endanger the project. There is, by contrast, a timidness to some of the single-story picture books he did before he hit his stride in the "I Can Read Books." His use of a giant and flocks of fairies in Giant John, for instance, seems to have been motivated by a desire to give his story the appearance of a fairy tale. …


Introduction: The universal Changes in medical education have paid more attention to the importance of students' perception of their educational environment. The aim of this research was to measure the midwifery students' awareness of their learning environment at Islamic Azad University Kazerun branch.
Methods: This was a cross-sectional study in which 104 midwifery students from Islamic Azad University Kazerun branch participated. Data collection instrument was DREEM (Dundee Ready Educational Environment Measure). This standard questionnaire includes 50 items in five domains: students' perception of learning, teachers, learning environment along with academic and social self-perception. The obtained data was analyzed using SPSS 20.
Results: The findings showed that the total mean of DREEM score was 127.7 out of 200 which represents an average awareness of educational environment. The highest DREEM mean score was 22.8 out of 32 (69.6%) for students' academic self-perception and the lowest mean score was 17.11 out of 28 (61.1%) for students' social self-perception.Intern students were more satisfied with their learning environments than the students of theory courses (P=0.001).
Conclusion: The school's educational environment was generally perceived positively by the students, yet specific areas were also identified which needed to be improved. It is essential for managers to make a greater effort to create an appropriate educational environment in order to provide and maintain high quality learning environments for students.


This PRIF Working Paper reviews and discusses the scholarship on the political economy of macroeconomic stabilization and neoliberal structural adjustment, focusing on Latin American experiences during the 1980s and early 1990s. It discusses controversies, arguments and findings on a couple of key issues: the role of regime type (democratic versus authoritarian) for the adoption and implementation of economic reforms; the interplay of economic reform struggles and processes of political transformation; the relevance of international forces and factors; the role of domestic structures and actors; the dynamics of international negotiations over economic reforms; as well as the causes, characteristics and consequences of "IMF riots" and "austerity protests". The aim of the paper is not to present a coherent set of findings but rather to give an overview of a literature that has produced a diverse range of insights, ideas and open questions that are helpful to take into consideration when studying contemporary dynamics of economic reform struggles.


A lumped sequential river flow forecasting model is outlined. It is shown to be flexible in both temporal and spatial scales, thereby allowing simulations to be undertaken for a wide range of practical purposes. In addition, the required data input is very low, and is restricted to topographic data for only small segments of the entire catchment. The model is successfully applied to the River Avon in England and the River Kako in Japan.


Transplantation of cultured neuronal cells was performed in two human clinical trials after safety and efficacy was demonstrated in animal models of stroke. The studies tested the utility of human neuronal cellular transplantation into and around the small stroke volume. We developed a stereotactic surgical technique for cell delivery and evaluated that method in 26 patients with basal ganglia region motor stroke. Human neuronal cells (hNT cells; LBS neurons) were delivered frozen then thawed and formulated on the morning of surgery. Patients in a first trial received 2 or 6 million cells in three or nine implants, and in a second trial, 5 or 10 million in 25 implants. A novel cell delivery cannula was designed, manufactured, tested, and used in surgery. Immediate postoperative CT scans and later serial MR scans were used to evaluate the surgical site. Tests on the cell implantation cannula showed that the cells were not damaged and remained viable after injection. All patients underwent uncomplicated surgeries. Cells could be implanted within a 2-h period, maintaining viability of the preparation. Serial evaluations (maximum 5 years) showed no cell-related adverse serologic or imaging-defined effects. One patient had burr hole drainage of an asymptomatic chronic subdural hematoma. Human neuronal cells can be produced in culture and implanted stereotactically into the brains of patients with stroke. Surgical cell delivery did not lead to new neurological deficits, and imaging studies showed no adverse effects. The cannula used allowed precise injection of the clinical cell dose within a time period that maintained cell viability.


This Research Guide provides information about resources relating to World religions, including but not limited to Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism, found in the CCCC libraries and linked databases.


This paper summarises briefly same of the principle features of agricultural development in small farm areas of Kenya since the 1920s, in an attempt to increase understanding of current inequalities between different areas by adding a historical dimension, A primary goal of the paper is to suggest a fruitful area for further researcn by indicating how such investigations can contribute to an understanding of the current situationThey paper puts particular emphasis on the role and activities of the Agricultural Department, the reports of which provided the most important source of material. It uses differences in the growth of marketed output from different parts of Kenya as the primary indicator of differences in development because this is the only indicator on which detailed information is readily available* The paper shows how close the marketed output of Nyariza and Central Provinces was until the mid-1950s, and how fast Central Province drew ahead after that. It also shows how concentrated the benefits of the coffee boom of the 1960s were, and how similar the more recent expansion of pyrethrum, tea and dairying appears to be in in this respect" This paper highlights the more readily available information. Further work would certainly enhance our understanding of the processes through which the inequalities develop as well as predicting likely future patterns and suggesting means of broadening the development process0 A SURVEY OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE SMALL FARM AREAS OF KENYA SINCE THE 192QS "To him that hath shall be given; from him that hath not, even that which he hath shall be taken away..."


Self-organizing maps (SOMs) are self-organized projections of high dimensional data onto a low, typically two dimensional (2D), map wherein vector similarity is implicitly translated into topological closeness in the 2D projection. They are thus used for clustering and visualization of high dimensional data. However it is often challenging to interpret the results due to drawbacks of currently used methods for identifying and visualizing cluster boundaries in the resulting feature maps. In this thesis we introduce a new phase to the SOM that we refer to as the Cluster Reinforcement (CR) phase. The CR phase amplifies within-cluster similarity with the consequence that cluster boundaries become much more evident. We also define a new Boundary (B) matrix that makes cluster boundaries easy to visualize, can be thresholded at various levels to make cluster hierarchies apparent, and can be overlain directly onto maps of component planes (something that was not possible with previous methods). The combination of the SOM, CR phase and B-matrix comprise an automated method for improved identification and informative visualization of clusters in high dimensional data. We demonstrate these methods on three data sets: the classic 13dimensional binary-valued "animal" benchmark test, actual 60-dimensional binaryvalued phonetic word clustering problem, and 3-dimensional real-valued geographic data clustering related to fuel efficiency of vehicle choice.


When a baby girl is abandoned at birth, Reverend Arlington and his wife Ginny are only too happy to adopt her. The media cover this moving story, and a Nigerian woman living in England takes more than a passing interest in the Arlingtons. She decides that they world provide the right Christian home for her own baby, Chester. Shortly afterwards, Chester is delivered to social services with a letter explaining that the Arlingtons should be his new parents. So young Chester enters the vicarage of the sleepy seaside village of St Simon. He is the only black child for miles around. "The New Tribe" tells the story of Chester's long search for his true identity, and the challenges he faces as a black child in a white family.


The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of dipping time and temperature of hot water and type of packaging on qualitative traits of Orlando tangelo variety of tangerine. This study was conducted as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with three repeats. The treatments consisted of dipping in hot water at seven water levels at 53°C and 58°C each for 1, 2 and 4 minutes. The control treatment consisted of dipping in 20°C water for 2 minutes. Packaging treatment included individual packaging in nylons plastic (LDPE) and group packaging in nylons plastic (LDPE) and not packing the fruits. Such traits as percentage of changes in pH level of fruit juice, total organic acid, total soluble solids (TSS) and vitamin C content were evaluated in this experiment. The results showed that such treatments as dipping in hot water and packaging had significant effects on all measured traits. Minimum increase in TSS was observed in the control group (20°C water for 2 minutes). Maximum increase in TSS was observed in dripping the fruit in 53°C water for 1 minute.


In this paper, we propose to use two multi-objective swarm optimization algorithms, called MOPSO-CDR and MOABC, to tackle the car setup optimization problem. We aim to find the best set of parameters for the car in order to improve its performance during the races. We used The Open Racing Car Simulator (TORCS) in our simulations and we compared our results to the ones presented in the 2010 Car Setup Optimization Competition. We demonstrated that the MOABC can achieve similar results when compared to the state-of-art algorihms. The MOPSO-CDR outperformed all the previous approaches, including the MOABC algorithm for this problem.


This thesis examines the practices of botanical collectors in nineteenthcentury
Van Diemen's Land, their involvement in the Flora Tasmaniae and their
contribution to broader scientific debates. When Joseph Hooker wrote his
introductory essay on the Australian flora for Flora Tasmaniae in 1859, it was the
first published case study supporting Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection.
Much of Hooker's evidence for his essay was based on plant material collected by
self-trained resident naturalists of Van Diemen's Land, including Robert
Lawrence, Ronald Gunn and William Archer. In recent years Darwin, Hooker and
their contemporaries have been thoroughly examined, but as yet there has been
little concentration upon the colonial collectors who contributed to their research.
Instead of a centre-periphery study, this thesis provides a periphery-centre
focus, exploring the role of the colonial naturalists, their contribution to the
development of scientific knowledge, and the realities of operating as naturalists
in the Antipodes. This thesis argues that resident colonial collectors in Van
Diemen's Land made a significant contribution to botanical science during a time
of taxonomic and classificatory flux.
By using correspondence, journals, plant specimens and collecting notes
this thesis examines one facet of a larger imperial movement. Analysis of these
sources demonstrates the nuances of the colonial scientific experience, how
knowledge was gained, how contacts and friendships were made and sustained,
and what sort of work self-trained enthusiasts undertook. Numerous men and
women contributed to a broad discussion on the native flora and fauna, including landed gentlemen, medical men, public servants and convicted criminals. As the
Flora grew from their efforts, colonists questioned the source of power in the
scientific world. This thesis discusses these changing tensions, and how those
with a deeper local understanding balanced their colonial knowledge with the
views of those in the metropole.


In the past two decades, Mesoamerican smallholder coffee farmers have had to confront several stressors and shocks, such as price crises and natural disasters, with debilitating impacts on the viability of their livelihoods. More recently, many farmers have suffered crop losses in the wake of the spread of coffee leaf rust disease, and researchers are predicting that some areas will become less suitable for coffee growing in the near future as a result of climate change. In response to these conditions and in the context of the withdrawal of the state from provision of agricultural services, development practitioners have mainly pursued a strategy of helping farmers gain access to specialty markets, including those purchasing coffee from farmers with organic and Fair Trade certifications. They have also promoted farmer organization into marketing cooperatives, which have in turn provided various services to their members, including credit and technical assistance. However, there are doubts as to whether these schemes are sufficient in increasing and stabilizing smallholder incomes, and some have predicted declining returns from these strategies in the future. For these reasons, many have called for the promotion of livelihood diversification as an additional component of rural development programs. This thesis studies both the shortfalls in coffee incomes compared to poverty lines and the current uses and perceptions of different diversification activities. In the first study, the shortfalls are calculated through construction of individual and average enterprise budgets based on grower records and interviews with four organic and organized growers and three conventional growers. It concludes that while some growers have coffee incomes approaching that poverty line, they are all currently below the line. There is wide variation within both groups. The second study uses content analysis of transcripts from 15 interviews with members of a regional coffee cooperative, Asociación Barillense de Agricultores (ASOBAGRI), based on four different interview guides. It concludes that coffee remains the primary livelihood strategy of the respondents, whereas most other activities offer relatively small contributions to incomes, with the exception of honey and a small sewing shop, and some reflect coping rather than risk management. The study also identified other themes mediating diversification, including income-smoothing, optimization, familiarity, social networks, and influences from external actors.


This study reports the pico- and femtosecond laser-induced photocrosslinking of protein microstructures. The capabilities of a picosecond Nd:YAG laser to promote multiphoton excited crosslinking of proteins were evaluated by fabricating 2D and 3D microstructures of avidin, bovine serum albumin (BSA) and biotinylated bovine serum albumin (bBSA). The multiphoton absorption-induced photocrosslinking of proteins was demonstrated here for the first time with a non-toxic biomolecule flavin mononucleotide (FMN) as the photosensitizer. Sub-micrometer and micrometer scale structures were fabricated from several different compositions of protein and photosensitizer by varying the average laser power and scanning speed in order to determine the optimal process parameters for efficient photocrosslinking. In addition, the retention of ligand-binding ability of the crosslinked protein structures was shown by fluorescence imaging of immobilized biotin or streptavidin conjugated fluorescence labels. The surface topography and the resolution of the protein patterns fabricated with the Nd:YAG laser were compared to the results obtained with a femtosecond Ti:Sapphire laser. Quite similar grain characteristics and comparable feature sizes were achieved with both laser sources, which demonstrates the utility of the low-cost Nd:YAG microlaser for direct laser writing of protein microstructures.


INTRODUCTION
Thyroid carcinoma is the most common endocrine malignancy and its Papillary Histotype {Papillary Carcinoma of Thyroid (PTC)} is the most common type of Thyroid cancer. The clinicopathological features of PTC vary with geographical location.

AIM
To describe the clinicopathological profile of PTC in a Tertiary Care Hospital located in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data on age, sex, centricity of the tumour, presence of calcifications, infiltration, metastasis, associated non malignant conditions and frequency of histological subtypes of all cases of PTC diagnosed in Department of Pathology, Madras Medical College Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India between January 2007 and December 2011 were obtained from clinicopathological documents and analysed statistically.

RESULTS
Statistically significant correlations were found between age and sex, age and metastasis, sex and centricity, sex and metastasis, size of lesion and sex, size of lesion and age, size and presence of calcifications and presence of calcifications and metastasis.

CONCLUSION
Scenario of PTC in our tertiary care setup which warrants attention is male preponderance of multicentric lesions. Further, a high association with colloid nodular goitre, while low incidence of tall cell variant is notable clinico pathological scenarios in this study.


The 1970s television program The Brady Bunch provided a lighthearted and optimistic portrayal of American family life. A divorced man with three brown-haired boys married a divorced woman with three blonde daughters. They melded together into a happy, well-adjusted crew committed to mad-cap adventures accompanied by syrupy background music. Yet the promise of The Brady Bunch was illusory. Divorce has wreaked havoc on this country. The problems that derive from divorce and remarriage are multifaceted; they seldom lend themselves to tidy resolution in thirty minutes, let alone a lifetime. The show provided a distraction - and a disservice. It sent an inaccurate message about the world to legions of children suffering the painful consequences of divorce in their own families.In some respects, The Brady Bunch television show resembles the federal constitutional doctrine requiring that prosecutors disclose exculpatory evidence to defendants in criminal cases under Brady v. Maryland. The Supreme Court's Brady decision in 1963 offered hope that prosecutors can successfully straddle the fence between their two principal responsibilities: to serve simultaneously as zealous advocates and neutral "ministers of justice." By turning over all evidence that exculpates the accused, prosecutors advance the cause of justice; by retaining all other items of evidence, they safeguard and promote their advocacy role. Brady represented a marriage of two somewhat disparate images of the prosecutorial function. But in the ensuing half-century the ideals of Brady have not gained much traction in practice. Even worse, the doctrine as presently constituted may provide a disservice to the very concept of justice. This Essay examines this state of affairs and puts forth some potential solutions.


Abstract The deployment of communication-intensive, real-time multimedia applications on the Internet presents challenges to network routing, as these applications often demand more bandwidth and are less tolerant to delay, delay jitter and loss than traditional data applications. The current best-effort service cannot satisfy such Qualityof-Service (QoS) requirements. Recent studies have shown that QoS routing can provide increased network utilization and balance the network load, with the prerequisite that up-to-date link state information is available for routing decisions. Considering the dynamic nature of networks, this requirement is difficult to fulfil in practice. To improve dynamic routing performance without introducing additional link state update overhead, a link state update policy based on the prediction of link utilization is proposed. The results of statistical analysis and network simulation are presented. The statistical analysis finds that a time-series of mean available band-width (mABW) is predictable within certain limits. The prediction approach is shown in simulations of representative networks to offer substantial performance improvements when using periodic updates and also improvements for triggered updates with hold-down timer. A reduction in signalling failures and the effective link state update rate is indicated for a range of circumstances without reduction in routing performance.


Aluminium (Al) accumulation is a common trait expressed in at least 60 plant families and particularly prevalent in tropical woody plants. However, the functional significance and genetic or physiological controls on Al accumulation are currently unknown. We tested the hypothesis that differential expression of Al accumulation among wild populations of the Al-accumulating tropical shrub Melastoma malabathricum L. is associated with habitat-related variation in total and exchangeable soil Al concentrations. Mature leaves and seeds were sampled from 20 populations of M. malabathricum growing in six habitats across Peninsular Malaysia, and soil was collected from each site. The seeds were grown in hydroponic solutions comprising 50% Hoagland's solution amended with Al in the form of 1.0 mM AlCl3 to test the hypothesis that differential expression of foliar Al accumulation is an inherited trait. Foliar Al concentrations varied significantly among populations, but were not consistently different among plants growing in different habitats and showed no relationship to total or exchangeable Al concentrations in soils collected at the 20 sites. Mean foliar Al concentration in wild plants was positively correlated with foliar calcium (Ca) concentrations, and with total soil nitrogen (N), Ca and magnesium (Mg) concentrations, across the 20 populations, and Al addition increased foliar concentrations of phosphorus, Ca, Mg and potassium in seedlings. The differential expression of Al accumulation in M. malabathricum populations is uncoupled to local variation in soil Al concentrations, but may be sensitive to local soil-related variation in the availability of other macro-nutrients, in particular N, Ca and Mg. Further research on the factors controlling Al uptake should focus on the plasticity of this trait within populations of Al accumulators and interactions with micro-habitat variation in the availability of the macronutrient cations.


Over the past few decades, reports of forest health problems have concerned scientists and forest managers in loblolly pine forests of the southeastern United States. Several interacting factors likely contribute to observed reductions in loblolly pine health, including low resource availability on many upland sites that were once dominated by longleaf pine. Currently, land managers are interested in converting such sites back to longleaf pine, while maintaining ecosystems services that are now provided by loblolly pine. Recent research suggests that underplanting longleaf pine in loblolly pine stands may be a viable solution for stand conversion, but it is not clear how such treatments affect the longevity or condition of residual canopy trees. In this study, we compared the effects of three levels of uniformly-distributed stand density (uncut Control, ~16 m2/ha basal area; MedBA, ~9 m2/ha basal area; LowBA, ~6 m2/ha basal area) and three gap sizes (LG, radius of 40 m; MG, radius of 30 m; and SG, radius of 20 m) on the survival, growth, and canopy condition of residual trees through five years after harvest. Survival was not significantly affected by treatment (p = 0.5899), with an average of 96.8 percent survival. Tree growth during the study period was significantly greater on the LowBA plots than on the Control plots. By the end of the study period, LowBA plots had greater live crown ratios and less crown dieback than Control plots. Our results suggest that harvesting loblolly pine trees for underplanting longleaf pine does not accelerate pine decline in the short-term but does have the potential for growth release of residual trees.


Soil respiration rates vary significantly among major plant biomes, suggesting that vegetation type influences the rate of soil respiration. However, correlations among climatic factors, vegetation distributions, and soil respiration rates make cause-effect arguments diffi- cult. Vegetation may affect soil respiration by influencing soil microclimate and structure, the quantity of detritus supplied to the soil, the quality of that detritus, and the overall rate of root respiration. At the global scale, soil respiration rates correlate positively with litterfall rates in forests, as previously reported, and with aboveground net primary productivity in grasslands, providing evidence of the importance of detritus supply. To determine the dir- ection and magnitude of the effect of vegetation type on soil respiration, we collated data from published studies where soil respiration rates were measured simultaneously in two or more plant communities. We found no predictable differences in soil respiration between cropped and vegetation-free soils, between forested and cropped soils, or between grassland and cropped soils, possibly due to the diversity of crops and cropping systems included. Factors such as temperature, moisture availability, and substrate properties that simultaneously influence the production and consumption of organic matter are more important in controlling the overall rate of soil respiration than is vegetation type in most cases. However, coniferous forests had -10% lower rates of soil respiration than did adjacent broad-leaved forests grow- ing on the same soil type, and grasslands had, on average, -20% higher soil respiration rates than did comparable forest stands, demonstrating that vegetation type does in some cases significantly affect rates of soil respiration.


Will the future be one of economic expansion, greater tolerance, liberating inventions, and longer, happier lives? Or do we face economic stagnation, declining quality of life, and a technologically enhanced totalitarianism worse than any yet seen? The Fabulous Future? America and the World in 2040 draws its inspiration from a more optimistic time, and tome, The Fabulous Future: America in 1980, in which Fortune magazine celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary by publishing the predictions of thought leaders of its time. In the present volume, the world's leading specialists from diverse fields project developments in their areas of expertise, from religion and the media to the environment and nanotechnology. Will we be happier, and what exactly does happiness have to do with our economic future? Where is higher education heading and how should it develop? And what is the future of prediction itself? These exciting essays provoke sharper questions, reflect unexpectedly on one another, and testify to our present anxieties about the surprising world to come.


An in-depth discussion of the film "Love for Share" (Berbagi Suami) from Indonesia, with its award-winning director Nia Dinata and Jajang C. Noer, the grand dame of Indonesian cinema, after a screening at the Hawaii International Film Festival.

The Center for Southeast Asian Studies launched a new initiative to develop a Southeast Asian film program at the University of Hawaii beginning in Fall 2006. The starting point for this fledgling program was a new partnership with the Hawaii International Film Festival designed to highlight the cinema of Southeast Asia. The partnership was developed in the belief that film provides an engaging form of communicating culture across borders, and as the very nature of a film festival is to provide the venue for this type of educational activity, the partnership with the HIFF was seen as a way to help position both the Center and HIFF as leaders in bringing new and engaging film and film industry leaders from Southeast Asia into focus in the US.

Over the course of the festival the Center hosted a number of directors, actors, producers, archivists, and film critics who engaged in educational forums following selected films. All told there were 23 films with Southeast Asian themes, 15 of which were feature films from Southeast Asia. Much to the great joy of Southeast Asian film fans at the festival, films from the region garnered three of the top festival awards, including Love For Share (Indonesia, Nia Dinata) which captured the Golden Orchid for Best Feature Film. Other award winners with Southeast Asia roots included 4:30, (Singapore, Royston Tan) about a latchkey kid who steals from his family's tenant. which took home the NETPAC Award for Best Asian Film. Majidee (Malaysia, Azharr Rudin), shot in a single eleven minute take and focused on working class men in Malaysia, was honored as Best Short Film.


Both in the closed and open eye state the superior limbus is covered by the upper lid. This region is of physiological interest and clinical importance because in chronic hypoxia, neovascularization of the cornea commonly occurs here. The limbal region in general is additionally of importance as the stem cells which are the source of the new corneal cells are located in the epithelium of the limbus and these are vital for normal functioning and are affected under certain adverse conditions. Purpose: In this experiment I examined corneal morphology in the limbal area and in particular under the upper lid in order to primarily examine the variation in the corneal limbal epithelial and total thickness as well as epithelial and endothelial cell density. Methods: I measured 30 eyes OD/OS (chosen randomly) of thirty healthy subjects aged from 18 to 55 years in the first study and twelve participants in the second study, with refractive error ≤ ±4 D and astigmatism ≤ 2 D. The thickness and cell density of five positions: superior, inferior, temporal, nasal limbal and central cornea was determined with optical coherence tomography (OCT) and confocal microscopy. At least three scans of each position were taken in both studies with OCT. At least 40 of 100 adjacent sagittal scans of each image were measured using OCT software program. In the confocal study, image J software was used to determine cell densities. Results: The epithelial and corneal limbal thickness were significantly thicker than the epithelial and central corneal thickness (p<0.05). The limbal, inferior cornea is thinner than the three other positions and the temporal region of the cornea is the thickest both in epithelial and total cornea. Epithelial cell density was significantly lower in the superior cornea than the four other positions. There was no significant difference in the endothelial cell density. Conclusions: Using OCT with high resolution and cross-sectional imaging capability and confocal microscope with high magnification, I found that the limbal iii cornea is significantly thicker than the central cornea both in total and in epithelial thickness. In the limbus, one might expect the superior cornea (under the lid) to be thickest (because of the expected hypoxia) whereas I found the temporal cornea was thickest. The epithelial cell density was lower in the superior cornea but there was no significant difference in cell densities in the endothelium. Further morphological investigation is of interest.


This paper assesses the contextual factors affecting the implementation of e-government strategy and its impact on the performance of the public sector in Kenya using the Wing Lam, (2005) E-government Integration Model. Electronic government (E-government) is viewed in this study as the utilization of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) to transform the efficiency, effectiveness, transparency and accountability of exchanges within government, between government and citizens and businesses locally and abroad; and to empower citizens through access and use of information. Although e-government is a rapidly growing concept in both developing and developed countries very few e-government initiatives progress to maturity. Different countries are faced with different contextual circumstances and environments in the realization of e-government initiatives. This study attempts to address the gap between theory and rhetoric about the potential of e-government and the reality of its application on the ground in Kenya. The study attempts to analyze the philosophy, theories and paradigms of e-government. The development of the commercial concept as a new paradigm in public administration replacing the traditional bureaucratic systems of government is highlighted in the study. A detailed conceptual discussion anchors the study on the Wing Lam, (2005) E-government Integration Model (EGI) basing it on the Kenyan perspective. The study also reviews relevant e-government studies from an international, regional and local perspective anchoring the study on the configuration school of management thought. These discussions are used to develop new insights in view of the emerging issues and their relevance to the public sector in Kenya.


In chapter one, the various methods of generating benzenoid orthoquinodimethanes are discussed and approaches to their heterocyclic analogues are also reviewed. The utility of ortho-quinodimethanes in organic synthesis is highlighted by examples of both inter- and intramolecular Diels-Alder cycloadditions as the key steps in the total synthesis of naturally occurring polycyclic systems.

In chapter two, work aimed at the development of a rapid synthetic entry to heterocyclic quinodimethanes starting from ortho-methyl heterocyclic carboxylic acids is presented. To this end, the dianion of 3-methylbenzofuran-2-carboxylic acid (018) was used to facilitate the construction of a "benzylsilane type" precursor (038) which in turn when treated with fluoride base, resulted in the generation of benzofuran-2,3-quinodimethane (012). We were then successful in trapping this intermediate with reactive dienophiles to form a series of the corresponding tetrahydrodibenzofurans (042 to 049). We have been able, for the first time, to determine the regioselectivity in this reaction by performing an X-ray crystallographic analysis on the major isomer (046) arising from cyclization with methylvinylketone. Preliminary work on an intramolecular variant as well as other heterocyclic acids is also presented.

Chapter three, deals with the extensive modern approaches to tetrahydrofurans, but concentrates on examples that exhibit 2,5-disubstitution. It is sub-divided into the methods which involve an electrophile induced cyclization and the numerous alternative ones which do not. Their relevance in Natural Product assembly, especially the polyether antibiotics, is appraised.

Chapter four continues with studies which have already established that Z-3-silyloxy-5-alkenoic acids undergo efficient and highly stereoselective iodolactonizations leading to the Mevinic analogues and related valerolactones. We have now established that the iodolactonizations of Z- and E-3-silyloxy-5-alkenoic acids (174 and 131) both lead to trans-disubstituted valerolactones, which differ only in the stereochemistry of the iodine substituent (175 and 178).

The possibilities of effecting etherifications of the related Z-3-hydroxy-5- alkenoates (106) are then examined. By simply blocking the carboxylate end of the hydroxy-5-alkenoic acids involved in the above reactions it was found that under iodolactonization conditions a novel iodoetherification-hydroxylation process ensues which leads to 3-hydroxy-2,5-disubstituted tetrahydrofurans of which (182) is an example. These products were essentially single diastereoisomers according to all their spectroscopic data indicating that a well defined transition state must be involved in these cyclizations.

Extensive work was then conducted in probing the mechanism of this reaction which required developing several complementary routes to various homoallylic alcohol precursors. Indeed, results thus generated suggest that the more expected iodotetrahydrofuran (183) is not an intermediate and neither is the plausible epoxide (201). A strong link with hydroxytetrahydrofuran formation and the amount of water present in the reaction was established. That the ester group plays a key role in the cyclization was evident from the observation that its repositioning (135) or removal (137) gave only iodo-diols (204-5 and 221-2) which failed to cyclize further.

Similar cyclizations of the corresponding E-isomers gave iodotetrahydrofurans (199) in excellent yield. In each case, the cyclization was reasonably stereoselective with a modest improvement in yields being obtained in anhydrous solvents. However, under a variety of conditions, these did not lead to hydroxytetrahydrofurans. lodoetherification of simpler Z - and E-3-hydroxy-5-alkenes proceeded efficiently with high levels of stereoselection by a 5-endo-trig process and gave iodotetrahydrofurans, but only when anhydrous acetonitrile was used as solvent. The E-alk-5-en-ols gave a stereoselective reaction and the Z-isomers showed poorer selectivity. In semi-aqueous conditions iodo-diols and not hydroxytetrahydrofurans were obtained. Displacements on the iodotetrahydrofurans with azide (240) and hydroxide (243) equivalents have also been demonstrated in which the inverted products are obtained in good yield as single isomers.

The relevance of all these tetrahydrofurans in Natural Product assembly is then emphasized by a few specific examples.


Background & Objectives:
 This study aimed to assess the risk and benefit of tPA treatment under oral anticoagulation with dabigatran compared to warfarin or vehicle control in transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO).

 Methods:
 After pretreatment with warfarin (0.2 mg/kg/day), dabigatran (20 mg/kg/day), or vehicle (0.5% carboxymethyl cellulose sodium salt) for 7 days, tMCAO was induced for 120 min followed by reperfusion and tPA (10 mg/kg/10 ml). Clinical parameters, including cerebral infarction volume, hemorrhagic volume, and blood coagulation, were examined. At 24 h after reperfusion, markers for the neurovascular unit at the periischemic lesion were immunohistochemically examined in brain sections, and MMP-9 activity was measured by zymography.

 Results:
 Paraparesis and intracerebral hemorrhage volume were significantly improved in the dabigatran-pretreated group than in the warfarin-pretreated group. A marked dissociation between astrocyte foot processes and the basal lamina or pericyte was observed in the warfarin-pretreated group, which was greatly improved in the dabigatran-pretreated group. Furthermore, a remarkable activation of MMP-9 in the ipsilateral warfarin-pretreated rat brain was greatly reduced in dabigatran-pretreated rats.

 Conclusions:
 The present study reveals that the mechanism of intracerebral hemorrhage with warfarin-pretreatment plus tPA in ischemic stroke rats is the dissociation of the neurovascular unit, including the pericyte. Neurovascular protection by dabigatran, which was first shown in this study, could partly explain the reduction in hemorrhagic complication by dabigatran reported in the clinical study.


The maximal and next-to-maximal subspaces of a nonsingular parabolic quadric $Q(2n,2)$, $n \geq 2$, which are not contained in a given hyperbolic quadric $Q^+(2n-1,2) \subset Q(2n,2)$ define a sub near polygon ${\Bbb I}_n$ of the dual polar space $DQ(2n,2)$. It is known that every valuation of $DQ(2n,2)$ induces a valuation of ${\Bbb I}_n$. In this paper, we classify all valuations of the near octagon ${\Bbb I}_4$ and show that they are all induced by a valuation of $DQ(8,2)$. We use this classification to show that there exists up to isomorphism a unique isometric full embedding of ${\Bbb I}_n$ into each of the dual polar spaces $DQ(2n,2)$ and $DH(2n-1,4)$.


Background & Aim: Cyberchondria is a form of anxiety characterized by excessive            health- related internet search. The aim of this study was to evaluate the factorial structure of the Persian version of the Cyberchondria severity scale, designed to measure individuals' anxiety about their own health status caused by excessive health- related internet search. Methods: This is a descriptive /analytical study conducted on 228 students (154 males and 74 females) of Tabriz universities (Tabriz University, Payame Noor) through convenience sampling. Subjects completed the Cyberchondria severity scale questionnaire. Data were analyzed through exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis using SPSS 22 and Mplus 6.12 softwares. Results: Although exploratory factor analysis identified a five-factor structure, further investigations showed that the four-factor structure is probably more suitable for Iranian population. The four discovered factors were named as: Compulsion, Excessiveness, Reassurance and Distress. In addition, the results of confirmatory factor analysis showed that the four-factor structure well fitted the data. Conclusion: Findings suggest that the Persian version of the Cyberchondria severity scale is an appropriate tool to measure the severity of health anxiety caused by excessive health-related internet search. However, further research should be carried out in this field.


. Approaching theoretical issues and reflecting on the reality of human rights, citizenship in general and children's rights in particular is a topic of great interest in legal science in our country today. Children's rights are placed in many spaces of different living environments and for the family institution it is a specific, important and decisive living environment. Children's rights to be protected are the basis for nurturing, preserving and promoting good and core values of family culture. On the contrary, cultural and ethical values are preserved and developed as the foundation for children to be protected, cared for and nurtured in a good living environment. In this article, the author uses the theory of guarantee of rights to generalize some content about the dialectical relationship between ensure children's rights and preserve and promote core values of Vietnamese family culture.


The study of electrochemiluminescence (ECL) involves photophysical and electrochemical aspects. Excited states are populated by an electrical stimulus. The most important applications are in the diagnostic field where a number of different biologically-relevant molecules (e.g. proteins and nucleic acids) can be recognized and quantified with a sensitivity and specificity previously not reachable. As a matter of fact the electrochemistry, differently to the classic techniques as fluorescence and chemiluminescence, allows to control the excited state generation spatially and temporally. The two research visits into A. J. Bard electrochemistry laboratories were priceless. Dr. Bard has been one of ECL pioneers, the first to introduce the technique and the one who discovered in 1972 the surprising emission of Ru(bpy)3 2+. I consider necessary to thank by now my supervisors Massimo and Francesco for their help and for giving me the great opportunity to know this unique science man that made me feel enthusiastic. I will never be grateful enough… Considering that the experimental techniques of ECL did not changed significantly in these last years the most convenient research direction has been the developing of materials with new or improved properties. Preface IV In Chapter I the basics concepts and mechanisms of ECL are introduced so that the successive experiments can be easily understood. In the final paragraph the scopes of the thesis are briefly described. In Chapter II by starting from ECL experimental apparatus of Dr. Bard's laboratories the design, assembly and preliminary tests of the new Bologna instrument are carefully described. The instrument assembly required to work hard but resulted in the introduction of the new technique in our labs by allowing the continuation of the ECL studies began in Texas. In Chapter III are described the results of electrochemical and ECL studies performed on new synthesized Ru(II) complexes containing tetrazolate based ligands. ECL emission has been investigated in solution and in solid thin films. The effect of the chemical protonation of the tetrazolate ring on ECL emission has been also investigated evidencing the possibility of a catalytic effect (generation of molecular hydrogen) of one of the complexes in organic media. Finally, after a series of preliminary studies on ECL emission in acqueous buffers, the direct interaction with calf thymus DNA of some complexes has been tested by ECL and photoluminescence (PL) titration. In Chapter IV different Ir(III) complexes have been characterized electrochemically and photophysically (ECL and PL). Some complexes were already well-known in literature for their high quantum efficiency whereas the remaining were new synthesized compounds containing tetrazolate based ligands analogous to those investigated in Chapt. III. During the tests on a halogenated complex was unexpectedly evidenced the possibility to follow the kinetics of an electro-induced chemical reaction by using ECL signal. In the last chapter (V) the possibility to use mono-use silicon chips electrodes as ECL analitycal devices is under investigation. The chapter begins V by describing the chip structure and materials then a signal reproducibility study and geometry optimization is carried on by using two different complexes. In the following paragraphs is reported in detail the synthesis of an ECL label based on Ru(bpy)3 2+ and the chip functionalization by using a lipoic acid SAM and the same label. After some preliminary characterizations (mass spectroscopy TOF) has been demonstrated that by mean of a simple and fast ECL measurement it's possible to confirm the presence of the coupling product SAM-label into the chip with a very high sensitivity. No signal was detected from the same system by using photoluminescence. I hope this thesis will be a boost to expand knowledge of the partially explored ECL universe…


Abstract The evidence connecting food and gastrointestinal cancers from epidemiological studies, case-control studies, and prospective observational studies, indicates that determining the independent effects of specific nutrients is extremely difficult, given the many potential environmental factors to consider. The nutritional management of a patient with gastrointestinal cancer first begins with an appropriate nutritional assessment, seeing that several factors could affect the patient's nutritional status. The most significant dietary advice for cancer patients in general, is to consume a significant amount of energy daily to maintain current body weight, as well as a liberal amount of protein. In cancer patients requiring gastrointestinal surgery, the benefit of delaying surgery to attain improved nutritional status needs to be determined for improved outcomes. Postoperatively, severely malnourished cancer patients, and patients with an anticipated inadequate nutritional intake for seven days or longer, will benefit from postoperative TEN, given within 48 hours after surgery. Regular monitoring and adjustments to nutritional prescriptions is imperative in order to improve the cancer patient's nutritional status within the context of the prognosis.


This paper develops a method for decomposing the contributions of various types of public investment on regional inequality and applies the method to rural China. Public investments are found to have contributed to production growth in both the agricultural and rural non-agricultural sectors, but their contributions to regional inequality have differed by type of investment and the region in which they are made. All types of investments in the least-developed western region reduce regional inequality, whereas assitional investments in the coastal and central regions worsen regional inequality. Investments in rural education and agricultural R&D in the western region have the largest and most favorable impacts on reducing regional inequality.


In the wake of communism, nationalism has regained prominence as a source of global tension and instability. These problems, and nationalism itself, are often dismissed as transitional difficulties rather than studied as basic to the modern world. This paper argues, to the contrary, that nationalism is produced by central features of the modern world, including the ongoing process of globalisation. Its centrality derives first of all from the need to identify the `self' implied by the notion of political self-determination. This ties nationalism to democracy. But nationalism is also shaped in problematic ways by modern individualism. Metaphorically, the nation is often treated as an individual. Nations are also commonly conceived of as categories of like individuals rather than as webs of social relationships. This places an emphasis on sameness which often makes nationalism an enemy of diversity. It also provides the basis for arguments that national identity should take precedence over other competing identities - regional, familial, gender, interest-group, occupational, and so on. Nationalism is particularly potent and problematic where diverse institutions of civil society are lacking or fail to provide for a diversity of public discourses and collective identities.


© 2004 Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. Reproduction with permission only. Contact email@example.com. S after the 1983 discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the pathogen responsible for AIDS, investigators became aware of a strangely similar immune deficiency disease afflicting Asian monkeys (macaques) held in captivity in various U.S. research labs. Soon, virologists identified the culprit: a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that is found naturally in a West African monkey species, the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys), but is harmless to that host. This virus, denoted SIVsm, is genetically similar to a weakly contagious form of the AIDS virus that is largely restricted to parts of West Africa, HIV-2, and thus is considered its likely precursor. More recent work has shown that the closest relative of the primary human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) is another simian immunodeficiency virus, one carried by chimpanzees (SIVcpz). After comparing the SIVs in chimpanzees and sooty mangabeys with HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains, investigators concluded that there must have been multiple transmission "events" from simians to humans—at least seven for HIV-2 (some of which are known from only a single person who lives near mangabeys carrying a uniquely similar SIV) and three for HIV-1, the virus now infecting some 40 million people worldwide. How did SIVcpz and SIVsm cross over into humans and become pathogenic? Given the lack of historical references to AIDS-like disease in Africa prior to the mid-20th century, as well as its absence previously in the New World (which imported some 10 million African slaves during the 16th through 19th centuries), that transfer appears to have happened relatively recently—exactly when is a point of considerable debate. And why did two distinct simian viruses with which humans have apparently coexisted for centuries, or even millennia, suddenly pass into humans multiple times within a few decades? The answers to these questions have been slow in coming, despite the considerable efforts of molecular biologists to understand the nature and evolution of primate immunodeficiency viruses. I am not one of those molecular biologists; rather, I became a player in the field of AIDS-origin research through my interest in chimpanzee socioecology. Although I am partial to a theory I helped to fashion for why AIDS emerged when it did, with time it might become clear that a competing idea better accounts for genesis of the epidemic. Or perhaps the answer will prove to lie with some complex combination of factors that no single explanation presently encompasses. Whatever the case, the solution almost certainly will come from one or more of four competing theories.


Recent work has demonstrated that as the bulk convective velocity in subcooled nucleate flow boiling increases, the heat transfer tends to become independent of flow orientation with respect to gravity. There is significant interest in developing heat exchangers for next generation spacecraft that operate in the gravity-independent flow boiling regime. In order to develop such heat exchangers it is important to understand the effect of gravity on the critical heat flux and to determine whether a gravity on the critical heat flux and to determine whether a gravity-independent flow boiling critical heat flux regime exists. This work describes subcooled flow boiling experiments where the critical heat flux is measured over a range of flow orientations with respect to gravity: 0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, 180°, 225°, 270°, and 315°. It has been found that at low bulk flow velocities there is a large variation of critical heat flux with different flow orientations. At large convective velocities, the variation of critical heat flux with different flow orientations is significantly diminished. It appears that with further increases in bulk flow velocity, a gravity-independent critical heat flux regime exists, although the current experimental facility was not capable of operating at those flow conditions.Copyright © 2004 by ASME


The effects of the triphasic oral contraceptive (OC) ethinyl estradiol (EE) and levonorgestrel (LNG) on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism were evaluated in 97 black Kenyan women. Subjects were recruited from the Family Planning Clinic and were followed for 12 months. There was an increase in fasting levels of total cholesterol. These changes were not statistically significant. However, the triglyceride increase was statistically significant at 9 months and 12 months (p0.05). The high density cholesterol remained unchanged. Thus, this triphasic OC was found to have minimal effect on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism.


"The road to hell is paved with good intentions." Employers must be careful about the intentional and unintentional effect of their employment practices, even when acting with good motive. Title VII's disparate impact provision holds employers liable for employment practices that cause an adverse impact on racial groups, even when the employment practice applies equally to all groups and was not implemented to disadvantage a particular group. A prima facie case of disparate impact can arise solely based on numbers - a comparison between the rate at which one racial group passes a test or is selected for hiring or promotion as compared to rate of other racial groups. The disparate impact provision raises an Equal Protection Clause issue because it encourages employers to make race-conscious employment decisions to avoid disparate impact liability. This Article takes on the difficult question that the Supreme Court avoided in Ricci v. DeStefano: Does the provision violate the Equal Protection Clause? Evaluating the disparate impact provision under the rigors of strict scrutiny, this Article examines if the provision is narrowly tailored to achieve the possible compelling interests of remedying past discrimination, smoking out discrimination, increasing diversity, providing role models, meeting an operational need, or removing barriers to equal employment opportunities. After considering whether the disparate impact provision operates as a rigid quota, affords flexibility or individualized decisions, is narrow in scope and duration, applies to white males, and has available race-neutral alternatives, this Article concludes that the provision fails narrow tailoring and is likely unconstitutional.


CASE DESCRIPTION This case will require the student to value the equity of Equity Office Properties, Incorporated (NYSE: EOP) and make a buy or sell recommendation as an independent analyst. The data given should be examined to determine whether or not the company's stock is valued above or below the market price in order for investors to make a buy or sell decision. The student must assess the real estate industry environment using Porter's five-force model of competitive strategy and the DuPont identity. Valuation techniques employed include the capital asset pricing model, the two-stage dividend-discount model, the P/E valuation approach, and the Gordon model. CASE SYNOPSIS The student is placed in the role of an equity analyst and asked to prepare a buy or sell recommendation for Equity Office Property (NYSE: EOP) stock. EOP is the nation's largest office building owner and manager, as well as the largest real estate investment trust (REIT) in the United States. The student must assess the competitive environment of EOP using the DuPont identity and Porter's five force model of competitive strategy as well as estimate the value of EOP stock. All information in the case is publicly available. INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES Pedagogy The valuation of the common stock for Equity Office Properties, a large cap stock, is the focus of this case. The student must remember, however, that they are to interpret the case from the perspective of an external analyst or investor. Implementation of processes that address industry concerns through Porter's Five Force Model and the usage of the Dupont identity will identify the company's strength and weaknesses among its competition. The difficulty level of the case is appropriate for seniors or first year graduate students. The case should take a maximum of two hours of class time and two and one-half hours of student preparation outside of class. Stock evaluation issues relating/but not limited to the following are to be discussed: * the expected return * risk-free rates * security's beta * discount rate * growth rates Teaching Plan Class discussion should be initiated with the students identifying Porter's five competitive forces and the strength of these pressures. Instructors may want to focus on the following topics for class discussion. 1. List and describe the sources and strengths of the five competitive forces. 2. Analyze the ROE, Profit Margin, and ROA using the Dupont identity. 3. Calculate the expected return for EOP stock. 4. Estimate the value for EOP stock using the constant growth model. 5. Determine the value estimate using a Price/Earnings valuation approach. 6. Find the value estimate for EOP using the two-stage Dividend Discount Model. 7. Present an overall external investment recommendation to buy or sell the stock based on your analysis. Explain. Discussion Questions 1. List and describe the sources and strengths of the five competitive forces. * Threat of entry by new competitors * Threat of substitute goods * Bargaining power of buyers * Bargaining power of suppliers * Rivalry among existing competitors Threat of entry by new competitors No matter the industry, the threat of new companies entering into the market will always prevail. However, the real estate industry seems to be a quite different monster when it comes to new companies coming into a geographical area and breaking new ground. Once a location gets saturated, there may not be any more land available for development. EOP is in a relatively good position as far as the competition is concerned. The total capitalization of EOP is approximately $25 billion and they manage 124.1 million square feet of office space in 721 buildings in metropolitan areas all across the United States. …


We examined how students" motivation differed when they participated in three different types of mind mapping activities: one activity that was completed individually outside of class time, one that was completed individually in class with the instructor available for help, and one that was completed in class with other students and the instructor available for help. Using the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation (Jones, 2009) as a framework, we implemented a concurrent mixed methods design using identical samples whereby the quantitative component was dominant over the qualitative component. Participants included 40 undergraduate students enrolled in an educational psychology course at a U.S. university. After each of the mind mapping activities, study participants completed questionnaires that included open- and closed-ended items. Although the three activities had similar effects on students" motivation-related beliefs, some differences were documented in their preferences of mind mapping activities. Instructional implications are provided.


Studies of basal archosaur phylogeny since 1975 were reviewed to assess directly opposing views on the (dis) agreement reached as a result of adopting cladistic methodology. The transition to modern numerical cladistic analyses has been long, including two principal stages: with listing of derived characters as node support eventually replaced by explicit data and methodology presentation. All four existing explicit numerical studies are reanalysed, and a semi-strict reduced cladistic consensus is constructed for them and compared with earlier 'cladistic' studies where data was not presented. The two principal steps to modern numerical analyses have been accompanied by an increase in the agreement between separate hypotheses, and there exists substantial current consensus on the resolution of many pre-cladistically vague relationships. However, Bremer support values calculated for the four numerical studies indicate that the strength of hypothesised clades is generally low to minimal. Because a previous review (Charig 1993) included many non-cladistic studies, using its failure to find consensus as a basis for broader criticisms of cladistic methods is considered unjustified. However, some of Charig's (1993) criticisms of current practises are endorsed. Reproducibility of results, greater methodological awareness, and more rigorous assessment of hypothesis robustness are identified as additional issues requiring consideration in future studies.


Three long sediment cores (BDP-98 – 600 m, BDP-96 – 200 m and BDP-93 – 100 m) drilled in Lake Baikal (Siberia) have been studied with the aims of establishing an absolute chronology and reconstructing paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental changes in the region. The location of the lake at relatively high latitude and continental interior and a thick continuous sedimentary archive that developed in a rift system tectonic setting provide unique material for this investigation. The cosmogenic isotope 10Be was used for dating and the results indicate time spans of 8 (+0.8\-0.6) Myr for BDP-98, 5.5 (±0.13) Myr for BDP-96 and >0.7 Myr for BDP-93. Two major sedimentary facies (deltaic and hemipelagic) are distinguished by textural geochemical and mineralogical data. Detrital mineral composition suggests negligible change in provenance during the period studied. Formation of authigenic minerals, such as framboidal pyrite, vivianite and siderite, reflects variable environmental conditions in the lake and climate change in the region. Biogenic silica content shows climatic influence, which is modified by the supply of detrital material and postdepositional alterations. 10Be dating, combined with lithological analysis of the sediments, makes it possible to place temporal constrains on climate cooling at the Miocene/Pliocene boundary (5 Myr ago) and at the Early/Late Pliocene boundary (3.6 Myr ago) as well as the beginning of the northern hemisphere glaciation at about 2.5–2.6 Myr ago. The regional east-west tectonic extension of south-east Asia, related to Tibetan Plateau uplift, was confined in the Baikal area to between about 7 and 5 Myr ago, with a rifting rate calculated at 7 mm year-1. Furthermore, the 10Be data suggest that geomagnetic field intensity strengthened around the Miocene/Pliocene boundary.


This chapter explains how such data, when combined, can give a comprehensive overview of the transcriptome of the malaria parasite throughout its life cycle. These data are expected to lead to the identification of key Plasmodium-specific regulatory targets, a fundamental step for the development of new antimalarials. Gene expression throughout the cell cycle is usually regulated by complex interactions between DNA regulatory motifs and transcription factors that bind to these motifs, as well as regulation by distinct chromatin structures. Parasite isolates possess a high degree of diversity within their var genes because of duplications, deletions, or recombination events that provide the parasite with a huge repertoire of antigenic determinants. Before the complete release of the Plasmodium falciparum genome sequence, several genomic efforts were accomplished to investigate the transcriptome of the malaria parasite. The first large-scale expression study of P. falciparum was accomplished with a DNA microarray platform constructed using a nuclease-generated genomic library. With the completion of the P. falciparum genome, two transcriptional analyses covering the entire genome were published. Both techniques allow effective and complete genome design. The 70-mer oligonucleotide array study was confined to a high-resolution analysis of the erythrocytic cell cycle. Gene expression in parasitic protozoa has shown itself to be unique when it comes to mechanisms of regulation. For instance, Leishmania and other members of the Trypanosomatidae have polycistronic transcription with maturation of their mRNA by transplicing events.


It is not surprising that conflict and crisis are often seen as the dominant features moving across the across the socio-political landscape in the African Great Lakes. As a result, many areas of life are analysed in its shadow – politics, economics, cultural norms, and, most pertinent for this paper, mobility. Here, we propose a framework that examines the extent to which crisis and conflict overlay, contravene, and inform mobility in the African Great Lakes; and that tentatively explores these underlying mobility dynamics, which might be expected to remain when conflict and crisis subside.
The framework draws from sociological theories of 'normal' life and agency to examine mobility by looking along three analytical dimensions: aspirations, norms, and practices. It is then tentatively applied to analyse migration associated with three underlying social processes that continue within the Great Lakes: migration relating to education, urbanisation, and family formation. The paper concludes with a reflection upon the challenges of applying this framework for empirical research in the Great Lakes region. We argue that adopting a life-course approach that views movement related to 'key, transitional events' during the span of a person's life may be particularly suited to operationalising this framework.


Deep convolutional neural networks have emerged as the state of the art for predicting single-unit responses in a number of visual areas. While such models outperform classical linear-nonlinear and wavelet-based feature representations, we currently do not know what additional nonlinear computations they approximate. Divisive normalization (DN) has been suggested as one such nonlinear, canonical cortical computation, which has been found to be crucial for explaining nonlinear responses to combinations of simple stimuli such as gratings. However, it has neither been tested rigorously for its ability to account for spiking responses to natural images nor do we know to what extent it can close the gap to high-performing black-box models. Here, we developed an end-to-end trainable model of DN that learns the pool of normalizing neurons and the magnitude of their contribution directly from the data. We used this model to investigate DN in monkey primary visual cortex (V1) under stimulation with natural images. We found that this model outperformed linear-nonlinear and wavelet-based feature representations and came close to the performance of deep neural networks. Surprisingly, within the classical receptive field, oriented features were normalized preferentially by features with similar orientation preference rather than non-specifically as assumed by current models of DN. Thus, our work provides a new, quantitative and interpretable predictive model of V1 applicable to arbitrary images and refines our view on the mechanisms of gain control within the classical receptive field.


The observation that performance in many visual tasks can be made independent of eccentricity by increasing the size of peripheral stimuli according to the cortical magnification factor has dominated studies of peripheral vision for many years. However, it has become evident that the cortical magnification factor cannot be successfully applied to all tasks. To find out why, several tasks were studied using spatial scaling, a method which requires no pre-determined scaling factors (such as those predicted from cortical magnification) to magnify the stimulus at any eccentricity. Instead, thresholds are measured at the fovea and in the periphery using a series of stimuli, all of which are simply magnified versions of one another. Analysis of the data obtained in this way reveals the value of the parameter E2, the eccentricity at which foveal stimulus size must double in order to maintain performance equivalent to that at the fovea. The tasks investigated include hyperacuities (vernier acuity, bisection acuity, spatial interval discrimination, referenced displacement detection, and orientation discrimination), unreferenced instantaneous and gradual movement, flicker sensitivity, and face discrimination. In all cases tasks obeyed the principle of spatial scaling since performance in the periphery could be equated to that at the fovea by appropriate magnification. However, E2 values found for different spatial tasks varied over a 200-fold range. In spatial tasks (e.g. bisection acuity and spatial interval discrimination) E2 values were low, reaching about 0.075 deg, whereas in movement tasks the values could be as high as 16 deg. Using a method of spatial scaling it has been possible to equate foveal and peripheral perfonnance in many diverse visual tasks. The rate at which peripheral stimulus size had to be increased as a function of eccentricity was dependent upon the stimulus conditions and the task itself. Possible reasons for these findings are discussed.