The importance of evaluating the usability of e-commerce websites is well
recognised and this area has attracted research attention for more than a decade.
Nearly all the studies that evaluated the usability of e-commerce websites
employed either user-based (i.e. user testing) or evaluator-based (i.e. heuristic
evaluation) usability evaluation methods; but no research has employed softwarebased
(i.e. Google Analytics software) in the evaluation of such sites. Furthermore,
the studies which employed user testing and/or heuristic evaluation methods in the
evaluation of the usability of e-commerce websites did not offer detail about the
benefits and drawbacks of these methods with respect to the identification of
specific types of usability problems.
This research developed a methodological framework for the usability
evaluation of e-commerce websites which involved user testing and heuristic
evaluation methods together with Google Analytics software. The framework was
developed by comparing the benefits and drawbacks of these methods in terms of
the specific areas of usability problems that they could or could not identify on ecommerce
websites.
The framework involves Google Analytics software as a preliminary step to
provide a quick, easy and cheap indication of general potential usability problem
areas on an e-commerce website and its specific pages. Then, the framework
enables evaluators to choose other methods to provide in-depth detail about specific
iv
problems on the site. For instance, the framework suggests that user testing is good
for identifying specific major usability problems related to four areas: navigation,
design, the purchasing process and accessibility and customer service, while the
heuristic evaluation is good for identifying a large number of specific minor
usability problems related to eight areas including: navigation, internal search, the
site architecture, the content, the design, accessibility and customer service,
inconsistency and missing capabilities. The framework also suggests that the
heuristic evaluation is good at identifying major security and privacy problems.
The framework was developed based on an extensive evaluation of the
effectiveness of the three methods in identifying specific usability problems in three
case studies (e-commerce websites) in Jordan. This highlighted the usefulness of the
methods and therefore helps e-commerce retailers to determine the usability method
that best matches their needs.
The framework was tested and the results indicated the usefulness of the
suggested framework in raising awareness of usability and usability evaluation
methods among e-commerce retailers in Jordan. This will help them address
usability in the design of their websites, thus helping them to survive, grow and
achieve success.


Helicases catalyze unwinding of double stranded nucleic acids in an energy-dependent manner. We have reported characterization of UvrD helicase from Plasmodium falciparum. We reported that the N-terminal and C-terminal fragments of PfUvrD contain characteristic ATPase and DNA helicase activities. Here we report the generation and characterization of a genetically engineered version of PfUvrD and its derivatives. This synthetic UvrD (sUD) contains all the conserved domains of PfUvrD but only the intervening linker sequences are shortened. sUD (∼45 kDa) and one of its smallest derivative sUDN1N2 (∼22 kDa) contain ATPase and DNA helicase activities. sUD and sUDN1N2 can utilize hydrolysis of all the NTPs and dNTPs, can also unwind blunt end duplex DNA substrate and unwind DNA duplex in 3 to 5 direction only. Some of the properties of sUD are similar to the PfUvrD helicase. Mutagenesis in the conserved motif Ia indicate that the mutants sUDM and sUDN1N2M lose all the enzyme activities, which further confirms that these activities are intrinsic to the synthesized proteins. These studies show that for helicase activity only the conserved domains are essentially required and intervening sequences have almost no role. These observations will aid in understanding the unwinding mechanism by a helicase.


Background and Purpose: Experience and clinical competence are the important factors affecting the level of dignity and respect for nurses. This study aimed to evaluate the observance rate of respect for nurses from physicians, colleagues, patients and their family members. Methods: This study was conducted on 200 nurses selected by census sampling from hospitals of Sanandaj, Kurdistan, Iran in 2014. Data collection was performed using self-report questionnaires with 15 questions on different variables, such as respect, communication, capability and independence. Validity and reliability of the questionnaires was determined by subjects and expert comments, and using Spearman's correlation coefficient (r=0.80). Data analysis was performed using SPSS V.20. Results:Significant differences were observed between the viewpoints of experienced and inexperienced nurses regarding independence, self-confidence for consultation with physicians (P<0.04), communication with physicians (P<0.03), capability and sufficient skills (P<0.04), respect by physicians (P<0.04), and physicians' and colleagues' trust (P<0.001, P<0.003) in their capabilities. However, no statistically significant difference was observed in the comparison of the observance rate for dignity from patients and their family members in the viewpoint of the subjects. Conclusion: The highest levels of violation to the dignity of nurses came from physicians, while the lowest level was from patients and their family members. This study could be used for the promotion of dignity and respect among the nursing community.


At present, we know of ~600,000 asteroids in the asteroid belt, and there are very likely millions more. Orbiting the Sun between Mars and Jupiter, they are thought to be the shattered remnants of small bodies formed within the young Sun's solar nebula that never accreted enough material to become planets. These "minor bodies" are therefore keys to understanding how the Solar System formed and evolved. As leftover planetary building blocks, they are of great importance in understanding planetary compositions. They may also provide clues to the origin of life, as similar bodies may have delivered organics and water to the early Earth. For these reasons, several international space agencies have funded sample-return missions to asteroids.


John Howard Schutz's milestone analysis of Paul's authority shaped a generation of thought about Paul. This insightful work continues to be relevant to Pauline scholarship. The New Testament Library offers authoritative commentary on every book and major aspect of the New Testament, as well as classic volumes of scholarship. The commentaries in this series provide fresh translations based on the best available ancient manuscripts, offer critical portrayals of the historical world in which the books were created, pay careful attention to their literary design, and present a theologically perceptive exposition of the text.


The current study tracked 80 participants who spent an average of six hours per week in Second Life over six consecutive weeks. Objective measures of movement and chat were automatically collected in real time when participants logged in to Second Life. Data regarding the number of groups and friends was self-reported through online questionnaires on a weekly basis. Results demonstrated that although the social networks of users continued to broaden over the course of the study, users became less inclined to explore regions, decreased their use of high-energy actions such as flying or running, and chatted less. We discuss implications for theories of virtual social interaction as well as the use of Second Life as a social science research platform.


Demand for Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) is on the increase, with a huge surge of interest in mobile communications in recent years and high-paced advancements in the supporting system architectures, devices and applications. This thoroughly revised and updated book provides a comprehensive guide to the MSS technologies and emerging trends. It takes a system level approach, giving in-depth treatment of technical and business related issues. The author, a leading professional in the area, draws on his extensive experience in industry and research, to provide the reader with a sound and informed understanding of the technology. Mobile Satellite Communications includes introductory material for the reader new to the field, in addition to exploring prevalent system concepts, architecture, practices and trends for the more experienced. An in-depth review of scientific principles merged with business models and regulatory considerations presents a balanced perspective of commercial mobile satellite systems. This book will be of interest to practicing engineers in mobile satellite communications and mobile broadcasting, research and development professionals working in these areas, mobile satellite service providers and operators. Academics and students studying satellite systems/technology, specialists in other classes of satellite systems, technical and marketing managers, strategists and planners of telecommunication systems: individuals interested in mobile communications, satellite and telecommunications/broadcasting technology will also find this book insightful. Key Features:Comprehensive treatment of mobile satellite communications topics, including radio link aspects, satellite constellations, architectural and operational aspects, as well as business planning models, MSS radio interface standards, spectrum forecast methodologies and system examples. Addresses related themes such as mobile broadcasting, mobile VSATs, search and rescue, and navigation systems. Introduces emerging technologies such as mobile broadband, television broadcasting to handheld units, advanced capacity enhancement techniques, hybrid system architecture concepts, including a rich sample of research topics such as multiple input multiple output, satellite-based ad-hoc networks, and highlights initiatives in the use of Q/V frequency bands. Includes revision questions at the end of each chapter. An accompanying website for interaction (www.satellitesandyou.com).


Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) is a common treatment for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) who are awaiting liver transplantation (LT). The aim of this study was to assess the impact of multiple TACE treatments on tumor necrosis, tumor recurrence, and survival in these patients. A retrospective analysis was performed for 104 consecutive patients undergoing LT for HCC from January 2002 to December 2009 who were treated with TACE before LT. The number of TACE treatments was not associated with tumor necrosis in the explant. After a median follow‐up of 69 months (range = 0‐123 months), 14 of the 104 patients (13%) developed recurrent HCC after LT. Recurrence had a significant relationship with a short interval between the diagnosis of HCC and LT (≤6 months) in univariate and multivariate analyses [P = 0.029, odds ratio (OR) = 19.2]. Patients subjected to a single TACE treatment were more likely to experience recurrence, although this finding was not confirmed in the multivariate analysis. No significant relationship was observed between tumor necrosis in the explant and recurrence. The mean overall survival was 102.8 months (95% confidence interval = 94.9‐110.8 months) with 1‐, 3‐, and 5‐year survival rates of 91%, 89%, and 84% respectively. In the univariate survival analysis, the presence of ascites before TACE, a waiting time ≤ 9 months, and tumor characteristics at the pathological examination were statistically associated with shorter survival. In the multivariate analysis, only vascular invasion (P < 0.001, OR = 7.99) remained independently associated with shorter survival. The number of TACE treatments was not associated with survival. In conclusion, multiple TACE treatments were not associated with a higher risk of recurrence or shorter survival. Continued use of TACE should be considered as indicated if the patient and lesions are suitable for retreatment. A shorter waiting time before LT is related to an increased risk of recurrence and decreased survival after LT for HCC. These data could reflect the presence of more aggressive tumor biology and may be useful for guiding organ allocation policy to consider a minimum observation period before LT for regions with shorter wait times. Liver Transpl 21:248‐257, 2015. © 2014 AASLD.


BACKGROUND
Research in the last decade has shown changing exposure patterns to discretionary fluorides and declining prevalence of fluorosis among South Australian children, raising the question of how risk factors for fluorosis have changed.

OBJECTIVE
To examine and compare risk factors for fluorosis among representative samples of South Australian children in 1992/1993 and 2002/2003.

METHODS
Similar sampling strategies and data collection methods were employed in the Child Fluoride Study (CFS) Marks 1 (1992/1993) and 2 (2002/2003). Participants in each CFS round were examined for fluorosis using the Thylstrup and Fejerskov (TF) Index. Exposure history was collected for fluoride in water, toothpaste, fluoride supplements and infant formula, allowing for a fluorosis risk assessment analysis. Data were re-weighted to represent the child population at each time. Changes in prevalence of fluorosis, defined as having a TF score of 1+ on maxillary central incisors, fluoride exposure and risk factors between the two rounds were evaluated.

RESULT
A total of 375 and 677 children participated in the 1992/1993 and 2002/2003 rounds respectively. Prevalence of fluorosis declined significantly from 45.3% to 25.9%. Reduced use of fluoride supplements and increased use of 400-550-ppm children F toothpaste were the most substantial fluoride exposure changes. Early toothpaste use, residence in fluoridated areas and fluoride supplement use were the risk factors in 1992/1993. Early toothpaste use and fluoride supplement use were not risk factors, leaving fluoridated water as the only risk factor among the common variables in 2002/2003. In an analysis stratified by the type of fluoridated toothpaste in 2002/2003, the large amount of toothpaste used was a risk factor in those who used 1000-ppm fluoridated toothpaste, and eating/licking toothpaste when toothpaste use started was a risk factor among children who used either 1000-ppm or 400-550-ppm fluoridated toothpaste.

CONCLUSION
Introduction of the 400-550-ppm F toothpaste and use of smaller amount of toothpaste restricted risk associated with early toothpaste use. Less use and possibly a stricter fluoride supplements regimen also restricted fluorosis risk. Periodic monitoring of risk of fluorosis is required to adjust guidelines for fluoride use in caries prevention.


From the late 1860s until her death in 1910, Rebecca Harding Davis was one of the best-known writers in America. She broke into print as a young woman in the 1860s with "Life in the Iron Mills," which established her as one of the pioneers of American realism. She developed a literary theory of the "commonplace" nearly two decades before William Dean Howels shaped his own version of the concept. Yet, in spite of her importance to the literary and popular culture of her time, she has been, for the most part, ignored by scholars. Rebecca Harding Davis and American Realism helps to change that.


Phylogenies or evolutionary trees for a given family of species show the evolutionary relationships between these species. The leaves denote the given species, the internal nodes denote their common ancestors and the edges denote the genetic relationships. Species can be identified by their whole genomes and the evolutionary relations between species can be measured by the number of rearrangement events (i.e. mutations) that transform one genome into another. One approach to infer phylogeny from genomic data is by solving median genome problems for three genomes, or the genome rearrangement problem for pairs of genomes, while trying to minimize the total evolutionary distance among the given species. In this thesis, we have developed and implemented two search based algorithms for phylogeny reconstruction problem based on solving median genome problems for circular genomes of the same length without gene duplication. In order to show applicability and effectiveness of our algorithms, we have tested them with randomly generated instances and two real data sets: mitochondrial genomes of Metazoa and chloroplast genomes of Campanulaceae.


In this work we present an alternative to the use of PEDOT:PSS as hole transport and electron blocking layer in organic photodetectors processed by solution. As PEDOT:PSS is known to be sensitive to humidity, oxygen and UV, removing this layer is essential for lifetime improvements. As a first step to achieving this goal, we need to find an alternative layer that fulfills the same role in order to obtain a working diode with similar or better performance. As a replacement, a layer of Poly((4,8-bis-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-benzo(1,2-b:4,5-b)dithiophene)-2,6-diyl-alt-(4-(2-ethylhexanoyl)-thieno(3,4-b]thiophene-)-2-6-diyl)) (PBDTTT-c) p-doped with the dopant tris-(1-(trifluoroethanoyl)-2-(trifluoromethyl)ethane-1,2-dithiolene) (Mo(tfd-COCF3)3) is used. This p-doped layer effectively lowers the hole injection barrier, and the low electron affinity of the polymer prevents the injection of electrons in the active layer. We show similar device performance under light and the improvements of detection performance with the doped layer in comparison with PEDOT:PSS, leading to a detectivity of 1.9x1E13 cm(Hz)1/2(W)-1, competitive with silicon diodes used in imaging applications. Moreover, contrary to PEDOT:PSS, no localization of the p-doped layer is needed, leading to a diode active area defined by the patterned electrodes.


AIM
to obtain profile of food and nutrient intake in Indonesian elderly population and factors associated with energy intake.

METHODS
multi-center cross sectional study in 13 hospitals across Indonesia was conducted among 387 elderly who had attended geriatric clinics. Data collected including demographic characteristics, functional status, cognitive status, mental status, nutritional status, food intake, present activities, and data on chronic diseases. Chi square and logistic regression tests were performed to analyze the data.

RESULTS
most of subjects (58.4%) were women and had educational background senior high school or higher degree (61.1%). The average of energy intake was 1266.74 (336.51) kilocalories. Calcium and protein intake were below the recommended of dietary allowance. female sex (OR 0.23; 95% CI 0.139-0.390) and osteoporotic subjects (OR 0.48; 95% CI 0.25-0.93) have lower risk for having <80% RDA daily energy intake, while lower educational level (OR 1.96; 95% CI 1.21-3.18) has higher risk for having <80% RDA daily energy intake.

CONCLUSION
total energy intake were inadequate in the elderly. Female sex and osteoporotic subjects have lower risk for having <80% RDA daily energy intake, while lower educational level has higher risk for having <80% RDA daily energy intake.


We study a two-sector economy with investments in human and physical capital and imperfect labor markets. Human and physical capital are heterogeneous. Workers and firms endogenously select the sector they are active in, and choose the amount of their sector-specific investments in human and physical capital. To enter the high-skill sector, workers must pay a fixed cost that we interpret as direct cost of education. Given the distribution of the agents across sectors, at equilibrium, in each sector there is underinvestment in both human and physical capital, due to non-contractibility of investments. A second source of inefficiency is related to the self-selection of the agents into the two sectors. It typically induces too many workers to invest in education. Under suitable restrictions on the parameters, the joint effect of the two distortions is that equilibria are characterized by too many people investing too little effort in the high skill sector. We also analyze the welfare properties of equilibria and study the effects of several tax-subsidy policies on the total expected surplus.


HIGHLIGHTS Energy poverty affects many Indians and is an important issue for the Indian government. The number of households with access to electricity has risen over the past couple of decades, but access is still far from universal and the availability of modern cooking fuels and technologies is still limited, especially in rural areas. We use an energy development index, based on access to electricity and cleaner cooking fuels and on overall electricity generation per capita, to emphasise the disparity in energy poverty across India and relative to other developing countries. There are still some 412 million people without access to electricity in India. In all three WEO scenarios, the number of people without access declines, but it falls much faster in the High Growth Scenario. In that scenario, all households in India have access to electricity in 2030. In the Reference Scenario, the electrification rate in 2030 in India is 96% but nearly 60 million people in rural areas will still lack access. At an investment cost of $41 per person, it would cost some $17 billion to connect all those without electricity today to the central grid. But grid-based electrification is often not available to remote villages and households, because of the high cost of expanding the network. Diesel generators, mini-hydro, wind turbines, biomass gasifiers and photovoltaics, or a combination of these, could be more economic. The number of people relying on fuelwood and dung for cooking and heating declines from 668 million in 2005 to 395 million in 2030 in the High Growth Scenario, 77 million fewer people than in the Reference Scenario. About 22% of the population would still rely on these fuels in India in 2030, even with higher growth. According to the World Health Organization, the use of fuelwood and dung for cooking and heating causes over 400 000 premature deaths in India annually, mostly women and children. The concentration of particulate matter in the air in Indian households using biomass is over 2 000 microgrammes per cubic metre, compared to the US standard of 150. LPG and kerosene subsidies have been very ineffective in improving the welfare of the poor, particularly in rural areas. The current subsidy scheme benefits most richer households, mainly in urban areas, and has, for the most part, failed to shift fuel consumption patterns away from biomass in poor households. It is estimated that 40% of the subsidies for …


This paper describes a pilot project of an educational workshop designed to engage nursing preceptors and their senior undergraduate students in an evidence-based approach to practice. The educational process, content, and teaching-learning strategies are outlined, and the evaluation is discussed. The paper concludes with recommendations for the formal implementation of the workshop as an educational offering.

Today's baccalaureate nursing programmes emphasise critical thinking in academic and professional practice courses, with a view to improving the quality of a student's thinking "by skilfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them."1 It is within the context of critical thinking that students learn the fundamentals of health sciences research and develop a beginning understanding of evidence-based practice (EBP). Professional practice courses provide excellent clinical opportunities for students to use their theoretical knowledge in the application of EBP principles and processes, under the guidance and supervision of clinical teachers.

With the ever increasing use of preceptorship as the major teaching-learning model for senior professional practice courses, the clinical teacher is often a Registered Nurse (RN) who provides direct care. Preceptorship utilises a framework whereby a senior nursing student is assigned to an experienced RN (known as a preceptor) employed by a healthcare agency and to a faculty tutor for the duration of the course. By working with the preceptor in day-to-day practice, the student gains invaluable "real life" professional experience in "real time." The faculty tutor does not usually work with the preceptor-student dyad on a day-to-day basis but is linked to the preceptor and student via the course curriculum and the student's individualised learning goals. One of the implicit benefits of this educational approach is the reciprocal learning from which all parties benefit, as each gains understanding of the others' specific competencies and individual approaches …


The recent years have seen the emergence of a number of virtual worlds with various designs and purposes. Some have become very popular and have developed growing in-world economies. Real-world businesses are increasingly experimenting with doing virtual business there as well. In this paper, we present Avatar Business Value Analysis, a novel theoretical framework and a computational method and decision tool to help evaluate and strategically manage business value creation inside synthetic environments, and show how it can be applied to cost-benefit analysis in practical settings. The decision-tree-based method includes traffic metrics that may be used to empirically estimate the business value of virtual commerce ventures. We also investigate some intangible factors that are impacting these metrics in the context of the particular case of the virtual world Second Life and discuss their implications. We conclude by outlining strategies that could be considered by the operators of virtual worlds and the real corporations in order to promote sustainable virtual business in synthetic environments.


A novel approach to fabricate miniature structure having several layers of different forms of super high slenderness ratio micro channels by traditional micro manufacturing technologies is proposed and developed in this study. First of all, the micro straight slots array is fabricated by precision wire-EDM on the substrate. These micro slots are then filled with fine wax oil. After it is solidified the extra wax left on the top of the slots are shaved away. And then the precision electroforming process is carried out until a desired thickness of nickel is deposited on the top surface of micro slots. After this step the first layer is completed and ready for making the slots of any form on next layer if needed. The wax inside the work part is melted and cleaned by hot water. Finally, the super high slenderness ratio micro channels are obtained. Applying the proposed technology, micro channels with the slot width of 220 μm and slenderness ratio of 300 have been fabricated successfully. The surface roughness of the micro channel can be achieved on the basis of the machining method used. Comparing with LIGA, LIGA-like and etching processes, the developed technology in meso-scale structure applied is more flexible, requires less time and it is cost effective in fabricating micro channels. The micro channels have been widely applied in industrial products such as miniature oil spray (Samuel, et al., 2003), miniature oil atomizer (Alessandro, et al., 2005), miniature mixer (Rife, et al., 2000), miniature heat pipe (Berre, et al., 2003), miniature refrigerator (Narayanan, et al., 1999), micro-droplet spray (Sohn, et al., 2005), etc. There is a trend of increasing demand of high slenderness ratio micro channel in recent years (Fofonoff, et al., 2002), but its fabrication becomes more difficult by comparison. Nowadays, the micro channel with high aspect ratio is made by means of LIGA process, LIGA-like process (Chien, et al., 2006), laser micromachining (Oh, et al., 2006), etc. followed by the diffused bonding or the anodic bonding (Xue, et al., 2005). These fabrication processes are quite costly. Besides, some of the approaches are limited to certain specific materials. Also, the form and the length of micro channel may be restricted. The purpose of this paper is to propose a new approach of fabricating micro channels, in particular super high slenderness ratio micro channels which it can probably take the place of the fabrication method of the high aspect ratio partially. In the study, the technology is verified by meso-scale examples. But the same idea can be extend to the fabrication of micro even nano scale channels.


Early leaf removal is an innovative cultural practice for yield management in grapevines. The effects of timing (prebloom and fruit set) and method (manual or mechanical) of defoliation on yield components, Botrytis incidence, and wine sensory attributes of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tempranillo VSP-trained grapevines were examined over two consecutive seasons, 2007 and 2008. Yield per vine was severely reduced (15 to 50%) by manual and mechanical leaf removal at prebloom in the two years and smaller clusters with fewer berries were obtained. At fruit set, only mechanical defoliation was effective at modifying cluster weight, berry number, and yield per vine. Botrytis rot incidence was significantly reduced by early leaf removal in 2008, when an overall higher infection rate was linked to unusually high rainfall. Total leaf area was generally unaffected by early leaf removal. Prebloom defoliation exhibited full recovery of leaf:fruit ratios compared with nondefoliated vines, regardless of defoliation method. Descriptive analysis of the aroma attributes of the wines revealed lowered intensity of fruity, floral, and licorice in the defoliated samples in 2007. Intensity scores for these descriptors were positively correlated to yield and negatively correlated to total leaf area:yield ratio. When Botrytis rot was widespread, the extent of infection was negatively correlated to certain fruity and floral aromas and positively correlated to dried fruit character. Several factors linked to early defoliation, such as yield, Botrytis, and cluster exposure significantly contributed to final wine aroma properties. Principal component analysis illustrated the separation of wines from defoliated and nondefoliated treatments by aroma profile.


China has become the largest GHG emitting country, and announced in 2009 its first policy objective measured in carbon emissions. The carbon-intensity target is to reduce the carbon intensity by 40-45 % by 2020 compared to 200 levels. Since then there has been further policy developments in order to attain the reduction carbon intensity and steer China towards a low-carbon development. The 12th 5-year plan (2011-2015) is strong on incentives for reducing China's carbon intensity such as energy conservation measures and the establishment of new market-based mechanisms. While the central government forms the policies, the implementation is dependent on a range of actors. In addition to the climate change bureaucracy, the positive forces and actors on GHG mitigation is presented. All in all, there are promising developments in China for the years to come.


The currently available microprocessors can be grouped into three classes based on functional partitioning: (1) the multichip family, consisting of compatible CPU, memory, and I/O devices; (2) the single-chip CPU, designed for standard product memory and I/O devices; and (3) the multichip microprogrammable CPU, designed for standard product memory and I/O devices. The limitations and advantages of the first two categories are well understood, since products in this class have been available for over two years and have been the subject of an avalanche of microprocessor articles. The third category, however, has been available for less than a year, and until recently has only been available as a manufacturer-defined processor system (National Semiconductor's IMP series of microprocessors). However, the manufacturer-defined processor, while providing a desirable starting point for most users, has tended to obscure some of the design flexibility of the basic chip set. The decision by National Semiconductor to provide full support for development of custom configurations of its chip set, plus the fact that designs of architecturally similar chip sets have been carried out by several other semiconductor manufacturers (including AMI, Monolithic Memories, and Raytheon) warrants a review of the unique advantages and potential pitfalls of this architecture.


This ethnographic case study investigates the access refugee children have to
creative learning in a high school in Glasgow as well as the impact of social
capital on the scholarly development and inclusion of this group of children.
Research on refugee children in Scottish school settings has primarily
focused on provisions such as language support and well–being (e.g. Green,
2006; Hopkins & Hill, 2006; Netto & Fraser, 2009). However, there is hardly
any research that explores the actual learning processes and daily social
interactions of this group within schools (e.g. Dobson, McCulloch, & Sime,
2008; Frondigoun et al., 2007; Rolfe & Metcalf, 2009).
The present study addressed this research gap by conducting an
ethnographic case study using qualitative means including participant
observation, field notes, participants' photography, group discussions,
interviews, conversations and open-ended questionnaires. The collected data
was analysed by means of the analytical software NVivo™, research diaries,
and manual coding of field notes.
My findings demonstrated strong indicators for social capital and their
impact on positive learning experiences. The refugee pupils displayed strong
cultural competences; monolingual peers in contrast displayed selective
social competences depending on the relevance of a situation. The findings,
which were interpreted within a conceptual framework that was developed
as part of this research, showed the relevance of space in its physical and
metaphorical properties to create creative learning strategies. Although access
to these strategies was facilitated in all the three classroom spaces, the
English as Additional Language (EAL) Unit appeared to be the most
conducive environment. These findings highlight the niche position of the
EAL Unit as a non-mainstream space in school, which seemed to provide
6
more freedom for creating learning spaces, as a result of not having to adhere
to the curriculum framework (5–14 Curriculum, Curriculum for Excellence).


Abstract The genus Aerotegmina comprises a group of African canopy-dwelling, predatory bushcrickets (katydids) that is known for its inflated tegmina and the unusually loud and low-frequency calling song of its type species. Here, we describe the songs of another two species of the genus which are much larger than the type species and have an even lower peak frequency. In addition, small and large species differ in song structure. While the type species and closely related forms have a broad banded, multi-peak song with strong components in the audio and ultrasonic range, the species treated here have an extremely narrow banded, resonant song with a carrier frequency of 2 kHz. With Q-values above 100 these sounds belong to the purest songs ever recorded in Orthoptera. Besides describing songs, stridulatory organs and a new species we discuss the possible functions of the song type. A key to the species of Aerotegmina is provided.


Non alcoholic fatty liver disease is an extremely common and underrecognised disorder.The term encompasses a spectrum of histological abnormality ranging from simple steatosis, through NASH to cirrhosis. Insulin resistance is central to its pathogenesis and is the liver manifestation of the Metabolic Syndrome. The natural history and the risk factors for disease progression are incompletely understood but the severity of insulin resistance and having multiple components of the Metabolic Syndrome appears important.Understanding the pathogenesis is crutial as it provides possible targets for therapeutic intervention. Management of the other components of the Metabolic Syndrome such as weight, hypertension and insulin resistance is important and helps both that component and the liver problem A general, rather than an organ-specific, approach to treating NAFLD and its comorbidity is essential.


Some in the aspect-oriented community view a programming language as aspect-oriented only if it allows programmers to perfectly eliminate scattering and tangling. That is, languages that do not allow programmers to have maximal quantification and perfect obliviousness are not viewed as aspect-oriented. On the other hand, some detractors of aspect-oriented software development view maximal quantification and perfect obliviousness as causing problems, such as difficulties in reasoning or maintenance.
 Both views ignore good language design and engineering practice, which suggests trying to simultaneously optimize for several goals. That is, designers of aspect-oriented languages that are intended for wide use should be prepared to compromise quantification and obliviousness to some (small) extent, if doing so helps programmers solve other problems. Indeed, balancing competing requirements is an essential part of engineering. Simultaneously optimizing for several language design goals becomes possible when one views these goals, such as minimizing scattering and tangling, not as all-or-nothing predicates, but as measures on a continuous scale. Since most language design goals will only be partially met, it seems best to call them "concerns."


Abstract Manifestations of anaphylaxis may occur within seconds or minutes after exposure to a causative antigen. Almost any substance can be implicated as a potential precipitating agent. Reactions may be slow, progressive, or rapidly fatal within minutes. Any healthcare worker involved in the administration of medications or the care of patients, whether a doctor, dentist, nurse, paramedic or allied health professional, is ethically obliged to be able to appropriately manage the potential consequences of such an action -a life-threatening anaphylactic reaction.


Dogs have been living in close proximity to humans since the last Ice Age. Like their progenitor the grey wolf, dogs may respond with aggressive behaviour to certain stimuli. This is natural behaviour in the majority of cases. However, canine aggression can develop into a dangerous problem. There is individual variation in the tendency of dogs to display aggressive behaviour. This variation is the result of a complex system of interacting genes and environmental factors, which is poorly understood. We have studied the genetics of aggression in families of Golden Retriever dogs. Golden Retrievers are usually friendly pets. However, there are reports of very aggressive Golden Retrievers. A genetic background has been suggested for this aggression because the behaviour seems to occur more often in certain Golden Retriever families. The low genetic heterogeneity within dog breeds implies that only a limited number of the genes that influence a certain behavioural trait will be functionally polymorphic within a breed. This greatly facilitates the chances of finding such genes. We aimed to identify genetic variations underlying the variation in aggressive behaviour in Golden Retrievers. Correct phenotyping is the key to success of genetic studies. We initially phenotyped the dogs with a behavioural (aggression) test and a personal interview with the dog owner. It turned out to be difficult to elicit aggressive behaviour in the test. We therefore designed a mail questionnaire based on the canine behavioural assessment and research questionnaire (CBARQ; Hsu and Serpell 2003). Our results suggest that this questionnaire is a reliable and valid method for evaluating canine behavioural traits. We estimated heritabilities of several measures of aggression using the restricted maximum likelihood method. The measures of aggression were obtained either through owner opinions or by using the CBARQ. The aim of that study was to determine which of the aggression measures showed sufficient genetic variation to be useful as phenotypes for molecular genetic studies. The most reliable heritability estimates seemed to be those for simple dog owner impressions of human- and dog-directed aggression. In addition, several CBARQ derived measures showed clear genetic differences between the dogs. The heritability estimates were high, suggesting possible involvement of a major gene. Alterations in brain serotonin metabolism have been described in aggressive dogs. Therefore, four genes of the canine serotonergic system were cloned, characterised, and studied in Golden Retrievers. We evaluated the serotonin receptor genes 1A, 1B, and 2A and the serotonin transporter gene as candidates for aggression in Golden Retrievers. We performed mutation screens and an affecteds-only linkage analysis. We found no evidence for a major role of these candidate genes in aggressive behaviour in the families of Golden Retrievers. With the completion of the dog genome project, genome-wide linkage and association studies in dogs have become feasible. Such studies are currently in progress.


Climate drivers of Douglas-fir growth in the western United States Christina Marie Restaino Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Gregory J. Ettl School of Environmental and Forest Sciences Douglas-fir (Psuedotsuga menziesii) spans the entire mountain system of the western United States, successfully occupying many different climatic and ecological niches. Its occupation of many different growth environments, and its temporal persistence on the landscape, make this species an ideal representative of forest-climate interactions in western mountain ecosystems. To quantify climate-growth relationships in Douglas-fir, I developed a comprehensive network of chronologies collected across the "climate space" of the species. By sampling throughout climate space at the continental scale, I account for a large percentage of variability in growing environments for Douglas-fir. Data are summarized across six regions – Pacific Northwest, Northern Rockies, Central Rockies, Southern Rockies, California, and Southwest. Tree growth data were combined with data from the Variable Infiltration Capacity Hydrologic Model, which includes typical climate variables as well as "plant relevant" variables. Climate data include precipitation, temperature, potential evapotranspiration, actual evapotranspiration, and vapor pressure deficit. Climatic water deficit was calculated as actual evapotranspiration minus potential evapotranspiration. The relationship between tree growth and climate was analyzed at four spatial scales (plot, watershed, region, and continent) and three temporal scales (monthly, interannual, interdecadal). Results suggest that variability in growth is tightly coupled to both interannual and decadal climatic variability, with evident linkages to the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). Temperature exerts a top-down control on tree growth, regardless of the magnitude of precipitation. As air temperature increases, evaporative demand also increases, causing increased vapor pressure deficit and climatic water deficit (potential evapotranspiration minus actual evapotranspiration), altering the dynamics of water availability in forest ecosystems. Additional analyses focus on how large-scale climate teleconnections modify regional climate patterns that ultimately limit tree growth. Proximity to the dipole dictates the relative effect of ENSO events from region to region, and the strength and location of the dipole change when ENSO and PDO are in phase. ENSOand PDO-related changes in regional climate result in increased variability and extremes in tree growth. Changes in tree growth occur in phase with ENSO across all regions, but the strongest response is at the extreme ends of the dipole. The complex relationship between tree growth and climate documented in this study can provide parameters for growth models, inform climate-change adaptation plans, and project future growth in Douglas-fir forests.


Almost half of Indonesia's 238 million people live in urban areas, and most urban dwellers use on-site sanitation systems. Government policy recognizes the need for effective septage management systems but most existing septage treatment facilities are operating sub-optimally and less than 4 per cent of the faecal sludge generated is currently treated. This paper outlines the findings of field investigations of septage management in four cities undertaken by the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) as part of technical assistance to the Indonesian government. It summarizes the current faecal sludge management arrangements in the four cities, focusing particularly on the consequences of low demand for the financial viability of business models. Models based on 'on-demand' and scheduled tank desludging are explored in relation to their institutional and financial resource needs. The paper explores options for strengthening management systems and proposes an incremental approach to service improve...


In this report, it is argued that the most salient factor in the contemporary communicative landscape is the sheer abundance and diversity of possibilities for literacy, and that the extent and nature of students' communicative resources is a central issue in education. The text outlines the conceptual underpinnings of the Literacies for Learning in Further Education project in a social view of literacy, and the associated research design, methodology and analytical framework. It elaborates on the notion of the abundance of literacies in students' everyday lives, and on the potential for harnessing these as resources for the enhancement of learning. It provides case studies of changes in practice that have been undertaken by further education staff in order to draw upon students' everyday literacy practices on Travel and Tourism and Multimedia courses. It ends with some of the broad implications for conceptualising learning that arise from researching through the lens of literacy practices.


The reticular-activating hypofrontality model of acute exercise (RAH) predicts exercise-induced hypoactivity in frontal cortex which mediates executive function. Connors Continuous Performance Test (CCPT) was used to investigate changes in executive function during- and post treadmill running in healthy volunteers (n=30, 15 male). In a randomized order, subjects performed the CCPT at rest, during low- (LI; 63% maximal heart rate; MHR) and moderate intensity (MI; 75% MHR). Separately, subjects then performed isocalorifically matched exercise bouts of LI, MI and high intensity interval training (HIT) consisting of 4x4 min with 90% MHR and 3 min recovery at 60-70% MHR. Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed main effects of exercise intensity for reaction time RT during- (p≤0.001) and post exercise (p≤0.0001). Subsequent analyses showed an overall increase of RT during exercise compared to rest (p≤0.005). RT decreased significantly from rest to post exercise levels in an exercise intensity dependent, linear fashion (p≤0.0001). Commission errors showed a non significant linear trend to increase both during (p=0.057), and post exercise (p=0.052) as a function of intensity. In a follow up study, we sought to relate observed exercise effects to frontal cortex activity through the use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) (n=4) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Prior to TMS stimulation cortical excitability was estimated post running through motor-evoked potentials (MEP) elicited from the primary motor cortex (M1) induced by single burst TMS and measured in the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle using electromyography. At rest, inhibitory cathodal tDCS with left DLPFC cathode and right supraorbital anode led to improved reaction time and increased amount of commission errors, whereas anodal stimulatory tDCS in the immediate post exercise period was unable to recover the post exercise effect. Continuous theta burst stimulation over the left DLPFC post running further impaired inhibitory control and facilitated reaction time. Different findings during- and after- exercise suggests that potential contributing mechanisms such as computational and metabolic factors may be differentially active during these respective conditions. Furthermore, the fact that an inhibitory TMS protocol pronounced the post running effects even more and that we were able to mimic the reported RAH effects at rest with inhibitory frontal tDCS, but observed different patterns during exercise, suggests that the latter state cannot be fully explained by reducing activity in the left frontal cortex alone. Failure to modify the after exercise effect with stimulatory tDCS also supports an interplay of different factors and might emphasize the strong, robust effects of exercise that cannot simply be attenuated by current application. Increases in MEP post running for 35min paired with the observed performance decrements imply an excited state of M1 and might serve as an explanatory cross-link to central fatigue suggesting that a hypofrontal state might enhance the motor cortical drive to activate muscles.


Concern over increased childhood obesity has spurred various school-based interventions. However, these interventions often have little positive effect and may inadvertently contribute to unhealthy behaviours during weight loss attempts. Indeed, a general emphasis on appearance and weight (rather than health) can promote eating disordered behaviours. This book provides a conceptual model for understanding both obesity and eating disordered behaviours. Specifically, it advocates for body acceptance and intuitive eating - a flexible, healthy eating behaviour involving awareness of the body's hunger and satiety cues. Within this context, the chapters review evidence-based school interventions in nutrition, self-regulation, exercise, body acceptance, media literacy, and mindfulness. Guidance is also provided for identifying, referring, and supporting students with emerging eating disorders. Without empirically supported guidance, schools run the risk of implementing ineffective or harmful programming in an effort to do good. Thus, this book is a much needed resource for teachers, administrators, counsellors, nurses, and other school personnel.


This research has investigated the modelling and optimisation of the tilt casting process of Titanium Aluminides (TiAl). This study is carried out in parallel with the experimental research undertaken in IRC at the University of Birmingham. They propose to use tilt casting inside a vacuum chamber and attempt to combine this tilt casting process with Induction Skull Melting (ISM). A totally novel process is developing for investment casting, which is suitable for casting gamma TiAl.

As it is known, gamma TiAl alloys has great properties including low density, high specific yield strength, high specific stiffness, good oxidation resistance and good creep resistance at high temperature [Clemens -2000][Appel et at. -2000]. A worldwide research effort has been made to develop gamma TiAl because it can offer a great potential for reducing the weight of high performance components and also engine of power generation gas turbine. Titanium alloys are very reactive at molten condition, and so, they are melted in an ISM crucible in order to avoid crucible contamination. There is still a big challenge to produce a long blade, up to 40 cm, due to the low superheat provided by the Induction Skull Melting (ISM) furnace which is widely used to melt the alloys. Here computational simulation has been seen important to predict the casting defects and to help optimise the experimental process.

Computational modelling for the casting process involves a range of interactions of physical phenomena such as heat transfer, free surface fluid flow, solidification and so on. A number of free surface modelling techniques are applied to simulate the interface between the molten metal entering the mould in the filling phase, and the gas escaping.

The CFD code PHYSICA developed in the University of Greenwich is used to simulate the above physical phenomena and to simulate the fluid flow both within the rotating mould cavity/crucible assembly and in the porous mould wall (including vents).

Modelling the mould in a finite volume method is cumbersome, so an alternative 3D/1D coupled transient heat transfer model has been developed in this study. It is based on the fact that the mould filling for titanium aluminide (TiAl) is carried out during a few seconds and the thermal conductivity of the mould material is very low. Heat can be assumed to transfer mainly in a direction perpendicular to the mould wall ID. ID transient heat transfer model is governed by ID heat conduction equation in the mould part where the coordinates of each defined cell centre were calculated rather than meshing them. The coupling method between ID and 3D model is presented. The model is then validated using two simple geometries which describe two similar states in the mould filling as test cases. It has been applied to model short thin and long blades, especially to obtain accurate thermal boundaries. Comparisons with experiments have also been done. Across the presentation of the results, the factors affect the quality of the casting in the mould filling have been discussed.

This thesis also presents a novel Counter Diffusion Method which was developed with suggestions from my supervisors as a corrective mechanism to counter numerical diffusion. This is a novel method to discretise the free surface equation fully implicitly in a fast, efficient way without numerical diffusion. Validation of the novel method was undertaken against the classical collapsing column experiment. The results showed that they are in good agreement. Then the method has been used to model a long thin blade for TiAl. A huge reduction in computational time is seen when the geometry is complex and massive amount of mesh cells are generated. That greatly speeds up the simulations.

Solidification is modeled during the cooling which is following the filling stage. Gap formation between metal and mould is covered and the effects of the gap and gap size are presented by the application of model on a long twisted turbine blade.


Using unique Swedish register data on all employees in large private companies, we study trends in the gender composition of top wage employees from 1993 to 2007. The analyses reveal that the likelihood of women holding top wage positions has more than doubled since the early 1990s, but men are still markedly over-represented in this group of employees. We focus on educational choices, considering level and field of study as well as university attended. One important conclusion is that, although education is important in reaching a top wage position, field of education and university attended only marginally explain the gender gap. However, relative to other women, having a career signalling degree (i.e. economics, law or engineering) from a more prestigious university helps women. Dividing the sample into different cohorts indicates that the gender gap is partly a cohort effect, i.e. it is smaller among those born in the 1960s compared to cohorts born in the 1940s and 1950s. It should be noted that there is still a gender gap among employees born in the 1960s and that the gap widens after age 30. Future studies should focus more deeply on this family-related 'period of divergence'.


Many mathematical models for in vitro to in vivo prediction of drug-drug interactions (DDIs) of orally administered victim drugs have been developed. However, to date, none of these models have been applicable to all intravenously administered victim drugs. We derived and conducted a sensitivity/error analysis of a modification to the existing multiple mode interaction prediction model such that it is applicable to all intravenously administered victim drugs. Using this model we showed that ignoring the hepatic extraction ratio (EH) (as low as 0.3) of intravenously administered victim drugs can result in 1) substantial underestimation of fm, CYPi (the fraction of hepatic clearance of the victim drug via a given enzymatic pathway) and 2) error in dissecting the contribution of intestinal and hepatic components of DDIs for orally administered drugs. Using this model we describe DDI boundaries (degree of inhibition or induction) at which ignoring the EH of commonly used victim drugs results in ≥30% error in the predicted area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) ratio or contribution of intestinal interaction to a DDI (CYP3A probes only). For the most widely used victim drug midazolam, these boundaries for AUC ratio are net inhibition (I/Ki or λ/kdeg) ≥1.3 or fold induction ≥2.1; for intestinal contribution the boundaries are 0.37 and 1.5, respectively. To accurately predict the intravenous AUC ratio, intestinal contribution, or fm, CYPi 1) for all induction DDIs irrespective of EH of the victim drug and 2) for modest to potent inhibition DDIs even when the EH is moderate (≥0.3), we propose that our model be used.


There has been much debate on the question of rights in African
communitarian thinking. Some scholars have averred that duties are
prior to rights in African communitarian society, and that to prioritise
rights is foreign to the non-Western perspective. Yet, there are others
who argue that in non-Western societies rights are prior to duties. I
share this view. I present my position by arguing that economic rights
in African communitarianism affirms autonomy of the individual,
though the same rights are expressed through the ideas of consensus and
human well-being. In my argument I state that human well-being is well
expressed as a communal effort climaxed through consensus where all
these are premised on individual autonomy. By arguing in this way, I
respond to the accusation that says African philosophers who argue for
the priority of rights have failed to demonstrate how rights are considered
prior to duties in African societies.


Todays hodgepodge of privacy and data security standards creates greater compliance burdens for corporations, employers, public agencies, and legal advisers. PLI s Proskauer on Privacy: A Guide to Privacy and Data Security Law in the Information Age reduces those costly burdens. This comprehensive, one-stop reference covers the laws governing every area where data privacy and security is potentially at risk including government records, electronic surveillance, the workplace, medical data, financial information, commercial transactions, and online activity, including communications involving children. Proskauer on Privacy provides essential details on how to develop compliance programs that help your entity satisfy federal and state standards, ensure data privacy and security, prevent cybercrime, and help entities avoid fines, penalties, litigation, damages, and negative publicity. Proskauer on Privacy also examines Europe s rigorous privacy and data security standards, the laws in Canada, Australia, Japan, China, Hong Kong, India, Russia, and Dubai, as well as legal initiatives in California and other states. Updated at least at least once a year, Proskauer on Privacy: A Guide to Privacy and Data Security Law in the Information Age is vital reading for privacy and data security professionals and corporate attorneys, executives, managers, and human resource personnel, as well as for federal and state regulators.


The purpose of this paper is to explore a number of marketing issues, such as consumer buyer behaviour and distribution channels, in relation to buying halal meat (HM) from local shops versus supermarkets in the UK.Design/methodology/approach ? A consumer survey (300 participants) and observation of three local halal shops and a Morrisons supermarket were successfully undertaken in London, Brighton and Edinburgh. The majority of UK Muslims do not trust big supermarkets when buying HM. They will only trust a Muslim selling halal products in their local shops. Most respondents did not know that supermarkets in their local area sold HM.Research limitations/implications In order to increase the sales of HM ranges, supermarkets need to improve their marketing efforts, for example by advertising in Islamic newspapers, mosques and other relevant sources. Supermarkets need to stock other complementary halal products to get a mass response from this market segment, as well as enhancing/improving their services, for example, there should be sales people who are able to advise customers on particular halal products.Originality/value The study reveals that the majority of UK Muslims are at odds with most UK shoppers and increasingly prefer to shop at small shops, rather than big supermarkets. The paper helps to emphasise the major issues that frame the current state of marketing HM in the UK; contributes to a better understanding of such an important customer sector; and raises the necessary commitment to restructuring HM business activities in the UK and Europe.


Improvements in the accuracy of satellite telemetry locations now allow detailed studies on territorial behaviour or use of habitat that can be used to enhance bird conservation. In this paper we describe the behaviour of a satellite-tracked adult female osprey (Pandion haliaetus) in the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve (N Spain) to evaluate the suitability of this protected area for the species. The data set consisted of 10 complete days with a total of 145 exact fixes received. Night roosts were mainly surrounded by high or intermediate level protected land, separated from roads or buildings by more than 200 m and located less than one km away from the feeding area. During daylight hours, most fixes (76.5%) were located in wooded areas. We found that the bird selected holm oak woods and we suggest that this is related to low disturbance from human activity. We also suggest that northern Spanish estuaries are important as stopovers by migrating ospreys for feeding during migration.


Sediment oxygen and nutrient fluxes were measured monthly for 2 yr in Mobile Bay, Alabama, USA. Rates of sediment oxygen consumption (0.1 to 1.25 g o 2 n1r2 d.'), ammonium flux (-22 to 181 pm01 m-' h-'). nitrate flux (-14 to 67 pm01 rn L h-'), phosphate flux (-2 to 20.4 pm01 n r Z h-'), and dissolved silicate flux (-15 to 342 pm01 m-2 h') were moderate to high compared to values for other estuaries. A step-wise regression analysls revealed that dissolved oxygen concentration and temperature in bottom-waters explained much of the vanance in fluxes. This is presumably because of their influence on rates of microbial and physico-chemical processes. Organic matter availability was not found to be an important factor in regulating temporal (month to month) variability of fluxes, possibly because frequent resuspension of the sediments In t h ~ s hallow system rendered ind~ces of sediment organic matter nearly constant with time. However, warm season-averaged sediment nutrient releases were correlated with sediment chlorophyll a. This relationship in Mobile Bay is in strong agreement with similar relationships found in other estuarine systems, and suggests that the availability of labile organic matter ultimately regulates the maximum rate of nutrient release by the sediments. Annually averaged sediment fluxes supplied 36% of the nitrogen (N) and 25% of the phosphorus (P) required by phytoplankton in Mobile Bay. While this is not particularly high compared to other estuaries, monthly estimates show that the sediments can supply from 0 to 94 % of the N, and 0 to 83% of the P required by phytoplankton. In addition, flux ratios show that N and P are released from sediments at N:P ratios that rapidly switch from above (maximum 98) to below (minimum 1.2) that required for phytoplankton growth. This pattern is different from cooler temperate systems, where such sw~tching is seasonally based.


The Coalition government's plans for reform are meant to transform the NHS into a more privately run, competitive system, raising the question as to whether or not the NHS is likely to resemble the US capitalist healthcare industry. The US system will be examined for comparative purposes, followed by an analysis of how far earlier reforms under Conservative and New Labour governments have moved the NHS in that direction. The implications of the White Paper proposals are analysed to determine the degree to which the NHS is destined to become a commodity-producing industry. The tentative conclusion is that while secondary care will be similar in many ways to the US hospital industry, state funding remains a barrier to complete transformation, and what is likely to emerge is a hybrid system in which competition, consolidation, and pressure on the workforce all increase.


The U.S. system of public infrastructure has deteriorated badly over the past generation. The breaching of New Orleans' water levees in 2005 and the collapse of the I-35W bridge in Minneapolis in 2007 offered tragic testimony to this long-acknowledged reality. The project of rebuilding our infrastructure now needs to be embraced as a first-tier economic policy priority, and not simply to prevent repetitions of the disasters in New Orleans and Minneapolis. Infrastructure investments—particularly core economic infrastructure in t energy, transportation, and water and sewerage—are essential for the functioning of the U.S. economy. With the deterioration of economic conditions in recent months, public investment is back on the policy agenda, as a job-creation program linked to the need to revitalize the nation's crumbling infrastructure. In this report, Robert Pollin, James Heintz and Heidi Garrett-Peltier examine the employment impacts of an expanded infrastructure investment program and what it would take to create millions of jobs. They examine the long-run impacts of such a program on productivity and economic growth, and offer brief observations on U.S. competitiveness and environmental sustainability that emerge from the findings.


Abstract. Geological identification of tsunami deposits is important for tsunami hazard studies, especially in areas where the historical data set is limited or absent. Evidence left by historical tsunamis in the coastal sedimentary record of the Gulf of Corinth was investigated by trenching and coring in Kirra on the north coast and Aliki on the south coast. The Gulf of Corinth has a documented tsunami history dating back to the 4th century BC. Comparison of the historical records and the results of stratigraphical, sedimentological and foraminiferal analyses show that extreme coastal flooding events are detectable in the coastal sequences. The geological record from Kirra shows four sand layers deposited by high-energy marine flooding events. The deposits identified show many similarities with tsunami deposits described elsewhere. The lower sand deposit (layer 4) was radiocarbon dated to 3020–2820 BC. Assuming an average sedimentation rate of 2.6 cm (100 yr)−1, the ages of the other three sand layers were estimated by extrapolation to the time windows 1200–1000 BC, AD 500–600 and AD 1400–1500. There are no historical tsunamis which correlate with layers 2 and 3. However, layer 1 may represent the major AD 1402 tsunami. Sand dykes penetrating from layer 1 into the overlying silts suggest soil liquefaction during an earthquake event, possibly the 1 August 1870 one. At Aliki, no clear stratigraphical evidence of tsunami flooding was found, but results from foraminiferal and dating analyses show that a sand layer was deposited about 180 years ago from a marine flooding event. This layer may be associated with the historical tsunami of 23 August 1817, which caused widespread destruction in the Aegion area. The work presented here supports the idea that geological methods can be used to extend tsunami history far beyond the historical record. Although the tsunami database obtained will be incomplete and biased towards larger events, it will still be useful for extreme event statistical approaches.


In this paper, reconstructed local fission rates obtained with the two-group nodal diffusion program PRESTO-2, used at the Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant (KKL) in Switzerland, are compared with experimental results and MCNPX calculations. The experimental facility consists of a test zone, where the measurements are made, surrounded by a buffer zone and two driver zones that render the system critical and also contain the control rods. The test zone consists of a tank that contains a 3x3 array of BWR fuel assemblies of type SVEA-96+. Four cases are considered, all corresponding to a 1.23 m high active zone moderated with light water at room temperature: (1) axially uniform enrichment and gadolinium content, (2) like case 1 but with an L-shaped control blade completely inserted, (3) enrichment and gadolinium content change at the core midplane, and (4) like case 2 but with the control blade partially inserted. The comparisons give insight into the accuracy of the pin-power reconstruction methodology. The axially uniform case without control blade shows a good radial agreement and a well predicted axial curvature of the flux. On the other hand, systematic deviations are observed in the radial direction for the controlled cases, with the axial heterogeneities causing deviations around the discontinuity and also in the axial curvature of the flux. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4002823]


`The Incompetent, Barbarous Old Lady Round the Corner': The Image of the Backyard Abortionist in Pro-abortion Politics The image of the backyard abortionist has a powerful currency in the discourse of the contemporary pro-choice movement in Australia, and in popular representations of abortion. It is used regularly and reliably to conjure up the horrors for women of the provision of abortion services in the era before liberalisation of abortion laws in the late sixties/early seventies. Anti-abortionists are generally not interested in a history of abortion nor, for obvious reasons, in the finer points of present-day service provision. Consequently the image is not usually one that is publicly contested. The image was used frequently in the heated community, parliamentary and media debate about abortion that took place in South Australia during the late 1980s and early 1990s. At its zenith in 1989 the political conflict around abortion focused on the state government's plans to open a pregnancy advisory centre which would, among other things, provide abortion services. The period also saw two parliamentary attempts to limit abortion services, a furore over the showing of a graphic anti-abortion film to secondary school students in a rural town and attention to the US Supreme Court Webster decision on abortion. In their defence of abortion a range of prominent and well-credentialled pro-choice and feminist commentators and activists argued, among other things, that making abortion illegal would `turn the clock back' and return to a past of backyard abortions and their attendant dangers for women. I will refer more specifically to some of these commentators below. It is not only in the context of political debate that the image of the backyard abortionist is drawn upon. Hazel Hawke's publication of her autobiography which includes disclosure of her own illegal abortion in 1952(1) has launched a popular media interest in stories of backyard abortions. Although Hawke did not use the term `backyard(er),' and in fact describes the location of her abortion as `two city blocks from [her] office,' the coverage of the autobiography, titled `Hazel Hawke: I had an illegal abortion,' in Adelaide's Sunday Mail used a related (more British) term: `Mrs Hawke admitted she went to a back-street abortionist.' In a more recent popular media story on illegal abortion, the February 1995 issue of She magazine quotes pro-abortion activist and coordinator of the NSW Bessie Smyth Foundation, Helen Westwood. Arguing that the question is not whether abortion is right or wrong, Westwood says: `The choice is between whether a woman has access to safe, legal abortion or whether she is forced to have an illegal and possibly life-threatening backyard abortion by an unqualified practitioner.'(2) This use of the image of the backyard abortion performed by the unqualified backyard abortionist as the single sign which stands for the entire pre-law reform era is not unusual. One of the appeals of the image of the backyard abortionist to pro-choice and feminist campaigners of the last twenty-five years or more has been its ability to place the unjust suffering of women into public discourse.(3) Outrage at the suffering of women at the hands of backyard butchers fuels the passion of many a pro-abortion activist. Indeed, some older campaigners draw on their own traumatic personal experiences and those of family and friends. But the rhetorical use of the suffering of women in this context intersects far too readily with various moves by the medical and nursing professions to discredit and replace midwives and other local women's health practitioners (who provided a significant number of all abortions in this country before law reform). This shift involved, in particular, a move from home to hospital as the place for childbirth, and from community midwives who sometimes worked alongside doctors, to doctors and maternity nurses as appropriate birth attendants. …


In this thesis a conceptual design of an innovative high temperature reactor based on the fluidization principle (FLUBER) is proposed. The reactor should satisfy the following requirements: (a) modular and low power, (b)) large shutdown margin, (c) able to produce power when the bed of particles expands and stop as soon as the coolant flow is lost, (d) stable from the reactivity point of view, (e) resistant to inherent fluctuations in the fluidization regime, and (f) able to remove post-shutdown decay heat by passive means without compromising the safety margin. The research has been conducted in three parts. The first part is concerned with the static behavior of the reactor. The behavior of the reactor at low and high void fraction and with a nonuniform distribution of fuel particles is investigated. The subject of the second part is related to the behavior of the reactor as well as its stability under dynamic conditions. The study is performed by using a zero- and multi-dimensional dynamics model. The third part of this research deals with the decay heat removal in absence of a forced cooling system. Several different cases have been considered and the results of the calculations indicate that to a certain extent it is possible to remove the decay heat of the fluidized bed reactor by passive means. In conclusion, by tailoring the design of the fuel particles and the geometry of the reactor the proposed system can satisfy all of the predetermined requirements. By using specialized computational tools the dynamic behavior of the reactor can be well understood.


Correlations between unrelated personality traits in different contexts, often referred to as behavioural syndromes, have been found to exist among individuals. Behavioural syndromes have been documented in a wide variety of taxa and may arise due to correlated behaviours having a similar underlying genetic basis, so that they have become coupled (genetic constraint), or when one hormone acts on several traits (hormonal constraints) or if adaptations to existing selection pressure act simultaneously on multiple traits (adaptive constraints). We examined if there were correlations between boldness and aggression, which would be an indication of a behavioural syndrome in three strains of zebrafish and the guppy. There was some evidence of a boldness and aggression syndrome in only females of two of the zebrafish strains and in the male guppies. Given the limited correlation of these traits within the populations studied, this syndrome was probably due to adaptations to prevailing selection pressures rather than due to genetic constraints.


Studies of the pathophysiological effects of suspected compounds are conducted in rodent species, especially rats and mice, to determine the potential toxic effects of a particular compound. In the assessment of acrylamide (ACR) which is available as a dietary compound in daily food stuffs, the potential toxicity was determined following the method described earlier. In this study, Albino Wister rats were used and were observed for clinical abnormalities, changes in food consumption, a n d s ymp t oms o f toxicity over a period of two months following the oral administration of ACR. Among the parameters used to assess the effect of ACR were include ovarian histopathology, blood sugar, haemogram and lipid profile. The most notable clinical abnormalities observed in a few rats were a rough coat and decreased activity. None of the rats died or showedbehavioural change resulting from treatment with ACR. The concentration of serum biochemical parameters and haemogram showed significant differences between normal and treated rats. Histological examination of the ovaries of the treated rats showed great abnormalities as well. In fact, oral ACR doses are practically toxic with regard to rats after exposure for two months at a dose rate of 30 mg/kg, suggesting the compound is quite non-innocuous.


Examining the theological ethics of Jonathan Edwards, William Danaher Jr. shows that Edwards's doctrine of the Trinity both was foundational to Edwards's thought and is the necessary framework for understanding the theological and moral vision expressed in his writings. This Trinitarian interpretation identifies what distinctive contribution Edwards makes to contemporary Christian ethics, particularly concerning the nature of virtue, the will, sin, evil, and love. The Columbia Series in Reformed Theology represents a joint commitment by Columbia Theological Seminary and Westminster John Knox Press to provide theological resources from the Reformed tradition for the church today. This series examines theological and ethical issues that confront church and society in our own particular time and place.


How do probation inspectors describe their female clients and female offenders? Are there any discrepancies in treatment between male and female clients? In what way is the social interaction between female clients and inspectors constructed and described? These are the issues we have explored in this study. Qualitative semi-structured interviews with a total of nine probation inspectors; six women and three men, were used in order to examine the probation inspectors' constructions of clients and the construction of interaction between them. By applying Foucault's theory of power relations, Hirdman's gender theory and Olsson's theory of preconceptions when analyzing the results five themes were identified; descriptions of the work of the female client, descriptions of the interaction with the female client, descriptions of the female offender, descriptions of backgrounds why women commit crimes and descriptions of society's view on the female offender. The results of this study show that probation inspectors victimize the female offenders by referring to the impact of external circumstances. The interaction is described to be more difficult when working with female clients than with male clients; which is explained by the deeper and more complex problems of female clients. The interviews also indicate that female offenders in some ways are treated differently than male offenders by their probation inspectors. Conclusively we argue that the female offenders in a higher degree than male offenders violates to the social norms of how to act and behave.


It is estimated that about two-thirds of global coal is used for power generation and that, in the next 20 years, over 70% of the demand for coal will come from China and India. Coal accounts for approximately 41% of the world's electricity generation. Demand for thermal coal is influenced by factors that include availability, prices of competing products such as oil, gas and nuclear power, and the demand for electricity. The aim of this article is to provide an exposition of supply chain dynamics within the South African coal mining industry and to argue for a more efficient and collaborative supply chain. The authors attempt to investigate at local and global level, the current trends pertaining to the level of reserves, production and consumption of coal. The article further demonstrates the shortcomings of current logistics in meeting the demand for coal in both domestic and export markets. The article draws from secondary data sourced from academic papers, government and agency documents in the exposition of the coal mining supply chain. The paper concludes by recommending the need for a scientific study on supply chain constraints facing the coal mining industry in South Africa.


In Great Britain, 100,000 injuries due to slips, trips and falls on the level (as opposed to falls from a height, e.g. a ladder) occur in the workplace each year. They are the most common cause of non-fatal injury in the workplace, accounting for 30% of all those injuries reported to the Health and Safety Executive. Nearly 1 million working days are lost because of slips, trips and falls each year.

 To assess the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of 5-star, GRIP-rated, slip-resistant footwear in preventing slips in the workplace compared with usual footwear.

 A two-arm, multicentre, randomised controlled trial with an economic evaluation and qualitative study.

 Seven NHS trusts in England.

 NHS staff aged ≥ 18 years, working at least 22.5 hours per week in clinical, general or catering areas who owned a mobile phone. Staff required to wear protective footwear were excluded.

 Intervention participants were offered 5-star, GRIP-rated, slip-resistant footwear. The waiting list control group were asked to wear their usual work shoes for the duration of the study and were offered the trial footwear at the end of their participation.

 The primary outcome was the incidence rate of self-reported slips in the workplace over 14 weeks. Secondary outcomes included the incidence rate of falls either resulting from a slip or not resulting from a slip, proportion of participants reporting a slip, fall or fracture, time to first slip and fall, health-related quality of life and cost-effectiveness.

 A total of 4553 eligible NHS staff were randomised (2275 to the intervention arm and 2278 to the control arm). In total, 6743 slips were reported [2633 in the intervention group (mean 1.16 per participant, range 0–36 per participant) and 4110 in the control group (mean 1.80 per participant, range 0–83 per participant)]. There was a statistically significant reduction in the slip rate in the intervention group relative to the control group (incidence rate ratio 0.63, 95% confidence interval 0.57 to 0.70; p < 0.001). Statistically significant reductions were observed in falls from a slip (incidence rate ratio 0.51, 95% confidence interval 0.28 to 0.92; p = 0.03), the proportion of participants who reported a slip (odds ratio 0.58, 95% confidence interval 0.50 to 0.66; p < 0.001) or fall (odds ratio 0.73, 95% confidence interval 0.54 to 0.99; p = 0.04) and the time to first slip (hazard ratio 0.73, 95% confidence interval 0.67 to 0.80; p < 0.001). Half of the intervention participants wore the shoes all the time at work. Incremental cost per quality-adjusted life-year in the base case was £38,900 from the NHS perspective and –£60,400 (i.e. cost saving) from the societal perspective.

 This was an unblinded trial in which outcome data were participant self-reported, which may have led to inaccuracies in the reported slip data. Exposure to the trial footwear was lower than hoped.

 The offer and provision of 5-star, GRIP-rated footwear reduced slips in the workplace, was acceptable to participants and could be cost-effective.

 Replication of the study within other settings may be required to evaluate the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness in other environments settings, such as catering and factories.

 Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN33051393.

 This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme and will be published in full in Public Health Research; Vol. 9, No. 3. See the NIHR Public Journals Library website for further project information. The Health and Safety Executive provided some research costs.


The question about whether there is a distinctive public reaction when the Supreme Court decides constitutional issues — the question of judicial backlash — permeates our discussions of constitutional law, yet we have little to no empirical research about how people think about this issue. To answer this question, we conducted an experiment before the midterm congressional elections in the fall of 2010. We hypothesized that people respond to an institution based on whether the institution is seen as supporting or threatening their cultural worldview. Half of study subjects were assigned to a condition in which a constitutional right to gay marriage was protected and the other half were assigned to a condition in which a constitutional right to carry a concealed weapon was protected (with half of each of these subject populations being told the Court decided the issue and half being told that Congress did). Our results support the hypothesis that the cultural valence of the decision by the Court or Congress triggered the institutional choice of subjects. The Court does polarize underlying opinions on the constitutional issue and voting preferences more than Congress does. Our results suggest complications for efforts to decide constitutional issues in a manner appealing to all Americans. Our results also suggest that the Court and Congress might be able aggressively to decide constitutional issues because the public has no fixed sense of their respective institutional roles. We conclude by discussing what our results mean for interested communities outside of government, including social movements and constitutional theorists.


Background: Missing treatment effect estimates for particular outcomes in a study have the potential to affect the conclusions in a meta-analysis (MA), especially if missingness is a result of outcome reporting bias (ORB). ORB comes from the results-based selection for publication of a subset of the original measured outcome variables and can result in overestimating treatment effects, resulting in bias. As well as missing treatment effect estimates at the study level, outcome data may also be missing within studies at the individual participant level. Multivariate meta-analysis (MVMA) of individual participant data (IPD) has the potential to overcome the impact of both these problems, by utilising the correlation between outcomes. Methods: An assessment of ORB was carried out in a cohort of systematic reviews (SR) with a core set of outcomes investigating pharmacological treatments for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Novel IPD- MVMA methods to borrow strength across correlated outcomes were applied and evaluated through simulation, with the aim to show and quantify how this approach can reduce bias and improve precision of MA results, compared to traditional univariate methods, when there is missing outcome data as a result of both ORB and missing participant data. ORB assessments and the MVMA methods were applied to examples in RA. Results: Of the 167 assessable trials from 21 Cochrane RA reviews, 23% contained high suspicion of ORB in at least one of the core outcomes. Results from the simulations showed that the 'borrowing of strength' (BoS) in a multivariate model can reduce the magnitude of bias and increase precision in the pooled estimates. Results showed that when an ORB mechanism is introduced or there was missing IPD, MVMA tends to reduce the bias, increase the precision and improve the coverage when compared to a univariate analysis. In some instances, these benefits observed were also found in applying MVMA to the RA reviews. Conclusions: MVMA is not the solution to all missing data related problems within review meta- analyses, but, informed by this thesis, it can unquestionably be seen as a route to address missing outcome data in SRs. The BoS, reduction in bias and increase in precision can all be seen as promising.


Partha Chatterjee, a pioneering theorist known for his disciplinary range, builds on his theory of "political society" and reinforces its salience to contemporary political debate. Dexterously incorporating the concerns of South Asian studies, postcolonialism, the social sciences, and the humanities, Chatterjee broadly critiques the past three hundred years of western political theory to ask, Can democracy be brought into being, or even fought for, in the image of Western democracy as it exists today? Using the example of postcolonial societies and their political evolution, particularly communities within India, Chatterjee undermines the certainty of liberal democratic theory in favor of a realist view of its achievements and limitations. Rather than push an alternative theory, Chatterjee works solely within the realm of critique, proving political difference is not always evidence of philosophical and cultural backwardness outside of the West. Resisting all prejudices and preformed judgments, he deploys his trademark, genre-bending, provocative analysis to upend the assumptions of postcolonial studies, comparative history, and the common claims of contemporary politics.


Fork-decoupled search is a recent approach to classical planning that exploits fork structures, where a single center component provides preconditions for several leaf components. The decoupled states in this search consist of a center state, along with a price for every leaf state. Given this, when does one decoupled state dominate another? Such state-dominance criteria can be used to prune dominated search states. Prior work has devised only a trivial criterion. We devise several more powerful criteria, show that they preserve optimality, and establish their interrelations. We show that they can yield exponential reductions. Experiments on IPC benchmarks attest to the possible practical benefits.


Background The radical cure of Plasmodium vivax and P. ovale requires treatment with primaquine or tafenoquine to clear dormant liver stages. Either drug can induce haemolysis in individuals with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, necessitating screening. The reference diagnostic method for G6PD activity is ultraviolet (UV) spectrophotometry; however, a universal G6PD activity threshold above which these drugs can be safely administered is not yet defined. Our study aimed to quantify assay-based variation in G6PD spectrophotometry and to explore the diagnostic implications of applying a universal threshold. Methods and findings Individual-level data were pooled from studies that used G6PD spectrophotometry. Studies were identified via PubMed search (25 April 2018) and unpublished contributions from contacted authors (PROSPERO: CRD42019121414). Studies were excluded if they assessed only individuals with known haematological conditions, were family studies, or had insufficient details. Studies of malaria patients were included but analysed separately. Included studies were assessed for risk of bias using an adapted form of the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies-2 (QUADAS-2) tool. Repeatability and intra- and interlaboratory variability in G6PD activity measurements were compared between studies and pooled across the dataset. A universal threshold for G6PD deficiency was derived, and its diagnostic performance was compared to site-specific thresholds. Study participants (n = 15,811) were aged between 0 and 86 years, and 44.4% (7,083) were women. Median (range) activity of G6PD normal (G6PDn) control samples was 10.0 U/g Hb (6.3–14.0) for the Trinity assay and 8.3 U/g Hb (6.8–15.6) for the Randox assay. G6PD activity distributions varied significantly between studies. For the 13 studies that used the Trinity assay, the adjusted male median (AMM; a standardised metric of 100% G6PD activity) varied from 5.7 to 12.6 U/g Hb (p < 0.001). Assay precision varied between laboratories, as assessed by variance in control measurements (from 0.1 to 1.5 U/g Hb; p < 0.001) and study-wise mean coefficient of variation (CV) of replicate measures (from 1.6% to 14.9%; p < 0.001). A universal threshold of 100% G6PD activity was defined as 9.4 U/g Hb, yielding diagnostic thresholds of 6.6 U/g Hb (70% activity) and 2.8 U/g Hb (30% activity). These thresholds diagnosed individuals with less than 30% G6PD activity with study-wise sensitivity from 89% (95% CI: 81%–94%) to 100% (95% CI: 96%–100%) and specificity from 96% (95% CI: 89%–99%) to 100% (100%–100%). However, when considering intermediate deficiency (<70% G6PD activity), sensitivity fell to a minimum of 64% (95% CI: 52%–75%) and specificity to 35% (95% CI: 24%–46%). Our ability to identify underlying factors associated with study-level heterogeneity was limited by the lack of availability of covariate data and diverse study contexts and methodologies. Conclusions Our findings indicate that there is substantial variation in G6PD measurements by spectrophotometry between sites. This is likely due to variability in laboratory methods, with possible contribution of unmeasured population factors. While an assay-specific, universal quantitative threshold offers robust diagnosis at the 30% level, inter-study variability impedes performance of universal thresholds at the 70% level. Caution is advised in comparing findings based on absolute G6PD activity measurements across studies. Novel handheld quantitative G6PD diagnostics may allow greater standardisation in the future.


Discontinuities (joints, fractures, bedding planes, faults) are ubiquitous within rock masses. Understanding and characterizing the nature of the discontinuities is the fundamental requirement of rock engineering. With a few exceptions, the engineering properties of most rock masses are influenced by the nature of the structure as opposed to the intact rock. Discontinuities govern the mechanical and hydrological behavior of the rock mass. During site investigations, drilling and logging of boreholes is one of the most commonly used methods of investigation, because of its relatively low cost, because of the large volume of data it provides, and because boreholes can be drilled to the exact location where the rock mass needs to be characterized. Nevertheless, drilling still incurs significant costs, and in order to maximize efficiency, it is highly desirable to maximize the information content and the reliability of the borehole data. For the purposes of this article, the optimal drilling direction is defined as the direction along which the maximum number of discontinuities is intersected. Because the probability of intersecting a given discontinuity is greatest with a borehole perpendicular to that discontinuity, it follows that for every orientation of discontinuity there exists an optimum drilling direction. This article proposes a method that can find the optimum drilling direction based on the analysis of linear sampling bias, assuming that there is some a priori knowledge of the structure. This is quantified by a linear sampling bias index (LSBI), which is a function of the relative angle between the orientation of the borehole and the mean orientation of the normals of each of the discontinuity sets. The optimum drilling direction is the direction along which the LSBI is minimized.


Abstract. Nitrogen fixation by filamentous cyanobacteria supplies significant amounts of new nitrogen (N) to the Baltic Sea. This balances N loss processes such as denitrification and anammox, and forms an important N source supporting primary and secondary production in N-limited post-spring bloom plankton communities. Laboratory studies suggest that filamentous diazotrophic cyanobacteria growth and N2-fixation rates are sensitive to ocean acidification, with potential implications for new N supply to the Baltic Sea. In this study, our aim was to assess the effect of ocean acidification on diazotroph growth and activity as well as the contribution of diazotrophically fixed N to N supply in a natural plankton assemblage. We enclosed a natural plankton community in a summer season in the Baltic Sea near the entrance to the Gulf of Finland in six large-scale mesocosms (volume ∼ 55 m3) and manipulated fCO2 over a range relevant for projected ocean acidification by the end of this century (average treatment fCO2: 365–1231 µatm). The direct response of diazotroph growth and activity was followed in the mesocosms over a 47 day study period during N-limited growth in the summer plankton community. Diazotrophic filamentous cyanobacteria abundance throughout the study period and N2-fixation rates (determined only until day 21 due to subsequent use of contaminated commercial 15N-N2 gas stocks) remained low. Thus estimated new N inputs from diazotrophy were too low to relieve N limitation and stimulate a summer phytoplankton bloom. Instead, regeneration of organic N sources likely sustained growth in the plankton community. We could not detect significant CO2-related differences in neither inorganic nor organic N pool sizes, or particulate matter N : P stoichiometry. Additionally, no significant effect of elevated CO2 on diazotroph activity was observed. Therefore, ocean acidification had no observable impact on N cycling or biogeochemistry in this N-limited, post-spring bloom plankton assemblage in the Baltic Sea.


This study focuses on the financial resources needed to fight global climate change and the implications for the EU budget. The authors apply four different methodologies to estimate global financing requirements and attempt to determine the resources that will be needed at the EU level to meet the EU's climate change objectives. The study analyses current climate change spending of the EU budget, identifies shortcomings and indicates possibilities for correcting them. It also assesses the potential of the EU emissions trading scheme to raise additional resources to finance coordinated actions at the EU level aimed at fighting climate change. Finally, it provides three case studies of national public expenditure related to climate change in Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States.