This paper reports that the nickel silicide ohmic contacts to n-type 6H-SiC have been fabricated. Transfer length method test patterns with NiSi/SiC and NiSi2/SiC structure are formed on N-wells created by N+ ion implantation into Si-faced p-type 6H-SiC epilayer respectively. NiSi and NiSi2 films are prepared by annealing the Ni and Si films separately deposited. A two-step annealing technology is performed for decreasing of oxidation problems occurred during high temperature processes. The specific contact resistance ρc of NiSi contact to n-type 6H-SiC as low as 1.78 × 10−6Ωcm2 is achieved after a two-step annealing at 350 °C for 20 min and 950° C for 3 min in N2. And 3.84 × 10−6Ωcm2 for NiSi2 contact is achieved. The result for sheet resistance Rsh of the N+ implanted layers is about 1210Ω/. X-ray diffraction analysis shows the formation of nickel silicide phases at the metal/n-SiC interface after thermal annealing. The surfaces of the nickel silicide after thermal annealing are analysed by scanning electron microscope.


Early Term Results of Left Internal Mammary Artery Patch to Left Anterior Descending Artery and Left Internal Mammary Artery to On-Lay Saphenous Vein Patch in Diffusely Diseased Left Anterior Descending Artery: Which is Inferior and which is Superior?
Background: Surgical revascularization of CAD patients having diffusely-diseased LAD is a difficult surgical problem. Some centers prefer long direct LIMA-to-LAD grafting; others perform LIMA grafts to on lay SVG patch. Favoring either technique depends on multiple factors and is still questionable. This study was undertaken to compare the experience and early results of using direct LIMA-to- LAD anastomosing versus indirect anastomosing by LIMA-to on-lay SVGs during standard CABG.
Patients and Methods: This prospective study was done starting from March 2009-untill-March 2011, in Cairo university hospitals and Prince Sultan Cardiac Center, Riyadh, KSA, after obtaining the approval of the local ethical committees. We studied thirty patients with diffusely-diseased LAD. All were submitted for elective CABG using CPB under moderate hypothermia and 20-minutes intermittent blood-enriched aortic root antegrade cardioplegia. Patients were divided into two groups after proper matching regarding demographic data and surgical risks. In Group I (15 patients) underwent LIMA-to-LAD patch; while in group II (15 patients) underwent LIMA grafting on an on-lay SVG. Followup was done at first and twelfth month postoperatively, by regular clinical examination with echocardiography and other investigations as needed.
Results: Two patients died in each group (total mortality 13%). In group I, one died due to progressive refractory LV failure; and another one due to refractory ventricular arrhythmias. In group II, a diabetic patient died due to mediastinitis and a second patient died due to progressive liver failure. There were no MI, CHF, or CNS complications. Total morbidity was 20% (6 patients). Group I morbidity was 20% (3 patients) as recurrent attacks of supraventricular extrasystoles arrhythmias in 2 patients (13%); and mechanically-assisted ventilation for 36 hours in single patient (6%). Group II morbidity occurred in 3 patients (20%) as: left side moderate to-severe haemorrhagic pleural effusion in 2 patients (13%), and superficial wound infection in a single patient (6%). All patients expressed obvious post-operative improvement by clinical symptoms (absence of angina pains, 6 MWD) and echocardiographic follow-up (LVEF %). No statistical significance was found between results of the 2 groups regarding operative data (surgical time, CPB time, cross-clamp time), need for inotropics or IABCP, ICU events and hospital stay time.
Conclusion: LIMA-to-LAD could be safely-performed using long direct LIMA patch-LAD grafting; and via SVG on-lay patching on LAD too. Both procedures were technically-successful with sound safety, acceptable complications and early term results with no obvious superiority of LIMA patch to Venous patch on LAD.


Abstract. Passive monitoring of ground motion can be used for geophysical process
analysis and natural hazard assessment. Detecting events in microseismic
signals can provide responsive insights into active geophysical processes.
However, in the raw signals, microseismic events are superimposed by external
influences, for example, anthropogenic or natural noise sources that distort
analysis results. In order to be able to perform event-based geophysical
analysis with such microseismic data records, it is imperative that negative
influence factors can be systematically and efficiently identified,
quantified and taken into account. Current identification methods (manual and
automatic) are subject to variable quality, inconsistencies or human errors.
Moreover, manual methods suffer from their inability to scale to increasing
data volumes, an important property when dealing with very large data volumes
as in the case of long-term monitoring. In this work, we present a systematic strategy to identify a multitude of
external influence sources, characterize and quantify their impact and
develop methods for automated identification in microseismic signals. We
apply the strategy developed to a real-world, multi-sensor, multi-year
microseismic monitoring experiment performed at the Matterhorn Hörnligrat
(Switzerland). We develop and present an approach based on convolutional
neural networks for microseismic data to detect external influences
originating in mountaineers, a major unwanted influence, with an error rate
of less than 1 %, 3 times lower than comparable algorithms. Moreover, we
present an ensemble classifier for the same task, obtaining an error rate of
0.79 % and an F1 score of 0.9383 by jointly using time-lapse image and
microseismic data on an annotated
subset of the monitoring data. Applying these classifiers to the whole
experimental dataset reveals that approximately one-fourth of events detected
by an event detector without such a preprocessing step are not due to seismic
activity but due to anthropogenic influences and that time periods with
mountaineer activity have a 9 times higher event rate. Due to these findings,
we argue that a systematic identification of external influences using a
semi-automated approach and machine learning techniques as presented in this
paper is a prerequisite for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of
long-term monitoring experiments.


Industry is increasingly dependent on distributed systems. In order to prevent the users having to deal with unnecessary details, experts are going for languages specifically created for distributed system domain. Such systems are often considered to be complex. Assuring the correctness of these systems with traditional code reviews and testing is difficult as these verification methods deal with the high-level specification of the system. In order to prove that high-level specification is correctly implemented at the lower level, the compiler, which performs the translation, needs to be verified. Using formal methods, based on mathematics and formal logic, specification and verification have been discussed as a means of a solution. This paper identifies and analyses the available formalisms and techniques for verifying the correct operation of parallel and distributed systems.


This Article explores the viability of upstream criminal justice reforms within the context of an adversary and procedural system of criminal justice, focusing on reforms in eyewitness identification procedures. Mistaken eyewitness identification evidence is often cited as the leading cause of wrongful convictions in the United States. Eyewitness identification reforms have also been the most developed upstream efforts to grow out of the innocence movement. The success and limitation of upstream reform in eyewitness identification shed light on the efficacy of upstream criminal justice system reform more generally, as well as in areas that are less developed, such as the introduction of false confessions or the use of unreliable forensic science. Part II of the Article describes the upstream trajectory of reform in the area of eyewitness identifications. It demonstrates how DNA exonerations have shed light on the inadequacy of trial procedures to correct or mitigate the damage caused by investigatory missteps that alter eyewitness testimony, and it explains the reforms to law enforcement investigatory practices that have been recommended by social science researchers to prevent mistaken eyewitness identifications. Part III demonstrates the landscape of post-exoneration legal reform, cataloguing the legislation enacted in a growing number of states that requires law enforcement agencies to adopt and adhere to eyewitness identification "best practices." This Part also demonstrates the reluctance of legislatures and courts to fashion robust downstream enforcement mechanisms to incentivize good investigatory practices, such as establishing a per se rule excluding evidence that resulted from impermissibly suggestive eyewitness identification procedures.


We present Hitomi observations of N 132 D, a young, X-ray bright, O-rich core-collapse supernova remnant in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC). Despite a very short observation of only 3.7 ks, the Soft X-ray Spectrometer (SXS) easily detects the line complexes of highly ionized S K and Fe K with 16-17 counts in each. The Fe feature is measured for the first time at high spectral resolution. Based on the plausible assumption that the Fe K emission is dominated by He-like ions, we find that the material responsible for this Fe emission is highly redshifted at similar to 800 km s(-1) compared to the local LMC interstellar medium (ISM), with a 90% credible interval of 50-1500 km s(-1) if a weakly informative prior is placed on possible line broadening. This indicates (1) that the Fe emission arises from the supernova ejecta, and (2) that these ejecta are highly asymmetric, since no blueshifted component is found. The S K velocity is consistent with the local LMC ISM, and is likely from swept-up ISM material. These results are consistent with spatial mapping that shows the He-like Fe concentrated in the interior of the remnant and the S tracing the outer shell. The results also show that even with a very small number of counts, direct velocity measurements from Doppler-shifted lines detected in extended objects like supernova remnants are now possible. Thanks to the very low SXS background of similar to 1 event per spectral resolution element per 100 ks, such results are obtainable during short pointed or slew observations with similar instruments. This highlights the power of high-spectral-resolution imaging observations, and demonstrates the new window that has been opened with Hitomi and will be greatly widened with future missions such as the X-ray Astronomy Recovery Mission (XARM) and Athena.


Three reports from the Independent Teacher Review Groups (DfE, 2016a; DfE, 2016b; and DfE, 2016c) included findings from the Department for Education (DfE) Workload Challenge Survey in which 56% of respondents indicated that data management caused unnecessary workload (DfE, 2016a, 6), 38% identified detailed lesson and weekly planning as adding an unnecessary burden to their workload (DfE, 2016b, 6), and 53% thought that the excessive nature, depth and frequency of marking was burdensome (DfE, 2016c, 6). The National College for Teaching and Leadership commissioned 11 school-based research projects to investigate practical and sustainable solutions for tackling teacher workload and provide evidence of impact of successful workload reduction strategies related to data management, planning and marking. The majority of the research projects were conducted in existing networks of schools, comprising between three and 25 schools; primary, secondary and, in a small number of cases, middle schools and special schools were involved in these projects. In all cases, the schools and networks of schools involved in the projects identified aspects of policy and practice relating to either data management, planning or marking as a focus for their research. This summary report details findings from the analysis of the 11 commissioned research projects, and a further independent research report. The analysis aimed to determine the methods trialled to reduce teacher workload around data management, planning and marking, and resulting outcomes on teacher workload and pupil outcomes. The overall conclusions drawn from the review of the research reports suggest studies that trialled interventions also reported successful reductions in teacher workload without impacting negatively on pupil outcomes. Additionally, studies that developed recommendations for, but did not trial, interventions reported that teachers were confident that once implemented, the interventions would lead to a reduction in their workload. Specific organisational and cultural factors were found to be significant in both facilitating and impeding the implementation of new initiatives


Consider a communication system whereby multiple users share a common frequency band and must choose their transmit power spectra jointly in response to physical channel conditions including the effects of interference. The goal of the users is to maximize a system-wide utility function (e.g., weighted sum-rate of all users), subject to individual power constraints. A popular approach to solve the discretized version of this nonconvex problem is by Lagrangian dual relaxation. Unfortunately the discretized spectrum management problem is NP-hard and its Lagrangian dual is in general not equivalent to the primal formulation due to a positive duality gap. In this paper, we use a convexity result of Lyapunov to estimate the size of duality gap for the discretized spectrum management problem and show that the duality gap vanishes asymptotically at the rate O (1/radicN), where N is the size of the uniform discretization of the shared spectrum. If the channels are frequency flat, the duality gap estimate improves to O (1/N) . Moreover, when restricted to the FDMA spectrum sharing strategies, we show that the Lagrangian dual relaxation, combined with a linear programming scheme, can generate an epsiv-optimal solution for the continuous formulation of the spectrum management problem in polynomial time for any epsiv > 0.


SUMMARY The effects of projected changes in climate and atmospheric CO2 concentration on productivity and nitrogen (N) leaching of characteristic arable and pig farming rotations in Denmark were investigated with the FASSET simulation model. The LARS weather generator was used to provide climatic data for the baseline period (1961–90) and in combination with two regional circulation models (RCM) to generate climatic data under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) A1B emission scenario for four different 20-year time slices (denoted by midpoints 2020, 2040, 2060 and 2080) for two locations in Denmark, differing in soil and climate, and representative of the selected production systems. The CO2 effects were modelled using projected CO2 concentrations for the A1B emission scenario. Crop rotations were irrigated (sandy soil) and unirrigated (sandy loam soil), and all included systems with and without catch crops, with field operation dates adapted to baseline and future climate change. Model projections showed an increase in the productivity and N leaching in the future that would be dependent on crop rotation and crop management, highlighting the importance of considering the whole rotation rather than single crops for impact assessments. Potato and sugar beet in arable farming and grain maize in pig farming contributed most to the productivity increase in the future scenarios. The highest productivity was obtained in the arable system on the sandy loam soil, with an increase of 20% on average in 2080 with respect to the baseline. Irrigation and fertilization rates would need to be increased in the future to achieve optimum yields. Growing catch crops reduces N leaching, but current catch crop management might not be sufficient to control the potential increase of leaching and more efficient strategies are required in the future. The uncertainty of climate change scenarios was assessed by using two different climate projections for predicting crop productivity and N leaching in Danish crop rotations, and this showed the consistency of the projected trends when used with the same crop model.


This paper investigates whether institutional investors influence firms' investment policies. By virtue of their significant ownership stakes and investment horizons, long-term institutional investors should closely monitor management and thus reduce agency conflicts in investment choices. Using a panel dataset of 2,511 U.S. manufacturing firms that went public between 1980 and 2003, I find that firms with long-term institutional investors tend to have lower capital expenditure than widely-held firms. Investment is reduced precisely in firms that are more exposed to the danger of over-investment: (a) firms that invest too much after controlling for their growth opportunities, financing constraints and industry affiliation, and (b) firms that have few investment opportunities but large cash flows. Most importantly, a reduction in capital expenditure in these firms leads to higher subsequent firm profitability and stock market performance, confirming that institutional investors' actions aimed at removing over-investment are value-enhancing.


Timed transition systems are a widely studied model for real-time systems. In this work we deal with an extension of this model, timed transition systems with invariants. The intention of the paper is to show applicability of the general categorical framework of open maps in order to treat the decidability question of the timed barbed bisimulation in the setting of the model being studied. In particular, we define a category of timed transition systems with invariants, whose morphisms are to be considered as simulations of the behavior of one system by the other with an accuracy of τ -actions, and an accompanying (sub)category of path objects, for which the corresponding notions of open maps are developed. We then use the open maps framework to obtain the abstract bisimilarity and the path bisimilarity which are established to coincide with the timed barbed bisimulation. Finally, we consider the decidability question of the bisimulation studied in the setting of finite timed transition systems with invariants.


ABSTRACT Although the rate of divorce among alder Americans has increased steadily, little attention has been paid to late life divorce. To describe the role of age and other factors which might influence adjustment to divorce in later life, data from a larger pilot study were used: 81 divorced persons over the age of 60 completed in-depth, structured interviews; and data were collected from records of 240 individuals filing for divorce, in which one of the Spouses was over 60. Results showed that divorcing older adults shared many characteristics with younger divorcing persons, e.g. low occupational status, few assets,, weak religious ties, urban . residence, weak kinship ties, and early marriage. The cause often given for divorce was lack of emotional gratification, generally precipitated by a particular stressful event. Although women were more likely than men to rate theirsmarriage as of low quality, they reacted more negatively to the idei of divorce. Men were less successful than women in post-divorce adjustment. A divorce adjustment model developed to predict low post-divorce adjustment suggests a set of relationships 'between five predictor variables: anticipated cost, divorce experience!, consequences, time, and sex. Sex, type of divorce experience, and overall consequences accounted for over half the variance inpost-divorce adjustment scores. The findings sugggest that without the roles of wife and mother, older divorced women are ill-prepared emotionally, socially or financially to adapt to divorce. (JAC)


Oxygen is not only one of life's essential elements but also a source of protein damage, mutagenesis, and ageing. Many proteome adaptations have been proposed to tackle such stresses and we assessed them using comparative genomics in a phylogenetic context. First, we find that aerobiosis is a trait with important phylogenetic inertia but that oxygen content in proteins is not. Instead, oxygen content is close to the expected values given the nucleotide composition. Accordingly, we find no evidence of oxygen being a scarce resource for protein synthesis even among anaerobes. Second, we searched for counterselection of amino acids more prone to oxidation among aerobes. Only cysteine follows the expected trend, whereas tryptophan follows the inverse one. When analyzing composition in the context of protein structures and residue accessibility, we find that all oxidable residues are avoided at the surface of proteins. Yet, there is no difference between aerobes and anaerobes in this respect, and the effect might be explained by the hydrophobicity of these residues. Third, we revisited the hypothesis that atmospheric enrichment in molecular oxygen led to the development of the communication capabilities of eukaryotes. With a larger data set and adequate controls, we confirm the trend of longer oxygen-rich outer domains in transmembrane proteins of eukaryotes. Yet, we find no significant association between oxygen concentration in the environment and this trait within prokaryotes, suggesting that this difference is clade specific and independent of oxygen availability. We find that genes involved in cellular responses to oxygen are much more frequent among aerobes, and we suggest that they erase most expected differences in terms of proteome composition between organisms facing high and low oxygen concentrations.


Abstract. Implementation of the Nitrates Directive (NiD) and its environmental impacts were compared for member states in the northwest of the European Union (Ireland, United Kingdom, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Northern France and Germany). The main sources of data were national reports for the third reporting period for the NiD (2004–2007) and results of the MITERRA-EUROPE model. Implementation of the NiD in the considered member states is fairly comparable regarding restrictions for where and when to apply fertilizer and manure, but very different regarding application limits for N fertilization. Issues of concern and improvement of the implementation of the NiD are accounting for the fertilizer value of nitrogen in manure, and relating application limits for total nitrogen (N) to potential crop yield and N removal. The most significant environmental effect of the implementation of the NiD since 1995 is a major contribution to the decrease of the soil N balance (N surplus), particularly in Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. This decrease is accompanied by a modest decrease of nitrate concentrations since 2000 in fresh surface waters in most countries. This decrease is less prominent for groundwater in view of delayed response of nitrate in deep aquifers. In spite of improved fertilization practices, the southeast of the Netherlands, the Flemish Region and Brittany remain to be regions of major concern in view of a combination of a high nitrogen surplus, high leaching fractions to groundwater and tenacious exceedance of the water quality standards. On average the gross N balance in 2008 for the seven member states in EUROSTAT and in national reports was about 20 kg N ha−1 yr−1 lower than by MITERRA. The major cause is higher estimates of N removal in national reports which can amount to more than 50 kg N ha−1 yr−1. Differences between procedures in member states to assess nitrogen balances and water quality and a lack of cross-boundary policy evaluations are handicaps when benchmarking the effectiveness of the NiD. This provides a challenge for the European Commission and its member states, as the NiD remains an important piece of legislation for protecting drinking water quality in regions with many private or small public production facilities and controlling aquatic eutrophication from agricultural sources.


From 1830 to the present those who find it difficult to accept "angelic visitations in the age of railroads" have searched Joseph Smith's nineteenth-century environment for sources of the subject matter of the Book of Mormon. For example, in 1990 Susan Curtis explains the economic subthemes of the book as Joseph Smith's commentary on "market capitalism." But the economic conditions of Joseph Smith's time and place are not reflected in the Book of Mormon. Its economic descriptions are consistent with our vast knowledge of the economic conditions of the ancient Middle East and not inconsistent with the little known of the economics of Mesoamerica of the relevant time period. Those more comfortable with Joseph Smith as universal commentator on the issues of his day would be well advised to ignore economics or limit that topic to the Doctrine and Covenants. Those who accept him as translator of ancient scriptural documents can gain additional reassurance from the economics of the Book of Mormon.


Cats (Felis catus) are obligate carnivores and as such they are adapted to detect the taste of meat and its components, such as L-amino acids, which generate umami (or savoury) taste, analogous to the taste of MSG for humans. The umami taste receptor (T1R1-T1R3) plays an important part in the oral detection of L-amino acids by cats and other mammals. Cats can perceive all of the L-amino acids in vivo, however not all of them activate the feline umami receptor in vitro. Proteins are formed from long chains of L-amino acids bound together, which in turn can be broken down into smaller fragments or peptides through processes such as hydrolysis and fermentation. These processes are often necessary to increase the flavour, nutritional value, digestibility and hypoallergenicity of proteins used in manufacture of pet food. The aim of this research project was to determine if the dipeptides formed by the combination of the 11 umami-active L-amino acids for cats (Ala, Asn, Cys, Gly, His, Leu, Met, Phe, Ser, Trp and Tyr) were also umami-active using a cell-based cat umami taste receptor assay. The results identified that, from the library of 101 α-L-dipeptides tested, only three were active (Gly-Cys, Phe-Leu and Tyr-Gly), but had a weaker interaction with the receptor than the component L-amino acids (maximum 20-50% of activation). An unusual in vitro response pattern was found for several of the dipeptides, which was attributed to non-specific responses or interactions. Using an in silico model of the cat umami receptor, the reduction in the binding interaction of the dipeptides was proposed to be due to the increase in their zwitterionic dipole length compared to the individual L-amino acids. This made it more difficult to stabilise the closed (active) conformation in the Venus flytrap region (active binding site) of the T1R1 subunit of the cat umami receptor. This research helps to further elucidate the role of dipeptides on umami taste perception of cats.


Game-theoretic attribution techniques based on Shapley values are used to interpret black-box machine learning models, but their exact calculation is generally NP-hard, requiring approximation methods for non-trivial models. As the computation of Shapley values can be expressed as a summation over a set of permutations, a common approach is to sample a subset of these permutations for approximation. Unfortunately, standard Monte Carlo sampling methods can exhibit slow convergence, and more sophisticated quasi-Monte Carlo methods have not yet been applied to the space of permutations. To address this, we investigate new approaches based on two classes of approximation methods and compare them empirically. First, we demonstrate quadrature techniques in a RKHS containing functions of permutations, using the Mallows kernel in combination with kernel herding and sequential Bayesian quadrature. The RKHS perspective also leads to quasi-Monte Carlo type error bounds, with a tractable discrepancy measure defined on permutations. Second, we exploit connections between the hypersphere $\mathbb{S}^{d-2}$ and permutations to create practical algorithms for generating permutation samples with good properties. Experiments show the above techniques provide significant improvements for Shapley value estimates over existing methods, converging to a smaller RMSE in the same number of model evaluations.


The key for any beginning radiologist who wishes to recognize pathological findings is to first acquire an ability to distinguish them from normal ones. This outstanding guide gives beginning radiologists the tools they need to systematically approach and recognize normal MR and CT images. Highlights include: * Reference-quality images from the author's own teaching files show all standard normal findings as seen in CT and MRI* Checklists in each section offer the reader a systematic way to approach the images* Thorough guidelines to help beginning radiologists dictate their reports* Lists of standard measurements and tips for ruling out pathology


Frequency synthesizer is one of the most versatile component and heart of any system. It is used to correct the phase & frequency error so that the signal coming from the different part of the circuit or from the wireless medium does not cause any attenuation or distortion due to frequency dependent or phase dependent error. Present days the Frequency Synthesizer is also used for the wireless communication in the GHz range to correct the phase and frequency error as well as provide synchronization with low locking time, reduced skew and jitter. The frequency synthesizer is used inside a processor to provide the clock synchronization, clock recovery. Due to all above important application in the Analog and mixed signal as well as in digital signal analysis there is a necessity of a Frequency synthesizer with higher Capture range low lock time and with a low settling time. The design of given Frequency synthesizer is done in the 90nm (GPDK 090) process technology in CADANCE virtuoso Analog design environment. To detect the phase and frequency error for any unsymmetrical pulse the voltage based phase frequency detector is used in the design.
Voltage controlled oscillator is also a very important part which decide the range of frequency synthesizer. The VCO used here is a current starved Ring oscillator which consumes a very low power. The loop filter is an important component that decides the Dynamic response of the frequency synthesizer. The rise time damping ratio, settling time, bandwidth and output signal to noise ratio of the circuit. The loop filter used here is a passive lead lag filter which is designed with the resistor and capacitor. The layout of the frequency synthesizer is done in the CADANCE virtuoso XL layout editor and different type of simulation is done in the spectre simulator. The power consumed in the frequency synthesizer is 0.22091 m watt at 1.2 V supply voltage and the lock time is 220 ns. The divider is a very important part which made the frequency synthesizer circuit tuneable in a wide range of input frequency so for this purpose we designed it programmable which divide in N/N+1 ratio.


Background There are limited data on the burden of cardiovascular comorbidities in people with bronchiectasis. Our cross-sectional study estimates the burden of pre-existing diagnoses of coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke in people with bronchiectasis compared with the general population. The historical cohort study investigates if individuals with bronchiectasis are at increased risk of incident CHD and stroke events. Methods We used primary care electronic records from the Clinical Practice Research Datalink. The cross-sectional study used logistic regression to quantify the association between bronchiectasis and recorded diagnoses of CHD or stroke. Cox regression was used to investigate if people with bronchiectasis experienced increased incident CHD and strokes compared with the general population, adjusting for age, sex, smoking habit and other risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Results Pre-existing diagnoses of CHD (OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.25 to 1.41) and stroke (OR 1.92, 95% CI 1.85 to 2.01) were higher in people with bronchiectasis compared with those without bronchiectasis, after adjusting for age, sex, smoking and risk factors for cardiovascular disease. The rate of first CHD and stroke were also higher in people with bronchiectasis (HR for CHD 1.44 (95% CI 1.27 to 1.63) and HR for stroke 1.71 (95% CI 1.54 to 1.90)). Conclusion The risk of CHD and stroke are higher among people with bronchiectasis compared with the general population. An increased awareness of these cardiovascular comorbidities in this population is needed to provide a more integrated approach to the care of these patients.


This thesis examines the challenges and opportunities associated with embedding Evidence Based Policing (EBP) by using a case study of a single metropolitan police force. In order to achieve this aim, the thesis objectives are to examine: the sources that officers and staff draw upon to inform their decision making; how they understand EBP and research evidence; the extent to which they use research evidence; and their perceptions regarding the organisational challenges, and opportunities, to engage with, and embed EBP. A triangulation mixed methods design is used to explore this.

The thesis demonstrates the significance of role in relation to EBP and it is suggested that the heterogeneity of 'policing' should be more widely scrutinised by policy makers and scholars. Within the case study force, the thesis also identified variance in how the concepts of research evidence and EBP are understood, with no consistent understanding of the term. Consequently, ambiguity exists regarding the expectations of officers and staff in implementing EBP within their role. This thesis also highlights the necessity to build the capability of officers and staff in relation to EBP, in particular their skills for critical appraisal of research evidence and other knowledge sources, including professional experience. The thesis also reports that the nature of crime and demand was perceived to be changing and that the existing 'evidence base' was not perceived to reflect the nature of crime and demand that the police force deals with.

The thesis makes recommendations for a re-conceptualisation of EBP, to encompass a range of information sources including research evidence, with an emphasis on the importance of a shared understanding of EBP within the police force. The proposed model encompasses a range of information sources including research evidence, professional experience, organisational information, stakeholder views and national guidance. It also suggests a need to draw more heavily on public perception as an information source in police decision making. The term 'Informed Policing' is favoured, rather than EBP to better reflect the more inclusive conceptualisation and emphasis on the critical appraisal of knowledge sources.


This Essay offers a bottom-up analysis of judicial review in the administrative state that focuses on the dynamics of participation. A bottom-up perspective supplements the more conventional top-down analysis of agencies and the courts by drawing attention to the important role that different constellations of participants play in the functioning of the system. This pattern of participation helps determine the behavior of the political and administrative processes. It also helps determine the behavior of the adjudicative process and, therefore, of judicial review. As with the analysis of judicial review of the political process under the Constitution, participatory realities must be taken seriously in analyzing the judicial review of the administrative process. After drawing out the primary variables and forces that shape participation in agencies and courts, the essay considers various reforms and adjustments that might improve bottom-up institutional functioning in the future.


The ever-tighter mismatch between the demand and supply of airport services has triggered policy discussions that bring to the forefront a challenging dilemma for decision makers and the various stakeholding groups in the airport domain: demand management or capacity enhancement? There are two solutions in the effort to reduce gridlock in the air transport system—to expand capacity, and to diminish or handle demand through time and space. One part of the answer lies with technology and operations aiming at building capacity and another with balancing and handling demand. Since the last decade of continuously increasing air traffic congestion, demand management strategies have gained increasing acceptance by airport authorities and policy makers as a potential vehicle of handling demand—by limiting in some way the demand for access to busy airfields or to congested airspace or by modifying the spatial and temporal distribution of demand, or by doing both. A critical review was done of the developments, practices, and research activities in Europe and the United States toward confronting the well-known aviation capacity gridlock. A triplet of analysis formed the base: the current state of affairs pertaining to the demand and growth patterns and prospects vis-a-vis supply-side developments; the discussion of the aviation capacity gridlock; and an in-depth analysis and critical assessment of the alternative demand-side solutions under the spectrum of all potential enhancement aspects (i.e., administrative, economic, hybrid measures).


Database usage data from a random sample of ninety-eight public libraries and library systems in the United States and Canada reveal patterns of use. Library users at all sizes of public libraries tend to use research databases most frequently early in the week, at midday, and at times that correspond to the academic calendar (November in this six-month sample.) Peak usage varies with size of library, but a capacity of between one and ten simultaneous users will satisfy 99 percent of demand in every size of library. A questionnaire sent to these libraries revealed many other factors that might influence database use, including posting signs or preparing handouts, availability of remote login, and placement of a database on the library's homepage. Only the number of workstations, adjusted for population, was found to be statistically correlated with amount of use. Public librarians often find themselves negotiating complex licensing agreements when selecting fee-based digital resources for their libraries. Resources that will be offered online through a library may be priced by vendors in a variety of ways. A popular pricing scheme for public libraries involves negotiating a price that depends on the number of users allowed online at any one time on any one database. This simultaneous (or concurrent) use pricing scheme allows libraries to keep costs down and pay only for the number of users likely to be needing a database at one time. The success of this pricing scheme depends on accurate estimates of how many simultaneous users should be supported. If too few are supported, users get frustrated by system "busy" signals; supporting too many simultaneous users results in unnecessarily expending scarce resources on higher fees. Predicting likely numbers of simultaneous users is especially difficult when there is no history of prior usage. The library that is leasing a new product or offering online access for the first time must often guess about how much each database will be used. Usage data from other public libraries may, however, help similar libraries to predict levels and patterns of use. Other factors such as how many workstations are available in a library and whether or not the library allows remote access may also complicate this picture. A two-phase study of public libraries helped identify patterns of database use, levels of simultaneous use, and what factors might influence this use. Online data captured from ninety-eight public libraries reveal (1) how many users are logged on simultaneously to selected online research databases and (2) the time of day, week, and month when users are searching the most. Examination of these data may help other libraries negotiate simultaneous usage licenses and estimate the number of workstations and ports required. Usage data do not show, however, what each individual library is doing, if anything, to encourage use of databases. In a supplemental survey, each library for which usage data were gathered was asked about its specific environment for online access, and information was gathered about factors that may influence online use. Review of the Literature Historically, usage studies were used to predict an appropriate number of chairs to provide in the library or to adjust staffing schedules to correspond to peak times. Later studies helped libraries determine how many terminals were required for their new online catalogs. A 1983 report incorporated queuing models to recommend appropriate numbers of terminals for online catalogs.[1] Turnstile counts have been used to optimize reference department staffing or pickup schedules for shelving. Turnstile counts show that peak usage periods in academic libraries correspond to the academic calendar and daily class schedules.[2] Patterns or levels of use from within a library may be different from remote use patterns. The New York Public Library Research Libraries compared patterns for remote usage of their OPAC with patterns of usage from within the libraries. …


Breastfeeding has been linked to a lower risk of overweight and asthma in children, however the results of previous studies are conflicting and controversy remains. An important gap in the current knowledge on the association between breastfeeding and overweight and asthma is whether and how the association changes with age of the child. These topics were investigated in the Prevention and Incidence of Asthma and Mite Allergy (PIAMA) study. This is a prospective birth cohort study of 3963 Dutch children from the general population followed from birth to 8 years of age. Data were mainly collected by yearly questionnaires. At 4 and at 8 years a subgroup of the total study population was invited for a medical examination. In the PIAMA study, 82% of the children was breastfed and about one third of the children was breastfed for more than 16 weeks. At 8 years of age, 14.5% of the children in the total study population was overweight and 13.8% had asthma. Breastfed children had a lower BMI at 1 year of age compared to non-breastfed children. Longitudinal analyses showed that children breastfed for more that 16 weeks had a significantly lower BMI from 1 to 7 years of age than non-breastfed children. However, when BMI at 1 year of age was taken into account, breastfeeding for more than 16 weeks was not associated with BMI from 1 to 7 years of age. Breastfed children had a more healthy eating pattern at 7 years of age compared to non-breastfed children, independently of maternal characteristics. However, the healthier eating pattern could not explain the lower overweight prevalence among breastfed children compared to non-breastfed children. Breastfeeding for more than 16 weeks was significantly associated with a lower asthma prevalence from 3 to 8 years of age compared to no breastfeeding. The associations were similar in children from allergic and non-allergic parents. Also, children breastfed for more than 16 weeks were less likely to be sensitised to inhalant allergens, but breastfeeding was not related with bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Children who had a high BMI at 6-7 years had an increased risk of asthma and bronchial hyperresponsiveness at 8 years of age. Children who had a high BMI at a younger age, but who had a normal BMI at 6-7 years of age did not have an increased risk of asthma or BHR at 8 years of age. A high BMI was not associated with sensitisation at 8 years of age. The most important conclusions of the thesis were, firstly, that breastfed children had lower risk to become overweight compared to non-breastfed children, which was probably mainly due to the lower weight gain during infancy in breastfed children and less to the healthier diet of breastfed children. Secondly, breastfed children had a lower asthma risk compared to non-breastfed children regardless of the age of the child and the family history of allergy or asthma. Finally, overweight was a risk factor for asthma at 8 years of age.


Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) frequently relapses locally, regionally or as systemic metastases. Development of targeted therapy that offers significant survival benefit in TNBC is an unmet clinical need. We have previously reported that blocking interactions between PAH2 domain of chromatin regulator Sin3A and the Sin3 interaction domain (SID) containing proteins by SID decoys result in EMT reversal, and re-expression of genes associated with differentiation. Here we report a novel and therapeutically relevant combinatorial use of SID decoys. SID decoys activate RARα/β pathways that are enhanced in combination with RARα-selective agonist AM80 to induce morphogenesis and inhibit tumorsphere formation. These findings correlate with inhibition of mammary hyperplasia and a significant increase in tumor-free survival in MMTV-Myc oncomice treated with a small molecule mimetic of SID (C16). Further, in two well-established mouse TNBC models we show that treatment with C16-AM80 combination has marked anti-tumor effects, prevents lung metastases and seeding of tumor cells to bone marrow. This correlated to a remarkable 100% increase in diseasefree survival with a possibility of "cure" in mice bearing a TNBC-like tumor. Targeting Sin3A by C16 alone or in combination with AM80 may thus be a promising adjuvant therapy for treating or preventing metastatic TNBC.


The air leakage of a building envelope can be determined from fan pressurization measurements with a blower door. More than 70,000 air leakage measurements have been compiled into a database. In addition to air leakage, the database includes other important characteristics of the dwellings tested, such as floor area, year built, and location. There are also data for some houses on the presence of heating ducts, and floor/basement construction type. The purpose of this work is to identify house characteristics that can be used to predict air leakage. We found that the distribution of leakage normalized with floor area of the house is roughly lognormal. Year built and floor area are the two most significant factors to consider when predicting air leakage: older and smaller houses tend to have higher normalized leakage areas compared to newer and larger ones. Results from multiple linear regression of normalized leakage with respect to these two factors are presented for three types of houses: low-income, energy-efficient, and conventional. We demonstrate a method of using the regression model in conjunction with housing characteristics published by the US Census Bureau to derive a distribution that describes the air leakage of the single-family detached housing stock. Comparison of our estimates with published datasets of air exchange rates suggests that the regression model generates accurate estimates of air leakage distribution.


This paper establishes a robust stylized fact: changes in the revealed comparative advantage of nations are governed by the pattern of relatedness of products at the global level. As countries change their export mix, there is a strong tendency to move towards related goods rather than to goods that are farther away. The pattern of relatedness of products is only very partially explained by similarity in broad factor or technological intensities, suggesting that the relevant determinants are much more product-specific. Moreover, the pattern of relatedness of products exhibits very strong heterogeneity: there are parts of this 'product space' that are dense while others are sparse. This implies that countries that are specialized in a dense part of the product space have an easier time at changing their revealed comparative advantage than countries that are specialized in more disconnected products.


In western Norway thick continental sediments of Devonian age are found in four basins each bounded to the east by major fault zones. Shallowly dipping fault segments previously identified as thrusts have recently been reinterpreted (Hossack 1984) as parts of a single large extensional fault. Detailed fieldwork along this structure shows it to be a classic detachment (here redefined and renamed as the Nordfjord Sogn Detachment) similar to those described from the Basin and Range province of the western USA (e.g. Davis 1983). Most of the features attributed to a late Devonian 'Svalbardian' 'Solundian' orogeny are explained as related to irregularities in the detachrnent surface. Other possible Devonian extensional structures in southern Norway are evaluated.


In this paper a mathematical model of the two-dimensional fully developed steady, viscous flow of a non-conducting biomagnetic micropolar fluid through a Darcian porous medium model of tissue is presented. The momentum conservation equations with zero pressure gradient are extended to incorporate the biomagnetic body force terms along the X and Y axes and also the Darcian linear drag in the X and Y directions, with appropriate boundary conditions. An angular momentum equation is also included for the spin of the microelements. The equations are non-dimensionalized using a set of transformations following Tzirtzilakis et al. (2004). A finite element solution is generated to the resulting non-dimensional model and the effects of biomagnetic number (NH), Darcy number (Da) and micropolar viscosity ratio parameter (R) on the X- and Y-direction velocity profiles is studied in detail. A number of special cases of the flow model are also discussed. The numerical solution is compared with a finite difference solution using central differencing and found to be in excellent agreement The model finds applications in biomedical device technology, blood transport in tumors, brain tissue and soft connective tissue zones as well as in fundamental hydrodynamics of ferrofluids in porous materials.


Abstract. A research algorithm is developed for noise evaluation and feature detection of the CALIOP (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization) Level 1 (L1) backscatter data with an emphasis on cloud/aerosol features in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UT/LS). CALIOP measurement noise of the version v2.01 and v2.02 L1 backscatter data aggregated to (5 km) horizontal resolution is analyzed with two approaches in this study. One is to compare the observed and modeled molecular scatter profiles by scaling the modeled profile (with a fitted scaling factor α) to the observed clear-sky backscatter profiles. This scaling α value is sensitive to errors in the calibrated backscatter and the atmospheric model used. Most of the nighttime 532-nm α values are close to unity, as expected, but an abrupt drop occurred in October 2008 in the daytime 532-nm α, which is likely indicative of a problem in the v2.02 daytime calibrated data. The 1064-nm night α is generally close to 2 while its day α is ~3. The other approach to evaluate the lidar measurement noise is to use the calibrated lidar backscatter data at altitudes above 19 km. With this method, the 532-nm and 1064-nm measurement noises are analyzed and characterized individually for each profile in terms of the mean (μ) and standard deviation (σ), showing larger σ values in general over landmasses or bright surfaces during day and in radiation-hard regions during night. A significant increasing trend is evident in the nighttime 1064-nm σ, which is likely responsible for the increasing difference between the feature occurrence frequencies (532-nm vs. 1064-nm) derived from this study. For feature detection with the research algorithm, we apply a σ–based method to the aggregated L1 data. The derived morphology of feature occurrence frequency is in general agreement with that obtained from the Level 2 (L2) 05 km_CLAY+05 km_ALAY products at 5 km horizontal resolution. Finally, a normalized probability density function (PDF) method is employed to evaluate the day-night backscatter data in which noise levels are largely different. CALIOP observations reveal a higher probability of daytime cloud/aerosol occurrence than nighttime in the tropical UT/LS region for 532-nm total backscatters >0.01 km −1 sr −1 .


The ways in which a particular historical milieu understands the relationship between causes and effects helps us to discern its conception of photography, a representational mode so often entangled in such categories. An examination of the last third of the nineteenth century and its so-called "revolt against positivism" provides an example. This period saw the slow and nearly comprehensive collapse of positivist history, and no grievance was more regularly directed at the declining school than the reductive scientism of its account of causality. Recognizing this crisis compels us to look at photographs of the period in a particular light—as the products of a tension between two fundamentally different epistemologies, or, more specifically, what we might call two different "cultures of causality." This study commences that project by examining a group of photographs produced in Naples, where the causal legibility of Vesuvius's plumes—as innocent emissions or ominous tocsins—took on an existential import.


This study presents a modified proportional-resonant (M-PR) control topology for single-stage photovoltaic (PV) system, operating both in grid-connected and stand-alone modes. Dual two-level voltage source inverter fed three-phase open-end winding transformer is used to supply the load in this scheme. The M-PR controller is developed for the inner current control loop of the system. The M-PR controller has the ability to track ac current with zero steady-state error. The outer dc-link voltage control loop is developed through the indirect vector control method at synchronously rotating reference frame. The control scheme ensures improved performance of the system at variable solar irradiance and load disturbances. The performance analysis of the dual two-level PV inverter is carried out for different operating conditions. The control scheme is implemented in MATLAB-SIMULINK environment. The theoretical results are verified through experiments in a laboratory prototype. The experimental results show close match with their theoretical counterparts.


High-pressure xenon gas is an attractive detection medium for a variety of applications in fundamental and applied physics. In this paper we study the ionization and scintillation detection properties of xenon gas at 10 bar pressure. For this purpose, we use a source of alpha particles in the NEXT-DEMO time projection chamber, the large scale prototype of the NEXT-100 neutrinoless double beta decay experiment, in three different drift electric field configurations. We measure the ionization electron drift velocity and longitudinal diffusion, and compare our results to expectations based on available electron scattering cross sections on pure xenon. In addition, two types of measurements addressing the connection between the ionization and scintillation yields are performed. On the one hand we observe, for the first time in xenon gas, large event-by-event correlated fluctuations between the ionization and scintillation signals, similar to that already observed in liquid xenon. On the other hand, we study the field dependence of the average scintillation and ionization yields. Both types of measurements may shed light on the mechanism of electron-ion recombination in xenon gas for highly-ionizing particles. Finally, by comparing the response of alpha particles and electrons in NEXT-DEMO, we find no evidence for quenching of the primary scintillation light produced by alpha particles in the xenon gas.


The study compared the relationship of the contract plan of student evaluation and a traditional type of evaluation, for changes in knowledge and attitudes during a college course in ecological relationships. The Syracuse Environmental Awareness Test- was used to measure both cognitive and affective changes. In the experimental group the contract, plan of evaluation was utilized. Subjects were evaluated on .the number of course objectives which were completed satisfactorily. In the control group, a traditional type of
student evaluation was used. The students we evaluated on the scores they received on three examinations. Although there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups when compared, there' were several factors which gave credence to the hypothesis that the traditional method was superior to the contract method. First, there was a significant increase in cognitive knowledge for the control group between the pretest and the posttest, while in the experimental group there was no significant increase.'" Second, the experimental group. had a larger percentage of Health Science majors than did the control group. If it is valid to assume that Health Science majors would be more highly motivated to do well in a course in their major field of study; then the experimental group should have demonstrated greater increases in cognitive and affective behavior.


This work presents a comparative study on the rate of drug release from implantable matrices induced by electric and magnetic fields separately for better biomedical applications. The matrices were prepared by coating γ-ferric oxide dispersed regenerated cellulose film by polypyrrole doped with sulfosalicylic acid as an anti-inflammatory drug. The drug release mechanisms were studied under both the electric and the magnetic fields separately in an acetate buffer solution with pH 5.5 and temperature 37°C during a period of 5 hours. The amount of drug released was analysed by UV-Vis spectrophotometry. The mechanism of drug release from the matrices under electric field includes expansion of conductive polymer chain and the electrostatic force between electron and drug. The drug release mechanism from the matrices under magnetic field is based on the fact that the heat produced locally by magnetic particles loosens the polymer (polypyrrole) chain surrounding the particles. As a result, the drugs attached to the polypyrrole chain come out to the release medium. The matrices showed fast release of drug, that is, more than 60% of the loaded drug was released within 1 h, and are ideal for the treatment of illness in an emergency care.


This work investigates the hydrogen storage potential of a variety of solid state materials. The work has showed their synthesis, structure, morphology and hydrogen storage properties comprehensively.
An MgH2 nanocomposite composed of 80% tetragonal α-MgH2 and 18% orthorhombic γ-MgH2 has been prepared for the first time without recourse to high pressure or temperature. By optimizing the ball milling conditions, addition of LiCl and use of THF solvent, the α-/γ-MgH2 nanocomposite so-produced is capable of releasing 6.6 wt% H2 with rapid kinetics, from ca. 260 °C without the use of a catalyst. Moreover, Ti-catalyzed MgH2 offering a capacity of 5.5 wt. % of H2 and superior hydrogen desorption kinetics has been successfully prepared by a novel wet chemical route. The MgH2 material, containing approximately 2~3 wt. % of Ti-additive exhibits hydrogen desorption at a temperature approximately 220 °C lower than pristine MgH2 where pure hydrogen evolution starts at ca. 420 °C via a synergetic effect of mechanochemical treatment and additives. Neutron scattering was employed to study the structure of activated MgD2 and for the first time local disorder in activated MgD2 has been verified using total neutron scattering (PDF fitting). Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) analysis indicates a surface fractal geometry, i.e high degree of surface roughness for activated MgD2 particles, in accordance with SEM analysis suggesting the morphological alteration introduced by mechanochemical treatment.
A novel PANI-LiBH4 composite has been successfully fabricated through simple mixing. It is found that PANI-LiBH4 composites dehydrogenates from ca. 200 °C with over 10 wt.% H2 released by 400 °C, significantly outperforming pristine LiBH4. Importantly, rehydrogenation can be achieved under conditions unprecedented for LiBH4 in isolation (200 °C; 100 bar H2 or 330 °C, 20 bar H2 vs. 600 °C, 350 bar H2). Moreover, the PANI-LiBH4 composite can be readily cycled and a new endothermic uptake event at 140 °C, a remarkably low temperature for LiBH4-based systems, suggests that the polymer thermodynamically alters the hydrogenation mechanism. PANI-NaBH4 and PANI-LiH also exhibit vastly improved dehydrogenation properties compared with the respective hydride materials alone.
The structures of some first row transition metal halide hydrazinates, TMX2·2N2H4 (TM= Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn; X= Cl and Br), have been revisited and detailed structural information of three typical complexes, MnCl2·2N2H4, ZnCl2·2N2H4 and MnBr2·2N2H4 have been accurately determined by using a combination techniques of PXD, FTIR and PND. It is also found that TMX2·2N2H4 decomposes at relatively high temperature (> 250 °C) with massive weight loss due to the dissociation and decomposition of the N2H4 ligand. However the major gas evolution has been determined to be N2 and NH3 with only a minor amount of H2 (and undesired impurity N2H2) released, which makes TMX2·2N2H4 unsuitable for hydrogen storage. Our strategy to combine TMCl2·2N2H4 with LiBH4 to fabricate novel transition metal borohydride hydrazinates has been proven to be successful. Two novel complexes, Mn(BH4)2·2N2H4 and Zn(BH4)2·2N2H4 have been successfully prepared via a facile mechanochemical route with careful manipulation over the milling parameters. The crystal structure of Mn(BH4)2·2N2H4 has been determined using SR-PXD to be isostructural with its parent material MnCl2·2N2H4. The phase evolution behaviour of Zn(BH4)2·2N2H4 has been probed with evidence of various intermediate phases during preparation when various milling conditions were employed. The dehydrogenation properties of both complexes have been studied using DTA-TGA coupled with MS. Mn(BH4)2·2N2H4 and Zn(BH4)2·2N2H4 are very promising materials for off-board hydrogen storage due to their high hydrogen content and useful dehydrogenation properties.


This article examines the U.S. Supreme Court's decision Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. 1937 (2009) from a social psychological perspective, and empirically studies Iqbal's effect on claims of race discrimination. In Twombly and then Iqbal, the Court recast Rule 8 from a notice-based rule into a plausibility standard. Under Iqbal, federal judges must evaluate whether each complaint contains sufficient factual matter "to state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face." When doing so, Iqbal requires judges to draw on their "judicial experience and common sense." Courts apply Iqbal at the pleading stage, before evidence has been presented, when judging the plausibility of all claims, including claims of discrimination by members of stereotyped groups. Decades of social psychological research suggest that, when judges deliberate on the plausibility of discrimination claims without evidence based on "common sense," intuitions, stereotypes and implicit bias will likely affect their judgment. This article draws on this science and performs an empirical study showing that Iqbal has significantly increased the dismissal rate for Black plaintiffs' claims of race discrimination in the workplace.A statistical analysis of 208 cases examined judicial decision-making at the pleading stage for Black plaintiffs' claims of race discrimination in the workplace. Three studies show that the underpinnings of Iqbal are unsound. Study 1 shows that the dismissal rate increased from 20.5% pre-Twombly to 54.6% under Iqbal for these claims. Study 2 shows that the dismissal rate increased from 32.0% to 67.35% under Iqbal for these claims when Black plaintiffs were pro se. And finally, Study 3 suggests that White and Black judges are applying Iqbal differently. White judges dismissed these claims at a higher rate (57.5%) than Black judges (33.3%). Study 3 shows a trend in which White judges, as compared to Black judges, are more likely to dismiss Black plaintiffs' claims of race discrimination. In short, Iqbal rests on an inaccurate theory of judgment and decision making. As Roscoe Pound once observed there are, "distinctions between law in the books and law in action, . . . between legal theory and judicial administration. . ." It is hoped that by introducing the science behind judgment and decision making, stereotypes, and implicit associations, and by studying human nature in law, we will broaden our knowledge of how Iqbal has affected claims of discrimination by members of stereotyped groups.


A novel form of severe, X linked mental retardation associated with alpha thalassaemia (ATR-X syndrome) has recently been described. Two affected cousins are described, one of whom has an unusually mild haematological phenotype. HbH inclusions, which are the hallmark of this disease, were only detected in the peripheral red blood cells after repeated observations.


The Mapping the Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences in Australia report charts Australia's current capabilities in the humanities, arts and social sciences (HASS) and identifies gaps and opportunities for the future by developing a comprehensive understanding of student enrolment trends, and teaching and research activity and potential. The report was co-funded by the Australian Academy of the Humanities, the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia, the Office of the Chief Scientist and the Department of Industry.


The progression enjoyed by women in the kingdom of Bahrain today, is in parallel to the social, cultural, and political developments enjoyed by this country. The appointment of women to leadership positions in Bahrain over the past eight years has ushered in a significant departure from the traditionally exclusive male dominated decision-making arena, and suggests an end to an era of absolute patriarchal dominance in leadership
positions. In the light of this potential opportunity to reach positions of power and influence, it is crucial to investigate the leadership experience of women who have "made it" to the top in Bahrain, and precisely examine their practised leadership styles within organisations they run with regard to transformational and transactional leadership.
Furthermore, while publications and studies concerned with women's leadership styles and contributions are on the increase, most of these studies are conducted in western societies which are not necessarily generalisable to other cultures, despite their manifest value.
Given the absence of research on this topic, this study contributes to the understanding of the dynamics of women's leadership in this increasingly important world region, and raises awareness amongst women (and men alike) regarding the leadership styles that contribute to the country's development.
Research took the form of two in-depth interviews with Bahraini women top managers who have achieved extraordinary levels of career success, and also a Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) distributed amongst their employees. Amongst the employees, there was a 52 per cent response rate for the first manager to the survey, while
a 47 per cent response rate was obtained for the second manager.
The results indicated that contrary to social perceptions and stereotypes, Bahraini women in top management positions are highly ambitious. Their predominant style was transformational leadership. However, their employees' perceptions varied between a high number perceiving a transformational leadership style, and different degrees towards a transactional leadership style. Surprisingly, there were perceptions towards laissez- faire leadership for one of them.


In recent times, brassinosteroids have been identified as a group of hormones that regulate plant growth and development. They affect plant development from seed germination to senescence. The aim of this research was to study the effects of brassinosteroids on the rooting of three American grapevine rootstocks (1103 Paulsen, 110 Richter and 99 Richter) used frequently to produce grafted grapevines. Rootstock cuttings were dipped for 10 minutes into five different concentrations of 22(S), 23(S)-homobrassinolide and planted into a peat-perlite mixture. Data such as fresh and dry root weight, root number and development level were collected and assessed. Some shoot growth features were also determined. The results showed that the grapevine rootstocks with the most significant response in improved root and shoot growth were 1103 Paulsen, followed by 110 Richter. Root development level was influenced by both the rootstock and the concentrations of the substance. The lowest concentration, 0.05 ppm, induced more root numbers in 1103 Paulsen, while 0.15 ppm resulted in the highest number of roots in 99 Richter. A statistical analysis of the data revealed a significant difference between root development and shoot growth.


We have developed a system with two epi-illumination sources, a DC-regulated lamp for transillumination and mechanical switches for rapid shift of illumination and detection of defined areas (250-750 microm(2)) by fluorescence and phosphorescence videomicroscopy. The system permits investigation of standard microvascular parameters, vascular permeability as well as intra- and extravascular PO2 by phosphorescence quenching of Pd-meso-tetra (4-carboxyphenyl) porphine (PORPH). A Pechan prism was used to position a defined region over the photomultiplier and TV camera. In order to validate the system for in vivo use, in vitro tests were performed with probes at concentrations that can be found in microvascular studies. Extensive in vitro evaluations were performed by filling glass capillaries with solutions of various concentrations of FITC-dextran (diluted in blood and in saline) mixed with different amounts of PORPH. Fluorescence intensity and phosphorescence decay were determined for each mixture. FITC-dextran solutions without PORPH and PORPH solutions without FITC-dextran were used as references. Phosphorescence decay curves were relatively unaffected by the presence of FITC-dextran at all concentrations tested (0.1 microg/ml to 5 mg/ml). Likewise, fluorescence determinations were performed in the presence of PORPH (0.05 to 0.5 mg/ml). The system was successfully used to study macromolecular extravasation and PO2 in the rat mesentery circulation under controlled conditions and during ischemia-reperfusion.


To provide information for managing the captive population of endangered Guam Micronesian kingfishers (Halcyon cinnamomina cinnamomina), four biologically relevant thermal metrics were compared among captive facilities on the United States mainland and habitats used by wild Micronesian kingfishers on the island of Pohnpei (H. c. reichenbachii), Federated States of Micronesia. Additionally, aviaries where kingfishers laid eggs were compared to those in which birds did not attempt to breed. Compared to aviaries, habitats used by wild Pohnpei kingfishers had 3.21C higher daily maximum and minimum temperatures and the proportion of time when temperatures were in the birds' thermoneutral zone was 45% greater. No differences were found in the magnitude of temperature fluctuation in captive and wild environments. In captive environments in which birds bred, daily maximum temperatures were 2.11C higher and temperatures were within the thermoneutral zone 25% more often than in the aviaries where the kingfishers did not breed. No differences were found in the magnitude of temperature fluctuation or the daily minimum temperature. Results suggest that the thermal environment has the potential to influence reproduction, and that consideration should be given to increasing temperatures in captive breeding facilities to improve propagation of the endangered Micronesian kingfisher. Zoo Biol 23:301–308, 2004. Published 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. w


Summary
1.
The first case of cerebral coenurosis to be reported from the Western Hemisphere is presented. Cerebellar exploration revealed numerous daughter vesicles of a coenurus distributed along the brain stem of a twenty-six-month-old male infant with a history of sudden right hemiparesis, marked ataxia and symptoms due to an increase in intracranial pressure.
2.
Postmortem examination of the brain revealed multiple, pedicellate, ramified and budding vesicles, which covered the ventral aspect of the pons, the medulla oblongata and the interpeduncular space. A coenurus, 3 cm. in diameter, with clusters of scolices arising from the germinal membrane was found, on frontal section of the brain, in the region of the left basal ganglia. A smaller cyst, 1 cm. in diameter, was located in the left frontal lobe.
3.
The parasite in the brain of the infant was identified as the coenurus of Multiceps multiceps in accordance with the views of Clapham and other investigators.


This paper reviews research about the intergenerational transmission of poverty in industrialized countries. In order to make our survey manageable, we restrict attention to studies that consider the relationship between parental poverty (or 'income') during childhood and later-life outcomes; we do not explicitly consider the impact of other family background variables such as parental education. The general message is that growing up poor has a deleterious impact on later-life chances, and that this impact is not wholly explained by other factors that are themselves correlated with childhood poverty. At the same time, the studies also show that one should be cautious about drawing more specific conclusions. For example, the degree of intergenerational persistence appears to vary depending on the definition of the outcome variable, and different estimation methods provide a range of estimates. In addition, most of re-search about intergenerational links has been undertaken using US data, and it is not clear that any specific conclusions should carry over to another country with very different social norms and institutions including e.g. differences in labour market regulation, and in systems of edu-cation and social security benefits. However we conclude that, broadly speaking, the analyti-cal framework that has been used for high-income countries can also be applied to low-income countries.


Financial planning is central to the survival of any construction company. This is essential as lack of funds had been identified as the most common cause of business failure, and can lead to the failure of profitable and growing firms as well as those declining. On the other hand, a permanent surplus of funds, while less damaging is in itself an uneconomic state of affairs. As such, there is a need for adequate timing of fund availability in construction and deployment of excess fund to more productive use. This paper examines the construction cash flow management approaches in the UK contracting organisations through a questionnaire survey. Essentially, the survey examines the strategies adopted by construction firms in resolving deficit cash flow. It also investigates the extent of usage of some identified cash flow forecasting methods. Data analysis was carried out by ranking the mean response. This enabled the major strategies employed for resolving deficit cash flow to be determined. It also aided the determination of major cash flow forecasting methods utilised by the industry. Further analysis was carried out using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). This enabled preferences of cash flow management approaches between different sizes of firms to be determined. Results showed the major approaches employed in resolving deficit cash flow and approaches preferred by different sizes of construction firms. Results further showed extent of usage of various cash flow forecasting methods. The findings are significant, as firm size seems to have direct implications on the approaches contracting firms adopt in cash flow management. The findings also have implications for further research in this area particularly for SME's.


The self-assembly and stability of DNA G-quadruplexes (GQs) are affected by the intrinsic stability of different GpG base steps embedded in their G-quartet stems. We have carried out MD simulations followed by MM-PBSA (molecular mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann surface area) free energy calculations on all the experimentally observed three-quartet intramolecular human telomeric GQ topologies. We also studied antiparallel GQ models with alternative syn-anti patterns of the G-quartets. We tested different ions, dihedral variants of the DNA force field, water models, and simulation lengths. In total, ∼35 μs of simulations have been carried out. The systems studied here are considerably more complete than the previously analyzed two-quartet stems. Among other effects, our computations included the stem-loop coupling and ion-ion interactions inside the stem. The calculations showed a broad agreement with the earlier predictions. However, the increase in the completeness of the system was associated with increased noise of the free energy data which could be related, for example, to the presence of long-lived loop substates and rather complex dynamics for the two bound ions inside the G-stem. As a result, the MM-PBSA data were noisy and we could not improve their quantitative convergence even by expanding the simulations to 2.5 μs long trajectories. We also suggest that the quality of MM-based free energy computations based on MD simulations of complete GQs is more sensitive to the neglect of explicit polarization effects, which, in real systems, are associated with the presence of multiple closely spaced ions inside the GQs. Thus, although the MM-PBSA procedure provides very useful insights that complement the structural-dynamics data from MD trajectories of GQs, the method is far from reaching quantitative accuracy. Our conclusions are in agreement with critical assessments of the MM-PBSA methodology available in contemporary literature for other types of problems.


Objective: To investigate the three-dimensional reconstruction technique and intraoperative postural changes in the interventional treatment of cerebral aneurysm.
Methods: A total of 52 cases involving patients with a definite CT diagnosis of cerebral aneurysm in our hospital were selected from July 2014 to August 2015. The cases were randomly and equally divided into observation and control groups using the random number table method. The patients in the two groups underwent interventional embolization. The observation group underwent three-dimensional CT angiography and the control group underwent rotational angiography with three-dimensional reconstruction (3D R-DSA). The correlation between aneurysm neck and adjacent parental arteries was investigated.
Results: The aneurysm longitudinal diameter 6.65 ± 2.21 and neck width 4.24 ± 1.21 in the observation group were significantly higher than those in the control group 5.54 ± 1.12 and 3.11 ± 1.01, respectively, and the difference was statistically significant (p 3 mm and ≤ 3 mm aneurysm diameter groups, the correlations between the aneurysm neck and adjacent parental arteries of patients showed statistical significance (p<0.05). Overall results of the aneurysm neck and adjacent parental arteries of the patients in the two groups showed a statistically significant difference (p<0.05).
Conclusion: Rotational DSA combined with three-dimensional vascular reconstruction and appropriate intraoperative position changes enables machineries to reach complicated angles and ensures the clear display of the relationships between the aneurysm and adjacent parental arteries and between aneurysm neck and size. These effects improve the success rates of operations.


Input Queued (IQ) switches have been well studied in the past two decades by researchers. The main problem concerning IQ switches is scheduling the switching fabric in order to transfer packets from input ports to output ports. Scheduling is relatively easier when all packets are of the same size. However, in practice, packets are of variable length. In the current implementation of switches, variable length packets are segmented into fixed length packets-also knowns as cells-for the purpose of scheduling. However, such cell-based switching comes with some significant disadvantages: (a) loss of bandwidth due to the existence of incomplete cells; and (b) additional overhead of segmentation of packets and re-assembly of cells. This is a strong motivation to study packet-based scheduling, i.e., scheduling the transfer of packets without segmenting them. The problem of packet scheduling was first considered by Marsan et al. They showed that under any admissible Bernoulli IID (independent and identically distributed) arrival traffic, a simple modification of the Maximum Weight Matching (MWM) algorithm achieves 100% throughput. In this paper, we first show that no work-conserving (i.e., maximal) packet-based algorithm is stable for arbitrary admissible arrival processes. Thus, the results of Marsan et al. are strongly dependent on the arrival distribution. Next, we propose a new class of "waiting" algorithms. We show that the "waiting"-MWM algorithm is stable for any admissible traffic using the fluid limit technique. We would like to note that the algorithms presented in this paper are distribution independent or universal. The algorithms and proof methods of this paper may be useful in the context of other scheduling problems.


Today, sociologists use qualitative techniques, including ethnography; participant observation; and case studies of a variety of social phenomena, processes, and problems as methods for exploring the meaning of social life and culture to those who live it, and in building inductive theory. Quantitative techniques engage in hypothesis testing of established theories and concepts, using techniques that include experimental designs, survey questionnaires, and network analysis. Sociology as a discipline includes "ways of knowing" that link it closely to methods of the natural sciences, and more interpretive and critical perspectives that are closer to scholarship in the humanities.


There is a long history in Canada of Indigenous peoples remaining on the outside of water governance, despite widespread agreement that environmental governance should include all affected parties. The importance of reconciling relationships with Indigenous peoples has launched a number of legislative attempts to improve their involvement in governance, however significant challenges remain. This is true for the Mackenzie River Basin, a transboundary watershed with a diverse and dispersed population. While water governance of the Basin has involved provincial and territorial jurisdictions, the extent of Indigenous participation has yet to be determined. Through a content analysis of the Master Agreement and the 2015 Bilateral between the NWT and Alberta and semi-structured interviews, this study investigates how Indigenous peoples and their perspectives have been represented in governance. Findings suggest that current governance continues to filter Indigenous perspectives through government and fail to achieve a nation-to-nation relationship.


Mechanotransduction is the process by which external physical forces induce intracellular responses. Na et al. examined the velocity with which the tyrosine kinase Src could be activated by mechanical stress as compared with epidermal growth factor (EGF) signaling. The authors measured Src activation with a reporter that consisted of a yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) and cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) tethered to one another by a short (12-amino acid) Src substrate peptide. When the peptide is not bound by Src, the fluorescent tags are close enough to interact, producing a high fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) ratio, but upon binding by Src, the tags are displaced, producing a low FRET ratio. The authors added magnetic beads coated with the tripeptide Arg-Gly-Asp to cultured fibroblasts to induce the cells to form focal adhesions with the beads and then used a magnetic field to deliver mechanical stress to the cells. Focal adhesions were required for mechanical stress-induced Src activation, because cells that were not induced to form focal adhesions exhibited no Src activation in response to a magnetic field. By using fluorescently labeled tubulin and a microscopic method for mapping microtubule deformations, the authors found that Src activation colocalized with the regions of greatest microtubule deflections. Mechanical stimulation of Src activity was much faster than stimulation through the EGF pathway. Whereas application of purified EGF resulted in Src activation in 12 seconds, mechanical stress activated Src in as little as 0.3 seconds, much faster than could be accomplished by a pathway that relied on either passive diffusion or active transport of molecules to relay the signal inside the cell. Only cells plated on stiff (as opposed to soft) substrates exhibited Src activation by mechanotransduction, so the phenomenon also required that the cytoskeleton be prestressed; much like a spider's web, the cytoskeletal network could transmit mechanical stress signals only when tensioned. The authors proposed that the cytoskeleton conveyed the mechanical force into the cytoplasm by vibrating or stretching. Mechanotransduction, then, may enable nearly simultaneous, though nonspecific, activation of molecules near the plasma membrane and deep inside the cytoplasm. S. Na, O. Collin, F. Chowdhury, B. Tay, M. Ouyang, Y. Wang, N. Wang, Rapid signal transduction in living cells is a unique feature of mechanotransduction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 6626-6631 (2008). [Abstract] [Full Text]


In a multiple time series regression model the residuals are heteroskedastic and serially correlated of unknown form. GLS estimates of the regression coefficients using kernel regression and spectral methods are shown to be adaptive, in the sense of having the same asymptotic distribution, to the first order, as GLS estimates based on knowledge of the actual heteroskedasticity and serial correlation. A Monte Carlo experiment about the performance of our estimator is described.


Pregnancy-reference levels of Subclinic hypothyroidism (SCH), along with normal level of serum thyroxine, are called high thyroid stimulation hormone level (TSH). Autoimmune Thyroiditis is also common in patients of subclinical hypothyroidism. Subclinical Hypothyroidism in pregnancy is the cause of some adverse obstetric consequences. Changes in the metabolism of thyroid hormones during pregnancy needs to be kept in mind, while diagnosing thyroid abnormalities. There is a jump in the obstetric and neonatal results, like preterm delivery, miscarriage, fetal growth restriction, preeclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus, low birth weight, abruptio placentae and poor Apgar scores at birth. Treatment with Cevothyroxine therapy may help reduce some of these adverse effects, however there is restricted evidence to provision it. The behavior of subclinical hypothyroidism should target maternal TSH concentrations of less than 2.5mIU/L. However there is a lack of recommendation for the official starting dose of levothyroxine. So, individualised low doses of levothyroxine can be started and thereafter titred to the maintain the TSH in the target level


In this article, I summarize some of the significant legal developments in the United States that have taken place within the past year. First, United States v. Raniere was a criminal case launched against the founder of a purported self-help organization, NXIVM, and several of his associates. The Raniere case established precedent for using the human-trafficking statutes, among other grounds, to pursue justice for victims of high-demand groups. Second, the number of asylum seekers is increasing annually, and some of these undocumented immigrants are escaping from their countries-of-origin cults, gangs, and other extremist groups. However, once they arrive in the United States, there are many statutory and court-imposed requirements for establishing asylum; lawmakers should clarify or eliminate some of these requirements in order to fulfill the original purpose of the Immigration and Nationality Act. Third, setting the minimum age for marriage would help to reduce the number of child brides who are often pressured by cults and high-control groups.Fourth, still in need of refinement is the legal theory of "undue influence," which potentially could aid cult victims in civil lawsuits against overreaching organizations and individuals. And finally, pending in the New Jersey legislature is the Predatory Alienation Bill, which calls for ongoing public-awareness campaigns, alienation counseling, and other remedies.


Abstract. Uncoordinated extension of renewable energy sources (RES) disregarding local demand structures leads to increased loads on the transmission grid and overall economic losses. One approach to solve this problem is to support the local power consumption by local power generation without making use of the transmission network. Therefore, the actual physical coverage of local demand with local supply is to be investigated instead of a yearly net power balance. Rural municipalities are an ideal starting point to establish such self-sufficient power supply systems on the basis of RES as they have a high RES potential in combination with low demand loads. Fluctuating feed-in of wind and solar power and peaks in demand loads can be balanced by bioenergy as flexible power generation capacity. In contrast to highly resource dependent wind and solar power, biomass can be stored and power generation from biomass can be controlled flexibly. To assess the potential of electricity from biomass, this study analyses the agricultural structure of the rural municipalities. The objective of this study is to assess what kind of agricultural structure might be advantageous for flexible power generation from bioenergy, hence balancing fluctuation RES feed-in and power demand. The results from this structural assessment of rural municipalities can help for analysing further municipalities to identify potentials at first sight without costly individual analysis. Heat and fuel sectors are neglected. A methodology is introduced to model time series of wind, PV and biomass power with a 15-minute resolution. It is evaluated to which degree it is possible to cover the local demand in power supply with bioenergy as flexible power generation capacity in the identified clusters. The results indicate that bioenergy is generally suitable to cover the gap between local power demand and supply. Waste products from animal farming are far more effective for biomass power production than from agricultural farming. Low population densities raise the potential for self-sufficiency in the power sector because of low demand loads. Further improvement of the model is needed concerning the clustering approach and for the approximation of installed wind and PV power capacities.


This study investigates how to develop a better understanding of successful business relationships in the context of Saudi Arabia. The main objectives of this research are to explore how trust factors affect business relationship in Saudi Arabian companies. Primary and secondary methods of data collection are explored and the methods used to conduct qualitative data analysis are discussed and justified. Semi-structured interviews were employed to fulfil the study's aims and objectives. The researcher interviewed 25 Saudi Arabian employees regarding how trust factors affect business relationships in Saudi Arabian companies.

This thesis identifies and analyses the barriers to trust in business relationship that can exist in Saudi companies, using a multiple interview approach. The research required in-depth understanding to enable the development of trust factors (individual trust, organisational trust and national trust). The result is the discovery that a lack of skills, knowledge and experience of business relationship development and the correct approach to business and management can affect trust factors in the context of Saudi Arabian companies. This research study also found culture to be a unique type of behaviour that influences the creation of profitable relationships in Saudi companies. This study can be used in further research in other organisations, whether in Saudi Arabia or other countries.

Finally, the researcher considers the whole experience of conducting this study to have been revealing, and has confirmed that strong potential exists within Saudi Arabian companies that have been completely suppressed in past years by the involvement of the social and business level. Relationships are necessary at the individual, organisational, and national levels in order for foreign companies to build trust with Saudi Arabian ones.


Data augmentation has been demonstrated as an effective strategy for improving model generalization and data efficiency. However, due to the discrete nature of natural language, designing label-preserving transformations for text data tends to be more challenging. In this paper, we propose a novel data augmentation framework dubbed CoDA, which synthesizes diverse and informative augmented examples by integrating multiple transformations organically. Moreover, a contrastive regularization objective is introduced to capture the global relationship among all the data samples. A momentum encoder along with a memory bank is further leveraged to better estimate the contrastive loss. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed framework, we apply CoDA to Transformer-based models on a wide range of natural language understanding tasks. On the GLUE benchmark, CoDA gives rise to an average improvement of 2.2% while applied to the RoBERTa-large model. More importantly, it consistently exhibits stronger results relative to several competitive data augmentation and adversarial training base-lines (including the low-resource settings). Extensive experiments show that the proposed contrastive objective can be flexibly combined with various data augmentation approaches to further boost their performance, highlighting the wide applicability of the CoDA framework.


The Green Building Concept (GBC), has become a topical issue and is receiving global attention as a potential solution to numerous adverse effects of construction activity both climatically and environmentally. Globally, the construction industry alone consumes 50% of all resources, 45% of all Energy and adds to 35% of CO2 emissions. Several developed countries has embraced the GBC as the most formidable solution to the preservation of their natural resources and cutting down on the negative impacts of construction on the climate and environment. However, uptake of the concept in the Ghana Construction industry is very minimal and not at the desired rate with only four (4) certified green buildings. This creates a fragile environment which undermines Ghana's efforts at realizing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).A critical review of literature is conducted exploring the implementation of the GBC in Ghana. Through discussions, the research established the present status of the practice in Ghana as well as the drivers responsible for this current state. The implications of these drivers in the Ghana construction industry are discussed as well. For an increased uptake of the concept in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), key measures to ensure rapid uptake are recommended to include; a national education, awareness and publicity campaign, the imposition of mandatory government regulations and policies and the provision of financial and market-based incentives amongst others.


Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) infection is a global health issue since neither a cure nor a vaccine is available. However, the highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has improved the life expectancy for patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) are in almost all HAART and target reverse transcriptase (RT), an essential enzyme for the virus. Even though NRTIs are highly effective, they have limitations caused by RT resistance. The main mechanisms of RT resistance to NRTIs are discrimination and excision. Understanding the molecular mechanisms for discrimination and excision are essential to develop more potent and selective NRTIs. Using protein X-ray crystallography, we determined the first crystal structure of RT in its post-catalytic state in complex with emtricitabine, (-)FTC or stavudine (d4T). Our structural studies provide the framework for understanding how RT discriminates between NRTIs and natural nucleotides, and for understanding the requirement of (-)FTC to undergo a conformation change for successful incorporation by RT. The crystal structure of RT in post-catalytic complex with d4T provides a "snapshot" for considering the possible mechanism of how RT develops resistance for d4T via excision. The findings reported herein will contribute to the development of next generation NRTIs.