Evodiamine and rutaecarpine are the main active indoloquinazoline alkaloids of the herbal medicine Evodia rutaecarpa , which is widely used for the treatment of hypertension, abdominal pain, angina pectoris, gastrointestinal disorder, and headache. Immunosuppressive effects and acute toxicity were reported in mice treated with evodiamine and rutaecarpine. Although the mechanism remains unknown, it is proposed that metabolic activation of the indoloquinazoline alkaloids and subsequent covalent binding of reactive metabolites to cellular proteins play a causative role. Liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry analysis of incubations containing evodiamine and NADPH-supplemented microsomes in the presence of glutathione (GSH) revealed formation of a major GSH conjugate which was subsequently indentified as a benzylic thioether adduct on the C-8 position of evodiamine by NMR analysis. Several other GSH conjugates were also detected, including conjugates of oxidized and demethylated metabolites of evodiamine. Similar GSH conjugates were formed in incubations with rutaecarpine. These findings are consistent with a bioactivation sequence involving initial cytochrome P450 – catalyzed dehydrogenation of the 3-alkylindole moiety in evodiamine and rutaecarpine to an electrophile 3-methyleneindolenine. Formation of the evodiamine and rutaecarpine GSH conjugates was primarily catalyzed by heterologously expressed recombinant CYP3A4 and, to a lesser extent, CYP1A2 and CYP2D6, respectively. It was found that the 3-methyleneindolenine or another reactive intermediate was a mech-anism-based inactivator of CYP3A4, with inactivation parameters K I = 29 m M and k inact = 0.029 minute 2 1 , respectively. In summary, these findings are of significance in understanding the bioactivation mechanisms of indoloquinazoline alkaloids, and dehydrogenation of evodiamine and rutaecarpine may cause toxicities through formation of electrophilic intermediates and lead to drug-drug interactions mainly via CYP3A4 inactivation.


Context. Umbral flashes are sudden brightenings commonly visible in the core of some chromospheric lines. Theoretical and numerical modeling suggests that they are produced by the propagation of shock waves. According to these models and early observations, umbral flashes are associated with upflows. However, recent studies have reported umbral flashes in downflowing atmospheres.
Aims. We aim to understand the origin of downflowing umbral flashes. We explore how the existence of standing waves in the umbral chromosphere impacts the generation of flashed profiles.
Methods. We performed numerical simulations of wave propagation in a sunspot umbra with the code MANCHA. The Stokes profiles of the Ca II 8542 Å line were synthesized with the NICOLE code.
Results. For freely propagating waves, the chromospheric temperature enhancements of the oscillations are in phase with velocity upflows. In this case, the intensity core of the Ca II 8542 Å atmosphere is heated during the upflowing stage of the oscillation. However, a different scenario with a resonant cavity produced by the sharp temperature gradient of the transition region leads to chromospheric standing oscillations. In this situation, temperature fluctuations are shifted backward and temperature enhancements partially coincide with the downflowing stage of the oscillation. In umbral flash events produced by standing oscillations, the reversal of the emission feature is produced when the oscillation is downflowing. The chromospheric temperature keeps increasing while the atmosphere is changing from a downflow to an upflow. During the appearance of flashed Ca II 8542 Å cores, the atmosphere is upflowing most of the time, and only 38% of the flashed profiles are associated with downflows.
Conclusions. We find a scenario that remarkably explains the recent empirical findings of downflowing umbral flashes as a natural consequence of the presence of standing oscillations above sunspot umbrae.


Inverse problems with shot noise arise in many modern biomedical imaging applications. The main challenge is to obtain an estimate of the underlying specimen from measurements corrupted by Poisson noise. In this work, we propose an efficient framework for photon-limited image reconstruction, under a regularization approach that relies on matrix-valued operators. Our regularizers involve the Hessian operator and its eigenvalues. They are second-order regularizers that are well suited to biomedical images. For the solution of the arising minimization problem, we propose an optimization algorithm based on an augmented-Lagrangian formulation and specifically tailored to the Poisson nature of the noise. To assess the quality of the reconstruction, we provide experimental results on 3D image stacks of biological images for microscopy deconvolution.


Graphene based materials, including graphene and derivatives such as graphene oxide, have considerable potential as key components in next-generation membrane technologies. Their tunable size, surface chemistry, and structure can be engineered for a spectrum of aqueous filtration purposes ranging from ultrafiltration to reverse osmosis. Among a number of recently developed advanced graphene-enabled membranes, monolayer nanoporous graphene membranes, graphene oxide membranes, and polymeric membranes incorporated with graphene oxide (graphene oxide as nanoscale, material fillers), are currently considered to be the most promising. In this review, the most recent advancements in the development of these three types of membranes are described and discussed, followed by opportunities and challenges presented for graphene-enabled separation technologies. Finally, we conclude the article by providing our perspectives on commercialization potentials based on current technological readiness and cost levels for these graphene-based membranes.


Farmland preservation has become an important pursuit for those seeking to protect the working landscape against conversion to non-agricultural use. One of the most common approaches for securing this protection is through the targeted use of agricultural conservation easements, typically perpetual land use agreements designed to limit incompatible activities in order to preserve future agricultural viability. There is, however, a growing tension within these perpetual agreements, particularly between the need to allow farmers substantial flexibility to adjust to future business conditions and the desire to protect significant non-economic values, including the conservation and environmental benefits that these lands also provide. It is the purpose of this Article to evaluate the role of conservation efforts within this overall framework and to evaluate the potential options for securing greater protection of these important rural amenities.
To this end, Part II of this Article explores the various motivations that fuel farmland preservation nationwide. Part III discusses the evolution of farm policy towards its current degree of multifunctionality and the corresponding development and use of agricultural conservation easements as the preferred protective mechanism. Part IV addresses the growing tension within these agreements as agricultural practice continues to evolve. Last, Part V investigates the various approaches that can be used to protect the environmental attributes of protected agricultural lands. Ultimately, agricultural conservation easements will always require a balance between allowing flexibility for accommodating future needs and protecting rural amenities, but these agreements should actually result in a balance and ensure that the increasingly important conservation and environmental benefits associated with the working landscape are being adequately protected.


This study examined patterns of emergent leadership in distributed teams that interacted using both asynchronous and synchronous media. Two patterns of emergent leadership were observed. Centralized leadership, in which one or two individuals emerged as the team leader(s), and distributed leadership, in which no single individual or combination of individuals emerged as the team leader(s). No differences were found at the team-level in media usage and communication behavior. However, analysis of performance data indicated that distributed leadership teams performed significantly better on the task than centralized leadership teams.
A parallel multimethod analytic scheme in which the transcripts of team interaction were first analyzed using a deductive content analytic framework and subsequently analyzed using an inductive hermeneutic framework was used to analyze the transcripts of team interactions. The results of the inductive analysis indicate that the use of behaviors as meaningful units of analysis over-represented instances of leadership in the data. Leadership attempts emerged as the more meaningful unit of analysis in both asynchronous and synchronous media. These were defined as communication initiated by a team member intended to influence other team members to act or respond in a way that indicates agreement and understanding about what needs to be done (task substance) and how it can be done (task process) effectively, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives. (Yukl, 2002, p. 7).
Examination of communication content in both media indicated that leaders engaged in more communication related to the process and substance of the task in centralized leadership teams. There was no evidence that leaders engaged in social, or group maintenance, communication. Leaders in centralized leadership teams were found to have dominated team interaction, engaging in more process- and substance-oriented communication and in more total communication. This was not the case in distributed leadership teams when the communication behavior of team members was examined.
Analysis of the behavioral content of leadership attempts indicated that eight behaviors were common in leadership attempts in both asynchronous and synchronous media. This suggests that there may a core behavioral repertoire in which leaders engage.


Although the question of whether international corporate governance is converging on the U.S. model remains contested, there is general agreement as to the nature of that U.S. model. Specifically, virtually all participants in the convergence debate assume that U.S. corporate law is based on a norm of shareholder primacy. This assumption is wrong. U.S. corporate law is far more accurately described as a system of director primacy than one of shareholder primacy. In this essay, the author argues that the comparative corporate governance literature's erroneous understanding of the U.S. model distorts both the positive and normative aspects of the convergence debate. On the positive side, if we use the extent of shareholder primacy as our metric, we end up with a distorted estimate of the extent to which systems have converged. On the normative side, corporate governance is a potentially important instrument by which to increase the economy's efficiency. In recent years, elite U.S. corporate law scholars have played a significant role in "reforming" the corporate laws of transition economies. If the goal is to export the U.S. model, on the assumption of its superiority, we do those economies no good - and may do much harm - by exporting the wrong model. Hence, we are constrained to examine the normative question: Does it matter? Is director primacy superior to shareholder primacy? This essay acknowledges that investor participation in corporate governance has economic benefits, but argues that director primacy is preferable on balance.


The purpose of this article is to clarify the relationship between forms of political legitimacy employed by communist regimes in East and Central Europe and subsequent models of revolutionary change in 1989. The conceptual basis of the analysis lies in Max Weber's theoretical framework of legitimacy. The four cases selected for comparison are Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland and Romania. The attempts of de-Stalinization and reformation of these party-state regimes through the introduction of paternalistic and also more goal-oriented measures could not prevent their disintegration in the 1980s and their subsequent collapse in 1989. But, I argue, it was the withdrawal of ideological support by elites that ultimately brought communism to an end. The differences in revolutionary scenarios and transitions to democracy in the four cases indicate the importance of a shift in both rulers and masses towards interest in dialogue and compromise. Hungary and Poland represent the clearest scenarios in which communist parties acted as agents of regime change in a rational-legal direction. The Bulgarian case stands as an intermediary case between these two and Romania. Finally, Romania represents an extreme case of violent revolution and the overthrow of a traditionalist and sultanistic regime and illustrates the difficulties following a complete collapse of political authority.


Unlike the first instance judgment in this case, the Court of Appeal decision in R (Burke) v General Medical Council has attracted little criticism. The majority of commentators appear to regard the outcome as unproblematic, almost an inevitable corollary to the first instance decision. This article will not follow the same path. Instead it will evaluate the impetus behind Leslie Burke's original claim and question the reasons why the first instance decision was so roundly rejected by the appeal court. Having considered the legal principles that underpin both judgments, it will conclude that Munby J accurately and sensitively depicted the plight of the applicant but that his judgment and its perceived implications were misinterpreted by some in the medical community whose passionate lobbying against it influenced not only the General Medical Council to bring the appeal, but also the court.


Nowadays, while most of the programmable network apparatus vendors support OpenFlow, a number of fragmented control plane solutions exist for proprietary Software - Defined Networks. Thus, network applications developers are forced to re-implement their solutions every time they encounter a new network controller. Moreover, different network developers adopt different solutions as control plane programming language (e.g. Frenetic, Procera), severely limiting code sharing and reuse. Despite having OpenFlow as candidate standard interface between the controller and the network infrastructure, interoperability between different controllers and network devices is hindered and closed ecosystems are emerging. In this paper we present the roadmap toward NetIDE, an integrated development environment which aims at supporting the whole development lifecycle of vendor - agnostic network applications.


We develop traffic grooming algorithms for unidirectional SONET/WDM ring networks. The objective is to assign calls to wavelengths in a way that minimizes the total cost of electronic equipment [e.g., the number of SONET add/drop multiplexers (ADM's)]. We show that the general traffic grooming problem is NP-complete. However, for some special cases we obtain algorithms that result in a significant reduction in the number of ADM's. When the traffic from all nodes is destined to a single node, and all traffic rates are the same, we obtain a solution that minimizes the number of ADM's. In the more general case of all-to-all uniform frame we obtain a lower bound on the number of ADM's required, and provide a heuristic algorithm that performs closely to that bound. To account for more realistic traffic scenarios, we also consider distance dependent traffic, where the traffic load between two nodes is inversely proportional to the distance between them, and again provide a nearly optimal heuristic algorithm that results in substantial ADM savings. Finally, we consider the use of a hub node, where traffic can be switched between different wavelength, and obtain an optimal algorithm which minimizes the number of ADM's by efficiently multiplexing and switching the traffic at the hub. Moreover, we show that any solution not using a hub can be transformed into a solution with a hub using fewer or the same number of ADM's.


Online dating is one domain, which would benefit from the application of computational trust. One of the problems with the application of traditional computational trust models, as identified in our previous work, is authenticity of information provided by parties which helps other users ascertain whether they want to go on dates. In this position paper, we suggest a solution: a concordance based framework for a game to be built into a online dating system. The game provokes users to provide spontaneous and thus more genuine data about themselves. The key feature of the game is the respect for privacy that supports and encourages the user to provide authentic information. Future work will comprise of implementation of the game and its user testing.


Abstract Over the past 15 years there has been remarkable progress in the specification and estimation of dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models. Central banks in developed and emerging market economies have become increasingly interested in their usefulness for policy analysis and forecasting. This paper reviews some issues and challenges surrounding the use of these models at central banks. It recognises that they offer coherent frameworks for structuring policy discussions. Nonetheless, they are not ready to accomplish all that is being asked of them. First, they still need to incorporate relevant transmission mechanisms or sectors of the economy; second, issues remain on how to empirically validate them; and finally, challenges remain on how to effectively communicate their features and implications to policy makers and to the public. Overall, at their current stage DSGE models have important limitations. How much of a problem this is will depend on their specific use at central banks.


We systematically study the optical spectra of ZnO grown by atomic-layer deposition as a function of Al (and Ti) doping concentration. The spectra measured on films are well described by fits using a Drude free-electron model. The derived plasma frequencies are consistent with the expected amount of doping and can be continuously and controllably tuned from small values to about 400 THz. The losses (damping) are also quantified. In addition, we achieve smooth conformal coatings of three-dimensional polymer templates made by direct laser writing. Altogether, Al:ZnO appears as an attractive "tunable metal" for three-dimensional infrared metamaterials or transformation-optics architectures.


The links between plantation expansion and deforestation in Borneo are debated. We used satellite imagery to map annual loss of old‐growth forests, expansion of industrial plantations (oil palm and pulpwood), and their overlap in Borneo from 2001 to 2017. In 17 years, forest area declined by 14% (6.04 Mha), including 3.06 Mha of forest ultimately converted into industrial plantations. Plantations expanded by 170% (6.20 Mha: 88% oil palm; 12% pulpwood). Most forests converted to plantations were cleared and planted in the same year (92%; 2.83 Mha). Annual forest loss generally increased before peaking in 2016 (0.61 Mha) and declining sharply in 2017 (0.25 Mha). After peaks in 2009 and 2012, plantation expansion and associated forest conversion have been declining in Indonesia and Malaysia. Annual plantation expansion is positively correlated with annual forest loss in both countries. The correlation vanishes when we consider plantation expansion versus forests that are cleared but not converted to plantations. The price of crude palm oil is positively correlated with plantation expansion in the following year in Indonesian (not Malaysian) Borneo. Low palm oil prices, wet conditions, and improved fire prevention all likely contributed to reduced 2017 deforestation. Oversight of company conduct requires transparent concession ownership.


An increase in hepatic glucose production (HGP) represents a key feature of type 2 diabetes. This deficiency in metabolic control of glucose production critically depends on enhanced signaling through hepatic glucagon receptors (GCGRs). Here, we have demonstrated that selective inactivation of the GPCR-associated protein &bgr;-arrestin 2 in hepatocytes of adult mice results in greatly increased hepatic GCGR signaling, leading to striking deficits in glucose homeostasis. However, hepatocyte-specific &bgr;-arrestin 2 deficiency did not affect hepatic insulin sensitivity or &bgr;-adrenergic signaling. Adult mice lacking &bgr;-arrestin 1 selectively in hepatocytes did not show any changes in glucose homeostasis. Importantly, hepatocyte-specific overexpression of &bgr;-arrestin 2 greatly reduced hepatic GCGR signaling and protected mice against the metabolic deficits caused by the consumption of a high-fat diet. Our data support the concept that strategies aimed at enhancing hepatic &bgr;-arrestin 2 activity could prove useful for suppressing HGP for therapeutic purposes.


Although there is evidence that audit and feedback can improve health outcomes, little is known about the effect of audit on the quality of care from client's perspective. The aim of the current review was to explore the use of criterion‐based audit to improve quality of obstetric care from both the midwives/doctors' and women/mothers' perspectives. Electronic searches of Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, and EMBASE were conducted. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and before‐and‐after studies that assessed the effect of criterion‐based audit on health outcomes or women/mothers' perception of obstetric care were set as selection criteria. Data were extracted, analyzed using Revman 4.2 software, and results expressed as weighted mean differences for continuous data, and odds ratios for dichotomous data. Nineteen studies (one RCT and 18 before‐and‐after studies) involving 32,972 participants met our inclusion criteria. None of these studies assessed the effect of audit on quality from the women/mothers' perspective and none of the studies compared the effectiveness of different types of feedback. Ninety‐five percentage (18/19) of studies showed significant improvement in at least one standard measured. Criterion‐based audit has been used in obstetrics to improve quality from one dimension, namely the midwives/doctors' perspective. Midwives/doctors should consider the use of audit to improve quality of care from the mothers' view. There is need for well‐designed RCTs to assess the effectiveness of different types of feedback in criterion‐based audit.


The aim of this contribution is to investigate aggregation efficiencies when a fluidised layer of granular material (FLGM) is applied for a treatment of surface water with high DOC (Dissolved Organic Carbon) and low alkalinity in a pilot size operation. It was shown that the FLGM can be effective for agitation of a system using destabilised particles with the aim to form readily separable suspension. An aggregation efficiency of the FLGM reactor was evaluated by the degrees of destabilisation and aggregation of the particles of impurities. The maximal separation efficiencies of the pilot plant after filtration attained φ Al = 0.96 and φ DOC = 0.73. These values exceeded not negligibly the ones reported for the conventional aggregation processes.


Abstract Population aging is a worldwide phenomenon, but its impact on Qatar is unique. The proposed system aims at comprehensive and integrated vital signs (ECG, Saturation of Arterial Oxygen (SpO2), BP and Heart rate (HR)) monitoring using a wearable sensor platform without professional involvements or interfering the elderly's everyday activities. A novel wireless physiological sensor node with single highly-integrated board has been specifically designed and fabricated ( Fig.1(a) ). The new board comprises of a MCU, ECG analog front-end, LED driver and brightness adjustment circuit for photoplethysmograph (PPG) measurement, a CC2420 chip for wireless communication and a FTDI FT232RL chip for MCU programming and real-time debugging. A miniaturized wireless gateway was also designed ( Fig.1(b) ) to wirelessly receive the data from sensor node and further relay to the PC for ongoing research on ECG denoising and arrhythmia classification. A novel MEMS-based electrode has been designed and fabricated for ECG measurement as shown in Fig.2 . Compared with conventional ECG electrodes, micromachined electrode is more comfortable; no direct contact of gel with the human skin and imposes no side effects to human for continuous and long term measurement. A unique characteristic feature of the proposed electrode is that the microneedle array is made of heavily doped silicon, which is electrically conductive and eliminates the requirement to dope Ag/AgCl or metal layer on the microneedles for electric contact. The microneedles can directly pierce through the outer skin surface, lowering the electrode-skin-electrode impedance (ESEI) and eliminating the need for skin preparation which, is prerequisite for wet electrode. For long-term monitoring, mechanical failure of micro-needles may accidentally happen due to the axial loading during insertion process or transverse loading during the measurement. As a result, the broken silicon needles will become debris in the skin, which attracts healthy concern for the user. Therefore, critical buckling loads for fabricated micro-needle were investigated using both theoretical estimation and ANSYS simulation. The results show that the critical buckling load is much larger than theoretical insertion force thereby the buckling problem will not occur during the insertion process. This work is supported by Qatar National Research Funding (QNRF) under the grant NPRP 09-292-2-113.


Laboratory and pilot scale tests were conducted to compare the effectiveness of enhanced coagulation with the more advanced technologies of ozone and granular activated carbon in treating a range of clean, eutrophic and industrially polluted waters. Particular attention was paid to the removal of disinfectant by-product precursors, organics and micropollutants that could be achieved using the various types of treatment. Reductions of up to 50% trihalomethane formation potential and between 40 and 70% organic carbon and colour were obtained using enhanced coagulation, which compared favourably with the advanced treatment processes. The more sophisticated processes were especially effective in the removal of micropollutants, this generally being in excess of 70%, which was not achievable using enhanced coagulation. pH depression using acid addition allowed for increases in organics removal at lower coagulant doses and inorganic coagulants were found to be more effective than the polymeric coagulants for organic matter removal. It was shown that the advanced treatment processes became more cost effective for larger plants and as water quality deteriorates, but for smaller water works, enhanced coagulation is cheaper.


In this paper, we present an electromagnetic inverse particle swarm optimization (PSO)-based method for modeling the electromagnetic radiation of components or systems of power electronics using the near-field technique. The implementation of this method has been applied to the cartography of the magnetic field emitted by different structures. To fully appreciate our approach, the obtained results along with the proposed methods were compared to those obtained by the inverse method, based on the genetic algorithm (GA). Basically, we will compare the results at two levels, theoretical and practical. For the theoretical comparison, both methods are applied to several calculated cartographies of the magnetic field, using the analytical equations of the magnetic and electric dipoles. For the practical comparison, we have used results based on the measurements performed on real systems. The purpose of these comparisons is to show that using the PSO in the electromagnetic inverse method is more interesting than the GA. In fact, the obtained results have shown that the PSO-based method is at least six times faster than the GA-based one.


Recent studies in neuroscience show great potential of functional brain networks constructed from fMRI data for popularity modeling and clinical predictions. However, existing functional brain networks are noisy and unaware of downstream prediction tasks, while also incompatible with recent powerful machine learning models of GNNs. In this work, we develop an end-to-end trainable pipeline to extract prominent fMRI features, generate brain networks, and make predictions with GNNs, all under the guidance of downstream prediction tasks. Preliminary experiments on the PNC fMRI data show the superior effectiveness and unique interpretability of our framework.


To ensure power system operational security, it not only requires security incident detection, but also automated intrusion response and recovery mechanisms to tolerate failures and maintain the system's functionalities. In this paper, we present a design procedure for remedial action schemes (RAS) that improves the power systems resiliency against accidental failures or malicious endeavors such as cyber attacks. A resilience-oriented optimal power flow is proposed, which optimizes the system security instead of the generation cost. To improve its speed for online application, a fast greedy algorithm is presented to narrow the search space. The proposed techniques are computationally efficient and are suitable for online RAS applications in large-scale power systems. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed methods, there are two case studies with IEEE 24-bus and IEEE 118-bus systems.


1. Methods are needed to relate changing river flows to ecological response, particularly those which do not require collection of extensive new data for river segments that lack historical data. Using time-series of river biomonitoring data from wadeable lowland streams in Denmark and the East Midlands of the U.K., we describe how local-scale habitat features (indexed through River Habitat Survey or Danish Habitat Quality Survey) and changing river flow (discharge) influence the response of a macroinvertebrate community index. The approach has broad applicability in developing regional flow-ecological response models.
2. We analysed the data using multilevel linear regression, combining sample-level and site-level characteristics as predictors. We focused on the potential for common responses
across sites; hence for each sample, the macroinvertebrate community was summarised into an index, Lotic Invertebrate index for Flow Evaluation (LIFE), an average of abundance-weighted flow groups which indicate the microhabitat preferences of each taxon for higher velocities and clean gravel ⁄cobble substrata or slow ⁄ still velocities and
finer substrata.
3. For the Danish fauna, the LIFE score responded to three predictors in an additive manner: high flows in the preceding 4 months (positive), substratum composition and
whether the channel was meandering or straight. The East Midlands fauna responded to three predictors: high and low flows in the preceding 6 months (positive) and the degree
of resectioning of the channel (negative). In both cases, LIFE responded negatively to features associated with historical channel modification. We suggest that there are severalmechanisms for these relationships, including the narrower tolerances of taxa preferring high velocity habitat; these taxa are also continually recovering from extreme flow events over an inter-annual timescale.
4. At the East Midlands sites, there was an interaction between degree of resectioning and antecedent low flow. At sites with a greater extent of resectioning, the LIFE-discharge relationship was also steeper than at less modified sites. Consideration of the underlying
data suggests that there are two mechanisms for this response. Firstly, in less modified sites, refugia are present during low flows for taxa preferring higher velocities such as riffle beetles, caseless caddis, mayflies and Gammarus pulex. Secondly, high flows are
associated with decreasing abundances of taxa such as molluscs, flatworms and leeches at more resectioned sites, but with stable or increasing abundances at less modified sites.
5. The LIFE index responded to both antecedent flow and habitat modification in two separate data sets from lowland wadeable streams. This is the first time that the combined
importance of these two factors has been demonstrated using routine invertebrate biomonitoring data. These results complement other site-specific studies that have shown
how channel structure interacts with flow to create physical habitat, and should assist future work aiming to define flow-habitat-biota relationships.
6. The derived models may be used to help guide environmental flow allocations, for example by predicting the slope of response of LIFE score to flow for comparable new locations which lack biological data.


We report an optical range sensor that combines the advantages of focus sensing and interferometry. It works for specularly reflecting objects and for diffusely reflecting objects. The sensor is simple, robust against vibrations, and has high depth resolution. The aperture is very small, hence the sensor is small and minimizes shading problems. The sensor is based on the following principle: A light spot is projected onto the object under test. The radius of the wave that is scattered at the object is measured with high accuracy by shearing interferometry.


Credit is considered as essential lubricant to grease the production channels of agriculture, industry and services to stimulate their smooth operation. Credit has been part of human existence from time immemorial. The level of Sophistication and progress in utilizing and controlling credit has improved along with the improvement in Civilization. Credit is regarded as life blood of commerce. credit planning and management, performance has become very important in the modern world. Credit now is an integral part of the developing as well as developed economies. The underdeveloped economies along with many scarcity also lack capital, the capital formulation is less because of low rate of saving and investment. Ragnar Nurkse points to the vicious circle of underdevelopment equilibrium operating in underdeveloped countries in which low income leads to low saving which means low investment and then low income. If the vicious circle has to be broke if involves intervention by the state in the process of economic development. The Government of India nationalized 14 major Indian banks in the private sector having deposits of Rs. 50 crores and over each as on the last Friday on June 1969 with effect from 19th July 1969. By nationalizing the major banks, the Government secured control over what Mrs. Indira Gandhi described as "the commanding heights of economy". The government of India nationalized six more banks in 1980. But unfortunately in India despite knowing the importance of domestic credit, the domestic credit as a percentage to its GDP is very less. The domestic credit in India, when compared to the developed economies or the even to the East Asian Economies is very less. The bank credit in India as percentage to GDP was 47% at end of March 2006 and it was 51% by end of March 2007. The paper evaluates the performance of instituional credit agencies in karnataka


This study is carried out to determine the consumer awareness towards electronic
payment in the Klang Valley. The target group is among consumers in the Klang Valley
and focuses on people who had a past experience on using any of electronic payment
services offered in Malaysia. This research will identify why, where, when, what, and
how they use the electronic payment system. This study will also focus on people who
had no experience on using any types of electronic payment services in Malaysia. This
research will also identify why they do not use the electronic payment services. The
purpose of this study is to give a real scenario about the awareness of people at Klang
Valley towards electronic payment in Malaysia. This research will give some
measurement about the frequency and consumer awareness and also highlight the
knowledge level of Klang Valley peoples about electronic payment in Malaysia. From
the finding shows that most of the respondent are aware about electronic payment that
being offered. All of the respondents know about electronic payment before and like to
pay their utility and telecommunication bills. Most of the respondents that have an
experience on using electronic payment are satisfied and will recommend the electronic
payment services to their friends. Most of them also do not find any difficulties on using
electronic payment services. Most of them agreed that electronic payment services are
easy to use. Most of them agreed that electronic payment is secured and saving their time
compared to queuing at the counter. Respondents believes that electronic payment is
beneficial to them but believe that electronic payment is slow in response time. They feel
convenience on using electronic payment and agreed that electronic payment system in
Malaysia needs more improvement.


The spaceflight environment is relevant to conditions encountered by pathogens during the course of infection and induces novel changes in microbial pathogenesis not observed using conventional methods. It is unclear how microbial cells sense spaceflight-associated changes to their growth environment and orchestrate corresponding changes in molecular and physiological phenotypes relevant to the infection process. Here we report that spaceflight-induced increases in Salmonella virulence are regulated by media ion composition, and that phosphate ion is sufficient to alter related pathogenesis responses in a spaceflight analogue model. Using whole genome microarray and proteomic analyses from two independent Space Shuttle missions, we identified evolutionarily conserved molecular pathways in Salmonella that respond to spaceflight under all media compositions tested. Identification of conserved regulatory paradigms opens new avenues to control microbial responses during the infection process and holds promise to provide an improved understanding of human health and disease on Earth.


Present-day Iraq occupies the area that was once the heartland of the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia. Despite the millennia that separate Mesopotamia and the Iraq of Saddam Hussein, several aspects of the deposed Iraqi leader's ideology (including his concept of warfare) seem to bear a remarkable resemblance to the ideology of the kings of ancient Mesopotamia. This article explores this resemblance and shows that while Saddam Hussein and the Mesopotamian kings had much in common, there were several differences as well. Furthermore, the many empires that followed Mesopotamia also left their mark on modern Iraq. History may have, to an extent, repeated itself in that Saddam Hussein perpetuated many of the traditions associated with the kings of Mesopotamia, but his ideology reflected his specific conditions – conditions different to those that existed in the Mesopotamian era.


In this paper, two commercial surfactants with excellent performance nonionic fatty alcohol polyoxyethylene ether (AEO-9), and anionic sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS) were mixed in different mole ratios to enhance the solution's wetting ability and the flocculating efficiency of black carbon (BC). Results showed that when the mole ratio of AEO-9: SDBS was 1:7, and the concentration of the solution was 0.57 mM, and the solution obtained the lowest surface tension. Furthermore, the existence of AEO-9 in the surfactant mixture reduced the influences of temperature and polyelectrolytes with different electrical properties on the solution's surface tension. In the flocculation system, the flocculation behavior of BC suspensions by anionic polyacrylamide (PAM-A) and polyaluminium chloride (PAC) in the presence of a surfactant mixture were investigated. The results suggested that when BC suspensions were pretreated with the surfactant mixture, the existence of SDBS made the surface of BC own more negative charges. The flocculation ability of PAM-A was governed mainly by bridging. Addition of PAM-A could not get a higher flocculating efficiency in two addition way. When PAC was added into AEO-9-SDBS pretreated BC suspension solution, the electrostatic attraction and the charge neutralization between PAC and BC particles were enhanced significantly.


Efficiently mapping multiple virtual infrastructures (VIs) onto the same physical substrate with survivability is one of the fundamental challenges related to network virtualization in transport software-defined networks (T-SDNs). In this paper, we study the survivable VI mapping problem in T-SDNs with the objective of minimizing the VI request blocking probability. In particular, we address the subproblems of modulation selection and spectrum allocation in the process of provisioning optical channels to support virtual links, taking into consideration the optical layer constraints such as the transmission reach constraint and the spectral continuity constraint. We propose an auxiliary-graph-based algorithm, namely, parallel VI mapping (PAR), to offer dedicated protection against any single physical node or link failure. More specifically, the PAR algorithm can jointly optimize the assignments of mapping the primary and backup VIs by adopting the modified Suurballe algorithm to find the shortest pair of node-disjoint paths for each virtual link. Through extensive simulations, we demonstrate that the PAR algorithm can significantly reduce the VI request blocking probability and improve the traffic-carrying capacity of the networks, compared to the baseline sequential VI mapping approaches.


ABSTRACT This article explores how 145 photographs collected from 20 PowerPoint lectures in undergraduate psychology at 16 UK universities were integrated with lecturers' speech. Little is currently known about how lecturers refer to the distinct types of photographs included in their presentations. Findings show that only 48 photographs (33%) included in presentation slides were referred to explicitly by exploring their features to make a point related to the lecture content, with only 14 of these used to invite student questioning. Most photographs (97 or 67%) represent a case of 'unprobed representations', that is, either 'embedded' in the talk as 'illustrations' of the speech topic or not referred to at all. A taxonomy of uses that lecturers made of the photographs in their slideshows was created through adapting a Peircean semiotic analysis of the photograph–speech interaction. The implications in terms of lecturer and student engagement with the photographic material are discussed, arguing the case for more Critical Semiotic Exploration of photographs in HE practice.


In this first modern book-length biography of native Englander William E. Burton, theatre historian David L. Rinear explores Burton s diary, letters, published reviews, and various reminiscences to reveal the tumultuous personal and professional lives of the mid-nineteenth-century actor/manager and his role in American literary history." Stage, Page, Scandals, and Vandals: William E. Burton and Nineteenth-Century American Theatre "also provides insight into the cultural and artistic climate of an early period in American history when the country was still forming a national identity.Burton fled England in 1834 and came to America in the wake of a public scandal caused by his marriage to a sixteen-year-old orphan. Burton was then already married with a ten-year-old son. Settling in Philadelphia, the thirty-two-year-old actor rapidly established himself in the city s theatrical productions and quickly became an audience favorite.In 1837, while continuing to act, Burton founded and edited "The Gentleman s Magazine," a monthly literary publication later called "Burton s Gentleman s Magazine."Burton hired struggling author Edgar Allan Poe as coeditor, and the journal achieved literary acclaim as it first published many of Poe s short stories and poems.Burton sold the journal in 1841 and used the money to build a new theatre, which he managed, although the depression of the early 1840s soon drove his venture out of business. After declaring bankruptcy the following year, Burton worked as a touring actor before returning to theatre management in 1845. For the next thirteen years, Burton managed a succession of theatres in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York.Burton s work as a producer of Shakespearean comedies and romances marks him as the first of the intellectual theatre managers to raise the theatrical experience from mere popular culture to high art. Burton made a fortune in his ventures, amassed the finest private Shakespearean library in the country, and built a grand seaside estate in Glen Cove, Long Island. Shrewd in his personal affairs and in business, Burton also had a violent temper, which led him to viciously attack his competitors. His peculiar domestic relationships marred his brilliant career as an actor, manager, and man of letters; he may have been married to three women at once and lived with two of these women simultaneously.Fully revealing Burton s contributions to American culture, Rinear traces Burton s personal and professional pursuits from his emigration to his death in 1860. Bolstered by twenty-two illustrations, "Stage, Page, Scandals, and Vandals "sheds light on the history of American entertainment during the antebellum era, exposes the ruthless business practices required to succeed in theatre and literary magazine publishing, and reveals a sense of what constituted celebrity status in mid-nineteenth-century America."


In the spring of 1832, a well-respected Sauk warrior named Black Hawk led a group of Sauks, Foxes, Kickapoos, and Potawatomies across the Mississippi River, through lands formerly occupied by the Sauks. Characterized as an assault on white settlements by U.S. officials during and afterwards, the movements of Black Hawk's band were represented as a direct threat to the safety of the American public and a violation of existing treaties. In contrast, Black Hawk's Life of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak, or Black Hawk (1833) offers a genealogy of the conflict that contextualizes it within a decades-long struggle between the United States and the Sauks, as well as other native peoples in the western Great Lakes region, over how to conceptualize native landholding, diplomacy, and trade. The narrative explores the effects of reducing a complex regional matrix to a series of treaty-mediated relationships between individual tribes and the federal government, insisting on the existence of an alternative native-centered framework through which to understand occupancy and exchange. While it is the result of a layered composition involving transcription, translation, and editing, Black Hawk's Life functions as a self-consciously traditionalist critique of the mappings and subjectivities of U.S. Indian policy. The text uses the medium of print to provide a countervailing narrative to the texts of the treaty-system, sketching a set of regional native processes, practices, and principles which have no place either in the atomizing political geography of Indian policy or the hybridized critical imaginary of the "middle ground."


Once hunted by whalers and now the darling of ecotourists, the gray whale has become part of the culture, history, politics, and geography of Mexico's most isolated region. After the harvesting of gray whales was banned by international law in 1946, their populations rebounded; but while they are no longer hunted for their oil, these creatures are now chased up and down the lagoons of southern Baja California by whalewatchers. This book uses the biology and politics associated with gray whales in Mexican waters to present an unusual case study in conservation and politics. It provides an inside look at how gray whale conservation decisions are made in Mexico City and examines how those policies and programs are carried out in the calving grounds of San Ignacio Lagoon and Magdalena Bay, where catering to ecotourists is now an integral part of the local economy. More than a study of conservation politics, Dedina's book puts a human face on wildlife conservation. The author lived for two years with residents of Baja communities to understand their attitudes about wildlife conservation and Mexican politics, and he accompanied many in daily activities to show the extent to which the local economy depends on whalewatching. "It is ironic," observes Dedina, "that residents of some of the most isolated fishing villages in North America are helping to redefine our relationship with wild animals. Americans and Europeans brought the gray whale population to the brink of extinction. The inhabitants of San Ignacio Lagoon and Magdalena Bay are helping us to celebrate the whales' survival." By showing us how these animals have helped shape the lifeways of the people with whom they share the lagoons, Saving the Gray Whale demonstrates that gray whales represent both a destructive past and a future with hope.


Dr Cohn provides an in-depth and comprehensive analysis of the economic history of European immigration to the antebellum United States, using and evaluating the available data as well as presenting fresh data. This analysis centers on immigration from the three most important source countries - Ireland, Germany, and Great Britain - and examines the volume of immigration, how many individuals came from each country during the antebellum period, and why those numbers increased. The book also analyzes where they came from within each country; who chose to immigrate; the immigrants' trip to the United States, including estimates of mortality on the Atlantic crossing; the jobs obtained in the United States by the immigrants, along with their geographic location; and the economic effects of immigration on both the immigrants and the antebellum United States. No other book examines so many different economic aspects of antebellum immigration.


We quantify the fiscal multipliers in response to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of 2009. We extend the benchmark Smets-Wouters (Smets and Wouters, 2007) New Keynesian model, allowing for credit-constrained households, the zero lower bound, government capital and distortionary taxation. The posterior yields modestly positive short-run multipliers around 0.52 and modestly negative long-run multipliers around -0.42. The multiplier is sensitive to the fraction of transfers given to credit-constrained households, the duration of the zero lower bound and the capital. The stimulus results in negative welfare effects for unconstrained agents. The constrained agents gain, if they discount the future substantially.


We have built a statistical package called Ballgown for estimating differential expression of genes, transcripts, or exons from RNA sequencing experiments. Ballgown is designed to work with the popular Cufflinks transcript assembly software and uses well-motivated statistical methods to provide estimates of changes in expression. It permits statistical analysis at the transcript level for a wide variety of experimental designs, allows adjustment for confounders, and handles studies with continuous covariates. Ballgown provides improved statistical significance estimates as compared to the Cuffdiff2 differential expression tool included with Cufflinks. We demonstrate the flexibility of the Ballgown package by re-analyzing 667 samples from the GEUVADIS study to identify transcript-level eQTLs and identify non-linear artifacts in transcript data. Our package is freely available from: https://github.com/alyssafrazee/ballgown


In this paper, we propose an observer design for a class of single-output linear systems with known time-delay in the state. First, we introduce a new concept of asymptotic stability for linear time delay systems called the (α, r)-stability. This automatically ensures that the underlying system is stable in the Krasovskii sense which in turn guaranty that the system is asymptotically stable. The observer design is then based on the specific choice of the observer gain such that the corresponding error dynamics is (α, r)-stable. An example is provided to illustrate the design methodology.


BACKGROUND
Recent measles outbreaks in highly vaccinated populations have highlighted the role of vaccine failure as a barrier to the elimination of measles. We sought to estimate the rate of secondary failure (clinical measles after vaccine-induced seroconversion) of measles vaccines using metaanalysis.

METHODS
We identified 1411 studies of which 125 were relevant. From these we found 10 original studies of healthy subjects with sufficient details to calculate a pooled secondary failure rate. We performed a test for homogeneity before any pooling.

RESULTS
Although significant heterogeneity prevented their pooling as a single group, the studies fell into three homogeneous groups suitable for pooling. Group A studies used killed vaccine whereas the other two groups (Groups B and C) of studies used live vaccine. These latter groups differ in that the studies in Group B share higher failure rates and are difficult to interpret with respect to the lack of verification of vaccination, immunization before 12 months of age and a non-North American study site and vaccine manufacturer. Those studies in Group C, in which US subjects were older than 12 months at vaccination and received a live US-manufactured vaccine that was documented in a medical record, had a failure rate of 0 of 2031 with a 95% confidence interval of 0.0 to 0.147%.

CONCLUSIONS
Although reports of measles related to secondary failure exist, studies that permit the calculation of the rate of secondary failure demonstrate that the rate appears to be < 0.2%.


Folding robots and metamaterials The same principles used to make origami art can make self-assembling robots and tunable metamaterials—artificial materials engineered to have properties that may not be found in nature (see the Perspective by You). Felton et al. made complex self-folding robots from flat templates. Such robots could potentially be sent through a collapsed building or tunnels and then assemble themselves autonomously into their final functional form. Silverberg et al. created a mechanical metamaterial that was folded into a tessellated pattern of unit cells. These cells reversibly switched between soft and stiff states, causing large, controllable changes to the way the material responded to being squashed. Science, this issue p. 644, p. 647; see also p. 623 Origami folded sheets can be structurally altered by adding defects to control the mechanical properties. [Also see Perspective by You] Although broadly admired for its aesthetic qualities, the art of origami is now being recognized also as a framework for mechanical metamaterial design. Working with the Miura-ori tessellation, we find that each unit cell of this crease pattern is mechanically bistable, and by switching between states, the compressive modulus of the overall structure can be rationally and reversibly tuned. By virtue of their interactions, these mechanically stable lattice defects also lead to emergent crystallographic structures such as vacancies, dislocations, and grain boundaries. Each of these structures comes from an arrangement of reversible folds, highlighting a connection between mechanical metamaterials and programmable matter. Given origami's scale-free geometric character, this framework for metamaterial design can be directly transferred to milli-, micro-, and nanometer-size systems.


The s allele, of the 5-HTTLPR genotype has been associated with a negative effect on memory function, however very few studies have examined the impact of this gene polymorphism in older age. This is important given the functional impact of memory decline in ageing, and given that serotonin declines with age. The present study examined the effect of the 5-HTTLPR genotype (s/s and s/l versus l/l genotypes) on episodic and working memory function across age. This effect was also examined separately across males and females. A total of 298 female and 140 male participants were recruited as part of The Healthy Brian Project with a mean age 60.35 years (range 49-80). Participants were administered tests of visual and verbal episodic and working memory as well as being genotyped for the 5-HTTLPR gene. Moderation analysis revealed decline in verbal episodic memory across age was differentially predicted by the 5-HTTLPR genotype, with this effect being moderated by sex. There was no significant moderation of 5-HTTLPR on visual episodic or working memory measures across age. These findings suggest serotonin influences verbal episodic memory specifically and has a differential effect in women and men across age.


We study multipartite entanglement in the context of XOR games. In particular, we study the ratio of the entangled and classical biases, which measure the maximum advantage of a quantum or classical strategy over a uniformly random strategy. For the case of two-player XOR games, Tsirelson proved that this ratio is upper bounded by the celebrated Grothendieck constant. In contrast, Perez-Garcia et al. proved the existence of entangled states that give quantum players an unbounded advantage over classical players in a three-player XOR game.

We show that the multipartite entangled states that are most often seen in today's literature can only lead to a bias that is a constant factor larger than the classical bias. These states include GHZ states, any state local-unitarily equivalent to combinations of GHZ and maximally entangled states shared between different subsets of the players (e.g., stabilizer states), as well as generalizations of GHZ states of the form Σiαi|i〉... |i〉 for arbitrary amplitudes αi. Our results have the following surprising consequence: classical three-player XOR games do not follow an XOR parallel repetition theorem, even a very weak one. Besides this, we discuss implications of our results for communication complexity and hardness of approximation.

Our proofs are based on novel applications of extensions of Grothendieck's inequality, due to Blei and Tonge, and Carne, generalizing Tsirelson's use of Grothendieck's inequality to bound the bias of two-player XOR games.


A new commission by Newcastle-based artist Kate Liston marks the first in a series of annual site-specific projects responding to the unique architecture and remarkable history of the Hatton Gallery, as well as its pivotal role in international innovations in exhibition design and installation art.

Feel After the New See will transform the most historic gallery space within the Hatton into an immersive installation, which will become the setting for a new film work taking shape throughout the exhibition.

The installation is inspired by the work of German artist Ella Bergmann-Michel whose work was exhibited in Newcastle in the 1960s and 70s, and who later donated a collage to the Hatton Gallery.

The film which will be developed during the exhibition, features footage of Newcastle shot by the artist, reflecting the city's past and future, combined with footage of miniature versions of the artist's larger installation, and other references to Ella Bergmann-Michel's own drawings, collages and film work.


One of the most important areas of biomedical engineering is medical imaging. Fully automated schemes are currently being explored as Computer-Aided Diagnosis (CAD) systems to provide a second opinion to medical professionals; of these systems, abnormal region detector in medical images is one of the most critical CAD systems in development. The primary motivation in using these systems is due to the fact that reading an enormous number of images is a time-consuming task for the radiologist. This task can be sped up by using a CAD system which highlights abnormal regions of interest. Low false positive rates and high sensitivity are essential requirement[s] of such a system.

The initial requirement of processing any organ is an accurate segmentation of the target of interest in the images. A segmentation method based on the wavelet transformation is proposed which accurately extracts lung regions in the thoracic CT images. After this step, an Aritifical Intelligence system, known as Least Squares Support Vector Machine (LS-SVM), is employed to classify nodules within the regions of interest. It is a well known fact that the lung nodules, except the pleural nodules, are mostly spherical structures whereas other structures including blood vessels are shaped as other structures such as tubular. Therfore, an enhancment filter is developed in which spherical structures are accentuated. Processing three different real databases revealed that the proposed system has reached the objective of a CAD system to provide reliable opinion for the doctors in the diagnosis fashion.


textabstractDeep learning has proven extremely successful both in classification and regression problems, especially when it is trained on very large datasets. In the Space Weather context, despite the unarguably large amount of data at our disposal, it remains an open question whether historical datasets contain enough information to build a predictive deep learning system. In this work, we use multi-wavelength solar images from both SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory) and SDO (Solar Dynamics Observatory) as inputs to a convolutional neural network, to predict solar wind parameters observed at L1, 24 hours ahead. This work is part of the AIDA H2020 (http://www.aida-space.eu) project funded by the European Commission (EC).


THE IMPACT OF POLITICAL ALLIANCES ON VOTER PREJUDICE IN POSTCONFLICT COUNTRIES Makram E. Ouaiss, PhD George Mason University, 2008 Dissertation Director: Dr. Sandra Cheldelin Scholars of conflict resolution have studied ways to reduce prejudice in society for years, believing that prejudice leads to or increases the likelihood of conflict. The primary focus has been on schools, universities and communities. More limited research has been conducted on the contribution of political party alliances on reducing prejudice in postconflict societies, divided along ethnic, linguistic, racial, religious or tribal lines. While alliances are often perceived as a way to overcome divisions between political forces and coalesce around common goals and interests, it is not clear if citizens living in deeply divided societies experience a change in their level of prejudice when the party they support enters into an alliance with a party that represents another group with which they may have been previously in conflict. Furthermore, it is unclear how lasting these changes in perceptions are, especially if political alliances change. The conflict resolution literature offers techniques and approaches to overcome prejudice based on the study of interpersonal, group and community conflict. Ideas on how to overcome inter-state conflicts are also explored and discussed by scholars at length. The research is guided by a framework that suggests political party alliances have an impact on party supporters in deeply rooted conflicts. The framework further suggests that until a formal alliance occurs, the views and perceptions among party supporters remain vulnerable and lacking in strength. Such an alliance enhances the effectiveness of conflict resolution interventions conducted at micro or meso levels. The research focuses on national-level politics and intra-state conflict. It looks closely at the alliance between two Lebanese political parties: the Lebanese Forces headed by Dr. Samir Geagea, a party that receives its support from the predominantly Christian Maronites (Eastern rite Catholics) and the Future Movement, a party that draws its support predominantly from the Sunni Muslim community headed by Saad Hariri, the son of assassinated former Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. For the last several decades, and in large part due to Lebanon's 1975-1990 war, members of these communities have been on opposite sides of the Lebanese and regional conflicts. Following the assassination of Prime Minister Rafic Hariri and the pull-out of the Syrian troops from Lebanon, and after nearly three decades of military occupation, the country held parliamentary elections for the first time without a foreign military presence in June 2005. The Future Movement and the Lebanese Forces struck an alliance and formed the governing coalition with other political parties and individuals. The present research is based on a desk review, a survey of 136 individuals from both groups, in Beirut and its suburbs, and 20 in-depth interviews. The research points to several findings, namely that: a) political alliances across religious lines help lessen prejudice among voters supporting the alliance; b) voter prejudices are primarily caused by fear; c) voters who support political alliances become less prejudiced towards the other and can, in some cases, even open up to members of other groups that are outside the alliance; and d) situational and contextual factors can change party followers' attitudes and perceptions soon after an alliance dissolves, despite improved relations during the alliance. What is clear from this research is that different approaches and techniques used to reduce prejudice are part of the way political party alliances function. These approaches and techniques include: Equal Status Contact, Superordinate Goal, Knowledge/Education, External Event/Common Fate/Common-Enemy, and Normative and Structural changes. The research findings support the framework. This has important implications for the conflict resolution field regarding the impact of macro level conflict-reducing mechanisms, such as political alliances. The research ultimately suggests that without a formal macro level agreement, gains made at the micro level remain significantly vulnerable to contextual and situational changes as well as to leadership interests. It is hoped that the insights presented in this dissertation can be of use to political scientists and conflict resolution practitioners as they advise on ways to overcome divisions and rebuild deeply divided societies.


Abstract Two Indigenous archaeology field schools were conducted by this author and Pauline Coulthard, an Adnyamathanha elder, during 2001 and 2002 for a total of four weeks. The schools were held at Hawker Lagoon, in the southern Flinders Ranges with participation of students from the Department of Archaeology, Flinders University. The archaeology program continued earlier work undertaken by Ron Lampert in the 1980's at the same site. Excavation revealed a disparity between earlier stratigraphic patterns and dating outcomes. The surface material is subject to significant environmental disturbance. Three surface hearths returned dates ranging from about 1500 to 550 years BP for associated charcoal. The lagoon is discussed within the broader context of occupation, trade and response to the LGM rather than within the narrow context of disturbed archaeological assemblages.


This volume contains the texts of six papers delivered by internationally renowned scholars during a three-day conference held in Florence in October 2008 in celebration of the one hundredth anniversary of the publication of Horne's celebrated monograph on Botticelli. The first paper, by Caroline Elam, is the keynote lecture she gave at Villa I Tatti about Horne's remarkable personality and career. Another, by Jonathan Nelson, poses the equally fundamental question of what constitutes authorship in certain works in the production of which Botticelli was only partly involved. Scholar Antonella Francini presents a poem she just discovered by Herbert Horne about a portrait by Botticelli in London. Together these essays deepen our understanding of this celebrated early Renaissance painter.


Cytosolic access is rate limiting for potential therapeutics such as antisense agents. In nature, several entities deliver macromolecules to the cytosol, one example being ricin toxin (RT). In this thesis, a cytosolic drug delivery system based upon attenuated RT was characterised. The toxicological consequences of mutating RT A chain (RTAC) amino acids: Glu177, Ala178, Ala179, Arg180, Phe181, Gln182 to Gly (mut) or deleting (del) them entirely, was evaluated. Epitopes (i.e., 6His, HA) were also incorporated onto either the C- or N-terminus of the RTAC. The resultant plasmid constructs were sequenced, mapped and expressed in E.coli BL21*DE3. A plasmid encoding RT B chain (RTBC) was also characterised, mapped and expressed in E.coli BL21*DE3. Recombinant proteins were affinity purified from bacterial lysate and were soluble. Proteins were detected at approximately the predicted molecular weight using commercial antibodies specific for RTAC, RTBC or the epitopes incorporated into the constructs (i.e. 6His or V5). Optimal culture conditions were obtained by monitoring protein expression in 1.5mL bacterial cultures. Expression levels were established using Western blotting and immuno-detection (using a 6His specific primary antibody). The optimal culture conditions for RTAC with a C-terminal 6His and HA epitope (clone 175) and RTAC with amino acids 177-182 mutated to Gly (and also containing a C-terminal 6His, HA and Lys, Asp, Glu, Leu (KDEL) motif) (clone 189), were found to be 2h pre-induction incubation, induction (with 0.25mM IPTG) and a 4h post-induction incubation, cultured at 37oC. Upon further characterisation, recombinant RTBC (rRTBC) was found not to be lectinic, unlike commercial RTBC (cRTBC). The toxicity of RTAC mutants was characterised in vitro (B16 and Vero cells) using the MTT assay. Using the B16 cell model, at concentrations up to10g/mL, no IC50 values could be established for rRTAC (clone 189). The published wild type RTAC IC50 was 1.4g/mL in B16 cells. The aforementioned rRTAC (clone 189) was re-associated with cRTBC to form a preparation containing enriched heterodimers. Heterodimeric rRTAC (clone 189) and cRTBC did not show any cytotoxicity in B16 cells at RTAC concentrations of up to 1g/mL. The toxicity of heterodimeric rRTAC (clone 189) and cRTBC was measured in Vero cells and the IC50 (0.39g/mL), although statistically different (P<0.001) from cRTBC associated with cRTAC (at concentrations between 0.01 and 100 ng/mL) may be attributed to cRTBC. It was critical to know if the reduced toxicity of the rRTAC (clone 189) - cRTBC, constructs relative to RT holotoxin, was attributable to the RTAC being unable to access the cytosol. Sub-cellular fractionation was performed using Vero cells and the majority of the immuno-reactive rRTAC (clone 189) was detected in a crude cytosolic fraction after 4h. Having ascertained that the mutations introduced into RTAC limit the toxicity of this molecule, the RT based drug delivery system was compared with a previously well-characterised polymer based drug delivery system. In order to make this comparison, a recombinant cargo protein was required. As gelonin (Gel) had been previously used as a cargo for poly(amidoamine) (PAA) mediated cytosolic delivery, three recombinant gelonin analogues were produced. The first was designated mature gelonin (mGel), the second was pre-gelonin with an additional C-terminal cysteine residue (Gel+Cys) and the third contained pre-gelonin sequence with no additional cysteine residue (Gel-Cys). The Gel-Cys construct was necessary to control for any toxicity limiting effects being exerted by additional C-terminal sequence (found on pre-gelonin). The three gelonin constructs were successfully cloned, sequenced and expressed in E.coli BL21*DE3. All of the recombinant gelonin constructs were detected using commercial antibodies (anti-6His and V5). The cytotoxicity of enriched recombinant gelonin proteins was compared with commercial gelonin (cGel). All of the gelonin preparations were non-toxic up to a concentration of 10μg/mL in B16 cells. Gelonin was then used to evaluate two things: 1) the efficiency of PAA mediated delivery relative to cRTBC and 2) the effect of the inclusion of dithiopyridine monomers upon PAA mediated Gel delivery. The PAA FF103 mediated an increase in cytotoxicity when applied to B16 cells in conjunction with a sub-toxic concentration of either with cGel or rGel (i.e. at a Gel concentration of 1.4μg/mL). This indicated that Gel was delivered into the cytosol by PAA FF103. At 10μg/mL of polymer, 93.75% cell viability was recorded and this was reduced to 16% when 1.4μg/mL cGel was added to an equivalent concentration of PAA FF103 (a statistically significant difference (P<0.001)). An investigation into the trafficking of the FITC-conjugated PAAs, ISA1-FITC and ISA23-FITC, supported PAA mediated cytosolic delivery. In this experiment, ISA1-FITC and ISA23-FITC polymers were non-toxic up to a concentration of 3mg/mL in both Vero and B16 cells and the accumulation of ISA1-FITC in the nucleus was observed after 5h. No increase in cGel toxicity was documented after it was mixed with cRTBC relative to cGel delivery mediated by PAAs. Further, despite being able to ablate RTAC toxicity, cRTBC toxicity remains a problem. Lack of lectinic activity of rRTBC (clone 204) suggests that this is unlikely to be resolved, which limits the application of this delivery system.


Strong three-dimensional focusing of internal tidal energy in the Petite Sole Canyon in the Celtic Sea is analyzed using observational data and numerical modeling. In a deep layer (500–800 m) in the center of the canyon, shear variance was elevated by an order of magnitude. Corresponding large vertical oscillations of deep isotherms and a local maximum of horizontal velocity were replicated numerically using the MITgcm. The elevated internal tidal activity in the deep part of the canyon is explained in terms of the downward propagation and focusing of multiple internal tidal beams generated at the shelf break. The near-circular shape of the canyon head and steep bottom topography throughout the canyon (steeper than the tidal beam) create favorable conditions for the lens-like focusing of tidal energy in the canyon's center. Observations and modeling show that the energy focusing greatly intensifies local diapycnal mixing that leads to local formation of a baroclinic eddy.


In this paper, we present the results from a high horizontal resolution numerical simulation of the northwestern Mediterranean using a z-level, non-hydrostatic, primitive equation ocean model (DieCAST). The high resolution allows an accurate represen-tation of the submarine canyons that presides in the region. The model is one-way 5 coupled to a large scale model of the Mediterrenean Sea through open boundaries and uses the atmospheric forcing fields provided in terms of HIRLAM outputs by the Spanish National Institute of Meteorology. Results show that the model can success-fully reproduce the complex general circulation characteristics of the area, including the modificacions induced by canyons in their vicinity and other phenomena observed 10 such as instabilities and coastal trapped waves. The sea surface temperature is similar to satellite observations except that simulated temperatures are slightly warmer near the coast than observations and colder near the open boundaries. An important topic of this work is the computation of the shelf-slope exchanges, which are able to renew shelf waters in a few months.


Hepatitis B virus (HBV) causes acute liver inflammation that apparently resolves completely or advances to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. These differential outcomes of HBV infection are orchestrated to a large extent by the virus-specific T cell responses, which characteristically appear late after exposure to hepadnavirus. In this context, the objective of this study was to delineate the kinetics and understand inter-relationships between virus-specific and non-specific T cell proliferative, humoral as well as innate cytokine responses, along with serological and molecular markers of hepadnaviral infection induced after exposure and re-exposure to liver pathogenic or nonpathogenic doses of woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV). Our results revealed that infection of woodchucks with either a liver pathogenic (>10³ virions) or nonpathogenic (<10³ virions) dose of WHV induced strong, but delayed, virus-specific T cell responses with comparable kinetics. Interestingly, immediately after exposure to virus, the non-specific proliferative capacity of lymphocytes in response to mitogenic stimulation was heightened and then subsided preceding the appearance of WHV-specific T cell response. This augmented non-specific proliferative reactivity was accompanied by the increased expression of interferon-alpha (IFN-α), interleukin-12 (IL-12) and IL-2 in circulating lymphoid cells; while its decline was associated with activation-induced cell death of lymphocytes. Importantly, the postponement of virus-specific T cell response coincided with the absence of TNF-α expression, while its rise was marked by synchronously elevated expression of TNF-α, IFN-α, IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-12, and IL-10 in lymphoid cells. Nonetheless, the virus-specific T cell responses induced during low-dose (occult) infection, in contrast to infection caused by liver pathogenic dose, did not provide protection against viral hepatitis. -- We conclude that hepadnavirus infections induce delayed virus-specific T cell proliferative responses irrespective of the dose of invading virus and symptomatic or asymptomatic outcome of the infection. This postponement of anti-viral T cell responses is preceded by the aberrant activation of lymphocyte and innate cytokine responses. Such an impaired activation of immune responses following hepadnavirus infection represents a possible mechanism that allows evasion of initial clearance and subsequent elimination of virus, permits its dissemination, and contributes to the establishment of persistence.


The liberalisation of transport capacities and prices of land-based transport of goods in Europe in the 1990s led to an increasingly market-orientated decision process for the users of piggyback transport services. However, the empirical research has not yet examined the contracts co-ordinating German piggyback transport chains in this changed environment.

This analysis seeks to explain the four types of contracts most commonly used in German piggyback transport by relating them to the theory of transaction cost economics (TCE). The qualitative case study approach adopted here derives from the tradition of Oliver Williamson's research.

The hypothesis of the thesis relates the different contract designs to the type of transport service: the higher the specificity of an asset to fulfil the transport service required by the freight forwarder, the higher the tendency to vertically integrate piggyback transport services. Put differently, the following question is answered: 'do the contracts used by freight forwarders to acquire the transport service of rail operators result in the lowest transaction costs o f the existing contracts for the specific haulage requested?'

The thesis models these transaction attributes o f the rail transport services for piggyback according to TCE and subsequently assigns them to the contract design elements o f the four types o f contracts. The first two contracts are efficient in all transport services they co-ordinate and the third is efficient to a large extent in terms o f the volume o f services co-ordinated. The fourth contract type cannot currently be designed in a way efficient for TCE.


Massive transfusion protocols (MTPs) are established to provide rapid blood replacement in a setting of severe hemorrhage. Early optimal blood transfusion is essential to sustain organ perfusion and oxygenation. There are many variables to consider when establishing an MTP, and studies have prospectively evaluated different scenarios and patient populations to establish the best practices to attain improved patient outcomes. The establishment and utilization of an optimal MTP is challenging given the ever-changing patient status during resuscitation efforts. Much of the MTP literature comes from the trauma population, due to the fact that massive hemorrhage is the leading cause of preventable trauma-related death. As we come to further understand the positive and negative clinical impacts of transfusion-related factors, massive transfusion practice can be further refined. This article will first discuss specific MTPs targeting different patient populations and current relevant international guidelines. Then, we will examine a wide selection of therapeutic products to support MTPs, including newly available products and the most suitable of the traditional products. Lastly, we will discuss the best design for an MTP, including ratio-based MTPs and MTPs based on the use of point-of- care coagulation diagnostic tools.


Abstract Silymarin (SLY), a flavonoid complex isolated from the seeds of Silybum marianum (Asteraceae), has antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-lipid peroxidative effects. Vancomycin (VA), used for treating serious infections, has been associated with nephrotoxicity, which limits its use. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the potential renoprotective effects of SLY on VA-induced nephrotoxicity using renal, apoptotic (caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 enzyme activities), and oxidative stress [nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA)] markers; serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine levels; and histopathological examination. A total of 49 male Wistar albino rats were used (n = 7): control [saline, intraperitoneally (i.p.)], dimethyl sulfoxide (i.p.), VA [400 mg/(kg-day), i.p.], SLY100 [100 mg/(kg-day), i.p.], VA + SLY50 [50 mg/(kg-day), i.p.], VA + SLY100 [100 mg/(kg-day), i.p.], and VA + SLY200 [200 mg/(kg-day), i.p.]. SLY was administered once daily for 8 days. One day after the first treatment of SLY, VA administration was started and continued for 7 days. The levels of serum creatinine and BUN were evaluated using ELISA, caspase enzyme activities and levels of MDA and NO in the kidney tissues were evaluated by the colorimetric methods. The serum BUN, creatinine, NO, MDA levels, and caspase activities were significantly higher in VA group than in control (p < 0.05). However, caspase activities were significantly lower in VA + SLY200 than in VA (p < 0.05). The MDA, serum BUN, and creatinine levels were significantly lower in VA + SLY (50, 100, and 200) groups than in VA group (p < 0.05). VA + SLY200 was found to be the most effective group based on the caspase activities; MDA, NO, serum BUN, creatinine levels; and histopathological findings.


During the phony war that preceded the invasion of France, between late 1939 and the summer of 1940, the young Jean-Paul Sartre was stationed in his native Alsace as part of a meteorological unit. He used his considerable periods of spare time, between mundane duties like watching weather balloons, to make a series of notes on philosophy, literature, politics, history and autobiography that anticipate the themes of his later masterpieces, and often surpass them in literary verve and directness. These War Diaries form a portrait of Sartre in his most intense and brilliant phase. With them the twentieth century's most remarkable and public philosopher has provided us with a fitting posthumous monument to his honest and creativity.


The web has become the primary source of medical information for consumers and health professionals. It is quite common for people to "Google" for information related to a medical topic. But the problem remains that as the number of documents increases on the web, the difficulty in quickly lo-cating the best documents increases. Classifying results into meaningful categories, helps guide users to the most relevant set of results. Journal Descriptor Indexing (JDI) is a novel approach to fully automatic indexing. In this paper we explore the feasibility of using JDI to organize Google search results for medical queries into meaningful categories. For our experiments, we used JDI in combination with a set of heuristics to automatically categorize the search results for 5 query terms. Three independent reviewers reviewed and evaluated the automatic categorization for 3 documents for each query term. The results clearly suggest that this method offers prom-ise. Additional work for improving the categorization as well as to determining whether a term is medical or not is also discussed .


Beginning in the mid-twentieth century, one can identify a continuing chorus of skeptics on the prospect of awarding damages for intangible loss in cases of accidental harm. The skeptics range from a law and economics scholarship that puzzles over the question of why prospective injury victims should be, in effect, forced to purchase a form of insurance (pain and suffering) that has not been sufficiently valued to be offered in the market, to a leftist critique that objects to the commodification of misfortune. Indeed, it recently has been argued that from any widely-accepted perspective on the goals of tort law - compensation, deterrence, corrective justice and fairness, administrative cost concerns, and the like - pain and suffering recovery ought to be eliminated and recovery should be granted exclusively for economic loss suffered as a consequence of personal injury. These persistent qualms seem to establish good grounds for locating pain and suffering damages more precisely on the spectrum of tort claims for redress of intangible loss, and considering whether the reservations about pain and suffering recovery are context-bound to scenarios of accidental harm or have wider applicability. In thinking about pain and suffering from this broader perspective on compensation for intangible loss, I will suggest commonalities that firm up the base for recognizing the legitimacy of pain and suffering recovery. I begin with some thoughts on context internal to the pain and suffering claim in an accidental harm case. Then, I turn to a broader historical overview of intangible loss that leads, in turn, to a look at the present landscape from a wide-angle perspective. Finally, in view of the many byways that intangible loss has taken, I reassess and question the coherence of a "make-whole" foundation for pain and suffering.


Dear Sir,
Mastopexy is the 7 th most performed cosmetic surgery in the US according to the latest American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ASAPS) statistics (1). Extensive data in the literature show numerous studies in which a wide array of operative techniques are described. These range from a simple dermal manipulation, with or without glandular reshaping, to the use of dermal flaps fixed to the pectoral fascia, to the use of synthetic mesh or sheets. The use of an autologous (usually glandular) flap to increase the upper pole fullness can replace the use of an implant (2). Unlike, dermal reshape, the use of a glandular reshape offers a more durable result with less tension on scars. This concept is often referred to as "auto-augmentation". The most common type of autoaugmentation is the advancement of an inferior based flap into a space created under the NAC superiorly based pedicle (3-7). The advantage here is that this mobilized gland, responsible for breast projection, does not interfere with NAC lift and vascularization which is still maintained on an independent superior pedicle.


This study compared high school student's perceptions of technology and technological literacy to those perceptions of the general public. Additionally, individual student groups were compared statistically to determine significant differences between the groups. The ITEA/Gallup Poll instrument was used to survey high school student's perceptions of technology in the study. The student population in question consisted of three subgroups: students enrolled in a standards-based technology education courses, students enrolled in a Project Lead the Way (PLTW) Principles of Engineering pre-engineering course, and students enrolled in a general education course (language arts, mathematics, or science). In addition, each student group's perceptions of technology were compared to one another to determine differences within each group. Responses from 4 items in the ITEA/Gallup Poll showed descriptive differences between students and adults, and responses from 13 items showed a significant difference between the three student groups. Of those 13 items showing a significant difference between all three groups, 7 of the 13 items showed a significant difference between technology education and PLTW respondents, 6 of the 13 items showed a significant difference between PLTW and general education respondents, and 8 of the 13 items showed a significant difference between technology education and general education group respondents.


Canadian healthcare is changing to include individuals living with frailty, but frailty must be better operationalized and better framed by sound data standards and policy. Frailty results from deficit accumulation in multiple body systems, with exaggerated vulnerability to external stressors. A growing consensus on defining frailty sets the stage for consensus on operationalization and widespread implementation in care settings. Frailty measurement is not yet integrated into daily clinical practice in Canada. Here, we will present how this integration might occur. We hope to demonstrate that implementation must appeal to inter-professional practice needs in different settings or circumstances. In some settings, methods for frailty case finding are expected to evolve as deemed to be most appropriate to the front-line users. In this "hands-off" approach, care providers, supported by emerging knowledge translation on frailty operationalization, would be informed by their setting and local practices to establish patterns of ad hoc case finding and component definition of frailty. This more nimble case finding strategy would be opportunistic, and would appeal to expert clinicians and self-directed teams who emphasize an individualized health care experience for their patients. In other settings, we can shape frailty case finding by building care algorithms around existing standardized practices and data repositories, leading to a systematic application of frailty measures and a more coordinated process of component definition and care protocols. Here, recommended instruments and data standards must be endorsed by health networks locally, provincially and nationally. The interRAI suite of assessment instruments has pan-Canadian standards in place and its pervasiveness makes it the most obvious starting point, especially in home care and long-term care. We anticipate the evolution of an integrated model informed by stakeholders and settings, where policy makers focus on system supports for frailty case finding, while front-line clinicians use case finding strategies to pinpoint and act on key frailty components.


* Smith, Ronald D. (2002). Strategic Planning for Public Relations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. pp. 344 * Theaker, Alison. (2001). The Public Relations Handbook. London, UK: Routledge. pp. 289 Two new books offer fresh perspectives on the strategic planning practices of public relations and public relations specialties. These are Strategic Planning for Public Relations, by Ronald D. Smith, and The Public Relations Handbook, by Alison Theaker. Strategic Planning for Public Relations is a welcome new book for the public relations campaigns class. It contains a how-to guide to achieving public relations goals and also integrates current theoretical perspectives and concepts. This undergraduate textbook is about persuasive problem solving. The author addresses the strategic communication versus marketing communication debate head-on and gives us a fresh opinion about actual practice. The book contains nine chapters, one for each of the steps of the strategic planning process: analyzing the situation; analyzing the organization; analyzing the publics; establishing goals and objectives; formulating action and response strategies; using effective communication; choosing communication tactics; implementing the strategic plan; and evaluating the strategic plan. There are three appendices: how to apply social science research techniques; the ethical standards for public relations; and complete case studies. Each of the chapters contains a theory-based description of the topic. The author helps apply the theory through a strategic planning exercise. Then, he uses two cases throughout to show the progression of the nine steps. Each chapter ends by asking students to apply the step to their own cases or clients. By ending each chapter with a consensus check about recommended strategies, the book works well for group projects. Other campaigns books have similar planning steps. However, the chapters on action and communication strategies have welcomed deeper treatments. Action strategies may be the most important things that public relations people recommend. Smith covers organizational performance, alliances and coalitions, and activism. He includes reactive strategies that must be used in crisis situations. Communication strategies consider the processes of information exchange, persuasion, dialogue, rhetorical principles, and nonverbal communication. Strategic Planning for Public Relations serves as a reference guide to public relations professionals as well. It is a useful approach to insuring that all of the right questions are answered before proceeding with public relations programs and campaigns. The Public Relations Handbook provides a broad discussion of the field of public relations from the UK perspective. There are four parts: the context of public relations; strategic approaches to public relations; stakeholder public relations; and a section on shaping the future of public relations. …


In recent years utilizing Information Technology (IT) has had major advantages in countries' development plans. Having investigated a set of national policies and action plans from other countries can help Iranian policymakers to propose a proper model for the country. In this paper, first we review the main national IT documents of neighboring countries, then gathering the main 13 Iran's national IT documents; a few major evaluation criteria have been proposed. To do this choosing the STEEPLV framework, all the documents have been investigated based on the framework's constructs and the strengths and weaknesses of each document have been emphasized. The results show the main aspects which the policymakers should note in the new national plans.


In this essay, which was presented as the Galway Lecture at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, I argue that law and economics has largely neglected a critical facet of human cognition: the process by which people make sense of the world. People make sense of the world by categorizing - by labeling, sorting and organizing their experiences to form their worldviews. Categorization has been extensively studied in the cognitive psychology literature. Law and economics gives short shrift to the process of categorization because it typically assumes that there is often a correct sense to be made: a fact of the matter agreed to be such by society. A car is a lemon or it is not; the car dealer is lying or she is not; a corporate officer conceals bad news about her company while she sells many of her shares or offers new shares to the public; the renter of a car treats the car badly because she's returning it the next day. Behavioral law and economics thus far hasn't helped matters; it also assumes that there is a fact of the matter. The jury asked to assess liability for an accident determines that because the accident happened, it is more likely than it actually was. Similarly, a person making a car purchase decision concludes Volvos are less safe than they really are because he heard about 3 crashes last week in which Volvos were involved. I discuss examples, from others' work and from mine, in which there isn't a clear societal consensus as to the fact of the matter, and understanding the process by which people categorize to form their beliefs can therefore be a helpful component of our analysis. The examples come from such disparate fields as racial discrimination, disclosure policy, and corporate governance, as well as norms and expressive law. Among the features of categorization that are particularly relevant are the following. Categories are constructed around prototypes (the car is the prototypical vehicle, perhaps): the prototype is the typical case, but there are many penumbral cases (a motorcycle sidecar?). We categorize as much or more to help us organize our lives as to get it right. (We have categories such as things I look for in a job, things I need to take on a trip or things politician X (or business associate Y or friend Z) is capable of. Apocryphally, the Inuits have far more categories for snow than people living in warmer climates have.) Categorizations can be finer or coarser grained, depending on our needs. All else equal, the more members of a particular race we know and encounter regularly, the more fine-grained our categorizations concerning members of that race are apt to be. Who has only one prototype of their own race? By contrast, a person might very well have only one prototype of a race whose members she very rarely encounters. How might this affect employers and employees? What belongs in a category, and what categories we have, is also not given. How does a corporate director decide what (types of) possible misbehavior of corporate officers to look for? How might we appraise what will be most effective at changing norms as to what is status-conferring: will people respond to something's being made more costly, or will the added costliness only add to the thing's status-conferring ability? What disclosures might make investment options easier to compare? (More basically, how do people assemble the choice sets from which they choose their investments?) The approach I've described differs profoundly from the bulk of the behavioral literature to date. Most of the behavioral literature discusses people who are reaching sub-optimal outcomes. The approach I'm discussing contemplates that we may or may not know whether the result is a mistake, and often, our best guess is that it is not a mistake. And the focus of the explanation is on the behavior at issue as a neutral fact about the world, not on its status as a mistake; consistent with the more traditional law and economics paradigm, people are doing the best they can to advance their own interests, albeit confronting rather different obstacles to doing so than they do in traditional law and economics analyses.