Abstract. Modern data assimilation algorithms depend on accurate infrared spectroscopy in order to make use of the information related to temperature, water vapor (H 2 O), and other trace gases provided by satellite observations. Reducing the uncertainties in our knowledge of spectroscopic line parameters and continuum absorption is thus important to improve the application of satellite data to weather forecasting. Here we present the results of a rigorous validation of spectroscopic updates to an advanced radiative transfer model, the Line-By-Line Radiative Transfer Model (LBLRTM), against a global dataset of 120 near-nadir, over-ocean, nighttime spectra from the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI). We compare calculations from the latest version of LBLRTM (v12.1) to those from a previous version (v9.4+) to determine the impact of spectroscopic updates to the model on spectral residuals as well as retrieved temperature and H 2 O profiles. We show that the spectroscopy in the CO 2 ν 2 and ν 3 bands is significantly improved in LBLRTM v12.1 relative to v9.4+, and that these spectroscopic updates lead to mean changes of ~0.5 K in the retrieved vertical temperature profiles between the surface and 10 hPa, with the sign of the change and the variability among cases depending on altitude. We also find that temperature retrievals using each of these two CO 2 bands are remarkably consistent in LBLRTM v12.1, potentially allowing these bands to be used to retrieve atmospheric temperature simultaneously. The updated H 2 O spectroscopy in LBLRTM v12.1 substantially improves the a posteriori residuals in the P-branch of the H 2 O ν 2 band, while the improvements in the R-branch are more modest. The H 2 O amounts retrieved with LBLRTM v12.1 are on average 14% lower between 100 and 200 hPa, 42% higher near 562 hPa, and 31% higher near the surface compared to the amounts retrieved with v9.4+ due to a combination of the different retrieved temperature profiles and the updated H 2 O spectroscopy. We also find that the use of a fixed ratio of HDO to H 2 O in LBLRTM may be responsible for a significant fraction of the remaining bias in the P-branch relative to the R-branch of the H 2 O ν 2 band. There were no changes to O 3 spectroscopy between the two model versions, and so both versions give positive a posteriori residuals of ~ 0.3 K in the R-branch of the O 3 ν 3 band. While the updates to the H 2 O self-continuum employed by LBLRTM v12.1 have clearly improved the match with observations near the CO 2 ν 3 band head, we find that these updates have significantly degraded the match with observations in the fundamental band of CO. Finally, significant systematic a posteriori residuals remain in the ν 4 band of CH 4 , but the magnitude of the positive bias in the retrieved mixing ratios is reduced in LBLRTM v12.1, suggesting that the updated spectroscopy could improve retrievals of CH 4 from satellite observations.


A multilayer film containing star anise essential oil and thymol coating layers (SAEO and TH, respectively), with insect repellent and antimicrobial properties, has been developed using bar coating and adhesive lamination processes. Our previous study reported the in vitro activities of this polypropylene film (PP)/SAEO/polyethylene terephthalate film (PET)/TH/low-density polyethylene film (LDPE) multilayer film. The current study focused on demonstrating the morphological, optical, and mechanical properties of the film, and evaluating its in vivo activities when used as a bread packaging material. The developed film was 15.03% thicker and 1.86% less transparent than the control film (without active agent coating layers: PP/PET/LDPE). While the color values of the developed film were slightly different from the control film, both films appeared similar to the naked eye. The tensile strength in the developed film was somewhat lower than that of the control film, while both films had statistically comparable values for elongation at break. During storage of sliced bread packaged in the developed film, the film both deterred insects from approaching toward and impeded the growth of microorganisms in the bread. These results suggest the potential applicability of the developed film as an active food packaging material with insect repellent and antimicrobial activities. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: A multilayer film incorporated with insect repellent and antimicrobial coating layers was applied in sliced wheat bread packaging. The developed film effectively inhibited approaches of stored-product insects to packaged bread and growth of microorganisms on the bread surface. It can be used as an active food packaging material that improves the safety and shelf-life of foods.


Advertising in the case of textual Web pages has been studied extensively by many researchers. However, with the increasing amount of multimedia data such as image, audio and video on the Web, the need for recommending advertisement for the multimedia data is becoming a reality. In this paper, we address the novel problem of visual contextual advertising, which is to directly advertise when users are viewing images which do not have any surrounding text. A key challenging issue of visual contextual advertising is that images and advertisements are usually represented in image space and word space respectively, which are quite different with each other inherently. As a result, existing methods for Web page advertising are inapplicable since they represent both Web pages and advertisement in the same word space. In order to solve the problem, we propose to exploit the social Web to link these two feature spaces together. In particular, we present a unified generative model to integrate advertisements, words and images. Specifically, our solution combines two parts in a principled approach: First, we transform images from a image feature space to a word space utilizing the knowledge from images with annotations from social Web. Then, a language model based approach is applied to estimate the relevance between transformed images and advertisements. Moreover, in this model, the probability of recommending an advertisement can be inferred efficiently given an image, which enables potential applications to online advertising.


In this paper we study the nonlinear resource allocation problem, defined as the minimization of a convex function over one convex constraint and bounded integer variables. This problem is encountered in a variety of applications, including capacity planning in manufacturing and computer networks, production planning, capital budgeting, and stratified sampling. Despite its importance to these and other applications, the nonlinear resource allocation problem has received little attention in the literature. Therefore, we develop a branch-and-bound algorithm to solve this class of problems. First we present a general framework for solving the continuous-variable problem. Then we use this framework as the basis for our branch-and-bound method. We also develop reoptimization procedures and a heuristic that significantly improve the performance of the branch-and-bound algorithm. In addition, we show how the algorithm can be modified to solve nonconvex problems so that a concave objective function can be handled. The general algorithm is specialized for the applications mentioned above and computational results are reported for problems with up to 200 integer variables. A computational comparison with a 0, 1 linearization approach is also provided.


The accumulation of sizeable volumes of magma in the upper crust may produce plutons and/or result in supereruptions. Geophysical observations provide constraints on the rates, volumes, and melt distributions in magmatic systems, but they suffer from limited resolution and inherent nonuniqueness. Different, yet complementary, geophysical approaches must be combined with petrological, laboratory, and geochemical measurements. We summarize the results from such a combined approach from the central Andes. Taking a global perspective on large silicic systems reveals that several have >10% partial melt over large areas (10s of km2), and there may be localized zones with 50% or more.


We demonstrate the feasibility of retrieval of temperature and pressure profiles from spaceborne limb-sounding spectroscopic measurements in the submillimetric region. Whether these profiles can be retrieved determines whether a submillimetric instrument can be self-sufficient as far as the atmospheric model is concerned or whether complementary sensors in other spectral regions, dedicated to temperature and pressure measurements, are needed. Molecular-oxygen transitions are selected for the purpose of temperature and pressure retrieval on the basis of realistic observational parameters. We use a mathematical model of the retrieval process to evaluate the information content of the spectral features and to study the trade-off between the uncertainty of the retrieved profiles and their vertical resolution. It is shown that, using only one oxygen transition and without any constraint, one can achieve uncertainties of 5% for both temperature and pressure from 10 to approximately 40 km of altitude with a vertical resolution of 3 km; above 40 km the vertical resolution needs to be degraded to limit the uncertainties. The possibility of exploiting a priori information is discussed, as well as the effects of external constraints that can be used to improve the quality of the retrieved profiles. The sources of systematic error that need to be considered for the compilation of the total error budget are also evaluated.


Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC) develop in fields of genetically altered cells. These fields are often dysplastic and a subset can be recognized as (erythro)leukoplakia, but most are macroscopically invisible. There is a lack of adequate treatment options to eradicate these fields, whereas they underlie the development of primary tumors as well as part of the local relapses. Unfortunately, there are almost no representative cellular models available to identify suitable treatment options. To this end, clinical biopsy specimens (n = 98) were cultured from normal appearing mucosa of the surgical margins of patients with primary HNSCCs (n = 32) to generate precancer cell culture models. This collection was extended with six previously established precancer cell cultures. Genetic analysis was performed on cultures with an extended life span (≥20 population doublings), the previously established cultures, and some randomly selected cultures. In total, cancer-associated changes were detected in 18 out of 34 (53%) cultures analyzed, which appeared to be independent of life span. A variety of genetic changes were identified, including somatic mutations as well as chromosomal copy-number aberrations (CNA). Loss of CDKN2A/p16Ink4A and mutations in TP53/p53 were most prominent. Remarkably, in some of these precancer cell cultures only chromosomal CNAs were detected, and none of the frequently occurring driver mutations. Implications: The precancer cell cultures, characterized herein, form a representative collection of field models that can be exploited to identify and validate new therapeutic strategies to prevent primary HNSCCs and local relapses.


Applying a unifying theoretical framework of high-quality work relationships, we conducted a set of 3 complementary studies that examined whether high-quality mentoring relationships can buffer employees from the negative effects of ambient discrimination at work. Integrating relational mentoring with relational systems theory, we first examined whether the presence of a high-quality mentoring relationship buffers employees in a sample of 3,813 workers. In support of the "mentors-as-buffers" hypothesis, we found that employees who witnessed or were aware of racial discrimination at work had lower organizational commitment than those not exposed, but employees with high-quality mentoring relationships experienced less loss of commitment than those lacking mentors. We then examined the specific buffering behaviors used by mentors in high-quality relationships and whether these behaviors were effective for other work relationships and outcomes. Applying Kahn's typology, we developed and validated a measure of high-quality relational holding behaviors in a sample of 262 workers. Using this measure in a third sample of 557 workers, we found that mentors buffer by providing holding behaviors, but we did not find this buffering effect when supervisors or coworkers provided holding behaviors. This potent mentor buffering effect held across a range of outcomes, including organizational commitment, physical symptoms of stress, insomnia, and stress-related absenteeism. These studies suggest that mentoring may be a singularly effective relationship that offers a safe harbor for employees faced with ambient discrimination at work.


Effects of radiation exposure are observed in virtually all normal tissues. Early reactions occur primarily in turnover tissues (e.g., bone marrow, epidermis, mucosae of the gastrointestinal tract), where proliferative impairment results in progressive hypoplasia and eventually complete loss of functional cells, after a tissue dependent but dose independent latent time. These early radiation reponses are regularly preceded and accompanied by vascular and inflammatory reactions. In contrast, late reactions are based on combined parenchymal, vascular, and connective tissue changes; very late effects are dominated by vascular sequelae. In most instances, a significant involvement of the immune system can also be demonstrated for chronic radiation sequelae, and a contribution of neural changes is discussed. The orchestrated response of all tissue components results in loss of function within the exposed volume. Importantly, latent times of late effects are inversely dependent on dose. Hence modern, highly conformal treatment techniques with relatively low and inhomogeneous doses in the organs at risk (OAR) require very long follow-up intervals with a precise assessment and documentation of the complication endpoints for characterisation of the treatment-induced morbidity profile. Consequential late effects (CLEs) develop through interactions between early and late effects in the same organ; they follow the radiobiological principles of the early reactions. The clinical manifestation of radiation responses is defined by several parameters, summarized as the "R's of radiobiology". First, each individual symptom or endpoint of radiation-induced morbidity follows an individual dose-effect relationship (intrinsic 'R'adiosensitivity), in many instances related to the dose within specific subvolumes of the individual OAR, rather than e.g., the mean organ dose. The biological effectiveness of a certain (total) dose is modulated by exposure conditions: Changes in dose fractionation protocols ('R'recovery) predominantly impact on late responding tissues, while overall treatment time ('R'epopulation) predominantly affects early (and consequential late) reactions. Consequences of partial organ exposure (i'R'adiated volume") are related to tissue architecture. In mainly 'tubular' or 'serial' organs (e.g., gastrointestinal tract, but also vasculature), local exposure affects function in downstream compartments. In contrast, in predominantly 'parallel' organs, such as liver or lungs, only exposure of a significant (organ-dependent) fraction of the total volume results in clinical consequences. However, all organs in fact are composed of tubular and serial components. Translational studies into damage processing (molecular 'R'adiopathology), starting immediately after the onset of radiation exposure, but proceeding for long and very long time intervals even at subclinical levels, intra- and intercellular signals and signalling pathways may be identified that are relevant or even specific for the clinical manifestation of morbidity endpoints. These can serve as a basis to identify (early) biomarkers of the individual risk for specific tissue reactions and endpoints, and also for establishment of strategies to prevent/mitigate tissue effects after exposure.


Abstract When combined with service-learning and environmental history, restoration ecology can provide a rewarding and innovative approach to education. By using nearby open spaces, be they parks, school grounds, vacant lots, or urban creeks, educational institutions can help students develop a sense of place and a commitment to helping their local communities. There are many open spaces that would benefit from ecological restoration and using nature as a classroom benefits both students and the local community. To facilitate this process a framework based on a historical case study of Lake Waughop was designed so that educational institutions may use it as a guide to incorporate ecological restoration and service-learning into their courses. This small kettle lake in Washington State has been severely degraded due to anthropogenic activities since the 1800s and has several cyanobacterial blooms annually. Water quality sampling of Lake Waughop was done intermittently in 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2011 to provide baseline data for present lake conditions as a comparison to future monitoring. Several methods for restoration of a polluted freshwater lake were investigated; riparian management, limited chemical treatment, mechanical mixing, and dredging may all be options for partial or complete restoration of Lake Waughop. Learning modules were developed to teach students water quality monitoring and ecological restoration methods; instructors may use one component or all. These modules incorporate service-learning and ecological restoration to impart valuable cultural, personal, and scientific learning, benefiting students on many levels.


Visual search is an important component of our interaction with our surroundings, allowing us to successfully identify external cues that impact our spatial navigation. Previous research has established fixation duration, fixation count, saccade velocity, and saccade amplitude as important indices of visual search. We examined the Visual Efficiency Detection Index (VEDI) comprising multiple aspects of visual search performance into a single measure of global visual performance. Forty participants, 10 adults ages 22-48, and children ages 6, 8, and 10, completed tests of working memory and visual search in response to stimuli relevant to pedestrian decision making. Results indicated VEDI statistically relates to established indices of visual search in relation to their interpretability for human performance. The VEDI was also sensitive to developmental differences in visual search performance, suggesting insight to its utility in the developmental psychological literature.


In this work, Pb-Pb collisions measured in 2010 during the first data taking period (Run 1) at a centre-of-mass energy of √snn = 2.76 TeV and data taken in 2015 during Run 2 at √snn = 5.02 TeV are analysed.
In November 2017, the LHC brought xenon ions to collision for the first time; this data set that was taken at √snn = 5.44 TeV is also analysed.

Transverse momentum pt distributions at high pt of charged particles have shown that particle yields in heavy-ion (AA) collisions are suppressed compared to a superposition of independent nucleon-nucleon collisions (binary collision scaling).
This observation is related to parton energy loss in the Quark Gluon Plasma (QGP).

To obtain the charged-particle yield as a function of pt, corrections are made for tracking efficiency and acceptance, for contamination by secondary particles from weak decays or secondary interactions and for the pt resolution.
To circumvent differences in the particle composition of event generators and data, the charged-particle reconstruction efficiency is calculated from the particle-dependent efficiencies weighted by the relative abundances of each particle measured during Run 1.
The correction for contamination with secondary particles is usually obtained from Monte-Carlo (MC) simulations.
The abundances of secondary particles in data and MC is estimated by analysing the distance of closest approach of tracks to the event vertex.
It is found that the contamination correction from MC has to be scaled up by ~50% to match the data.
The improvement of the analysis methods resulted in a reduction of the total relative systematic uncertainties by about 50% compared to previous analyses due to an improved reconstruction and calibration procedure in Run 2, as well as to improved track selection methods.

The transverse momentum distribution of charged particles from Pb-Pb and Xe-Xe collisions were measured for nine classes of centrality.
The measurement was performed for particles within -0.8 to 0.8 in pseudo-rapidity and for a transverse-momentum range of 0.15<pt<50 GeV.
The nuclear modification factor (RAA) is defined as the pt-differential yield in a AA collision divided by the cross section in pp collisions, scaled by the nuclear overlap function calculated in a Monte-Carlo Glauber approach.
Any suppression of particle yields in AA compared to a superposition of individual pp collisions results in a nuclear modification factor below unity.
All measurements exhibit a moderate suppression for peripheral collisions.
With increasing collision centrality, a pronounced suppression with RAA ~ 0.13 at intermediate pt develops.
At higher pt, a significant rise of the nuclear modification factor is observed.
The comparison of RAA as a function of the charged particle density per unit of rapidity dN_ch/dη shows a remarkable agreement of the observed suppression at high pt in Xe-Xe and Pb-Pb collisions at both energies scales for dN_ch/dη>400.
This scaling does not hold for collisions with lower particle multiplicities.
This observation is consistent with a dependence of the partonic energy loss on the square of the path length in the medium.
At lower transverse momenta a dependence of RAA on the collision energy is observed, which might be due to the collision energy dependence of the bulk particle production.


Many animal species display exceptionally bright iridescent coloration caused by interference or diffraction from a periodic surface microstructure. Although many mollusks are colored, only few utilize such a form of structural coloration. We are not referring to the well-known pearly appearance that is due to the nacreous layer found on the inner surfaces of most shells, but to small brightly colored spots on the outer surface. The Helcion pruinosus is one such example. We show by optical measurements and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) that coloration in this shell is indeed of a structural nature based on thin-film interference from a layered quarter-wave stack tilted by approximately 24 degrees with respect to the outer surface. The microstructure is embedded in the transparent top layer of the shell approximately 50 microm below the surface. By comparing the SEM and optical measurements, we were able to establish that the layered structure is made from a birefringent material (crystalline aragonite) giving slightly different spectral peaks for S- and P-type reflections.


While video games have been under public observation for approximately 30 years, focus has hardly ever been put on the creators, designers, developers, or other creative staff. The "Game Developer Demographics Report" of the International Game Developers Association (IGDA) from the year 2005 was one of the very few attempts to survey game developers regarding their personal motivation and outlook on life but it explicitly excluded inquiries on religious aspects; even asking about sexual preferences caused considerable complications. Who game designers are and what they think is however not unimportant. Video game players are confronted with ethical and moral decisions, quite often set into a background story with multiple references to religious (or "magical" for that matter) topics. The content and the scope of game-experiences reflect the player´s personal input – based on the game designers ideas and plans and content, shaped by their very own personality. According to Grab, religion certainly is not confined to churches but permeates other public spheres, the media not being the least of these. Religion still primarily deals with the major issues in life – not only in holy books or movies, but also in video games, which are traditionally settings for myths, enigma, legends and also religion. Hitherto, the following questions remain unexplored: What do game developers think and believe in political and religious matters, what role do they ascribe to themselves and their productions in it? How do developers comprehend their role? This article will present the results of a first explorative study amongst young game developers.


UNLABELLED
Scene context guides eye movements and facilitates search performance (Torralba et al., 2006; Chen & Zelinsky, 2006; Eckstein et al., 2006). Here, we assess how scene context modulates the effect of number of distractors on eye movements and search performance with real scenes.

METHODS
Observers (64) were presented with 24 grayscale images plus 96 fillers (22.53 deg. x 15.03 deg.) sampled from a dataset of 1224 desk images from multiple viewpoints and varying number of distractor objects. Half the images contained the target (computer mouse). When present, the target appeared in context in 60 % of the images (next to a monitor/keyboard) and out of context in the remaining 40 % (e.g., mouse over monitor). Observers searched for the target from an initial fixation at the edge of the images that was equidistant from mouse in context and out of context locations. Eye position was monitored and the display was randomly terminated after: 1, 2, 3 saccades or a 2 seconds time limit. At the end of each trial, participants performed a 10-scale confidence rating, expressing their certainty of finding the target.

RESULTS
Context significantly increased target detection accuracy (p < 0.05) and reduced time to first foveate the target (in context: 900 ms vs. out of context: 1400 ms) across multiple distractors, as well as fixation distance to the target. For the 2 second displays, the detrimental effect of distractors on accuracy (set-size effect) diminished when the target was in context. The temporal dynamics of performance varied across conditions. Additional saccades led to large increases in hit rate for the out of context targets and small for the in context targets.

CONCLUSIONS
Scene context diminishes the detrimental effect of distractors on search performance in real scenes and alters the temporal dynamics of accuracy increments with subsequent saccades. Meeting abstract presented at VSS 2015.


Neural networks can be compressed to reduce memory and computational requirements, or to increase accuracy by facilitating the use of a larger base architecture. In this paper we focus on pruning individual neurons, which can simultaneously trim model size, FLOPs, and run-time memory. To improve upon the performance of existing compression algorithms we utilize the information bottleneck principle instantiated via a tractable variational bound. Minimization of this information theoretic bound reduces the redundancy between adjacent layers by aggregating useful information into a subset of neurons that can be preserved. In contrast, the activations of disposable neurons are shut off via an attractive form of sparse regularization that emerges naturally from this framework, providing tangible advantages over traditional sparsity penalties without contributing additional tuning parameters to the energy landscape. We demonstrate state-of-the-art compression rates across an array of datasets and network architectures.


The financial crisis of 2007--9 resulted in state intervention in financial markets around the world, and the state became a major shareholder in many banks. While state bailouts were politically sensitive, policy-makers had little alternative but to supply funds to financial institutions that were viewed as 'too big to fail', or TBTF. In this paper, I review the history of, and the rationale for, the TBTF policy. I argue that, from a policy perspective, the most important costs of the TBTF problem are incurred ex ante , in the form of distorted incentives that arise as a consequence of distortions to the capital markets, and to the choice of banks' scale and scope. I argue that it is impossible credibly to withdraw the TBTF policy, and, hence, that it should be managed so as to minimize the costs of these distortions. In this context, I discuss the role of policy in institutional design, in the restriction of bank scope, and in designing appropriate capital regulations. Copyright 2011, Oxford University Press.


risks of stroke and the lowest physical activity levels. It is important to quantify how walking (the predominant form of physical activity in older age) is associated with stroke. Methods —A total of 4252 men from a UK population-based cohort reported usual physical activity (regular walking, cycling, recreational activity, and sport) in 1998 to 2000. Nurses took fasting blood samples and made anthropometric measurements. Results —Among 3435 ambulatory men free from cardiovascular disease and heart failure in 1998 to 2000, 195 first strokes occurred during 11-year follow-up. Men walked a median of 7 (interquartile range, 3–12) hours/wk; walking more hours was associated with lower heart rate, D-dimer, and higher forced expiratory volume in 1 second. Compared with men walking 0 to 3 hours/wk, men walking 4 to 7, 8 to 14, 15 to 21, and >22 hours had age- and region-adjusted hazard ratios (95% confidence intervals) for stroke of 0.89 (0.60–1.31), 0.63 (0.40–1.00), 0.68 (0.35–1.32), and 0.36 (0.14– 0.91), respectively, P (trend)=0.006. Hazard ratios were somewhat attenuated by adjustment for established and novel risk markers (inflammatory and hemostatic markers and cardiac function [N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide]) and walking pace, but linear trends remained. There was little evidence for a dose–response relationship between walking pace and stroke; comparing average pace or faster to a baseline of slow pace, the hazard ratio for stroke was 0.65 (95% confidence interval, 0.44–0.97), which was fully mediated by time spent walking. Conclusions —Time spent walking was associated with reduced risk of onset of stroke in dose–response fashion, independent of walking pace. Walking could form an important part of stroke-prevention strategies in older people. ( Stroke . 2014;45:00-00.) was examined using time varying covari- ates, calculating interactions of predictor variables and a function of survival time and including them in the models. Examination of time varying covariates indicated that proportionality assumptions were not violated. The hazard ratios (HRs) for categories of walking in 1998 to 2000 were estimated and the overall association was tested with the continuous association among walking (1) time, (2) distance, (3) pace, and stroke risk, adjusted for sex, age (continuous variable), and region of residence. Time and duration of walking were adjusted for pace, and pace adjusted for time. Models were also adjusted for participation in vigorous recreational or sporting activities. Models were next adjusted for covariates associated with both stroke and walking; established risk factors (alcohol and tobacco use, social class [based on occupational group manual {skilled manual, unskilled, or partly skilled}, or nonmanual {professional, managerial, technical, skilled nonmanual occupations}]), and then biological risk factors (as continuous variables): first body mass index and then systolic BP, total and high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and triglycerides, next FEV 1 was added, finally, novel risk markers, CRP, D-dimer, and NT-proBNP were added. Interactions were tested using likelihood ratio tests.


There is an increasing interest in research addressing issues of global software development. Specifying software requirements is a communication-intensive collaborative activity that is increasingly performed across cultural, language and time zone boundaries. While inadequate communication significantly impacts the bridging of geographical distance between stakeholders, the cultural differences cannot be considered less significant. Findings from two global software development organizations enables us to present a model of impact of distance and the affected requirements activities due to problems of cultural diversity, inadequate communication, knowledge management and time differences. This evidence provides an important insight into the interplay between culture and conflict as well as the impact of distance on the ability to reconcile different viewpoints with regards to requirements and requirements processes.


1. Studies of aquatic environments have shown that community organisation may strongly affect ecosystem functioning. One common phenomenon is a change in nutrient level following a shift in the fish community composition. Although several hypotheses have been suggested, there is no consensus on which mechanisms are involved. Our study evaluated indirect effects of benthivorous fish on the biogeochemical processes at the sediment-water interface separately from direct effects caused by nutrient excretion or sediment resuspension. 2. We assigned field enclosures to three treatments representing typical pond communities; without fish, addition of approximately 10 small tench or addition of one large bream. After one summer, we monitored the water chemistry, benthic invertebrates and periphyton in the enclosures and sampled sediment cores for laboratory analysis of biochemical process rates (oxygen, phosphorus and nitrogen exchange between sediment and water, and denitrification rate). 3. Fish had strong negative effects on benthic invertebrates, but weaker effects on periphyton, organic content and porosity of the sediment. Moreover, there were significant positive fish effects on both phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations in the water. However, there were no general treatment effects on sediment processes that could explain the treatment effects on water chemistry in the enclosures. 4. Hence, overall treatment effects attenuated along the chain of interactions. We conclude that the observed effect of benthic fish on water chemistry was probably because of direct effects on nutrient excretion or resuspension of sediment. The similarity between bream and tench treatments suggests large niche complementarity despite their different habitat preferences. (Less)


PURPOSE
To develop a reliable and fast end-to-end test for image-guided stereotactic radiotherapy using the ArcCHECK cylindrical phantom from SunNuclear. The test aims to quantify the geometric and dosimetric discrepancies with a single measurement procedure.

METHODS
A stereotactic treatment plan with eight fields, incorporating four table rotations and four gantry positions, is created on the basis of a planning CT with isocenter at the position marked on the ArcCHECK's surface. Placing the phantom at the laser isocenter and registering the cone-beam with the planning CT yields the discrepancy between the laser and kV frame. Subsequently, the phantom is moved to the determined kV-cone-beam isocenter, where the plan is delivered and cylinder and isocenter dose are measured.

RESULTS
The image registration using Elekta's XVI system suggested positional corrections that were in a sub-millimeter range. The dose in the isocenter was found to be within 2% of the planned dose. Comparing the measured and planned dose distribution in the cylinder using the SNC-Patient software with a gamma-criterion (1.5mm/10%; hence an emphasis on positional error) validates the agreement between kV and MV isocenter: three points failed the gamma-test. The sensitivity was evaluated by applying increasingly larger translocations of the phantom away from the isocenter, which caused the number of failed points to increase monotonically: 29 points failed for a 3mm lateral translation.

CONCLUSION
The implemented test is capable of quantifying the agreement between lasers and kV isocenter, with sub-millimeter accuracy. Over that, the agreement between kV and MV isocenters could be validated. The pass rate of the gamma-criterion was well correlated to set-up errors. A bespoke analysis of the ArcCheck dose distribution is currently being implemented in order to quantify the caustic of the isocenter.


The performance of several numerical ocean models is assessed with respect to their simulation of sea surface height (SSH) in the Arctic Ocean, and the main patterns of SSH variability and their causes over the past 40 years (1970–2009) are analyzed. In comparison to observations, all tested models broadly reproduce the mean SSH in the Arctic and reveal a good correlation with both tide gauge data and SSH anomalies derived from satellite observations. Although the models do not represent the positive Arctic SSH trend observed over the last two decades, their interannual-to-decadal SSH variability is in reasonable agreement with available measurements. Focusing on results from one of the models for a detailed analysis, it is shown that the decadal-scale SSH variability over shelf areas and deep parts of the Arctic Ocean have pronounced differences that are determined mostly by salinity variations. A further analysis of the three time periods 1987–1992, 1993–2002, and 2003–2009, corresponding to the transition times between cyclonic and anticyclonic regimes of the atmospheric circulation over the Arctic, revealed an unusual increase of SSH in the Amerasian basin during 2003–2009. Results from this model support the recent finding that the increase is caused mainly by changes in freshwater content brought about by the freshwater export through the Canadian Arctic Archiplago and increased Ekman pumping in the Amerasian basin and partly by lateral freshwater transport changes, leading to a redistribution of low-salinity shelf water. Overall, we show that present-day models can be used for investigating the reasons for low-frequency SSH variability in the region.


This thesis consists of a theoretical building of a cognitive approach to the calculus and an empirical testing of the theory in the classroom. A cognitive approach to the teaching of a knowledge domain is defined to be one that aims to make the material potentially meaningful at every stage (in the sense of Ausubel). As a resource in such an approach, the notion of a generic organiser is introduced (after Dienes), which is an environment enabling the learner to explore examples of mathematical processes and concepts, providing cognitive experience to assist in the abstraction of higher order concepts embodied by the organiser. This allows the learner to build and test concepts in a mode 1 environment (in the sense of Skemp) rather than the more abstract modes of thinking typical in higher mathematics.
The major hypothesis of the thesis is that appropriately designed generic organisers, supported by an appropriate learning environment, are able to provide students with global gestalts for mathematical processes and concepts at an earlier stage than
occurs with current teaching methods.
The building of the theory involves an in-depth study of cognitive development, of the cultural growth and theoretical content of the mathematics, followed by the design and programming of appropriate organisers for the teaching of the calculus. Generic organisers were designed for differentiation (gradient of a graph), integration (area), and differential equations, to be coherent ends in themselves as well as laying foundations for the formal theories of both standard and non-standard analysis.
The testing is concerned with the program GRADIENT, which is
designed to give a global gestalt of the dynamic concept of the gradient of a graph. Three experimental classes (one taught by the researcher in conjunction with the regular class teacher) used the software as an adjunct to the normal study of the calculus and five other classes acted as controls. Matched pairs were selected on a pre-test for the purpose of statistical comparison of performance on the post-test. Data was also collected from a third school where the organisers functioned less well, and from university mathematics students who had not used a computer.
The generic organiser GRADIENT, supported by appropriate teaching, enabled the experimental students to gain a global gestalt of the gradient concept. They were able to sketch derivatives. for given graphs significantly better than the controls on the post-test, at a level comparable with more able students reading mathematics at university. Their conceptualizations of gradient and tangent transferred to a new situation involving functions given by different formulae on either side of the point in question, performing significantly better than the control students and at least as well, or better, than those at university.


Globalization - the drastic reduction of barriers to trans-border movement and exchange - is a phenomenon of obvious practical significance that has received little attention from American constitutional scholars. To the extent that it has received such attention at all, that attention has been largely confined to a handful of conspicuous changes in judicial behavior, such as the growth of transnational judicial dialogue and the citation of foreign law in recent Supreme Court decisions. Yet the potential impact of globalization is not limited to its effect on the travel and citation habits of judges. On a larger scale, globalization entails intensifying international competition for investment capital and human talent that may have much greater implications for the worldwide development of constitutional law.
This paper aims to place globalization on the agenda of constitutional scholarship by proposing a provocative hypothesis about the impact of global investment and migration patterns on the extent to which countries uphold basic rights. One way in which countries can and do compete for financial capital and human talent is by offering bundles of rights and freedoms that are attractive to investors and elite workers. This paper argues that such competition has the potential to result in a race to the top in the areas of civil liberties and property rights. It draws upon scholarship and data from a range of disciplines - but most heavily political science and economics - to show that this race to the top hypothesis is both logically and empirically plausible.
The paper also employs the concept of a world market in human rights, in which states bid for elite workers by offering both pecuniary and non-pecuniary inducements that include more or less generous bundles of rights and freedoms. Countries that do not boast an attractive bundle of this kind must compensate by offering what this article calls a freedom premium, which amounts to a competitive disadvantage in the global market for human talent.


On 24 August 410 the Goths under their king Alaric entered the city of Rome and spent three days pillaging it. They then moved south towards Sicily, possibly in the hope of escaping to Africa, but Alaric died and the Goths retreated back through Italy to Gaul, from where they were driven into Spain by Roman forces in 414. The sack of Rome was by all accounts of little material significance in the long and complex history of Roman engagement with barbarians; it was in fact the Goths' third visit to the city in three years, and on the previous occasion the senate had allowed them into Rome and collaborated with them in setting up the prefect of the city as emperor in opposition to Honorius, whose administration was based in Ravenna. Contemporary historians emphasized that the forces of the western empire had recovered their dominance within just three or four years at most, and recent historians have seen the attack on Rome as representing a failure on the part of the Goths, who had hoped to use the threat to Rome as a bargaining tool with the emperor in their pursuit of land and supplies. Honorius and his government seem to have been relatively untroubled. On the day after Alaric's seizure of Rome Honorius had time, from his palace in Ravenna, to issue an edict ordering that religious dissension among Christians in North Africa should cease and summoning a conference of all the Catholic and Donatist bishops to examine their dierences. The Liber pontificalis manages to give a quite detailed account of the time of Pope Innocent I (402–17) and his good works without once mentioning the Goths or the attack on Rome (Orosius explains that he happened to be away in Ravenna at the time). But the event acquired remarkable prominence, and a distinctive significance, in the Anglo-Saxon perception of their past, especially in the Alfredian period: it is mentioned prominently in two of Bede's historical works, in four of the Old English prose works associated with King Alfred, and in Æthelweard's Chronicle; it is the context and end-point of the Old English version of Orosius's History of the World; and it is the starting-point of King Alfred's account of Boethius. I want here to explore its developing significance for the Anglo-Saxons, and particularly for the Alfredian world.


Adjunct Professor Becky Diffen, a member of McGuireWoods' energy team, wrote an article published in North American Windpower's March issue discussing what wind farm developers need to know about recent nuisance litigation.

The article cites case examples, such as the Oklahoma case Terra Walker v. Kingfisher Wind, that demonstrate an uptick in suits filed against wind developers, and analyzes tactics plaintiffs employ to significantly delay or stop projects. Diffen explains, "The Walker litigation represents one of a rising number of wind nuisance cases, generally initiated by 'not in my backyard' landowners who do not want to look at nearby turbines."


This chapter presents the use of a commercial micro-sized TiO 2 powder as an alternative to the traditional nano-powders as semiconductors in photocatalytic processes. Results of the photocatalytic efficiency towards the photodegradation of the traditional pollutant molecules both in gas phase (nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)) and in water phase (phenol) are presented and compared to the results obtained with two nano-sized reference powders. Micro-sized TiO 2 is also industrially coated at the surfaces of porcelain grés tiles (Active Clean Air and Antibacterial Ceramic™). The possibility to have a photocatalytic material, strongly stuck at the surface of a vitrified tile, increases the use of photocatalysis in real conditions: no problem of filtration of the semiconductor from the liquid medium after use and no risks of leakage of nanoparticles in the atmosphere. Tests were performed using reactors equipped with UV-A lamps and with suitable analytical systems, depending on the final purpose. Characterization data from both powders and coated tiles are put in correlation with the photocatalytic results to understand the semiconductor action during the photocatalytic process. Polluting molecules were chosen in order to cover all the common aspects of environmental pollution: NO x and some VOCs represent the model molecules to test the efficiency of the micro-sized TiO 2 (degradation from the pristine molecule to CO 2 or inorganic salts) in gas phase. As for the water pollution, phenol was chosen as common pollutant in worldwide rivers. Moreover, tests on self-cleaning and antibacterial properties are also report‐ ed. The positive results of micro-sized TiO 2 both in powder and coated onto the surface not make use of nanoscale powders avoiding problems to human safety caused by the inherent toxicity of the nanoparticles.


As an enabling technology of coordinated multi-vessel operations, formation control has received considerable attention in recent times, with specific applications ranging from satellites in space to wheeled robots on the ground. This thesis will serve as a continuation of previous efforts within the marine control community, focusing on formation control design for fully actuated marine surface vessels. The main objective for the designs is to enable a group of vessels to automatically position themselves in a specified formation structure, which in turn should propagate along a parameterized path at a desired speed. Although this problem statement forms the basis of many designs in the literature, a new approach is taken herein where the vessels establish the formation in their immediate vicinity prior to initiation of a collective movement towards the path. This separation between group coordination and path following has, at least to the authors knowledge, not been pursued in previous works. In Chapter 1, terms relevant to formation control systems are explained, and a review of earlier work is conducted. Mathematical background is given in Chapter 2, after which the control designs take center stage in Chapter 3. Three different designs are presented. The first two combine a decentralized group coordination framework with maneuvering theory, utilizing the former to coordinate the vessels into a formation, and the latter to ensure subsequent path following. Generic maneuvering theory forms the basis of the third design, where an intuitive Line-of-sight steering algorithm is incorporated to ensure feasible and predictable motion towards the path for the formation. Strong, global stability results are achieved for all three designs, and computer simulations in Matlab/Simulink are used to illustrate their performance. In Chapter 4, the proposed control designs are evaluated with respect to inter-vessel communication requirements, behavior during vessel failure scenarios, collision avoidance capabilities, and transient behavior during group coordination and path following. An ability to maintain formation structure during mild and severe single vessel failures is demonstrated, illustrating the intuitive notion that the separation and prioritization of group coordination and path following increases safety. However, a guarantee against collisions is not given, as none of the designs incorporate explicit collision avoidance capabilities. Moreover, the designs are shown to require considerable inter-vessel communication during operations in general, which could limit their applicability for large groups.


Several models exist that explain how counselors can more effectively work with racial/ethnic minority populations and how counselor characteristics (like racial identity) can impact the way counselors practice. Helms (1985) hypothesized that individuals operating in different statuses of racial identity will process racial information in ways characteristic of that status. Gushue and Carter (2000) found that the racial identity status of White participants was related to how they remembered stereotypical information about a hypothetical person. This study is an extension of Gushue and Carter's study with a sample of White counselors-in-training that investigated the relationship between participants' racial identity, their memory for racial stereotypes and their conceptualization of this client's presenting problems. Participants read a vignette about a Black hypothetical client and rated their conceptualization of his concerns. A week later, they completed a recognition task and racial identity attitude measures. Correlations indicated no relationship between racial identity attitudes scales and recognition of previously read stereotypical information, but did indicate that some racial identity attitudes were related to how the client was conceptualized. This finding reinforces the importance of multicultural counselor training. It is of great importance that counselors-in-training have opportunities to grow into the advanced stages of racial identity.


This evaluation report (RE-339) aims to provide factual information on the outcomes of the Bank's work with Mexico in 2001-2006, which could inform the Bank-country strategic relationship going forward. Chapter 1 reviews the macroeconomic setting and analyzes the main development challenges in the areas targeted by the Bank's programs. Chapter 2 examines the Bank's country engagement in both financial and strategic terms. Chapter 3 studies how this relationship is reflected in approved and executed programs. Chapter 4 discusses the country program outcomes, distinguishing cases in which the Bank can claim to have contributed value-added from those where this has not happened.


In this paper, we design a tapered tellurite photonic crystal fiber (TTPCF) with nonlinear coefficient increasing along the propagation direction, and demonstrate the mid-infrared self-similar pulse compression of the fundamental soliton in such a TTPCF. When the variation of group-velocity dispersion, higher-order dispersion, higher-order nonlinearity, and linear loss are considered, a 1 ps pulse at wavelength 2.5 μm can be compressed to 62.16 fs after a 1.63-m long propagation, along with the negligible pedestal, compression factor Fc of 16.09, and quality factor Qc of 83.16%. Then the compressed pulse is launched into another uniform tellurite PCF, where highly coherent and octave-spanning supercontinuum (SC) is generated. Compared to the initial picosecond pulse, the compressed pulse has much larger tolerance of noise level for the SC generation. Our research results provide a promising solution to realize the fiber-based mid-infrared femtosecond pulse source for nonlinear photonics and spectroscopy.


Application of organic manures enhance the bioactive principal of Ashwagandha. Keeping in view, an experiment was conducted at the farm of ICAR - Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Anand to study influence of organic management on withanolides contents in Ashwagandha {Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal}. The experiment was laid out in split plot design in three replications. The experimental treatment comprised of different organic treatments as a main plot and four different biofertilizers treatments as a sub plot. In light of the results obtained from this investigation, it is indicated that among organics the application of castor cake @ 2.5 t ha-1 and in case of biofertilizer, treatment biofertilizer (Azotobactor + PSB) as a seed treatment + Jivamrut (3 Spray at 25, 50 and 75 DAS) to kharif Ashwagandha (cv. Jawahar ashgandh-20), produced higher withaferin-A, 12-Deoxy withastramanolide, withanolide –A, total withanolide and leaf withaferin-A over rest of treatments. 12-Deoxy withastramanolide showed positive and significant correlation with root girth. The withanolide-A and number of branches @ 60, 100 DAS and at harvest and root girth exhibited significant positive correlation. Leaf withaferin-A had highly significant and positive correlation with fresh root wt. per plot. Total withanolide content may be predicted by using mineral N, available S, alkaline phosphatase activity, fluorescein diacetase activity, EC, root length, fresh root yield, dry root yield and number of branches @ 60 DAS.


A review was conducted to highlight the direct and indirect impact of bovine fasciolosis on food security in Nigeria. The direct impact on livestock productivity include; host mortality and partial or total condemnation of organs. Indirect losses in sheep include; reduced production and quality of wool reduced lambing percentages, poor growth rate of lambs and increased costs for replacement stock. In cattle, losses include; reduced production and quality of milk in dairy cattle, lower growth rates and lower feed conversion rates in fattening cattle and expenditures for anthelmintics. The economic contribution of animal production in ensuring food security in Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. Livestock production constitutes an important component of Nigeria agricultural development; animal protein, raw materials for agro allied based industries. It was therefore concluded that the potential for increasing livestock production can only be fully realized if the animals are adequately protected against adverse effects of diseases. Profitability of animal product demand efficient husbandry of animals, as diseases remain a profit limitation factor in many tropical countries. For sufficient livestock production to be fully realized to meet the ever growing population Nigeria, integrated approach to fasciolosis control is required to increase the present level of livestock production.


Automatic semantic annotation of structured data enables unsupervised integration of data from heterogeneous sources but is difficult to perform accurately due to the presence of many numeric fields and proper-noun fields that do not allow reference-based approaches and the absence of natural language text that prevents the use of language-based approaches. In addition, several of these semantic types have multiple heterogeneous representations, while sharing syntactic structure with other types. In this work, we propose a new approach to use conditional random fields (CRFs) to perform semantic annotation of structured data that takes advantage of the structure and labels of the tokens for higher accuracy of field labeling, while still allowing the use of exact inference techniques. We compare our approach with a linear-CRF based model that only labels fields and also with a regular-expression based approach.


Land-use conversions and elevated temperature can impact on carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, both of which are important greenhouse gasses (GHGs). Afforestation activity has increased significantly over the last century with a significant focus in recent years directed at offsetting GHG emissions, as forests have a large capacity to store carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) as well as affecting CO2 and N2O emissions. However, the impact of warming on GHG offsetting is unclear. This study was conducted in a forest and a grassland to investigate the effect of afforestation and warming, using infrared heaters, on soil fluxes of CO2 and N2O. Warming significantly increased the daily mean soil temperatures at a depth of 5 cm by 1.7 °C and reduced the soil moisture by ∼5% in the forest from March 2014 to February 2016. In the grassland, there were no significant increases in temperature and moisture with warming and no impact on the soil fluxes of CO2 and N2O. In the forest, elevated soil temperature enhanced the average soil CO2 efflux by 23% but had no effect on soil N2O fluxes. Warming decreased the temperature sensitivity by 13% and 23% at the forest and grassland, respectively. The soil fluxes of CO2 increased exponentially with temperature and decreased linearly with the reduction in soil moisture, and were much larger in the grassland compared to the forest. However the grassland proved to be a larger sink for N2O than the forest. Irrespective of warming treatments, all measured pools were significantly larger in the grassland compared to the forest. Our results imply that afforestation may have a bigger effect than warming on soil CO2 and N2O fluxes within the range of temperatures used and that afforestation dramatically lowers the inorganic, organic and microbial C and N pools, that could, in turn, impact on the responses of forest soils to future global warming.


We consider fermionic fully packed loop and quantum dimer models which serve as effective low-energy models for strongly correlated fermions on a checkerboard lattice at half- and quarter-filling, respectively. We identify a large number of fluctuationless states specific to each case and which are due to fermionic statistics. We discuss the symmetries and conserved quantities of the system and show that, for a class of fluctuating states in the half-filling case, the fermionic sign problem can be gauged away. This claim is supported by a numerical evaluation of the low-lying states and can be understood by means of an algebraic construction. The elimination of the sign problem then allows us to analyze excitations at the Rokhsar-Kivelson point of the models using the relation to the height model and its excitations, within the single-mode approximation. We then discuss a mapping to a U(1) lattice gauge theory which relates the considered low-energy model to the compact quantum electrodynamics in 2 + 1 dimensions. Furthermore, we point out consequences and open questions in the light of these results.


This study was conducted to investigate the genetic adaptation of Listeria monocytogenes to hyperosmotic (created by high NaCl concentrations) conditions and low-temperature stress. L. monocytogenes is an opportunistic pathogenic bacterium capable of causing serious systemic illness, with a high mortality rate in susceptible individuals. Its environmental abundance significantly increases the likelihood of carry-over contamination in food processing surroundings leading to possible contamination of finished products. In addition frequent exposure to environmental stresses during its saprophytic existence renders L. monocytogenes able to overcome stresses often used in food production to limit microbial proliferation and to extend shelf-life. Therefore a more detailed understanding of molecular adaptations in this organism to stresses it encounters as a saprophyte may provide insights to minimise proliferation in foods.
To broaden the understanding of L. monocytogenes stress resistance a population study, unique in its magnitude, was conducted on growth parameters obtained for a large assortment of isolates of diverse origin, subjected to hyperosmotic stress and, independently, to cold-temperature. On the basis of generation times, no direct correlation (r=0.4) between tolerance to either hyperosmotic- or cold-stress, was evident between isolates, but strains of animal origin were on average found to grow faster when exposed to ether of the two stresses. Strains of serotype 4b appeared to have shorter average generation times of 6.6±0.25 h in BHI at 12.5% (w/v) NaCl and 25°C, whereas serotype 4a strains had an average generation time of 19.4±1.0 h at 4°C in 0.5% (w/v) NaCl BHI, which was faster than other serotypes examined.
Hyperosmotic and cold stress factors, though quite different in terms of physiochemical stress on bacterial cells, revealed many parallels in terms of gene expression in three strains of L. monocytogenes studied. The results suggest that a broadly similar genetic regulatory mechanism could be operating in response to cold and hyperosmotic stresses.
Osmoadaptation of four L. monocytogenes strains, possessing different tolerances to NaCl, revealed a clear pattern in terms of genomic expression. Prolonged exposure to high levels of NaCl was coupled with activation of genes associated with the bacterial cell envelope, DNA repair and protein synthesis. Repression of genes associated with carbohydrate up-take and metabolism was evident in osmo-adapted cells reflecting the overall suppression of cellular metabolism characterised by reduced growth rate of these cells. In addition the initial stage of osmo-adaptation, was examined in strain ATCC 19115 (serotype 4b) post short exposure to 10.0% (w/v) NaCl to investigate continuous spectrum of gene expression in response to osmotic stress in this organism. Gene enrichment analysis revealed a prominent, almost reverse gene expression profile in response to shock, compared to the adaptive response to the same concentration of NaCl. This study is the first to strongly highlight such distinction in gene expression between phases of hyperosmotic adaptation, further emphasising the complexity of this response.
Cold adaptation in three L. monocytogenes strains, possessing distinctly different growth rates at 4°C, lead to activation of gene sets associated with ribosomes, fatty acid and peptidoglycan biosynthesis and cell division and suppression of carbohydrate transport and metabolism related genes. Cold adapted strains did not activate a SigB or PrfA regulatory responses, suggesting that SigB-mediate stress responses are not closely involved in low temperature adaptation. A similar response was observed during hyperosmotic adaptation in L. monocytogenes.
Strain specific response to stress factors has been overlooked in previous whole genome analyses, and although this study suggests a clear correlation in overall response to cold and hyperosmotic stress in this species, strain specific and phase specific responses are also crucial in understanding fully its mechanisms of stress tolerance, survival and persistence. The importance of strain-specific variations in genetic response to stress should be considered particularly if genetic targeting is to be applied to controlling L. monocytogenes proliferation in food products. This study is the first to assess genetic stress adaptation in such depth, significantly contributing to the understanding of L. monocytogenes physiology.


This article examines some of the critical issues raised by the women's movement in India on the violence experienced by women both within the family and through modes of development initiated by the state, and the manner in which the state has sought to both counter feminist critiques as well as co-opt them through state-initiated policies. It focuses in particular on literacy and microcredit programmes, to argue that the rhetoric of empowerment functions as a new 'mantra' which does little to dent the violence of women's everyday lives especially when they are poor and located on the social margins.


Computational efficiency is a central concern in the design of knowledge representation systems. Compiling a knowledgebase into a more tractable form has been suggested as a way around the inherent intractability of many representation formalisms. Because not all theories can be put into an equivalent tractable form, Selrnan and Kautz (199 1) have suggested compiling a theory into upper and lower bounds (one logically weaker, the other logical stronger) that approximate the original information. A central question in this approach is how well the bounds capture the original knowledge. This question is inherently empirical. We present a detailed empirical evaluation of the compilation of two kinds of theories: computationally challenging randomly generated theories, and propositional encodings of planning problems. Our results show that one can answer a very high percentage of queries even using unit clause bounds, which are much easier to compute than more general tractable approximations. Furthermore, we demonstrate that many of the queries that can be answered by the bounds are expensive to answer using only the original theory: in other words, knowledge compilation does not just "skim off" easy queries. In fact, we show substantial total computational savings in using the bounds together with the original theory to answer all queries (with no errors) from a large benchmark set, over using the original theory alone. This study suggests that knowledge compilation may indeed be a practical approach for dealing with intractability in knowledge representation systems.


[Excerpt] This book traces how labor, management, and governments acting as individuals or as groups have shaped and continue to shape the employment relationship. Employment is analyzed through the perspective of industrial relations, the interdisciplinary field of study that concentrates on individual workers and groups of workers, unions and other forms of collective representation, employers and their organizations, and the environment in which these parties interact.


The study examines the extent to which intonation plays a role in the structuring of information in a Japanese monologue. The role of pitch accent in the intonational system of Japanese is very different from that in languages like Dutch or English: in Japanese, pitch accent is a lexical property of words and cannot be used to lend prominence to words at the sentence level. Therefore, we wondered if (and how) intonation can cue discourse structure in Japanese, comparable to how it is being used in Dutch and English. Results show that fundamental frequency (F/sub 0/), amplitude, and duration of the final accents in each sentence did not serve to cue the boundaries of discourse segments, contrary to our expectation. However, pitch range variations on NPs, examined in terms of their position in a discourse segment and their information status, did show a correlation with discourse structure.


Public organizations are increasingly embracing knowledge management (KM) tools and practices. However, there is a lack of understanding and empirical research in the public context to offer relevant insights. This study examines how KM influences public organizations' performance through the concept of KM capability. KM capability represents an organization's ability to capture, share, apply, and create knowledge. The salient resources influencing KM capability are identified and their direct and interaction effects are examined. The effect of KM capability on organizational performance is also assessed. Findings from a survey of 101 public organizations indicate that the physical KM resources of KM technology support and non-IT KM investments significantly influence the level of KM capability. Physical KM resources also have stronger effect on KM capability when the organizational KM resource of senior management championship exists. In contrast, the effects of physical KM resources are weakened by centralized and formalized organizational structure. Implications of these findings for KM research and practice in public organizations are discussed.


U sing historical evidence to provide rapid support for policy advice is all too easy in a crisis, yet it is valuable to offer a historical resonance to current problems. This has certainly been the case over the last two years, which have seen a flood of histories of terrorism, Afghanistan, Iraq, and relations between Islam and the West. Some of the work has been of high quality, but much has been superficial and plagued by serious analytical problems, as commercial opportunity plays a major role. One of the most important problems relates to the need to distinguish between long-term perceptions of Islamic power and more short-term (but still pressing) developments. In particular, there has been a tendency to exaggerate the centrality of relations with the Western world in Islamic history and to focus too narrowly on conflict in these relations. This is at the expense of three different themes: first, the need for Islam to confront other societies; second, the importance of divisions within the Islamic world itself (with the equivalent obviously being true for the Western world); and, third, the variety of links between Islam and the West. The last point can be related, more generally, to modern revisionism on the multiple nature of Western imperialism.


Sports officials (umpires, referees, judges) play a vital role in every sport, and sports governing bodies, fans, and players now expect officials to maintain higher professional standards than ever before. In this ground-breaking book, a team of leading international sport scientists and top level officials have come together to examine, for the first time, the science and practice of officiating in sport, helping us to better understand the skills, techniques and physical requirements of successful refereeing. The book covers every key component of the official's role, including: Training and career development; Fitness and physical preparation; Visual processing; Judgement and decision-making; Communication and game management; Psychological demands and skills; Using technology; Performance evaluation; Researching and studying officials in sport. Top-level officials or officiating managers contribute in the 'Official's Call' sections, reflecting on their experiences in real in-game situations across a wide range of international sports, and on how a better understanding of science and technique can help improve professional practice. No other book has attempted to combine leading edge contemporary sport science with the realities of match officiating in this way, and therefore this book is vital reading for any advanced student of sport science, sport coaching or sport development, or any practising official or sports administrator looking to raise their professional standards.


In labs, clinics, and companies around the world, an amazing revolution in our understanding of life has taken place. This revolution makes the news nearly every day and has dramatically changed the way medicine is practiced, but the headlines often seem mysterious and scary. Today, discoveries are made at such a dizzying pace that even scientists - let alone the public - can barely keep up. The six-volume "Genetics and Evolution" set aims to explain what is happening in biological research and put things into perspective for high school students and the general public. Providing up-to-date research as well as a basis for understanding all aspects of life, this new full-color set highlights key issues in the field of biology and how genetics and evolution are drawn together in a powerful way. Providing a detailed look at how these sciences are likely to shape science and society in the future, the books in this accessible set aim to fill an important niche by connecting the history of scientific ideas and methods to their impact on today's research. This set is ideal for high school and college students interested in these exciting areas of scientific research.


Various static resource allocation algorithms have been used in WDM networks to allocate resources such as wavelength channels, transmitters, receivers, and wavelength converters to a given set of static lightpath demands. However, although optimized resource allocations can be obtained, it remains an open issue how to determine which resources are the bottlenecks in achieving better performance. Existing static resource allocation algorithms do not explicitly measure the impact of changes of network resources or lightpath demands on the design objective. We propose such a measurement based on the Lagrangian relaxation framework. We use the optimized values of Lagrange multipliers as a direct measurement of the criticality of resources. Such a quantitative measurement can be naturally acquired along with the optimization process to obtain the optimal solution (or a near-optimal solution) to the static routing and wavelength assignment problem. We investigate three practical applications of the resource criticality (RC) analysis in WDM network planning. In the first application, we use our proposed measurement to identify critical resources and thus to decide the best way to add or reallocate resources. In the second application, we estimate the impact of the addition or removal of lightpath demands on the design objective. This kind of estimation helps to set a proper price for lightpath demands. In the third application, the results of the RC analysis are used to speed up the convergence of the optimization process for different network scenarios.


In this study, we explore native and non-native syntactic processing, paying special attention to the language distance factor. To this end, we compared how native speakers of Basque and highly proficient non-native speakers of Basque who are native speakers of Spanish process certain core aspects of Basque syntax. Our results suggest that differences in native versus non-native language processing strongly correlate with language distance: native/non-native processing differences obtain if a syntactic parameter of the non-native grammar diverges from the native grammar. Otherwise, non-native processing will approximate native processing as levels of proficiency increase. We focus on three syntactic parameters: (i) the head parameter, (ii) argument alignment (ergative/accusative), and (iii) verb agreement. The first two diverge in Basque and Spanish, but the third is the same in both languages. Our results reveal that native and non-native processing differs for the diverging syntactic parameters, but not for the convergent one. These findings indicate that language distance has a significant impact in non-native language processing.


Often controversial, always inspired, Jacques Lacan here weighs theories of the relationship between the desire for love and the attainment of knowledge from such thinkers as Aristotle, Marx, and Freud. He leads us through mathematics, philosophy, religion, and, naturally, psychoanalysis into an entirely new way of interpreting the two most fundamental human drives. Long anticipated by English-speaking readers, this annotated translation presents Lacan's most sophisticated work on love and desire.


Transport of Ca2+ via a P-type pump into the contractile vacuole of Dictyostelium discoideum appears to be facilitated by vacuolar proton (V-H+) ATPase activity. To investigate the involvement of the V-H(+)-ATPase in this process using molecular techniques, we cloned a cDNA (vatP) encoding the putative proteolipid subunit of this enzyme. The deduced protein product of this cDNA is composed of 196 amino acids with a calculated M(r) of 20,148 and the primary structure exhibits high amino acid sequence identity with V-H(+)-ATPase proteolipids from other organisms. vatP is a single-copy gene and it produces one approximately 900 nt transcript at relatively constant levels during growth and development. Attempts to disrupt the endogenous gene using vatP cDNA were unsuccessful. But, expression of vatP antisense RNA reduced the levels of vatP message and V-H(+)-ATPase activity by 50% or more. These antisense strains grew and developed slowly, especially under acidic conditions, and the cells seemed to have difficulty forming acidic vesicles. During prolonged cultivation, all of the antisense strains either reverted to a wild-type phenotype or died. Thus in Dictyostelium, unlike yeast, the V-H(+)-ATPase seems to be indispensable for cell viability. When different antisense strains were analyzed for Ca2+ uptake by the contractile vacuole, they all accumulated less Ca2+ than control transformants. These results are consistent with earlier pharmacological studies which suggested that the V-H(+)-ATPase functions in intracellular Ca2+ transport in this organism.


Microeconomic theory has long guided competition law. Using price- and game-theoretic models, antitrust has settled on rules that have endured because they are more coherent, easier to understand, and simpler to apply than any other methodology. In application, those rules predict the market consequences of business transactions innumerable in form and uncertain in outcome. But this coherent framework is now under attack. Entranced by the larger "behavioral law and economics" movement, certain academics have questioned the pillars of doctrine built upon the foundation of rational-choice theory. On their view, bounded rationality, willpower, and self-interest afflict firms' and consumers' decision making, inducing systemic departures from the predictions of neoclassical economics and game theory. Current antitrust laws, they argue, fail to account for those departures from rationality. Since these rules and standards produce what they regard as unduly permissive treatment, behavioral-antitrust scholars urge more-interventionist policy. This Article contends that, whatever its virtues for the larger field of law and economics, behavioral economics can play no useful role in contemporary antitrust policy. It is hopelessly vague, untethered to a theory, and reliant on biases that routinely operate in opposing directions. While it can sometimes describe the past, it is incapable of predicting the future: a fatal shortcoming for any method of antitrust analysis. We test whether behavioral antitrust can produce a coherent theory for predicting the market effects of impugned restraints on trade and exclusionary conduct. In doing so, we show that the biases prove either too much — all results are possible — or too little, canceling themselves out and reverting to the (rational) mean. The suggested utility of behavioral antitrust depends entirely upon which biases are thought to explain the conduct in question. But since the movement lacks any method for determining the explanatory power of a particular bias ex ante, choosing between conflicting biases is either a random act or a political one. We also show what the behavioralists must be loath to mention. Despite the claimed empirical superiority of behavioral antitrust, the psychological literature has failed to supply it with the evidence or theory critical for its application. That is the frequency with which, and the situations when, one set of biases dominates others. Without this key bit of inductive fact or deductive logic, all that remains of the approach is conjecture, at best, or cynical manipulation. We conclude that the behavioral movement is a non-event for antitrust policy today.


In this paper we introduce CACTI-D, a significant enhancement of CACTI 5.0. CACTI-D adds support for modeling of commodity DRAM technology and support for main memory DRAM chip organization. CACTI-D enables modeling of the complete memory hierarchy with consistent models all the way from SRAM based L1 caches through main memory DRAMs on DIMMs. We illustrate the potential applicability of CACTI-D in the design and analysis of future memory hierarchies by carrying out a last level cache study for a multicore multithreaded architecture at the 32nm technology node. In this study we use CACTI-D to model all components of the memory hierarchy including L1, L2, last level SRAM, logic process based DRAM or commodity DRAM L3 caches, and main memory DRAM chips. We carry out architectural simulation using benchmarks with large data sets and present results of their execution time, breakdown of power in the memory hierarchy, and system energy-delay product for the different system configurations. We find that commodity DRAM technology is most attractive for stacked last level caches, with significantly lower energy-delay products.


A water-soluble Ir PCP-type pincer catalyst was developed to reduce CO2 to formate electrocatalytically in water with high efficiency and selectivity. Formate is the only reduced carbon product, formed in 93% Faradaic yield with no formation of CO. A small fraction of "background" H2 (ca. 7%) is directly produced at the electrode by solvent reduction. Detailed kinetic information relevant to the catalysis was obtained. The high selectivity for formate production over H2 originates from the aqueous stability of Ir dihydride species, the active species for hydride reduction of CO2. Under neutral pH, the Ir pincer complex does not catalyze the reduction of protons to H2 making water a viable solvent for use with this catalyst system. Addition of small amounts (ca. 1%) of acetonitrile reduces the over-potential and renders the catalysis sustainable. Mechanistic studies suggest that acetonitrile is a key ancillary ligand that ionizes formate effectively preventing catalyst deactivation.


The question of when to collect new information and how to apply that information is central to much of behaviour. Theory suggests that the value of collecting information, or sampling, depends on environmental persistence and on the relative costs of making wrong decisions. However, empirical tests of how these variables interact are lacking. We tested whether bumblebee foraging decisions are indeed influenced by these two factors. We gave bees repeated choices between a resource providing a steady, mediocre reward and a resource fluctuating between a low reward and a high reward. In this paradigm, we manipulated environmental persistence by changing how long the quality of a fluctuating resource remained stable at one reward level. We manipulated the costs of decision errors by changing the relative values of the available rewards. Bees sampled the fluctuating resource more frequently when it changed quality more frequently, indicating that they measured environmental persistence and reacted to it as predicted by theory. Bees showed surprisingly suboptimal tracking, not reliably choosing the currently best resource except when the fluctuating resource was very persistent and the potential rewards high. While bees modify their choices in response to different levels of change and potential rewards, they do not always do so according to optimality predictions.


We provide a critical assessment of the countercyclical capital buffer in the new regulatory framework known as Basel III, which is based on the deviation of the credit-to-GDP ratio with respect to its trend. We argue that a mechanical application of the buffer would tend to reduce capital requirements when GDP growth is high and increase them when GDP growth is low, so it may end up exacerbating the inherent pro-cyclicality of risk-sensitive bank capital regulation. We also note that Basel III does not address pro-cyclicality in any other way. We propose a fully rule-based smoothing of minimum capital requirements based on GDP growth.


We argue that the industry and ownership structure of Chinese ODI is firstly in-line with the country's own industrial features and secondly mirrored in the investment motives behind. It is found that large Chinese investors are mainly driven by natural resource seeking and strategic assets seeking, while the SMEs are keen to facilitate Chinese exports. Nevertheless, we expect a different trend in future Chinese ODI as a result of both natural diversification process and the adaption to the transformation of Chinese economy. Key changes include but are not limited to : a much diversified ownership structure, targets and strategies; a decline of relative significance in resource investments; a more focus on consumption materials and needs; a larger weight in moving abroad industries China is losing comparative advantages; and more investments in lucrative services such as finance and insurance, healthcare and education, real estate and entertainment, construction and infrastructure building.


Introduction: Complex-partial seizures are frequently resistant to antiepileptic therapy. Two new medications with mechanisms of action novel within the antiepileptic class have recently received approval for the adjunctive treatment of partial (focal) seizures. Areas covered: A Medline search was conducted to identify preclinical and clinical studies of ezogabine and perampanel. This was supplemented with additional articles obtained from online sources and information provided by the FDA and the manufacturers. The focus of this review is on the safety profiles of ezogabine (retigabine), a novel antiepileptic that targets voltage-gated potassium channels, and perampanel, a noncompetitive α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate glutamate receptor antagonist. Expert opinion: Central nervous system effects are predominant within the adverse event profiles of both ezogabine and perampanel. In addition, ezogabine exerts its inhibitory effects on potassium channels in the urogenital tract potentially resulting in urinary retention and related outcomes. Recent reports of blue discoloration of the skin and in the retinas of long-term ezogabine users have surfaced. Both drugs have demonstrated the ability to induce neuropsychiatric symptoms. Though both are welcome additions to the antiepileptic drug class, additional monitoring, appropriate counseling, and careful selection of patients are warranted to minimize adverse events.


Institutional investors' demand for a security this quarter is positively correlated with their demand for the security last quarter. These results are attributed to institutional investors following each other into and out of the same securities ("herding")and institutional investors following their own lag trades. Consistent with previous work, we find institutional investors are "momentum" traders. Little of their herding, however, results from momentum trading. Moreover, institutional demand is more strongly related to lag institutional demand than lag returns. Institutional herding declines over time and differs across capitalizations and investor types. Our results are most consistent with the hypothesis that institutional investors herd as a result of inferring information from each other's trades.


The beam spread function (BSF) of sea ice is of interest for several reasons. The BSF characterizes beam propagation through sea ice. Its equivalent, the point spread function, is essentially the optical impulse response of the medium, which has many useful connections to radiative transfer theory. In‐ice measurements of the BSF over the full angular range 0–180°, using a novel method, were made of first‐ and multiyear ice off the shore of Barrow, Alaska. All of the measured sea ice BSFs were drastically different than the BSF of ocean water, and they strongly indicated that sea ice is a highly scattering medium, with a single scattering albedo generally >0.97 over the visible spectrum. At pathlengths >30 cm, the BSF was found to be nearly identical to the computed asymptotic radiance distribution. The rapid approach to the asymptotic state and the high single scattering albedo of sea ice suggest that photon diffusion theory should accurately describe radiative transfer in sea ice away from boundaries. Equating the results of diffusion theory with asymptotic radiative transfer theory yields a simple expression that relates the asymptotic attenuation coefficient K∞, to the inherent optical property coefficients and the asymmetry parameter g of the scattering phase function. It is shown that the necessary optical parameters for computing g can be obtained from the measured BSE Thus, all the information necessary for modeling optical propagation in sea ice can be obtained from the BSF measurements using the method described here.


Biologists once thought that human beings were phys iological islands, entirely capable of regulating their own internal workings. Our bodies made all the enzymes needed for breaking down food and using its nutrients to power and repair our tissues and organs. Signals from our own tissues dictated body states such as hunger or satiety. The specialized cells of our immune system taught themselves how to recognize and attack dangerous microbes—pathogens—while at the same time sparing our own tissues.


ABSTRACT This article provides historical account of wealth accumulation and composition in Sweden during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. A detailed account on capital formation during the industrialisation process shows that produced capital grew faster than natural capital from the 1850s. Natural capital was changing from a predominance of forest towards crop land as the main asset in the early twentieth century. Produced capital was largely bounded in the agriculture sector up till the second half of the nineteenth century. Heavy investments in the infrastructure sector and later in the manufacturing section changed the produced capital structure and thereby lowered transport costs and return of investment in manufacturing and services; providing incentives for accumulating the stock of produced capital and enhance consumption and living standard. The return on capital was dispersed from the outset of the period but has converged over time.


While it is widely believed that electoral competition influences public spending decisions, there has been relatively little effort to examine how recent democratization in the developing world has resulted in changes in basic service provision. There have been even fewer attempts to investigate whether democracy matters for public spending in the poorest developing countries, where "weak institutions" may mean that the formal adoption of electoral competition has little effect on policy. In this article I confront these questions directly, asking whether the shift to multiparty competition in African countries has resulted in increased spending on primary education. I develop an argument, illustrated with a game-theoretic model, which suggests that the need to obtain an electoral majority may have prompted African governments to spend more on education and to prioritize primary schools over universities within the education budget. I test three propositions from the model using panel data on electoral competition and education spending in African countries. I find clear evidence that democratically elected African governments have spent more on primary education, while spending on universities appears unaffected by democratization.


BACKGROUND The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect of early adrenergic hyperactivity as manifested by prehospital (emergency medical service [EMS]) hypertension on outcomes of traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients and to develop a prognostic model of the presence of TBI based on EMS and admission (emergency department [ED]) hypertension. METHODS This study is a retrospective review of the 2007 to 2008 National Trauma Data Bank including blunt trauma patients 15 years or older with available EMS and ED vital signs. Patients with head Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) score of 3 or greater were selected, and mortality was examined within EMS systolic blood pressure (SBP) groups: lower than 100 mm Hg, 110 mm Hg to 150 mm Hg, 160 mm Hg to 180 mm Hg, and 190 mm Hg to 230 mm Hg. A forward logistic regression model including the EMS heart rate, EMS SBP, EMS Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score, ED heart rate, and ED SBP was used to identify predictors of a TBI in patients with ED GCS score of less than or equal to 8, 9 to 13, and 14 to 15. RESULTS For the 5-year study period, 315,242 patients met inclusion criteria. Adjusted odds for mortality increased in a stepwise fashion with increasing EMS SBP compared with patients with normal EMS SBP (adjusted odds ratio [95% confidence interval], 1.33 [1.22–1.44], p < 0.001, for EMS SBP of 160–180 mm Hg and 1.97 [1.76–2.21], p < 0.001, for EMS SBP of 190–230 mm Hg). A 7-point scoring system was developed for each ED GCS score group to predict the presence of a TBI. EMS SBP of greater than 150 mm Hg and ED SBP of greater than 150 mm Hg were both predictive of the presence of a TBI in patients with ED GCS score of 8 or less and in patients with ED GCS score of 9 to 13 or 14 to 15, respectively. CONCLUSION Prehospital hypertension in TBI is associated with a higher mortality risk. Early hypertension in the prehospital setting and at admission can be used to predict the presence of such injuries. These findings may have important early triage and treatment implications. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Prognostic study, level III.


Dear Editor, Each year an increasing number of people claim to suffer from electrosensitivity (see, e.g., compilation of references given in Table 1), also known as being electrically hypersensitive (EHS). There are also other diseases, such as fibromyalgia and burn-out syndrome, that have symptoms similar to those exhibited by people suffering from electrosensitivity. In Sweden, electrosensitivity is recognized as a handicap, but there is still controversy surrounding the diagnosis of the disease. The mainstream view by governmental and medical authorities is that this handicap is a psychological phenomenon with no basis in physical or medical mechanisms (Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare, SNBHW, 1995), whereby perpetuating the misconception that only a small fraction of the population is concerned about electrosensitivity or the proximity of new radio transmission masts. The number of reported cases of electrosensitivity has been steadily increasing since it was first documented in 1991. Data presented here are estimates and are based on large sample inquiries where different sets of questions have been used. To determine whether the statistics indicate a sub-population of electrosensitivity or if the total population is at stake, we plotted reported prevalence estimates over time in a normal distribution diagram (Table 1 and Figure 1). Contrary to the views of mainstream medical authorities, Figure 1 shows that the group of electrosensitive people around the world, including Sweden, is not just a small fraction that deviates from the rest of the healthy population. Instead, it points at the possibility that electrosensitivity will be more widespread in the near future. The extrapolated trend indicates that 50% of the population can be expected to become electrosensitive by the year 2017. Data presented here were collected in Austria, Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States.


Abstract.
 Crinoids were relatively unaffected by the end-Devonian Hangenberg mass extinction event. Major clades of Devonian durophagous fishes suffered significant extinctions, however, and the dominant surviving clades were biting or nipping predators. In part as a response to the Hangenberg event, early Mississippian crinoids underwent an adaptive radiation, while fish clades with a shell-crushing durophagous strategy diversified. Durophagous predators are inferred to have been more effective predators on camerate crinoids; and it is hypothesized, following the predictions of escalation, that through the early Mississippian, camerate crinoids evolved more effective anti-predatory strategies in response. We test this hypothesis of escalation by examining the changes in spinosity and plate convexity among camerate crinoids throughout this interval. A new method was formulated to test for an increase in convexity of the tegmen plates. Traits in Agaricocrinus, Aorocrinus, and Dorycrinus (Family Coelocrinidae) were tested for congruence to the escalation hypothesis, and results were mixed. Convexity of tegmen plates in Agaricocrinus, spine length/calyx diameter in Aorocrinus, calyx size in Aorocrinus, central spine length in Dorycrinus, and spine width in Dorycrinus did not have size increase trends supporting escalation. Rather than an increase in convexity, the variance of convexity in Agaricocrinus tegmen plates narrowed, which could reflect an optimum. Alternatively, morphological change consistent with the escalation hypothesis occurred in calyx size of Agaricocrinus and in lateral spine length and calyx size in Dorycrinus. Furthermore, central and lateral spine length, parameters of the spine width, and size trends support escalation when Aorocrinus and Dorycrinus are treated as a lineage. Thus, inferred escalation acted on traits differently within a single lineage and was relevant for both speciation and the diversification of a new genus.