"Fools rush in where angels fear to tread" wrote Alexander Pope. It is also the opening line in a popular tune many seniors may remember from their youth. The impression one gets from its lyric is that angels are superior to humans in intelligence and discretion. This perception about the superior power of angels is the popular religious legacy transmitted to us throughout the ages. It has led to fantasies of deeds performed by humanlike angels, such as in the popular American TV program "Touched by An Angel." To test the validity of these popular perceptions, one naturally turns to their primary source in Scriptures, specifically in the Torah. In so doing, we find that not only is this perception open to question, but questions also arise as to what is meant by the term "angels" and the role of angels when in contact with humans. To help answer these questions, we shall proceed to analyze seriatim references to angels as they appear in the Torah. Our first encounter with angels occurs when Adam and Eve are banished from the Garden of Eden: He placed at the east of the Garden of Eden the cherubim [to prevent Adam and Eve's return] ... to protect the way to the tree of life (Gen. 3:24). The cherubim are not described, leading one to wonder whether they are physical beings, a literary metaphor, or mystical spiritual creatures. Later, in the instructions for the holy Ark, we are told: 'Thou shalt make two cherubim of gold ... at the two ends of the Ark cover.... And the cherubim shall spread out their wings on high screening the Ark cover with their wings with their faces one to the other (Ex. 25:18-20). Their faces are not described, After the expulsion from Eden, came another encounter: The B'nai Elohim [translated as "the sons of God"] saw the daughters of men, that they were fair, and they took them wives, whomsoever they chose (Gen. 6:2). Jewish Bible commentators pay scant attention to this pre-Abrahamic reference to angels, by contending that the B'nai Elohim are not angels at all, but the privileged aristocracy of that era. They interpret Elohim to mean "mighty," as it is sometimes used in Hebrew. (1) Accordingly, in the afore-cited quotation, the B'nai Elohim are interpreted to mean that the privileged nobility crossed over the social barriers by consorting with the underclasses, thereby undermining the very fabric of an ordered society and its sexual mores. Christian theologians, on the other hand, developed an elaborate pantheon of angels stemming from these B'nai Elohim, referring to them as "Fallen Angels" headed by Satan who figures prominently in their belief system. (2) Judaism, however, recognized early on the dangers of these beliefs as being contrary to its strict adherence to the unity and sovereignty of the One God. The concept of rebellious/fallen angels consorting with humans is totally alien to traditional Jewish thinking. The next encounter with angels is that of Abraham while he is sitting outside of his tent in Mamre: (3) He lifted his eyes and looked, and behold three men stood over him (Gen. 18:2). The three are referred to as anashim [men], yet later they are referred to as malakhim [messengers]: And the two [remaining] angels came to Sodom at eventide (19:1). Which is it? Are these men or supernatural beings? (4) Given that Jewish Bible commentators are much more comfortable discussing Abraham, the first patriarch of Israel, than pre-Abrahamic sources, they are more expansive in interpreting this encounter. They deduce that the three men/angelic visitors are God's messengers commissioned to perform three separate missions: Announcing the miraculous birth of Isaac, destroying the sinful cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, and rescuing Lot, Abraham's nephew. The reason for having three separate angels rather than one performing three different missions is that, according to the Midrash, an angel cannot perform more than one specific task at a time. (5) They have no independent power to initiate missions on their own. …


The Only Book for the Leading Winternals Tools Used in Microsoft Networks! Winternals first came to my rescue in November of 1999. It was then that I purchased my Winternals Administrator's Pak. It contained BlueSave Version 1.01, ERD Commander Professional Version 1.06, Monitoring Tools (Filemon and Regmon) Enterprise Editions Version 1.0, NTFSDOS Professional Version 3.03, NTRecover Version 1.0, and Remote Recover Version 1.01. We had a Windows NT 4 server in the dead zone. I spent a few hours reading over the ERD and Remote Recover user guides, created a "client floppy," and began my quest. Thank goodness that version of ERD had the ability to access NT-defined fault-tolerant drives. Within a few hours we had recovered the system and were back up and running. With that success, I thought back on hundreds of earlier incidents that made me wish I had purchased Winternals sooner. We have come a long way since then; the Winternals team has improved upon and added many tools and features to the Administrator's Pak utilities. One thing remains constant-in the Microsoft administrator's world, Winternals is a lifesaver.-from the Foreword by Dave Kleiman Master ERD Commander 2005 Use the ERD Commander to make a boot disk, run the Locksmith, remove hotfixes, access restore points, and more. Explore Process Activity with Process Explorer Use Autoruns and Process Explorer together to troubleshoot startups and combat malware. View the Security Settings of Your Computer Use the various Winternals tools to monitor users and shared resources, investigate suspicious local files, and search for installed rootkits. Use Sysinternals Tools to Monitor Active Sessions Use FileMon to view all file activity and Regmon to view all Registry activity. Integrate with Windows' System Programs Manage disk fragmentation, get extended file/disk information, and manage disk utilization. Perform Data Recovery Recover data across a network, recover files, and restore lost active directory data. Troubleshoot System Failures Make sense of a Windows crash, identify errant drivers, detect problematic file and registry accesses, and more. Monitor Connections with TCPTools View active network connections and identify problematic network applications using TCPView and TDIMon. Optimize NT 4.0 Systems Extend the Life of NT 4 systems using CacheSet, Contig, PMon, and Frob.


The GRACE satellite mission provides time-variable gravity field solutions on a monthly time scale. In contrast to earlier systems, the accuracy of these data is expected to be good enough to derive ocean mass variations from the GRACE gravity anomalies. Since ocean bottom pressure (OBP) fluctuations are an excellent proxy for ocean mass variations an analysis of OBP anomalies in the South Atlantic has been performed. For this purpose we utilize a global ocean circulation model and compare the simulated monthly mean OBP anomalies with in situ data measured by bottom pressure recorders (e.g. PIES) and fields derived from GRACE data. The ocean model is a 1.5° global version of the 3D Finite Element Sea Ice--Ocean Model (FESOM) which has been developed at the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI). In situ data from two AWI PIES in the South Atlantic are available for the period 2002-2005. First results indicate a strong correlation between FESOM and GRACE OBP anomalies on a global and regional scale. On smaller, synoptic scales the correlation weakens. Due to spurious elongated meridional patterns in the monthly gravity field anomalies, gravity fluctuations on scales less than 1000 km are difficult to detect. Since the in situ measurements are point measurements by nature, it is essential to identify the area for which their time series are representative. A cross-correlation analysis of FESOM data indicates that regions of spatially coherent patterns of OBP are separated by major features of bottom topography.Averaging GRACE data over these patterns improves agreement with the in situ data. Simulated and observed pressure gradient time series between the two PIES positions are compared to each other, to the simulated volume transports across the line between them, and to total ACC transport variations.


It is suggested in this article that a reasonable degree of detailed computation and guidelines will be necessary before the notion of unjust enrichment can be extended and used to 'bridge the gap between the concepts of the economically developed and the underdeveloped nations'. It is respectfully submitted that such detailed elaboration is of doubtful value even if it were possible, given that each case will depend on its particular facts and politico-economic context. Furthermore, any rigid guidelines are bound to inhibit the flexibility inherent in the application of the principle. Modem international law in general, and the doctrine of unjust enrichment in particular, today finds its contemporary relevance in finding suitable solutions to the inequities created by the prevailing international economic situation, where the rich capital exporting states have continued to exploit the poor underdeveloped state through what has sometimes been referred to as 'unequal' treaties.


The use of linguistic typological resources in natural language processing has been steadily gaining more popularity. It has been observed that the use of typological information, often combined with distributed language representations, leads to significantly more powerful models. While linguistic typology representations from various resources have mostly been used for conditioning the models, there has been relatively little attention on predicting features from these resources from the input data. In this paper we investigate whether the various linguistic features from World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) can be reliably inferred from multi-lingual text. Such a predictor can be used to infer structural features for a language never observed in training data. We frame this task as a multi-label classification involving predicting the set of non-mutually exclusive and extremely sparse multi-valued labels (WALS features). We construct a recurrent neural network predictor based on byte embeddings and convolutional layers and test its performance on 556 languages, providing analysis for various linguistic types, macro-areas, language families and individual features. We show that some features from various linguistic types can be predicted reliably.


Abstract. The new global anthropogenic emission inventory (EDGAR-CIRCE) of gas and aerosol pollutants has been incorporated in the chemistry general circulation model EMAC (ECHAM5/MESSy Atmospheric Chemistry). A relatively high horizontal resolution simulation is performed for the years 2005–2008 to evaluate the capability of the model and the emissions to reproduce observed aerosol concentrations and aerosol optical depth (AOD) values. Model output is compared with observations from different measurement networks (CASTNET, EMEP and EANET) and AODs from remote sensing instruments (MODIS and MISR). A good spatial agreement of the distribution of sulfate and ammonium aerosol is found when compared to observations, while calculated nitrate aerosol concentrations show some discrepancies. The simulated temporal development of the inorganic aerosols is in line with measurements of sulfate and nitrate aerosol, while for ammonium aerosol some deviations from observations occur over the USA, due to the wrong temporal distribution of ammonia gas emissions. The calculated AODs agree well with the satellite observations in most regions, while negative biases are found for the equatorial area and in the dust outflow regions (i.e. Central Atlantic and Northern Indian Ocean), due to an underestimation of biomass burning and aeolian dust emissions, respectively. Aerosols and precursors budgets for five different regions (North America, Europe, East Asia, Central Africa and South America) are calculated. Over East-Asia most of the emitted aerosols (precursors) are also deposited within the region, while in North America and Europe transport plays a larger role. Further, it is shown that a simulation with monthly varying anthropogenic emissions typically improves the temporal correlation by 5–10% compared to one with constant annual emissions.


"Susanne Bier's Hollywood Experiments: Things We Lost in the Fire and Serena" explores the lackluster responses to Bier's first English-language productions, often referred to as her 'Hollywood films'. Author Missy Molloy surveys a variety of sources related to the films' productions and receptions to reveal the challenges Bier faced transitioning to new production contexts. Moreover, while the films demonstrate Bier's willingness to experiment with unfamiliar genres and production conditions, they also reaffirm her attractions to specific cinematic subjects, images, and narrative scenarios. Thus, these less successful films provide information relevant to the project of tracing Bier's authorial influence across a body of extremely varied works. Furthermore, the fact that her authorial influence was somewhat muted in her first 'Hollywood' films—due to her signing on late in pre-production as well as complications that arose during post-production— indicates that in Bier's case, early involvement allows her to affect the characters and narratives to the extent that they reflect career-long preoccupations, which manifested in Things We Lost in the Fire and Serena to a degree that didn't significantly appeal to either her domestic or international audience. The chapter complements Langkjær's and Agger's attentions to more successful films by highlighting that Bier's approach to genre is expansive, even when it does not produce desirable results. Molloy concludes that less effective elements of Bier's cinematic strategies are results, at least partly, of bad timing. She further argues that reception prejudices played a role in Things We Lost in the Fire and Serena's failures to land with audiences.


Single microchannel high-temperature fiber sensors were fabricated by drilling a microchannel across the fiber core near the end of the common single-mode fiber using femtosecond laser-induced water breakdown. Then the microchannel was annealed by the arc discharge to smooth its inwall. The two sides of microchannel and the end surface of the fiber constitute three reflective mirrors, which form a three-wave Fabry-Pérot interferometer (FPI). The fabricated FPI can be used as a high-temperature sensor in harsh environments due to its large temperature range (up to 1000°C), high linearity, miniaturized size, and perfect mechanical property.


Using results from parametric optimization we derive for chance constrained stochastic programs (quantitative) stability properties for (locally) optimal values and sets of (local) minimizers when the underlying probability distribution is subjected to perturbations. Emphasis is placed on verifiable sufficient conditions for the constraint-set-mapping to fulfill a Lipschitz property which is essential for the stability results. Both convex and non-convex problems are investigated.

We present an optimal-load-dispatch model with considering the demand as a random vector and putting the equilibrium between total generation and demand as a probabilistic constraint. Since in optimal load dispatch the information on the probability distribution of the demand is often incomplete, we discuss consequences of our general results for the stability of optimal generation costs and optimal generation policies.


Following a brief introduction in Section 1, Section 2 sets out the operational context of library purchasing consortia. A range of key factors have shaped recent developments in the four LIS sectors under consideration (FE, HE, health and public libraries); some have exerted a common influence over all (e.g. information technology, European Commission purchasing directives, new central government, decline in bookfunds); some are sector-specific (e.g. purchasing arrangements, regional administrative frameworks, collaborative partnerships). The structure and markets of the book and periodical publishing industry in the UK are reviewed, with attention paid to historical as well as more recent practice that has had an impact on library supply. Although each component of the LIS purchasing consortia jigsaw displays individual characteristics that have evolved as a response to its own environment, the thread that links them together is constant change.

Section 3 presents the results of a survey of identified library purchasing consortia in the four library sectors. It treats common themes of relevance to all consortia arising from information gathered by seminar input, questionnaire and interview. These include models of consortium operation, membership and governance, 'typical' composition of consortia in each sector, and links to analogous practice in other library sectors. Common features of the tendering and contract management process are elicited and attention paid to any contribution of procurement professionals. Finally, levels of consortium expenditure and cost savings are estimated from the published statistical record, which readily demonstrate in financial terms the efficiency of the consortial purchase model for all types of library in the United Kingdom.

Section 4 presents the results of a survey of suppliers to libraries in the United Kingdom of books and periodicals, the two sectors most commonly represented in current contracts of library purchasing consortia. It sets out in some detail the operating context governing the highly segmented activities of library booksellers, as well as that pertaining to periodicals suppliers (also known as subscription agents). Detailed responses to questions on the effects of library purchasing consortia on suppliers of both materials have been gathered by questionnaire survey and selected follow-up interviews. Results are presented and analysed according to supply sector with attention given to the tendering process, current contracts under way, cross-sectoral clientele, and advantages and inhibitors of consortia supply. Further responses are reported on issues of how consortia have affected suppliers' volume of trade, operating margins and market stability as perceived in their own business, the library supply sector and the publishing industry. Finally, overall conclusions are drawn and projections made as to future implications for both types of library suppliers.

Section 5 synthesises findings, details enabling and inhibiting factors for consortia formation and models of best practice amongst consortia. The scope for cross-sectoral collaboration is discussed and found to be limited at present. Pointers are given for future activity.


In this work we propose a batch Bayesian optimization method for combinatorial problems on permutations, which is well suited for expensive-to-evaluate objectives. We first introduce LAW, an efficient batch acquisition method based on determinantal point processes using the acquisition weighted kernel. Relying on multiple parallel evaluations, LAW enables accelerated search on combinatorial spaces. We then apply the framework to permutation problems, which have so far received little attention in the Bayesian Optimization literature, despite their practical importance. We call this method LAW2ORDER. On the theoretical front, we prove that LAW2ORDER has vanishing simple regret by showing that the batch cumulative regret is sublinear. Empirically, we assess the method on several standard combinatorial problems involving permutations such as quadratic assignment, flowshop scheduling and the traveling salesman, as well as on a structure learning task.


Abstract This article examines the behavioral treatment of Trichotillomania. A brief overview of the diagnosis and assessment of Trichotillomania is provided. Guidelines for a structured clinical evaluation when working with people diagnosed with Trichotillomania are supplied. The most effective behavioral interventions and treatments for working with client's diagnosed with Trichotillomania are discussed. Keywords: Trichotillomania, Behavioal Assessment,Behavior Treatment Introduction The reported incidence of Trichotillomania is rising with an estimated prevalence rate of 1%, suggesting that nearly 2.5 million people in the United States have this disorder (Diefenbach, Reitman, & Williamson, 2000). Increased attention should be given to the assessment and treatment of Trichotillomania to fulfill the escalating needs of those dealing with this mental disorder. There is a tendency for the severity of this disorder to be overlooked due to the underestimation of prevalence, and high rate of comorbidity with other psychological disorders (Mulinari-Brenner & Bergfeld, 2001). This article will provide suggestions for the behavioral assessment and treatment of Trichotillomania. It is helpful for individuals to become familiar with the diagnostic features of Trichotillomania to establish the proper assessment and treatment of this disorder. The disorder was introduced in 1987 as an impulse control disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). Trichotillomania is currently defined in the DSM-IV TR (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000) as the recurrent pulling out of one's own hair resulting in noticeable hair loss, in which an individual experiences persistent tension prior to pulling out the hair or when attempts are made to resist the behavior. Once the behavior is occurring or has occurred, the individual may feel pleasure, gratification, or relief. For the disorder to be considered clinically significant, that is not a result of a general medical condition or another mental disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Trichotillomania often begins or is recognized in late childhood or early adolescence with an average age of onset at 13 years (Christenson, Mackenzie, Mitchell, & Callies, 1991; Simeon et al., 1997; Stein, Christenson, & Hollander, 1999; Walsh & McDougle, 2001). Despite the early onset, there is no consensus over the etiology of Trichotillomania (Diefenbach et al., 2000; Stein et al., 1999). Various explanations have been offered, that include viewing it as a feature of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) as evidenced in the high comorbity rates (Christenson, Mackenzie, & Mitchell, 1991; Elliott & Fuqua, 2000), psychoanalytic perspectives (Diefenbach et al., 2000; Stein et al., 1999) and neurobiological factors (Ashton, 2001; Ravindran, Lapierre, & Anisman, 1999). For the purpose of this article, trichotillomania will be addressed from a behavioral perspective and behavioral assessment and treatment interventions will be reviewed. Behaviorists believe that Trichotillomania is basically a coping behavior that develops in response to stressful stimuli. The hair pulling behavior is reinforced through classical and operant conditioning that culminates in an individual reverting to hair pulling as a technique used to reduce tension (Diefenbach et al., 2000; Stein et al., 1999). In the remainder of this article, effective behavioral interventions will be reviewed. Behavioral Assessment of Trichotillomania As in the assessment of all mental and emotional disorders, the clinician should conduct a clinical interview that provides a thorough assessment of a multitude of factors. Emphasis may be given to age of onset, frequency (e.g., does hair pulling occur daily, is it persistent or only present in times of distress, does it follow a pattern) and quantity (i.e., pulling hair strands or clumps), emotional state (before, during and after hair pulling), self employed efforts to reduce or stop the behavior, past treatment interventions and family patterns (Bordnick, 1997; Christenson, Mackenzie, & Mitchell 1991; Mulinari-Brenner & Bergfeld, 2001; Simeon & Favazza, 2001; Stein et al. …


Pododermatitis (FPD) is a contact dermatitis commonly observed in poultry, primarily affecting the surface of the footpad and the hock joint, and causes poor welfare and economic losses when severe. Most reported field outbreaks of FPD have been associated with poor litter conditions. There are three important aspects of litter condition associated with incidences of FPD and hock burns (HB) i.e. increased litter moisture, greasy or capped litter as well as high ammonia (NH3) content. Therefore maintaining litter quality and more specifically the moisture content is essential if conditions such FPD and HB are to be controlled. Poor litter condition is caused by an interaction between management, nutrition and intestinal health. In terms of nutrition, dietary density i.e. energy and protein concentrations are important factors in terms of determining litter quality and incidences of FPD, because of the effect that they exert on water intake.

Four experiments were used to investigate the effects of nutritional modifications on water intake (WI) and excretion by turkeys. In the first experiment explored the effect of different dietary nutrient concentrations supplemented with and without phytase on WI and excretion. It was noted that excreta moisture content was reduced (P 0.05) on the cumulative WI. Water output (g/g of weight gain) was higher (P 0.05).

In the next two experiments floor-pen studies were used to examine the effects of nutrient density and dietary protein concentration (ranging from 77 to 120% of BUT breed recommendation) on litter quality parameters and, therefore, on leg health conditions. In one study the energy and protein ratio were kept constant whereas in the second the protein concentration changed while the energy remained constant (100% of breed requirement). Growth performance parameters were determined for each study which was conducted from 4 to 20 weeks of age. When birds were fed diets in which the energy and protein ratio remained constant the high protein/energy diets resulted in a lower WI and litter moisture content when compared to group fed diet containing lower concentrations of protein/energy (P 0.05) of treatment on FPD.

Birds fed diets containing a higher than the recommended dietary protein concentration (constant energy concentration) had a higher WI and litter moisture content when compared to group fed diets containing the low nutrient density diets (P<0.001). Likewise, litter pH and NH3 concentration and prevalence of HB and FPD were higher where birds were fed the higher than recommended protein concentration diets.

The final experiment was designed to establish the relative importance of protein and potassium in determining WI and excretion. There were six treatments based on three diets containing either 77, 100 and 120% of the dietary protein recommended by the breeder. Each diet was then split into two and one of the two diets was supplemented with K2CO3 to give a K+ concentration of 16.5 g/kg of diet. The remaining diet of the pair was left unsupplemented (ie contained only naturally occurring potassium). It was noted that birds fed with diet containing higher dietary protein concentration had higher WI and moisture output (MO) when compared to group fed diet containing lower dietary protein concentration (P<0.001). The effect within diets containing the same CP and standardised K+ was marginally insignificant (P=0.065) in terms of WI. Whereas birds fed diets containing naturally occurring K+ only had approximately 10% less (P<0.05) MO compared to these fed diets containing the standardised concentration of K+.

While recognising that factors such as non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), indigestible fat and trypsin inhibitor could not be excluded totally, it was concluded, on the basis of the experiments conducted, that dietary protein (as provided by soybean meal) was primarily responsible for the higher WI and hence excretion. This then ultimately produces unacceptable litter quality and results in leg health problems in turkeys. To prevent excessive water intake and reduce litter moisture content there should be a correct balance between dietary energy and protein levels. Feeding turkeys lower ideal protein diets containing higher apparent metabolisable energy ratio crude protein (AME:CP) may help to improve the amino acid digestibility and ionic balance and, therefore, litter quality and this will help to decrease leg health problems such as footpad dermatitis and hock burn.


Data compression methods can be classified into two groups: lossless and lossy. Usually the latter achieves a higher compression ratio than the former. However, to develop a lossy compression method, we have to know, for a given type of data, what information can be discarded without significant degradation of the data quality. A usual way to obtain such knowledge is by experiments. For example, from user statistics, we know that human eyes are insensitive to some frequency channels of the light signal. Thus we can compress image data by decomposing them into various frequency channels using a DCT transformation, and neglect the coefficients of the channels that are insensitive to human eyes. However, it is complex and expensive for human analysts to conduct and study so many experiments. Alternatively, we propose to learn the knowledge automatically by using machine learning techniques. Under the framework of Bayesian learning, general prior knowledge is expressed by designing the statistical models, and the refined posterior knowledge can be learned automatically from data to be compressed. More particularly, we consider the compression of some input data as learning a statistical model from the data, and consider the restoration of data as sampling from the learned model. Therefore, only the estimated model parameters are saved as the compressed version. A key to this idea is to design a statistical model that can accurately describe the data (so it is possible to recover the data precisely) and is defined by a compact set of parameters (so to achieve high compression ratio). For a general application of compressing sequential data, we designed the Variable-length Hidden Markov Model (VLHMM), whose learning algorithm automatically learns a minimal set of parameters (by optimizing a MinimumEntropy criterion) that accurately models the sequential data (by optimizing a Maximum-Likelihood criterion). The selfadaption ability of the learning algorithm makes VLHMM


For sustainable building design, computational tools, mostly in the form of simulations, are employed to determine loads and to predict systems performance typically in terms of energy use. Currently, sustainability, in the building domain, is judged by a rating system. Design choices are validated, by measuring against one. The objective of the framework is to provide a general approach to processing the informational needs of any rating system, by identifying, categorizing and organizing relevant data requirements. Aspects of sustainability that designers deal with intuitively will have a structured guideline and gauge as one selects a rating system of choice.


Most measurements of pulmonary blood volume have been based on the Stewart-Hamilton dye dilution principle and have required direct catheterisation of the cardiac chambers. Alternatively a precordial counter may be used to detect the composite right and left heart curves after an intravenous injection of radionuclide. We investigated the use of a gamma camera/computer system to determine the radionuclide dilution curves from individual cardiac chambers. Pulmonary transit time and pulmonary blood volume were measured in nine normal subjects, eight patients with angina pectoris but without heart failure, and 13 patients with ischaemic heart disease and left ventricular failure. Patients with heart failure had significantly greater (p less than 0.001) pulmonary blood volumes and pulmonary transit times than normal subjects or patients without heart failure. Reproducibility measurements of pulmonary blood volume, determined in 12 subjects, gave a coefficient of variation of 2.6%. The effect of posture on pulmonary blood volume was determined in six subjects lying supine and tilted at a 45 degree angle. A reduction in pulmonary blood volume in the tilted position was observed in each subject (p less than 0.005). This simple non-invasive measurement should allow more detailed assessment of physiological or pharmacological changes of the pulmonary vascular bed.


Accessibility has for many years been a widely used tool in transportation research. Many definitions have been suggested and researchers have constructed numerous mathematical formulations to measure its value in order to be able to evaluate the relationships between the nature of the transport systems and the patterns of land use. Such correlations have been used especially in assessing existing transport systems and forecasting their performance to provide decision-makers with ideas about the need for investments in the transport systems. However, accessibility measures can be regarded as the spatial counterparts of discounting. The measures represent the spatial distribution of economic agents and their activities in a simple way that imposes a very clear structure upon the relationship between these agents and their activities and their environment. Various frictional effects arising from geographical distance between economic agents determine their interaction options, that is, their options to trade, to cooperate, to learn, to commute, and so on. Observing that the time sensitivities of the economic agents vary between different spatial scales (and between different economic activities) we may impose a spatial structure (for example, local, intra-regional, interregional and international) which offers opportunities to define variables in such a way that spatial dependencies can be accommodated. These newly defined variables can then be used in empirical explanations of various spatial phenomena, such as patent output, new firm formation, the emergence of new export products, and economic growth in different spatial units. We will in this chapter against this background show that accessibility is an underused analytical and empirical tool in regional science with an underestimated potential.


The Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts (CUECIC) was approved by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) in July 2005. It is now available for ratification by U.N. member states. CUECIC is based on the Model Law on Electronic Commerce adopted by UNCITRAL in 1996. The Model Law has served as the basis for electronic signature and electronic commerce legislation at the federal and state levels in the United States and other countries. The similarity of CUECIC to domestic electronic commerce laws should facilitate its use for international contracts. CUECIC requires, however, that its terms be interpreted by domestic courts according to its international character and the need to promote uniformity in its application. These same rules of interpretation also apply to the UNCITRAL Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG), but no implementing legislation accompanied CISG ratification by the United States to locate the CISG, and to annotate decisions interpreting it, within the body of the code of federal statutes. Like the CISG, there will be no authoritative judicial body or expert commentary to resolve conflicts or ambiguities in judicial interpretations of CUECIC. Varying interpretations may also result from the different versions of CUECIC that could be created by national declarations varying its scope of applicability. Therefore, despite the common source of CUECIC and U.S. electronic commerce laws in the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce, the use of CUECIC for international commercial contracts might be restrained by the same procedural difficulties that have limited the use of the CISG.


The ability of differentiated neurones to recover from disease or injury depends upon both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Whereas most mammalian neurones have a limited capacity for regeneration, regulated, in part, by physical and chemical cues in the brain microenvironment (Bray et al. 1987; Caroni and Schwab, 1988, 1989), invertebrates, and in particular insects, exhibit a far greater capacity for repair of central neurones and circuits (Treherne et al. 1988). Studies of the cues that regulate the regenerative process are made easier by the use of individual, identified neurones, cultured under controlled conditions. Invertebrates are particularly useful in this regard; neurones from mature nervous systems of both annelids and molluscs have been grown successfully in culture and their growth can be influenced by changes in the culture conditions (Acklin and Nicholls, 1990; Dagan and Levitan, 1981; Ready and Nicholls, 1979; Syed et al. 1990). Routine and long-term culture of identified neurones from the insect central nervous system (CNS) has proved more elusive, preventing the use of neurones from these well-studied systems. Recently, however, cultures of cockroach (Howes et al. 1991), locust (Kirchoff and Bicker, 1992) and moth (Hayashi and Levine, 1992) adult neurones have been described.


Cybersecurity is a fast-evolving discipline that is always in the news over the last decade, as the number of threats rises and cybercriminals constantly endeavor to stay a step ahead of law enforcement. Over the years, although the original motives for carrying out cyberattacks largely remain unchanged, cybercriminals have become increasingly sophisticated with their techniques. Traditional cybersecurity solutions are becoming inadequate at detecting and mitigating emerging cyberattacks. Advances in cryptographic and Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques (in particular, machine learning and deep learning) show promise in enabling cybersecurity experts to counter the ever-evolving threat posed by adversaries. Here, we explore AI's potential in improving cybersecurity solutions, by identifying both its strengths and weaknesses. We also discuss future research opportunities associated with the development of AI techniques in the cybersecurity field across a range of application domains.


During the last decade the framework of mediatization theory has been introduced in the field of media, religion and culture as a parallel perspective to the "mediation of religion" approach, allowing new questions to be posed that align with religious change within Europe. This article provides a critical review of existing research applying mediatization of religion theory, focusing on key issues raised by its critics as well as how the theory have moved the research field forward. These issues concern the concept of religion, institution and social change, religious authority, and the application of mediatization theory outside the North-Western European context where it originated. The article argues that an institutional approach to mediatization is a relevant tool for analyzing change as a dynamic process in which the logics of particular forms of media influence practices, values and relations within particular manifestations of religion across various levels of analysis.


Bioprospecting is the exploration of biodiversity for new resources of social and commercial value. It is carried out by a wide range of established industries such as pharmaceuticals, manufacturing and agriculture as well as a wide range of comparatively new ones such as aquaculture, bioremediation, biomining, biomimetic engineering and nanotechnology. The benefits of bioprospecting have emerged from such a wide range of organisms and environments worldwide that it is not possible to predict what species or habitats will be critical to society, or industry, in the future. The benefits include an unexpected variety of products that include chemicals, genes, metabolic pathways, structures, materials and behaviours. These may provide physical blueprints or inspiration for new designs. Criticism aimed at bioprospecting has been addressed, in part, by international treaties and legal agreements aimed at stopping biopiracy and many activities are now funded by agencies that require capacity-building and economic benefits in host countries. Thus, much contemporary bioprospecting has multiple goals, including the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable management of natural resources and economic development. Ecologists are involved in three vital ways: first, applying ecological principles to the discovery of new resources. In this context, natural history becomes a vast economic database. Second, carrying out field studies, most of them demographic, to help regulate the harvest of wild species. Third, emphasizing the profound importance of millions of mostly microscopic species to the global economy.


An inability to accurately detect quality prior to or even after purchase distinguishes professional advice from other consumer goods or services. A consumer that is unable to assess the difference between an advisor's recommendation and the ideal recommendation is vulnerable to the self-serving behavior of the agent. Regulation that decreases the agency costs to consumers (or increases costs to planners not acting prudently) can increase consumer welfare. A client who trusts their advisor believes that the advisor is less likely to take advantage of the information asymmetry inherent in an expert-advice relationship. This trust also reduces client oversight and provides opportunities for advisors to make recommendations that maximize their own welfare within the boundaries of the regulatory rulebook. Applying a fiduciary standard to all financial professionals who provide personalized advice will eliminate many of these conflicts of loyalty between advisors and clients and will increase bonding costs to more closely align incentives.


The 5-HT3 receptors are members of the cys-loop family of ligand-gated ion channels. Two functional subtypes are known, the homomeric 5HT3A and the heteromeric 5HT3A/B receptors, which exhibit distinct biophysical characteristics but are difficult to differentiate pharmacologically. Atomic force microscopy has been used to determine the stoichiometry and architecture of the heteromeric 5HT3A/B receptor. Each subunit was engineered to express a unique C-terminal epitope tag, together with six sequential histidine residues to facilitate nickel affinity purification. The 5-HT3 receptors, ectopically expressed in HEK293 cells, were solubilised, purified and decorated with antibodies to the subunit specific epitope tags. Imaging of individual receptors by atomic force microscopy revealed a pentameric arrangement of subunits in the order BBABA, reading anti-clockwise when viewed from the extracellular face. Homology models for the heteromeric receptor were then constructed using both the electron microscopic structure of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, from Torpedo marmorata, and the X-ray crystallographic structure of the soluble acetylcholine binding protein, from Lymnaea stagnalis, as templates. These homology models were used, together with equivalent models constructed for the homomeric receptor, to interpret mutagenesis experiments designed to explore the minimal recognition differences of both the natural agonist, 5-HT, and the competitive antagonist, granisetron, for the two human receptor subtypes. The results of this work revealed that the 5-HT3B subunit residues within the ligand binding site, for both the agonist and antagonist, are accommodating to conservative mutations. They are consistent with the view that the 5-HT3A subunit provides the principal and the 5-HT38 subunit the complementary recognition interactions at the binding interface.


The Selborne Society, born in 1885, and the pioneer of nature conservation in Britain, had an auspicious birth, a promising childhood, a stormy adolescence, and a dull and fitful middle age. A century ago it was a hugely influential national conservation organisation, the first such in Europe. In the mid 1950s, on reaching its three score and ten, it all but died, but was rescued and reborn to become the unique and flourishing local natural history society that it remains today, managing what is, arguably, Britain's first ever nature reserve, Perivale Wood.
The outlines of the story are well known, at least to the Society's present members, and were admirably presented in a booklet by Michael Blackmore1 in 1985 on the occasion of the Society's centenary. Much of the interest however (and not a little of the devil) lies in the detail. 2004 is a good year to revisit the history of the Selborne Society, because 100 years ago it was at a watershed in its fortunes.
In 1904 the Society for the Protection of Birds, which the Selborne Society had helped to form (and which had already overtaken it in membership and influence) received its royal charter, and became the RSPB. In that year also, Wilfred Mark Webb of Hanwell became General Secretary of the Selborne Society, which he was to dominate for nearly half a century. The story of Webb and of the Ealing branch of the Society are well documented (and form much of the focus of Blackmore's history). Less well documented – until now, still dispersed in the archives – are other stories, in particular, the Selborne Society's relationship with wider events and with other organisations and people. Amongst the latter were Edward Alfred Martin, in 1904 secretary of the Selborne Society's branch in Croydon, where the 'Fin, Fur and Feather Folk', a precursor of the RSPB, had first met.
This booklet focuses on the two decades either side of 1904, from the Selborne Society's formation in 1885 to its transformation into a lecture bureau in the mid 1920s, and in particular, on its relationship with the (R)SPB over this period. It is a celebration of the Selborne Society, and also of the lives of Webb, Martin and indeed all early pioneers of conservation.
It is also issued in celebration of the centenary of the Charter of the Selborne Society's own fledgling (and sometime antagonist) which has grown so strong in its maturity, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Like the RSPB's own centenary history2 it is a 'warts and all' account. It documents a period when nature conservation and natural history were awkward bedfellows, sometimes complementary but as often in conflict about ends as well as means. It is a period that also has lessons to teach us about conservation today.


Introduction: Raised blood pressure is a major cardiovascular risk factor. If left uncontrolled, hypertension causes stroke, myocardial infarction, cardiac failure, dementia, renal failure and blindness, causing human suffering and imposing severe financial and service burdens on health systems. The objective of the study is to find out the prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension and also to know the factors influencing hypertension among elderly population. Materials and Methods: Community based cross-sectional study was conducted in rural field practice area under the department of Community Medicine in Haldwani block of district Nainital. The study was conducted from November 2013 to October 2014. Elderly, who had completed sixty years of age at the time of study, gave consent and volunteer to participate, were included in the study. A pretested, semi-structured questionnaire was administered to collect data from 440 elderly which was later entered into Microsoft excel and was analyzed using SPSS 16. Chi square test was used to test the association and p Result: The prevalence of hypertension among the elderly was 38.86%. Awareness, treatment and blood pressure under control was seen among 59.06%, 76.24% and 19.48% respectively. Hypertension was significantly associated with literacy status, employment status, higher socioeconomic status, increased body mass index, and presence of diabetes. Conclusion: The prevalence of hypertension was quite high among the elderly while the awareness, treatment and control of blood pressure were low among those who were found to be hypertensive. Key words: Hypertension, Elderly, Rural, Prevalence, Awareness, Treatment, Control.


The nucleosynthesis and ejection of radioactive 26Al (t1/2 ∼ 0.72 Myr) and 60Fe, (t1/2 ∼ 2.5 Myr) into the interstellar medium is dominated by the stellar winds of massive stars and supernova type II explosions. Studies of meteorites and their components indicate that the initial abundances of these short-lived radionuclides in the solar protoplanetary disk were higher than the background levels of the galaxy inferred from γ-ray astronomy and models of the galactic chemical evolution. This observation has been used to argue for a late-stage addition of stellar debris to the solar system's parental molecular cloud or, alternatively, the solar protoplanetary disk, thereby requiring a special scenario for the formation of our solar system. Here, we use supercomputers to model—from first principles—the production, transport, and admixing of freshly synthesized 26Al and 60Fe in star-forming regions within giant molecular clouds. Under typical star formation conditions, the levels of 26Al in most star-forming regions are comparable to that deduced from meteorites, suggesting that the presence of short-lived radionuclides in the early solar system is a generic feature of the chemical evolution of giant molecular clouds. The 60Fe/26Al yield ratio of ≈0.2 calculated from our simulations is consistent with the galactic value of 0.15 ± 0.06 inferred from γ-ray astronomy but is significantly higher than most current solar system measurements indicate. We suggest that estimates based on differentiated meteorites and some chondritic components may not be representative of the initial 60Fe abundance of the bulk solar system.


Net energy import of Switzerland corresponds to about 13 BCHF (petroleum, uranium, etc.) each year. According to the energy perspective 2035 defined by Swiss Federal Office Energy, the energy import should be reduced to 7.3 BCHF. Meeting the goals defined by this perspective can be envisaged by mitigating the energy demand of buildings since the built environment consumes 40% of the total primary energy. In Switzerland; 20 % of the buildings' energy consumption is moreover related to electric lighting. Therein, integrated building automation technologies, such as automatic regulation of sun shadings and electric lighting can play an important role in reducing lighting energy demand while maintaining user comfort. For this purpose, a rapid, reliable, accurate evaluation of the lighting conditions in a building is essential. In this paper, a control platform installed in two offices of the LESO experimental building on the EPFL campus in Lausanne, Switzerland is presented. This data acquisition and actuation platform hosts two motorized sun shadings per office, a dimmable lighting system, a presence detector, energy meters, ceiling mounted luminance-meters and two novel High Dynamic Range (HDR) vision sensors. A sample controller is implemented in the platform to evaluate its robustness and performance. This platform is currently ready for integrating novel controllers for testing several energy efficient control scenarios/algorithms.


Background: Congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia (CPT) is a rare condition. The natural history of CPT includes persistent instability and progressive deformity. Several CPT treatment methods have been practiced, however, in Africa where there is scarce information on the modalities of treatment available and their outcomes. Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional study which was conducted among patients with CPT at Beit Cure International Hospital (BCIH), Malawi. Forty-four patients were recruited in this study and their treatment modalities and outcomes were analyzed. Results: Out of 44 patients recruited in this study, majority (63.6%) were male. The majority of cases were stage 4 congenital tibia pseudarthrosis by Crawford classification. Most patients were treated by more than one surgical modality; however, surgical excision and intramedullary rodding was commonly used (54.7%). The outcomes of treatment were good in 5%, fair in 30%, with amputation in 45% and poor outcomes in 20% of the patients. Complications developed in 60% of patients, predominated by limb length discrepancy. The foot and ankle status were rated by Oxford Foot and Ankle scoring system (OxFAQ). Conclusions: Congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia is a complex congenital disorder with multiple modalities of treatment. Majority of the patients were treated by more than one operation. Some patients ended up with amputation or poor outcome. Limb length discrepancy, deep infection and pin tract infection are among the common complications. Keywords: congenital pseudarthrosis; tibia; treatment outcomes; Malawi


Using a generalized gravity equation, this study tests for the Linder effect in differentiated agrifood product trade, i.e. as the demand structures of two countries become more similar, their trade intensity increases. Two proxies of demand structure, the Balassa index and the absolute value of the difference in per capita GDPs of trading partners, are used to capture the Linder effect. In addition, two measures of bilateral trade, the Grubel and Lloyed index, and the value of bilateral trade are used as the dependent variable. The study investigates the role of the Linder effect in explaining the trade of 37 differentiated agri-food and beverage products categorized into eight product groups: cereals; fresh fish; frozen fish; vegetables; fresh fruit; processed fruit; tea and coffee; and alcoholic beverages. The data covers trade across 52 developed and developing countries from 1990 to 2000. The type of proxy used for the Linder effect and the way in which bilateral trade is measured influence the outcome of the statistical tests for the Linder effect. The Linder effect for cereals, frozen fish, vegetables, processed fruits, and tea and coffee, using the value of trade as the dependent variable, is often accepted but it is generally rejected when the GL index is used as the measure of trade intensity. In brief, the results do not provide strong support for the Linder effect in the trade of differentiated agri-food products.---------------------------------------------------------------------------Revised and published as: Haq, Ul Zahoor and Karl D. Meilke. 2009. "Does the Linder effect hold for differentiated agri-food and beverage product trade?" Applied Economics 43(27):4095-4109.


SUMMARY. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated at a single Melbourne Hospital between 1969 and 198 1 were examined for susceptibility to a range of antimicrobial agents and for the presence of plasmid DNA. Isolates obtained during 1969 possessed a plasmid of mol. wt 20 x lo6, encoding heavy metal resistance and penicillinase production, and a plasmid of mol. wt 2.8 x lo6, mediating tetracycline resistance. In the majority of isolates obtained after 1973, these functions were chromosomally encoded. Before 1980, both high- and low-level chromosomally-encoded gentamicin resistances were encountered, whereas isolates from 1980 and 198 1 displayed low-level gentamicin resistance only; the latter phenotype was most commonly mediated by a plasmid of mol. wt 18 x lo6 that also encoded resistance to tobramycin and kanamycin. Chloramphenicol resistance in strains isolated throughout the period was mediated by one of three plasmids, each of mol. wt c. 3 x lo6.


Jane Austen loved to put on her satin slippers with shoe-roses, her white gloves and muslin gown, and go off for an evening of fun at the Basingstoke assemblies. The Bennet girls share their creator's delight and go off joyfully to dance, and of course to meet future husbands. Drawing on contemporary accounts and illustrations, and a close reading of the novels as well as Austen's correspondence, Susannah Fullerton takes the reader through all the stages of a Regency Ball as Jane Austen and her characters would have known it. Her subjects learn their steps, dress in readiness, find transport to convey them to a ball, choose between public and private balls, worry over a shortage of men, prefer a cotillion to a quadrille, talk and flirt with their partners, sustain themselves with supper, fall in love, and then go home to talk it all over at the end.


Sáez Sáez de villarreal, E, Izquierdo, M, and Gonzalez-Badillo, JJ. Enhancing jump performance after combined vs. maximal power, heavy-resistance, and plyometric training alone. J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3274–3281, 2011—The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 5 different stimuli on jumping ability and power production after 7 weeks of training. Sixty-five (47 men and 18 women) physical education students were randomly assigned to 5 experimental groups that performed: combination of all training methods (A); heavyresistance training using full-squat exercise (i.e., 56–85% of 1 RM for 3–6 repetitions) (B); power-oriented strength training using a parallel-squat exercise (i.e., 100–130% of load that maximizes power output for 2–6 repetitions) (C); poweroriented strength training using a loaded countermovement jumping (i.e., 70–100% of load that maximizes power output for 2–5 repetitions; countermovement jump [CMJ]) (D); and plyometric jumping (E). The CMJ (cm), loaded CMJ (cm), maximum rate of force development (RFDmax) during early concentric phase of loaded CMJ (N s) and power output during early concentric phase of loaded CMJ (watts) were measured before and after 7 weeks of training. Significant improvements in CMJ (from 7.8 to 13.2%) were observed in all groups. Significantly greater increases in power output during loaded jumps were observed in A (10–13%) and D (8–12%) groups compared with in the other groups. Significant increases in RFDmax were observed in A (20–30%), C (18–26%), and D (20–26%) groups. The results of this study provide evidence to suggest that if training program is designed and implemented correctly, both traditional slow velocity training and faster poweroriented strength training alone, or in combination with plyometric training, would provide a positive training stimulus to enhance jumping performance.


Metal theft has emerged as a substantial crime problem, causing widespread disruption and damage in addition to the loss of metal itself, but has been the subject of little research. This thesis uses the paradigm of crime science to analyse the problem, focusing on thefts from the railway network in Great Britain. Two theoretical concepts are used: crime scripts and the routine-activities approach. Police-recorded crime and intelligence data are used to develop a crime script, which in turn is used to identify features of the problem a) analysis of which would potentially be useful to practitioners seeking to understand and prevent metal theft, and b) for which sufficient data are available to make analysis practical. Three such features are then analysed in more detail. First, spatial and temporal distributions of metal theft are analysed. Metal theft appears to differ from other types of acquisitive crime in ways potentially useful for prevention, for example in clustering outside (but close to) cities, and in exhibiting significant repeat victimisation over a longer period than found for other crimes. Second, the potential crime-prevention value of the market-reduction approach is analysed by testing for clusters of thefts close to the locations of scrap-metal dealers. Scrap-yard locations are found to be a significant predictor of local thefts, controlling for metal availability, area accessibility, and density of population and industry. Third, the involvement of organised crime groups (OCGs) in metal theft is tested. Due to the difficulty of defining and measuring organised crime, multiple approaches are used: all show OCG involvement to be rarer than official estimates previously suggested. The implications of these findings for practitioners are discussed. The thesis also considers the relevance of the results for the use of crime science and the analysis of OCGs.


In this article, initially, the question of delictual liability as a result of adultery in terms of indigenous law is discussed. In this regard, the article depends chiefly on ethnographic research. In view of the judicial acculturation process operating within indigenous judicial systems it is often difficult, if not impossible, to determine whether a legal rule is still current and valid. The case law which has been developed in this regard, as well as the relevant legislation which has been made applicable in the meantime, require independent and supplementary research. Against the background of South African indigenous law with regard to liability resulting from adultery the universal legal process of the psycho-sexual liberation of women is explained and projected. For interest's sake reference is also made to the indigenous law of Namibia.


Linear, quadratic, and exponential functions, as well as polynomial functions, are the most basic mathematical expressions. Despite being among the most basic expressions in algebra, these functions are often used to approximate more complicated functions. The Common Core State Standards for Mathematics provide the framework for a discussion of the basic functions presented here. To that extent, the content of this paper consists of the use of spreadsheet technology in experimentation with linear transformations in the plane; experimentation with the way quadratic functions behave; constructing and comparing linear, quadratic, and exponential models of real-life data; and automation of the computation of real zeros of polynomials where such calculations require implementation of time consuming iterative procedures. An iterative procedure based on the Rational Zeros Theorem will be used to find exact values of rational zeros of a polynomial. A second iterative procedure based on the Bounds on Zeros theorem and the Intermediate Value Theorem will be used to approximate all real zeros of a polynomial.


The main purpose of the educational and training system, especially in today's increasingly complex and multicultural context, is to promote the development of intercultural competence, the possession of which is arguably essential for the conscious exercise of world citizenship. To achieve this, we cannot refer merely to a single technical-professional group of teachers, educators or trainers, but must instead extend responsibility to all categories without exception: parents, instructors, facilitators, etc. The reason must be sought in the construct of intercultural competence itself, which emphasises the active role of the individual to mobilise and orchestrate their resources by acting on material and social reality (Pellerey, 2004); therefore, in order to be appropriately monitored and assessed, it is necessary to adopt the use of various stakeholders. This article is written as a critical appraisal of the concept of intercultural competence and especially some key issues in the appraisal process, which should be addressed through consultation with the educating community sector.


Citizen science can serve as a tool to address environmental and conservation issues. Ιn the framework of Erasmus+ project CS4ESD, this study focuses on promoting the importance of plants and plant species and communities' diversity by using available web-based information because of Covid-19 limitations and concerning the case study of Olympus mountain Biosphere Reserve (Greece). A questionnaire was designed to collect the necessary information, aiming to investigate pupils' and students' willing to distinguish and learn more about plant species and communities and evaluate information found on the web. Pupils, students, and experts participated in this study. The results are indicative of young citizens' ability to evaluate environmental issues. They often underestimate plant species richness, endemism, plant communities, the importance of plants, and ecosystem services. They also use environmental or plant-based websites and online available data in a significantly different way than experts. The age of the young citizens is a factor that may affect the quality of data. The essential issue of recognizing the importance of plants and plant communities and of assisting for their conservation is highlighted. Education for sustainable development is one of the most important tools that facilitates environmental knowledge and enhances awareness.


RNA interference (RNAi) is a convenient and useful gene suppression technology induced by small interfering RNA (siRNA) composed of 21-nucleotide long double-stranded RNA. The successful application of RNAi for clinical use is expected for a long time. Although siRNA drug is categorized into a nucleic acid drug, it has a prominent advantage that genetic function can be suppressed by destroying mRNA at the posttran - scriptional level without wounding genomic DNA. Nevertheless, unfortunately there are no siRNA certified as pharmaceuticals passing through clinical trials, since there are several problems, such as gene suppression efficiency, stability in blood stream, or other undesirable effects. Here, we describe the current status and future prospects for clinical application of the siRNA nucleic acid drug.


Up to 25 percent of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are caused by deforestation, and Indonesia is the third largest greenhouse gas emitter worldwide due to land use change and deforestation. On the island of Sulawesi in the vicinity of the Lore Lindu National Park (LLNP), many smallholders contribute to conversion processes at the forest margin as a result of their agricultural practices. Specifically the area dedicated to cocoa plantations has increased from zero (1979) to nearly 18,000 hectares (2001). Some of these plots have been established inside the 220,000 hectares of the LLNP. An intensification process is observed with a consequent reduction of the shade tree density. This study assesses which impact carbon sequestration payments for forest management systems have on the prevailing land use systems. Additionally, the level of incentives is determined which motivates farmers to desist from further deforestation and land use intensification activities. Household behaviour and resource allocation is analysed with a comparative static linear programming model. As these models prove to be a reliable tool for policy analysis, the output can indicate the adjustments in resource allocation and land use shifts when introducing compensation payments. The data was collected in a household survey in six villages around the LLNP. Four household categories are identified according to their dominant agroforestry systems. These range from low intensity management with a high degree of shading to highly intensified shade free systems. At the plot level, the payments from carbon sequestration are the highest for the full shade cocoa agroforestry system, but with low carbon prices of € 5 tCO2e-1 these constitute 5 percent of the cocoa gross margin. Focusing on the household level, however, an increase of up to 18 percent of the total gross margin can be realised. Furthermore, for differentiated carbon prices up to € 32 tCO2e-1 the majority of the households have an incentive to adopt the more sustainable shade intensive agroforestry system. A win-win situation seems to appear, whereby, when targeting only the shade intensive agroforestry systems with carbon payments, the poorest households economically benefit the most and land use systems with high environmental benefits are promoted.


In this age of digital era as the consumption of videos and images increasing exponentially, image compression is widely used approach to utilize bandwidth of transmission and storage space efficiently. Even though lossless image compression techniques already exist, the challenge is to reduce computational complexity along with preserving quality of image. The proposed solution uses pyramidal approach to compress images. A revised S-transform is used to form pyramid structure. Set of pixels in the upper level of pyramid is compressed using mean and gradient. The same mean and gradient values are used to reconstruct the original image. Using the above techniques lossless compression is achieved with minimal computational complexity. Further same technique can be extended to video compression by converting it into sequence of images. This method can also achieve parallelism, which will result in much faster execution times and throughput.


The main aim of this paper is to present a survey of known results concerning minimal usco and minimal cusco maps. We give characterizations of minimal usco and minimal cusco maps in the class of all set-valued maps using quasicontinuous selections. If X is a topological space and Y is a Banach space,  there is a bijection  between the space of minimal usco maps from X to Y and the space of minimal cusco maps from X to Y. We study this bijection with respect to various topologies on underlying spaces. Some new results are also given.


In the contingent valuation method, both the goods being valued and the payment vehicles used to value them are mostly hypothetical. However, although numerous studies have examined the impact of experience with the good on the willingness to pay, less attention has been given to experience with the payment vehicles. This paper examines how experience with payment vehicles influence responses to a contingent valuation scenario on maintaining irrigation canals in a developing country. Specifically, the paper uses a split-sample survey to investigate the effects of experience with monetary and labour payment vehicles on the acceptance of a contingent valuation scenario, protest bids and mean willingness to pay. Using convergent validity tests, we found that the experience acquired from using both monetary and labour payment vehicles reduces the asymmetries in acceptance rates. These findings suggest that experience with payment vehicles reduces time/money response asymmetries in the contingent valuation method.


For marine reserves to function as effective harvest refuges for exploited species, the reserve must protect a substantial proportion of the population for an indefinite period of time. Because most marine reserves are space-limited, the buildup and equilibrium population sizes of mobile species will be influenced by the size and boundary conditions of the refuge. A logistic rate model was used to predict equilibrium population sizes in a marine harvest refuge, based on species-specific dispersal dynamics and the spatial configuration of the refuge. The model parameters were derived for Caribbean spiny lobsters and queen conch in an isolated marine reserve at Glover's Reef, Belize, and were compared to observed population change over a 5-yr period. Spiny lobsters and queen conch, the two most heavily exploited species in the Caribbean, differ in larval recruitment rates (immigration) and mobility of adults (emigration). The expected increase in the population size of spiny lobsters in this refuge was 250% and queen conch was 420% over that of the initial fished population. The observed densities of lobsters and conch in the refuge approached the predicted estimates within three years. To further explore the impact of alternative spatial configurations on refuge populations, the model was run on the same populations in two hypothetical refuges. In a refuge of the same area but 50% less absorbing boundary (adjacent to intensively fished areas), the spiny lobster population was expected to be 30% larger than the equilibrium population size in the original refuge, whereas the queen conch population was not expected to change from that in the original refuge. In a refuge that was 50% larger and with 50% less absorbing boundary, the spiny lobster population was expected to increase 110% and the queen conch population was expected to increase 50% over the equilibrium population size in the original refuge. Relatively minor changes in refuge area and boundary conditions may thus result in major population-level responses by exploited species, depending on dispersal dynamics and habitat availability. This simple model may be applicable for rapid assessment of the potential efficacy of proposed harvest refuges. Copyright 2002 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.


A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a technology that aids stormwater management through efficient data manipulation, analyses, and graphic displays. The integration of GIS with stormwater management provides one-time data collection with multiple applications. A GIS creates graphical representations of basin characteristics, manages large volumes of graphical and tabular data, and aides in area calculations and other analytical aspects. Once a GIS is setup, the database can be used for water quality analyses (nonpoint source pollutant loading estimation), water quantity analyses (stormwater flows and volumes, flood level calculations), stormwater and basin master planning (land use/development schemes, floodplain mapping), and best management practice site determination (drainage and nonpoint pollutant control practices).


Although geometry arising "in the wild" most often comes in the form of a surface representation, a plethora of geometrical and physical applications require the construction of volumetric embeddings either of the geometry itself or the domain surrounding it. Cartesian cut-cell-based mesh generation provides an attractive solution in which volumetric elements are constructed from the intersection of the input surface geometry with a uniform or adaptive hexahedral grid. This choice, especially common in computational fluid dynamics, has the potential to efficiently generate accurate, surface-conforming cells; unfortunately, current solutions are often slow, fragile, or cannot handle many common topological situations. We therefore propose a novel, robust cut-cell construction technique for triangle surface meshes that explicitly computes the precise geometry of the intersection cells, even on meshes that are open or non-manifold. Its fundamental geometric primitive is the intersection of an arbitrary segment with an axis-aligned plane. Beginning from the set of intersection points between triangle mesh edges and grid planes, our bottom-up approach robustly determines cut-edges, cut-faces, and finally cut-cells, in a manner designed to guarantee topological correctness. We demonstrate its effectiveness and speed on a wide range of input meshes and grid resolutions, and make the code available as open source.


This paper proposes an operationally simple and easily generalizable methodology to incorporate climate change damage uncertainty into Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs). Uncertainty is transformed into a risk-premium, damage-correction, region-specific factor by extracting damage distribution means and variances from an ensemble of socio economic and climate change scenarios. This risk premium quantifies what society would be willing to pay to insure against the uncertainty of the damages, and it can be considered an add-up to the standard "average damage". Our computations show the addition to be significant, but highly sensitive to the coefficient of relative risk aversion. Once the climate change damage function incorporates the risk premium into the model, results show a substantial increase in both mitigation and adaptation, reflecting a more conservative attitude by the social planner. Interestingly, adaptation is stimulated more than mitigation in the first half of the century, while the situation reverses afterwards. Over the century, the risk premium correction fosters more mitigation, which doubles, than adaptation, which rises by about 80%.


Various instabilities, such as regular and irregular pulsation, periodic oscillation, and optical chaos, have been observed by selecting geometric parameters in a mutually pumped phase conjugator (PC) of BaTiO3. The behavior of the PC output in the periodic oscillation state was studied in detail. Some explanations, for instance, competition among the coupling channels and interference between two PC beams coming from different channels, are proposed.


This book analyses the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU), one of Europe's most successful and influential political parties. The CDU might have been expected to struggle in the circumstances of a more diverse, secular reunified Germany, yet it has prospered to an extent almost unparalleled in western Europe. Chapters consider the CDU's policies (the factors driving them, their variation across Germany, the relationship to women, and the welfare state), its organisational development and change, and its position within the party system. Contributors particularly emphasise the diversity of the CDU, and the way it varies across Germany's regions. The CDU is compared to other Christian Democratic parties, and special consideration is given to the CDU's Bavarian sister party, the Christian Social Union (CSU). This book was published as a special issue of German Politics.


The 45-year-old Lincoln Tunnel is undergoing a sweeping rehab—from its ceiling on down to its roadway. Each of the three tubes (in the world's only three-tube underwater vehicular tunnel) will be restored during this seven year program, which began in January 1990. The $27.8 million rehab on the north tube is complete and work on the others will follow sequentially. Job one during the rehab is keeping the tunnel in service as many hours per day as possible. As a result, the work was carried out on five consecutive weeknights per week between 9:00 p.m. and 5:00 a.m. over two years. During those hours, traffic was rerouted to the other two tubes. Perhaps the most intriguing aspects of the north tube rehab was work done on the ceiling and the roadway. To protect the ceiling from overheight vehicles that elude the early warning detectors and damage the tiles, engineers opted to install a stainless steel ceiling at the entrance. The support steel and the anchors are able to transfer forces exerted by overheight vehicles to the tunnel roof slab. The steel ceiling height and slope are designed to trap these trucks before they reach the tiled ceiling. Down on the roadway, engineers had to modify the existing delaminated slab. The Port Authority removed the pavement and 3 in. concrete cover along with the top longitudinal reinforcing bar and replaced it with a waterproofing membrane and a 5½ in. asphalt pavement wearing course. This eliminated a top cover and longitudinal bars on the slab, thus reducing the total thickness of the slab by 3 in. Port Authority engineers chose this method for its cost savings and ease of construction benefits.


Providing assurances of performance is an important aspect of successful development and commercialization of expert systems. However, this can only be done if the quality of the system can be assured through a rigorous and effective validation process. However, a generally accepted validation technique that can, if implemented properly, lead to a determination of validity (a validity statement) has been an elusive goal. This has led to a generally haphazard way of validating expert systems. Validation has traditionally been mostly done through the use of test cases. A set of test cases, whose solution is previously known and benchmarked, is presented to the expert system. A comparison of the system's solutions to that of the test cases is then used to somehow generate a validity statement. It is an intuitive way of testing the performance of any system, but it does require some consideration as to how extensively to test the system in order to develop a reliable validity statement. One completely reliable statement of a system's validity could result from exhaustive testing of the system. However, that is commonly considered to be impractical for all but the most trivial of systems. A better means to select "good" test cases must be developed. The authors have developed a framework for such a system (Abel, Knauf and Gonzalez 1996). This paper describes an investigation undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of this framework by validating a small but robust expert system to classify birds using this framework.


This MPhil explores the materiality and non-materiality of art and how this relates to our interpretation in relation to subject and object. It focuses on the visual and the non-visible elements of artworks, considering the conditions and the pre-conditions of the gaze, and its relevance in the moment of perception. Approaching authors in art theory and beyond, writing is discussed as theoretical, fictional and biographical when engaging with the art practices of Gerhard Richter and Hanne Darboven.

If the visual does not exist independently, beyond or outside of language, then the visible and the image that art can render, comes as a consequence of being in language. The activity of writing can be used as an instrument to re-approach and re-contextualise the activity of looking at art. It can open dialogues on the spaces between collective and personal thinking and how one relates to this in a creative practice. To engage with our own experiences and cross between the threshold of specific and universal interpretation.

The conceptual and making process might be informed by cultural and historical narratives, intellectual and emotional experiences. Our interpretation is embedded in these sources of understanding. This thesis looks at the practices of non-Jewish German artists, born during World War II, informed by my specific experience of art and reading, with reference to what can be described as a 'Jewish methodology' of thinking. I act within the parameters of art theory, subverting this engagement through different literary and non-literary forms. I take a situated approach to consider the artists' practices, drawing out the implications of my practical experience to think about the organisation and application of materials, to highlight the artist's activity of thinking through the making process.


A novel approach to the inversion of optical scattering data is proposed and investigated. The proposed technique uses only forward scattering data as opposed to the previous research where angle scattering was used. Our method does not use scattering attenuation; in fact, only relative values of the measured signals are important in the suggested technique. Nevertheless, both the scattering coefficient and the scattering particle size may be effectively estimated. The proposed method relies on the fact that, as coherent light travels through a random scattering medium, its coherence deteriorates. The degree of coherence degradation may be described in terms of the mutual intensity function (MIF). The shape of the MIF depends on the scattering particle size and on the scattering coefficient. If a coherent receiver is used to detect forward scattered radiation, its output signal depends on the receiver diameter and on the MIF. Dependence of the receiver output signal on the receiver diameter carries information about the MIF and therefore about the scattering particle size and the scattering coefficient. This information may be extracted by means of the techniques suggested in this paper. Several possible realizations of the proposed device are discussed and analyzed. The results of our study imply that the suggested method can be conveniently implemented. For example, if the technique is used to measure a path-averaged raindrop size, the power needed at the receiver is <1 μW, the propagation path should be of the order of 1 km, and the measurement time required may be of the order of 10 sec. The data processing required is also relatively straightforward and may be handled by a microprocessor. The analysis was performed under the assumption that all the scattering particles have the same size. However, it was also shown that the suggested technique may be generalized to handle an arbitrary large number of groups of scattering particle having distinctly different sizes. Further generalization of the proposed technique to the case of continuous particle size distributions is described in a subsequent paper ( Appl. Opt.23, 455 ( 1984).


OBJECTIVE
Increased life expectancy and consequent growth of the elderly population has resulted in changes in the epidemiological morbidity and mortality profile. In the group of chronic degenerative diseases, falls are a prevailing among those preventable conditions. The objective of the study was to assess prevalence of falls in the elderly and to describe their associated factors.

METHODS
Cross-sectional study comprising 4,003 elderly subjects (aged 65 years or more) living in areas covered by primary health care in 41 municipalities with more than 100,000 inhabitants from seven Brazilian states. Wald test for heterogeneity and linear trend were used for the estimation of significance level. Adjusted analysis was conducted using Poisson regression and adjusted prevalence rates were estimated.

RESULTS
The prevalence of falls among the elderly was 34.8%, significantly higher in women (40.1%) than men. Among those who experienced falls, 12.1% had fractures as a consequence. The prevalence of falls was directly associated with older age, sedentary lifestyle, self-perception of poor health and more chronic drug use reported. The prevalence of falls was similar in the elderly attending different care services (basic health care units and Family Health Program).

CONCLUSIONS
The prevalence of falls among elderly could be reduced through actions targeting their needs in health care units, especially regarding preventable associated factors.


We study how the availability of domestic credit influences the contribution that financing activities make to a firm's return on equity (ROE). Using a sample of 51,866 firms from 69 countries, we find that financing activities contribute more to a firm's ROE in countries with higher domestic credit. The higher contribution of financing activities is not driven by firms taking greater leverage in these countries, but by firms realizing a higher spread (i.e., a greater difference in operating performance and borrowing cost) when more domestic credit is available. Also, we find that firms partially substitute trade credit for financial credit, with large firms exhibiting the greatest rate of substitution. For small firms, the rate of substitution improves with the country's available domestic credit, while large firms are insensitive to this friction. The findings suggest that both country and firm-level factors have a significant impact on how financing activities contribute to corporate performance.


Data for gross disposable household income for each region of the UK are published annually by the Office for National Statistics. The latest provisional data available are for the year 2015. The annual data for household income are in nominal terms only—i.e. they do not allow for differences in prices between regions of the UK, which distorts the results. A reliable deflator to correct the nominal data for differences in inter-regional price levels was derived from the regular survey of prices for calculating the Retail Prices Index, augmented by a special survey of prices of goods and services. When allowing for price level variations between nominal and real household income in different regions the greatest impact is on London. In real terms, household incomes in London are 6% lower than in nominal terms, amounting to a reduction of about £12.4 billion.


The ≤27 m thick Vakkejokk Breccia is intercalated in autochthon Lower Cambrian along the Caledonian front north of Lake Torneträsk, Lapland, Sweden. The spectacular breccia is here interpreted as a proximal ejecta layer associated with an impact crater, probably ~2–3 km in size, located below Caledonian overthrusts immediately north of the main breccia section. The impact would have taken place in a shallow‐marine environment ~520 Ma ago. The breccia comprises i) a strongly disturbed lower polymict subunit with occasional, in themselves brecciated, crystalline mega‐clasts locally exceeding 50 m surrounded by contorted sediments; ii) a middle, commonly normally graded, crystalline‐rich, polymict subunit, in turn locally overlain by iii) a thin fine‐grained quartz sandstone, <30 cm thick. The upper sandstone is sporadically either overlain, or replaced, by a conglomerate. In progressively more distal parts of the ejecta layer, the lower subunit is better described as only slightly disturbed strata. The lower subunit is suggested to have formed by ejecta bombardment of the strata surrounding the impact crater, even causing some net outwards mobilization of the sediments. The middle subunit and the uppermost quartz sandstone are considered resurge deposits. The top conglomerate may be caused by subsequent wave reworking and slumping of material from the elevated rim. Quartz grains showing planar deformation features are present in the graded polymict subunit and the upper sandstone, that is, the inferred resurge deposits.


BACKGROUND & AIMS
Hepatic inflammation occurs immediately after cells are transplanted to the liver, but the mechanisms that underlie this process are not fully defined. We examined cyclooxygenase pathways that mediate hepatic inflammation through synthesis of prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes, and other prostanoids following transplantation of hepatocytes.

METHODS
We transplanted F344 rat hepatocytes into syngeneic dipeptidyl peptidase IV-deficient F344 rats. Changes in cyclooxygenase pathways were analyzed, and specific pathways were blocked pharmacologically; the effects on cell engraftment and native liver cells were determined.

RESULTS
Transplantation of hepatocytes induced hepatic expression of prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthases 1 and 2, which catalyze production of prostaglandin H2, as well as the downstream factor thromboxane synthase, which produces thromboxane A2 (a regulator of vascular and platelet responses in inflammation). Transplanted hepatocytes were in proximity with liver cells that expressed prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthases. The number of engrafted hepatocytes increased in rats given naproxen or celecoxib before transplantation but not in rats given furegrelate (an inhibitor of thromboxane synthase) or clopodigrel (an antiplatelet drug). Naproxen and celecoxib did not prevent hepatic ischemia or activation of neutrophils, Kupffer cells, or inflammatory cytokines, but they did induce hepatic stellate cells to express cytoprotective genes, vascular endothelial growth factor and hepatocyte growth factor, and matrix-type metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1, which regulate hepatic remodeling.

CONCLUSIONS
Activation of cyclooxygenase pathways interferes with engraftment of transplanted hepatocytes in the liver. Pharmacologic blockade of prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthases stimulated hepatic stellate cells and improved cell engraftment.


Susan Glaspell's play Trifles (1916) or the short story she based on it, "Jury of Her Peers" (1917), may be found today in almost every anthology introducing college students to literature, yet it seems strange that a woman who wrote nine novels and over fifty short stories, in addition to fourteen plays, is still mainly known, when known at all, for one short dramatic work. Feminist critics such as Christine Dymkowski and Linda Ben-Zvi, among others, are in the process of resurrecting Glaspell's reputation and establishing that she is "one of the two most accomplished playwrights of twentieth-century America" (Dymkowski 91). But although this work is invaluable, attention continues to be focused almost solely on Glaspell's drama, to the exclusion of her novels. Veronica Makowsky's recent study provides the first scholarly feminist analysis of Glaspell's entire oeuvre, from her early stories to her late novels, but even Makowsky appears to agree with the standard view, which is in my opinion not sufficiently substantiated, that Glaspell's plays are her "greatest work" (24). Glaspell's first novel, Glory of the Conquered, was published in 1909; her second, The Visioning, in 1911; and her third, Fidelity, in 1915. In 1913 she married George Cram Cook, an idealistic, bohemian fellow lowan. They moved to New York and summered in Provincetown, Massachusetts. They were both instrumental in creating the Provincetown Players and in establishing the group in Greenwich Village. Despite the fact that she spent most of the 1920s writing plays for the Provincetown theater and did not return to the novel form until 1928 with Brook Evans, Glaspell "always considered herself a writer of fiction" and, as she recalled in a later autobiographical fragment, "I began writing plays because my husband forced me to" (Noe 33). Later, after she and Cook had left New York for a two-year sojourn in Greece, she confided in a letter to her mother that "the theater has always made it hard for me to write and now I will have a better chance for my own writing" (Noe 49). Although her play Alison's House won the Pulitzer Prize in 1931, and she served briefly as Midwest director for the Federal Theatre Project in Chicago during 1934, she basically settled in Provincetown after Cook's death in Greece in 1924 and returned to fiction, producing five more novels: Fugitive's Return (1929), Ambrose Holt and Family (1931), The Morning Is Near Us (1939), Norma Ashe (1942), and Judd Rankin's Daughter (1945). Not only did Glaspell regard herself primarily as a fiction writer, but she was critically accepted as an American novelist of integrity and importance until the mid 1930s. Many of her novels were reviewed, increasingly favorably, in the New York Times. Fidelity was praised by the New York Times reviewer for its convincing realism, but it was seen to be a romantic tale; "the story of love caught in the mesh of law"; therefore the reviewer did not understand the second half of the novel, where "love" is entirely abandoned, and found it flawed for that reason (Anon.). Although Percy Hutchison, the Times reviewer of Fugitive's Return, found the novel "uneven," he praised Glaspell as "so much of an individual [that] one knows in advance that a novel from her pen will not be an ordinary book." John Chamberlain praised Brook Evans in a 1928 Times review as "a masterpiece on a small scale," a masterpiece because Glaspell "has distilled the essence from the most important and character-revealing moments," and small scale because she "has limited her canvas deliberately . . . focus[ing] on purely human values that remain eternal, irrespective of time or place." In 1931 he aptly described Ambrose Holt and Family as a "tragi-comedy of idealism" and noted Glaspell's "delicately pervasive humor," which "acts as the perpetual astringent" cutting through sentimentality. In both reviews he discussed Glaspell's idealism in her life and her work, and praised her "courage" and commitment as a writer. …


This paper is concerned with the risks to creditors from strategic business decisions taken by directors. It seeks to explain both why the law should impose creditor-regarding duties when the shareholders no longer have any substantial equity in the company and why such duties should not be imposed when the shareholders still have a substantial economic interest in the company. It goes on to argue that duties on directors to put the company into a formal insolvency procedure once the company has reached a state of insolvency do not adequately meet the interventionist criterion. The incidence of such duties depends in part on whether a balance sheet or a cash flow test is used for insolvency, but in any event duties to open formal insolvency procedures are too rigid unless they operate only when all hope of rescue has disappeared. However, the paper also argues that the need to promote a 'rescue culture' for companies in financial distress may lead the legislature to limit the creditor-regarding duty arising before, but in the vicinity of, insolvency to cases of liquidation and not to extend it to companies being handled through procedures whose main aim is to save the company or (parts of.) its business as a going concern.


We present a solution of the operator-valued Schur-function realization problem on the right-half plane by developing the corresponding de Branges-Rovnyak canonical conservative simple functional model. This model corresponds to the closely connected unitary model in the disk setting, but we work the theory out directly in the right-half plane, which allows us to exhibit structure which is absent in the disk case. A main feature of the study is that the connecting operator is unbounded, and so we need to make use of the theory of well-posed continuous-time systems. In order to strengthen the classical uniqueness result (which states uniqueness up to unitary similarity), we introduce non-invertible intertwinements of system nodes.


Mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells are pluripotent cells that differentiate into multiple cell lineages. The commitment of ES cells into the adipocyte lineage is dependent on an early 3-day treatment with all-trans retinoic acid (RA). To characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying this process, we examined the contribution of the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway. Treatment of ES cell-derived embryoid bodies with RA resulted in a prolonged activation of the ERK pathway, but not the c-Jun N-terminal kinase, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase or phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathways. To investigate the role of ERK activation, co-treatment of RA with PD98059, a specific inhibitor of the ERK signalling pathway, prevented both adipocyte formation and expression of the adipogenic markers, adipocyte lipid-binding protein and peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor gamma. Furthermore, we show that ERK activation is required only during RA treatment. PD98059 does not interfere with the commitment of ES cells into other lineages, such as neurogenesis, myogenesis and cardiomyogenesis. As opposed to the controversial role of the ERK pathway in terminal differentiation, our results clearly demonstrate that this pathway is specifically required at an early stage of adipogenesis, corresponding to the RA-dependent commitment of ES cells.