The Constitution empowers and restricts different officials differently. Because different government actors are vested with different powers and bound by different restrictions, one cannot determine whether the Constitution has been violated without knowing who has allegedly violated it. The predicates of judicial review inevitably depend upon the subjects of judicial review. Thus, every constitutional inquiry should begin with the subject of the constitutional claim. And the first question in any such inquiry should be the who question: who has allegedly violated the Constitution? The who question establishes the two basic forms of judicial review. The dichotomy between judicial review of legislative action and judicial review of executive action is the organizing dichotomy of constitutional law. Judicial review of legislative action and judicial review of executive action are two fundamentally different enterprises - formally, structurally, temporally different. And these basic differences dictate both the structure and the substance of judicial review. Properly understood, a facial challenge is nothing more nor less than a challenge to legislative action, and an as-applied challenge is nothing more nor less than a challenge to executive action. Clear thinking about the who question thus solves deep jurisdictional riddles. And the solutions to these riddles, in turn, have profound feedback effects on the substantive scope of constitutional rights and powers. This article begins with the intellectual primogenitor of this approach: Barron v. Baltimore. It then presses beyond Barron, using Chief Justice Marshall's method to address the questions that he left unanswered. It proceeds to analyze several clauses of the Bill of Rights, in the first systematic effort to identify their implied objects. As it turns out, these objects form a pattern, which amounts to a central, structural theme of the Bill of Rights that has long been overlooked. This article then turns to the Fourteenth Amendment, to determine exactly who is bound by its most resonant clauses. Building on Akhil Amar's insight that the Bill of Rights underwent refinement when incorporated against the states by the Fourteenth Amendment, this article identifies perhaps the most important refinement of all: refinement of the actors bound by the Bill - refinement of its objects. In short, this article and its predecessor, The Subjects of the Constitution, amount to a new model of constitutional review, a new lens through which to read the Constitution. This approach begins with a grammatical exercise: identifying the subjects and objects of the Constitution. But this is hardly linguistic casuistry or grammatical fetishism. The subjects and objects of the Constitution are not merely features of constitutional text; they are the pillars of constitutional structure. The very words federalism and separation of powers are simply shorthand for the deep truth that the Constitution empowers and restricts different governmental actors in different ways. To elide the who question is to overlook the central feature of our constitutional structure. And it is this structure, above all, that is the object of the Constitution.


In the USA, a baby is born with a facial cleft every hour everyday of the year! Such birth defects result from both gene mutations and environmental insults. PRDM16 is a transcription factor originally described as being aberrantly activated in specific types of leukaemias, and more recently as a master regulator of brown adipose tissue differentiation. In a study published on page 387 of this issue of Experimental Biology and Medicine, investigators have now shown that this transcription co-factor plays a critical role in development of the embryonic palate. Mice lacking the gene for Prdm16 exhibit numerous defects including a complete cleft of the secondary palate and a shortened mandible. In a study led by Dr Dennis Warner and his co-investigators at the University of Louisville Birth Defects Center, chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by array analysis was used to identify genes regulated by Prdm16 in cells isolated from the secondary palate of mouse embryos. This approach revealed the developmental processes regulated by this protein that are important for palate development. 'Identifying the cellular and molecular processes regulated by PRDM16 is an important step toward elucidating the underlying mechanisms important for normal embryonic development of the head and face,' said Dr Warner. Over 100 genes, whose promoters were bound by PRDM16, were identified. These genes were found to be linked to such diverse processes as chromatin remodeling and muscle and bone development. Dr Michele Pisano, a co-investigator on this study, added that 'little is known of the factors governing differentiation of embryonic palate mesenchymal cells into bone or muscle. Our study suggests that Prdm16 may be critical for these processes.' Demonstration that loss of Prdm16 expression led to a significant decrease in the expression of osteopontin, a marker for bone formation, and an increase in the expression of Myf-4, a marker for muscle development, support Dr Pisano's contention. Dr Steven R Goodman, Editor-in-Chief of Experimental Biology and Medicine, said 'This important study by Warner and colleagues demonstrates that the transcription co-factor Prdm16 plays an important role in the normal development of the embryonic palate. They further demonstrate genes essential to muscle and bone development which are regulated by Prdm16 in cells isolated from the secondary palate of mouse embryos. This study should be of great significance in our understanding of birth defects leading to facial clefts.'


Amid a recent upsurge in support for a national job guarantee program, L. Randall Wray, Stephanie A. Kelton, Pavlina R. Tcherneva, Scott Fullwiler, and Flavia Dantas outline a new proposal for a federally funded program with decentralized administration. Their Public Service Employment (PSE) program would offer a job—paying a uniform living wage with a basic benefits package—to all who are ready and willing to work. In advance of an upcoming report detailing the economic impact of the PSE, this policy note presents an overview of the goals and structure of the program in the context of current labor market trends and the prospects of poverty reduction.


Trawling pressure and environmental changes may affect the composition of fish assemblages. Our knowledge on large spatio-temporal patterns of demersal fish composition remains incomplete for the Mediterranean Sea. We investigated (1) the spatio-temporal stability of demersal assemblages, (2) the relationships between these assemblages and potential structuring factors (trawling pressure and environmental conditions) in order to assess the dynamic of the assemblage structure at the scale of the northern Mediterranean Sea. We analysed a dataset of 18062 hauls from 10 to 800 m depth performed annually during the last two decades across 17 Geographical Sub-Areas (GSAs) (MEDITS program). A multi-table analysis (STATICO-CoA) evidenced a strong inter-GSAs stability in the organization of assemblages, with specificities for some GSAs. The most stable structuring factors were linked to combined gradients of chlorophyll a, phytoplancton carbon biomass and temperature, inversely correlated with depth, salinity and nutrient gradients (axis 1 of the STATICO-CoA compromise, 93.74% of the total variability). A common pattern linking the distribution of species to these environmental gradients was evidenced for most of the 17 GSAs. Estimate of trawling pressure showed a minor role in the organization of the assemblages for the spatial scale and years investigated (axis 2, 4.67%).


Metacognitive reading strategy awareness plays a significant role in reading comprehension and educational process. In spite of its importance, metacognitive strategy has long been the ignored skill in English language teaching, research, learning, and assessment. This lack of good metacognitive reading strategy skill is exacerbated by the central role of reading comprehension in education success. One solution to the problem of poor reading comprehension is the learning of metacognitive reading strategy skills. Metacognitive reading strategy ability needs to be focused in language learning and teaching. The present study is an attempt to find out whether "meta-cognitive reading strategy awareness" enhances EFL students' reading comprehension. Furthermore, it attempts to detect the relationship between metacognitive reading strategy awareness and reading comprehension. This paper focuses on the four main issues. First, it discusses the definition of metacognitive reading strategy, the significance of metacognitive reading strategy. Second, it reviews the process of metacognitive reading strategy. Third, definition of reading comprehension and different models of reading comprehension are reviewed. Fourth, the relationship between metacognitive reading strategy and reading comprehension will be discussed. Findings based on the review of the literature along with analysis of the data are of great significance and can be advantageous to improve EFL learners' metacognitive reading comprehension skill. Metacognitive reading comprehension skill has a positive effect on learning a second language and learners can gain the skills they need for effective communication in English.


Three travel maps which are meant to accompany a text about expeditions in the area. The first map shows the north pole and northernmost parts of North America and Greenland; some exploration routes and geographic features are noted. The second map shows exploration and discoveries in the Arctic Sea area with regions and some geographic features noted. The third map is a nautical chart of the Port of Lievely with depths marked in fathoms and some relief of surrounding land marked.


In recent years, enormous progress has been made in the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Especially the introduction of Deep Learning and end-to-end learning, the availability of large datasets and the necessary computational power in form of specialised hardware allowed researchers to build systems with previously unseen performance in areas such as computer vision, machine translation and machine gaming. In parallel, the Semantic Web and its Linked Data movement have published many interlinked RDF datasets, forming the world's largest, decentralised and publicly available knowledge base.
Despite these scientific successes, all current systems are still narrow AI systems. Each of them is specialised to a specific task and cannot easily be adapted to all other human intelligence tasks, as would be necessary for Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). Furthermore, most of the currently developed systems are not able to learn by making use of freely available knowledge such as provided by the Semantic Web. Autonomous incorporation of new knowledge is however one of the pre-conditions for human-like problem solving.
This work provides a small step towards teaching machines such human-like reasoning on freely available knowledge from the Semantic Web. We investigate how human associations, one of the building blocks of our thinking, can be simulated with Linked Data. The two main results of these investigations are a ground truth dataset of semantic associations and a machine learning algorithm that is able to identify patterns for them in huge knowledge bases.
The ground truth dataset of semantic associations consists of DBpedia entities that are known to be strongly associated by humans. The dataset is published as RDF and can be used for future research.
The developed machine learning algorithm is an evolutionary algorithm that can learn SPARQL queries from a given SPARQL endpoint based on a given list of exemplary source-target entity pairs. The algorithm operates in an end-to-end learning fashion, extracting features in form of graph patterns without the need for human intervention. The learned patterns form a feature space adapted to the given list of examples and can be used to predict target candidates from the SPARQL endpoint for new source nodes. On our semantic association ground truth dataset, our evolutionary graph pattern learner reaches a Recall@10 of > 63 % and an MRR (& MAP) > 43 %, outperforming all baselines. With an achieved Recall@1 of > 34% it even reaches average human top response prediction performance. We also demonstrate how the graph pattern learner can be applied to other interesting areas without modification.


With urban dwellers purchasing 80 percent or more of their food, understanding urban employment is critical to designing policies and programs to address urban hunger and poverty. Reviewing the literature, but also using data from household surveys conducted by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and others in five countries of Latin America, Asia, and Africa, this paper profiles urban employment in developing-country cities. It highlights some often-overlooked aspects of urban conditions, most especially the importance of agriculture, the continuing importance of the formal sector, and seasonality of income, even among those not connected to agriculture. It also examines the connections between poverty and employment; looks at where people work and what they do; and highlights the importance of personal networks, the informal sector, and the concerns of women. Finally, it notes some dynamic forces shaping the future of urban employment and suggests some guidelines for policies and programs.


Orientation: Because of its historic, symbolic and psychological representation, presenting a diversity event on Robben Island posed invaluable opportunities to form an in-depth understanding of South African diversity dynamics. This research focussed on such an event interpreted from the systems psychodynamic perspective. Research purpose: The purpose of the research was to describe the experiences of participants attending the Robben Island Diversity Experience (RIDE) in order to understand South African diversity dynamics from a depth psychology perspective. Motivation for the study: Of the many and different diversity events presented in South African organisations, RIDE is the only annual systems psycho-dynamically designed and presented event. This research was an effort to explore the nature of these dynamics which manifest themselves from below the surface. Research design, approach and method: Qualitative and descriptive research from a hermeneutic phenomenology paradigm was used. The 15 participants who attended a RIDE event formed a case study. The data from an unstructured interview was content-analysed and interpreted using the systems psychodynamic perspective. The themes were integrated into a research hypothesis. Main findings: Five themes manifested themselves, namely, crossing boundaries, engaging the brave new world, ties that bind, being imprisoned and the struggle. Practical/managerial implications: The research highlighted the importance of understanding unconscious dynamics in the context of diversity in order to inform consultants about diversity management interventions in organisations. Contribution/value-add: The research contributed towards how South African diversity dynamics manifest themselves and how that can be addressed in organisations.


After briefly sketching the tumultuous nature of life in modern societies, the author calls on the reader to imagine for him- or herself the construction of a metaphorical traffic intersection that would enable those who make use of it to 'fly over' all the mayhem and disturbances. The proposed 'flyover' consists of three sub-structures or 'bridges', namely social capital, spirituality and education. A discussion of each of these sub-structures is followed by a discussion of the combination of all three in a virtual flyover that could contribute to a world characterised by greater understanding, respect, tolerance and peaceful coexistence.


Sedentary behavior (SB) is emerging as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes (Katzmarzyk, 2010, Owen et al., 2010), and is a target for intervention. This study examined effects of a Social Cognitive intervention to increase self-efficacy (SE) for reducing SB and increasing PA. Female members (Mage=58.5, SD=12.5 yrs) from seven weight loss support clubs were enrolled in a 6-week intervention (n=40) or waitlisted (n=24) based on club randomization. The intervention, delivered via group sessions and email, used mastery feedback from goal-setting activities along with behavioral cues and modeling to reduce SB and increase steps. Quantitative and qualitative process evaluation data were collected throughout. PA and SB were measured by accelerometers. SE (to reduce SB, to increase light & moderate PA) were measured pre, mid, and post. Repeated-measures MANOVA found no significant change over time or Group x Time interaction for behavior. A significant effect for time was noted for SE to reduce SB (F=3.34, p<.05) and the Group x Time interaction approached significance. SE decreased at mid-point, but increased for the intervention group while the waitlist group continued to fall. Differences between rural and urban women in SB (F=4.69, p<0.04) and SE to reduce SB (F=4.75, p<0.05), were significant, with rural participants having less SB and lower SE to reduce SB than urban peers. Participants' perceptions were examined to provide a contextualized understanding of SB and methods to change behavior. Analysis identified compliance barriers, including required sitting, accuracy of self-monitoring, work and family responsibilities and questions of relevance. Significant differences in SE to reduce SB were seen when compliant participants were compared to non-compliant participants (F=2.44, p<0.05). Behavioral cues and modeled behaviors were less impactful than anticipated. Participants were receptive to monitoring PA via pedometer, though challenges in self-monitoring SB were noted. The role of SE in changing SB needs further study. Findings suggest that interventions must consider contextual factors, such as location and occupation as well as individual factors (SE) and barriers. Future studies should consider the effect of modifying the built-environment on SE to reduce SB and improve methods for self-monitoring.


Large amounts of qualitative data make the utilization of computer-assisted methods for their analysis inevitable. In this thesis Text Mining as an interdisciplinary approach, as well as the methods established in the empirical social sciences for analyzing written utterances are introduced. On this basis a process of extracting concept networks from texts is outlined and the possibilities of utilitzing natural language processing methods within are highlighted. The core of this process is text processing, to whose execution software solutions supporting manual as well as automated work are necessary. The requirements to be met by these solutions, against the background of the initiating project GLODERS, which is devoted to investigating extortion racket systems as part of the global fiσnancial system, are presented, and their fulσlment by the two most preeminent candidates reviewed. The gap between theory and pratical application is closed by a prototypical application of the method to a data set of the research project utilizing the two given software solutions.


FLOIAN CHITINOZOANS (LOWER ORDOVICIAN) FROM THE SANTA VICTORIA AREA, CORDILLERA ORIENTAL, NORTH- WESTERN ARGENTINA. PART 2. BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC, PALEOBIOGEOGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS. This is the first study of the Floian chitinozoans in the Acoite Formation exposed at Quebrada La Huerta and Quebrada Grande, Santa Victoria area, northeastern end of the Argentinian Cordillera Oriental (Salta Province). Biostratigraphic analysis of this group is calibrated with the graptolite zones Tetragraptus akzharensis, "Baltograptus deflexus" and Didymograptellus bifidus, previously established in the area and ranging from the latest early Floian to the late Floian. Chitinozoans are also calibrated with acritarchs that include some species of the messaoudensis-trifidum assemblage, among others. According to the most recent studies on chitinozoans conducted in Northwestern Argentina two biostratigraphically meaningful chitinozoan assemblages are proposed for the Santa Victoria area, i.e., Lagenochitina sp. A (early middle Floian) and Eremochitina baculata brevis? (late Floian). The latest early Floian-latest middle Floian chitinozoan assem- blages reveal affinities with North Gondwana and South China whereas the late Floian chitinozoan assemblages are cosmopolitan. Distribution of the studied Early Ordovician chitinozoan assemblages suggests that the development of the active thermohaline oceanic circulation for this portion of the Western Gondwana margin—globally recorded in the Middle Ordovician—occurred earlier than in other regions. Chitinozoans also reveal paleoenvironmental differeces be- tween the eastern and central outcrop belts in the Central Andean Basin, Northwestern Argentina.


BACKGROUND
The effect that high-dose interferon (IFN)-alpha induction therapy for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has on cellular immune responses is currently unknown.

METHODS
Thirty-one treatment-naive patients with chronic HCV infection received amantadine and ribavirin, combined with 6 weeks of high-dose IFN-alpha-2b induction therapy followed by weekly pegylated IFN-alpha-2b, for 24 or 48 weeks. Using IFN-gamma and interleukin (IL)-2 enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assays, we analyzed the pattern of cytokine secretion by structural and nonstructural HCV- and cytomegalovirus (CMV)-specific T cells before, during, and after therapy.

RESULTS
HCV-specific T cell responses, which were predominantly IFN-gamma secreting and which correlated with alanine transaminase levels (r2 = 0.45; P = .001), were found before treatment in 10 of 15 patients with a sustained virological response (SVR) and in 11 of 16 in the non-SVR group. There was a striking loss of IFN-gamma and IL-2 HCV-specific T cells during therapy, predominantly in the SVR group. This response recovered after cessation of therapy, regardless of outcome. Suppression of CMV-specific T cell responses, in addition to total lymphocyte counts, was also observed.

CONCLUSIONS
High-dose IFN-alpha induction therapy leads to a profound decline in IL-2- and IFN-gamma-secreting HCV- and CMV-specific T cells. These data indicate that restoration of T cell responses is unlikely to be causally linked to an early response or SVR to therapy.


The book presents a representative selection of the papers presented at the second Conference on Caribbean Culture in honour of Kamau Brathwaite. It offers an interdisciplinary range of studies that range from analyses of Braithwaithe's creative and critical work to interventions in the fields of social history, cultural studies, gender studies, linguistics and sociology, that have been either directly or indirectly influenced by Braithwaite's own pioneering work in Caribbean social history and cultural studies. The manuscript offers the most current critical commentary on the work and ideas of Kamau Brathwaite, and it also provides an extremely useful range of analyses of contemporary Caribbean culture and social history. The primary target audience is academics and students working in the field of Caribbean and cultural studies, while the secondary audience includes researchers working on Kamau Brathwaite's creative and critical work.


Casting process simulation programs are designed to offer the engineer a powerful tool for a virtual optimisation of casting processes. Due to the complexity and variety of physical phenomena driving the continuous casting process of steels, the requirements for an integrated simulation tool are challenging. In a cooperative effort, the Department of Ferrous Metallurgy (IEHK), RWTH Aachen University and a developer of professional process simulation software (MAGMA) have joined forces with theoretical and practical expertise. In this paper, two aspects of continuous casting modelling will be discussed: First, the prediction of the liquid pool depth and second, possible causes of crack formation during the entire process. In both cases primary process parameters and required boundary conditions for a comprehensive simulation of the entire process route are discussed. The results of thermal and mechanical calculations are presented. The evaluation of results shows the strong influence of process parameters like casting speed and spray cooling on the depth of the liquid pool. Analyzing crack formation, special focus is put on the mechanical properties at high temperature as an input variable. The discussed developments will be part of an integrated and practical tool for the engineer to optimise his processes and his productivity.


Spatial competence is a central aspect of human adaptation. To understand human cognitive functioning, we must understand how people code the locations of things, how they navigate in the world, and how they represent and mentally manipulate spatial information. Until recently three approaches have dominated thinking about spatial development. Followers of Piaget claim that infants are born without knowledge of space or a conception of permanent objects that occupy space. They develop such knowledge through experience and manipulation of their environment. Nativists suggest that the essential aspects of spatial understanding are innate and that biological maturation of specific brain areas can account for whatever aspects of spatial development are not accounted for at birth. The Vygotskan approach emphasizes the cultural transmission of spatial skills. Nora Newcombe and Janellen Huttenlocher argue for an interactionist approach to spatial development that incorporates and integrates essential insights of the classic three approaches. They show how biological preparedness interacts with the spatial environment that infants encounter after birth to create spatial development and mature spatial competence. Topics covered include spatial coding during infancy and childhood; the early origins of coding distance in continuous space, of coding location with respect to distal external landmarks, and of hierarchical combination of information; the mental processes that operate on stored spatial information; spatial information as encoded in models and maps; and spatial information as encoded in language. In conclusion, the authors discuss their account of spatial development in relation to various approaches to cognitive development in other domains, including quantitative development, theory of mind, and language acquisition.


Procedure Appropriateness Category Relative Radiation Level Radiography area of interest Usually Appropriate Varies CT area of interest with IV contrast Usually Not Appropriate Varies CT area of interest without and with IV contrast Usually Not Appropriate Varies CT area of interest without IV contrast Usually Not Appropriate Varies MRI area of interest without and with IV contrast Usually Not Appropriate O MRI area of interest without IV contrast Usually Not Appropriate O Bone scan area of interest Usually Not Appropriate ☢☢☢ US area of interest Usually Not Appropriate O


Corporations spend tens of millions of dollars each year to conduct organizational surveys and report the results. It is imperative that survey results provide clear, actionable results to organizational leaders for an employee survey program to be effective. To the extent that survey results are impacted by response style biases, organizations cannot be certain their actions address real issues. The following research examines the impact of managers' national culture on the response styles of their employees. Power distance is a construct that reflects how different cultures address inequality. In this study, power distance scores for managers are hypothesized to be predictive of employee response style behavior such that power distance is positively associated with greater extreme responding and lower acquiescence. Additionally, individualism/collectivism scores for managers are hypothesized to be predictive of employee response style behavior such that individualism is positively associated with greater extreme responding and negatively associated with acquiescence. Overall, results did not support the key hypotheses of the study. While employees from high power distance countries did display higher levels of extreme responding than employees from low power distance countries (Hypothesis 1), none of the other three hypotheses were supported. Despite this lack of significant results, this single result supports Johnson, et al.'s (2005) results from a sample of over eighteen-thousand employees in nineteen countries suggesting it is a consistent, real difference between high and low power distance countries. There were several limitations to be considered in evaluating this research. First, the study was based on archival data limiting the flexibility of the design and analysis. Another key limitation that should be addressed in future research is the use of abstracted cultural trait scores. Despite the lack of significant results and the limitations of this study, the fact remains that differences in response behaviors do exist across different cultures and geographic locations. Further research is needed to more clearly understand the influence that geographic culture, organizational culture and individual level demographics may have on employee response styles to help facilitate how organizations understand survey results. MANAGERS' NATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS IMPACT ON RESPONSE STYLES IN A GLOBAL MULTINATIONAL COMPANY


Searches for new heavy resonances decaying into different pairings of W , Z , or Higgs bosons, as well as directly into leptons, are presented using a data sample corresponding to 36 . 1 fb − 1 of pp collisions at ffiffiffi s p ¼ 13 TeV collected during 2015 and 2016 with the ATLAS detector at the CERN Large Hadron Collider. Analyses selecting bosonic decay modes in the qqqq , νν qq , l ν qq , ll qq , l ν l ν , ll νν , l ν ll , llll , qqbb , νν bb , l ν bb , and ll bb final states are combined, searching for a narrow-width resonance. Likewise, analyses selecting the leptonic l ν and ll final states are also combined. These two sets of analyses are then further combined. No significant deviation from the Standard Model predictions is observed. Three benchmark models are tested: a model predicting the existence of a new heavy scalar singlet, a simplified model predicting a heavy vector-boson triplet, and a bulk Randall-Sundrum model with a heavy spin-2 Kaluza-Klein excitation of the graviton. Cross section limits are set at the 95% confidence level using an asymptotic approximation and are compared with predictions for the benchmark models. These limits are also expressed in terms of constraints on couplings of the heavy vector-boson triplet to quarks, leptons, and the Higgs boson. The data exclude a heavy vector-boson triplet with mass below 5.5 TeV in a weakly coupled scenario and 4.5 TeV in a strongly coupled scenario, as well as a Kaluza-Klein graviton with mass below 2.3 TeV.


I seek to show how Binx's "search" serves as an example of intersubjectivity by challenging the scientific humanism prevalent in the mid 20th Century. Succinctly put, Binx challenges both the general and the localized versions of scientific humanism. Percy presents scientific humanism as a characteristic of general society, one co-opted by intellectuals, scientists, and Southern stoics to affirm their beliefs. I use a new methodology that analyzes the search as an educational experience. Binx sharpens and develops the tools necessary in challenging stoicism and scientific humanism. This paper builds on Percy criticism to show doubt and belief as the novel's driving forces. Belief serves as a landing pad for the searcher who inevitably comes to doubt; the interplay between the two defines Percy's new "thinking" individual. For Percy, doubt begets a matrix through which an individual tunes into the ideas of others by questioning their beliefs. Through this sharing of ideas –intersubjectivity- individuals form a community of "namers," people who arrive at "truths" through a testing of ideas. In its presentation of belief and "doubt, the open plot of the novel becomes a metaphor for the way all humans come to "know." Localizing the searcher's struggles within scientific humanism and its apostles in Binx, the book demonstrates the constant shifting between doubt and belief. The "education" provided by the "the search," however, leads to Binx's ability to form "community" by engaging with them in semiotic community; a system built off the meaning of symbols as they pertain to others. Unlike scientific humanism's tendency to isolate individuals as organisms separate from a community, Percy's semiotics seek to base community off an intercommunication that affirms the individual's ability to affect meaning.


ABSTRACT The Western Australian Kimberley region harbours a diverse fauna of camaenid land snails characterised by marked patterns of narrow range endemism. A recent survey of previously poorly known areas along the Kimberley coast has resulted in the discovery of a number of further, yet undeschbed camaenid taxa. One of these, the genus Australocosmica, is newly described herein based on comparative studies of genital anatomy, shell and radular morphology, and analyses of partial sequences of the mitochondrial marker 16S rRNA. Australocosmica is characterised by a broadly conical to semi-globose shell with moderately elevated spire, well-rounded, convex whorls that are separated by a deeply incised suture, and a sculpture of dense, regularly spaced axial ribs. The most distinguishing feature of the inner penial anatomy is the presence of a furrowed, collar-like vergic papillum forming the entrance of the vas deferens into the lumen of the penial chamber. Three new species, Australocosmia augustae, A. sanctumpatriciusae, and A. vulcanice, are described based mainly on differences in penial anatomy. All species are well differentiated by uncorrected pair-wise p-distances of 15% to 20% in the 16S rRNA gene. Similar to most camaenids in the Kimberley region, species of Australocosmica are narrow-range endemics being restricted to single islands, sometimes including the immediately adjacent mainland coast.


For much of human history, "femininity" and "masculinity" were unknown terms. But that does not mean that the concept of gender did not exist. Indeed, many societies in recorded history had conceptions of what it means to be a gendered person—most often noted in the binary of "man" and "woman"—but these conceptions were normative and perceived as intrinsic to human behavior and culture. Masculinity and femininity were naturalized concepts, assumed to be the ways in which men and women should act, look, or communicate.
 In the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars and activists noted that femininity and masculinity are social constructions of a gendered society, often denoting the ways in which people, objects, and practices conform to or transgress gendered expectations. Both terms are highly contingent upon the cultural, historical, and geopolitical locations in which they are used, meaning that they can only be accurately understood or defined for a given time or context; it is impossible to define either term in a universal manner. Femininity, as an articulated concept, has a longer history of being visible and enforced by communities. Masculinity, on the contrary, historically elided critique or visibility because its attributes were often the normative and prized values and characteristics of a given social context. However, feminist movements and intellectual projects have brought masculinity to light, showing the ways in which masculinity, just as much as femininity, is a learned and enforced way of viewing actions, people, and things.
 In communication studies, current scholarship on masculinity and femininity examine how they circulate in a globalized world, picking up new definitions and often restructuring people's lives. Even though both terms are abstractions with shifting definitions and applications, they create the conditions for people's sense of identity and limit or enhance their ability to engage in communicative acts. Differently stated, while abstract concepts, they have material consequences. To understand how an abstract social construction creates material consequences, communication scholars have looked at several research locations where masculinity and femininity most obviously manifest, such as leadership and authority, media representations, rhetorical style and delivery, and interpersonal communications.


The CLEVELAND BUCKEYES, the last of a number of Cleveland teams that played in the professional Negro baseball leagues, also were the best, playing in 2 Negro World Series and winning in 1945. Most of Cleveland's black professional baseball teams prior to the Buckeyes lasted a year or less, and the teams finished near the bottom of the standings. The Cleveland Tate Stars finished last in the Negro National League in 1922, as did the Cleveland Browns of 1924, the Cleveland Elites of 1926, and the Cleveland Hornets of 1927. In 1931 local attorney ALEXANDER MARTIN and Thomas P. Wilson of Nashville brought the Nashville team to Cleveland for a brief season as the Cleveland Cubs, featuring the legendary pitcher LEROY "SATCHEL" PAIGE. In 1932 the Cleveland Stars competed in the East-West League, and in 1933 the Cleveland Giants replaced the Columbus Blue Birds during the season. The Cleveland Red Sox won only 2 of their 24 games in the NNL in the first half of 1934 and played only 5 more games before dropping out. Negro baseball returned to Cleveland in 1939 and 1940 with the Cleveland Bears, who played .500 ball in the NAL. The Cleveland Buckeyes were organized by Ernest Wright, a hotel and nightclub owner in Erie, PA, with Wilbur Hayes, a local sports promoter, serving as executive manager. Formed at the end of 1941, the Buckeyes spent 1942 as the Cleveland-Cincinnati Buckeyes. The team began playing in 1943 as the Cleveland Buckeyes and had a number of all-star players during the 1940s, including pitcher Gene Bremmer, first baseman Archie Ware, and catcher Quincy Trouppe. Perhaps the best of the Buckeyes was Sam Jethroe, the centerfielder who was the league's most valuable player in 1945 (.393 batting average and 21 stolen bases). Jethroe played for the Boston Braves for 3 years (1950-52) and was named National League Rookie of the Year at age 28. With the team bus broken during their first season, the Cleveland Buckeyes were forced to travel in three cars to reach their games. One of these three cars was involved in a tragic accident on 7 September 1942. Catcher Ulysses "Buster" Brown and pitcher Raymond "Smokey" Owens were killed, while pitchers Alonzo Boone, Eugene Bremmer, Herman Watts and general manager Wilbur Hayes were seriously injured. The Buckeyes were scheduled to play four games in just over 24 hours against the New York Black Yankees in Buffalo, New York, Akron, Ohio and Meadville, Pennsylvania. They were on their way from Buffalo to Akron at the time of the crash, on Route 20 near Geneva, Ohio. The Buckeyes chose to finish their season after the accident, despite the loss of so many players. For the last two weeks of the 1942 season all of their scheduled games were on the road. The Buckeyes lost all of them.While this is one of the only cases of a travel fatality for a Negro League team, all teams faced difficulties on the road. There was rarely enough money in a team's budget to afford traintravel or a team bus. Often the only solution was for a large number of players to fit in cars and travel all night to reach their next destination. Teams played whoever they could, wherever they could. Since any game meant money from gate receipts, Negro League teams would mix non-league exhibition games against white and black semi-pro teams into their regular schedule. It left for an exhausting and challenging schedule as teams drove hundreds of miles each day to reach their new destination. In 1945 the Buckeyes finished in first place in both halves of the NAL season, compiling an overall record of 53-16. Managed by veteran catcher Quincy Trouppe and led by Sam Jethroe, the Buckeyes earned a spot in the Negro World Series against the defending champions, the Homestead Grays. Behind the pitching of Willie Jefferson and Gene Bremmer, the Clevelanders won their first series games at Cleveland Stadium and LEAGUE PARK, then completed the sweep by winning the next 2 games on the road. The Buckeyes won the league pennant again in 1947 but lost to the New York Cubans in the Negro World Series. Despite success on the field, the Buckeyes lost money in 1947, and by 1949 moved to Louisville, Kentucky. It returned for the first half of the 1950 season, but after winning only 3 of its 36 games, the team disbanded. Peterson, Robert W. Only the Ball was White (1970).


The results of the Global Survey of Physicists draw attention to the need to focus on factors other than representation when discussing the situation of women in physics. Previous studies of women in physics have mostly focused on the lack of women in the field. This study goes beyond the obvious shortage of women and shows that there are much deeper issues. For the first time, a multinational study was conducted with approximately 15,000 respondents from 130 countries, showing that problems for women in physics transcend national borders. Across all countries, women have fewer resources and opportunities and are more affected by cultural expectations concerning child care. We show that limited resources and opportunities hurt career progress, and because women have fewer opportunities and resources, their careers progress more slowly. We also show the disproportionate effects of children on women physicists' careers. Cultural expectations about home and family are difficult to change. However, for women to have successful outcomes and advance in physics, they must have equal access to resources and opportunities.The results of the Global Survey of Physicists draw attention to the need to focus on factors other than representation when discussing the situation of women in physics. Previous studies of women in physics have mostly focused on the lack of women in the field. This study goes beyond the obvious shortage of women and shows that there are much deeper issues. For the first time, a multinational study was conducted with approximately 15,000 respondents from 130 countries, showing that problems for women in physics transcend national borders. Across all countries, women have fewer resources and opportunities and are more affected by cultural expectations concerning child care. We show that limited resources and opportunities hurt career progress, and because women have fewer opportunities and resources, their careers progress more slowly. We also show the disproportionate effects of children on women physicists' careers. Cultural expectations about home and family are difficult to change. However, for women ...


Herbivory is discussed as a key agent in maintaining dynamics and stability of tropical forested ecosystems. Accordingly increasing attention has been paid to the factors that structure tropical herbivore communities. The aim of this study was (1) to describe diversity, density, distribution and host range of the phasmid community (Phasmatodea) of a moist neotropical forest in Panama, and (2) to experimentally assess bottom-up and top-down factors that may regulate populations of the phasmid Metriophasma diocles. The phasmid community of Barro Colorado Island was poor in species and low in density. Phasmids mainly occurred along forest edges and restricted host ranges of phasmid species reflected the successional status of their host plants. Only M. diocles that fed on early and late successional plants occurred regularly in the forest understory. A long generation time with a comparably low fecundity converted into a low biotic potential of M. diocles. However, modeled potential population density increased exponentially and exceeded the realized densities of this species already after one generation indicating that control factors continuously affect M. diocles natural populations. Egg hatching failure decreased potential population growth by 10 % but was of no marked effect at larger temporal scale. Interspecific differences in defensive physical and chemical leaf traits of M. diocles host plants, amongst them leaf toughness the supposedly most effective anti-herbivore defense, seemed not to affect adult female preference and nymph performance. Alternatively to these defenses, I suggest that the pattern of differential preference and performance may be based on interspecific differences in qualitative toxic compounds or in nutritive quality of leaves. The significant rejection of leaf tissue with a low artificial increase of natural phenol contents by nymphs indicated a qualitative defensive pathway in Piper evolution. In M. diocles, oviposition may not be linked to nymph performance, because the evolutionary prediction of a relation between female adult preference and nymph performance was missing. Consequently, the recruitment of nymphs into the reproductive adult phase may be crucially affected by differential performance of nymphs. Neonate M. diocles nymphs suffered strong predation pressure when exposed to natural levels of predation. Concluding from significantly increased predation-related mortality at night, I argue that arthropods may be the main predators of this nocturnal herbivore. Migratory behavior of nymphs seemed not to reflect predation avoidance. Instead, I provided first evidence that host plant quality may trigger off-plant migration. In conclusion, I suggest that predation pressure with its direct effects on nymph survival may be a stronger factor regulating M. diocles populations, compared to direct and indirect effects of host plant quality, particularly because slow growth and off-host migration both may feed back into an increase of predation related mortality.


Abstract: We describe quantum-field-theoretical (QFT) techniques for mapping quantum problems onto c-number stochastic problems. This approach yields results which are identical to phase-space techniques [C.W. Gardiner, Quantum Noise (1991)] when the latter result in a Fokker-Planck equation for a corresponding pseudo-probability distribution. If phase-space techniques do not result in a Fokker-Planck equation and hence fail to produce a stochastic representation, the QFT techniques nevertheless yield stochastic di erence equations in discretised time.


This article describes the exploratory and preparatory phase of a research project designed to use co-operative enquiry as a method for transformative and participatory action research into relations between donors and recipients in two developing countries, Bolivia and Bangladesh. It describes the origins of the idea, the conceptual challenges that the authors faced in seeking funding, and what they learned from this first phase. The authors analyse why the researchers, as well as the potential subjects of the research, were uncomfortable with the proposed methodology, including the challenges arising from their own positions and the highly sensitive nature of the topic. They explain why they decided to abandon the project, and they reach some tentative conclusions concerning the options for participatory action learning and research in development practice.


The fifth volume of the John Singer Sargent catalogue raisonne encompasses a remarkably productive span in the beloved American painter's life. The young artist moved from Paris to London during this period and successfully ignited his career as a portraitist, and this time also marked his experimentation with Impressionist techniques. These pages contain the first detailed account of Sargent's relationship with Claude Monet, including letters-most published for the first time here-from the artist to the great Impressionist. This exquisitely illustrated volume also covers the period when Sargent journeyed to Egypt, Greece, Turkey, Spain, North Africa, and Italy in search of inspiration for a mural cycle commissioned by the Boston Public Library. The works he painted as source material included here stand in stark contrast to the sensuous, painterly exercises of the early and mid-1880s, underlining his versatility and artistic reach. As in the previous volumes in this series, the images in this book are reproduced in full color and documented in depth, with complete provenance, exhibition history, and bibliography, and are accompanied by relevant studies and related drawings.


Long before the invention of printing, let alone the availability of a daily newspaper, people desired to be informed. In the pre-industrial era news was gathered and shared through conversation and gossip, civic ceremony, celebration, sermons, and proclamations. The age of print brought pamphlets, edicts, ballads, journals, and the first news-sheets, expanding the news community from local to worldwide. This groundbreaking book tracks the history of news in ten countries over the course of four centuries. It evaluates the unexpected variety of ways in which information was transmitted in the premodern world as well as the impact of expanding news media on contemporary events and the lives of an ever-more-informed public. Andrew Pettegree investigates who controlled the news and who reported it; the use of news as a tool of political protest and religious reform; issues of privacy and titillation; the persistent need for news to be current and journalists trustworthy; and people's changed sense of themselves as they experienced newly opened windows on the world. By the close of the eighteenth century, Pettegree concludes, transmission of news had become so efficient and widespread that European citizens--now aware of wars, revolutions, crime, disasters, scandals, and other events--were poised to emerge as actors in the great events unfolding around them.


America's foremost novelist reflects on the themes that preoccupy her work and increasingly dominate national and world politics: race, fear, borders, the mass movement of peoples, the desire for belonging. What is race and why does it matter? What motivates the human tendency to construct Others? Why does the presence of Others make us so afraid? Drawing on her Norton Lectures, Toni Morrison takes up these and other vital questions bearing on identity in The Origin of Others. In her search for answers, the novelist considers her own memories as well as history, politics, and especially literature. Harriet Beecher Stowe, Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, Flannery O'Connor, and Camara Laye are among the authors she examines. Readers of Morrison's fiction will welcome her discussions of some of her most celebrated books-Beloved, Paradise, and A Mercy. If we learn racism by example, then literature plays an important part in the history of race in America, both negatively and positively. Morrison writes about nineteenth-century literary efforts to romance slavery, contrasting them with the scientific racism of Samuel Cartwright and the banal diaries of the plantation overseer and slaveholder Thomas Thistlewood. She looks at configurations of blackness, notions of racial purity, and the ways in which literature employs skin color to reveal character or drive narrative. Expanding the scope of her concern, she also addresses globalization and the mass movement of peoples in this century. National Book Award winner Ta-Nehisi Coates provides a foreword to Morrison's most personal work of nonfiction to date.


Three separate PEN Clubs were founded in Spain during the turbulent period between the wars. The first Spanish PEN Club met for the first time in the celebrated Madrid restaurant Lhardy on 5th July 1922, precisely nine months after the International PEN Club was set up in London. It did not have its own accommodation, but gathered roughly once a month in this restaurant under the chairmanship of the renowned writer Jose Martinez Ruiz, better known by his pen-name of *Azorin*. It appears from the list of the club's members, which was published in November 1923, that this varied company included a number of prestigious authors such as Diez-Canedo, Ramiro de Maeztu, Enrique de Mesa, Ramon Perez de Ayala and Jose Maria Salaverria. In addition, the Spanish delegation also aspired to an international profile by incorporating nineteen international honorary members at the top of the list of members, originating from Spanish-speaking America, Portugal and England. Although several regional authors joined this first PEN Club, remarkably enough there were only two Catalan writers on the list: Eugenio D'Ors and Angel Guimera, the latter as an honorary member. There was a great deal of criticism of the snobbish nature of the *banquetes*, the costly feasts the members took part in at their own expense. One of the fiercest critics was undoubtedly Rafael Cansinos Assens, who not only denounced the elitist nature of the gatherings, but was also annoyed by what he considered the overly regional and national tenor that characterised the club. However, the fact that the club was less internationally oriented did not mean, in the national context, that it reflected only one end of the ideological spectrum. The elitist nature of the club did not stop members with republican sympathies (such as Roberto Castrovido and Luis de Tapia) from joining. Journalists who had taken a critical attitude to the military campaigns in Morocco, such as Alfonso Hernandez Cata and Manuel Ciges Aparicio, also found their way to the PEN Club. Even someone like Julio Camba, at that time closely linked to anarchist circles, was a member. It is striking that there were also a substantial number of members from the Liga de Educacion Politica, an association that Jose Ortega y Gasset had set up and which was part of the liberal Partido Reformista. The founding of the first Spanish PEN Club in 1922 also coincided with the structural crisis the Ateneo Cientifico, Literario y Artistico de Madrid found itself in at about that time . It comes as no surprise that many of those in the PEN membership list in 1923 are also to be found in the January 1922 list of Athenaeum members. So the Spanish PEN Club was a valid alternative in the quest for a way of giving Spain's literary life a minimum of independence and social embedment. Spain's first PEN Club was not destined for a long life, however. Several reasons for this have been given over the years: the previously mentioned aristocratic nature of the club, the diversity of interests and poetics of its members, the lack of fellow-feeling among Spanish writers and the elitism of the Madrid writers with regard to authors from the periphery, especially those from Catalonia. But the increasing effect of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, who came to power in 1923, was also part of it. The same ideological polarisation and militarization had already led to the downfall of the Athenaeum in Madrid in 1924; a similar scenario was also to be played out at the German PEN Club in 1933. It was in 1924, two years after the Spanish club had been set up, that its Catalan counterpart came into being. On 7th January, in his capacity as chairman, the Catalan grammarian and liberal intellectual Pompeu Fabra sent out a letter in which he invited the Catalan intelligentsia to join the club. Although this letter emphasised that the PEN Club 'had no political or propaganda tenor whatsoever', it was obvious that cultural nationalism underlay the establishment of the Catalan delegation. Even before the club had been set up, its future secretary, Millas Raurell, was already pointing out, in a letter sent to the International PEN member Herman Ould on 11th January 1923, that the Catalan club had no connection with the one in Madrid. This new delegation wanted to represent the 'Catalan nation', which belonged to a different culture from its Spanish counterpart. The Catalan association possibly had an even harder time of it than the Spanish PEN Club under the regime of Primo de Rivera: under these circumstances, for example, it was out of the question to organise an international PEN congress in Barcelona. This did change, however. After the Catalan PEN Club had fallen into obscurity for many years, in 1934 it enjoyed a new boost, at the time of the Second Republic. In May of that year the club was re-established in the Athenaeum in Barcelona, which from then on served as the club's seat. The absolute climax of the activities of the Catalan PEN Club, however, was when the international PEN congress was held in Barcelona from 21st to 25th May 1935. It was the perfect opportunity to showcase the wealth of the Catalan artistic heritage and to give Catalan literature an international boost. The outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 put a final end to this glorious revival. The success of the international PEN congress in Barcelona was not to everyone's taste, however. In a newspaper article, Ramon Gomez de la Serna criticised the total absence of Spanish writers from the congress. The prevailing dissatisfaction was the main reason for setting up what was called the 'Second Madrid PEN Club'. The fact that this second Madrid – not Spanish – club developed in an extremely tense and polarised atmosphere hardly needs mentioning. Although there were still a number of republicans and liberals at the first banquet, such as Max Aub, Americo Castro, Tomas Navarro Tomas, Pedro Salinas, Luis de Tapia and Guillermo de Torre, their numbers steadily declined. The lists of participants at each of the feasts show that it was mainly writers with right-wing affinities (with all the shades of meaning that 'right-wing' implies) who attended. They included both adherents of Primo de Rivera's Falangism (fascists) (Fernandez Almagro, Manuel Machado, Sanchez Mazas) and more moderate right-wing intellectuals such as Baroja, el Conde de Romanones et al. As Miguel A. Iglesias has already pointed out in an article on this third PEN Club, this majority of right-wing intellectuals was an even more conspicuous presence since these right-wing movements were socially and politically in the minority during the Second Republic. The various Spanish PEN Clubs between the wars were neither the first nor the most successful attempt to unite Spanish writers regardless of their aesthetic or political tenor. In the 19th century the various liberal Athenaea were founded, as well as a considerable number of other associations that tried to defend the rights of authors, artists and musicians. A number of other initiatives arose between the wars, such as the Union de Autores, the banquets that *La Gaceta Literaria* organised, and the publishing house named Compania Iberoamericana de Publicaciones, which was set up with the financial support of the Bauer Bank. Despite their good credentials and undoubtedly extremely noble intentions, these initiatives were all to end in failure. The extreme heteronomy of the Spanish literary and artistic fields and the political polarisation between the wars explain why not only the PEN Clubs, but also other associations turned out not to be feasible in that period.


Over the years, bridge engineers have been concerned about the response of prestressed concrete (PC) girder bridges that had been hit by over-height vehicles or vehicle loads. When a bridge is struck by an over-height vehicle or vehicle load, usually the outside and in some instances one of the interior girders are damaged. The effect of intermediate diaphragms in providing damage protection to the PC girders of a bridge is not clearly defined. This analytical study focused on the role of intermediate diaphragms in reducing the occurrence of damage in the girders of a PC girder bridge that has been struck by an over-height vehicle or vehicle load. The study also investigated whether a steel, intermediate diaphragm would essentially provide the same degree of impact protection for PC girders as that provided by a reinforced concrete diaphragm. This investigation includes the following: a literature search and a survey questionnaire to determine the state-of-the-art in the use and design of intermediate diaphragms in PC girder bridges. Comparisons were made between the strain and displacement results that were experimentally measured for a large-scale, laboratory, model bridge during previously documented work and those results that were obtained from analyses of the finite element models that were developed during this research for that bridge. These comparisons were conducted to calibrate the finite element models used in the analyses for this research on intermediate diaphragms. Finite element models were developed for non-skewed and skewed PC girder bridges. Each model was analyzed with either a reinforced concrete or two types of steel, intermediate diaphragms that were located at mid-span of an interior span for a PC girder bridge. The bridge models were analyzed for lateral impact loads that were applied to the bottom flange of the exterior girders at the diaphragm's location and away from the diaphragm's location. A comparison was conducted between the strains and displacements induced in the girders for each intermediate diaphragm type. These results showed that intermediate diaphragms have an effect in reducing impact damage to the PC girders. When the lateral impact load was applied at the diaphragm's location, the reinforced concrete diaphragms provided more protection for the girders than that provided by the two types of steel diaphragms. The three types of diaphragms provided essentially the same degree of protection to the impacted PC girder when the lateral impact load was applied away from the diaphragm's location.


The purpose of this paper is to trace the assent of the Saskatchewan Party and examine their current success in the province that has been historically hostile to conservative parties of any iteration. Saskatchewan's "Natural Governing Party" has long been considered the NDP, and the province's political culture has been long entrenched with a social democratic lean. This paper builds on and applies the work of Dr Jared Wesley and Michael Moyes in "Selling Social Democracy: Branding the Political Left in Canada" to the context of Saskatchewan and the Sask Party. This paper looks at the tactics and success of political branding and shows how the Sask Party used many of the same branding techniques traditionally used by left wing parties all across the country to great success.


Maximizing the performance of your algorithms and applications is extremely important and can give you a competitive advantage, a lower cost of ownership, and happier users. Pro .NET Performance explains the internals of Windows, the CLR, and the physical hardware that affect the performance of your applications, and gives you the knowledge and tools to measure how your code performs in isolation from external factors. The book is full of C# code samples and tips to help you squeeze every bit of juice from your applicationlower memory utilization, consistent CPU usage, and fewer I/O operations across the network and disk. Pro .NET Performance will change the way you think about .NET application development. Guides you through performance measurement with a variety of profilers and other tools Explains how OS and CLR internals affect your applications performance in unexpected ways Provides you with tips and real-life case studies for improving application performance What youll learn Measure your codes performance with profilers and other tools. Understand where the bottlenecks are and focus on the right area for performance improvement. Manage memory efficiently by interacting properly with the garbage collector. Avoid common pitfalls by choosing the right abstractions. Understand the performance implications of the underlying operating system and runtime. Improve the performance of your applications by parallelization, caching, micro-optimization, and other techniques. Who this book is for Pro .NET Performance is for working .NET developers who care about the performance of their applications. It requires basic familiarity with Windows and the CLR, but guides the reader along the way and does not require prior experience with any performance-measurement tools. Pro .NET Performance also offers practical tips, case studies, and low-level knowledge for experienced developers and architects. Table of ContentsChapter 1: Performance Metrics Chapter 2: Performance Measurement Tools Chapter 3: Type Internals Chapter 4: Garbage Collection and Finalization Chapter 5: Collections and Generics Chapter 6: Concurrency and Parallelism Chapter 7: Networking, I/O, and Serialization Chapter 8: Unsafe Code and Interoperability Chapter 9: Algorithm Optimization Chapter 10: Performance Patterns Chapter 11: Web Application Performance


During World War II, the legal academy was virtually uncritical of the government's conduct of the war, despite some obvious domestic abuses of civil rights, such as the internment of Japanese-Americans. This silence has largely been ignored in the literature about the history of legal education. This Article argues that there are many strands of causation for this silence. On an obvious level, World War II was a popular war fought against a fascist threat, and left-leaning academics generally supported the war. On a less obvious level, law school enrollment plummeted during the war, and the numbers of full-time law professors dropped by half. Of those professors "laid off" during the war, many took employment in government agencies and thus effectively silenced themselves. Finally, the American Association of Law Schools had only adopted a strong position on academic freedom and tenure in 1940. The commitment to academic freedom and tenure was insecure in many institutions and was only weakened by the severe economic strain of the war. To illustrate the effect of these larger forces, this Article tells the stories of five professors who criticized domestic policy during the war and the institutional consequences of their dissent. Of those professors, only one - a tenured professor at New York University - was fired during the war. While the basic building blocks of legal academies are the same today as they were in World War II, other factors such as strong institutional commitments to academic freedom and tenure, a robust First Amendment, and economic prosperity have significantly changed the roles that law professors are empowered to play in society, most significantly as the watchdogs of government.


Taking as its point of departure, a Green Paper published by the UK government in 2008 urging greater emphasis on responsibilities, this essay considers various senses of "responsibility" that may be thought important in and around the topic of individual rights. Most likely, the authors of the Green Paper had in mind responsibilities that are correlative to rights and responsibilities that qualify rights or limit their exercise. But an additional idea - which has not been properly considered - is the idea of rights which ARE (in large part) responsibilities, rights which embody responsibilities. An obvious example is the right of a parent to bring up his or her child; it is certainly a right, but it makes reference to an important task that has to be fulfilled in society (the upbringing and nurture of this child) and it assigns that task as a responsibility to the parents and protects them in that assignment (while also supervising them in their performance of it). Once you start thinking in these terms, many rights or claims of right have this structure: think, for example, of the right of gay people to serve in the military; or, from an earlier period, the right of women to serve on juries. In exploring this conception of "responsibility-rights," I relate it to the topic of dignity, inasmuch as the human dignity principle retains some aspects of dignity's earlier association with rank and role. I consider the possibility that human dignity generally can be understood as a source of responsibilities as well as rights, or - along the lines of my conception - as a source of protected normative positions which comprise elements of both. I don't suggest that all rights have this form, but I believe it is a highly illuminating conception nonetheless.


The Forest Geospatial Information & Survey Lab in cooperation with Aeroscan Precision (M) Sdn Bhd at Lebuh Silikon, Universiti Putra Malaysia, spent the last four years developing airborne hyperspectral remote sensing and GIS applications, many of which address agriculture, forestry and the environment. This paper wants to make clear from the outset. Despite the lack of significant commercial success for businesses trying to sell airborne hyperspectral remote sensing data and services to agriculture, the only currently available imaging technology being pioneered and developed in UPM, does work. There is no doubt of its benefits to the agriculture industry especially the oil palm plantation giants in saving money, time, increasing yield, enhancing best practices, protecting the environment, and more. Despite that, the company just not made a "real" business of it perhaps due to the market for airborne hyperspectral remote sensing products and services related to agriculture, is still not known to most state and federal departments and agencies on the other. The consumer, for now, is not really in the picture. The commercial side can be broken down into the growers, who produce the food, Farmers Coops that may include growers but also produce food products and food providers. While some states have huge agricultural bases, few have money to invest in airborne hyperspectral remote sensing, which leaves quite a lot of burden on the federal government. The UPM-Aeroscan Precision (M) Sdn Bhd experience launched in 2004, planned to serve the commercial agricultural market by bringing the benefits of airborne hyperspectral remote sensing, also provide a real-time "GIS-ready" made database, and timely crop yield information to the plantation sector and farmer. The vision was simple: the farmer would build his own real-time airborne remote sensing GIS-ready made database documenting fertilizer, watering and planting details in the software (something typically done in a notebook by future high-tech Malaysian graduated farmers) with the use of a crop model to predict the expected yield. The check was to compare that expected outcome to the reality of the airborne hyperspectral remotely sensing images. For that level of detail, the UPM-APSB's AISA very high resolution airborne hyperspectral imagery (1 m), and in near real-time could only provide the solution for the Malaysian modern generation farmers in the hope that computer technology will reach them. In this paper, what UPM-APSB's AISA airborne hyperspectral remote sensing can bring to agriculture is demonstrated. First off, it can be used to monitor yields, early in the season, and then later. Second, airborne hyperspectral remote sensing can delineate soil zones. A third area of benefit is in field delineation where the boundaries of crops, in support of regulatory procedures could be easily found. The final area is precision agriculture, about best practices, giving a crop just the water, fertilizer, herbicide, etc. it needs to grow to its potential, but no more. The authors feel strongly that precision agriculture could have a significant impact on the Malaysian future environment. If the UPM-APSB's AISA near real-time data can map and provide just enough nitrogen, the impact on the environment is reduced and the plants should still provide their maximum yield. Applying this just enough vision should save the farmer's money on herbicide, water, fertilizer and other such costs.


The distribution of clouds in a vertical column is assessed on the global scale through analysis of lidar measurements obtained from three spaceborne lidar systems: LITE (Lidar In-space Technology Experiment, NASA), GLAS (Geoscience Laser Altimeter System, NASA), and CALIOP (Cloud-Aerosol LIdar with Orthogonal Polarization). Cloud top height (CTH) is obtained from the LITE profiles based on a simple algorithm that accounts for multilayer cloud structures. The resulting CTH results are compared to those obtained by the operational algorithms of the GLAS and CALIOP instruments. Based on our method, spaceborne lidar data are analyzed to establish statistics on the cloud top height. The resulting columnar results are used to investigate the inter-annual variability in the lidar cloud top heights. Statistical analyses are performed for a range of CTH (high, middle, low) and latitudes (polar, middle latitude and tropical). Probability density functions of CTH are developed. Comparisons of CTH developed from LITE, for 2 weeks of data in 1994, with ISCCP (International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project) cloud products show that the cloud fraction observed from spaceborne lidar is much higher than that from ISCCP. Another key result is that ISCCP products tend to underestimate the CTH of optically thin cirrus clouds. Significant differences are observed between LITE-derived cirrus CTH and both GLAS and CALIOP-derived cirrus CTH. Such a difference is due primarily to the lidar signal-to-noise ratio that is approximately a factor of 3 larger for the LITE system than for the other lidars. A statistical analysis for a full year of data highlights the influence of both the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone and polar stratospheric clouds.


In the following pages, I will explore how Marjane Satrapi uses text and images as a medium for enacting her memoir Persepolis 1: The Story of a Childhood and Persepolis 2: The Story of a Return. Nations and homelands play an important part in identity formation. Through national symbols, individuals feel a sense of belonging to their nation; constructions formed by our environment are enacted on the physical body through national symbols. However, identity becomes problematic for those in the diaspora. Nevertheless, this scholarly exploration will illustrate how a shift of landscape signifies that when people move, identities and definitions of oneself and national and cultural identity change.
The symbol of the veil in Marjane Satrapi's memoir fragments her body image by layering on false constructions of her identity. Because identity is linked to the body, Marjane can only enact agency over her identity when she removes the veil and reveals her body. Autobiographical writing allows Marjane to symbolically reveal and un-veil and begin the healing process. By revealing, Marjane can remove all the falseness from her body in order to gain a sense of truthfulness about her identity.


The essays in this volume analyze war, its strategic characterisitics and its political and social functions, over the past five centuries. The diversity of its themes and the broad perspectives applied to them make the book a work of general history as much as a history of the theory and practice of war from the Renaissance to the present. "Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age" takes the first part of its title from an earlier collection of essays, published by Princeton University Press in 1943, which became a classic of historical scholarship. Three essays are repinted from the earlier book; four others have been extensively revised. The rest--twenty-two essays--are new.The subjects addressed range from major theorists and political and military leaders to impersonal forces. Machiavelli, Clausewitz, and Marx and Engels are discussed, as are Napoleon, Churchill, and Mao. Other essays trace the interaction of theory and experience over generations--the evolution of American strategy, for instance, or the emergence of revolutionary war in the modern world. Still others analyze the strategy of particular conflicts--the First and Second World Wars--or the relationship between technology, policy, and war in the nuclear age. Whatever its theme, each essay places the specifics of military thought and action in their political, social, and economic environment. Together the contributors have produced a book that reinterprets and illuminates war, one of the most powerful forces in history and one that cannot be controlled in the future without an understanding of its past.


What happens when a clinical psychologist, a grounded theorist, an ethnographer, and a phenomenologist meet to collaborate on an interdisciplinary grant proposal on childhood loneliness? Excerpts of an imaginary dialogue reveal how different disciplines can be thought of as different "cultures," because each has its own way of doing things, deeply embedded assumptions about knowledge and the construction/representation of reality, and different specialized languages. Some of these differences might be incommensurable and call for cultural negotiation if a coherent approach is to be adopted. Cultural negotiation helps to make differences more accessible and understandable rather than creating inflexible or polarized ideological camps. This process might help methodologists think about researching across disciplines in new and more effective ways.


Objective To determine whether atrial fibrillation is a stronger risk factor for cardiovascular disease and death in women compared with men. Design Meta-analysis of cohort studies. Data sources Studies published between January 1966 and March 2015, identified through a systematic search of Medline and Embase and review of references. Eligibility for selecting studies Cohort studies with a minimum of 50 participants with and 50 without atrial fibrillation that reported sex specific associations between atrial fibrillation and all cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, stroke, cardiac events (cardiac death and non-fatal myocardial infarction), and heart failure. Data extraction Two independent reviewers extracted study characteristics and maximally adjusted sex specific relative risks. Inverse variance weighted random effects meta-analysis was used to pool sex specific relative risks and their ratio. Results 30 studies with 4 371 714 participants were identified. Atrial fibrillation was associated with a higher risk of all cause mortality in women (ratio of relative risks for women compared with men 1.12, 95% confidence interval 1.07 to 1.17) and a significantly stronger risk of stroke (1.99, 1.46 to 2.71), cardiovascular mortality (1.93, 1.44 to 2.60), cardiac events (1.55, 1.15 to 2.08), and heart failure (1.16, 1.07 to 1.27). Results were broadly consistent in sensitivity analyses. Conclusion Atrial fibrillation is a stronger risk factor for cardiovascular disease and death in women compared with men, though further research would be needed to determine any causality.


Human intelligence is shaped by what is most important to us -- the things that cause ecstasy, despair, pleasure, pain, and other intense emotions. The ability to separate the important from the unimportant underlies such faculties as attention, focusing, situation and outcome assessment, priority setting, judgment, taste, goal selection, credit assignment, the selection of relevant memories and precedents, and learning from experience. AI has for the most part focused on logic and reasoning in artificial situations where only relevant variables and operators are specified and has paid insufficient attention to processes of reducing the richness and disorganization of the real world to a form where logical reasoning can be applied. This article discusses the role of importance judgment in intelligence; provides some examples of research that make use of importance judgments; and offers suggestions for new mechanisms, architectures, applications, and research directions for AI.


A homomorphism from an oriented graph $G$ to an oriented graph $H$ is a mapping $\varphi$ from the set of vertices of $G$ to the set of vertices of $H$ such that $\overrightarrow{\varphi(u)\varphi(v)}$ is an arc in $H$ whenever $\overrightarrow{uv}$ is an arc in $G$. The oriented chromatic index of an oriented graph $G$ is the minimum number of vertices in an oriented graph $H$ such that there exists a homomorphism from the line digraph $LD(G)$ of $G$ to $H$ (Recall that $LD(G)$ is given by $V(LD(G))=A(G)$ and $ \overrightarrow{ab}\in A(LD(G))$ whenever $a=\overrightarrow{uv}$ and $b=\overrightarrow{vw}$). We prove that every oriented subcubic graph has oriented chromatic index at most $7$ and construct a subcubic graph with oriented chromatic index $6$.


The past decade has seen an extraordinarily intense period of experimentation with computer technology within the performing arts. Digital media has been increasingly incorporated into live theater and dance, and new forms of interactive performance have emerged in participatory installations, on CD-ROM, and on the Web. In Digital Performance, Steve Dixon traces the evolution of these practices, presents detailed accounts of key practitioners and performances, and analyzes the theoretical, artistic, and technological contexts of this form of new media art. Dixon finds precursors to today's digital performances in past forms of theatrical technology that range from the deus ex machina of classical Greek drama to Wagner's Gesamtkunstwerk (concept of the total artwork), and draws parallels between contemporary work and the theories and practices of Constructivism, Dada, Surrealism, Expressionism, Futurism, and multimedia pioneers of the twentieth century. For a theoretical perspective on digital performance, Dixon draws on the work of Philip Auslander, Walter Benjamin, Roland Barthes, Jean Baudrillard, and others. To document and analyze contemporary digital performance practice, Dixon considers changes in the representation of the body, space, and time. He considers virtual bodies, avatars, and digital doubles, as well as performances by artists including Stelarc, Robert Lepage, Merce Cunningham, Laurie Anderson, Blast Theory, and Eduardo Kac. He investigates new media's novel approaches to creating theatrical spectacle, including virtual reality and robot performance work, telematic performances in which remote locations are linked in real time, Webcams, and online drama communities, and considers the "extratemporal" illusion created by some technological theater works. Finally, he defines categories of interactivity, from navigational to participatory and collaborative. Dixon challenges dominant theoretical approaches to digital performance -- including what he calls postmodernism's denial of the new -- and offers a series of boldly original arguments in their place.


Preventive maintenance schedules occurring in industry are often suboptimal with regard to maintenance coal-location, loss-of-production costs and availability. We describe the implementation and deployment of a software decision support tool for the maintenance planning of gas turbines, with the goal of reducing the direct maintenance costs and the often costly production losses during maintenance downtime. The optimization problem is formally defined, and we argue that the feasibility version is NP-complete. We outline a heuristic algorithm that can quickly solve the problem for practical purposes and validate the approach on a real-world scenario based on an oil production facility. We also compare the performance of our algorithm with results from using integer programming, and discuss the deployment of the application. The experimental results indicate that downtime reductions up to 65% can be achieved, compared to traditional preventive maintenance. In addition, the use of our tool is expected to improve availability with up to 1% and reduce the number of planned maintenance days by 12%. Compared to a integer programming approach, our algorithm is not optimal, but is much faster and produces results which are useful in practice. Our test results and SIT AB's estimates based< on operational use both indicate that significant savings can be achieved by using our software tool, compared to maintenance plans with fixed intervals.


The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) agreement, now in negotiation among nine Asia-Pacific countries, could yield annual global income gains of $295 billion (including $78 billion for the United States) and offers a pathway to free trade in the Asia-Pacific with potential gains of $1.9 trillion. The TPP is a crucial step on what is becoming a "Trans-Pacific track" of trade agreements, and its expected template promises to be unusually productive because it offers opportunities for the leading sectors of emerging-market and advanced economies. A parallel pathway that the authors call the "Asian track" includes agreements centered on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), negotiations among China, Japan, and Korea, and proposals for pan-Asian free trade areas. Both the TPP and Asian tracks are large, positive-sum projects that would yield substantial net gains. Asian templates prepare the ground for cooperation by addressing primarily goods liberalization, but the TPP is likely to go further by liberalizing sectors important in both emerging-market and advanced economies (such as services and technology), thus expanding opportunities for trade between them. Together, the TPP and Asian tracks are a dynamic process—an example of competitive liberalization—that could consolidate the "noodle bowl" of existing trade agreements and lead to a Free Trade Area of the Asia Pacific (FTAAP). A comprehensive agreement among all major Asia-Pacific economies does not appear to be feasible in the current macroeconomic and political context but hopefully will become more acceptable in the future. An ambitious TPP template would generate greater benefits from integration than less demanding alternatives, but it will be harder to sell to China and other key regional partners as the TPP evolves toward wider agreements. The importance of Asia-Pacific integration argues for an early conclusion of the TPP negotiations, without jeopardizing the prospects for region-wide or even global agreements based on it in the future.


This book provides the most advanced, comprehensive, and balanced coverage on the market of the technical and engineering aspects of automated production systems. It covers all the major cutting-edge technologies of production automation and material handling, and how these technologies are used to construct modern manufacturing systems. Manufacturing Operations; Industrial Control Systems; Sensors, Actuators, and Other Control System Components; Numerical Control; Industrial Robotics; Discrete Control Using Programmable Logic Controllers and Personal Computers; Material Transport Systems; Storage Systems; Automatic Data Capture; Single Station Manufacturing Cells; Group Technology and Cellular Manufacturing; Flexible Manufacturing Systems; Manual Assembly Lines; Transfer Lines and Similar Automated Manufacturing Systems; Automated Assembly Systems; Statistical Process Control; Inspection Principles and Practices; Inspection Technologies; Product Design and CAD/CAM in the Production System; Process Planning and Concurrent Engineering; Production Planning and Control Systems; and Lean Production and Agile Manufacturing. For anyone interested in Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing.


Most books on karate usually do not provide complete, detailed instructions and illustrations-the fundamentals plus the fine points-that readers hope for. This book fills the gaps left by others. The late Master Masatoshi Nakayama, chief instructor of the Japan Karate Association, left this book as a testament. It reveals his great experience as a karate competitor and teacher, describing and illustrating in detail all the correct movements involved in the particular block, punch, or kick you want to perfect, as well as instructions--on combining blocking techniques with decisive counterattacks. Also included is a glossary of all Japanese karate terms and a guide to their pronunciation. Because of the lightning speed of karate techniques, normal camera work often fails to record the action accurately. For this reason, many of the photo sequences found in Dynamic Karate were taken using a stroboscope with a flash time of 1/10,000 of a second, enabling you to follow each movement as it is actually performed.


The occasion of the first Martin Luther King Jr. Day Speech at Lewis and Clark Law School, following on the heels of the Supreme Court's rejection of two voluntary racial school integration plans, warrants revisiting the conception of equality that called for school integration, the prospects for equal opportunity without education, and remaining arguments for integration. "Integration" here means more than terminating legally-enforced segregation, and more than sheer mixing of people with different races and identities in the same setting. As Dr. King described it, integration involves the creation of a community of relationships among people who view one another as valuable, who take pride in one another's contributions, and who know that commonalities and synergies outweigh any extra efforts that bridging differences may require. Before the disillusionment accompanying the apparent failure of judicially-mandated school integration, integration was inseparable from access to opportunity as a goal of civil rights reformers from the 19th century through the middle of the 20th. W. E. B. DuBois and Martin Luther King, Jr. separately emphasized that racially separate instruction by teachers who believe in their students' capacities would be better than racially-mixed instruction by teachers who disparaged African-American children - but integration would be still better. Opposition to court-ordered desegregation remedies and judicial retreat occurred just as approval of racial mixing and even integration succeeded as cultural and political ideals. Current educational wisdom identifies strategies for equal educational opportunity apart from integration. These include curricular and academic supports that demand high standards, prepare minority students to achieve in a sometimes hostile world, and craft for each student the social identity of an achiever who is a member of a community of learners. Focused school reforms aligning the curriculum with standards, more "time-on-task" with longer school days, initiatives to recruit and support effective teachers, and shifts in school finance guided by standards of adequate education and comparable opportunities can mitigate the disparities still associated with racially distinct school communities. But as even the good arguments for socioeconomic integration reveal, failure to pursue racial integration - including efforts to create truly inclusive communities of mutual respect - can recreate racial segregation through tracking, special education assignments, and students' own divisions in lunch tables and cliques. Racial integration informed by the demographic changes making this a multicultural and multi-racial society remains a distinctive goal apart from other efforts to ensure equal educational opportunities. Justice Kennedy's separate opinion in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 along with the four dissenters create a fragile majority that would permit school systems and housing developers to local schools with the aim of encouraging racial integration, to develop programs designed to attract racially diverse groups of students, and to hold meetings and recruitment efforts to attract diverse groups of students and teachers. Contrary to the Court's majority opinion, pretending to have achieved color-blind as well as open opportunity - when we have not - disables individuals and communities from understanding what is going on and from becoming equipped to deal with it. In addition to the strategies for integration left open, families and students can choose integrated schools by their residential choices and by making their own lives look like the high-concept ads celebrating integration.


Anecdotes from the Convention continue to inform contemporary discussions on the Constitution's meaning. This article discusses an anecdote from the Convention that shows how history and false history shape our laws and cultural traditions.The article focuses on Benjamin Franklin's proposal to hire a chaplain and begin each day with a prayer. The Convention deputies showed little interest in the proposal, and it died aborning. However, decades later, a fictional version emerged in which Franklin's proposal succeeded and saved the Convention from collapse.The factual and mythical Franklin prayer narratives offer us the opportunity to examine their history and rhetorical use in arguing for integrating religion into America's public life. This examination also offers the opportunity to reflect on how advocates can use history to fashion a persuasive argument. The history of the narrative demonstrates how writers, government officials, lawyers, and judges have employed it to further their own purposes. As for the continuing popularity of the story, Franklin and the archetype he personifies play a critical role in making the narrative persuasive. And as the narrative shows, histories, both factual and mythical, can support persuasive narrative arguments.


Knowledge compilation is a common technique for propo- sitional logic knowledge bases. A given knowledge base is transformed into a normal form, for which queries can be answered eciently. This precompilation step is expensive, but it only has to be performed once. We apply this technique to concepts dened in the Description Logic ALC. We introduce a normal form called linkless normal form for ALC concepts and discuss an ecient satisability test for concepts given in this normal form. Furthermore, we will show how to eciently calculate uniform interpolants of precompiled concepts w.r.t. a given signature.


When a girl becomes pregnant her present and future change radically and rarely for the better. Pregnancy before a girl is physically developmentally and socially ready jeopardizes her right to a safe successful transition into adulthood. This publication presents strategic thinking and reviews the best available evidence on effective strategies and interventions to empower girls and reduce their vulnerability to adolescent pregnancy. Drawing from the evaluated evidence it provides guidance on how to implement effective programmes that operate at multiple levels and with multiple stakeholders including and most importantly with the adolescent girl.


Larvae of Cx.pipiens coocurred with Cladocera, but the latter established delayed in time. Biotope structure influenced time of species occurrence with ponds at reed-covered wetlands favouring crustacean development, while ponds at grassland biotopes favoured colonization by mosquito larvae. The mechanisms driving the negative effect of crustaceans on mosquito larvae were investigated within an experiment under artificial conditions. Crustacean communities were found to reduce both oviposition and larval development of Cx.pipiens. Crustacean communities of high taxa diversity, including both predatory and competing crustaceans, were more effective compared with crustacean communities dominated by single taxa. Presence of crustacean communities characterised by high taxa diversity increased the sensitivity of Cx.pipiens larvae towards Bti and prolonged the time of recolonization. In a final step the combined approach, using Bti and crustaceans, was evaluated under field conditions. The joint application of Bti and crustaceans was found to reduce mosquito larval populations over the whole observation period, while single application of Bti caused only short-term reduction of mosquito larvae. Single application of crustaceans had no significant effect, because high abundances of prior established mosquito larvae impeded propagation of crustaceans. At combined treatment, mosquito larvae were reduced by Bti application and hence crustaceans were able to proliferate without disturbance by interspecific competition. In conclusion, natural competitors were found to have a strong negative impact on mosquito larval populations. However, a time span of about 2 weeks has to be bridged, before crustacean communities reached a level sufficient for mosquito control. Results of a combined approach, complementing the short-term effect of the biological insecticide Bti with the long-term effect of crustaceans, were promising. Using natural competitors within an integrated control strategy could be an important tool for an effective, environmentally friendly and sustainable mosquito management.


This article is a comprehensive empirical study of class action settlements in federal court. Although there have been prior empirical studies of federal class action settlements, these studies have either been confined to securities cases or have been based on samples of cases that were not intended to be representative of the whole (such as those settlements approved in published opinions). By contrast, in this article, I attempt to study every federal class action settlement from the years 2006 and 2007. As far as I am aware, this study is the first attempt to collect a complete set of federal class action settlements for any given year. I find that district court judges approved 688 class action settlements over this two-year period, involving nearly $33 billion. Of this $33 billion, roughly $5 billion was awarded to class action lawyers, or about 15 percent of the total. Most judges chose to award fees by using the highly discretionary percentage-of-the-settlement method, and the fees awarded according to this method varied over a broad range, with a mean and median around 25 percent. Fee percentages were strongly and inversely associated with the size of the settlement. The age of the case at settlement was positively associated with fee percentages. There was some variation in fee percentages depending on the subject matter of the litigation and the geographic circuit in which the district court was located, with lower percentages in securities cases and in settlements from the Second and Ninth Circuits. There was no evidence that fee percentages were associated with whether the class action was certified as a settlement class or with the political affiliation of the judge who made the award.