In recent years, the Supreme Court's use of the Federalist Papers has received much scholarly attention, but no analysis has focused on the Court's use of Publius' lesser-known sibling, the Anti-Federalist Papers. This Article undertakes the first systematic analysis of the Court's use of the Anti-Federalist Papers and concludes that the Supreme Court has misused the Anti-Federalist Papers as a source of original meaning by treating all Anti-Federalist Papers alike when they are actually of differing historical value. Increasingly, the Court treats little-read Anti-Federalist Papers written by unknown authors identically to the widely reprinted writings of those Anti-Federalists present at the Constitutional Convention and prominent in the ratifying debates. The Court's confusion of availability with authority is not unique to the Anti-Federalist Papers. Rather, this confusion represents an under- examined pitfall in the process of canon formation: the dangers of increased availability. In 1981, Herbert Storing published a "complete" volume of Anti-Federalist Papers, including many little-known Papers with relatively low historical impact. Almost immediately, members of the Court cited many of these marginal papers alongside the words of prominent founders, confusing contemporary availability for jurisprudential authority. Storing's 1981 publication effectively served as a controlled experiment: documents which were uncirculated for two centuries were suddenly made widely available in a single volume. Studying the impact of the publication of these documents and the uses to which these documents were put provides insight into the larger challenges posed by increased availability in the modern era. This Article uses the Anti-Federalist Papers as a case study for examining three unrecognized dangers which arise from increased availability, which it labels flattening, cherry-picking, and snowballing. Each of these dangers is illustrated with an example from the Court's use of the Anti-Federalist Papers. This Article then examines two other circumstances where the dangers of availability have been realized: the cherry-picking of IRS private revenue rulings and the snowballing of unpublished opinions. As electronic databases continue to proliferate and information thus becomes more easily available, the dangers of availability will continue to grow. This Article concludes by proposing ways that scholars, judges, and lawyers can avoid the dangers of availability.


Two-level domain decomposition preconditioner for 3D flows in anisotropic highly heterogeneous porous media is presented. Accurate finite volume discretization based on multipoint flux approximation (MPFA) for 3D pressure equation is employed to account for the jump discontinuities of full permeability tensors. DD/MG type preconditioner for above mentioned problem is developed. Coarse scale operator is obtained from a homogenization type procedure. The influence of the overlapping as well as the influence of the smoother and cell problem formulation is studied. Results from numerical experiments are presented and discussed.


Refactoring is the process of applying behavior-preserving transformations to a program with the objective of improving the program's design. A specific refactoring is identified by a name (e.g., Extract Method), a set of preconditions, and a set of specific transformations that need to be performed.
 Tool support for refactoring is highly desirable because checking the preconditions for a given refactoring often requires nontrivial program analysis, and applying the transformations may affect many locations throughout a program. In recent years, the emergence of light-weight programming methodologies such as Extreme Programming has generated a great amount of interest in refactoring, and refactoring support has become a required feature in modern-day IDEs.
 Until recently, there has not been a suitable forum for discussions among researchers and developers of such tools. Our prior refactoring tools workshops (initially at ECOOP 2007, then at OOPSLA 2008) clearly met a need, and there was strong interest expressed in holding a follow-on workshop. This workshop features both presentations given by developers and researchers in the field of refactoring, as well as demonstrations of practical refactoring tools.


Abstract. We use the GEOS-Chem global 3-D chemistry transport model to investigate the relative importance of chemical and physical processes that determine observed variability of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the troposphere and lower stratosphere. Consequently, we reconcile ground-based FTIR column measurements of HCN, which show annual and semi-annual variations, with recent space-borne measurements of HCN mixing ratio in the tropical lower stratosphere, which show a large two-year variation. We find that the observed column variability over the ground-based stations is determined by a superposition of HCN from several regional burning sources, with GEOS-Chem reproducing these column data with a positive bias of 5%. GEOS-Chem reproduces the observed HCN mixing ratio from the Microwave Limb Sounder and the Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment satellite instruments with a mean negative bias of 20%, and the observed HCN variability with a mean negative bias of 7%. We show that tropical biomass burning emissions explain most of the observed HCN variations in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS), with the remainder due to atmospheric transport and HCN chemistry. In the mid and upper stratosphere, atmospheric dynamics progressively exerts more influence on HCN variations. The extent of temporal overlap between African and other continental burning seasons is key in establishing the apparent bienniel cycle in the UTLS. Similar analysis of other, shorter-lived trace gases have not observed the transition between annual and bienniel cycles in the UTLS probably because the signal of inter-annual variations from surface emission has been diluted before arriving at the lower stratosphere (LS), due to shorter atmospheric lifetimes.


Using the simple, robust, Python-based Django framework, you can build powerful Web solutions with remarkably few lines of code. In Python Web Development with Django, three experienced Django and Python developers cover all the techniques, tools, and concepts you need to make the most of Django 1.0, including all the major features of the new release. The authors teach Django through in-depth explanations, plus provide extensive sample code supported with images and line-by-line explanations. Youll discover how Django leverages Pythons development speed and flexibility to help you solve a wide spectrum of Web development problems and learn Django best practices covered nowhere else. Youll build your first Django application in just minutes and deepen your real-world skills through start-to-finish application projects including Simple Web log (blog) Online photo gallery Simple content management system Ajax-powered live blogger Online source code sharing/syntax highlighting tool How to run your Django applications on the Google App Engine This complete guide starts by introducing Python, Django, and Web development concepts, then dives into the Django framework, providing a deep understanding of its major components (models, views, templates), and how they come together to form complete Web applications. After a discussion of four independent working Django applications, coverage turns to advanced topics, such as caching, extending the template system, syndication, admin customization, and testing. Valuable reference appendices cover using the command-line, installing and configuring Django, development tools, exploring existing Django applications, the Google App Engine, and how to get more involved with the Django community. Introduction 1 Part I: Getting Started Chapter 1: Practical Python for Django 7 Chapter 2: Django for the Impatient: Building a Blog 57 Chapter 3: Starting Out 77 Part II: Django in Depth Chapter 4: Defining and Using Models 89 Chapter 5: URLs, HTTP Mechanisms, and Views 117 Chapter 6: Templates and Form Processing 135 Part III: Django Applications by Example Chapter 7: Photo Gallery 159 Chapter 8: Content Management System 181 Chapter 9: Liveblog 205 Chapter 10: Pastebin 221 Part IV: Advanced Django Techniques and Features Chapter 11: Advanced Django Programming 235 Chapter 12: Advanced Django Deployment 261 Part V: Appendices Appendix A: Command Line Basics 285 Appendix B: Installing and Running Django 295 Appendix C: Tools for Practical Django Development 313 Appendix D: Finding, Evaluating, and Using Django Applications 321 Appendix E: Django on the Google App Engine 325 Appendix F: Getting Involved in the Django Project 337 Index 339 Colophon 375


Abstract Objectives: To investigate the claim that 90% of episodes of low back pain that present to general practice have resolved within one month. Design: Prospective study of all adults consulting in general practice because of low back pain over 12 months with follow up at 1 week, 3 months, and 12 months after consultation. Setting: Two general practices in south Manchester. Subjects: 490 subjects (203 men, 287 women) aged 18-75 years. Main outcome measures: Proportion of patients who have ceased to consult with low back pain after 3 months; proportion of patients who are free of pain and back related disability at 3 and 12 months. Results: Annual cumulative consultation rate among adults in the practices was 6.4%. Of the 463 patients who consulted with a new episode of low back pain, 275 (59%) had only a single consultation, and 150 (32%) had repeat consultations confined to the 3 months after initial consultation. However, of those interviewed at 3 and 12 months follow up, only 39/188 (21%) and 42/170 (25%) respectively had completely recovered in terms of pain and disability. Conclusions: The results are consistent with the interpretation that 90% of patients with low back pain in primary care will have stopped consulting with symptoms within three months. However most will still be experiencing low back pain and related disability one year after consultation. Key messages It is widely believed that 90% of episodes of low back pain seen in general practice resolve within one month In a large population based study we examined the outcome of episodes of low back pain in general practice with respect to both consultation behaviour and self reported pain and disability While 90% of subjects consulting general practice with low back pain ceased to consult about the symptoms within three months, most still had substantial low back pain and related disability Only 25% of the patients who consulted about low back pain had fully recovered 12 months later Since most consulters continue to have long term low back pain and disability, effective early treatment could reduce the burden of these symptoms and their social, economic, and medical impact


A common format for data files and exchange medium used for the interchange of various types of fault, test, or simulation data for electrical power systems is defined. Sources of transient data are described, and the case of diskettes as an exchange medium is recommended. Issues of sampling rates, filters, and sample rate conversions for transient data being exchanged are discussed. Files for data exchange are specified, as is the organization of the data. A sample file is given.


Consistent, high-quality coding standards improve software quality, reduce time-to-market, promote teamwork, eliminate time wasted on inconsequential matters, and simplify maintenance. Now, two of the world's most respected C++ experts distill the rich collective experience of the global C++ community into a set of coding standards that every developer and development team can understand and use as a basis for their own coding standards.The authors cover virtually every facet of C++ programming: design and coding style, functions, operators, class design, inheritance, construction/destruction, copying, assignment, namespaces, modules, templates, genericity, exceptions, STL containers and algorithms, and more. Each standard is described concisely, with practical examples. From type definition to error handling, this book presents C++ best practices, including some that have only recently been identified and standardized-techniques you may not know even if you've used C++ for years. Along the way, you'll find answers to questions like What's worth standardizing-and what isn't? What are the best ways to code for scalability? What are the elements of a rational error handling policy? How (and why) do you avoid unnecessary initialization, cyclic, and definitional dependencies? When (and how) should you use static and dynamic polymorphism together? How do you practice "safe" overriding? When should you provide a no-fail swap? Why and how should you prevent exceptions from propagating across module boundaries? Why shouldn't you write namespace declarations or directives in a header file? Why should you use STL vector and string instead of arrays? How do you choose the right STL search or sort algorithm? What rules should you follow to ensure type-safe code?Whether you're working alone or with others, C++ Coding Standards will help you write cleaner code-and write it faster, with fewer hassles and less frustration.


Abstract
 Bite marks and injuries caused by intraspecific predation or aggressive social behavior are uncommon in fossil vertebrates, and in the fossil record of suchian archosaurs they are extremely unusual. A peirosaurid crocodyliform collected from the Upper Cretaceous beds of the Neuquén Group (northern Patagonia, Argentina) shows abundant bite marks and injuries. These injuries are spread across all the preserved parts of the specimen, with the highest concentration of bite marks, perforations and breakage in the caudal region. Characteristics of these injuries are analyzed, and their possible origin and related taphonomic aspects are assessed. Results indicate that the injuries were not produced by intraspecific fighting, but probably by the predating action of a theropod dinosaur.


Humans are no longer spectators who need to adapt to their natural environment. Our impact on the earth has caused changes that are outside the range of natural variability and are equivalent to such major geological disruptions as ice ages. Some scientists argue that we have entered a new epoch in planetary history: the Anthropocene. In such an era of planet-wide transformation, we need a new model for planet-wide environmental politics. In this book, Frank Biermann proposes "earth system" governance as just such a new paradigm. Biermann offers both analytical and normative perspectives. He provides detailed analysis of global environmental politics in terms of five dimensions of effective governance: agency, particularly agency beyond that of state actors; architecture of governance, from local to global levels; accountability and legitimacy; equitable allocation of resources; and adaptiveness of governance systems. Biermann goes on to offer a wide range of policy proposals for future environmental governance and a revitalized United Nations, including the establishment of a World Environment Organization and a UN Sustainable Development Council, new mechanisms for strengthened representation of civil society and scientists in global decision making, innovative systems of qualified majority voting in multilateral negotiations, and novel institutions to protect those impacted by global change. Drawing on ten years of research, Biermann formulates earth system governance as an empirical reality and a political necessity.


Using a dataset containing nearly 500,000 courses taken by over 40,000 community and technical college students in Washington State, this study examines how well students adapt to the online environment in terms of their ability to persist and earn strong grades in online courses relative to their ability to do so in face-to-face courses. While all types of students in the study suffered decrements in performance in online courses, some struggled more than others to adapt: males, younger students, Black students, and students with lower grade point averages. In particular, students struggled in subject areas such as English and social science, which was due in part to negative peer effects in these online courses.


This paper concerns multistage games, with and without discounting, in which each player can increase the level of an action over time so as to increase the other players' future payoffs. An action profile is said to be achievable if it is the limit point of a subgame perfect equilibrium path. Necessary conditions are derived for achievability under relatively general conditions. They imply that any efficient profile that is approximately achievable must be in the core of the underlying coalitional game. In some but not all games with discounting, the necessary conditions for achievability are also sufficient for a profile to be the limit of achievable profiles as the period length shrinks to zero. Consequently, in these games when the period length is very short, (i) the set of achievable profiles does not depend on the move structure; (ii) an efficient profile can be approximately achieved if and only if it is in the core; and (iii) any achievable profile can be achieved almost instantly.


Emission of bromine from sea‐salt aerosol, frost flowers, ice leads, and snow results in the nearly complete removal of surface ozone during Arctic spring. Regions of enhanced total column BrO observed by satellites have traditionally been associated with these emissions. However, airborne measurements of BrO and O3 within the convective boundary layer (CBL) during the ARCTAS and ARCPAC field campaigns at times bear little relation to enhanced column BrO. We show that the locations of numerous satellite BrO "hotspots" during Arctic spring are consistent with observations of total column ozone and tropopause height, suggesting a stratospheric origin to these regions of elevated BrO. Tropospheric enhancements of BrO large enough to affect the column abundance are also observed, with important contributions originating from above the CBL. Closure of the budget for total column BrO, albeit with significant uncertainty, is achieved by summing observed tropospheric partial columns with calculated stratospheric partial columns provided that natural, short‐lived biogenic bromocarbons supply between 5 and 10 ppt of bromine to the Arctic lowermost stratosphere. Proper understanding of bromine and its effects on atmospheric composition requires accurate treatment of geographic variations in column BrO originating from both the stratosphere and troposphere.


Beginning R: An Introduction to Statistical Programming is a hands-on book showing how to use the R language, write and save R scripts, build and import data files, and write your own custom statistical functions. R is a powerful open-source implementation of the statistical language S, which was developed by AT&T. R has eclipsed S and the commercially-available S-Plus language, and has become the de facto standard for doing, teaching, and learning computational statistics. R is both an object-oriented language and a functional language that is easy to learn, easy to use, and completely free. A large community of dedicated R users and programmers provides an excellent source of R code, functions, and data sets. R is also becoming adopted into commercial tools such as Oracle Database. Your investment in learning R is sure to pay off in the long term as R continues to grow into the go to language for statistical exploration and research. Covers the freely-available R language for statistics Shows the use of R in specific uses case such as simulations, discrete probability solutions, one-way ANOVA analysis, and more Takes a hands-on and example-based approach incorporating best practices with clear explanations of the statistics being done What youll learn Acquire and install R Import and export data and scripts Generate basic statistics and graphics Program in R to write custom functions Use R for interactive statistical explorations Implement simulations and other advanced techniques Who this book is for Beginning R: An Introduction to Statistical Programming is an easy-to-read book that serves as an instruction manual and reference for working professionals, professors, and students who want to learn and use R for basic statistics. It is the perfect book for anyone needing a free, capable, and powerful tool for exploring statistics and automating their use. Table of ContentsPart I. Learning the R Language 1. Getting R and Getting Started 2. Programming in R 3. Writing Reusable Functions 4. Summary Statistics Part II. Using R for Descriptive Statistics 5. Creating Tables and Graphs 6. Discrete Probability Distributions 7. Computing Standard Normal Probabilities Part III. Using R for Inferential Statistics 8. Creating Confidence Intervals 9. Performing t Tests 10. Implementing One-Way ANOVA 11. Implementing Advanced ANOVA 12. Simple Correlation and Regression in R 13. Multiple Correlation and Regression in R 14. Logistic Regression 15. Performing Chi-Square Tests 16. Working in Nonparametric Statistics Part IV. Taking R to the Next Level 17. Using R for Simulation 18. Resampling and Bootstrapping 19. Creating R Packages 20. Executing R Packages


The central argument is that methods are designed with aims in mind, and are determined by one's worldview and/or ontology and/or philosophical anthropology and/or views of scholarship. It is possible, and here shown by analysis of the methodology of William James, that obsession with a cause, driven by the elitist belief that my cause is for everybody's advantage, can take an ideological format (a formalistic ideology), in which case it would show tendencies to polarise. In the case of James the scientistic methodology takes as primary target Christianity's meekness and kindness as humanitarianly ineffective. But James suffers from the problem of intellectual solipsism: reading Christianity via abstract rationalist theology.


Let ${\cal G}_n$ denote the set of lattice paths from $(0,0)$ to $(n,n)$ with steps of the form $(i,j)$ where $i$ and $j$ are nonnegative integers, not both zero. Let ${\cal D}_n$ denote the set of paths in ${\cal G}_n$ with steps restricted to $(1,0),(0,1),(1,1)$, the so-called Delannoy paths. Stanley has shown that $| {\cal G}_n | =2^{n-1}|{\cal D}_n|$ and Sulanke has given a bijective proof. Here we give a simple statistic on ${\cal G}_n$ that is uniformly distributed over the $2^{n-1}$ subsets of $[n-1]=\{1,2,\ldots,n\}$ and takes the value $[n-1]$ precisely on the Delannoy paths.


Many state, county, and local agencies are faced with deteriorating bridge infrastructure composed of a large percentage of relatively short to medium span bridges. In many cases, these older structures are rolled or welded longitudinal steel stringers acting compositely with a reinforced concrete deck. Most of these bridges, although still in service, need some level of strengthening due to increases in legal live loads or loss of capacity due to deterioration. Although these bridges are overstressed in most instances, they do not warrant replacement; thus, structurally efficient but cost-effective means of strengthening needs to be employed. In the past, the use of bolted steel cover plates or angles was a common retrofit option for strengthening such bridges. However, the time and labor involved to attach such a strengthening system can sometimes be prohibitive. This project was funded through the Federal Highway Administration's Innovative Bridge Research and Construction program. The goal is to retrofit an existing structurally deficient, three-span continuous steel stringer bridge using an innovative technique that involves the application of post-tensioning forces; the post-tensioning forces were applied using fiber reinforced polymer post-tensioning bars. When compared to other strengthening methods, the use of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite materials is very appealing in that they are highly resistant to corrosion, have a low weight, and have a high tensile strength. Before the post-tensioning system was installed, a diagnostic load test was conducted on the subject bridge to establish a baseline behavior of the unstrengthened bridge. During the process of installing the post-tensioning hardware and stressing the system, both the bridge and the post-tensioning system were monitored. The installation of the hardware was followed by a follow-up diagnostic load test to assess the effectiveness of the post-tensioning strengthening system. Additional load tests were performed over a period of two years to identify any changes in the strengthening system with time. Laboratory testing of several typical carbon fiber reinforced polymer bar specimens was also conducted to more thoroughly understand their behavior. This report documents the design, installation, and field testing of the strengthening system and bridge.


"The Nixon campaign in 1968, and the Nixon White House after that, had two enemies: the antiwar left and black people...We knew we couldn't make it illegal to be either against the war or black, but by getting the public to associate the hippies with marijuana and blacks with heroin and then criminalizing both heavily, we could disrupt those communities. We could arrest their leaders, raid their homes, break up their meetings, and vilify them night after night in the evening news. Did we know we were lying about the drugs? Of course we did.."John Ehrlichman, Domestic Policy Chief for President Nixon9


Abstract I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind: it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science, whatever the matter may be. Lord Kelvin, Popular Lectures and Addresses , (1889), vol. 1, p. 73.


The Society provides these solutions to assist candidates preparing for the examinations in future years and for the information of any other persons using the examinations. The solutions should NOT be seen as "model answers". Rather, they have been written out in considerable detail and are intended as learning aids. Users of the solutions should always be aware that in many cases there are valid alternative methods. Also, in the many cases where discussion is called for, there may be other valid points that could be made. While every care has been taken with the preparation of these solutions, the Society will not be responsible for any errors or omissions. The Society will not enter into any correspondence in respect of these solutions.


Book synopsis: Today the majority of philosophers in the English-speaking world adhere to the "naturalist" credos that philosophy is continuous with science, and that the natural sciences provide a complete account of all that exists--whether human or nonhuman. The new faith says science, not man, is the measure of all things. However, there is a growing skepticism about the adequacy of this complacent orthodoxy. This volume presents a group of leading thinkers who criticize scientific naturalism not in the name of some form of supernaturalism, but in order to defend a more inclusive or liberal naturalism.

The many prominent Anglo-American philosophers appearing in this book--Akeel Bilgrami, Stanley Cavell, Donald Davidson, John Dupre, Jennifer Hornsby, Erin Kelly, John McDowell, Huw Price, Hilary Putnam, Carol Rovane, Barry Stroud, and Stephen White--do not march in lockstep, yet their contributions demonstrate mutual affinities and various unifying themes. Instead of attempting to force human nature into a restricted scientific image of the world, these papers represent an attempt to place human nature at the center of renewed--but still scientifically respectful--conceptions of philosophy and nature.


Motor vehicle and motor vehicle parts production plants tend to exhibit a strong degree of agglomeration. This paper estimates a spatial model utilizing detailed plant-level data that is pooled across seven countries in Europe. The paper makes several contributions. First, we assemble a set of nearly 1,800 European plant locations of the largest motor vehicle parts suppliers, as well as the location of all light vehicle assembly plants operational in 2010. Second, we obtain detailed spatial data – at a higher resolution than what is provided by the NUTS-3 regions – for five European countries (France, Spain, Italy, Poland, and the Czech Republic). For the U.K. (ward level) and Germany (community level) we acquired spatial data at an even more detailed level. These seven countries are home to over 70% of the plants in our data set. The ability to pool data from multiple countries allows us to estimate a location model for a large share of the vehicle parts industry, an industry that extends across all of Europe. The modeling results suggest that the main forces of agglomeration in the European auto supplier sector are (1) highway access (connecting supplier plants as well as suppliers and their downstream customers, the assembly plants), (2) the desire to locate near assembly plants, (3) as well as near other parts producing plants.


A review of:

Tsay, Migh-yueh, and Yen-hsu Yang. "Bibliometric Analysis of the Literature of Randomized Controlled Trials." Journal of the Medical Library Association 93.4 (October 2005): 450-58.
Objective – To explore the characteristics and distribution of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in the medical literature. The study aims to identify the growth patterns of the RCT, key subject matter, country and language of publication, and determine a list of core journals which contain a substantial proportion of the RCT literature.

Design – Retrospective analysis of RCTs.
Setting – Medical journal literature.

Subjects – A total of 160,213 articles published between 1965-2001. Detailed analysis of a subset numbering 114,850 articles published from 1990-2001.

Methods – The study seeks to identify all RCTs in MEDLINE from 1965-2001, and examines the growth rate of the RCT. The authors then do a more detailed analysis on a subset of data from 1990-2001, using Access database and Excel spreadsheet software, and PERL programming language. The references were analyzed by five fields within MEDLINE; publication type, source, language, country of publication, and descriptor (subject index).

Main results – An exponential growth rate for the RCT is demonstrated, suggesting that in the medical literature development has not yet matured and that research using this method continues to grow. A growth rate for the RCT of 11.2% per annum is identified.

The most common form of publication is the journal article, making up approximately 98% of the RCT literature. Approximately 75% of the RCTs are multicentre trials indicating that this is the design of choice adopted by researchers.

The United States proves to be the greatest source of RCT literature, with 39.9% of journals and 50.6% of articles originating there. After the USA, the most productive countries are England (15.8% of journals and 21.7% articles) and Germany (6.5% journals and 6.1% articles). As might be expected, English is the predominant language providing 92.9% of the total publications. Of the remaining 7%, German is the most common language accounting for 2.2%.

The top three areas being researched are:

1. Drug therapy for hypertension - 2291 citations
2. Anticancer drug combinations - 2140 citations
3. Drug therapy and asthma - 1397 citations
Bradford's law of scattering is successfully applied, identifying four zones of journals which each publish approximately 26,000 articles.
Conclusion – The results indicate that bibliometric methods can be applied to the medical literature, and highlight those disciplines in which RCTs more often occur. A core list of 42 journal titles is presented, providing busy practitioners with invaluable guidance as to which journals are most likely to publish the greater number of RCTs.


This paper rewrites the early history of Britain, showing that while the cultivation of cereals arrived there in about 4000 cal BC, it did not last. Between 3300 and 1500 BC Britons became largely pastoral, reverting only with a major upsurge of agricultural activity in the Middle Bronze Age. This loss of interest in arable farming was accompanied by a decline in population, seen by the authors as having a climatic impetus. But they also point to this period as the time of construction of the great megalithic monuments, including Stonehenge. We are left wondering whether pastoralism was all that bad, and whether it was one intrusion after another that set the agenda on the island.


INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE The following Coverage Policy applies to health benefit plans administered by Cigna Companies. Certain Cigna Companies and/or lines of business only provide utilization review services to clients and do not make coverage determinations. References to standard benefit plan language and coverage determinations do not apply to those clients. Coverage Policies are intended to provide guidance in interpreting certain standard benefit plans administered by Cigna Companies. Please note, the terms of a customer's particular benefit plan document [Group Service Agreement, Evidence of Coverage, Certificate of Coverage, Summary Plan Description (SPD) or similar plan document] may differ significantly from the standard benefit plans upon which these Coverage Policies are based. For example, a customer's benefit plan document may contain a specific exclusion related to a topic addressed in a Coverage Policy. In the event of a conflict, a customer's benefit plan document always supersedes the information in the Coverage Policies. In the absence of a controlling federal or state coverage mandate, benefits are ultimately determined by the terms of the applicable benefit plan document. Coverage determinations in each specific instance require consideration of 1) the terms of the applicable benefit plan document in effect on the date of service; 2) any applicable laws/regulations; 3) any relevant collateral source materials including Coverage Policies and; 4) the specific facts of the particular situation. Coverage Policies relate exclusively to the administration of health benefit plans. Coverage Policies are not recommendations for treatment and should never be used as treatment guidelines. In certain markets, delegated vendor guidelines may be used to support medical necessity and other coverage determinations.


This paper examines whether the labor market prospects of Arab men in England are influenced by recent Islamistic terrorist attacks and the war on Iraq. We use data from the British Labour Force Survey from Spring 2001 to Winter 2006 and treat the terrorist attacks on the USA on September 11th, 2001, the Madrid train bombings on March 11th, 2004 and the London bombings on July 7th, 2005, as well as the beginning of the war on Iraq on March 20th, 2003, as natural experiments possibly having led to a change in attitudes toward Arab or Muslim men. Using treatment group definitions based on ethnicity, country of birth, current nationality, and religion, evidence from regression-adjusted difference-in-differences-estimators indicates that the real wages, hours worked and employment probabilities of Arab men were unchanged by the attacks. This finding is in line with prior evidence from Europe.


Existing growth research provides little explanation for the very large differences in long-run growth performance across OECD countries. We show that cognitive skills can account for growth differences within the OECD, whereas a range of economic institutions and quantitative measures of tertiary education cannot. Under the growth model estimates and plausible projection parameters, school improvements falling within currently observed performance levels yield very large gains. The present value of OECD aggregate gains through 2090 could be as much as $275 trillion, or 13.8 percent of the discounted value of future GDP. Extensive sensitivity analyses indicate that, while differences between model frameworks and alternative parameter choices make a difference, the economic impact of improved educational outcomes remains enormous. Interestingly, the quantitative difference between an endogenous and neoclassical model framework – with improved skills affecting the long-run growth rate versus just the steady-state income level – matters less than academic discussions suggest. We close by discussing evidence on which education policy reforms may be able to bring about the simulated improvements in educational outcomes.


This essay explores an emerging issue in the criticism of the "bundle" conception of property: whether embracing the right to exclude as the core of property is sufficiently determinate to avoid the same disintegrating effects as the bundle conception. Thomas Merrill and Henry Smith believe so, and they have developed an extensive account of what I call the "exclusion conception of property." It is initially alluring as a solution to the problems caused by the bundle conception, but this is a false promise. Merrill and Smith are correct that the bundle conception is wrong, but their model of how the right to exclude functions in practice--what they call an "exclusion strategy"--cannot account for the substantial majority of property doctrines that are the subject of litigation. In practice, most property disputes arise not from intentional trespass and similar situations in which exclusion is the essential issue, but rather from ex ante relationships between individuals concerning the use, possession and disposition of property rights. Although Merrill and Smith claim that such doctrines are "governance strategies" that allegedly function only at the periphery of property law, these doctrines actually comprise the majority of property cases, including many trespass cases. Although trespass is supposed to represent the exclusion strategy par excellence, affirmative defenses and other counter-claims representing the so-called "governance strategies" often constitute the bulk of the actual litigation. Although the elegant reductionism of the exclusion conception makes it theoretically appealing, lawyers and economists should be wary of its promise of determinacy in saving property from the disintegrative effects of the bundle conception.


Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo is one of the outstanding vibrant feminist voices in Nigerian literature today. Her trilogy that started in 1996 was completed in 2002 with the publication of Children of the Eagle. In this novel she underscores the possible place, and role of umuada (women married out of a kin-group) and alutaradi (women married into a kin-group) in a quest to dismantle patriarchy in her Igboland. The novel interrogates patriarchal assumptions about women while pointing to hitherto uncelebrated facets of female panache and comportment in an otherwise unfavourable social and cultural matrix. In this essay, 'daughteronomy' refers to her dialogue with daughters married in and out of Umuga in Igboland and their enlistment in the struggle to topple male supremacy. Children of the Eagle fictionalises dimensions of what women know, expresses resistance to the male predispositions towards women while applying tropes that seek to foreground these imputations. Key words: "herstory"; Nigerian novel; Nigerian women writers; patriarchy.


"The computer world is like an intellectual Wild West, in which you can shoot anyone you wish with your ideas, if you're willing to risk the consequences. " --from Hackers & Painters: Big Ideas from the Computer Age, by Paul Graham We are living in the computer age, in a world increasingly designed and engineered by computer programmers and software designers, by people who call themselves hackers. Who are these people, what motivates them, and why should you care? Consider these facts: Everything around us is turning into computers. Your typewriter is gone, replaced by a computer. Your phone has turned into a computer. So has your camera. Soon your TV will. Your car was not only designed on computers, but has more processing power in it than a room-sized mainframe did in 1970. Letters, encyclopedias, newspapers, and even your local store are being replaced by the Internet. Hackers & Painters: Big Ideas from the Computer Age, by Paul Graham, explains this world and the motivations of the people who occupy it. In clear, thoughtful prose that draws on illuminating historical examples, Graham takes readers on an unflinching exploration into what he calls "an intellectual Wild West." The ideas discussed in this book will have a powerful and lasting impact on how we think, how we work, how we develop technology, and how we live. Topics include the importance of beauty in software design, how to make wealth, heresy and free speech, the programming language renaissance, the open-source movement, digital design, internet startups, and more.


Philip Bobbitt's remarkable work describing the 'modalities' of constitutional argument is an immense contribution to the study of constitutional law. He describes a typology of six forms of argument alive in our interpretive practice, and offers a limited account of how these modalities interact, and sometimes conflict, in actual constitutional decisions. One of the persistent puzzles Bobbitt's description leaves open, however, is how we should account for the choice between conflicting modalities in cases where that choice is likely outcome-determinative. Because the modalities are 'incommensurable' — a term's meaning in one modality may not be fully translatable into another — there is no internal way to justify the choice of one approach over another. Bobbitt ultimately concluded that such acts of 'decision' are the product of 'judicial conscience'; which some individuals possess (or exercise) to a greater degree than others.I have always felt that Bobbitt's resolution is probably correct, but still unsatisfying. I think we can do a little more to explain the processes of interpretive theory choice, even if those choices ultimately remain idiosyncratic and individual. To that end, I look to another account of choices made between incommensurable theories — that Thomas Kuhn gave in his work on scientific paradigm changes. Kuhn argued that, while no universal algorithm defines a 'correct' decision to adopt a new scientific paradigm, there are broadly shared choice criteria or 'values' that scientists regularly refer to when justifying their decisions. It is, Kuhn suggested, the scientist's willingness to discuss and explain these underlying value judgments that makes her approach 'scientific.'This paper attempts to apply some lessons from Kuhn's work to constitutional practice, particularly the choices we must make between Bobbitt's interpretive modalities in outcome determinative cases. I derive a list of four overlapping and sometimes competing 'constitutional values' — constraint, flexibility, representation, and identity — from texts in the constitutional canon. I look to the canon because it important that the values I identify are broadly shared, as that is what allows them to serve as a somewhat 'objective' set of choice criteria. That is, when we make an interpretive theory choice, we should justify it in terms of the purposes we widely believe the Constitution serves in our legal practice. I then speculate on the ways that underlying value judgments may have influenced interpretive theory choices in several Supreme Court opinions, and conclude that judges should be more transparent in acknowledging and defending these often obscure processes.


..................................................................................................................................................................... II DECLARATION BY AUTHOR ............................................................................................................................................ IV PUBLICATIONS DURING CANDIDATURE ........................................................................................................................... V PUBLICATIONS INCLUDED IN THIS THESIS ....................................................................................................................... V CONTRIBUTIONS BY OTHERS TO THE THESIS .................................................................................................................. VI STATEMENT OF PARTS OF THE THESIS SUBMITTED TO QUALIFY FOR THE AWARD OF ANOTHER DEGREE......................... VI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................................................. VII


A sample of 299 U.S. economics professors, presumably random, responded to our survey which asked favorites in the following areas: Economic thinkers (pre-twentieth century, twentieth century now deceased, living age 60 or older, living under age 60), economics journals, and economics blogs. First-place positions as favorite economist in their respective categories are Adam Smith (by far), John Maynard Keynes followed closely by Milton Friedman, Gary Becker, and Paul Krugman. For journals, the leaders are American Economic Review and Journal of Economic Perspectives. For blogs, the leaders are Greg Mankiw followed closely by Marginal Revolution (Tyler Cowen and Alex Tabarrok). The survey also asked party-voting and 17 policy-view questions, and we relate the political variables of respondents to their choice of favorites.


The tools of design research, writes Brenda Laurel, will allow designers "to claim and direct the power of their profession." Often neglected in the various curricula of design schools, the new models of design research described in this book help designers to investigate people, form, and process in ways that can make their work more potent and more delightful. "At the very least," Peter Lunenfeld writes in the preface, "design research saves us from reinventing the wheel. At its best, a lively research methodology can reinvigorate the passion that so often fades after designers join the profession." The goal of the book is to introduce designers to the many research tools that can be used to inform design as well as to ideas about how and when to deploy them effectively. The chapter authors come from diverse institutions and enterprises, including Stanford University, MIT, Intel, Maxis, Studio Anybody, Sweden's HUMlab, and Big Blue Dot. Each has something to say about how designers make themselves better at what they do through research, and illustrates it with real world examples -- case studies, anecdotes, and images. Topics of this multi-voice conversation include qualitative and quantitative methods, performance ethnography and design improvisation, trend research, cultural diversity, formal and structural research practice, tactical discussions of design research process, and case studies drawn from areas as unique as computer games, museum information systems, and movies. Interspersed throughout the book are one-page "demos," snapshots of the design research experience. Design Research charts the paths from research methods to research findings to design principles to design results and demonstrates the transformation of theory into a richly satisfying and more reliably successful practice.


The 2005 version of this Graduate Research Manual was joint winner of first prize as 'best induction manual' at the Annual Coordinators Day in November 2005.

The manual is addressed to Graduate Research candidates. You are a Graduate Research candidate if you are enrolled in a PhD, or a Master degree by research. Candidates enrolled in a Master degree by coursework, the Master of Information Technology, a Graduate Diploma, or an Honours year, are not Graduate Research candidates.

This manual should be read in conjunction with the University's Graduate Research Resource Book. You should have received a free copy of this publication when you enrolled. If you did not, you should obtain a current copy from the Graduate Research Unit in the Administration Building on the Hobart Campus, or from Student Administration in Launceston. It is also available on the Web for download or browsing at http://www.admin.utas.edu.au/HANDBOOKS/UTASHANDBOOKS/GR/01.html .

The Graduate Research Resource Book contains a comprehensive statement of official university policies and procedures with respect to postgraduate candidature and outlines the responsibilities of supervisors and candidates. It also contains important information about progress, variations in your enrolment, preparation of the thesis for examination, and guidelines for proper scientific conduct.

This manual is designed to inform you about additional policies and procedures in the School that are relevant to GR candidature. It also includes information about how to obtain access to School and University resources. It is not a substitute for the University Graduate Research Resource Book, though it attempts to summarize some of the policies in that handbook and make them more accessible. Nothing in this manual can over-ride a requirement of the Graduate Research Resource Book.


Sixty-two inner-city Canadian boys identified as struggling readers participated in a 22-week intervention that examined the effects of male reading tutors, computer-based texts, and choice of reading materials. Immediately after the intervention, boys demonstrated between-group changes to reader self-perceptions and gendered views of reading but no between-group differences in achievement. Two years after the intervention's completion, the boys' reading comprehension achievement scores were again examined and compared to 62 non-participating boys matched at the time of the study's onset. Results showed no significant differences between the two groups. Of the boys who participated in the intervention, working with male reading tutors and with computer-based texts did not result in higher achievement than working with female reading tutors or with print-based texts. However, boys who were not given a choice in their reading materials demonstrated reading achievement six months ahead of the boys who were given a choice.


The Supreme Court has been instrumental in defining legal rights and obligations pertaining to Indian lands since its first path-making decision in the field in Johnson v. McIntosh in 1823. But the groundwork for the Court's contemplation of such cases predates Supreme Court jurisprudence, and it in fact predates the formation of the Court and the United States itself. When Europeans first made contact with this continent, they encountered hundreds of indigenous, sovereign nations representing enormous diversity in terms of language, culture, religion, and governance. For those indigenous groups -- as is a common attribute of indignity of similarly situated indigenous groups around the world -- this land was and is holy land. Indigenous creation stories root Indian people in this continent -- Turtle Island to many -- as the focal point of life, creation, religion, culture, and language. In the settlement of the country, the colonial powers initially -- and the United States subsequently -- treated with Indian nations to negotiate the transfer of lands from Indians to Europeans, often in exchange for peace or protection.


Wendell Cox, Peter Gordon, and Christian Redfearn have commented on a paper of mine that gives evidence of a strong and large causal relationship between highway construction and central city population declines in the United States between 1950 and 1990. Cox, Gordon, and Redfearn are skeptical that the true causal relationship could be so large and argue that my results are not consistent with evidence from a sample of European cities. In addition, they argue that my paper relies too heavily on the monocentric land-use model to generate results. In this reply, I provide further evidence that my estimates are reasonable and do not rely in any way on monocentricity. Further, I show that Cox, Gordon, and Redfearn's analysis of European data is insufficient to conclude that a causal relationship between highway construction and population decentralization does not exist for European cities.


In this article, the authors share their experiences with the creation and implementation of an online self-paced information literacy instruction for graduate students of nursing.  Before You Write: Six Keys to success is a non-credit required online course attached to the Indiana University - Purdue University Fort Wayne (IPFW) graduate nursing program. The rationale behind the creation of the course was to help graduate students recognize areas where their information literacy skills may be lacking or have become outdated and provide them with tools to increase their proficiency, while still early in their first semester of the program. It consists of six self-paced modules with built in scenario based assessments. Before You Write was created, and is administered in, the university's learning management system, Blackboard.


Leading agent-based trust models address two important needs. First, they show how an agent may estimate the trustworthiness of another agent based on prior interactions. Second, they show how agents may share their knowledge in order to cooperatively assess the trustworthiness of others. However, in real-life settings, information relevant to trust is usually obtained piecemeal, not all at once. Unfortunately, the problem of maintaining trust has drawn little attention. Existing approaches handle trust updates in a heuristic, not a principled, manner.

This paper builds on a formal model that considers probability and certainty as two dimensions of trust. It proposes a mechanism using which an agent can update the amount of trust it places in other agents on an ongoing basis. This paper shows via simulation that the proposed approach (a) provides accurate estimates of the trustworthiness of agents that change behavior frequently; and (b) captures the dynamic behavior of the agents. This paper includes an evaluation based on a real dataset drawn from Amazon Marketplace, a leading e-commerce site.


This paper examines whether Socially Responsible Investment (SRI) Index constituent announcements have any impact on the returns of firms listing on the JSE SRI Index. The event study methodology is utilised to estimate abnormal returns for the firms included in the Index. The results indicate insignificant average abnormal returns (AARs) for the years 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009, suggesting no significant shareholder gains over the entire event window. However, the year 2005 is associated with positive and significant abnormal returns. Post announcement cumulative average abnormal returns (CAARs) are positive for the years 2005 and 2007. However, the year 2008 exhibited extreme swings in CAARs with a general declining trend in the latter part of the event window. These swings are attributed to the global financial crisis of 2008. Furthermore, the cumulative returns for the total sample show no clear outperformance of the SRI over the JSE All Share Index.


In the present work, "Raman/Rayleigh scattering and CO-LIF measurements in laminar and turbulent jet flames of dimethyl ether using a hybrid data reduction strategy", the development of a hybrid data reduction strategy for spectroscopic, laser-based measurements of combustion products and reactants in laminar and turbulent flames of distinct fuels is presented.

The objective of this thesis was to merge two existing data evaluation procedures into a hybrid method to take advantage of the strengths of each method. Subsequently, the developed strategy had to be extended to provide flexibility for the investigated fuel.

The following main topics were addressed:
Measurement data were taken in close cooperation with the Combustion Research Facility, Sandia National Laboratories, in Livermore, California, to provide the base for quantitative comparison of both distinct data reduction processes. For that purpose, the method "Spectral Fitting" used at the Institute Reactive Flows and Diagnostics, was adapted on the special characteristics of the experimental setup in Livermore and was used to evaluate the data. At the same time, the "Hybrid method" was developed from combining of the Spectral Fitting with the "Matrix inversion" method from Livermore. In this, the quantum mechanical models essential in the Spectral fitting for the calculation of spectroscopic characteristics of the measured molecules were adopted for the Matrix inversion method to reduce extensive calibrations and measurement uncertainties. Subsequently, during a two-month research stay in Livermore, the results of all three methods were compared and discussed. Meanwhile, new measurement data were taken to study the combustion of complexer hydrocarbons beyond methane (dimethyl ether, ethylene, ethane, propane). After the research stay, new strategies had to be developed to allow for the data evaluation of the aforementioned fuels.

The hybrid method was validated experimentally by well-known measurement objects. With the aid of numerical combustion simulation tools, new strategies for evaluating the measured Raman/Rayleigh scattering of hydrocarbons beyond methane were developed. Then, these were validated in laminar jet flames of dimethyl ether. First test measurements in turbulent dimethyl ether flames were performed, and also with the new method evaluated and presented.


http://gut.bmj.com/content/59/3/282.full.html Updated information and services can be found at: These include: References http://gut.bmj.com/content/59/3/282.full.html#ref-list-1 This article cites 37 articles, 9 of which can be accessed free at: service Email alerting box at the top right corner of the online article. Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article. Sign up in the Notes


The massacre of almost 50 Maidan protesters on February 20, 2014 was a turning point in Ukrainian politics and a tipping point in the conflict between the West and Russia over Ukraine. This mass killing of the protesters and the mass shooting of the police that preceded it led to the overthrow of the pro-Russian government of Viktor Yanukovych and gave a start to a civil war in Donbas in Eastern Ukraine, Russian military intervention in Crimea and Donbas, and an international conflict between the West and Russia over Ukraine. A conclusion promoted by the post-Yanukovych governments and the media in Ukraine that the massacre was perpetrated by government snipers and special police units on a Yanukovych order has been nearly universally accepted by the Western governments, the media, and many scholars. The Ukrainian government investigation identified members of the special company of Berkut as responsible for killings of the absolute majority of the protesters, but did not release any evidence in support, with the exception of videos of the massacre. The question is which side organized the "snipers' massacre." This paper is the first academic study of this crucial case of the mass killing. It uses a theory of rational choice and a Weberian theory of instrumental rationality to examine actions of major actors both from the Yanukovych government, specifically various police and security forces, and the Maidan opposition, specifically its far right and oligarchic elements, during the massacre. The paper analyzes a large amount of evidence from different publicly available sources concerning this massacre and killings of specifics protestors. Qualitative content analysis includes the following data: about 1,500 (150 Gigabytes) of videos and recordings of live internet and TV broadcasts by mass media and social media in different countries, news reports and social media posts by more than 100 journalists covering the massacre from Kyiv, some 5,000 photos, and nearly 30 gigabytes of publicly available radio intercepts of snipers and commanders from the special Alfa unit of the Security Service of Ukraine and Internal Troops, and Maidan massacre trial recordings. This study also employs field research on site of the massacre, eyewitness reports by both Maidan protesters and government special units commanders, statements by both former and current government officials, estimates of approximate ballistic trajectories, bullets and weapons used, and types of wounds among both protesters and the police. This study establishes a precise timeline for various events of the massacre, the locations of both the shooters and the government snipers, and the specific timeline and locations of nearly 50 protesters' deaths. It also briefly analyzes other major cases of violence during and after the "Euromaidan."This academic investigation concludes that the massacre was a false flag operation, which was rationally planned and carried out with a goal of the overthrow of the government and seizure of power. It found various evidence of the involvement of an alliance of the far right organizations, specifically the Right Sector and Svoboda, and oligarchic parties, such as Fatherland. Concealed shooters and spotters were located in at least 20 Maidan-controlled buildings or areas. The various evidence that the protesters were killed from these locations include some 70 testimonies, primarily by Maidan protesters, several videos of "snipers" targeting protesters from these buildings, comparisons of positions of the specific protesters at the time of their killing and their entry wounds, and bullet impact signs. The study uncovered various videos and photos of armed Maidan "snipers" and spotters in many of these buildings. The paper presents implications of these findings for understanding the nature of the change of the government in Ukraine, the civil war in Donbas, Russian military intervention in Crimea and Donbas, and an international conflict between the West and Russia over Ukraine.


American class actions are internationally regarded as a procedural form to avoid and widely criticized in the United States. They have been narrowed and restricted by U.S. statutes and case law. Plaintiffs' lawyers in consumer class actions are portrayed as greedy and fraudulent, while businesses are increasingly acting to avoid class actions through mandatory pre-dispute arbitration clauses. Even class arbitration is criticized as leading to a "procedural morass." This Article proposes that parties and arbitral fora opt out of the American procedural morass (and the attendant long-running disputes about American class actions) by adopting an English procedural rule for aggregation. This Article performs the necessary investigation into the legal contexts of England and America and adjusts the transplant rule to best fit its new home. The proposed arbitral rule is simpler and more flexible, and therefore more suitable, than the existing arbitral rules adapted from Federal Rule of Civil Procedure. Perhaps more importantly, this new rule does not carry the cultural baggage of the American class action. Where consumers and businesses are vehemently opposed, this new approach to aggregation can bring compromise and co-operation. If adopted, this rule can relieve the consumer-business tensions and breathe new life into the arbitral forum as a setting in which many consumers can obtain a fair hearing of a dispute, even if they need to do so together.


In this study, two different system were studied to investigate the forces interacting in thin liquid films. In the former, direct force measurements were conducted with bitumen-coated mica surfaces using a Mark IV surface force analyzer. Besides long-range electrostatic repulsive forces at separation distances above approximately 70 nm, unexpectedly strong repulsive forces were measured at shorter separation distances. These non-DLVO forces may be attributed to the steric repulsion between asphaltenes extracted on the bitumen surface. The steric forces increased with pH and temperature, which may be explained by the increased solubilization of asphaltenes in water. The steric force also increased with electrolyte concentration, possibly due to a decrease in the mobility of the tails of the asphaltenes on the surface. The kinetics of coalescence of bitumen droplets was studied by measuring the induction time. There was a general agreement between the force data and the kinetic information, suggesting that bitumen suspensions are stabilized by asphaltene. The steric forces identified by iii the direct force measurements may have profound implications on the hot water processing of Alberta Tar Sands. In the later, a thin film balance (TFB) of Scheludko and Exerowa-type was used to determine equilibrium film thicknesses of dodecylammonium chloride and sodium dodecyl sulfate solutions. The hydrophobic force as a third component of the extended DLVO theory was represented as a power law. The results showed that at low surfactant concentrations, the hydrophobicity parameter, K232 is positive and decreases with increasing surfactant concentration. By extrapolating this data for the zero surfactant concentration, K232 was found about 10 J, which is approximately 270 times larger than the Hamaker constant, A232. These results suggest that air bubbles are hydrophobic and the hydrophobicity decreases with increasing surfactant concentration.. The disjoining pressure isotherm for both surfactant systems in the presence of inorganic electrolyte (NaCl) were also obtained. The results indicated that the K232 values estimated from the equilibrium film thickness measurements can be used to fit the experimentally obtained disjoining pressure isotherm. Consideration of hydrophobic force predicted a rupture thickness larger than predicted using the DLVO theory, but is substantially smaller than the experimental result. This discrepancy may be ascribed to the hydrodynamic force operating in the film thinning process. To compare the hydrophobicity of air bubbles and solid surfaces, an air bubble was simulated by using a hydrophobic solid surfaces. The equilibrium contact angle of aqueous surfactant solutions on hydrophobic surfaces was measured using a contact angle goniometer. The results indicated that the nature of both the air-water interface and the solid-water interface is iv altered gradually from hydrophobic to hydrophilic with increasing surfactant concentration. The results also suggested that the hydrophobicity of both systems are comparable, i.e., K232 is about 10 J, which is estimated using the extended DLVO theory, and K131 is in the order of 10 J, which is obtained by direct force measurements between the hydrophobic surfaces. It was showed that hydrophobic forces much higher than the London-van der Waals forces for both systems need to be included when the stability of foams and colloids is considered.


The human brain has some capabilities that the brains of other animals lack. It is to these distinctive capabilities that our species owes its dominant position. Other animals have stronger muscles or sharper claws, but we have cleverer brains. If machine brains one day come to surpass human brains in general intelligence, then this new superintelligence could become very powerful. As the fate of the gorillas now depends more on us humans than on the gorillas themselves, so the fate of our species then would come to depend on the actions of the machine superintelligence. But we have one advantage: we get to make the first move. Will it be possible to construct a seed AI or otherwise to engineer initial conditions so as to make an intelligence explosion survivable? How could one achieve a controlled detonation? To get closer to an answer to this question, we must make our way through a fascinating landscape of topics and considerations. Read the book and learn about oracles, genies, singletons; about boxing methods, tripwires, and mind crime; about humanity's cosmic endowment and differential technological development; indirect normativity, instrumental convergence, whole brain emulation and technology couplings; Malthusian economics and dystopian evolution; artificial intelligence, and biological cognitive enhancement, and collective intelligence. This profoundly ambitious and original book picks its way carefully through a vast tract of forbiddingly difficult intellectual terrain. Yet the writing is so lucid that it somehow makes it all seem easy. After an utterly engrossing journey that takes us to the frontiers of thinking about the human condition and the future of intelligent life, we find in Nick Bostrom's work nothing less than a reconceptualization of the essential task of our time.


Abstract. Measurements from actinic flux spectroradiometers on board the
NASA DC-8 during the Atmospheric Tomography (ATom) mission provide an
extensive set of statistics on how clouds alter photolysis rates (J values)
throughout the remote Pacific and Atlantic Ocean basins. J values control
tropospheric ozone and methane abundances, and thus clouds have been included
for more than three decades in tropospheric chemistry modeling. ATom made
four profiling circumnavigations of the troposphere capturing each of the
seasons during 2016–2018. This work examines J values from the Pacific
Ocean flights of the first deployment, but publishes the complete Atom-1 data
set (29 July to 23 August 2016). We compare the observed J values (every 3 s along flight track) with those calculated by nine global
chemistry–climate/transport models (globally gridded, hourly, for a
mid-August day). To compare these disparate data sets, we build a
commensurate statistical picture of the impact of clouds on J values using
the ratio of J-cloudy (standard, sometimes cloudy conditions) to J-clear
(artificially cleared of clouds). The range of modeled cloud effects is
inconsistently large but they fall into two distinct classes: (1) models with
large cloud effects showing mostly enhanced J values aloft and or
diminished at the surface and (2) models with small effects having nearly
clear-sky J values much of the time. The ATom-1 measurements generally
favor large cloud effects but are not precise or robust enough to point out
the best cloud-modeling approach. The models here have resolutions of 50–200 km
and thus reduce the occurrence of clear sky when averaging over grid
cells. In situ measurements also average scattered sunlight over a mixed
cloud field, but only out to scales of tens of kilometers. A primary uncertainty
remains in the role of clouds in chemistry, in particular, how models average
over cloud fields, and how such averages can simulate measurements.


Reading a book is also kind of better solution when you have no enough money or time to get your own adventure. This is one of the reasons we show the handbook of community health nursing essentials for clinical practice as your friend in spending the time. For more representative collections, this book not only offers it's strategically book resource. It can be a good friend, really good friend with much knowledge.


The Springer variety is the set of flags stabilized by a nilpotent operator. In 1976, T.A. Springer observed that this variety's cohomology ring carries a symmetric group action, and he offered a deep geometric construction of this action. Sixteen years later, Garsia and Procesi made Springer's work more transparent and accessible by presenting the cohomology ring as a graded quotient of a polynomial ring. They combinatorially describe an explicit basis for this quotient. The goal of this paper is to generalize their work. Our main result deepens their analysis of Springer varieties and extends it to a family of varieties called Hessenberg varieties, a two-parameter generalization of Springer varieties. Little is known about their cohomology. For the class of regular nilpotent Hessenberg varieties, we conjecture a quotient presentation for the cohomology ring and exhibit an explicit basis. Tantalizing new evidence supports our conjecture for a subclass of regular nilpotent varieties called Peterson varieties.


Virtual prototypes are simulators used in the consumer electronics industry. Transaction-level Modeling (TLM) is a widely used technique for designing such virtual prototypes. In particular, they allow for early development of embedded software. The SystemC modeling language is the current industry standard for developing virtual prototypes. Our experience suggests that writing TLM models exclusively in SystemC leads sometimes to confusion between modeling concepts and their implementation, and may be the root of some known bad practices. This paper introduces jTLM, an experimentation framework that allow us to study the extent to which common modeling issues come from a more fundamental constraint of the TLM approach. We focus on a discussion of the two modes of simulation scheduling: cooperative and preemptive. We confront the implications of these two modes on the way of designing TLM models, the software bugs exposed by the simulators and the performance.


Abstract. Understanding the rapidly changing climate in the Arctic is limited by a lack of understanding of underlying strong feedback mechanisms that are specific to the Arctic. Progress in this field can only be obtained by process-level observations; this is the motivation for intensive ice-breaker-based campaigns such as the Arctic Summer Cloud-Ocean Study (ASCOS), described here. However, detailed field observations also have to be put in the context of the larger-scale meteorology, and short field campaigns have to be analysed within the context of the underlying climate state and temporal anomalies from this. To aid in the analysis of other parameters or processes observed during this campaign, this paper provides an overview of the synoptic-scale meteorology and its climatic anomaly during the ASCOS field deployment. It also provides a statistical analysis of key features during the campaign, such as key meteorological variables, the vertical structure of the lower troposphere and clouds, and energy fluxes at the surface. In order to assess the representativity of the ASCOS results, we also compare these features to similar observations obtained during three earlier summer experiments in the Arctic Ocean: the AOE-96, SHEBA and AOE-2001 expeditions. We find that these expeditions share many key features of the summertime lower troposphere. Taking ASCOS and the previous expeditions together, a common picture emerges with a large amount of low-level cloud in a well-mixed shallow boundary layer, capped by a weak to moderately strong inversion where moisture, and sometimes also cloud top, penetrate into the lower parts of the inversion. Much of the boundary-layer mixing is due to cloud-top cooling and subsequent buoyant overturning of the cloud. The cloud layer may, or may not, be connected with surface processes depending on the depths of the cloud and surface-based boundary layers and on the relative strengths of surface-shear and cloud-generated turbulence. The latter also implies a connection between the cloud layer and the free troposphere through entrainment at cloud top.


The Silk Road was the current name for a complex of ancient trade routes linking East Asia with Central Asia, South Asia, and the Mediterranean world. This network of exchange emerged along the borders between agricultural China and the steppe nomads during the Han Dynasty (206BCE-220CE), in consequence of the inter-dependence and the conflicts of these two distinctive societies. In their quest for horses, fragrances, and spices, gems, glassware, and other exotics from the lands to their west, the Han Empire extended its dominion over the oases around the Takla Makan Desert and sent silk all the way to the Mediterranean, either through the land routes leading to the caravan city of Palmyra in Syria desert, or by way of northwest India, the Arabian Sea and the Red Sea, landing at Alexandria. The Silk Road survived the turmoil of the demise of the Han and Roman Empires, reached its golden age during the early middle age, when the Byzantine Empire and the Tang Empire became centers of silk culture and established the models for high culture of the Eurasian world. The coming of Islam extended silk culture to an even larger area and paved the way for an expanded market for textiles and other commodities. By the 11th century, however, the Silk Road was in decline because of intense competition from the sea routes of the Indian Ocean. Using demand and supply as the framework for analyzing the formation and development of the Silk Road, the book examines the dynamics of the interactions of the nomadic pastoralists with sedentary agriculturalists, and the spread of new ideas, religions, and values into the world of commerce, thus illustrating the cultural forces underlying material transactions. This effort at tracing the interconnections of the diverse participants in the transcontinental Silk Road exchange will demonstrate that the world had been linked through economic and ideological forces long before the modern era.


In work published on page 681 of this issue of Experimental Biology and Medicine, Kolossov, Spring and their co-investigators – a multidisciplinary team within the Institute for Genomic Biology at the University of Illinois – have transferred the concept of redox-sensitive green fluorescent proteins (GFPs) to a quantitative Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) imaging platform. For the FRET-based sensors, a change in redox induces a conformational change in a redox-sensitive switch that links two fluorescent proteins (the donor and acceptor), changing their distance, which in turn causes a detectable change in FRET efficiency. In its oxidized state, the wavelength spectrum of the sensor's fluorescence emission is red-shifted (due to increased acceptor fluorescence), independent of variations in the local sensor concentration or in the intensity of the excitation light. As explained by Robert Clegg, a pioneer in the development of novel applications of optical microscopy in the biological sciences and key collaborator on the study, 'FRET-based sensors circumvent the complications associated with imaging methods based on fluorescence intensity, since the increase in the FRET acceptor molecule's fluorescence can only take place if there is a change in the efficiency of energy transfer. This specific and discriminatory feature of FRET is one of the driving motives behind our development of a FRET-based assay rather than relying only on changes in the fluorescent intensity of a single component.' The current publication builds on the authors' previous work, where they reported a series of first-generation redoxsensitive linkers flanked by FRET donor and acceptor GFP variants. As summarized by co-author Vladimir Kolossov, 'The major advance in the current study is an improved dynamic range of the spectroscopic signal; in other words, a greater difference between fully reduced and oxidized states. Increasing the dynamic range leads to better discrimination between the redox states of the probe in complex biological specimens. Furthermore, the highly oxidative midpoint potential of the novel probe is ideal for measuring glutathione redox potentials in oxidative compartments of mammalian cells.' Recently, a different innovative ratiometric probe – a redox-sensitive GFP (roGFP) – has been developed in another lab. The measurement with the roGFP sensor involves the ratio of intensities of two sequential images, acquired at two different excitation wavelengths. Two thiol groups form/break a disulfide bond that modulates the peak excitation wavelength of the roGFP chromophore in response to the redox environment. Bryan Spring, a co-author, notes, 'The roGFP and the FRET-based sensors have contrasting characteristics. The FRET-based sensor may prove advantageous for intravital microscopy studies, because only a single laser line is required. In contrast, roGFP requires sequential scanning of two laser lines, which slows the frame rate of image acquisition; also, the images must be compensated for the different laser intensities in order to correct for wavelengthdependent tissue scattering, and the measurement relies on the optical alignment of two excitation light beams. However, the roGFP probe is sensitive to a different range of oxidation–reduction potentials than our FRET probe, possibly leading to complementary applications.' Spring adds, 'We look forward to further exciting innovations for optimizing the performance of oxidation-reduction-based sensors.' Dr Rex Gaskins, who led the project remarked, 'Distinct advantages of the FRET-based approach include: (1) the ability to quantify the change in redox state; (2) independence of sensor concentration; and (3) modularity, the ability to precisely tune the redox sensitivity and range by exchange of the switch or the fluorophore modules in the probe. We expect that newly developed redox-sensitive probes could potentially be critical to a better understanding of the pharmacologic and toxicological actions of chemotherapeutic drugs and oxidants.' Dr Steven R Goodman, Editor-in-Chief of Experimental Biology and Medicine, said 'This multidisciplinary group has developed a novel FRET-based biosensor which is a major advance in the measurement of oxidative stress in living cells in realtime. This will allow the measurement of intraorganellar glutathione potentials in living cells.'


Located in the Omo-Turkana basin at the northern limit of the Koobi Fora sedimentary Formation, the Fejej region has recently proven to be a rich study area for understanding early hominin behaviour and paleoenvironmental conditions. Among the rich fossiliferous and stone artefact localities discovered so far at Fejej, the FJ-1a archeological site has yielded a faunal and lithic assemblage in primary context. The archeological level is situated within a 15 meter fluvial sequence beneath a volcanic tuff. Geochronological data from the FJ-1 sequence indicate an age of nearly 1,9 Ma for the FJ-1a artefact level. The stone industry was knapped from locally available raw materials (mainly quartz and basalt) and rocks had been carefully selected according to specific petrographical and formal criterion. Hominins mastered several distinct stone knapping methods and used more or less exhaustive reduction sequences in order to produce small flakes. The different techniques used for stone reduction are defined in this paper thanks to a series of refits of flakes onto cores. Along with the refits, an in-depth analysis of the flakes, cores and worked pebbles provides an overview of the technological capacities of hominins present at the site nearly 2 million years ago. After the Fejej FJ-1a site was abandoned the archeological materials were rapidly buried, leaving an almost undisturbed archeological level. This site appears to represent a short episode of hominin occupation.


The essay argues that the right to abortion constitutionalized in Roe v. Wade is by some measure at odds with a capacious understanding of the demands of reproductive justice. No matter its rationale, the constitutional right to abortion is fundamentally a negative right that rhetorically keeps the state out of the domain of family life. As such, the decision privatizes not only the abortion decision, but also parenting, by rendering the decision to carry a pregnancy to term a choice. It thereby legitimates a minimalist state response to the problems of pregnant women who carry their pregnancies to term and for poor parents who might need greater public support. These marginalized groups need greater community and state assistance with the demands of parenting, and the equation of reproductive justice with a right to terminate a pregnancy is in tension with a political or legal agenda for meeting those needs. The essay then explores the possibility of creating a right to legal abortion through ordinary political means, rather than through constitutional adjudication, in such a way as not to carry these costs.


"Modern crop production is based on only a few plant species. Particularly in marginal environments of developing agricultural economies, many less well-known agricultural or non-timber forest species, continue to be grown, managed or collected, thus contributing to the livelihood of the poor and to agricultural biodiversity. Some of these species, called underutilized plant species, are characterized by the fact that they are locally in developing countries but globally rare, that scientific information and knowledge about them is scant, and that their current use is limited relative to their economic potential. In this paper, we first identify the economic factors that cause these plants to be 'underutilized'. Based on this analysis, we propose a classification of underutilized plant species based on the relationship of the observed to the potential economic value of the species, and the presence or absence of and constraints to output markets. Then, focusing on a subset of underutilized plant species with market potential, we identify three necessary conditions for the successful commercialization of underutilized plant species for the benefit of the poor: demand expansion, increased efficiency of supply and marketing channels, and a supply control mechanism. This conceptual framework is intended to provide a basis for an empirical assessment of marketing solutions for underutilized plant species among the rural poor in developing economies." Authors' abstract


Allegiance is an essential element of citizenship, featuring in its statutory definition and invoked in its rituals. Most scholars have dismissed allegiance as a vestige from a feudal past. Certainly, the last several decades have witnessed a revolution in citizenship: access to citizenship has been liberalized, and citizenship is now widely recognized as a 'right to have rights' that states are loath to infringe upon. Allegiance would seem to have no place in this context. In this Article, I seek to recover the role of allegiance in citizenship and demonstrate its continued legal and normative relevance. I develop two illustrative conceptions of allegiance by analogy to political obligation and civic virtue. I then undertake a close reading of select Supreme Court decisions in treason and statutory expatriation — contexts in which the betrayal or transfer of allegiance is of moment. I draw upon these decisions to further illuminate the concept of allegiance as well as to identify its normative implications for citizenship. Through inchoate allusions to allegiance, states recently have deprived individuals of their citizenship and undermined the protections that status once afforded. Clarity about allegiance is necessary to avoid abuse; this Article begins a preliminary investigation.


Spasticity is defined clinically as 'a motor disorder characterised by a velocity-dependent increase in tonic stretch reflexes (muscle tone) with exaggerated tendon acts resulting from hyperexcitability of the stretch reflex, as one component of the upper motor neuron syndrome'.1 Spasticity is a common feature of cerebral palsy (CP) as well as spinal cord and traumatic brain injury.

The most common cause of spasticity in childhood is CP which affects between 2 and 3 of every 1000 live births in industrialised countries.2 Other causes of spasticity include traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, central nervous system tumour or infarct, metabolic disorders and hydrocephalus.

Dystonia is defined as 'a movement disorder in which involuntary sustained or intermittent muscle contractions cause twisting and repetitive movements, abnormal postures or both'.3 Dystonia may be either acute (eg, an oculogyric crisis secondary to drug administration) or chronic. Chronic dystonia can occur either locally (eg, writer's cramp, blepharospasm) or systemically as part of CP or other neurological syndromes.

The management of spasticity and chronic dystonia in children requires multidisciplinary management including neurologists, paediatricians, surgeons, GPs, physiotherapists, occupational therapists and pharmacists. Pharmacotherapy forms one aspect of this management and will be the focus of this review article, but other interventions, such as physical therapy, orthopaedic surgery and procedures, such as selective dorsal rhizotomy, play a major role too. Fundamental knowledge of pharmacologic properties and toxicities of these medications is required for safe and appropriate use, and should be part of an integrated therapeutic approach in which patients, carers, therapists, physicians and surgeons have open and clear communication about the overall rehabilitation process of the patient.

### Oral/enteral drugs

Oral, or enteral medication, can provide systemic treatment for the relief of generalised spasticity via different pharmacological mechanisms. These agents can be combined in cases difficult to treat, although the …


This paper traces racial-nationalism through three recent sites of controversy relating to citizenship: the banning of face coverings while swearing the citizenship oath, the evacuation of Canadians abroad and the revocation of the citizenship of 1,800 alleged to have gained citizenship through fraudulent means. Racial-nationalism is an architecture of race-thinking defined by (1) cultural racism, which operates as a strategy of "sorting out" outsiders from insiders and (2) expulsion or what Hage refers to as the logic of pure exclusion. Through an interrogation of online reader commentary responding to news reporting, this paper examines three allegorical figures at the core of public discourses representing citizenship: the recalcitrant alien, the citizen of convenience and the fraudulent citizen.


Social networks have been used as a medium for financing films and other performing arts, as well as for charitable solicitations. These and similar fundraising endeavors are known as crowdfunding. Social networks have the potential for using crowdfunding to reach large numbers of people. Since crowdfunding is designed to reach a large number of people, limiting the fund-raising request to a small amount from each donor can provide meaningful funding. The solicitation of funds as gifts or donations is a substantially unregulated activity. Crowdfunding can also be used to finance small business enterprises, which in contrast is a highly regulated activity by virtue of the securities laws. Securities laws are designed to provide investor protection by requiring disclosure and in many instances registration. The securities laws come into play when social networks are used to make a widespread solicitation of funds for business enterprises, regardless of the amount being sought from each investor. For the most part, the exemptions from the more burdensome securities law disclosures do not apply when there is a general solicitation as is the case with crowdfunding efforts. There are a few exemptions permitting a general solicitation exist but those exemptions are conditioned on the use of an offering circular or other mandated disclosure to potential investors. The difficulty in evaluating an exemption is trying to balance the policy of encouraging small business formation against the investor protection goals of the securities laws. This article includes an overview of the applicable securities laws and evaluates the various proposals which their proponents argue would provide a workable exemption that would not unduly compromise investor protection. There was much discussion of providing a less onerous exemption from the securities laws to facilitate crowdfunding of business ventures. In fact, there were a number of proposals to the SEC and Congress urging the adoption of an exemption for crowdfunding efforts. Those proposals eventually led to the JOBS Act which includes a crowdfunding exemption. The article discusses the proposals and the ensuing legislation and concludes that the only appropriate exemption for crowdfunding is one conditioned on meaningful disclosures about the company and the terms of the offering.


This paper addresses the task of aligning a database with a corresponding text. The goal is to link individual database entries with sentences that verbalize the same information. By providing explicit semantics-to-text links, these alignments can aid the training of natural language generation and information extraction systems. Beyond these pragmatic benefits, the alignment problem is appealing from a modeling perspective: the mappings between database entries and text sentences exhibit rich structural dependencies, unique to this task. Thus, the key challenge is to make use of as many global dependencies as possible without sacrificing tractability. To this end, we cast text-database alignment as a structured multilabel classification task where each sentence is labeled with a subset of matching database entries. In contrast to existing multilabel classifiers, our approach operates over arbitrary global features of inputs and proposed labels. We compare our model with a baseline classifier that makes locally optimal decisions. Our results show that the proposed model yields a 15% relative reduction in error, and compares favorably with human performance.


Robot Learning from Demonstration (RLfD) has been identified as a key element for making robots useful in daily lives. A wide range of techniques has been proposed for deriving a task model from a set of demonstrations of the task. Most previous works use learning to model the kinematics of the task, and for autonomous execution the robot then relies on a stiff position controller. While many tasks can and have been learned this way, there are tasks in which controlling the position alone is insufficient to achieve the goals of the task. These are typically tasks that involve contact or require a specific response to physical perturbations. The question of how to adjust the compliance to suit the need of the task has not yet been fully treated in Robot Learning from Demonstration. In this paper, we address this issue and present interfaces that allow a human teacher to indicate compliance variations by physically interacting with the robot during task execution. We validate our approach in two different experiments on the 7 DoF Barrett WAM and KUKA LWR robot manipulators. Furthermore, we conduct a user study to evaluate the usability of our approach from a non-roboticists perspective.


Congress is currently considering appropriations for U.S. contributions to the World Bank and other multilateral development banks (MDBs) as well as separate legislation that would require U.S. representatives to these institutions to oppose all concessional loans to China. This report provides a brief analysis of China's relationship with the MDBs to highlight some issues and help Members of Congress, congressional staff, and observers better understand the context for the current debates in Congress and the multilateral agencies.


Ferromanganese deposits in epigenic cave systems located within the Knox Dolomite bedrock formation of the upper Tennessee River Basin were analyzed to determine the role of microbes in the cycling of manganese and the transformation of cave mineralogy. Results from geochemical analyses, molecular surveys, and culture-dependent surveys indicate that Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria are abundant and environmentally relevant members of ferromanganese deposits in the study area, and that these cave systems harbor unique microbial communities. Over the duration of the study period (July 2009-2011), a decline in the intensity of ferromanganese deposits in a cave biofilm was noted. Because a sewage discharge may have occurred at this site prior to July 2009, it was hypothesized that the decline may have been associated with the gradual abatement of an acute, point source of pollution. The change in biofilm appearance combined with water chemistry data and molecular-based and culture-dependent results suggest an association between the bloom of Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria and a nutrient loading event. More work is needed to determine if blooms of Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria are widespread where contamination is prevalent. However, if this hypothesis is validated, monitoring of Mn-oxidizing microbial communities would provide a method of assessing anthropogenic impact in shallow cave systems.


Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an important part of environmental and public health regulations. Increasing demand of electric consumption in Thailand is a major challenge for authorities trying to ensure satisfactory supply. However, the adverse impacts of development projects are powerful public concerns. Preparations of adequate EIA reports contribute to enhancing overall effectiveness of the EIA process. A sample of 3 EIA reports relating to power development projects was examined, to identify problems and to investigate typical strong and weak points of environmental impact statements, for effective implementation of EIA in Thailand. The competent authority has a well formulated environmental legislation and EIA guidelines and uses a listing method as a key quality control instrument for accuracy and veracity of the reports. Comprehensive descriptions of the major issues and the adverse impacts were defined based on the nature of the construction and operation phases, with adequate information to inform on existing attributes and situations appearing in all critiqued samples. The most important lessons are that there was an absence or weakness in: (i) information on baseline conditions and site–specific information (ii) public participation and (iii) communication involvement of all stakeholders. Increased enforcement could be based on strong, well–written law. The establishment of an independent review committee's regulation, widespread public participation in every step of the EIA process and formulation of a code of conduct for the consultants, are strongly recommended.