Philosophy

Psychological well-being is a major global concern receiving more scholarly attention following the 2008 Great Recession, and it becomes even more relevant in the context of COVID-19 outbreak. In this study, we investigated the impact of economic uncertainty resulting from natural disasters, epidemics, and financial crisis on individuals' mental health. As unemployment rate exponentially increases, individuals are faced with health and economic concerns. Not all society  members  are  affected  to  the  same  extent,  and  marginalized  groups,  such  as  those suffering  from  chronic mental  illnesses  or  low-income  families  cannot afford  the downsizing, mass lay-offs and lack of access to public health services. Psychiatric profession is familiarized with the phenomenon of intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and we examine how this concept is associated with job uncertainty and social identity disturbance. Several studies have formally investigated the effects of IU, but to our knowledge, this is the first research integrating the psychological  well-being,  job  uncertainty  and  identity  disturbance  caused  by  economic breakdown. Literature points to many reported cases of PTSD, anxiety, depression and suicidal tendencies following major social disasters. Yet, we have undertaken to analyze the subjective experiences underlying the self-harming behaviors in an attempt to fill the methodological gap by drawing insights from prominent psychological, sociological and economic theories. We find economic uncertainty to have a positive relation to job uncertainty and identity disturbance, and a  negative  relationship  with  psychological  well-being.  Psychological  well-being  depends  on coherency between both abstract subjective and concrete objective identity, and when these perceptions are inconsistent, cognitive dissonance arises resulting in identity disturbance. We argue that stability is not associated with monetary advantage only, but also with a wide range of  other  benefits that  are  crucial  for  individuals'  growth,  satisfaction  and  sense  of  identity. Therefore,  we  propose  the  implementation  of  social  support  and  public  welfare  policies  to mitigate health risks during the turbulent socio-economic changes.

International Journal of Innovation and Economics Development, vol. 6, issue 1, pages 61-74, April 2019 International Journal of Innovation and Economic Development ISSN 1849-7020 (Print) ISSN 1849-7551 (Online) URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.18775/ijied.1849-7551-7020.2015.61.2005 DOI: 10.18775/ijied.1849-7551-7020.2015.61.2005 Volume 6 Issue 1 April, 2020 Pages 61-74 Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 1 Danijela Godinic, 2 Bojan Obrenovic, 3 Akmal Khudaykulov 1 FFZG, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Zagreb, Croatia 2 School of Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China 3 School of Management, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China Abstract: Psychological well-being is a major global concern receiving more scholarly attention following the 2008 Great Recession, and it becomes even more relevant in the context of COVID19 outbreak. In this study, we investigated the impact of economic uncertainty resulting from natural disasters, epidemics, and financial crisis on individuals' mental health. As unemployment rate exponentially increases, individuals are faced with health and economic concerns. Not all society members are affected to the same extent, and marginalized groups, such as those suffering from chronic mental illnesses or low-income families cannot afford the downsizing, mass lay-offs and lack of access to public health services. Psychiatric profession is familiarized with the phenomenon of intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and we examine how this concept is associated with job uncertainty and social identity disturbance. Several studies have formally investigated the effects of IU, but to our knowledge, this is the first research integrating the psychological well-being, job uncertainty and identity disturbance caused by economic breakdown. Literature points to many reported cases of PTSD, anxiety, depression and suicidal tendencies following major social disasters. Yet, we have undertaken to analyze the subjective experiences underlying the self-harming behaviors in an attempt to fill the methodological gap by drawing insights from prominent psychological, sociological and economic theories. We find economic uncertainty to have a positive relation to job uncertainty and identity disturbance, and a negative relationship with psychological well-being. Psychological well-being depends on coherency between both abstract subjective and concrete objective identity, and when these perceptions are inconsistent, cognitive dissonance arises resulting in identity disturbance. We argue that stability is not associated with monetary advantage only, but also with a wide range of other benefits that are crucial for individuals' growth, satisfaction and sense of identity. Therefore, we propose the implementation of social support and public welfare policies to mitigate health risks during the turbulent socio-economic changes. Keywords: COVID-19 psychology, COVID-19 economy, Economic uncertainty, Psychological well-being, Job uncertainty, Identity disturbance, Mental health 1. Introduction The uprising COVID-19 epidemiological and economic crisis prompted serious challenges with regards to socio-economic determinants of mental health. Economic uncertainty is the highrisk period for the overall mental well-being of individuals, their spouses and relatives (Holland, 2016; Dohrenwend, 2000). Lesson learned from the past, such as the 2008 financial crisis provide insight into possible problematic points and knowledge about mitigating potential risks. First of all, not all members of society are equally affected by the crisis. What we do know is Danijela Godinic, Bojan Obrenovic, Akmal Khudaykulov Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 62 that declines in economic activities may cause cognitive and affective disturbances as a result of the combination of many devastating factors, such as unemployment, downsizing of medical and social services, and cut in public spending (Meltzer et al., 2010). All of these combined with job uncertainty, and uncertainty of future, in general, cause serious mental damages, and result in the occurrence of intolerence of uncertainty induced depressive-anxiety disorders (Wright et al., 2016). Particular focus should be on the already marginalized groups, stigmatized or diagnosed individuals. The already existent diseases may become more intensive and chronic during the crisis (Cai et al., 2018). The reason for this is that many countries are downsizing their spending on medical health insurance services, especially in the public sector, and these individuals rarely have key resources available and access to private practice psychotherapy. Marginalized groups are expected to be severely affected by insecurity, fear of losing a job and reduced income, falling in debts, unavailability of essential goods, social isolation, and unhygienic living conditions. The crisis is already prompting even broader social exclusion of vulnerable groups by stigmatizing them. This may include mentally impaired, low-income families, unemployed individuals, migrants and undocumented workers. Extreme impoverishment results in cognitive, affective and physical deficit. People struggling with excessive financial difficulties are prone to mental health issues such as depression, substance abuse, especially alcohol abuse, and suicidal tendency (Yang et al., 2017b). The more debt they struggle with, the higher the likelihood of mental disorders (Jenkins et al.,2016). According to an empirical study of Stuckler et al. (2009), after the rise of unemployment, there was a 28% increase in suicide rates in the EU. Leaders are required to intervene with strategically devised social protection programmes for risky hypersensitive population. Many countries around the globe have established restrictions and policy measures with regards to social distancing, remote working, and self-isolation. The economic implications have been severe. COVID-19 pandemic is a global threat to populations' financial status caused by the breakdown of majority supply chains and daily business activities. Acceptance of strict regulations restricts social interaction, which is one of the main pillars of psychological wellbeing and resilient identity. Furthermore, we are concerned with psychological and psychiatric effects of economic uncertainty. The very unpredictability and lay-offs lead to severe mental disorders, and subsequent financial debts and inaccessibility to medical treatment cause a generally healthy population to experience the pathological state of identity disturbances. Other mood and affective disorders may arise, such as depression, anxiety, PTSD, substance abuse, and suicidal ideation. We find that in the time of need, reaching out to one's usual social support network is disrupted, and individuals fail to meet their innate needs for affiliation and acceptance. Rapid changes on the labour market spread the panic of uncertainty, and job loss and inability to associate with relevant others cause not only stress-induced mental conditions harmful to psychological well-being but also identity disturbances where individuals are faced with discrepancies between their prototypical and subjectively perceived identities and newly emerging reality. Society is changing by and large, and some find it more struggling to readjust. We contribute to the existing body of knowledge by adopting previously established and empirically confirmed mental health implications. We integrate these constructs in a new conceptual framework and apply it in the context of COVID-19 outbreak for testing the psychological and psychiatric effect of uncertainty. The main contribution of the study is in that it identifies which specific stressors threaten societies' health and which operations should the government, as well as ministries and public health officials undertake to mitigate risks posed by COVID-19. Establishing and validating the assumptions of the new framework for examining the impact of social identity disturbance on mental health is being sought. Individuals behave differently during the pandemics and need to adopt healthy coping strategies, as well as cognitive and behavioural patterns. We have conceptualized an innovative approach by Danijela Godinic, Bojan Obrenovic, Akmal Khudaykulov Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 63 determining specific factors undermining the psychological well-being that are direct consequences of COVID-19. 2. Theory and Research Model Development In research model development, we have built on the theoretical grounds of Conservation of Resources Theory, Self-Determination Theory, Social Identity theory and Identity –Unertainty Theory. First, under the assumptions of Conservation of Resources Theory, health is deemed a valuable resource contributing to overall psychological well-being. Furthermore, full-time employment, monetary and non-monetary work benefits, structure, social support and financial stability are considered to be critical resources contributing to individuals' growth, satisfaction and sense of identity (Yousaf et al., 2019; Newman et al., 2018; Hobfol et al., 1990). Economic uncertainty, followed by a mass lay-offs, cut-downs, inflation and debts causes emotional exhaustion and psychological strain (Lim et al., 2018; Meltzer et al., 2010). Individuals are deprived of essential resources, and the blow is even harder for marginalized groups, such as population suffering from mental disorders, poor and low-income families, immigrants and undocumented workers (Heath et al., 2012, Hobfol et al., 2011). Social isolation and remote working policy have already deprived a number of people of key resources such as self-esteem, positive attitude, self-accomplishment, self-efficacy and social support which would usually be utilized as a source for establishing a coping mechanism to reduce stressors (Jesus et al., 2016). Self-determination Theory posits that people engage in activities they find motivating, meaningful and valuable (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Work projects are a source of psychological, social and relational satisfaction. Job promotes well-being by allowing people to meet their needs for survival, affiliation, and belonging. Watching themselves accomplish diverse tasks, acquiring new skills and knowledge and sharing emotional and cognitive support with co-workers contributes to one's sense of sel-worth and boosts confidence (Obrenović et al., 2015). One of the fundamental human needs is the desire to associate, stay connected, to care and be cared for (Flum, 2015). When met, it allows for efficient functioning and personal growth. Conversely, losig employment and falling into financial debts lead to isolation, depression, identity disturbance, cognitive dissonance and consequently, mental illness (Blustein et al., 2019). Social identity theory posits individuals' sense of self is based on the group membership and roles one assumes. Groups provide people with social identity, and they are especially relevant in stressful situations, since the need for social support is amplified when one cannot control the outcomes while dealing with uncertainty. This especially holds for people with dependent personality, since they will suffer more due to their need for approval and company. Social identification manifests as internalizing the group identity and forming an attitude towards ingroup members, as well as social comparison with other groups. Therefore, if one classifies as a healthy, extroverted individual, worker of specific organization, any circumstance that threatens his identification or membership will likewise threaten his personal identity, causing cognitive dissonance and identity disturbance. Since identity refers to self-definition as being a part of a wider community and is therefore dynamically associated with societal conditions, fear of poverty, social exclusion and marginalization may seriously damage self-esteem (Elliot, 2015). Economic uncertainty brings about an atmosphere of contingency, unpredictability, and discontinuity, making it challenging to attain and maintain a strong sense of identity (Johansson, 2006). Uncertain times often have a significant impact on people's context and situation dependent identities, and certain economic factors may modify one's social and economic status. Identity is at the same time personally and social constructed (Vignoles et al., 2011). Diverse socially constructed semi-identities help people navigate different situations (Wetherell and Mohanty, 2010). Identity disturbance stems from psychoanalytic construct of identity diffusion, a pathological state whereby one experiences disintegration of inner continuity and problems with occupational, social, and intimate relations. Kernberg (1985) refers to it as "the lack of an Danijela Godinic, Bojan Obrenovic, Akmal Khudaykulov Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 64 integrated self-concept and an integrated and stable concept of total objects in relationship with the self" (p. 39) Figure 1: Research model 2.1 Psychological Well-Being COVID-19 pandemic created a pervasive atmosphere of general uncertainty concerning the overall state of the economy, finances, social relations, and health. Social distancing and isolation cause severe damage to psyche and well-being, followed by a drastic increase in the number of reported cases of mental disorders and suicidal ideation (Kawohl and Nordt, 2020). Breakdown in social interaction and losing control are not only drivers of mental deterioration but also economic uncertainty (Reneflot and Evensen, 2014). As the number of unemployed individuals exceeds 190 million, there are raising concerns about future employment, financial income, mortgages, and the rate of post-crisis economic recovery (Gangopadhyaya and Garrett, 2020). All of these concerns have put strains on individuals' well-being, as well as the well-being of entire societies (Pompili et al., 2014). Uncertainty is characterized as the presence of ambiguous, complex, and unpredictable conditions and a lack of information availability and consistency, where people doubt public, general, and their own knowledge (Brashers, 2001). Building on Conservation of Resources Theory, every uncertainty has a detrimental effect on mental health, causing psychological distress and emotional exhaustion due to deprivation of resources that are invested in regulating the mood and maintaining stability. Psychological well-being relates to positive emotional and mental states, such as happiness and satisfaction. The construct refers to the extent to which individuals experience positive emotions in life with regards to meaningful and affectionate relationships with others, personal growth, purpose in life and autonomy free of social pressures. Psychological well-being is influenced by previous experience and underlying personality, and while it is relatively stable during one's lifetime, stressful events and traumatic experiences may predispose individuals to mood and anxiety disorders (Gladstone et al., 2004). Such are the incidences of major catastrophic events of natural disasters or epidemics like COVID-19, posing great threat both to physical and mental welfare. Many studies reported the impact of financial stressors of economic crises on psychological well-being (Jesus et al., 2016; Catalano et al., 2011; Althouse et al., 2014). Economic uncertainty was associated with distress, depression, Econmic uncertainty Psychological well-being Job uncertainty Social identity disturbance Danijela Godinic, Bojan Obrenovic, Akmal Khudaykulov Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 65 PTSD (Leon, 2004; Neria et al., 2007), anxiety (Foa et al., 2006), dysfunctional impulsivity, suicidal ideation, and hypertension. Following the disastrous effect of 2008 financial crisis, business scholars, economists, psychologists, and psychiatrists worldwide have focused on exploring the impact of unemployment on psychological health and well-being (Green, 2011; Huber et al., 2011). Several studies found that the Great Recession caused a staggering amount of suicide instances and mental illnesses (Lo and Cheng, 2014; Phillips and Nugent, 2014). For example, mental health was negatively affected by the Recession period and unemployment (Flin et al., 2013). Significant attention was dedicated to the investigation of the relationship between economic challenges and suicidal rate (Branas et al., 2015; De Vogli et al., 2013). It was also theorized that economic pressure has a detrimental effect on families. Married couples are often uncertain about spending, financial management and problems, struggling to communicate their worries and find an optimal solution even during stability. Moreover, economic uncertainty prompts imagining of different negative scenarios and damages psychological well-being (Leininger and Kalil, 2014). Dissatisfaction and perceived unmanageability stemming from crisis put a strain on a lot of marriages, resulting in increased conflict, divorce rate and propensity for partner violence (Obrenovic et al., 2020; Lucero et al., 2016). Gradual built up of collective fear, panic, depression, aggression, and agitation all induce marital arguments, as people are more prone to lashing out on a partner when they're coping with acute problems under severe stress. In a response to COVID-19 crisis, many state-level policies were implemented to help save countries' economies, and to avoid major closings, salaries were reduced. Employees relying heavily on extrinsic rewards and incentives to boost their self-esteem, may now feel less accomplished and experience depression (Giorgi et al., 2015). Job insecurity is a stressor on its own. Work functions as a major determinant of individual well-being, and this is the exact reason why public welfare policies aiming at increasing collective psychological well-being typically include measures and interventions for the working population and prospective working population, such as career development counselling, scholarship and training. Depression and anxiety were associated with impaired psychosocial and occupational functioning (Hussain et al., 2011; Alonso et al., 2004; Druss et al., 2009). The health of the populations depends upon socioeconomic conditions, medical, education and employment policies, and it is plausible that each shift in these determinants will be reflected in societal well-being. Economic uncertainty aggravates mental illness through risk factors of unemployment, downturns, debts, and recession. It is possible to measure the decrease in the psychological well-being of individuals during COVID-19, as well as other economic uncertainty crisis by a number of available indicators, such as symptomatic self-rated test and reports, reports on substance-abuse, reports on self-harming behaviour and suicidal mortality rate reports. Economic variables to be considered are pre-crisis and post-crisis period financial state, unemployment rate, contraction in GDP. The economic breakdown caused by catastrophes is often followed by an increase in depression and anxiety disorders since it affects not only psychological and physical health but also causes disruptions in a healthy emotional and social functioning (Reichert and Tauchmann, 2011). Therefore, we conclude the following: Hypothesis 1. Economic uncertainty has a negative impact on psychological wellbeing 2.2 Job Uncertainty There is a growing body of research focusing on the health repercussions of job uncertainty (Marcus, 2012; Deb et al., 2011; Browning and Hinesen, 2012). It is only logical that disasters such as COVID-19 characterized by economic uncertainty will bring about a job uncertainty, and prompt general depression, an increase in suicidal tendencies (Eliason and Storrie, 2009), and mental disorders that can be measured using General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12). Apart Danijela Godinic, Bojan Obrenovic, Akmal Khudaykulov Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 66 from monetary, a job ensures many non-monetary benefits, such as actively organized time, social status, higher purpose, organizational participation, access to training, medical care, insurance and counselling, statutory entitlements, feeling of accomplishment etc. (Breman and van der Linden, 2014). The self-efficacy belief, sense of being able to follow through, develop and contribute is one of the central aspects of organizational behaviour (Parker, 2014). In line with self-determination theory, people tend to engage in activities they consider motivating and meaningful (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Working promotes well-being by enabling one to meet his relational needs (Flum, 2015), and losing job leads to isolation and depression since one becomes deprived of relational interaction which is one of the most valuable psychological resources (Blustein et al., 2019; Wanberg, 2012). Scholars often define job insecurity as "the overall concern about the future existence of the job" (Rosenblatt and Ruvio, 1996). Since the concept does not include one's entire career or prospect jobs but is restricted to a current position and employer, it relies on unique organizational, social and economic factors, which in turn influence it. Furthermore, it is comprised of cognitive and affective elements (Huang et al., 2012a). Cognitive job insecurity relates to the perception of the probability of negative changes, while affective represents the experience of being in the state of anxiety over losing the job. In line with appraisal and COR theory, some scholars have posited a reciprocal relationship between job insecurity and employee well-being due to a viable threat to the valuable resource (Vander Elst et al., 2014b; Endler et al., 2001). Job insecurity is a stressor consuming mental and affective resources thus causing psychological strain (Staufenbiel and Konig, 2010). Furthermore, according to the Social Exchange Theory, individuals and organization form an exchange relationship, where employees expect job certainty from the employer. When this is achieved, it is called person-organization fit (Margaretha and Wicaksana, 2020). In the time of uncertainty, when this security may not be provided, they withdraw their efforts and resources. Drawing on the stress-retention model of absenteeism, employees' negative appraisal of economic uncertainty and job uncertainty will increase psychological distress and absenteeism from work (Montani et al., 2019). Wang et al. (2015) found that for employees, fair treatment is even more critical in the time of uncertainty than during stability. When a crisis strikes, individuals who dwell on their ability, competency or future employability will perceive the crisis as more acute, alarming and destabilizing. Perceived alternatives, whether grounded in real conditions or not, are better means for dealing with uncertainty since one's perception is his subjective reality and may feel as acute as real-world objectivity (Huang et al., 2013). Yet, the actual employability is also helpful in times of economic uncertainty (Giorgi et al., 2015). Additionally, supervisor support and sharing of information may help to mitigate the risks of psychological distress. In contrast, withholding of crucial information regarding the certainty of one's future employment status reduces psychological well-being. The most severe consequences of this macro-scale global crisis are job uncertainty, unemployment, and health risks. Inflation decreased income, increase in health-care costs and lower capacity of social services all come at the expense, and it is not necessarily financial expense. Often, a job provides a certain level of security and functions as a buffer against extreme panic, and job uncertainty annihilates this shield and exposes one to drastic fear that may result in PTSD. Individuals are not vulnerable to job uncertainty to the same extent. For instance, immigrant or undocumented employees will not be affected by the crisis equally as permanently employed, since they will lack experience and tenure due to missing papers. Also, it would be more challenging for them to find opportunity quickly, which makes them even more fearful (Frasquilho et al., 2016). Often employees working without application and for lower wages have an entire family relying on them for continuity; therefore, they will be more alarmed by Danijela Godinic, Bojan Obrenovic, Akmal Khudaykulov Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 67 perceived uncertainty. Furthermore, any news about job loss or lay-offs from friends and family will increase the fear of economic uncertainty. After the 2008 economic Recession, almost half European citizens reported knowing someone who had lost the job due to crisis (European Commission Report, 2013). Psychologists and psychiatrists alike have already pointed out that anticipation of a stressful event is at times a higher source of angst than the event itself (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). Caroli and Goddard (2016) found that job insecurity may be more stressful than the actual lay-off since knowing of unemployment helps one to focus on planning future actions, while anticipation leaves one struggling. Therefore, we conclude the following: Hypothesis 2. Economic uncertainty has a positive impact on job uncertainty 2.3 Social Identity Disturbance Social identity theory posits that an individuals' sense of who they are is based on the group membership in the relevant social associations one inhabits. Groups provide people with a social identity, sense of belonging and satisfy the basic need for affiliation. The self is constituted of different semi-identities one attributes to his being, and for the mental stability and continuous sense of being these identities are to be verified in a social context by other people (Berger and Luckmann, 1967; Laing, 1960). Côte and Levine (2002) differentiate between personal level identity relating to behavioural person-specific patterns and group level identity following from association in certain social groups and their meanings. When a crisis arises, such as COVID-19 public welfare policy of social distancing and inherent economic uncertainty, people are experiencing identity disturbances, depression, and may even exhibit symptoms of temporary psychosis. Pandemic has even more dangerous effect on those already suffering from mental health issues, especially personality disorders. Those on the borderline and schizophrenia spectrum may under stress experience dissociative states associated with excessive selfcriticism (DSM-V). The crisis will hit the hardest people experiencing identity disturbances, but this does not mean it can't have severe consequences for healthy people as well. Identity disturbance refers to the lack of continuity in self-image, confusion about oneself, uncertainty about aspirations, values, choices and long-term goals, including career plans. Following this, it's not hard to understand why many functional people may experience instability during economic uncertainty, especially when the increase in unemployment has left people with general fear and insecurity regarding their future, and their prospective careers. Furthermore, it is not rare that a person identifies with his social or work role, and begins to define his status and character in terms of the function they exercise. Disruption of business as usual caused reconfiguration and reorganization of work activities in many enterprises, resulting in redefining certain positions and forming new emergent teams. These emergency strategies may lead to increased role ambiguity and role conflict, causing stress and damage to individuals' psychological well-being. The more individuals have identified themselves with their roles, the less flexible they are and the more identity disturbance uncertainty will stimulate. DSM-5 Diagnostic Statistics Manual for mental disorders describes it as having an unstable self-image or sense of self, with a lack of clear aims and internal preferences. Zanderson and Parnas (2019) in examining the phenomenological nature of identity disturbance differentiate between "core" and "narrative" selfhood, and discrepancies may occur along both of these lines. Cognitive dissonance may occur when an individual who perceives his identity in a certain way is affected by the crisis and uncertainty to that extent that his current state contradicts his-selfimage. As a consequence, damage to psychological well-being may lead to mental disorders and social dysfunction while an individual try to work through his subjective self-identity and his objective identity in a new situation. Dissonance happens when individuals are faced with information that is conflicting to their already existing beliefs, opinions and values, causing the unpleasant sense of being caught between opposite forces (Iyenegar, 2010). To eliminate the dissonance, people often engage in self-deception, and this leads to two paradoxes of what Danijela Godinic, Bojan Obrenovic, Akmal Khudaykulov Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 68 Lipari (2018) refers to as motivational bias. One coping strategy to eliminate the distress caused by economic uncertainty is concerned with maintaining a specific self-assessment belief, such as rendering sills one does not possess irrelevant or stressing the value of traits one has (Oxoby, 2004; Rabin 1994). This may be harmful when one is ascribing a certain status or social position to himself, and his economic and objective reality is far different. Burke (2020) defines identity as a set of meanings one holds with regards to what it means to be who one is in a role it assumes, therefore it is an umbrella term for role identities, social identities and personal identities. Following the uncertainty-identity theory (Hogg, 2007), when people are uncertain about the self, they begin to devalue themselves. The psychoanalyst Erik Erikson (1968) described identity as experiencing the continuity and sameness of the self that stems from devoting to certain ideals, virtues and goals. Goals guide individual in pursuing objectives in order to fulfill one's need in a given environment (Hudaykulov et al., 2015). Since identity refers to self-definition as being a part of a wider community and is therefore dynamically associated with societal conditions, fear of poverty, social exclusion and marginalization may seriously damage self-esteem (Elliot, 2015). Recent sociological studies take identity instead of static, to be multidimensional, constituted of diverse context-dependent, social and relationally defined semi-identities which individual utilizes to manage and navigate through different situations (Wetherell and Mohanty, 2010). These are fluctuating, indeterminate and dependent on more comprehensive socio-economic settings. Therefore, identity is simultaneously fluid and stable and personally and socially constructed (Vignoles et al., 2011). Limited access to work (Fabian, 2013), financial resources (Thompson et al., 2017; Smith, 2015), healthcare services and poverty (Flores et al., 2017) result in psychological, social and economic damage (Blustein et al., 2019). Economic uncertainty brings about an atmosphere of contingency, unpredictability and discontinuity, making it challenging to attain and maintain a strong sense of identity (Johansson, 2006). Therefore, we conclude the following: Hypothesis 3. Economic uncertainty has a positive relationship with social identity disturbance 3. Discussion When economic uncertainty emerges, people are less prone to prosocial behaviours due to their concern and occupation with arising financial and family situation. Crises may have enormous long-term consequences for health and liquidity of not just individuals, but entire societies, and drawing from the previous disaster lessons, a new "normal" will for some time be a state of general panic, worry, anxiety and job insecurity. COVID-19 has already caused the bankruptcy of many enterprises, lock-downs, shut-downs of businesses, employee lay-offs, lack of resources, and more is to follow in the following months. It is not absurd to imagine many will experience trauma-inducing fear of losing the job, and some will leave the pandemic with PTSD. Since work has functions directly related to individuals' psychological health and self-esteem, job insecurity inevitably has implications to one's identity, self-efficacy beliefs, confidence and social support system. The threat is thus not only financial but rather multidimensional. Losing a job often entails depression and self-isolation, and since no man is an island, withdrawal is detrimental to psychological well-being. Economic hardship is associated with mental health problems (Greenglas et al., 2014). Economic turmoil posing job uncertainty may result in distress, feeling of helplessness, suicidal ideation, paranoia, and substance abuse (Prawitz et al., 2006; Almeida and Xavier, 2013). Unemployment is found to be associated with mental health (Bijlsma et al., 2017; Jofre-Bonet et al., 2018), and job insecurity leads to severe psychological damage (Caroli and Godard, 2016; Bünnings et al., 2017), especially considering the possible consequences of losing jobs such as social stigma and loss of social support (Gathergood, 2005). Danijela Godinic, Bojan Obrenovic, Akmal Khudaykulov Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 69 Possessing a sense of identity and coherence regarding one's aspirations and meaning in life is crucial for social integration (Mannerström, 2019). Knowing who you are and where you see yourself in the future is essential for psychological well-being, and precisely this experience of stability, continuity and identity is bound to decrease when economic uncertainty strikes. Socioeconomic circumstances are related to a person's financial, occupational and developmental state. One achieves a sense of identity with independence, and in large independent cohabitation, good education, financial stability and permanent employment help to build identity resilience (Elder and Giele, 2009). Economic uncertainty has already resulted in many lockdowns, downsizing and employee lay-offs. Uncertainty may manifest as the negative experience of doubt and ambiguity that is induced by external conditions and situations. When people lose jobs, or when they are quarantined, they lack the necessary confirmation, psychological and social support and verification, they are used to receive in the workplace. The greater the necessity for affiliation, the greater the psychological distress during the crisis will be (Casale and Flett, 2020). Interpersonal fears of missing out and fear of not mattering may become acute and have a severe impact on identity for people now confronted with inconsistency between their innate needs and the new reality. Those who have lost their jobs due to current crisis may have difficulties in readjusting and coming to terms with the new situation that requires probabilistic reasoning (Aitken and Mavridis, 2019). They will struggle to reconcile their prior and new identity, as many of them are rapidly becoming a part of the unemployed or low-income population. 4. Conclusion Mental health is the essence of public health and it is significant for many countries going through the same economic crisis, either by laying off employees or by being deprived of a vital labour force due to psychological consequences. Following the Conservation of Resources Theory, health is considered to be a resource for overall well-being, whereby healthy worker invests his cognitive capital and energy to increase organizational performance and productivity. Under the usual conditions that are characteristic for stability, positive attitude towards one's self-efficacy and accomplishment are deemed a resource that may be utilized as a coping strategy in reducing stressors. But for the ones that experienced mental health disturbances even before the crisis, it may be the case they lack these resources, thus practising absenteeism and withdrawal. Disordered people lack the flexibility that underlies identity resilience amid stress and chaos, and they find it more difficult to readjust to the emerging situation. The economic repercussions of mental problems identified as the loss in productivity were estimated to 3-4% of GDP in the European Union during the Great Recession (WHO, 2007). To achieve sustainability and efficiency as a driving force to overcome uncertainty and stimulate growth, it is critical to attend to the national mental health and devise incentives and social-welfare policies providing disabled individuals with necessary treatment and support during the crisis. Working advances mental health, therefore job certainty is one of the main pillars providing stability. When the uncertainty emerges, all sense of perceived control diminishes, and the need for selfactualization and relatedness is threatened. The mind responds to a perceived threat in diverse ways, but when such danger is prolonged, one may resort to isolation and fall into a depressive state, and even become suicidal. It can be said that permanent employment and regular income predicts good mental health, and from that, we can infer what is the case when unemployment and instability arises. Economic uncertainty and job uncertainty will lead to reduced psychological well-being. The working arrangement provides an individual with meaningful social relationships and commitment, civic participation, trust and a sense of belonging. One of the biggest threats to mental health stems not from the loss of monetary rewards, but social and relational deprivation and decrease in self-determination. A more in-depth insight into the psychological dynamics of crisis and hazards help to devise schemes, welfare policies and healthcare initiatives for individuals to facilitate coping with catastrophic events. By Danijela Godinic, Bojan Obrenovic, Akmal Khudaykulov Effects of Economic Uncertainty on Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context: Social Identity Disturbance, Job Uncertainty and Psychological Well-Being Model 70 understanding these circumstances, more efficient strategies can be employed to prevent the increase of mental illnesses and lower the extremity of economic consequences. References  Aitken, C., & Mavridis, D. (2019). Reasoning under uncertainty. 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Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Psalms, Psalm 53 (translation)

Philosophy

English translation of Thomas Aquinas' Commentary on the Psalms, Psalm 53

/2/23, 2:31 PM Psalm 53 hosted.desales.edu/w4/philtheo/loughlin/ATP/Psalm_53.html 1/5 Psalm 53 In finem in carminibus intellectus David cum venissent Ziphei et dixissent ad Saul nonne David absconditus est apud nos. Unto the end, In verses, understanding for David. When the men of Ziph had come and said to Saul: Is not David hidden with us? a. Deus in nomine tuo salvum me fac et in virtute tua iudica me. Deus exaudi orationem meam auribus: percipe verba oris mei. Save me, O God, by thy name, and judge me in thy strength, O God, hear my prayer: give ear to the words of my mouth. b. Quoniam alieni insurrexerunt adversum me et fortes quaesierunt animam meam: non proposuerunt Deum ante conspectum suum diapsalma. For strangers have risen up against me; and the mighty have sought after my soul: and they have not set God before their eyes. c. Ecce enim Deus adiuvat me Dominus susceptor animae meae. For behold God is my helper: and the Lord is the protector of my soul. d. Averte mala inimicis meis in veritate tua disperde illos. Turn back the evils upon my enemies; and cut them off in thy truth. e. Voluntarie sacrificabo tibi confitebor nomini tuo Domine quoniam bonum. Quoniam ex omni tribulatione eripuisti me et super inimicos meos despexit oculus meus I will freely sacrifice to thee, and will give praise, O God, to thy name: because it is good: For thou hast delivered me out of all trouble: and my eye hath looked down upon my enemies. a. Deus in nomine tuo. Supra in aliis psalmis psalmista exaggeravit iniquitatem peccatorum quantum ad affectum peccati et contemptum Dei; hic exponit persecutionem quam ab eis patitur. O God, by thy name. Above, in the previous two Psalms, the Psalmist presented emphatically the wickedness of sinners in so far as its was a matter of the desire for sin and the contempt of God; here he sets forth the persecution that he suffers at their hands. Titulus: in finem intellectus David in carminibus. Prima pars tituli plana est. Secunda tangit historiam quae scripta est 1 Reg. 23, quando David pervenit ad desertum Ziph civitatis, et homines illius civitatis accusaverunt David Sauli, et Saul persecutus est eum, non tamen potuit eum comprehendere; unde haec accusatio non nocuit David, in quo significatur quod Ziphaei, idest florentes in hoc mundo; Isai.40 : Gloria mundi quasi flos agri [omnis gloria eius quasi flos agri], accusant sanctos, nec tamen nocere possunt, quia sanctus occultatur apud Ziphaeos, quia sanctus inter peccatores non floret, sed floritio eius est in occulto; scilicet flores honestatis. Coloss. 3: vita vestra abscondita est cum Christo. Agit ergo David in psalmo isto de bonis qui absconditi sunt inter malos et persecutionem patiuntur ab eis. The title reads: Unto the end, In verses, understanding for David. The first part of the title is quite clear. The second part touches upon the story that is written in 1 Kings 23, when David came to the desert of the community of Ziph, and the men of that community denounced David to Saul, and Saul pursued him, but nevertheless was not able to seize him; so, this denunciation did not injure David,by which is signified the Ziphians, that is, those flourishing in this world, [Isaias 40: The glory of the world is like the flower of the field (all its glory is as the flower of the field)], who brought charges against the holy, but were not able to injure them, for the holy one [David] was hidden even among the Ziphians; a holy person does not flourish among sinners, but rather his flowering (namely the flowers of genuine goodness) is in secret; namely the flowers of genuine goodness; Colossians 3: And your life is hid with Christ in God. David speaks therefore in this Psalm about the good people who are hidden among the evil people and the persecutions that they suffer from them. Dividitur ergo psalmus iste in partes tres. Primo praemittit orationem. Secundo ostendit Therefore this Psalm is divided into three parts. In the first part, he presents his prayer. In the second 10/2/23, 2:31 PM Psalm 53 hosted.desales.edu/w4/philtheo/loughlin/ATP/Psalm_53.html 2/5 necessitatem orandi, ibi, Quoniam alieni. Tertio praemittit recompensationem, ibi, Voluntarie sacrificabo. he indicates the grave reason for prayer, at For strangers. Third he makes recompense, at I will freely sacrifice. Circa primum duo facit. Primo ponit petitionem. Secundo ponit exauditionem, ibi, Deus exaudi. Petitio sua circa duo versatur. Primo enim petit pro se. Secundo pro inimicis. Pro se enim petit ut salvetur, non per merita sua sed propter amorem divini nominis. Unde dicit: Deus in nomine tuo salvum me fac. Act. 4: Non est aliud nomen datum sub coelo, etc.. Prov. 18: Turris fortissima nomen Domini. With respect to the first he does two things. First he sets out what he is asking for. Second, he sets out the hearing of this, at O God hear my prayer. His prayer is occupied with two concerns. First, he asks on his own account. Second, on the account of his enemies. On his account, he prays that he be saved, not by his own merits, but according to the love of the divine name. For this reason, he says, Save me, O God, by thy name; Acts 4: For there is no other name under heaven given to men, whereby we must be saved; Proverbs 18: The name of the Lord is a strong tower. Pro adversariis petit iudicium quod potest tripliciter intelligi. Uno modo de iudicio discretionis, ut scilicet eiuscausa discutiatur ab eis. Ps. 42: Iudica me, Deus, et discerne. Alio modo ut intelligatur de iudicio persecutionis, ut scilicet secundum suam iustitiam iudicet eum, liberando ipsum a malis. Isai. 11: Iudicabit in iustitia pauperes. Alio modo de iudicio condemnationis. Et hoc non petit ex desiderio vindictae sed conformando se divinae iustitiae. On the account of his opponents he asks for a judgement, which can be understood in three ways. In one manner, as a judgement of disclosure, namely so that his cause may be considered by them; Psalm 42: Judge me, O God, and distinguish my cause. In another manner, so that it is understood as a judgement about the persecution [they impose], so that he be judged according to his own justice, by freeing him from evil people [who would judge him]; Isaias 11: But he shall judge the poor with justice. And, in another manner, as a judgment of condemnation. And he does not ask for this out of a desire for vengeance, but rather by conforming himself to divine justice. Vel hoc dicit malorum iudicium praevidendo. Et hoc est quod dicit, Et in virtute tua iudica me, Deus, exaudi orationem meam. Hic ponitur exauditio. In oratione sunt duo. Scilicet illud quod petitur, et petitio. Quandoque autem Deus exaudit quod petitur, et non ipsam petitionem, quia id quod petitur aliquis impetrat ex gratia et misericordia; et haec sunt a Deo donata. Sed ipsa petitio aliquando fit a peccatore; et ideo non est exaudita, quia non est Deo accepta. Et ideo petit, scilicet ut sua oratio sive petitio impleatur cum dicit: Deus, exaudi orationem meam, et quod sua verba percipiat auribus, Auribus percipe verba oris mei; quod fit quando sua verba Deus acceptat et approbat. Ps. 5 : Verba mea auribus, etc. Or he says this with an eye to the judgement of the wicked. And this is what he says, And judge me in thy strength, O God, hear my prayer. Here, he sets down the hearing of his cause. There are two things in his prayer, namely, that which is asked for, and the petition itself. When God hears the cause that is asked for, but not however, the petition itself, this is because that which is asked for is gotten by somebody out of grace and pity; and these are given by God. But the very same petition can be made by a sinner; and thus this is not heard, since it is not acceptable to God. So, he asks precisely that his prayer or petition be fulfilled when he says: O God, hear my prayer, and that his words be heard by [His] ears, Give ear to the words of my mouth, which takes place when God accepts and approves of his words; Psalm 5: Give ear, O Lord, to my words. b. Quoniam alieni insurrexerunt. Hic ponit necessitatem orandi, ubi exaggerat persecutionem hostium, primo ex eorum affectu. Secundo ex potentia. Tertio ex contemptu Dei. For strangers have risen up against me. Here he presents the grave reason for his praying, where he treats at length the persecution these enemies make against him, first from their disposition and desire. Second from their power. Third, from their contempt of God. 10/2/23, 2:31 PM Psalm 53 hosted.desales.edu/w4/philtheo/loughlin/ATP/Psalm_53.html 3/5 Ex affectu quia quando aliquis omnino alienus ab aliquo persequitur aliquem, hoc est periculosum, quia sine misericordia in eum insurgit; et ideo dicit, Quoniam alieni, idest daemones, vel peccatores. Si referatur ad quemlibet iustum, Insurrexerunt adversum me sine aliqua compassione sive misericordia. Sed alieni possunt dici qui aliter se habent quam amici, sicut Saul alienus erat a David, et Ziphaei qui accusaverunt eum Sauli. Iob 19: Noti mei quasi alieni recesserunt a me. From their desire because, when somebody persecutes somebody else who is a total stranger to him, this is a most dangerous condition, because he rises up against him without any pity; and therefore he says, For strangers, that is demons, or sinners. If this refers to any particular just person, [they] Have risen up against me, without any compassion or pity. But the term "alien" can be said of any who are otherwise related than as friends, just as Saul was alien to David, and the Ziphians who denounced him to Saul; Job 19: And my acquaintance like strangers have departed from me. Ex potentia, quia quando debilis invadit potest se quis defendere; sed isti sunt fortes, quia Fortes quaesierunt animam meam. 1 Reg. 24: Saul elegit tria millia virorum ad persequendum David. Vel fortes, idest daemones. Luc. 11: Cum fortis armatus, idest diabolus, etc. From their power, because when somebody weak attacks, one can defend oneself; but these people are strong, since [the Psalmist states] The mighty have sought after my soul; 1 Kings 24: Saul therefore took three thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and went out to seek after David. Or the mighty are demons; Luke 11: When a strong man armed, that is, the devil, keepeth his court. Ex contemptu Dei, quia aliquando aliquis desistit a persecutione in quantum retinetur amore Dei. Sed isti nec propter hoc dimittunt, unde dicit, Et non proposuerunt Deum ante conspectum suum. Psalm: Dixit enim in corde suo: non requiret Deus. Out of contempt for God, in that sometimes somebody leaves off from persecuting in so far as they are held back [from injustice] by love of God. But these people do not renounce this on account of that reason, whence he says, And they have not set God before their eyes. c. Ecce enim Deus adiuvat me. Hic ostendit se esse in oratione exauditum. Et primo ostendit se esse exauditum quantum ad aliquid. Secundo ponit exauditum quantum ad alia, ibi, Averte mala. For behold God is my helper. Here he shows that he was heard in his prayer. And first he shows that he was heard with respect to something. And, second he writes of the hearing in respect to other things, at, Turn back the evils. Dictum est supra quod oratio erat pro se cum dicit: Salvum me fac, et pro inimicis cum dicit In virtute. Primo ergo dicit se exauditum pro se quia dicit se salvatum; et deinde dixit de inimicis qui insurrexerunt contra eum et qui quaerebant animam suam; et in utroque est salvatus, quia contra insultum inimicorum dicit, Ecce Deus adiuvat me, scilicet praebet mihi auxilium. Isai. 50: Dominus Deus auxiliator meus. It is said above that the prayer was on his account when he says: Save me, and on the account of his adversaries when he says, In Thy strength. He speaks first, therefore, on his own account because he says himself to be saved; Besides, he spoke about the adversaries that have risen up against him and who sought his soul; and in both of these conditions, he is saved, because against the insult of his adversaries, he says, For behold God is my helper, namely, he offers aid to me; Isaias 50: The Lord God is my helper. Contra hoc quod quaerit Animam meam dicit, Dominus susceptor est animae meae, quasi dicat: Dominus salvavit me suscipiendo me in sua tutela. Sapient. 3: Iustorum animae in manu Dei sunt. Psalm. 3: Tu autem, Domine, susceptor, etc. Against the fact that they seek My soul, he says, The Lord is the protector of my soul, as if to say: the Lord has saved me by taking me under his care; Wisdom 3: But the souls of the just are in the hand of God; Psalm 3: But thou, O Lord art my protector, my glory, and the lifter up of my head. d. Averte mala inimicis meis. Hic petit se exaudiri pro inimicis. Et petit duo contra duo quae faciebant in illo, quia persequebantur eum, et quaerebant eum occidere; et ideo petit ut ipsi patiantur persecutionem et occidantur. Turn back the evils upon my enemies. Here he asks that he be heard on account of his enemies. And he asks two things against the two that they did at that time, because they persecuted him, and they sought 10/2/23, 2:31 PM Psalm 53 hosted.desales.edu/w4/philtheo/loughlin/ATP/Psalm_53.html 4/5 to kill him; so, he asks that they suffer persecution and that they be slain. Quantum ad primum dicit, Averte, scilicet a me, Inimicis meis mala, quae mihi quaerunt inferre, quasi dicat: in eos illa mala averte quae volunt inferre mihi. Quantum ad secundum dicit, Disperde illos, idest fac ut disperdantur; idest occidantur; et hoc In virtute tua. Vel In virtute tua, idest propter potentiam tuam. As to the first, he says, Turn back, namely from me, The evils upon my enemies, that they seek to bring against me, as if to say, "turn back the evils on those who will to being them upon me". As to the second, he says, Cut them off, that is, make them be dissipated; that is, killed, and this In your strength. Or, In your strength means "on account of your power". Sed hoc videtur esse contra verbum Christi, qui dicit: orate pro persequentibus. Dicendum quod omnes istae imprecationes quae leguntur in prophetis, tripliciter possunt intelligi. But this appears to be against the expression of Christ, who says: "pray for those who persecute you". It is to be said that all of those curses that are read in the prophetic books can be understood in three ways. Uno modo per modum pronunciationis quia loquebantur spiritu Dei et praedicebant futura per modum orationis, quasi dicat Averte, etc., idest avertes. Unde in Hebraeo habetur de praesenti, avertis. In one way by the mode of declaration, because they discoursed through the spirit of God and predicted things to happen in the manner of prayer, as if he said, Turn back, etc. that is, "You will turn back". Whence, in the Hebrew, it has the present, "You turn back" Alio modo secundum conformitatem ad divinam iustitiam. In another way according to the conformity to divine justice. Tertio secundum spiritualem denunciationem. Peccatores quando desinunt peccare, tunc moriuntur et desinunt esse peccatores. Et hoc est continue precandum. In another way according to the spiritual denunciation. When sinners cease to sin, at that time they die and they cease to be sinners. And this is something to be prayed for continually. e. Voluntarie sacrificabo tibi. Hic ponit recompensationem. Et primo ponitur recompensatio. Secundo ponitur recompensationis ratio. Duo intendit recompensare sacrificium et confessionem. I will freely sacrifice to Thee. Here he sets down that which he gives in return. And first he sets down this recompense. Second he sets down the reason for this recompense. He intends to give back in return in two ways, by sacrifice and by giving praise. Quantum ad primum dicit, voluntarie sacrificabo tibi. Contra supra dixit si voluisses sacrificium, dedissem. Et dicendum quod hic dicit de sacrificio quod est acceptum Deo, quod est sacrificium spiritus contribulati et castigationis corporis. 1 Cor. 9: Castigo corpus meum, etc.. Rom. 12: Exhibeatis corpora vestra hostiam viventem, etc. As to the first, he says, I will freely sacrifice to Thee. Against the things above, he declares, "if you had wished a sacrifice, I would have given it". And, it is to be said that he says this about the sacrifice that is accepted by God, which is a sacrifice of an oppressed spirit and of chastising of the body; 1 Corinthians 9: But I chastise my body; Romans 12: That you present your bodies a living sacrifice, etc. Tertium sacrificium est de rebus melioribus. Hebr. ult.: Beneficentiae et communionis nolite oblivisci, talibus enim hostiis promeretur, idest placatur Deus. Hoc ergo triplici sacrificio Sacrificabo tibi, Voluntarie quia cum gaudio. 1 Esdrae 3: In omnibus in quibus offerebatur ultro sacrificium. 2 Cor. 9: Hilarem datorem diligit Deus. The third sacrifice is of the better things; Hebrews 13: And do not forget to do good, and to impart; for by such sacrifices God's favor is obtained. This therefore is the threefold sacrifice that I will . . . sacrifice to Thee, Freely, because with joy; 1 Esdras 3: And on all in which a freewill offering was made to the Lord; 2 Corinthians 9: For God loveth a cheerful giver. Quantum ad secundum dicit, confitebor nomini tuo, Domine, quoniam, scilicet per gratiarum actionem. Tob. 12: Benedicite Deum coeli, idest gratias agite. As to the second he says And [I] will give praise, O God, to thy name: namely by the giving of thanks, because it is good; Tobias 12: Bless ye the God of heaven, that is, give him thanks. 10/2/23, 2:31 PM Psalm 53 hosted.desales.edu/w4/philtheo/loughlin/ATP/Psalm_53.html 5/5 Et quare? Non propter bona temporalia, sicut peccatores faciunt, de quibus dicitur confitebitur tibi cum benefeceris ei. Sed propter Dei bonitatem et benignitatem, et propter beneficia suscepta, quia exauditus sum in petitionibus meis. And why? Not for temporal goods, just as sinners do, about whom it is said that "he will praise you when you will have done him benefit". But for God's goodness and friendliness, and for the benefits received, for I have been heard in my petitions. Unde dicit se exauditum in se cum dicit, Quoniam ex omni tribulatione eripuisti me. Et tibi quantum ad inimicos, quia Super inimicos meos despexit oculus meus, quia non potuerunt mihi nocere. Vel Despexit, etc., quia contempsit eorum felicitatem et prosperitatem: Ps. 14: Ad nihilum deductus est, etc. So, he speaks of this hearing of his case when he says, For thou hast delivered me out of all trouble. And I will even praise you in regards to my enemies, because My eye hath looked down upon my enemies, because they were not able to kill me, or, Hath looked down, etc., because he disdains their happiness and prosperity; Psalm 14: In his sight the malignant is brought to nothing. © Dr. Gregory Sadler (email@example.com) The Aquinas Translation Project (http://www4.desales.edu/~philtheo/loughlin/ATP/index.html)