Enter Author Name Without Selecting A. Profile: Muhina Natalia, E.

Philosophy

__________________________________________________________ The Health System and the Russian Orthodox Church: Prospects for Development Ershov Bogdan Anatolievich, Muhina Natalia Evgenievna, Voronezh State Technical University, Moskovsky Prospect, 14, Voronezh, Russia, E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com, 8-919-243-06-34 ABSTRACT: The article examines the participation and assistance of the Orthodox Church in solving problems that allowed to give a scientific justification for the cooperation of health care and Orthodox religious institutions, to determine their role in the historical context and structure of modern healthcare in Russia. The article presents an algorithm for organizing sisters of mercy, their system of upbringing. Particular attention is given to the possibility of teaching the course "Foundations of Orthodox Culture" in secular educational institutions. Research materials can serve as a basis for the formation of morally sound positions of medical workers and the population on the main problems of medical activity. Based on the study, the authors published a series of articles in which the experience of the work of the Orthodox Church in the charitable sphere has been summarized. This experience can be used to create new charitable institutions, including those who provided medical assistance. In preparing the article, the authors used concrete historical, civilizational, formational and social methods of research that allowed us to uncover facts, phenomena and processes in the interconnection and unity of the past, present and future. KEYWORDS: Medicine, church, charity, state, priest. I. INTRODUCTION State-church relations as a combination of historically emerging and changing forms of relations between state institutions and religious organizations are one of the main parts of the domestic and foreign policies of any state. Russia has always been a multi-confessional country, here all major religious confessions coexist: Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, Judaism. At the same time, in the modern Russian consciousness there is a close connection between Orthodoxy and national identity. 80-82% of the population of Russia consider themselves Orthodox. The role of the Russian Orthodox Church in the economic and social life of the country was significant throughout the history of the country until October 1917. Even in the Old Russian period, the spiritual foundations of charity were formed under the influence of selfconsciousness. Since the late 1980's. in our country, the gradual return of the Church to the sphere of charity and medical and social services began, the process of uniting the interests of the Church and the state in the field of protecting human health was intensified. The main legal documents in this area were the "Fundamentals of Legislation on the Protection of Health of Citizens in the Russian Federation" of 1993 and the "Agreement on Cooperation between the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation and the Russian Orthodox Church." The importance of the church mission in the health sector was expressed in the creation of hospital temples, church hospitals and an almshouse. The number of monasteries engaged in social activities is increasing, fraternities are being organized. At the same time, the catastrophic situation in the field of public health in Russia is growing. The state public health system is developing mainly around the world, the volume of medical care often increases without regard for quality. Many researchers believe that the public health system can not function effectively under the current conditions. In this connection, studies that reflect the relationship between the Church and medical institutions in modern Russia are of great importance. . II. METHODOLOGY The study was conducted in the methodological field of the sociology of medicine. The research program was of a multistage nature and provided for the use of a methodology based on traditional methods of socio-hygienic, medical-organizational and historical-analytical nature, adapted to the specifics of the purposes followed by statistical processing and data analysis. In the work to achieve the goal and implement research tasks, a number of methods of concrete sociology are offered: a survey, indepth interviews, expert interviews, content analysis, a biographical method. The organizational chart of the interaction of Orthodox organizations and bodies of practical health, developed in this article, is based on historical traditions of the charitable activities of the Russian Orthodox Church. This scheme takes into account modern socio-economic realities. This scheme proved to be effective in the organization of medical care and can serve as a basic model for the development of cooperation between the Church and medical institutions. Given the deep historical evidence of the important role of Orthodox Christianity in preserving health and creating a healthy lifestyle for the population, it should be recognized that the development of special programs for cooperation between medical organizations and the Church is justified in modern conditions. III. RESULTS The article shows the results, which testify that medical and social assistance to the population of Russia is mainly under the aegis of monasteries. The nature and scope of this assistance in different periods were not the same and depended on the policy of state power towards the Church. If at the initial stages of the country's development there were no other shelters for the sick and disabled, with the exception of monasteries. By the beginning of the 20th century, shelters occupied a leading position in state, public and charitable organizations. They created a unique system of medical and social assistance to the population. The church has been active in this area since the late 1980s, and both traditional and new forms and methods of medico-social and charitable work were realized. The cooperation of the Church and the state in the field of health and social services, the legal basis of which is in the process of formation, testifies to the recognition of the Church in the life of Russian society, contributes to the expansion of social health and the participation of a wide range of people to solve health problems and revive the spiritual traditions of medicine. The Orthodox Church provides medical and social assistance to the following groups of people: terminal, somatic, mental, HIVinfected, drug addicts, patients with toxic and alcoholic diseases. The expediency of creating hospitals for religious confessions as a whole was recognized by 41.7% of doctors and 46.1% of patients. In addition, it can be noted that the main types of institutions that are actively engaged in medical and social activities are: a) medical institutions of a stationary type, incl. hospitals operating under the Moscow Patriarchate, diocesan hospitals, monastery hospitals, hospitals in theological schools; (b) outpatient medical facilities, including first aid centers for religious schools, monastic medical posts; (c) Medical and social institutions. For example, the diocesan hospital of Saint Blessed Xenia helps orphans and elderly people. The average length of stay in the hospital is 31 days. Among the patients, pensioners were 95.4%, disabled people 71.3%, lonely 30.4%. The hospital staff was selected from among Orthodox believers. The satisfaction of patients with treatment is high (98.4%) and the ratio of medical personnel (100.0%). A special form of medical and social activities of the Church are care centers (in 2016 in the Russian Federation, 14), designed for outpatient rehabilitation of mentally ill, alcoholics and drug addicts affected by totalitarian sects, psychics. The task of Orthodox priests and doctors is to closely cooperate in these centers. The course of rehabilitation takes an average of 1-2 years. In addition to institutions, the Church creates medical organizations that carry out their ministry in public medical and social institutions: for example, the society of Orthodox doctors; sisterhood of mercy, brotherhood of mercy, parish communities of hospital temples. The Society of Orthodox Physicians is a new form of association of medical workers for Russia on the basis of a religious community. Their goal is to provide medical and spiritual assistance to sick poor people, coordinate the activities of charitable brotherhoods and sisterhoods, organize a system of qualified diagnostic, therapeutic and preventive care for churchmen, discuss current medical problems in accordance with the canons of the Orthodox Church. For example, the society in Moscow consists of medical , scientific and educational and training departments. For the years 2000-2016. The number of people seeking help was about 25,000 people. Training courses for Orthodox doctors and psychologists have been organized. Today, the centers of the sisters of mercy, organized in Russia in the XIX century, demonstrated their effectiveness. Based on the analysis of the development of nursing, five main stages (periods) of the movement of nurses in Russia were identified. The distinctive features of this movement were medical and social assistance, strict morality, love and charity toward one's neighbor, diligence and dedication, discipline. In 2016, there are about 40 communities and groups of sisters of mercy in Russia. An algorithm for creating a community of sisters of mercy is developed and conceptual principles of its organization are formulated. The main thing is to find a job for a sister, where she can perform church obedience in addition to medical, within the framework of jointly developed contract documents regulating the status and order of service in the conditions of a particular institution. Clearly organized sisterhoods, consisting of religious, morally educated and at the same time professionally trained sisters, can undoubtedly provide more effective assistance to public health institutions and social workers, since there is a shortage of medical specialists of junior and middle level. The activities of nurses, based on Christian charity, combine medical care with spiritual care for the patient. The main goal of the sisterhood was to strengthen the moral and spiritual foundations of society. As a result, today the revival of the brotherly and sister movement is an objective process of returning to traditional forms of religious life in Russia. At the same time, the current socio-economic situation in the country does not allow many Orthodox movements and organizations to revive the church and social life and fully understand the tasks of social services. Despite the positive results in the social and philanthropic activities of individual brotherhoods and sisterhoods, the author believes that the revival of the sister movement is associated with the same problems that led to the suspension of the work of Orthodox brotherhoods. Today, 150 brotherhoods and sisterhoods registered with the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation operate independently and in isolation, without information and coordination However, despite the artificial suppression of the fraternal movement, the Unions of Orthodox brotherhoods should be attributed to institutions that seek to mobilize community and church organizations to jointly solve social, spiritual and ethical problems. In these unions, new technologies are being developed in various fields of medicine. In the percentage ratio, it looks like this. Thus, history shows that such forms of Orthodox life as brotherhood and sisterhood, unlike secular and some church institutions, can not be created or canceled only "from above". They are based on believers and want to fulfill one or another church ministry together. IV. DISCUSSION Some aspects of the participation of the Russian Orthodox Church in protecting public health were examined in the works of Mirsky MB, Pospelovsky D., Siluyanova IV, Filimonova SV, Cherkasova AE. and other domestic scientists. However, few works are devoted to a comprehensive study of the interaction of the Russian Orthodox Church with medical personnel. Almost in the scientific literature, there was no analysis of the participation of the Russian Orthodox Church in protecting the health of the population of the Voronezh Region. The author of this article proposes to classify various aspects of the historiography of this problem by periods. The first historiographical period from the beginning of the XIX century to the 70-ies. At that time, a complex historical work was carried out to collect and publish materials that had the character of historical data, reference data, the Charter of various institutions of public charity and education. Studies were often onesided and subjective, devoid of profound scientific medical analysis. The second historiographical period from the 70s. XIX century until 1917. During this period, a great leap was made in historical science for the collection, processing and publication of official documents and extensive factual materials, as well as bibliographic indexes. In the works of EE Golubinsky, AP Dobrolonsky, SG Runkevich, Runovsky, Znamensky, Klyuchevsky, Barsov, FV Blagovidov, B. Titlipov, B.II. Kudryavtseva, Papkova, Prugavina, Makariya (Bulgakova), Berdyaeva, various aspects of the development of medical charity were systematized. Scientists also considered the medical and social role of church parishes in the development of assistance to the needy. There was a significant amount of biographical work, about the most vivid representatives of the parish clergy and their ministry. Statistical information on the total number of medical societies and fraternities in the Russian Empire is also found in the encyclopedia "Russia", published in 1898. A valuable group are modern published reports and surveys that contain data on the history of the church and statistical work. Therefore, the relevance of studying the problems associated with the embodiment of Christian ideals in medical practice, both public and secular authors, is topical. Thus, in this article, all of the above indicates the necessity and importance of scientific research, conducted in terms of a systematic approach, in-depth analysis, justification and implementation of results in educational and medical institutions. V. CONCLUSION Currently, the medical and social charitable activities of the Russian Orthodox Church are actively developing. The cooperation of Orthodox organizations with medical institutions can give such positive results as: the revival of the spiritual traditions of medicine; awareness of the interdependence of man's spiritual and physical health; attraction of additional financial, organizational and especially human resources for medical care; formation of morally grounded positions of medical workers and the population on the main problems of medical ethics (bioethics); formation of a healthy lifestyle of the population and combating the spread of bad habits; expansion of the base of social health and involvement of the general public in solving health problems. The views of doctors and patients on the problems of clinical ethics (the relationship between a doctor and a patient, including the ethics of informing, obtaining informed consent for treatment, confidence indicators, medical secrets, etc.) are not very dependent on their attitude to the Orthodox faith. In the performance of their duties, most doctors prefer professional views on medicine. The opinions of many doctors and patients about modern medical technologies are not yet formed, they have no solid moral justification. There are significant differences in the assessment of modern biotechnology of doctors and patients, depending on their religious affiliations, and the views of church members are more in line with the norms of religious morality and medical ethics. The organizational chart of the interaction of Orthodox organizations and bodies of practical health, developed in this article, is based on historical traditions of the charitable activities of the Russian Orthodox Church. This scheme takes into account modern socio-economic realities, has proved effective in the organization of medical services and can become a basic model for the development of cooperation between the Church and medical institutions. REFERENCES American Medical Association, Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, Ethical considerations in the allocation of organs and other scarce medical resources for patients Archives of Internal Medicine. (1995) 155. 29-40. Benrubi, G. I., (1992) Euthanasia the Need for Procedural Safeguards New England Journal of Medicine. 326 / 3. 198. Cyril, Metropolitan. (2000) On the «Fundamentals of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church» The Anniversary Bishops' Council of the Russian Orthodox Church. Collection of reports and documents. 133-149. Dmitrieva, (1998) T.B. On urgent measures to implement the Concept of the Development of Health Care and Medical Science in the Russian Federation Problems of Social Hygiene and the History of Medicine. 1. 7. 25-28 Glushkova, V.A. (1985) Medical error and accident in medical practice Clinical surgery. 1. 63 64. Gromov, A.P. (1988) Medical duty, medical responsibility, medical secret Deontology in medicine. 73-122. International Commission on Occupational Health (ICOH), International Code of Ethics for Occupational Health Professionals (1992) Bull. Med. .82. 9. Ivanov, A.E. (1993) Mental Health of the Population: Demographic Aspect Health Protection of the Russian Federation. 12. 7-11. Karpov, A.S. (2002) On the interaction of state bodies, health services and the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church Health. 12. 12-16. Kondratiev, F.V. (2001) Orthodox-ethical aspects of euthanasia Orthodoxy and problems of bioethics. 98. Largey G., (1978) Reproductive technologies: sex selection Reich W. T. (ed.), Encyclopedia of bioethics.-The Free Press, New York, 1439-1443. Matveev, G.N. (2001) The modern hospital and the rights of the believer Sisterhood. 2. 38-39. Miller, F. G., (1994) Regulating Physician Assisted Death, New England Journal of Medicine. 14. 120. Not available А.В. Health Reforms: Problems and Prospects (2001) Orthodoxy and Bioethics. 9195. Shchepin, О.P. (2001) Problems of health of the population of the Russian Federation and its forecast for the period up to 2005 Problems of social medicine, public health services and history of medicine. 3. 3-10. Shevchenko, Y.L. (2000) Priority tasks of the Russian public health services for 2000 Bulletin of compulsory medical insurance. 1. 4-6. Siluyanova, I.V. (1998) Modern Medicine and Orthodoxy. Moscow: Publishing House of Holy Trinity Sergius Lavra. 296 p. Sorokina, Т.S. (1994) Russian Sisters of Mercy in the Crimean campaign of 1854-1856. Problems of social hygiene and history of medicine. 6. 51-53. Vasileva, O.Y. (1993) Russian Orthodox Church and Soviet Power in 1917-1927 Questions of History. 8. 40-54. Vlasov, P.V. (1987) History of the formation of nurses in Russia Med. sister. 3. 248-249.


Philosophy

PERSPECTIVE published: 10 December 2019 doi: 10.3389/fdata.2019.00043 Frontiers in Big Data | www.frontiersin.org 1 December 2019 | Volume 2 | Article 43 Edited by: Huan Liu, Arizona State University, United States Reviewed by: Adegboyega Ojo, National University of Ireland Galway, Ireland Ingmar Weber, Qatar Computing Research Institute, Qatar *Correspondence: Jean-Claude Burgelman firstname.lastname@example.com Corina Pascu firstname.lastname@example.com Specialty section: This article was submitted to Data Mining and Management, a section of the journal Frontiers in Big Data Received: 03 May 2019 Accepted: 18 November 2019 Published: 10 December 2019 Citation: Burgelman J-C, Pascu C, Szkuta K, Von Schomberg R, Karalopoulos A, Repanas K and Schouppe M (2019) Open Science, Open Data, and Open Scholarship: European Policies to Make Science Fit for the Twenty-First Century. Front. Big Data 2:43. doi: 10.3389/fdata.2019.00043 Open Science, Open Data, and Open Scholarship: European Policies to Make Science Fit for the Twenty-First Century Jean-Claude Burgelman*, Corina Pascu*, Katarzyna Szkuta, Rene Von Schomberg, Athanasios Karalopoulos, Konstantinos Repanas and Michel Schouppe Open Science, DG Research and Innovation, European Commission, Brussels, Belgium Open science will make science more efficient, reliable, and responsive to societal challenges. The European Commission has sought to advance open science policy from its inception in a holistic and integrated way, covering all aspects of the research cycle from scientific discovery and review to sharing knowledge, publishing, and outreach. We present the steps taken with a forward-looking perspective on the challenges laying ahead, in particular the necessary change of the rewards and incentives system for researchers (for which various actors are co-responsible and which goes beyond the mandate of the European Commission). Finally, we discuss the role of artificial intelligence (AI) within an open science perspective. Keywords: open science, open data, open access, open scholarship, European science policies, artificial intelligence OPEN SCIENCE IS SCIENCE FOR THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Open science as such is not a new concept, and many terms have been used to refer to the transformation of scientific practices, such as Science 2.0 (Burgelman et al., 2015; Szkuta and Osimo, 2016). Multiple approaches that exist to the transformation to open science (Fecher et al., 2015) are all rooted in the tradition of openness of science. The European Commission started using the term "open science" as a result of the public consultation on Science 2.0 Science in Transition in 2014 (European Commission, 2015). An overwhelming 42% of the nearly 500 respondents to this consultation (among which large scientific organizations or associations) preferred the term "open science" over alternatives such as Science 2.0. The European Commission respected this choice of the term, although the European policies are directed toward "open scholarship," as "open scholarship" reflects the inclusion of the humanities in the equation as well as emphasizing the open input side to science in the form of open collaboration and active data and knowledge sharing prior to publishing and other scientific open outputs. Horizon Europe, the new EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation, will promote open science in the full meaning of open scholarship. In this vein, Von Schomberg (2019) defined open scholarship as sharing knowledge and data as early as possible in the research process in open collaboration with all relevant knowledge actors. In this article, we employ the term "open science" in this broad meaning. Open science in essence refers to the transformation that science is undergoing due to globalization and ICT-just like any other sector in society-and it is therefore very likely that in the long term, the adjective open should not be necessary as science will be open by default. Burgelman et al. European Policies to Make Science Fit An early and well-known example of open science, from the pre-Internet stage is the Human Genome Project that started in 1990. The data on the human genome were widely shared among the scientific community in the course of the project while a moratorium on publishing was kept to encourage optimal collaboration. Because of this openness, they were able to decode the human genome in <15 years. Open science (or in fact, open scholarship) has shifted the prime focus of researchers away from publishing toward knowledge sharing. ICT is critically enabling open science, but open science is more than a technology-driven change. Several elements of the life cycle of research need to be in place. One of the most important ones for open science to succeed is open data. The latter is a condition sine qua non for reproducibility and scientific progress. Open data speed up the research process by facilitating re-use and enriching datasets (King, 2011; Piwowar et al., 2011; Whitlock, 2011) while making the most of (public) investment in the production of research data. Opening up data enables to detect false claims and inaccuracies and allows for replicability tests (e.g., Ioannidis and Khoury, 2011). In essence, it allows more use of the same investment and thus more scope for discovery, in particular, for addressing crosscutting research questions like most of the big challenges that affect the world (UN Sustainable Development Goals1). Finally, it gives credit to data creators increasing their citation rate and therefore their research impact (Piwowar et al., 2007). Opening up research data also impacts the social web (Tenopir et al., 2011; Wallis et al., 2013; Peters et al., 2016). The cases of the Ebola and Zika epidemics show on the one hand the advantages of open science and on the other side researchers' dilemmas. The many deaths due to the Ebola epidemic in West Africa during 2014–2016 could have been prevented (Knobloch et al., 1982) using existing public knowledge. On the verge of Ebola epidemics, researchers took the initiative to share data concerning the virus early on with the result that an experimental vaccine became quickly available2. The World Health Organization [World Health Organization (WHO), 2015] seeks a paradigm shift in the approach to information sharing in public health emergencies from one limited by embargoes set for publication timelines to open sharing using modern fit-for-purpose prepublication platforms. Researchers, journals, and funders will need to engage fully for this paradigm shift to occur. The WHO acknowledged that patents on natural genome sequences could be inhibitory for further research and product development and wants research entities to exercise discretion in patenting and licensing genome-related inventions so as not to inhibit product development and to ensure appropriate benefit sharing. The organization also wants scientific publishers not to penalize, but to encourage or mandate public sharing of relevant data. Zika was the next major emerging public health issue, following 1https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300 2WHO then requested in 2015 that the sharing of research data and results become the global norm during public health emergencies and mediated agreements with publishers to share information prior to publication. the Ebola example, which was encountered with effective initiatives based on open scholarship. The National Institutes of Health in the United States now requires grantees to make large-scale genomic data public by the time of publication at the latest. Shared use of data goes beyond one discipline, expanding the scope of research and diversifying perspectives (Fischer and Zigmond, 2010). It also allows for creation of new (meta) knowledge (Evans and Foster, 2011). Still, sharing data is impeded by lack of formal recognition as data citations are not yet standard practice (Costas et al., 2013) and by resistance from researchers who think that open data will jeopardize their individual publishing trajectory and impact (journal impact factors and citations; Scheliga and Friesike, 2014). Changing the reward and incentive system for researchers is a key open science challenge and a broader issue for which primarily the responsibility lies in the scientific community (universities and funders). This includes making open science practices rewardable and fundable as well as the employment of specific indicators for researchers' engagement with open science. A change of the reward and incentive system can only be stakeholders-driven, and it has to be bottom-up. This change also includes changing mind-sets of researchers to open up and share data and "seduction" to make open science easy, useful, and affordable3. EUROPEAN HOLISTIC POLICY TO OPEN SCIENCE To make sure that Europe's scientific eco system will be fit for the new modus operandi of open science, the European Commission in a co-design and co-development mode with the key scientific stakeholders developed a holistic policy to promote the changes needed for making open science a European reality4. The European Commission's approach has been embraced by several funders and institutions and used as a model for their own policies. It also inspired other continents to issue similar policies of statements, for instance, the calls for the research community to work together to realize "open science by design" (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2018), initiatives (such as the Australian research data infrastructure initiative5 and is now being translated to the supranational 3https://www.open-science-conference.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/EvaMendez.pdf 4For instance the Open Science Policy Platform established by the European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/research/openscience/index.cfm?pg=openscience-policy-platform 5https://www.rds.edu.au/single-post/2018/03/15/Developing-a-%E2%80 %98National-Research-Data-Cloud%E2%80%99-for-Australian-ResearchersRelease-from-the-Department-of-Education Frontiers in Big Data | www.frontiersin.org 2 December 2019 | Volume 2 | Article 43 Burgelman et al. European Policies to Make Science Fit level; G7 work in Open Science Working Group6), and OECD work on Enhanced Access to Data and Models (OECD, 2006) and Business models for sustainable research data repositories (OECD, 2017), the African Research Cloud (ARC), and UNESCO. The kickoff moment was the publication of the then new commissioner for research and innovation C. Moedas' vision for Europe "Open Innovation, Open Science, Open to the World." For the first time, a commissioner made addressing the changes in the science system one of its key priorities (European Commission, 2016a). Right from the start, the then director-general (DG) of the Commission for Research and Innovation, RJ Smits, wanted the Commission to lead by example by making7 open access to peer-reviewed publications mandatory and encouraging open access to research data for those projects funded by the EC. Access to and re-use of research data generated by Horizon 2020 and subsequent projects will be improved, and access will be maximized. In Horizon Europe, research data will be open by default while taking into account the need to balance openness and protection of scientific information, commercialization and Intellectual Property Rights, privacy concerns and security, following the principle "as open as possible, as closed as necessary." Data management plans (DMP) will become mandatory, even if not making research data open. The requirement for responsible data management will be separated from the requirement for providing open access to research data. Emphasis will be placed on supporting as much as possible the proliferation of data that are findable, accessible, interoperable, and re-usable (FAIR). Finally, the use of trusted or certified repositories and infrastructures like the European Open Science Cloud (EOSC) will be required for research data in some Horizon Europe work programs. Open access to publications is already mandatory in Horizon 2020. Researchers need to deposit a copy of the published version or final peer-reviewed manuscript in a repository of their choice at the latest on publication and ensure open access to the publication via the repository within 6 months of publication or 12 months in case of the social sciences and humanities. Repositories will continue to play a key role in the Commission's policy on open access in Horizon Europe. In 2018, the Commission decided to support Plan S' ambitions to move forward toward open access. Plan S was launched in September 2018 under the auspices of the president of Science Europe, Marc Schiltz, and former DG Robert-Jan Smits, with the aim that "After 1 January 2020, scientific publications resulting from research funded by public grants provided by national and 6The G7 Open Science Working Group (OSWG) has been established in 2016 by the G7, https://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/kokusaiteki/g7_2016/ 20160517communique.pdf. Its overarching ambition is to share expertise, exchange best practices and develop synergies on Open Science paradigms. The OSWG is jointly chaired by the European Commission and Japan. 7An initial open access pilot run in FP7 followed by a flexible open access for research data pilot in Horizon 2020 called "ORD pilot" aimed selected areas of Horizon 2020. The ORD pilot was extended gradually from several selected areas to all thematic areas of the Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme. European research councils and funding bodies must be published in compliant Open Access Journals or Platforms." As a supporting organization, the Commission is committed to accelerating the full transition toward open access to scientific publications and will continue to work in a concerted effort with cOAlition S members (research funders committed to Plan S) to ensure a consistent approach. Actions are now ongoing to complete the transition to open access in line with Plan S. In Horizon 2020, the Commission is enforcing its mandate on open access and supporting Plan S implementation without making legal changes (e.g., Open Research Europe platform, highlight of existing OA requirements, monitoring, and sanctioning). The implementation of Plan S in legal texts will be in Horizon Europe (Regulation/MGA), including Plan S principles, such as Intellectual Property Rights retention, open licenses, immediate open access, or the further requirements for repositories and OA venues. The Commission has also moved beyond open access to promote and advance open science. Open science practices will be embedded in selected Horizon Europe work programs, depending on the scientific discipline and their particular focus. Incentives will include eligibility of costs for practices such as early sharing of work or sharing research output beyond publications and data. The Commission is already exploring ways to ensure that researchers engaging in open science practices will be rewarded for that, and new-generation metrics such as data citation may be introduced to provide a more nuanced understanding of the wider impact of research publicly funded by the EC. Despite the many advantages of having open research data, there seems to be less awareness of what the data science revolution will imply in terms of costs for implementing measures that would facilitate the change. Governments support building new research infrastructures, but the resources for maintenance including the growth of data exponentially growing needs for data hosting and stewardship are not aplenty (European Commission, 2016b). Both institutional and thematic repositories host data and develop their own strategies. Yet, the uncoordinated efforts result often in discrepancies between repositories and the lack of synergies. There are two (non-budgetary) approaches proposed to solve this. One is technical, that is, FAIR guidelines, while the second is using FAIR as an important enabler in a federated infrastructure. FAIR8 data (data that are findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable) (Wilkinson et al., 2016) play an essential role in the objectives of open science to improve and accelerate scientific research to increase the engagement of society and to contribute significantly to economic growth. Without FAIR research data, open science is simply impossible. 8The FAIR data principles define a minimal set of community-agreed "aspirational" guidelines for the publication of digital resources such as datasets, code, workflows, and research objects, to achieve a state of "FAIRness" (Wilkinson et al., 2018). Frontiers in Big Data | www.frontiersin.org 3 December 2019 | Volume 2 | Article 43 Burgelman et al. European Policies to Make Science Fit The European Open Science agenda contain the ambition to make FAIR data sharing the default for scientific research by 2020. To support the implementation of the FAIR data principles9 in Europe and beyond with tangible and actionable recommendations, the Commission established a FAIR Data expert group10. The recommendations11 from that expert group describe a broad range of changes (policy, cultural, and technical) to turn FAIR into reality in Europe (European Commission, 2018): FAIR Digital Objects to enable discovery, citation, and reuse; data services to support FAIR; interoperability frameworks to incorporate research community practices; a distributed, federated infrastructure to unlock the potential of analysis and data integration; skills for data science and data stewardship; incentives for open science (metrics and indicators); and funding for FAIR to bring strong return on investment. The annual opportunity cost of not having FAIR research data (European Commission, 2019a,b) is estimated to be at leaste10.2 bn for the European scientific system. In addition, it is estimated that not having FAIR would also result in another e16 bn annual opportunity cost for the wider research and innovation system. Aiming to increase the coherence and interoperability of FAIR assessment frameworks, the Commission initiated work under the Research Data Alliance (RDA) "FAIR Data Maturity Model" Working Group12 to develop a set of core assessment criteria for FAIRness and a generic and expandable self-assessment model for measuring the maturity level of a dataset. The group has brought together more than 100 representatives of stakeholders from different scientific and research disciplines, the industry and public sector, who are interested in the FAIR principles and in the creation of assessment methodologies for evaluating their real-life uptake and implementation (Sansone et al., 2019). Europe indeed faces considerable problems of noninteroperable services and research data and limited cross-disciplinary access to these research data. It is difficult for researchers to organize and store their own data so that it is usable for themselves at a later date, let alone usable for other researchers in the long term. Notwithstanding these challenges, the elements needed to create a "commons for scientific research data" are already in place, but they are lost in fragmentation across member states and across different scientific communities (European Commission, 2016a). The process toward an EOSC "commons for scientific data" is community-driven and multilevel, that is (multi-)national, regional (Europe), and global (Budroni et al., 2019). In 2018, the European Commission has initiated the process that leads to the creation of an "Internet for science," on principles of minimal governance, maximum freedom to implement, globally interoperable and accessible, 9https://www.go-fair.org/fair-principles/ 10http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regexpert/index.cfm?do=groupDetail. groupDetail&groupID=3464 11European Commission's Expert Group on FAIR Data published the interim report 'Turning FAIR Data into Reality' and the interim 'FAIR Data Action Plan' on 11 June 2018 at the Second EOSC Summit in Brussels. 12https://www.rd-alliance.org/groups/fair-data-maturity-model-wg and globally embedded in a "commons" based on scientific data (European Commission, 2016a). The term "cloud" in European Open Science Cloud13 is understood as a metaphor for a service that aims to be seamless and in support of the idea of a commons: making it possible, on equal conditions, for 1.7 million researchers in Europe to store, share, and re-use data across nations and scientific disciplines through the open science cloud and without leaving their desk. EOSC is not a cloud "made in Brussels" and will not be built on a "green field" (considerable past infrastructure investments 10 billion euros per year by the EU and Member States over the last two decades and existing know-how). GO FAIR is a bottom-up international approach for the practical implementation of the European Open Science Cloud as part of a global Internet of FAIR Data & Services14. EOSC is facing complex governance issues, and a strong but flexible "federal" governance model would be needed based on trust and increasing mutuality, representativity, proportionality, accountability, inclusiveness across disciplines and countries, and transparency. The new EOSC governance framework15 fulfills these principles and illustrates perfectly some of the functions of an early-stage start-up board (such as key strategic decision making and oversight, accountability) as well as the entrepreneurial attitude needed for the creation of EOSC ("build it and scale it up"). AI FOR BETTER SCIENCE Even if we can say that toward the end of the second decade of the twenty-first century the idea of data-driven science has been accepted as the new reality research, the EC does believe that this is only the start of a deeper change. The science system is in "landslide transition from datasparse to data-saturated" (European Commission, 2016b). The quantity of data produced is already growing exponentially. Ninety percent of the world's data today has been generated just over the last 2 years (2.5 quintillion bytes of data per day)16. But with the Internet of everything (humans and artifacts), all that happens on the globe and beyond will become somehow a data point and therefore fit for research. Today, it is quasi-standard practice to use TDM technologies for data analytics and processing on the cloud. Online collaborative tools (Pascu et al., 2007) are the new lab 13In November 2018, under the Austrian Presidency, the European Commission launched the European Open Science Cloud (EOSC) at the University of Vienna, Vienna Declaration on EOSC. 14https://www.go-fair.org/ 15The EOSC Governing Board (GB) gathers representatives from the EU member states, the associated countries and the European Commission; the EOSC executive board (EB) is composed of representatives of pan-European research organizations and few independent experts. 16http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130522085217.htm; https:// www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2018/05/21/how-much-data-do-we-createevery-day-the-mind-blowing-stats-everyone-should-read/#686d324660ba Frontiers in Big Data | www.frontiersin.org 4 December 2019 | Volume 2 | Article 43 Burgelman et al. European Policies to Make Science Fit science as a "flow" of beta products become accepted in some disciplines. AI will push again the frontier of getting knowledge and making meaning out of it (Elsevier, 2018). This is comparable to the impact of the introduction of PC and the Internet 40 years ago. The potential is virtually "limitless." In medicine, for instance, AI can help identify new genes related to cancer17, spot indicators of eye disease18, and recommend how patients should be referred for care or to find peers working on the same treatments. In the long run, it could be extended to other areas of knowledge19. AI has already shown potential to accelerate the data discovery and data analysis and to extract knowledge out of research artifacts20 (Sinha et al., 2015; Wang, 2019). AI technologies can act as a catalyst for further scholarly discussion21 and change the way research contributions are recognized (Piwowar, 2013), for example, in the peer-review process22,23. The single most important challenge remains whether AI could have a key role in determining the originality of research, one of the cornerstones on which science is built. Reproducible research makes for more efficient and reliable science. Evidence points to the fact that over 70% of researchers fail to reproduce other peers' research24. One reason is that the experimental setup is rarely described (only about half of papers include code that was built)25. Expectations are for AI to improve the credibility of the research26 and 17For instance https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-08797-8 and Sampo Pyysalo et al. 'LION LBD: a Literature-Based Discovery System for Cancer Biology, https://academic.oup.com/bioinformatics/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ bioinformatics/bty845/5124276 18Google Deepmind algorithm show a correct referral rate of 94 per cent for over 50 eye disorders, https://sciencebusiness.net/news/deepminds-ai-doctorpredicted-transform-eye-disease-diagnosis 19https://techcrunch.com/2017/01/23/chan-zuckerberg-initiative-meta/? guccounter=1 20Semantic Scholar analyses medical publications (started with computer science in 2015, the service has been scaled to biomedicine) and extracts important features using machine learning techniques (context understanding), https:// www.semanticscholar.org; https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/ 2017/10/19/a-better-way-to-search-through-scientific-papers?zid=291&ah= 906e69ad01d2ee51960100b7fa502595 21Tools like IrisAI, https://iris.ai/, Elsevier's Euretos AI platform or IBM's Automated hypothesis generation system, http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/ alacoste/files/p1877-spangler.pdf 22Several major publishers have already started to integrate AI in their digital platforms to address quality control and reviewer identification, or for checking for potential conflicts of interests between editors, reviewers and authors e.g., Frontiers, https://blog.frontiersin.org/2018/12/14/artificial-intelligence-peerreview-assistant-aira/ 23https://projectaiur.com/#value-growth 24Nature survey https://www.nature.com/news/1-500-scientists-lift-the-lid-onreproducibility-1.19970 25https://www.wired.com/story/artificial-intelligence-confronts-reproducibilitycrisis/ 26Center for Open Science (COS) large-scale collaboration program with DARPA (SCORE program) to create a database of research claims and results from published papers in the social and behavioral sciences. The database will be "enhanced" with evidence from other sources, such as citations or indications efficiency of research by "opening up the models" (Dodge et al., 2019). WHAT IS STILL MISSING? The Ebola case of public health emergencies provides an inspiring model for how global research collaborations can help address the societal challenges of our times. Such cases should not be an exception but the norm. However, to make open science the norm, as the dramatic cases of Ebola and Zika illustrate, open science policies that relate to the core of the work of researchers need to be implemented, addressing the necessary change of the rewards and incentive system for researchers. This implies as the case of emerging public health emergencies illustrate that the importance of publishing in major scientific journal will be relativized in the context of a full operational open science, and other research outputs as open data, open software, and so forth will become important. Open research outputs will be available prior to publication rather than postpublication. AI technologies have the potential to foster an inclusive science community. But a good AI is dependent on the variety and quality of data. Open data can play a key part for AI algorithms and machines to function and produce good outcomes27. Transition to open science is a multidimensional and multistage process. There is value and risk of being a first mover, but there is higher risk of being a follower. The European Commission has taken various steps in initiating this transition, but all stakeholders must get on board to take mutually reinforcing steps to advance open science policy and its implementation (Euroscientist, 2015). After all, the EC is, rightfully so, not even competent on many domains where open science policies should be developed (e.g., rewards and incentives). AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank Alea de San Roman Lopez (European Commission, DG Research and Innovation) for providing comments and suggestions. on whether the data were openly accessible, and used to train AI algorithms to score the claims for their likelihood of being reproducible findings, https://cos.io/ about/news/can-machines-determine-credibility-research-claims-center-openscience-joins-new-darpa-program-find-out/. 27An example of an AI project using Open Data for crime prevention (https://www.policyconnect.org.uk/appgda/research/crime-prevention-throughartificial-intelligence) resulted in reducing burglaries by 33% and violent crimes by 21%. Frontiers in Big Data | www.frontiersin.org 5 December 2019 | Volume 2 | Article 43 Burgelman et al. 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Available online at: https:// www.who.int/medicines/ebola-treatment/blueprint_phe_data-share-results/ en/ (accessed March 1, 2019). Disclaimer: The information and views set out in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Neither the European Union institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Copyright © 2019 Burgelman, Pascu, Szkuta, Von Schomberg, Karalopoulos, Repanas and Schouppe. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Frontiers in Big Data | www.frontiersin.org 6 December 2019 | Volume 2 | Article