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Moving Away from the Implicit Teaching of Genres in the L2 Classroom
English language proficiency exams are often associated with high-stakes decisions. Guidance however, concerning the writing tasks is often implicit. The emphasis is usually placed upon grammatical and lexical features rather than the pragmatic aspects that differentiate the tasks. Aiming to boost genre awareness as part of L2 pragmatic competence in this context the present paper provides a description of individual exam genres and their relations to each other. Such knowledge is expected to assist both teaching and material writing. Using a pedagogical genre-based corpus with model answers from teaching material we contrast eight genres to each other based on a set of sixteen features. Each feature is associated with a specific text property. Findings reveal some unexpected relations between pairs of genres and offer insight as to the points of convergence and divergence. It is shown that assumptions made about the similarity of texts which belong to the same text type group can sometimes be mistaken. Therefore, it is argued that the tendency to use general labels for text categories in teaching material may mislead novice writers.
KeywordsGenre relations Genre awareness Pragmatic competence Pedagogical corpus
Despite the large number of interested parties in the international language proficiency exams and the impact the results of such exams have on the candidates' lives (e.g. access to jobs, promotions, university entrance and immigration), teaching in this context has not yet incorporated as much insight from scientific research as it should. Mainstream material is still focused on lexis and grammar, the teaching of writing is usually based exclusively on experience and/or intuition and feedback from educators is often vague. Even though the exam writing tasks seem to take genre awareness for granted, in practice, candidates often lack basic knowledge of the genres they will need to write.
This study investigates some of the genres that candidates are frequently asked to write in EFL testing in order to assist teaching and material writing. The aim is to present some of the less obvious features in these genres and provide evidence as to how they relate to each other. The analysis is looking at text properties that come with vague terms such as 'objectivity and formality' or 'authorial stance'. Using existing associations of such properties with specific language features, this paper compares eight written genres regularly seen in English language material. Quantifying similarity and difference can make knowledge about genres explicit rather than implicit and can improve teaching, assessment and material writing.
Literature Review
Several researchers have acknowledged the difficulty in combining 'linguistic competence', that is, the mastery of the language code, and 'communicative competence' based on pragmatic knowledge (Kroll 1990; McNamara and Roever 2006). 'Genre theory' "tries to describe the ways in which we mobilize language". It is "a theory of the borders of our social world, and our familiarity with what to expect". (Martin 2009, p. 13). Even though in the development of the child as a social being this familiarity builds up "through the accumulated experience of numerous small events", (Halliday 1978, p. 9) second language learners need to acquire essential cultural competence through teaching and exposure to representative discourse samples of the new context.
Over the years, three Genre Schools have developed, the 'Rhetorical Genre Studies' (RGS, also called 'New Rhetoric'), 'English for Specific Purposes' (ESP) and 'the Sydney School', which is based on Systemic Functional Linguistics (Hyon 1996). While all these Schools agree on the importance of genre awareness, they may have a different focus on their analysis. Flowerdew (2002, p. 91,92), classifies them as linguistic (ESP and the Sydney School) and non-linguistic (RGS) approaches and explains their different starting points: "the linguistic approach looks to the situational context to interpret the linguistic and discourse structures, whereas the New Rhetoric may look at the text to interpret the situational context." The RGS School also differentiates itself on explicit teaching, while the other two Schools, which "emerged out of a pedagogical imperative", favour explicit genre teaching based on text linguistic analysis (Smedegaard 2015, p. 34).
The Sydney School model, developed in the context of the Australian school system is based on SFL (Systemic Functional Linguistics) theoretical principles and allows for a more systematic approach to teaching (Flowerdew 2015, p. 6). It has provided a detailed description on the use of the terms 'genre' and 'register' 1 which has been associated with teaching practice in a clear and meaningful way (Board of studies 1998; Knapp 1989; Rose and Martin 2012). According to this view, genres are "staged, goal-oriented, social processes". They are "social because we are inevitably trying to communicate with readers (even if they do not immediately read or respond to our work), goal-oriented because we always have a purpose for writing and feel frustrated if we do not accomplish it, and staged because it usually takes more than one step to achieve our goals" (Rose and Martin 2012, p. 54). Each genre has some obligatory steps, called stages, considered to be necessary for the achievement of the communicative purpose of the specific genre. These stages have characteristic language features which themselves contribute to the meaning of the whole. Knowledge of these stages in a variety of genres can assist learners' writing competence.1
Using Malinowski's (1923) terms, 'context of situation' meaning the environment of the text, and the 'context of culture', meaning the total cultural background, Halliday (1978, p. 5), stresses the importance of studying not only the language or text but also the "total environment in which a text unfolds". Every day we engage in conversations using mechanisms in a subconscious way in order to adjust. We try to match what is happening with a model of the context of situation in our minds. We assign it to a 'field', noting what is going on; we assign it to a 'tenor', noticing the persons and their relationships and we assign it to a 'mode' seeing what is being achieved by means of language. These three variables are responsible for the configuration of language features in the text. This configuration of language features constitutes the 'Register' (Halliday and Hasan 1985, p. 12). The interpretation of context includes two levels of communication, genre (context of culture) and register (context of situation). According to Martin's schematic representation (1993, p. 156), genre is a layer above register. Thompson (2014, p. 52) explains that a genre "deploys the resources of a register (or more than one register) in particular patterns to achieve certain communicative goals".
'Genre awareness' means that teachers have a conscious knowledge of what makes a text ineffective and how it could be improved. Insight from genre analyses can be used to educate teachers [see for example, the taxonomy of the genres of schooling and the related assessment criteria in Rose and Martin 2012 (pp. 56, 128, 323)]. Despite the notable developments in research, both material and teaching in the EFL context do not seem to benefit much in practice. To support this, we will refer to the two areas of interest in this study, namely Corpus linguistics and Genre Theory.
Corpus linguistics research has been described as a "thriving and productive area of applied linguistics" (Ferris 2011: p. 187). These days, most of the dictionaries for the English language are being produced based on corpus data. Apart from dictionaries though, the picture has not changed much. Even though there have been efforts to produce English language material that is corpus-informed [see for example: 'Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English' (Biber et al. 1999), the 'Touchstone' series (McCarthy 2004; McCarthy et al. 2005), 'Cambridge Grammar of English' (Carter and McCarthy 2006)], course books in general, have remained 'immune' to influence from corpus linguistics (Burton 2012; Littlejohn 1992; Meunier and Gouverneur 2009). Research has also shown a lack of awareness of corpus linguistics methods by educators for a number of reasons (Boulton and Tyne 2015; McCarthy and O'Keeffe 2010) which can perhaps explain why the demand for corpus-informed material is low.
Another important change in language education has been the shift which occurred during the 1970 s from 'formal' or 'structural' to 'functional' approaches in language education and from an interest in 'grammatical competence' to an interest in 'communicative competence' (Hymes 1972). In Chomsky's (1957,1965) 'generative grammar' the emphasis was on the ideal language user producing grammatically correct sentences. That view ignored the context in which language occurs. In contrast, functional grammars started paying attention to meaning (semantics), context or language use (pragmatics) and tried "to explain why one linguistic form is more appropriate than another in satisfying a particular communicative purpose in a particular context" (Larsen-Freeman 2001, p. 34).
Despite these changes, a large number of English language textbooks still present grammar as a discreet component (Hyland 2004) and are often considered weak in providing pragmatic input (Gauci et al. 2017). Feedback is characterised by an obsession with grammatical mistakes (Casanave 2004; Reid 2008) and it is often used as a substitute for explicit guidance in courses where "learners are expected to acquire the genres they need from repeated writing experiences or the teacher's notes in the margins of their essays" (Hyland 2003, p. 151). The lack of explicit guidance could perhaps be explained by the implicit knowledge of genres the educators themselves have (Christie 1984; Nesi and Gardner 2006) despite the fact that for L2 learners they are often the only models of linguistic and pragmatic competence.
Candidates in English language proficiency exams are supposed to be able to identify the context, the writer's role and the target reader, and then choose the appropriate register (Cambridge English First handbook 2016, p. 28; Cambridge English proficiency handbook 2016, p. 23). Even though in testing contexts genre awareness is taken for granted, the preparation material seems to lack explicit guidance regarding the identification of the genre and the ways novice writers need to adjust their style.
Model answers included in the corpus target various international English language exams as the scope was to investigate genres in this context not the preparation for a specific exam. Texts have initially been classified according to text type categories, the way they were presented in educational material. The genres involved in these broad categories have been identified based on SFL principles considering the communicative purpose of the text and the three register variables, field, tenor and mode (for more on the genre identification process see Melissourgou and Frantzi 2017b). Texts in the final sub-corpora are classified based on genre.
We will define a model as a text written by a specific writer in a specific situation that is subsequently reused to exemplify a genre that generalizes over writers in such situations. Such models are often used to supplement explicit guidelines or 'rules' (provided in a textbook or style guide) for spelling out some of the conventional features of the genre. (p. 90)
The corpus is POS (Part-Of-Speech) tagged with TagAnt 1.1.2 (Anthony 2014) and manually annotated for selected features (text/sentence/paragraph borders, headings, salutations and proper names). Information included in the metadata of the corpus refers to the prompts, the CEFR levels, the name of targeted examination and the source. WordSmith Tools v. 6 (Scott 2015) is used for the analysis.
Sub-corpora from the (anonymized) corpus used for genre analysis
# of tokens
# of texts
Expository essay
Discursive essay
Descriptive essay
Personal observation report
Data report
Short story
Complaint letter
Advice letter
The study investigates sixteen features in each of these genres. The selection of these features has been based on their prominent role in distinguishing genres observed during a discourse-type analysis of the same genres conducted previously (e.g. Melissourgou 2016; Melissourgou and Frantzi 2017a) and/or their use in genre analyses studies by other researchers. They are selected features from grammatical categories (e.g. pronouns, modals), derivative statistics (e.g. lexical density, Standardised Type/token ratios) and basic text properties (e.g. mean word length, words per sentence).
Features and associated text properties
Features measured
Association with text properties
Passive voice verbs
Objectivity and formality
Lexical density
Informational density
Objectivity and elaboration
Lexical variety
Word length
Lexical complexity
Words per sentence
Syntactic complexity
3-word lexical bundles
Standardised language
Verbs (active, present simple)
Reference to timeless present
Verbs (active, past simple)
Reference to past
Events set in time
1st person sing. pronoun
2nd person sing. pronoun
Reader engagement
Increased use of passive verbs has been associated with an 'abstract style' (Biber 1995; Glasswell et al. 2001), 'formality' (Michos et al. 1996), 'objectivity and formality' (Glasswell et al. 2001) and 'detached writing' (Czerniewska 1992). The term objectivity and formality is adopted in this study.
The 'type/token ratio' (TTR) is also a value which is considered important in this analysis as it is usually seen as an indicator of 'lexical variety' (Fialho et al. 2012; Viana et al. 2008). High values show that texts include a variety of words and that less words are used repeatedly. The problem with the type/token ratio is that it is highly dependent on text length or corpus size (Biber 2006; Scott 2012). It is informative if dealing with corpora comprising lots of equal-sized texts. For corpora with texts of various lengths, as is the case here, WordSmith Tools (Scott 2015), offers the 'Standardised Type/ Token Ratio' (STTR) measurement as a more reliable solution. The researcher has the choice to compute TTR for every n words and get an average based on consecutive chunks of n words.
The following two features, namely 'word-length' and 'number of words per sentence', have been used in various genre/register studies and belong to a category of features that have been called 'corpus token-level properties', 'shallow discourse features', or 'basic text properties' (e.g. Crossley et al. 2014; McCarthy et al. 2009; Nesi and Gardner 2012; Stamatatos et al. 2001). The length of words (in letters) is often an indicator of 'lexical complexity' (Štajner et al. 2015) as it may reveal a more advanced use of vocabulary. The number of words per sentence has been linked to 'syntactic complexity' (Michos et al. 1996; Štajner et al. 2015) as it shows an ability to cope with complex sentences. The means for word-length and number of words per sentence are provided in the Statistics section of WordSmith Tools.
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Temporal: after, during, finally, later, next, soon, suddenly, then, when.
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Adding: also, and, furthermore, in addition, what is more.
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Contrasting: although, but, despite, however, moreover, on the one hand, on the other hand, whereas, while.
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Causal/consequential: because, consequently, therefore.
Pronouns are important genre markers. Using first person pronouns writers become involved and may adopt a particular stance. Sometimes writers choose to address readers as participants by using the second person pronoun, to pull them into the discourse at critical points and guide them to particular interpretations. In this study, the use of the first person singular pronoun is linked to 'Involvement' (Biber 1988) and the use of the second person pronoun is linked to 'Reader engagement' (Hyland 2005).
Being part of a larger group called 'hedges', modals are often a way to present information as an opinion rather than accredited fact (Hyland 2005, p. 178) and according to Biber (2006, p. 95) they are by far the most common grammatical device used to mark stance in university registers. We refer to the use of modals as an indicator of 'Authorial stance' using Hyland's term.
After the initial measurements we convert values to z-scores (using IBM SPSS v. 22 statistics software) in order for them to be translated to a single scale and therefore, be comparable. This offers a point of reference as to the mean; the value for each feature in each genre is contrasted to the values for the same feature in other genres so that it is clear which genre is close to the mean and exactly how close. A z-score is a standardized variable with a mean of zero and a standard deviation of 1. Values that are lower than the mean produce negative scores whereas values that are larger than the mean produce positive scores. To investigate the relations among genres we measure the distance for all possible pairs of genres explored in this study based on each text property. Small distances are interpreted as more similarity on specific text properties. Large distances in many properties indicate weak relations of the genres contrasted.
Analysis and Discussion
Measuring the distance for each pair of genres and each text property made it possible to investigate the relations among genres in this context. Twenty-eight genre relations were examined overall, contrasted on the same properties. Discussion on text properties links the relevant genre's communicative purpose and rhetorical moves/stages as well as a sample prompt in order to explain the variation among genres.
The main body of the essay is carefully structured to include two paragraphs of arguments concerning the views on the issues discussed. This usually takes the form of two separate paragraphs, one for each side. These paragraphs often open with the phrase [on the one hand] for the first paragraph and [on the other hand] for the second. The opposing view is also introduced with conjunctions such as 'however' and 'while', often in the pattern [while some people + verb… others + verb].
^ Introduction of the issue ^ Argument in favour of one side ^ Argument in favour of the other side ^ Summary of pros and cons + Conclusion in favour of one side.
In most texts in this corpus the first two to three sentences introduce the issue and the thesis statement is expressed in one sentence right after the introduction. Two to three arguments are put forward, developed and illustrated by examples in most cases, followed by the conclusion in one or two sentences. It is therefore understandable that there is little need for contrast here and that writers have more space to support their opinion (one view) which could be the reason why the language is more original and less standardised. Another reason for the observed recurrent lexical bundles in the Discursive essay could be the fact that it is more common as a task type in exams and subsequently has a larger representation in textbooks in the form of model answers (Melissourgou and Frantzi 2017b). As textbook writers are exposed to the Discursive essay more frequently, there is a greater chance that they will imitate the patterns observed in their own model answers.
^ Introduction of the issue ^ Thesis statement ^ Arguments (2–3) ^ Conclusion
Therefore, stages usually follow this pattern:
E.g. Describe a person who has influenced your life and explain why you admire him/her.
It is evident that there is little need for contrast here and that there is a strong reference to personal experiences and feelings which calls for a less standardised style of writing. Out of the three essay genres contrasted here, the Descriptive essay seems the least similar to the other two genres in terms of text properties. This is of course further supported by the differentiation in the genre family they are part of—description versus argumentation. In the Expository and the Discursive essays, there is need for some objectivity. Writers need to convince the reader through argumentation and reasoning rather than statements of personal preference. This is manifested in increased use of nominalisation and modals. (e.g. It can also be argued that continuous assessment is a more effective way of testing some subjects such as design and technology, which are more creative and less academic.—Discursive Essay). In the Descriptive essay, however, writers are asked to write about personal experiences and thus, opinions can be more straight-forward (e.g. Not only was she a good listener, but the advice she offered was always sound as well—Descriptive Essay). During the description of events at the second stage, the use of past tense and temporal connectors is also required whereas in the argumentative genres the timeless present is all the writer needs to support the soundness of the arguments made.
^ Introduction of the subject of description ^ Extended description ^ Explanation of the writers' feelings
The Data report is close to the Personal observation report but the later converges more to the Expository essay. Personal observation report tasks ask the writers to assess and draw personal conclusions based on subjective views, personal experience and the proximity to a place/service/person. Sometimes the writers are also asked to justify their view/recommendation.
[Sample prompt]
You work for a local magazine. A new take away restaurant has opened in your area. The editor has asked you to visit it and write a report saying whether you recommend it or not.
The Data report tasks usually ask the writers to summarise the information provided, selecting and reporting only the key points. Writers also need to understand where a comparison is useful in presenting this information.
^ Introducing the subject and stating the purpose of writing ^ Description of key features (in different sections) ^ Conclusion (± Recommendation + Justification of recommendation).
[Sample prompt]
The table shows the Proportions of Pupils Attending Four Secondary School Types Between Between 2000 and 2009. Summarize the information by selecting and reporting the main features and make comparisons where relevant.
As can be seen in Fig. 11 the greatest distance between the two reports is in Lexical variety (2.27). The Data report has a limited set of different words (types). Certain words are used repeatedly at the same position in the text (beginning-middle-end) and are closely connected to specific stages. For example, texts usually begin with the [(type of data) + shows] or [(type of data) + illustrates] where the words 'chart', 'graph', 'bar', 'line', 'pie' and 'diagram' are typical and help the writer introduce the topic. The word 'overall' often occurs in the second sentence to give the reader the main trend. Words related to quantity are necessary at the second stage to describe specific parts of the data presented (e.g. percentage, proportion, half, figures, amount). Contrasting conjunctions and verbs reflecting upward or downward trends (e.g. increased, rose, remained), help writers to highlight points of divergence. Patterns related to time are also recurrent at the second stage to assist specificity in description. The repetition of specific words in this genre can be seen as a positive element in teaching situations. Learners do not need a rich repertoire of words; they can write effectively provided they have understood the necessary stages of the genre and their purposes. This way, specific word patterns can be matched to specific parts of the text and practised with different data.
^ Introducing the subject and stating the purpose of writing ^ Description and comparison of key points ^ Conclusion (summary).
The next large distances are in Authorial stance (1.51), Causality (1.48) and Contrast (1.47). The element of evaluation leaves room for a less assertive style which justifies the use of modal verbs (linked to authorial stance in this study). For instance, modals are used in the Personal Observation Report to suggest improvements, (e.g. although improvements could certainly be made, students should be encouraged to). There is little contrast in Personal observation reports, as the focus is usually on one entity while in the Data report comparison is essential. The emphasis is on description of main facts and there is no need for justification while on the other hand the writers of the Personal observation report are often asked to explain why they are recommending a certain location/place/object. Even though Causality is evident in the Personal observational report it is still a negative value which means that it is not a typical feature compared to the rest of the genres. Writers of the Expository essay tend to explain and justify their claims much more frequently. In fact, it is the only large distance observed between the Personal observation report and the Expository essay (1.34) which are very similar otherwise (Fig. 11).
Two interesting issues arise from this evidence. The first is that the group of texts often labelled 'report' in teaching material, includes at least two genres (Data report and Personal Observation report) which are similar in many ways but also share four points of noticeable divergence. This supports the early classification of texts in separate sub-corpora for the two genres which was initially based on the task prompts. The second issue has to do with the similarity of a genre that belongs to the broad 'report' group with a genre coming from the essay group (Expository essay) and offers evidence in favour of the initial argument that text type categories may not have clear-cut borders.
The 'Advice Letter' refers to the offer of advice to a friend who has previously asked for help on everyday issues or problems.
^ Purpose of writing ^ Reasons for complaining (description of problem) ^ Expectations
[Sample prompt]
Your friend Helen has found a part-time job as a waiter in a café. She's feeling nervous about her new job. Write a letter to Helen. Give her some advice on how to do well at her job and how to get on with her new colleagues.
Looking at the distance between the two letters (Fig. 12), there is considerable distance in Objectivity and Formality (2.7) which is connected to the use of passive verbs in this study. The difference in tenor (relation between sender -receiver) in the two letters calls for a personal/friendly tone in the Advice letter and an impersonal/distant tone in the Complaint Letter. Noteworthy distance is also observed in Reference to timeless present (1.67), Authorial stance (1.63), Contrast (1.53), Lexical complexity (1.45), Syntactic complexity (1.43) as well as in Objectivity and Elaboration (1.4). In contrast to the present problem that the writer of the Advice letter is trying to address, the writer of the Complaint letter makes reference to a problem of the recent past. As the description of this problem concerns the second stage and normally the biggest part of the letter, the use of past simple verbs is very frequent. For this genre reference to past is a positive value and reference to timeless present a negative one while for the Advice letter is it the other way round (Figs. 7, 8).
^ Reference to previous communication stating the problem ^ Offering advice and justification ^ Expression of hope for resolution ^ Request for further communication and updating
The distance in authorial stance is caused by the main purpose in the Advice letter. Offering advice requires a large number of modals to make polite suggestions that do not sound as commands (e.g. Finally, you should make sure that the place you work makes you feel positive and comfortable./Another thing you can try is joining a gym). The writers of the Complaint letter on the other hand, need to be firm when asking for compensation or describing facts that cause complaint. At the same time, they need to compare what happened to them with what they were promised. This is part of the second stage (Reasons for complaining) and requires contrasting connectors (e.g. According to your advertisement, the place is perfect for holding private conversations in a relaxing atmosphere. However, it turned out that the music was so loud that we could hardly hear each other). As there is no obvious need for contrast in the Advice letter there is some distance in this feature too.
Compared to the rest of the genres in this study both letters seem to include shorter words (number of letters) and therefore the property of Lexical complexity is negative in both genres. There is however considerable distance between them showing that the Advice letter makes use of short words more frequently; in fact, more than any other genre investigated here. The two letters are also quite different in Syntactic complexity. The Complaint letter includes far more words per sentence than the Advice letter. Short sentences and short words give the Advice letter a lively and friendly tone, perfectly attuned with the tenor of the genre. Finally, the Advice letter is very different from the Complaint letter in Objectivity and elaboration. The use of nominalisation is not necessary in this genre as it does not require an objective tone or sentences dense in information.
Letters are distinguished by the 'Formal/Informal' label in exam task types. Even though this differentiation is justified by the results, selecting to stress only one property can obscure the extent of variation between the two categories. The analysis shows that apart from the common general purpose of communication and the surface similarity of correspondence conventions (e.g. greetings), these letters do not form a very strong bond. In fact, the Complaint letter is closer to the Descriptive essay mainly due to its descriptive part (2nd stage) and its extensive use of simple past verb tense.
The study has attempted to assist educators—especially those who prepare students for well-known international English language exams - towards an explicit teaching of genres. The analysis verified that there is a lot of knowledge about genres that remains implicit. Even though some advice is offered by knowledgeable educators, it is mostly based on intuition rather than scientific evidence. Measured features in individual genres, however, can show where the exact boundaries between different genres lie and how each individual feature adds up to the complete and unique character of each genre.
Model writing answers are often presented in writing textbooks under broad text-type labels (e.g. essays, letters) grouping this way a wide range of genres with completely different communicative purposes and writer-reader relationships. This widely used pattern copies the labelling of texts used in exams. The role of educational material, however, is to prepare learners, not test them, and therefore this paper questioned the effect of these umbrella-terms in the presentation of model answers. This grouping of texts creates the natural assumption that texts which are parts of the same category will be more similar to each other than they will be to texts of other categories. Therefore, during the contrast of genres there has been some special interest in those that belong to the same text type group and a focus on the strength of these relations.
The contrastive analysis has validated some expectations on genre relations within the same text type category such as the similarity between the Expository and the Discursive essay. It has, however, offered evidence against the existence of a strong relation between the Descriptive and the Discursive Essay, the two report genres and the two letter genres. Overall this study has shown that the classification of texts in broad categories can in some cases be misguiding, as it conceals internal genre variation. This classification perpetuates the misconception that "different 'genres' are quite simply different 'text types' each characterised by certain pre-determined textual features" (Tang 2006: introduction). This misconception can also be shared among teachers due to lack of exposure to genre theory and pedagogy (Tardy 2016, p. 175). The results corroborate the view that textual form is a surface trait of the underlying regularity among genres expressed by Freedman and Medway (1994, p. 2) and Lee's (2001, p. 37) view that 'genre is the level of text categorisation which is theoretically and pedagogically most useful and most practical to work with'.
This study focused on eight genres which are largely represented in teaching material (Melissourgou and Frantzi 2017b). There are however more genres in this context and future exploration of them for pedagogical purposes is strongly encouraged. Even though there is progress in genre-based studies in academic writing the difference in context means a lot about the kinds of genres explored.
Apart from the gain in pedagogy, we believe these findings can also offer insight to those concerned with 'automatic genre classification'. The term refers to the need to train computers to classify texts based on genre due to the overwhelming increase in new written material nowadays. Computers need to be taught in order to be able to allocate texts in various categories. This requires deep understanding of genres apart from computational expertise and information which is specific and quantified in order for machines to be able to make use of it.
Building a specialized corpus for this study has been immensely beneficial. Based on strict criteria the WriMA corpus has been a customised tool able to provide answers to complicated questions. Our experience confirms previous remarks in the literature (Flowerdew 1998, 2004) on the significance and contribution of small specialised corpora.
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There is lack of consensus on what exactly these terms stand for in the literature, depending on the researchers' theoretical background. In order to avoid confusion some studies have tried to clarify the views expressed (for more on this: Melissourgou and Frantzi 2017b; Lee 2001). Due to limited space we explain how the terms have been used in the SFL approach which is also the approach followed in the particular study for the identification of genres and the classification of texts in the corpus prior to analysis.
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By Angela Alsaleem
The tiny, brittle legs twitched on Tracy's tongue just before she crunched the finger-length cockroach in
half with her front teeth. Eyes closed, her jaw worked up and down as she savored the flavor, the cold
guts spreading through her mouth. Then she swallowed, the bug's exoskeleton scratching her throat on
the way down. Tangy, yet bitter; like some kind of exotic candy. Crouched in the corner, back to the
cafeteria, Tracy popped the back end of the cockroach into her mouth, making sure the wings didn't stick
to her fingers as she did so.
Good girl, a soft voice whispered in her ear. She smiled.
Hair matted, dress hiked up over her knees, she squatted, padding along the floor with dirty fingers
searching for more. Her twitchy eyes scanned the room to make sure no one was coming to stop her.
Laura rocked back and forth across the room, bound in her straight jacket. Poor Laura, Tracy thought.
She would go over and talk to her, but first another snack. Back in the corner, there, a spider web; a
large, yellow and black spider hung in the middle of the web, beautifully intricate patterns striping and
spotting its body. After taking a moment to admire the spider's frailty and the beauty of its web, she
snatched it from the center of its web and popped it into her mouth, crunching down before it could bite
her in defense. Once, a spider had bitten her on the lip as she tried to eat it. Her lip stayed swollen and
itchy for a week; had to be careful with spiders.
As its abdomen burst in her mouth, she relished the creamy center and smacked her lips while walking
over to Laura.
"They brought in a new demon today," Laura whispered to Tracy as she approached.
Tracy sat on the floor next to Laura's chair. She looked up at Laura. The bound woman's head lolled on a
limp neck, chin pushing into her chest, upper arms resting against the table in front of her.
"He's over there," she said, but didn't indicate which direction. "I can smell him. He stinks with the foulest
stench of hell."
"Where? What do you mean?"
Tracy glanced around the cafeteria. A tall man with scraggly, brown hair shuffled across the floor with the
finger on his right hand pointing at Nurse Claire's bottom, a manic grin plastered over his deranged face.
When the man's extended finger touched her, Nurse Claire screamed and then turned and smacked the
man across the face. He laughed and said something about thunder and lightning. Tracy suppressed a
giggle behind her hand then continued looking around the room. People in this place were always doing
crazy things like that. She felt sorry for Nurse Claire, always having to put up with the lot of them. And
she knew she, herself, was no picnic.
"Can't you smell the fire on him? He's over in the corner, by the door."
Tracy looked at Laura and realized that the woman was looking right at the man across the room,
straining her eyes upwards with her head down so that the whites of the bottom of her eyes showed,
red veins lacing their way through, her oily hair hanging in her view. Tracy shivered; crazy lady.
Just as Tracy turned to get a good look at the guy, Laura said, "He's a firebug."
And then Tracy could see him. He rocked back and forth on his feet, facing the room, but not looking at
anything in particular. White hair and red eyes, pale skin, Tracy thought this particular demon didn't have
a good enough disguise. In fact, if she squinted just right, she could see fiery antennae and wings, could
see the extra limbs sticking out from his torso; a great, big, burning moth. She licked her lips and felt a
longing stir within her, something she'd never felt before.
The firebug rocked in his corner, eying the room. What was he looking for, she wondered?
"They should let me out of this thing," she hissed. "He'll destroy us all, but I could stop him. I know how.
I've done it before."
But Tracy wasn't listening. She focused on the firebug before her.
As she walked away, she could hear Laura still muttering, the words lost in the murmurs throughout the
room. Could he speak people language? She would find out. When she got close enough for him to hear
her, she chanced a greeting, waiting with held breath for a response, whether it be him scurrying away to
find someplace dark to hide, or him speaking back.
"Hello," she said.
He didn't acknowledge her but kept rocking, pinching his lips with one hand and cupping his elbow with
the other. Red eyes blazing, he took in each person in the room; one at a time, sizing them up it seemed
for some demonic purpose. A demon and a bug; she'd never met anyone like him. And then she realized
she hadn't exactly met him yet, either. She tried again.
His eyes flicked in her direction then back to the room.
"Hi," he muttered.
Her grin deepened making her eyes sparkle in the harsh florescent lighting.
"I'm Tracy."
She proffered her hand.
"Sean," he said as he touched the tips of her outstretched fingers with his. In that moment, a surge of
heat passed through her and she knew that he was what Laura called him: firebug.
His red eyes flicked through the room, their wary watchfulness making Tracy uneasy. But her smile never
faltered. Then his eyes fixed on something across the cafeteria and she looked over her shoulder to
watch what he watched. Nurse Claire had the guy who touched her bottom on a stretcher and was
wheeling him from the room, the squeak, squeak of the wheels digging into her teeth.
Eat him, the voice in her head whispered.
"Shut up," she hissed over her right shoulder.
Sean didn't seem to notice.
Eat him and be saved. You have to pay for what you've done. That familiar taunt; she didn't know why
God's angel talked to her in this way. Her angel had been sent after the devil told her to kill her parents
when she was a teenager. She didn't know it was the devil talking to her, but the angel told her that she'
d allowed the devil to trick her and told her that for killing her parents, she was only allowed to eat bugs.
The bigger, the better; so she did. After all, she wanted into heaven, had only killed her parents because
the devil told her that they were involved in a satanic cult and that they were going to kill her, that God
wanted her to be his hand and destroy them. So she did.
Tracy placed her hands over her ears and shook her head, scrunching her eyes closed in a futile effort to
stop the voice.
"Tracy!" A nurse trotted over to her from the other side of the room. "Tracy, are you okay?"
She fixated on the nurse's voice, focused on its location and turned to look the nurse in the eyes. There
was something they could give her to make the voice go away for a while, but this pink pill made her
dizzy and sick. Besides, she needed the voice to remind her of what she did, that terrible, terrible thing
she did to her parents; needed to be told when to eat.
But she couldn't eat the firebug. She liked the way he looked and he was too big. She wouldn't be able
to crunch him in half like the cockroach, or pop him into her mouth like the spider.
"Tracy!" That nurse again, bringing her back to her senses.
"I'm fine," she muttered and turned her attention back to the fire bug.
His white hair and red eyes glowed, the nimbus around his head looked like a crown and his fiery wings
furling and unfurling behind him. He didn't look at her.
The nurse left them alone. The whole world disappeared except for him. She wanted to touch him again,
to feel the burn he made in her.
"Sean," she whispered.
His eyes flicked in her direction then continued their scan of the room.
"Let's get out of here," she said. "I know a secret way."
She took his hand and felt the heat surge through her once again. Licking her lips, she grinned as he
followed her. After a quick scan, she slipped a small, plastic card from her pocket and swiped it over the
magnetic strip next to the door. The tiny light flashed green and the door clicked. With one more quick
look, she opened the door and slid into the hallway, Sean, her firebug in tow. Head down, he followed
her, not saying a word. She thought he'd ask how she got the key, but he didn't. Slightly disappointed,
she walked on.
"Through here," she mumbled as she led him through a door marked Authorized Personnel Only.
The dark hallway beyond whispered dirty secrets and sighed with noxious breath. Eat him, the voice
whispered again.
She shook her head no then checked to see if Sean noticed…he hadn't. She expected him to ask her
where they were going…he didn't. Onward then; light seeped into the hallway from a doorway up ahead
to her right. She thought it odd since no one was ever down here, in the dark. She could hardly see in
the gloom, but knew her way around since she snuck in here all the time, to the room in the back, down
the hall and to the left, a dark and secret place. No one else was supposed to be in here. She stared at
the door as she passed.
"Now, did you bring that yo-yo like I asked you to," she heard a man ask from behind the closed door.
Was he talking to her or to someone else? The question was answered moments later by a shrill scream,
a different voice. The scream turned into gagging, choking sounds as the first voice, the questioner,
shushed the screamer, telling him it would be over soon, to just quit struggling. Just before she got to
the end of the hall, she heard the questioner say, "And now you're mine, little yo-yo. Into the box you
go with my other trinkets." He laughed as she rounded the corner to the left.
Just as she pulled Sean out of sight, she heard the other door open; the door with the questioner.
Footsteps sounded down the hall, away from her, their sound growing fainter with each step. After a
short time, the door she'd snuck through opened with a squeak then closed. She chanced a glance into
the gloomy hallway. Empty.
With a sigh, she continued leading Sean to the end of the hallway.
Inside the open, padded room at the end, she sat down in the middle of the floor and pulled Sean down
with her. His eyes seemed to glow in the gloom around. She watched his fiery wings fold behind his back.
A tiny bit of light filtered into the room from a small window near the ceiling, too high up to look out.
"So, why are you here?" She leaned in, looking up at him with lovers eyes.
Eat him and all will be forgiven, the voice cooed.
She grimaced and turned away. No more bugs. Could it be that simple?
"Fire," he said.
"What do you mean?" She strained to ignore the voice's laughter.
"I like fire," he said.
Sean rocked back and forth.
She sighed when he didn't ask why she was in there. She wanted to tell him how she killed her parents,
how she drugged their wine at dinner then cut their throats while they slept. She wanted to tell him
about her angel helping her gain absolution from this atrocity. Wanted to tell him how she drank their
blood in order to obtain forgiveness, how it had been salty and cold and thick; how she'd gagged with
the first gulp, how the police found her huddled in their bedroom, stroking her mother's hands, crying
with blood on her face, the taste of her first bug still pungent in her mouth. How the first bug had been a
spider, how it had bitten her lip, how she just wanted it to end, wanted to be forgiven for what she'd
But he only sat there, quiet.
Finally, her curiosity about him stronger than her desire to reveal her secrets and be accepted, she said,
"Show me."
Sean shook his head no. His wings shivered.
"Please. I want to see your fire. Laura said you're a firebug. Show me your true form. Please."
"My true form?" He looked at her, a confused expression marking his features. "What do you mean?"
This was the most he said to her since they met moments before.
She thrilled in this and so egged him on.
"Yes, I want to see you in your bug form. I can already see your wings and your arms, but they're
hidden. Let me see what you really look like. I won't tell."
He started standing and then stopped, looking at her as if he feared her.
"But, I'm not a bug. I don't…what are you talking about?"
"Firebug," she whispered. "I've never seen one. And you're beautiful. Show me your fire."
Her eyes sparkled in the blue light.
"I can't," he whispered. "I'm not supposed to."
"Please. I bet it's even more beautiful than what I can already see."
"It is," he said. "Fire is the most beautiful thing in the world, the most powerful. It brings light, warmth. It
will sanitize the entire world. The world will end in a rain of fire, the ultimate cleansing."
He stood and paced the room, talking as if to a mass of followers, reveling in his own words.
"I want to see it," she said.
"No one will know."
"But, here?"
"I can keep a secret," she said in an almost inaudible voice.
"I can't show you without my tool," he said, now piercing her with his red eyes.
"What tool?"
"I need my lighter. They took it from me."
"What does it look like?"
"Like a lighter. It's silver with a lid that flips open and a wheel that makes the spark…the spark…the
spark," he trailed off and sat back down.
Tracy prided herself on being a trinket keeper. Various things caught her attention. Once something
attracted her eye, it always ended up being hers. Her pockets often jingled with the many odd objects
found on her daily wanderings through the hospital, the little plastic key-card her most important
possession. And it seemed no one knew it was missing. She hid her items in her mattress in a little tear
in the side. But one object, the one she'd picked up today, she still had in her pocket. It fascinated her
because of how shiny it was. She'd never seen anything like it in her ten years locked away in this dark
place. And now she had a little light, a spark of hope that maybe, for once, she'd found herself a person
who could be more than a friend.
She pulled the shiny, silver thing from her pocket and held it tweezed between her fingers, loath to give it
up, but unable to suppress the urge to see what he found so beautiful.
"Is this it?"
"Oh, my baby," he said as he took it from her and cradled it in his palm, the grin spreading across his
face. "My sweet baby."
"Okay, show me," Tracy said, now squatting on the balls of her feet, bouncing.
In one motion with his arm, the lighter made a metallic click and then there was orange light, filling the
small space around them, the tiny flame unable to reach the corners of the room, but more than enough
to light their oval faces from underneath, giving them both the look of crazed goblins.
"Isn't it beautiful?" he asked, never taking his eyes away from the flame.
Tracy was disappointed. Yes, it was pretty in its own way, but nowhere near as great as he'd described.
Eat him, the voice screamed in her head. She clapped her hands over her ears.
"No, I won't!" She screamed.
"Won't what?" he asked.
His voice came from far away, trancelike. She didn't seem to matter to him anymore.
Eat him, eat him, eat him. The voice drowned out everything around her.
"I can't. He's too big!"
"Isn't it beautiful? Watch this," he said and placed the flame to the padded floor.
With a fwump, the dry padding caught fire. He giggled as the blaze spread over the floor.
Eat him while he's hot.
"He's too big. Look at him."
As she said it, she did look at him. Surrounded by fire, all she saw was a giant bug. His true form; a huge
moth made of flame and ash, brighter than the room itself.
"Oh, so powerful," he said as if in the throes of ecstasy.
All she heard was a harsh chittering sound. His antennae felt toward her. His proboscis uncurled and his
arms reached for her, ready to pull her into him.
He wants you to eat him, see?
And it did seem like his legs beckoned her, motioned for her to come closer.
"I want to show you something else," he said. "I want to show you how fire can cleanse your soul."
Again, all she heard was an insect's buzzing and chittering. His wings were extended behind him,
preparing for flight.
Tracy stepped into the fire. All would be forgiven if she ate him, only him. She grabbed his arm and sank
her teeth into his flesh.
Sean screamed and tried to push her off of him. He gagged when she tore a hunk of meat from his arm.
He dropped his open and lit lighter and grabbed his bleeding arm, screaming, backing away, his retreat
stopped by the padded wall.
She didn't take the time to chew, but swallowed the chunk whole the way she'd learned to do. She could
feel his fire burning her from the inside. He'd said fire would be cleansing and she could feel it burning
away her sin, burning away the awful thing she'd done to her parents. He huddled against the wall
across the room, his buggy arms crossed. She lunged at him, grabbed hold and took another bite.
Sean screamed again and tried to pull away.
"You're ruining it," he screamed. "You said you wanted to see this."
Somewhere in the building, an alarm went off, high and grating. Tracy heard it, but ignored it. Her hair
caught fire and she laughed, feeling the searing pain and knowing it meant she'd be free from all this. His
blood sizzled and dried on her chin in the heat. Her skin tightened over her bones. The pain from his fire
made it almost impossible for her to keep going, but she knew she had to. If she didn't consume every
part of him, if she didn't let his fire burn out inside her, she would never be free. She had to be free.
Firebug; he tasted salty and hot. His legs didn't crunch like other bugs, but tore like meat. He sure was a
special bug. She sank to her knees, bringing the bug with her. It chittered and buzzed and beat at her
with his legs. Finally it rolled onto its back, giving in to its fate. Her eyes burst from the heat, the thick
fluid bubbling over her charred cheeks, but she kept going, separating herself from the pain. She couldn't
allow herself to give into the pain.
"I'm sorry," she tried to whisper, but the heat sucked away her voice. Fire filled the room. Her arms felt
brittle as they turned black. "I'm sorry, my firebug."
"So beautiful," he whispered. "I always wanted to die like this." His red eyes took in the glorious power of
the flames surrounding him, consuming him.
Tracy tried to bite him a third time, but the charred flesh around her face cracked and she'd grown too
weak. She collapsed on his chest, unable to breathe, his arm around her shoulders.
With a roar, the fire consumed the padding and everything in the room leaving behind nothing but ash
and bone. By the time fire fighters showed up to put out the flame, it had died on its own, having
nothing else from which to feed off. The damp, cold stone contained the flames, preventing the spread of
Sean's cleansing flames.
Tracy's skull grinned against her firebug's ribs. Free.


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Lost Dog - CLAY AREA
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My family and I lost our dog last month when he ran off with his leash and are offering a reward for his return. Apparently, our neighbor took him to the pound, so if you or someone you know has recently gotten a brown dog from any pound, please contact me. He was wearing a blue collar with aztec designs on it, linked to a black leash and found in our neighborhood, Garrison Cove. He's really sweet and friendly and responds to taco. Thanks.
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Posted by crazydago18 on April 04, 2003 at 13:40:05:
In Reply to: Re: Wet rat.........more posted by rstrann on April 04, 2003 at 12:59:52:
:I just want to say that anybody that would drown a feeder mouse or a rat is not in the snake business for the enjoyment of snake husbandry, but rather they are in it for the sheer enjoyment of slow torture. Don't try to justify your sick deviations using snake husbandry as a halo.
- a little harsh there dont you think. i acually was thinking about drowding them because i though it would be less painless. i love all types of animals and wish no harm upon them. just wanted to make that clear. sorry for any misunderstanding
::i might try to drowned rats now instead of waking them up side the counter to kill them for my ball python. do u think a rat can hold its breath for long. and do think my snake would eat a wet rat.
::anything would be helpfull thanks nick


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A man armed with a machete was shot at midnight in the Aiken County community of Clearwater by deputies, authorities said Sunday.
The unidentified suspect was taken to a hospital at the Medical College of Georgia in Augusta with two bullet wounds, according to the Aiken County Sheriff's Office and State Law Enforcement Division spokesman Thom Berry. The man is in serious condition, Berry said.
The shooting is the 37th officer-involved shooting in South Carolina so far in 2016, Berry said.
SLED is investigating the shooting that occurred on the 200 block of Cherokee Drive, said sheriff's Sgt. Stephen Shunn in a release issued about four hours after the incident.
Deputies were summoned to the scene through a 911 call about a man with a gun standing in the road, Shunn said. When officers arrived, the man was displaying the machete but told deputies he also had a gun.
He would not drop the large knife when deputies ordered him to do so, the sheriff's spokesman said.
Deputies fired when the man moved toward them, Shunn said.
Neither the deputies nor the suspect has been identified publicly. No other details have been released.