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Tim Bussey Cambridge Psychology Essay
We have developed a simple connectionist model based on the idea that perirhinal cortex has properties similar to other regions in the ventral visual stream, or 'what' pathway. The model is based on the assumption that representations in the ventral visual stream are organized hierarchically, such that representations of simple features of objects are stored in caudal regions of the ventral visual stream, and representations of the conjunctions of these features are stored in more rostral regions. We propose that a function of these feature conjunction representations is to help to resolve 'feature ambiguity', a property of visual discrimination problems that can emerge when features of an object predict a given outcome (e.g. reward) when part of one object, but predict a different outcome when part of another object. Several recently reported effects of lesions of perirhinal cortex in monkeys have provided key insights into the functions of this region. In the present study these effects were simulated by comparing the performance of connectionist networks before and after removal of a layer of units corresponding to perirhinal cortex. The results of these simulations suggest that effects of lesions in perirhinal cortex on visual discrimination may be due not to the impairment of a specific type of learning or memory, such as declarative or procedural, but to compromising the representations of visual stimuli. Furthermore, we propose that attempting to classify perirhinal cortex function as either 'perceptual' or 'mnemonic' may be misguided, as it seems unlikely that these broad constructs will map neatly onto anatomically defined regions of the brain.
It is widely accepted that the medial temporal lobe (MTL) supports declarative memory (conscious recollection of facts and events), whereas nondeclarative memory (cumulative improvement in performance without conscious awareness) is dependent on other brain regions preserved in amnesia (Squire and Zola-Morgan, 1991; Squire, 1992; Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993; Schacter et al., 1993; Gabrieli, 1998; Eichenbaum, 2004; Squire et al., 2004). Two examples of nondeclarative tasks are categorization (in which stimuli are separated into sets with reference to perceived similarities and differences) and perceptual learning [in which, after experience with a set of stimuli, subjects show better discrimination than if the stimuli are completely novel (Hall, 1991; Goldstone, 1998; Saksida, 1999)]. Studies of categorization in amnesic patients have typically reported similar levels of learning to those seen in controls, despite poor subsequent recognition of the studied items (Knowlton and Squire, 1993; Kolodny, 1994; Reed et al., 1999; Filoteo et al., 2001) (but see Zaki et al., 2003; Zaki, 2004). Perceptual learning in amnesia is also thought to be intact (Crovitz et al., 1981; Kapur, 1988; Manns and Squire, 2001; Fahle and Daum, 2002), although this is not always the case (Chun and Phelps, 1999).
Although there seems, therefore, considerable evidence for an anatomical distinction between declarative and nondeclarative memory, recent studies challenge this account by revealing deficits that are not easily attributable to declarative memory after MTL damage. Amnesic patients have been shown to demonstrate impairments in spatial scene discrimination after hippocampal damage, with additional deficits in object discrimination if there is also involvement of the perirhinal cortex (Lee et al., 2005a,b,c). These findings imply that MTL structures may not be exclusively involved in declarative memory and indicate specialization of function within the MTL along the lines of space and object perception, consistent with recent findings in nonhuman primates indicating that perirhinal cortex may be critical for the representation of complex conjunctions of object features (Murray and Bussey, 1999; Buckley et al., 2001; Bussey and Saksida, 2002; Bussey et al., 2002, 2003). Although there is less evidence from the nonhuman primate literature for a similar account of hippocampal function (Gaffan, 2001; Buckley et al., 2004; Saksida et al., 2006a,b), the pattern in amnesic cases with selective hippocampal damage raises the possibility that the hippocampus may be critically involved in processing conjunctions of spatial features (Lee et al., 2005b).
An extension of this view is that performance on traditional tests of nondeclarative memory may be similarly stimulus dependent. To test this hypothesis, three amnesic patients with selective bilateral hippocampal damage performed simple tests of categorization and perceptual learning comprising nonspatial (faces) and spatial (virtual reality rooms) stimuli. Contrary to the accepted view, we predicted performance on both nondeclarative measures would be abnormal in these patients for scenes but not for faces.
Materials and Methods
Three patients with partial but relatively selective, bilateral damage to the hippocampus participated in this study (average ± SD age, 45.0 ± 1.7 years; average ± SD education, 14.3 ± 3.8 years). Two patients had experienced anoxia, one after a prolonged period of status epilepticus and another attributable to carbon monoxide poisoning. The third was diagnosed with viral encephalitis. Because the extent of the lesion in the three cases was critical to the hypotheses under investigation, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans in the three patients were evaluated using two separate methods: (1) detailed rating of a number of temporal lobe brain regions based on a novel rating scale that focused on MTL regions (Lee et al., 2005c) and (2) using MRIcro (Rorden and Brett, 2000) to document which brain regions were damaged in all three cases. The results of these evaluations are shown in Table 1and Figure 1.
The lesion overlap map for the hippocampal group (n = 3). Purple, One patient showed atrophy in this region; green, two patients showed atrophy in this region; red, all three patients showed atrophy in this region.
The visual rating method was based on a scale that has been validated against volumetric measures and emphasizes medial temporal lobe regions (Galton et al., 2001). A total of nine regions were rated, including the following: (1) anterior hippocampus, which was rated on the anteriormost pontine slice and based on the widths of the choroid fissure and temporal horn and the height of the hippocampal formation; (2) anterior temporal lobe, which was based on the CSF space between the back of the orbit and temporal pole; (3) amygdala, which was rated on the scan slice anterior to the tip of the temporal horn; (4) lateral temporal lobe, which was rated on the same slice as the anterior hippocampus and was based on the cortical thickness of the superior and middle temporal gyri; (5) posterior hippocampus, which was rated on the anteriormost slice through the cerebral aqueduct in parallel with the anterior measure and according to the width of the temporal horn and the height of the hippocampal formation; and finally (6) anterior parahippocampal gyrus, (7) medial bank of the collateral sulcus, (8) lateral bank of the collateral sulcus, and (9) occipitotemporal sulcus, which were all rated on the slice showing the collateral sulcus at its longest (Lee et al., 2005c). Other than the anterior hippocampus, which was rated on a five-point scale (normal, 0; severe atrophy, 4) based on Scheltens et al. (1992), all regions were assessed using a four-point scale (normal, 0; severe atrophy, 3), with ratings for each area averaged across both hemispheres.
A repeated-measures ANOVA was used to contrast the rating data for the three hippocampal patients with a group of 12 healthy control subjects (for details, see Lee et al., 2005c). This revealed a main effect of region (F(8,104) = 5.6; p < 0.001), which interacted with group (F(8,104) = 3.8; p < 0.005). Post hoc independent samples t tests were conducted to investigate this interaction further, and these showed that only the anterior hippocampus was significantly atrophied in the patient group (p < 0.009, corrected for multiple comparisons).
To analyze which areas were damaged in all three individual patients, the structural scans were first warped into Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) space in SPM99 (Wellcome Department of Functional Neuroscience, London, UK) using a standard procedure for brain images with focal lesions (Brett et al., 2001). This involved creating a mask in MRIcro (Rorden and Brett, 2000) for each of the subjects' lesions by delineating regions of CSF in the middle cranial fossae, including the inferior horn and choroid fissure, until a posterior limit of the end of the hippocampus. These masks were then used for cost function masked normalization of each brain to a standard T1 MNI template. After warping, the lesions of each patient were then redrawn and finally overlaid onto a single-subject T1 MNI template using MRIcro (Fig. 1). This process confirmed the results from the rating scale that all three patients had bilateral hippocampal damage, with some mild atrophy to the surrounding parahippocampal gyrus in two cases.
Neuropsychological testing revealed clear amnesia in the three cases with poor performance on immediate (mean ± SD, 18.5 ± 8.6%) and delayed (mean ± SD, 8.0 ± 11.3%) recall of a story (Wechsler Memory Scale-III) and chance-level delayed recognition of the same story (mean ± SD, 56.7 ± 2.9%). Recall of the Rey Complex Figure was also impaired (immediate, mean ± SD, 37.4 ± 16.9%; delayed, mean ± SD, 25.5 ± 21.8%). In contrast, recognition memory for faces was good (mean ± SD, 93.3 ± 4.6%). Visuoperceptual performance appeared normal, as measured by the Visual Object and Space Perception battery (all subtests passed), Benton Face Recognition Test (mean ± SD, 87.7 ± 3.0%), and copy of the Rey Complex Figure (mean ± SD, 99.1 ± 1.6%). There was no evidence of semantic impairment, with all patients performing normally on word–picture matching (100%), naming (mean ± SD, 98.4 ± 1.6%), and the pictures subtest from the Pyramids and Palm Trees Test (mean ± SD, 98.7 ± 1.1%).
Two patients were also given a commonly used dot prototype learning paradigm (Knowlton and Squire, 1993) in which participants were trained on a set of 40 high-distortion exemplars of a single dot pattern. Subsequently, patients were tested on their ability to classify a series of 84 patterns (4 prototype, 20 low distortion, 20 high distortion and 40 random patterns) on the basis of membership to the trained category. Consistent with the published literature on this task (Knowlton and Squire, 1993; Kolodny, 1994; Squire and Knowlton, 1995; Zaki et al., 2003), our two patients showed intact category learning (mean ± SD; controls, prototype, 88 ± 11%; low distortion, 80 ± 13%; high distortion, 65 ± 11%; and random, 23 ± 8%; patients, prototype, 88 ± 18%; low distortion, 68 ± 4%; high distortion, 48 ± 25%; and random, 44 ± 12%; all values percentage endorsed). Analyses of the patient's data contrasted with 12 age- and education-matched controls (average ± SD age, 50.9 ± 3.7 years; average ± SD education, 14.2 ± 2.6; no significant differences in terms of age and education between the patient and control group, both t <1.6; p > 0.7) revealed a main effect of stimulus type (F(3,36) = 19.6; p < 0.001) and no effect of group (F(1,12) = 0.17; p = 0.69). The interaction was also nonsignificant (F(3,36) = 2.69; p = 0.061); although there was a trend toward a difference, this was driven by greater endorsement of random items by patients compared with controls (p = 0.04, corrected for multiple comparisons). The numerical performance of the amnesic patients on this condition was, however, equivalent to that seen in the original paper by Knowlton and Squire (1993).
Twelve neurologically healthy, age-matched control participants were recruited from the Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Volunteer Panel to undertake the experimental tasks (average ± SD age, 49.8 ± 6.0; average ± SD education, 14.4 ± 2.2). There were no significant differences in terms of age and education between the patient and control groups (both t < 1.0; p > 0.3). All participants gave informed consent for inclusion in the study, and ethical approval was given by the Cambridge Health Authority Local Research Ethics Committee (United Kingdom).
Structural MRI scan ratings for various brain regions (ordered from anterior to posterior location in the brain) for each individual patient (averaged across hemispheres)
Two experimental stimulus types (faces and virtual reality scenes) were used in the experiment (Fig. 2). A third stimulus type (abstract art) was used as an irrelevant filler in the categorization task as described below. Because the aim of the study was to investigate facilitation of discrimination learning between morphed pairs of images, with initial categorization (i.e., participants identified which of two prototype stimuli were most similar to a morphed exemplar) followed by discrimination (i.e., participants responded whether a pair of stimuli were same or different), a continuum of stimuli was constructed for each type. Two perceptually similar images were chosen for both the faces and scenes, and a continuum of 30 stimuli was created for each condition by blending, according to user-specified ratios, two prototype images using commercially available morphing software (Morpheus Photo Animator; ACD Systems, Saanichton, British Columbia, Canada). Within the continuum, 15 pairs of images were thus created with the aim of ensuring that pictures within each stimulus pair could not be discriminated on the basis of one conspicuous feature at any level of overlap. Morph levels for each stimulus set were determined by piloting of the discrimination task in controls so that, for each stimulus set, it was equally difficult to discriminate between the pairs. As such, absolute levels of morph were different for each stimulus set. The 15 pairs were then divided equally into three levels of increasing difficulty, with level 1 containing the least feature overlap and level 3 the most. It was hoped that this variability in difficulty would provide a means of demonstrating that the more difficult the discrimination, the greater the perceptual learning (McLaren and Mackintosh, 2000). In fact, although there was a main effect of level on categorization (both for percentage correct and reaction time), difficulty did not significantly influence perceptual learning regardless of outcome measure. There were also no significant two-way (level × group; level × stimuli) or three-way (level × stimuli × group) interactions in categorization and perceptual learning, the latter revealing that difficulty of discrimination did not significantly influence performance on either of the two tasks differentially for the patients compared with the controls. Consequently, the outcome measures included in the statistical analyses reported below combined scores across difficulty level.
An example trial from the faces (a) and the scenes (b) categorization conditions. For each condition, the two category reference images were displayed at the top, and the bottom image was the example to be categorized.
All testing was conducted using a laptop computer running Windows 98 (Microsoft, Seattle, WA). The program was written in Visual Basic (Microsoft), and subjects indicated their responses by pressing designated keys on the laptop keyboard. Subjects were provided with detailed instructions and undertook a practice task before testing. For each experimental stimulus type, the task involved two components, a categorization phase and then a discrimination phase.
Three images were displayed on the screen: the two reference images that represented the extremes of the morphed continuum (i.e., the prototype stimuli), plus an example image from the morphed continuum (Fig. 2, a, faces, b, scenes). The participants were required to categorize the morphed stimulus by pressing one of two designated keys on the laptop keyboard. There were 90 trials, with three repetitions of each of the 30 stimuli. The categorization phase also doubled as an exposure task for the subsequent discrimination phase. Consequently, there were two types of categorization: relevant filler task, in which the stimuli categorized were later to be used as now familiar stimuli for the discrimination phase, and an irrelevant filler task, always presented first as an introductory task, in which the stimuli to be categorized were abstract art images otherwise not involved in the experiment. No feedback was provided about whether the image selected was correct, and, although no time limit was imposed, all participants were asked to respond quickly and accurately.
The discrimination phase was presented after each categorization phase, after a 30 s break. There were 60 same–different trials in which two pictures from the continuum described above were displayed on the touch screen. The participant was required to indicate on the keyboard whether they thought the images were identical or whether there was a difference between them (Fig. 3, a, faces, b, scenes). On 30 trials, the correct response was "same," in which each of the 30 stimuli were presented in duplicate on the screen. On the other 30 trials, the correct response was "different," in which the 15 pairs of stimuli (see above, Stimuli) were presented side by side on the screen, twice each.
An example trial from the faces (a) and the scenes (b) conditions of the same–different discrimination task.
In all conditions for both tasks, the order of presentation was pseudorandomized and fully counterbalanced. There was no feedback provided about whether the image selected was correct, and, although no time limit was imposed, all participants were encouraged to respond as quickly and accurately as possible.
The discrimination phase provided a means of investigating whether perceptual learning had occurred as a result of exposure to the stimuli during the relevant categorization task. Because the perceptual learning experiment was conducted within subject, with participants receiving both novel and familiar discriminations (i.e., preceded by irrelevant and relevant categorization, respectively), it was necessary to have two sets of stimuli for both the faces and virtual reality scenes. As a result, half of the control participants were presented with set 1 (faces and scenes) for categorization and discrimination, whereas set 2 (faces and scenes) were only seen at discrimination, after the irrelevant abstract art categorization phase. The opposite procedure was used with the remaining control participants. Order of administration of faces and scenes was counterbalanced across all participants. Whereas one patient was exposed to set 1 during categorization and discrimination, the other two cases were trained on set 2. Two patient participants received faces before scenes, whereas the other individual was administered scenes before faces.
To avoid unwanted effects of generalization of perceptual learning between the two same-type stimulus sets, the novel discrimination was always administered before the familiar discrimination. Any generalization of perceptual learning would therefore enhance the perceptual learning effect in all participants rather than reducing it for some (a pattern evident when a counterbalanced procedure was piloted in control participants). The order of presentation of the two tasks was, therefore, categorization (irrelevant abstract art) → novel discrimination → categorization (relevant stimuli) → familiar discrimination for each stimulus type.
Measures of learning
The two tasks provided two different measures of nondeclarative learning. The first, based solely on performance on the categorization task, involved contrasting the patients' performance on faces and scenes with that of control participants. Given the findings by Lee et al. (2005c) on a similar type of task, we predicted that the hippocampal cases would show impaired categorization for scenes but not for faces. The second was obtained by measuring the improvement in performance on the discrimination tasks when the stimuli were familiar (i.e., had been seen previously in the categorization phase) compared with when the stimuli were novel (i.e., the preceding categorization had used the irrelevant abstract art stimuli). This is a standard procedure for assessing perceptual learning (Gibson and Walk, 1956; Honey and Hall, 1989; Mackintosh et al., 1991; Aitken et al., 1996), and we predicted that, although there would be evidence for perceptual learning for both types of stimuli in control participants, the patients would only show perceptual learning for faces, the processing of which we presumed to be dependent on perirhinal cortex rather than the hippocampus. Performance was measured with reference to accuracy (percentage correct) and raw reaction time (milliseconds).
Statistical analysis
For all subjects, the first trial of each condition was disregarded for analysis. Repeated-measures ANOVAs were conducted on both accuracy scores (as measured by percentage correct) and reaction time. Significant interactions were investigated further using univariate ANOVAs, and a significance threshold of p < 0.05 was adopted throughout.
To ensure that the counterbalanced variable of set (see Materials and Methods) did not have a significant effect on accuracy or reaction time and to determine whether there was any interaction of set with stimulus type, a repeated-measures ANOVA was performed on the control data only. The ANOVA included a within-subject variable of stimulus (faces vs scenes) and a between-subject variable of set (1 vs 2). Critically, there were no significant main effects of either stimulus type or set, nor was there any interaction. Accordingly, data from the two sets were combined for subsequent analysis.
Figure 4 (a, accuracy; b, reaction time) shows the data from both participant groups split according to stimulus type. Although performance on the faces categorization task in the two groups was relatively similar, for both accuracy and reaction time, the patients correctly categorized fewer scenes than controls (67 vs 88%) and took considerably longer (>1 s) when doing so.
Scores on the faces and scenes categorization tasks for the controls (white bars) and hippocampal patients (gray bars). a, Percentage correct; b, reaction time (milliseconds). ∗p < 0.05, significant difference between the two groups.
A repeated-measures ANOVA on the accuracy data, with a within-subject variable of stimulus and a between-subject variable of group (control vs hippocampal), confirmed these initial conclusions. Significant main effects of stimulus (F(1,13) = 6.3; p < 0.03) and group (F(1,13) = 9.8; p < 0.01) were evident, as well as a significant interaction between the two (F(1,13) = 7.9; p < 0.02). Additional univariate ANOVAs revealed that there was a significant group effect, with the hippocampal patients categorizing less accurately than controls, for the virtual reality scenes (F(1,13) = 18.8; p < 0.001) but not for faces.
The similar ANOVA investigating reaction time revealed only an interaction between stimulus and group (F(1,13) = 11.8; p < 0.004). Univariate ANOVAs confirmed that the hippocampal patients showed a trend toward slower categorization of virtual reality scenes as predicted (F(1,13) = 4.2; p < 0.06) but not for faces.
To ensure that preexposure to the faces and virtual reality scenes actually resulted in perceptual learning in healthy controls, both the accuracy and reaction time data were analyzed in the controls only. Repeated-measures ANOVAs with within-subject variables of stimulus (faces vs scenes) and familiarity (familiar vs novel) and a between-subject variable of set (1 vs 2) revealed a main effect of familiarity only (accuracy, F(1,11) = 10.7, p < 0.007; reaction time, F(1,11) = 6.0, p < 0.04). Categorization of both faces and scenes before undertaking the discrimination task with these stimuli, therefore, resulted in improved accuracy and faster reaction times in control participants for both types of complex stimuli. No other main effects or interactions reached significance. Consequently, as for the categorization task, data from both sets were combined for each stimulus type in additional analyses.
Because perceptual learning was evident for both stimulus types in healthy controls, difference scores (calculated for each subject for both scenes and faces by subtracting the score for novel stimuli from that obtained for familiar items) were used to contrast the level of perceptual learning attained by the hippocampal patients with that of the controls. These difference scores are displayed in Figure 5 (a, accuracy; b, reaction times), in which a positive score for accuracy and a negative score for reaction time is evidence of perceptual learning. What is immediately obvious from the two figures is that, although the hippocampal group showed some improvement in accuracy for both faces and scenes, different profiles were evident on the reaction time measure, with a speeding of response for faces but a striking slowing for scenes.
Difference scores (novel score subtracted from familiar score) on the faces and scenes same–different discrimination task for controls (white bars) and hippocampal patients (gray bars). a, Percentage correct; b, reaction time (milliseconds); c, inverse efficiency measure. ∗p < 0.05, significant difference between the two groups.
To investigate these findings, repeated-measures ANOVAs were used, with a within-subject variable of stimulus and a between-subjects variable of group, using the difference score data. Although no significant main effects, or an interaction, were revealed in the accuracy ANOVA, a significant interaction between stimulus and group was found for reaction time (F(1,13) = 7.0; p < 0.02). Univariate ANOVAs confirmed that the hippocampal group were performing significantly differently from their controls in the scenes condition (F(1,13) = 10.5; p < 0.006) but not in the faces condition.
These analyses suggest that perceptual learning of scenes is not normal in individuals with hippocampal damage: although the patients accurately discriminated more familiar than novel scenes, they showed a striking increase in reaction time after previous experience with the spatial stimuli. This is a reverse of the improved speed of responding typically seen in perceptual learning and demonstrated by our healthy controls for both faces and scenes. That is to say that the patients appear to be demonstrating a "speed–accuracy trade-off." To compensate for this, the data can be analyzed using an inverse efficiency measure, which combines reaction time and accuracy (Townsend and Ashby, 1978, 1983). Inverse efficiency was therefore calculated separately for each of the novel and familiar stimulus conditions for each subject and is defined as mean reaction time divided by the proportion of trials correct. These data are displayed as difference scores in Figure 5c, in which more negative scores are evidence of greater perceptual learning.
Figure 5c confirms that the patients and controls show a different pattern of performance on scenes but not on faces. Although both groups show a negative inverse efficiency change for faces (slightly numerically greater in the case of the hippocampal group), the patients showed a large and positive inverse efficiency change for the virtual reality scenes compared with a negative value in the control population. Statistical analyses confirmed a significant main effect of group (F(1,13) = 5.0; p < 0.05), which interacted with stimulus type (F(1,13) = 5.0; p < 0.05). Univariate ANOVAs revealed that the interaction could be accounted for by a difference between the groups for scenes, (F(1,13) = 9.0; p < 0.01) but not for faces.
Contrary to the predominant view of human memory, which posits that MTL regions are critical for declarative but not nondeclarative memory (Eichenbaum, 2001, 2004; Squire et al., 2004), patients with selective, bilateral lesions to the hippocampus showed impaired performance on visual categorization and perceptual learning. Critically, performance was not indiscriminately impaired: selective deficits were evident only for virtual reality scenes, with normal categorization and perceptual learning for similarly complex face stimuli.
A clear division in performance between stimuli that placed a demand on processing spatial complexity versus object features was predicted based on recent investigations (Lee et al., 2005b,c, 2006). For example, Lee et al. (2005c) asked participants to match one of two stimuli from different points along a morphed continuum to an unchanging reference image taken from one end of the continuum. Patients with hippocampal damage were impaired when the stimuli were photographs of landscapes but not when faces or objects were presented. In contrast, patients with more extensive damage to the MTL, including the hippocampus and perirhinal cortex, performed poorly on both types of stimuli.
The categorization results reported here replicate these findings, broadening the deficits seen after hippocampal damage to morphed images of virtual reality scenes. This study also extends an additional investigation in which the same patients with hippocampal damage were impaired when asked to select the odd virtual reality room when presented alongside three different views of another virtual reality room (Lee et al., 2005b). In this oddity task, there was no repetition of stimuli or trials, and, consequently, the deficits in the patients cannot be attributed easily to declarative memory. Consistent with the current results, the patients showed normal oddity judgment for faces. Overall, therefore, patients with hippocampal damage demonstrate clear impairments on tasks that require them to discriminate, learn, and remember spatially complex stimuli but not faces or objects.
Studies in nonhuman primates provide an explanation for these findings (Gaffan, 2001). Such investigations have highlighted a critical role for perirhinal cortex in the representation and processing of complex object stimuli (Murray and Bussey, 1999; Buckley et al., 2001; Bussey and Saksida, 2002; Bussey et al., 2003). Monkeys and humans with perirhinal cortex lesions are impaired on concurrent object discriminations with a high, but not low, degree of "feature ambiguity," a property of visual discriminations that emerges when complex objects have a large number of overlapping visual features (Bussey et al., 2002; Barense et al., 2005). These experiments suggest that rostral inferotemporal cortical regions, including the perirhinal cortex, contain representations of complex conjunctions of object features, whereas more caudal regions (e.g., visual areas V4 and TEO) house the components from which these conjunctions are formed. An extension of this view is that the hippocampus may resolve "spatial feature ambiguity" via the formation of representations with conjunctions of spatial features (Buckley et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2005a), although this hypothesis remains to be tested.
Consistent with this theoretical account is the abnormal perceptual learning for scenes seen in our hippocampal group. Whereas healthy participants showed improved accuracy and a speeding up of performance when discriminating the familiar stimuli, the hippocampal patients' accuracy improved but, notably, their reaction times increased. One mechanism that has been proposed as contributing to perceptual learning is unitization (McLaren et al., 1989; Goldstone, 1998; McLaren and Mackintosh, 2000), the process by which features of a stimulus are integrated such that feature conjunctions are better represented, thus facilitating accuracy and speeding up response. In the hippocampal group, increased familiarity with the scenes may have resulted in better representation of the individual features of the scenes stored in more caudal temporal lobe regions, thereby improving accuracy, but at the cost of a more labored, time-consuming, serial analysis of the features of the stimulus. This hypothesis could be tested more systematically using eye-tracking techniques, which provide an implicit measure of memory (Althoff and Cohen, 1999). In Ryan et al. (2000), healthy controls showed an increase in fixations within a region of a repeated scene that had undergone manipulation since its last viewing (e.g., the deletion or addition of an object). Amnesic patients did not show this effect, suggesting poor memory for the relations among the constituent elements of scenes. Comparison of familiar and novel scenes using this procedure might provide a means to test the unitization hypothesis.
Although a distinction between object and spatial processing provides a parsimonious explanation for the data reported here (Barense et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2005a,b), it is not clear how this theory can account for the full range of published findings on categorization and perceptual learning. Our proposal that there is no clear distinction between declarative and nondeclarative memory in amnesia echoes proponents of single-system models of memory, in which good dot categorization in the context of impoverished recognition memory (Knowlton and Squire, 1993; Reed et al., 1999) is explained by differences in memory demands across tasks rather than by differences in memory systems (Nosofsky and Zaki, 1998; Kinder and Shanks, 2001, 2003; Zaki and Nosofsky, 2001; Zaki et al., 2003). Notably, however, these psychological models do not predict stimulus-specific effects; instead, because the main deficit in amnesia is an inability to discriminate among items in memory, they hypothesize impairments when memory demands are high. For example, Zaki et al. (2003) reported normal dot categorization when a single category was tested but impairment on a memory-intensive two-category task. To explain our data under the single-system account, greater task demands for processing of scenes over faces would need to be proposed, yet there was no evidence of differences in performance difficulty across these two conditions in control participants, nor was there any evidence of greater impairment in patients when face discriminations were made more difficult [see analysis in Materials and Methods and the study by Lee et al. (2005c)]. That said, the reported deficits by Zaki et al. (2003) in the two-category dot categorization task (but see Kolodny, 1994) is challenging to our stimulus-oriented account, which predicts preserved categorization and perceptual learning for simple stimuli even when the task is demanding. As acknowledged by the authors, however, a limitation of this study was the possibility that the patients had more widespread damage beyond the MTL; a profile of atrophy our account predicts would yield deficits on demanding dot categorization tasks.
Setting aside the issue of how to explain our results in terms of purely psychological single-system models, a few other studies deserve mention. In particular, Hopkins et al. (2004b) recently reported normal procedural spatial sequence learning using a computerized radial-arm maze in hypoxic individuals with hippocampal damage. In contrast, the patients performed poorly on a similar declarative task in which sequences had to be explicitly remembered. Although there are some outstanding issues about this study (such as the measures used to compare performance on the two tasks), the finding, when considered in the context of our patients' inability to discriminate spatial scenes, raises the question of what aspects of spatial processing are dependent on the hippocampus. We proposed that the hippocampus is necessary for representing the complex conjunctions that constitute a spatial scene (Lee et al., 2005c), but additional work is necessary to determine under what circumstances the hippocampus is recruited during spatial tasks. Such studies would also be useful in understanding whether spatial impairments can explain deficits on probabilistic category learning paradigms (Hopkins et al., 2004a) and tests of artificial grammar learning (Zaki, 2004), neither of which have an overt spatial demand. Additional limitations of our study are the small sample size and the possibility that the deficits reported here are not attributable to hippocampal damage (two patients had mild involvement of the parahippocampal gyrus). Inconsistent with this, the case with a selective hippocampal lesion also showed poor categorization and perceptual learning, and the common area of damage to all three cases was to the hippocampus (Fig. 1).
In summary, the data reported here are additional evidence of a role for the hippocampus in aspects of spatial processing and memory (O'Keefe, 1976; O'Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Gilbert et al., 1998; Spiers et al., 2001; Astur et al., 2002; Burgess and O'Keefe, 2003; McGregor et al., 2004; Pearce et al., 2004) but extend these investigations to reveal clear influences of stimulus type on nondeclarative tasks not thought to be dependent on the hippocampus (Turk-Browne et al., 2006


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Detailed Solar yard post light Model No.: GS5-505Model Name: Solar yard post lightDesc:Solar panel (18V/30W with tempered glass lamination) 120 white LEDs 12V/45Ah Lead-acid rechargeable battery 6V controller.
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Destiny Decorations
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Business Informationwedding, decorations, florist, balloon, chair covers, tablecloths, chair sashes, backdrops, head table decorations, cake table, flower vases.
Chair covers, table cloths, table overlays, floral centerpieces, church decorations, pew bows, balloons, and backdrops, and head table decorations. All our products could also be rented.
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Just steps from local Vietnamese food stalls and cafés, Tuyen Son Hotel is 2.5 km from My Khe Beach and 3.5 km from Han River. It features complimentary Wi-Fi access and private parking.
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|34 Nguyen Lo Trach
Da Nang


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1960 · N.p.
by Chaplin, Charlie (subject); Hans Malmberg (photographer)
N.p.: N.p., 1960. Vintage borderless oversized photograph of Charlie Chaplin with his daughter, Jane, circa the early or mid 1960s. With the stamp of photographer Hans Malmberg, as well as the A.B.C. and Ifot photo agencies and some holograph notations on the verso. 12 x 8 inches (30 x 20 cm). Very Good, with light creasing and a few short closed tears. (Inventory #: 143371)


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Tim Ryan
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The calendar is now sortable by category and by tag, both at the top of the calendar. You can use the button at the foot of the calendar to add this calendar to your own (Google, Apple, Timely etc). The print button at the top will print the page you're on. Clicking on the main calendar bar (top left) allows you to choose a date to jump to. PLEASE NOTE – where an event is marked as 'ALL DAY' it may be best to check with the organisers in case they have not submitted a start and/or end time to us …
To submit your event to the ECF calendar – click here. This will also enable you to submit your event to the FIDE ratings server if it is FIDE-rated or has a FIDE-rated section(s) | For a PDF of the ECF Event Calendar (updated every 4-5 weeks) – click here (updated 14/09/18)
Official FIDE events … http://www.fide.com/calendar … and the rest – worldwide chess events from the FIDE website – http://www.fide.com/calendar/tournaments.html
To submit your FIDE-rated event to the FIDE Events Calendar, click this link – https://www.fide.com/calendar/tournaments.html?view=calendar&task=uregister
A new badge system has been introduced whenever possible from 26/3/18 onwards. An amber wheelchair (below) means that the venue has at least some disability-friendly aspects, whereas a green wheelchair (also below) means it's particularly so. In all cases, but especially where no badge is evident, PLEASE contact the organisers for more details …
The links to external websites within the calendar are being provided as a convenience and for informational purposes only; they do not constitute an endorsement or an approval by the ECF of any of the products and services available or opinions expressed on or accuracy of these other websites …
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Is your roof leaking and giving you problems? If you haven't paid any attention to your roof till now, it is time to take up roof repair. Roof leakage is the common culprit that can destroy your interiors and exteriors. Imagine the roof is leaking and the water dripping on your expensive home pieces. Before any such thing happens, summon professionals for roof inspection. Among all components of your home, a roof is the most significant. It safeguards your place from outside climate, changing weather and climatic factors. If the roof is not proper, it will pose a major damage to the structure of your home. Only roof repairs Richmond can pave the way for a solid, long-lasting, durable and functional roof.
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Roof repairs Richmond is an important part of roof maintenance. Summon a professional in a timely manner and do not wait for the roof to start leaking.


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The CGE Namibia staff were pleasantly surprised this morning with a visit from Tom Siburg, a student on the Nation-building, Globalization and Decolonizing the Mind program in the Fall 2008 semester. We all have very fond memories of Tom as a student here and are excited to have him back in the country for a while! Tom is spending the summer months in Namibia doing an internship with the City of Windhoek – Community Development Department. Tom is studying at the University of Minnesota towards a double Masters in Social Work and Urban and Regional Planning.
Goodbye CGE southern Africa
Today is a very sad day for me, it is my last day on the job as an intern at the Center for global education, Namibia. It was a real honor working with a team that is very committed to a course of social justice and equality for everyone. I can definitely say with confidence that I'm a different individual than I was when I first started working for this organization. Looking back, I can say that I enjoyed attending classes with all the CGE students meeting all the guest speakers and getting to know all staff at the Center. In essence being at this organization changed my perception of the world around me.
Its so funny and strange that it feels like yesterday, when I was attending a team building retreating with the staff and students and now I'm sitting here with a very heavy heart, hesitantly saying goodbye. Even though I'm saying bye to the organization and to the dedicated team that works at this organization, my heart will remain at this organization.
I am deeply going to miss everyone in this organization……so here it goes, farewell Center for global education.
Saying goodbye to the CGE students
I still remember so vividly in my mind welcoming the students to Namibia on the 29th of January, 2014.And now it feels so strange to have to say goodbye to everyone that I learned to love so much and I have grown used to always having around over the past months that they have been in Windhoek,Namibia. Last week marked the end of the journey for the CGE students in Namibia. They spent most of the week wrapping up classes and preparing for their integrative Projects presentation. The presentations were hosted at the American cultural centre.
The integrative projects had a good mix of game boards,videos and art exhibition. The presentation were filled with a lot of exciting and interesting view points on subjects matters affecting social change and equality in the Namibian society. Later that day the students hosted a dinner for the CGE staff, to show appreciation for the support and the guidance they provided to them throughout their stay here in Namibia. Everybody at the dinner was given the opportunity to say a few things about their experience at the CGE house in Windhoek, and also to tell everyone what they were mostly thankful about. It was a very emotional night, tears and sadness were the order of the night, as every word uttered at the dinner table was a reminder to everyone present of the inevitable departure of the students back to their homes.
The students left Namibia for Cape Town, South Africa, on Saturday. I knew right from the start that, their stay here in Namibia was not a permanent one but knowing this, did not give me any type of comfort whatsoever. It hurt so much that it brings tears to my eyes to even think of the words goodbye. I can only wish them luck in all their endeavors and hope that our paths in life will one day bring us together. But until then….so long my people and thank you for coming to Namibia.
Decolonizing the mind
Over a couple of weeks ago, we asked the CGE;Southern African students in Namibia, what they understand by the terminology decolonizing the mind and what type of imagery is painted in their minds when they hear these words.This is what they said.
"I think, it is empowering citizens of a country which were once colonized to be free from foreign exploitation, either economic or psychological, so that they are able to be self-sufficient and successful via their own personal volition."
"I think decolonizing the mind is a concept that deals with the residual effects of colonization. Shivute told us that the first thing colonial powers had to do was convince the colonized population that they are inferior; before people's action can be controlled, their minds had to be the initial site of colonization. They had to make them believe that there was a good reason for things being the way they were.Decolonizing the mind is then the process that has to happen after the formal colonization has been removed.Its very hard to change patterns of thinking and perception which is why decolonizing the mind is a process that is still relevant".
"Decolonizing the mind means freeing not only the
physical and informal constraints which restrict a person or society but breaking down more subtle mental barriers which may be difficult to define or even see. To decolonize the mind is to eliminate the final and arguably , the strongest hold that a subjugator has."
"I thinking decolonizing the mind is about realizing what stereotypes and stigmas you have against people and trying to change your mindset".
"Decolonizing the mind is breaking the barriers that you have created in your mind about certain cultures. Allowing yourself to be influenced by new surroundings."
"Decolonizing the mind is conscientiously transcending the mental barriers and insecurities that often result from a people's colonization,achieved through critical thinking and analysis of events."
"Decolonizing the mind is to step back from an environment entrenched in colonialism in order to critically examine and question the current institutions and practices that may be in place due to a past colonial rule and mindset."
"Decolonizing the mind means freeing yourself of preconceived notions and stereotypes so that you allow yourself to fully experience the world around you."
"Decolonizing the mind is abolishing a perspective or mindset by looking at a society with a different attitudes or point of view usually from the colonized rather than the colonizer."
"Decolonizing the mind means deconstructing the inferior mindsets of the colonized and the superior mindsets of the colonizer."
"Decolonizing the mind is turning people away from the stereotypes that they have, and opening their mind to more possibilities."
"Decolonizing the mind means taking a critical look at your privilege and the ways in which that privilege has come to be.It's about realizing that assumptions are continuously made and if you don't take the time to deconstruct those assumptions and ask where they come from then you're perpetuating the same attitudes and ideas that systematically oppress."
Community Meeting Easter Egg Hunt!
Each week at CGE: Southern Africa, students come together for a community meeting. We check in with each other emotionally, give important announcements, and discuss the positive and negative aspects of living in community as a whole group. It is one of the most important aspects of our living-learning community that enables students from diverse backgrounds and beliefs to live and study together for the semester. At the end of the student-led sessions, we have fun activities that can involve snacks, movie nights, games, or any number of other options.
This week was an Easter Egg Hunt set up by community leaders Gena, Kelsey, and Matt. Each week different students lead the meetings. Each of the 59 eggs had a number 1-5. Each number corresponded to a type of candy. Whoever found the egg could claim their prize. Happy Easter everyone!
MEETING Dr. DEBORAH ROBINSON IN THE HISTORY CLASS/MID-SEMESTER RECONNECTION SESSION AT NUBUAMIS HILLS!!!!!!
Last week Thursday the center for global education was graced with the presence of a very special individual, Dr. Deborah Robinson. Dr. Robinson is from the United States, she initiated the South African Political prisoner bracelet program to build ties between individuals in the United states and prisoners serving life sentences in South Africa during the Apartheid era.
Dr. Robinson is currently visiting South Africa and Namibia to interview the families of some of these Political prisoners about the impact of the bracelets on their lives. Dr. Robinson visited the center for global education with one of the daughters of a political prisoner from Namibia, Ndilipo Shikomba. Ndilipo Shikomba emailed Dr. Robinson after she had came across her website about two years ago, but unfortunately they lost contact with one another, that is up until January of this year when they regained that contact with one another. It was during that time that Dr. Robinson decided to visit Namibia to meet Ndilipo Shikomba for the very first time. Ndilipo was very adamant about meeting Dr. Robinson that she was prepared to take a week from her place of employment to accommodate Dr. Robinson's visit to Namibia.
Later that day, it was time for the CGE staff and students to go to the Nubuamis hills for the mid-semester reconnection session. This session was aimed at bringing everybody at the CGE house in Windhoek, at the same page after a spring break The reflection session took a good mix of a warm up activity,dish of snacks, some fun activities, where people had a chance to show off their acting skills. The reconnection session was ended with brief reflection of the achievement and challenges faced by the staff and the students through this semester, then it was time to return home.
Two weeks ago, the cge students returned from their rural homestays in the northern parts of the Namibia and from their spring break.The students were put into different households, with different host families.This whole rural homestay experiences is meant to expose the students to a lifestyle which they may not be with familiar with.
A lot of Namibians still inhabit the rural space of the country, and they still lead a very simple lifestyle of working the land and living off what they produce. The rural homestay, all in all is suppose to paint a picture for the students that will show them the family structure of the rural inhabitants,the type of activities they do on a daily bases,the challenges they face on a daily bases and also show them how they manage to live a content life even with these challenges at hand.
The student lived with their host parents for about a week, during which they learnt how to harvest mopane worms, they also learnt how to build houses from dung,they visited the damara living museum,as well as, the baobab tree.It was kind of difficult for them to adjust from life in Windhoek to life in the rural parts of Namibia but they managed to make the transition as they started to settle in with their host families and it was an incredible learning experience for all the students.
After spending a week with the host families in Khorixas, it was time for the students to go to Etosha national park to see the beauty of the Namibian wildlife and do a little camping.From the Etosha national park the students, on the own embarked on an excursion, which saw them travelling to Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana for about a week.
Namibia's 24 years of Independence
March 21, 2014 , marks Namibia's 24th Independence anniversary celebration.The Namibian War of Independence,which lasted from 1966 to 1990, was a guerrilla war which the nationalist South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) and others fought against the apartheid government of South Africa. It was closely intertwined with the South African Border War.The war ended with the New York Accords signed on 22 December 1988, which also ended direct involvement of foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War. Independence came to Namibia on 21 March 1990 following elections which saw SWAPO winning 55 of 72 seats in the National Assembly of Namibia, enabling them to form a national government.
With only 24 years of political emancipation the Namibian government has accomplished a lot, even though they still have a long way to go, as far as, the gap between the rich and the poor in the country is concerned.The CGE staff in Windhoek, Namibia, would like to wise the Namibian public a very happy 24th independence anniversary celebration and may Namibia continue to be a very peaceful nation with habitants who are respectful and mindful of one another.
Campaign against the senseless killing of women.
Namibia has seen an alarming increase in gender based violence, especially that committed against women over the recent years. Most of these injustices against women have been attributed to the loss of cultural practises amongst the youth which have amounted to the decay of morals according to traditional leaders and some political leaders.
On Saturday, March 8, 2014, the International women's day, the ministry of gender equality and child welfare in Namibia, in attempt to raise awareness of this gender based violence called "passion killing" in Namibia, organized a march from its offices to the zoo park, which saw hundreds of men in high heels in protest against the violent attacks and killing of women.
Center for global education's very own students also took part in the activities. It was a meaning experience them to see the community come together and fight for this cause. The march was a very imperative move in getting both women and men to fight as community that respect all human life and to uproot this terrible evil we call "passion killing".Getting men involved in an activities like this is the first step in trying to combat the senseless killing of women.
The Heroes Acre
Over a week or so the CGE students visited the Heroes Acre, which is a national monument, built for the sole purpose of commemorating the fallen heroes and heroins, who gave their lives in order for the Namibian nation to be free from colonial and apartheid oppression.
The Heroes Acre is place where the pioneers and key drivers of the Namibian independence are put to rest after they have passed on to the next life.It is built in a way that tells the story of the plight and struggles experienced by the people of Namibia before they procured their independence from the colonial and apartheid administration. It also shows and project the way forward for the Namibian people by having a eternal burning fire, which is symbolic to eternal solidarity amongst fellow Namibians, regardless of race, ethnic group,gender and sex.To ensure the protection of the Heroes Acre, the Namibian government has entrusted the Namibian defence force to safe guard the premises on a 24/ 7 bases from vandalism and all intentions involving the destruction of this national monument.
The heroes acre also has a restaurant where people can enjoy meals when important events, such as the heroes day is being commemorated on the 4th of May. The students were taken by the beauty of the graves and the mountains surrounding the heroes acre which gives it a very natural and calming environment.
The students were taken through a simultaneous process of learning about the history of this freedom fighters, as well as, going through individual graves and admiring the beautiful handy work of the craftsman represented by the gravestones.The walk to the top of the hill was a little challenging, but we eventually got there.
Although the visit to the heroes acre may have revealed controversial information about this monument ,one can not help it but note , how much the students learned from this experience.


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The Venue
Wentworth Castle is one of Yorkshire's leading wedding venues, able to offer civil wedding ceremonies, civil partnerships, receptions and banquets. The historic venue has undergone an extensive restoration programme to return the castle's magnificent architecture to its full glory; from the grand towers of the castle to the proud pillars which frame the Corinthian Temple.
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The latest news, analysis and stories from nhlcom, the official site of the national hockey league. The goal heard around the world cole, lecavalier, moreau, for most of us, foster hewitt's ghostly words are as much a part of the series as the goal itself. Foster william alfred bill hewitt (1928 – december 25, 1996) was a canadian radio and television sportscaster] he was the son of canadian hockey broadcasting pioneer foster hewitt and grandson of toronto star sports journalist, w a hewitt. Created by: harold c from acomb to zezel, vintage leafs features photographs of your favourite toronto maple leafs from years gone by while the primary focus of the blog is on older photographs, the only steadfast rule is that players on the current team will not be showcased.Foster william hewitt, order of canada (november 21, 1902 – april 21, 1985) was a canadian radio pioneer born in toronto, ontario, hewitt attended upper canada college and the university of toronto. Foster william hewitt, oc (november 21, 1902 – april 21, 1985) was a canadian radio broadcaster most famous for his play-by-play calls for hockey night in canada. The foster hewitt hockey game - an early table hockey game from the 1940/50s endorsed by foster hewitt produced by reliable plastics co limited. View the profiles of people named foster hewitt join facebook to connect with foster hewitt and others you may know facebook gives people the power to. Addresses and phone numbers for 42 brandon foster's in michigan were found michigan 49017 that's realated to carrie lee hewitt, david lee hewitt,. The latest tweets from sharon hewitt (@sharonhewitt) louisiana state senator what inspiring stories these foster children shared in today's senate select. Foster a child and become a foster parent we are three circles fostering in the north west education is at the heart of operations we are committed to the genuine acceptance of difference, and of the right of everyone to be who they wish to be. How is to make sure that this hello canada the life and times of foster hewitt will not displayed in your bookshelves this is a soft file book,. Learn about and donate to the foster hewitt foundation, along with 85,000 other registered canadian charities.
Rosie mae hewitt was born in snook, bishop david foster and first lady ethel foster and the published in merced sun star on dec 19,. The foster hewitt memorial award is an award named after foster hewitt and presented by the hockey hall of fame to members of the radio and television industry who make outstanding contributions to their profession and the game of ice hockey during their broadcasting career. This one will last a lifetime rangers play-by-play announcer sam rosen, his iconic call of the blueshirts' 1994 stanley cup championship and all, will be inducted into the hockey hall of fame in november as a media honouree when he receives the foster hewitt memorial award for outstanding.
Saturday night hockey / hockey night in canada according to in the early 1940s the saturday night hockey broadcasts called by foster hewitt were recorded in. Foster hewitt was born on november 21, 1902 in toronto, ontario, canada as foster william alfred hewitt he is known for his work on first performance. Click here for foster hewitt pictures you can also find pictures of billy smith, john ferguson, phil esposito, eddie shore.Download
2018. Student


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The Last Vikings Game App Apk Free Download The Last Vikings is a most popular game, which is available for both Android and iOS mobile phones that comes in the Games category. The Last Vikings is a Fantastic game, which was uploaded on Google Play Store & Apple app store on 2015-11-12 00:19:09, for the first time to both Android & iOS mobile users.
This Amazing game has been created by Springloaded Ltd and this popular mobile game has received 4.5 *star rating on the App Store. You can easily download this game in your android and iOS mobile phones.
Short Review About The Last Vikings Game
Embark on your Viking adventure sailing dangerous seas in order to pillage villages and bring glory to the Viking people once again! Build up your army, boats, special heroes and powerful weapons to face the onslaught of attacks and mythical creatures.
With the Viking population dwindling, their legacy rests on you..
"It's also super cute, and looks like quite a bit of fun both online and off." – 148Apps
– Immerse in the world of The Last Vikings by exploring different lands for rare treasures and loot
– Build different Viking boats to conquer as many villages as you can
– Battle mythical and legendary dragons, hydras and more
– Discover and try different combinations of powerful weapons
– Collect and upgrade more than 50 unique and varied heroes
– *NEW* Have fun today with new iMessage stickers from The Last Vikings! Free and included with the download of the app
Some Important Details About The Last Vikings
|Game Name
|The Last Vikings
|Rating on App Store
|4.5 Star
|Publish Date
|2015-11-12 00:19:09
|Total Size of this game
|Developer's name
|Springloaded Ltd
How to Download The Last Vikings Game For Free in Your iOS Device
- Click Here to download The Last Vikings Game on your iOS phone.
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- Install and Open the 1.3.23 The Last Vikings game & And have fun.
How to Download The Last Vikings Game Apk Online For Android Phone
- First of all, Visit Google Play Store to Download The Last Vikings game for Android.
- If you are unable to install this game from Play Store, otherwise you do not want to down load it from Google Play store, you would love to download its apk version, Then you can download latest 1.3.23 Apk of The Last Vikings Game Online For free in your Android smartphone
- Steps to Download The Last Vikings Apk To download the apk file you may go to India's most famous apk down loader web sites like – ApkDeal, ApkKey, 9apps, ApkMirror, Apk4Funand lots more
- Install the latest 1.3.23 version The Last Vikings Apk on your Android and have fun :-).
I hope that after reading this article, you will know everything about The Last Vikings game. If you want to get other information about this most popular game, then you can contact it on its official site .
if you have any additional questions about The Last Vikings, then you can mention in comment section and we will helps you out within 24 hours OR you can contact the him by visiting there official website .


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Four months ago Bling It On suffered an horrific fall at Albion Park that threatened to end his career, but he has bounced back well.
Bling It On required surgery after severely cutting his knees and trainer Craig Cross is just delighted to have him back ready to race.
"To look at his leg when it first happened, you wouldn't have thought he'd be back," Cross said, "His near-side front knee was pretty awful to look at.
"They had to put him under to operate on him and wash out his knees and then he was on a course of antibiotics. He has come back slightly earlier than anticipated, a few weeks ahead of scheduled, which is terrific."
Bling It On has drawn 12 – the outside of the front row – over a mile. The seven-year-old slots into 10 with the removal of the emergencies.
"He's come up quite nicely and we're very happy with him," Cross added. "He'll trial today, which will sharpen him up for Saturday night.
"At the moment the main focus is on Saturday night and racing him into fitness, but all going well, he will be back in Melbourne for his Hunter Cup defence in the first week of February.
"He may even race in the Ballarat Cup a fortnight earlier."


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Описание товара на английском языке:
Build your own system of Training Cables with varying levels of resistance. This cables gives an extra 10 till 100 pounds of resistance and are built to be used with the Quick Change Single Grip, Triple Grip, or Flex Handles. The portable design allows your to train anywhere, anytime. Add this cables to your collection to add more resistance.


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I don't really know if it was a hard disk or a hard drive or if it's related to the problem in any way. I've also had a cat walk across the keyboard a few dozen times. Could've been that! Anyway, I had my laptop hard disk or drive go bad and all my info get wiped after only a few months with this new Dell. No sign it was going it just went out of nowhere. First time this happened to me out of nowhere. I lost a CRAPLOAD, people! Anyway, I reinstalled firefox which is my favorite browser and now it's acting very strangely and I can't seem to figure it out.
*I can't log into some sites, and it tells me about updating adobe when I have it updated and the same sites work on a different browser.
*When I highlight text, I lift my finger up off the pad and it un-highlights.
*I press down and scroll along a game screen to travel within that program window and it selects wherever I stop even if I didn't click anything.
*The scrolling function seems like it will randomly have me clicking exit where my pointer is nowhere near the X and I keep randomly accidently shutting off my browser or whatever window.
*Some videos and images will randomly not show or those that normally autoplay will be frozen in places like facebook.
*Sometimes no words will type anywhere within firefox either and I'll have to exit the program and go back in.
It's just weird. I don't know if I've messed with some kind of control or what. I have had about three or for updating processes since the replacement and I wonder if anyone knows if it might need to do that several times before bugs get worked out or if that wouldn't have anything to do with these problems? Anyway, whatever you think, let me know, okay? Thanks!
Edited by Chris Cosgrove, 08 March 2015 - 05:08 PM.
Topic now raised in AII


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With Wynn Resorts already on the inside track to secure one casino license in Massachusetts, the competition for the Western Massachusetts casino license appears to be heating up.
One of the contenders to secure the license is Mohegan Sun and it's ramping up its casino proposal with the unveiling of a more elaborate plan for its $1 billion proposal in Palmer, Massachusetts.
The Connecticut-based company unveiled the latest rendering of its massive casino plans, which apparently now includes a slew of entertainment options, including an indoor and outdoor water park that will be connected to its own 250-room hotel to go with an enormous retail space, and an expansive cinema complex that is likewise linked to the complex's casino on one side and another hotel on the other.
"We want it to be reflective of the Mohegan Sun brand, but its own destination," Mohegan Sun chief executive officer Mitchell Etess said, as quoted by the Associated Press.
Despite being situated in a rural area of Palmer, Mohegan Sun's casino proposal will be built on a wide expanse of land that covers 152 acres and situated just off of the Massachusetts Turnpike, making it easily accessible to anyone in the state. The $1 billion proposal initially was pegged at $600 million but Mohegan Sun has been aggressive in ramping up the the design and development of the integrated resort and casino to include a bevy of new amenities that would make for a more competitive proposal relative to the two other operators – MGM Resorts International (Downtown Springfield) and Hard Rock International (Western Massachusetts) – vying for the single Western Massachusetts casino license.
Etess isn't admitting that the improved proposal comes as a competitive response to its rival operators, opting for the more diplomatic route of claiming that its improved proposal is means to showcase the place as "a true destination resort that would be capable of driving business … from out of state."
Whether its proposal piques the interest of the Massachusetts Gaming Commission is another thing, but for what it can control, Mohegan Sun is determined to put its best foot forward – regardless of the results.


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Beautiful 4bd/4ba in Renaissance.Bright kitchen w/solid surface counters,42" Maple Cabinets & Pantry.Vaulted Family Room,Formal Dining, Powder Bath & Laundry on main level. Relax in your master suite w/walk-in closet, 2 more bedrooms w/Jack and Jill bath upstairs. Awesome fenced backyard w/stamped patio & raised garden beds.++PLUS++ FINISHED BASEMENT w/rec rm, office, 4th bedrm & Bathroom-WOW! Wood floors,SS Appliances & tons of storage.Close to schools,parks & walking paths!Open House 4/8 11-1!
IDX information is provided exclusively for consumers' personal, non‐commercial use, that it may not be used for any purpose other than to identify prospective properties consumers may be interested in purchasing, and that the data is deemed reliable but is not guaranteed accurate by the MLS.
Copyright © 2018 IDX. All rights reserved. Information deemed reliable but is not guaranteed.


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Out Of Stock in stock
The blend of textures in the adorable Kong Dynos tempts cats to play. The soft plush body invites snuggling and cuddling. A generous portion of Kong's Premium North American Catnip helps entice play and gives the successful hunter an added reward.
Crinkle sound encourages play
Varied textures intrigue and entice
Premium catnip for added engagement
Available in four adorable characters
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All the Engineering tutors connected to myassignmenthelp are degree holders in unique field. They can certainly present you responses towards your doubts and queries. They have got outstanding difficulty fixing abilities in engineering and they might demonstrate you obtain whole data in wanted subject matter of Engineering inside of a simplified form. So, in case you are trying to find Mechanical Engineering assignment help, that you are at proper position.
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Good morning! Hope everyone is having a great weekend. I was in the mood for LOVE with pinks and prima flowers. I just ordered them recently from scrapbook.com and picked them up locally.
I had the resin butterflies for a while and I thought I would bring them out for this card. I used a sentiment from Verve and the tiny little hearts in brown. When I think of Valentines Day, I think of chocolates. So that is why there are touches of brown. YUMMY!
The heart is so beautiful from Our Daily Bread. I never get tired of the details. I placed little dots along the edges and realized it was light grey? So I continued to use it and it actually pops out better than using white. LOL
Thanks for stopping by today....
I will craft a bit this morning before off to our first day of puppy school!
Have a great day!
Hugs Lisa


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Nonetheless cure that pet dog is I met in the bar, a selfie with it is never ever going to take on these mega celebrities in terms of likes, not even close. Whilst these numbers are ever increasing, right here are the top 10 most-liked Instagram photos, at the time of composing.
Most Liked Pics On Instagram
10. Cristiano Ronaldo-- December 7, 2017-- 8.2 m likes
9. Justin Bieber-- January 7, 2017-- 8.4 m likes
8. Selena Gomez-- January 7, 2018-- 8.4 m likes
7. Khloe Kardashian-- December 20, 2017-- 8.8 m likes
6. Beyonce-- July 14, 2017-- 10.3 m likes
5. Kylie Jenner-- February 4, 2018-- 10.4 m likes
4. Selena Gomez-- September 14. 2017-- 10.4 m likes
3. Beyonce-- February 1, 2017-- 11.2 m likes
2. Cristiano Ronaldo-- November 12, 2017-- 11.3 m likes
1. Kylie Jenner-- February 6, 2018-- 15.8 m likes
" Post some Instagram photos!", she said-- "It'll be enjoyable!", she claimed. Reality is, Instagram IS enjoyable, gratifying also, as long as individuals resemble your images. That's often less complicated stated compared to done, nevertheless. We've all been there, sitting pretty with a new Instagram account, obtaining less than 3 likes per message, questioning, "Just how on earth am I expected to know just what other people wish to see?"
Never Fear.
Check out 5 of one of the most popular kinds of Instagram photos we could locate.
1. Quotivational Instagram Photos
Everybody has seen them at one factor or one more-- these sort of blog posts, though they appear corny at times, can be motivational and inspiring. They're basic, easily absorbed, appealing and also appropriate. If you're looking for a good way to rapidly convey bite-sized items of information, this could be a great sort of post to look into. Keep your message brief and also relatable, and the likes will come gathering. An outstanding instance of an Instagram influencer making use of these articles can be located in British cover girl Cara Delevigne. Health and fitness and also business Instagram accounts have the tendency to favor these types of images also, extending a wide array of demographics-- displaying it's convenience.
2. Business Instagram Photos
No one understands why, however perfectly crafted images of nicely prepared things filling up the screen has actually constantly been a prominent method amongst lots of Instagram influencers. Perhaps it's the little bit of Type-A present in each of us, however the premise is simple-- interest the human urge for order. If Herschel Supply can make use of the chance to promote the spaciousness of their line of backpacks-- just imagine the opportunities you might tap into with a little creative reasoning as well as strategic research study.
3. Seasonal Instagram Photos
One of the simplest trends to take advantage of includes publishing season-themed images around huge vacations. Xmas, Thanksgiving, Easter, Valentines Day, etc. Everyone's focus is currently mosting likely to be focused on the day at hand, so provide more of what they desire! As opposed to a picture of your dog-- attempt a photo of your reindeer. Flavor points up with some snowflake latte art. Valentines Day? Hearts. Hearts everywhere.
4. Text Message Screenshot Photos
Ever really felt the urge to sleuth on your neighbor's text conversation? Don't lie, we've all done it. That doesn't want a peek at restricted expertise!? Attempt capturing that addicting top quality with humorous screenshots of text conversations. They do not even have to be genuine discussions. One funny account displayed texts just in between a dog and his proprietor! Actual tales are great as well however-- some encounters simply can't be made up. Several of the most popular Instagram accounts are comprised entirely of images like these.
5. User Created Instagram Photos
This is customized a bit a lot more to individuals with a service or product and also a restricted target market. Getting your fans actively entailed is a wonderful means to increase sales or enhance your followers. For instance, when Calvin Klein ran their #MyCalvins Instagram promo, they motivated their users to record enticing minutes by promising a possibility at being shared from Calvin Klein's major account. Not just did this end up being extremely preferred, it sparked viral sharing.
Develop Your Personal Ideas
If you're wanting to develop your very own type of concept, or are just planning to put a new spin on among the classics over, you're mosting likely to want to seek to prominent Instagram influencers that have influenced as well as astonished numerous others. Take just what they have actually done and build off it. Create something making use of reliable principles, but put your own twist on it. Blog post Instagram images that distinctively represent you. Constantly remember that the real factor people are following you-- is you.


text: invasive species Scientists Map Non-Native Tamarisk Beetles in Grand Canyon By Melissa Sevigny • Apr 20, 2018 National Park Service Scientists have made the first-ever map of how tamarisk beetles have spread into the Grand Canyon from other states. The leaf-eating beetles were introduced to control the invasive trees. But as KNAU's Melissa Sevigny reports, they weren't supposed to survive as far south as Arizona. Listen Listening... / 1:14


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Here at Hall Automotive, we know that shopping for a new car is a balancing act. You have practical concerns, like safety and efficiency, and whether or not the interior has enough room. You've got to think about the future, considering how this car is going to hold up over the years. And then there's the fun stuff. How does the car look? How does it drive? Most of the time, the car you settle on has some comprises, giving up some of what you want in order to get what you need—and what you can afford. But sometimes it's nice to cut loose and get everything on your wish list—while still staying within the confines of your budget. That's where the 2017 Honda Civic Sedan comes in. And lucky for you, we've got over 150 models here at our dealership near Chesapeake, VA, each one waiting for the right driver.
A bold, aggressive face and sharp, sophisticated body lines let you know right away that the 2017 Honda Civic Sedan is built to cut through the air. This is a car that's truly at home on the open road. And with a fully independent suspension, up to 174 horsepower, and two transmission choices, you'll feel right at home too. Regardless of whether you choose the standard 158-horsepower, 2.0-liter normally-aspirated engine, or the turbocharged 174-horsepower engine, you can count on getting the most out of every tank of gas. That's because the Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVT) offered for every 2017 Honda Civic Sedan have been optimized for each available engine, providing plenty of power without sacrificing fuel efficiency. Remember what we said? With the Honda Civic, you can have your cake and eat it too.
To really get a feel for the 2017 Honda Civic Sedan, you need to get behind the wheel yourself. Contact Hall Automotive today and schedule a test drive. And don't forget, we've also got plenty of 2017 Honda Civic Coupe and Hatchback models available.


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5+ years of experience as UI/UX designer;
Strong knowledge of design tools (Adobe PS, Adobe Illustrator — required; Sketch, Invision, Axure, Adobe After Effects — good to have);
At least intermediate English level;
Knowledge of Android/iOS design guidelines and actual experience in working with them;
Experience in design team management (at least 3+ members);
Experience in cooperation with development teams.
Exciting and challenging projects;
Extensive use of new technologies;
Work in a fast-growing company;
Professional growth and improvement;
Creative and social team of colleagues;
Bonus program based on performance.
Management of 3+ members design team (planning, reporting, work distribution, personal development assistance);
Conduct and control design processes from initial workflows to final edits;
Close cooperation with sales team and development departments.
Boost Solutions, software solutions development company, is looking for a Senior UI/UX designer/Team Lead to join our team in Kiev.
We are a fast-growing full-stack web & mobile development company, headquartered in Kiev, with branches in Uzhhorod and Chernivtsi. There are 100+ successful projects on our record, most of which are international deals. All this thanks to our great team of skilled and energetic people, our greatest asset.