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It is well established that the optic tectum (or its mammalian homologue, the superior colliculus) is involved in directing gaze toward salient stimuli. However, salient stimuli typically induce orienting responses beyond gaze shifts. The role of the optic tectum in generating responses such as pupil dilation, galvanic responses, or covert shifts is not clear. In the present work, we studied the effects of microstimulation in the optic tectum of the barn owl (Tyto alba) on pupil diameter and on eye shifts. Experiments were conducted in lightly anesthetized head-restrained barn owls. We report that low-level microstimulation in the deep layers of the optic tectum readily induced pupil dilation responses (PDRs), as well as small eye movements. Electrically evoked PDRs, similar to acoustically evoked PDRs, were long-lasting and habituated to repeated stimuli. We further show that microstimulation in the external nucleus of the inferior colliculus also induced PDRs. Finally, in experiments in which tectal microstimulations were coupled with acoustic stimuli, we show a tendency of the microstimulation to enhance pupil responses and eye shifts to previously habituated acoustic stimuli. The enhancement was dependent on the site of stimulation in the tectal spatial map; responses to sounds with spatial cues that matched the site of stimulation were more enhanced compared with sounds with spatial cues that did not match. These results suggest that the optic tectum is directly involved in autonomic orienting reflexes as well as in gaze shifts, highlighting the central role of the optic tectum in mediating the body responses to salient stimuli.
An event that is perceived by an animal as salient typically induces a wide range of behavioral and physiological responses (Boehnke and Munoz 2008; Sokolov 1963). Although a rapid shift of gaze is the most apparent response (Dean et al. 1989), along with it a series of autonomic reflexes occur to prepare the body for possible action (Sokolov 1963). These include galvanic responses (Bradley 2009), changes in heart rate (Bradley 2009), changes in brain wave activity (Naatanen 1995), and pupillary dilation (Bala and Takahashi 2000; Oleson et al. 1972). This wide repertoire of responses, which is remarkably preserved phylogenetically, has been termed by Pavlov as the "orienting response" (Sokolov 1963). Orienting responses can include gaze shifts (overt orienting), but do not have to (covert orienting). An important question is which neurons in the brain register the saliency of the stimulus to trigger this cascade of physiological responses—a cascade that encompasses various regions of the cortex, basal ganglia, and brain stem nuclei (Boehnke and Munoz 2008; Knudsen 2007; Robinson and Petersen 1992).
It has been suggested that neurons in the deep and intermediate layers of the superior colliculus (SC) can support this function (Boehnke and Munoz 2008). The SC contains neurons that are organized to form a multisensory spatial map whose responses are correlated with the saliency of the stimulus inside their receptive field (Fecteau and Munoz 2005; Horwitz and Newsome 1999; McPeek and Keller 2002). The SC sends wide projections to cortical and basal ganglia regions via thalamic nuclei (Robinson and Petersen 1992; Takada et al. 1985) and projections to motor nuclei (Rodgers et al. 2006).
The SC is arguably one of the most phylogenetically conservative structures in the brain (Gaither and Stein 1979; Luksch 2003; Shimizu and Karten 1993). The avian homologue of the SC is the optic tectum (OT). Both the mammalian and the avian structures are laminated and demonstrate many similarities in their input and output patterns (Shimizu and Bowers 1999). Functionally, both have been shown to be involved in overt orienting to salient stimuli (du Lack and Knudsen 1990; McPeek and Keller 2004; Wagner 1993) and in multisensory processing (Stein and Meredith 1993; Zahar et al. 2009). An emerging hypothesis is that the evolutionary role of the OT/SC is to sort stimuli based on saliency and send this information to the appropriate brain regions to direct orienting movements, attention, and autonomic responses (reviewed in Boehnke and Munoz 2008; Knudsen 2007).
Many of the studies supporting the saliency hypothesis of the OT are based on electrophysiological recordings from which it is difficult to discern whether the site of recording reflects phenomena happening elsewhere in the brain or whether it contributes directly to the process at hand. In this aspect, electrical microstimulation is a powerful experimental tool that complements electrophysiological recordings by providing causal evidence (Dorris et al. 2002; Moore and Fallah 2004; Muller et al. 2005).
In this study, we used microstimulation to explore the function of the OT in barn owls. The pupillary dilation response (PDR) served as a behavioral metric. In barn owls, the diameter of the pupil increases immediately following an acoustic stimulus. However, if the same stimulus is repeatedly presented, the amplitude of the response dramatically habituates (Bala and Takahashi 2000; Bala et al. 2007). Infrared video was used to measure PDRs and eye movements in head-restrained and lightly anesthetized barn owls. We first report that low-level electrical microstimulation in the OT can induce PDRs independent of eye movements. The electrically evoked PDRs resembled acoustically evoked PDRs. At even lower stimulation levels, microstimulation followed by an acoustic stimulus induced a certain degree of recovery from habituation. Our findings thus suggest that the OT is directly involved in autonomic orienting reflexes as well as attention, supporting the above-cited hypothesis that the cascade of orienting responses is initiated in the OT.
For this experiment, we used 10 barn owls (Tyto alba). All birds hatched in our colony at the Faculty of Medicine in the Technion. The birds were kept in large aviaries and were treated in accordance with the guidelines of the Technion Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
Electrophysiological recordings
The birds were prepared for repeated experiments with a single surgical procedure. The birds were anesthetized with 2% isoflurane in a mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen (4:5). A craniotomy was performed and a recording chamber was cemented to the skull. At the beginning of each electrophysiological session, the owl was briefly anesthetized with isoflurane (2%) and nitrous oxide in oxygen (4:5). Once anesthetized, the animal was positioned in a stereotaxic apparatus at the center of a sound-attenuating booth lined with acoustic foam to suppress echoes. The head was fixed to the stereotaxic apparatus and aligned using the pecten oculus as a retinal landmark (Wathey and Pettigrew 1989). Within the booth, isoflurane was removed and the bird was maintained on a fixed mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen (4:5). The craniotomy cover was removed and a platinum–iridium epoxy-coated electrode (∼0.5 MΩ) was driven into the recording chamber using a motorized manipulator (Narishige SM-191). The electrode was driven into the deep layers of the OT or to the lateral part of the inferior colliculus (IC). A Tucker-Davis Technologies (TDT) System 3 and an on-line spike sorter (MSD, Alpha-Omega) were used to isolate action potentials from a small cluster of neurons (multiunit recording). At the end of each recording session, the recording chamber was treated with chloramphenicol ointment (5%) and closed. The owl was then returned to its home flying cage.
Targeting of nuclei
The identification of the recording sites was based on stereotaxic coordinates and on expected physiological properties. The OT was recognized by characteristic bursting activity and spatially restricted visual receptive fields (Knudsen 1982). The position within the OT was determined based on the location of the visual receptive field. Once the superficial, bursting layer of the OT was reached, the electrode was further lowered (500–1,000 μm) into the deep layers of the OT (Fig. 1, site b), which were identified based on characteristic regular firing patterns, in marked contrast to the bursting activity of the superficial layers (Knudsen 1982 and Fig. 1). All microstimulation sites were in the regular firing layers, which are known to correspond with tectal layers 11–14 (Knudsen 1982), and together were termed the deep layers of the OT. Figure 1 shows the anatomical reconstruction of an electrode penetration through the OT and two typical microstimulation sites are shown (sites b and c) together with corresponding traces of the recorded potentials. Recording sites were reconstructed by passing a positive current of 5 μA for 30 s. Seven days after the electrolytic lesions the owl was deeply anesthetized with isoflurane and nitrous oxide/oxygen and given a dose of heparin (0.3 ml) and nembutal (0.5 ml) injected directly into the left ventricle. Owls were then perfused through the heart with 250 ml of 0.4 M phosphate buffer (PO4, pH 7.4) followed by 250 ml of 4% formaldehyde solution. The brain was fixed in paraffin blocks and transversely sliced in 10 μm sections. Sections were then mounted onto Superfrost Plus glass slides and Nissl stained.
The lateral part of the IC was targeted by positioning the electrode 2 mm caudal and 2.5 mm medial from the tectal representation of 0° azimuth and +10° elevation (relative to the visual axes). The electrode was then moved laterally and rostrally in steps of about 300 μm to sample additional sites from the IC. In previous studies, anatomical reconstructions of recording sites confirmed the correspondence of these stereotaxic coordinates with the lateral parts of the IC (external nucleus and lateral shell) (Brainard and Knudsen 1993; Gold and Knudsen 2000; Gutfreund et al. 2002). Within the IC, only sites with physiological characteristics of the external nucleus of the inferior colliculus (ICX; Brainard and Knudsen 1993; Gutfreund and Knudsen 2006) were used for microstimulation.
Electrical microstimulation
A stimulus isolator (A365R; WPI) was used to deliver electrical stimulation to the OT. One pole of the stimulus isolator was connected to the electrode (the same electrode used for recording) and the other to the stainless steel recording chamber. In all experiments, trains of 200 μS biphasic stimuli at a rate of 200 Hz for 80 ms (15 stimuli per pulse train) were used. The current level varied between 5 to 150 μA. Microstimulations were repeated at interstimulus intervals (ISIs) >10 s. In experiments in which the microstimulation was coupled to an auditory stimulus, the microstimulation ended at the onset of the auditory stimulus. In all cases the electrode for microstimulation was positioned in the right OT.
Auditory stimulation
Computer-generated signals were transduced by a pair of matched miniature earphones (Knowles ED-1914). The earphones were placed in the center of the ear canal about 8 mm from the tympanic membrane. The amplitude and phase spectra of the earphones were equalized within ±2 dB and ±2 μs between 2 to 12 kHz by computer adjustment of the stimulus waveform. Acoustic stimuli consisted of 600 or 200 ms bursts of either broadband (3–10 kHz) or single tones. Sound levels were controlled by two independent attenuators (TDT PA5). Unit responses to an auditory stimulus were quantified as the number of spikes in a given time window after stimulus onset minus the number of spikes during the same time window immediately before stimulus onset (baseline activity). Interaural time difference (ITD) tuning curves were generated by presenting a series of sounds in which each sound had a different ITD. All other acoustic parameters were maintained constant. The ITD value was varied randomly in stimulus sets that were repeated 10–20 times. The best ITD was defined as the midpoint of the range over which responses were >50% of the maximal response. Interaural level difference (ILD) curves were generated using the same procedure, but varying the ILD of the sound.
To measure habituation of acoustically induced PDRs, a sequence of 10 similar auditory stimuli with an ISI of 12 s was presented from a loudspeaker positioned 1.5 m from the owl. This sequence was repeated up to five times during a single experimental day. In each repetition, the position of the loudspeaker and the frequency of the sound were changed (in a range of left 30° to right 30° and 3–10 kHz) to minimize cross-session habituation. We did not observe any qualitative differences in the PDRs to the different auditory stimuli.
Measuring pupil responses
Pupil responses were measured while the owls were positioned in the electrophysiological setup described earlier. The right eye was kept open by attaching miniature clips to the small feathers on the eyelids. The clips were gently pulled by strings to open the eyelid. This procedure did not prevent blinking of the nictitating membrane (allowing for spontaneous moisturizing of the eye). An analog video camera (Wat-902DM2s, Watec, 25 Hz) equipped with a zoom lens (Pentax C-mount TV lens, 75 mm, F-1:2.8 fitted with ×2 extender) was positioned about 1 m from the owl's head. An infrared (IR) light-emitting diode (LED) was attached to the camera lens as close as possible to the camera axes. The camera and LED positions were adjusted manually in each session to optimally capture the IR light reflected from the retina and to obtain a high contrast image of the pupil (Fig. 2, A and B). The camera angle relative to the head was adjusted so that the lateral edge of the pecten oculus was visible (Fig. 2B, arrow). Once the camera was positioned in place, the door of the booth was closed and video sequences of the pupil were collected starting 1 s before the onset of the stimulus and ending 3 or 7 s after. Video sequences were analyzed off-line using two approaches. The direct approach fitted a circle to the pupil in each video frame (a detailed description of the algorithm can be found in the on-line Supplemental material).1 The diameter of the circle and its horizontal position were registered (Fig. 2C, red and black curves). The edge of the pecten (depicted as a blue curve in Fig. 2A) was also segmented and the mean horizontal value of the curve points was used to define the pecten edge position (Fig. 2C, blue curve). In the example shown in Fig. 2, electrical microstimulation (gray bars in Fig. 2, C and D) induced eye movement, which can be seen by the horizontal shift of the center of the pupil immediately following the stimulation (Fig. 2C, black curve). The same eye movement was better reflected by the horizontal movement of the edge of the pecten (Fig. 2C, blue curve). The larger signal given by the pecten compared with the center of the pupil is expected because the pecten is viewed through the magnifying lens of the eye. Thus by looking at pecten movements rather than the center of the pupil, we can increase the sensitivity of detecting small eye shifts.
The second, indirect approach involved converting the grayscale image to a binary image using a manually set threshold and counting the number of pixels above the threshold in a manually defined rectangle that overlaps with either the pupil edge or the pecten edge (Fig. 2B, red and blue rectangles, respectively). A signal corresponding to pupil diameter was obtained by the number of pixels above the threshold in the first rectangle (Fig. 2D, red curve). In a similar manner, a signal corresponding to eye movement was obtained from the rectangle overlapping the pecten area (Fig. 2D, blue curve). Measurements obtained from the two approaches were qualitatively similar (compare Fig. 2, C and D). The advantage of the indirect approach was that it allowed us to measure pupil dilation in sessions in which part of the pupil was covered by an eyelid, many of which were cases in which the circle-fitting algorithm failed. Therefore most of the analysis in this study was performed using data from the indirect approach and only Figs. 2 and 3, A–D contain data analyzed using the direct approach.
In all experiments, the same settings as in the example shown were maintained (i.e., the right eye and the right edge of the pecten were filmed). Thus a positive shift in the pupil center (rightward shift on the image) corresponds with a leftward movement of the eye (nasal movement). Likewise, a negative shift of the pecten edge corresponds with a leftward movement of the eye. (The pecten is attached to the retina; thus a leftward rotation of the eye shifts the retinal landmark in the opposite direction.) Note that in this study, the system was not calibrated and therefore we do not know the amplitude in angles of the eye shifts. Since eye movements in barn owls are limited to roughly ±3° (du Lac and Knudsen 1990), the signals measured in this study reflect small eye deviations not >3°.
Data analysis
All trials containing eye blinks, nictitating membrane movements, or unstable pupil diameter during the prestimulus time window (1 s) were discarded from the analysis (∼35% of all trials). Eye blinks and nictitating membrane movements were identified manually. Trials with unstable pupil diameter were identified automatically by measuring the mean and SD of the pupil diameter signal in two time intervals: [−1,000, −500] and [−500, 0] ms relative to stimulus onset. A trial was excluded if the difference between the means of the two windows was larger than twice the average SDs. Empirically, we found this criterion to be a good indicator of trials containing unstable pupil diameter in the prestimulus time.
To quantify the PDR, we first reduced the response curve (pupil diameter as a function of time) to baseline (i.e., subtracting the average baseline activity in the interval [−1,000, 0] ms). The PDR magnitude was then defined as the sum of the pupil diameter values during the poststimulus time window (i.e., area under the response curve). In experiments in which the indirect approach was used, the PDR magnitude was computed in a similar manner by replacing the pupil diameter values with the pixel count inside the rectangle overlapping the pupil edge.
To quantify the separation of the responses to microstimulation from the baseline activity or from the responses to auditory stimuli, a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used. ROC curves were obtained by varying in small steps the threshold from the lowest data point to the highest data point. At each step, the proportion of responses to microstimulation that exceeded the threshold ("hits rate") versus the proportion of responses to no-stimulus (or to auditory stimulus) that exceeded the threshold ("false alarms rate") was plotted (example in Fig. 3, C and D). The area under the ROC curve (ROC value) can vary from 0.5, indicating a chance level, to +1 or −1, indicating perfect separation. To test the null hypothesis that the ROC value is equal to 0.5 we applied a randomization approach (Hooton 1991); from the larger population of control responses (PDRs measured in no-stimulus condition) a subpopulation equal in size to the number of responses to microstimulation was randomly selected and its ROC value relative to the remaining control responses was obtained. This procedure was repeated 5,000 times. If the ROC value of the responses to microstimulation exceeded 0.5 + 1.64 × SD of the resample distribution, the null hypothesis was rejected at a confidence level of 5%. When it was necessary to compare two populations with an equal number of measurements, we used a bootstrap technique (sampling with repetitions). A nonparametric method that does not require a priori assumptions (ROC analysis and the randomization statistics) was chosen because the distribution of the response magnitudes did not seem to follow a normalized distribution: in a single experiment not all stimulations induced responses (see, e.g., Fig. 3C).
Effects of microstimulation in the OT
The effects of microstimulation in the deep layers of the OT on eye movements and pupil diameter were studied. In the example shown in Fig. 3A, microstimulation of 150 μA was applied to the right OT while the right eye was filmed with an IR video camera. In this example, the microstimulation induced an eye shift (Fig. 3A, black curve). In addition, a clear increase in the diameter of the pupil was observed (Fig. 3A, red curve). An initial transient dilation was followed by a late long-lasting dilation. Maximal dilation was only 5% from the original pupil diameter, but in terms of pixels on the camera plane, it was much larger than the eye movement (compare black curve with red curve in Fig. 3A). Figure 3B shows results from microstimulation at the same tectal site but at a lower current level of 50 μA. Here, no eye movement was observed, even at the more sensitive measurement of the pecten position (Fig. 3B, black and blue curves). The pupil, on the other hand, responded to the weaker microstimulation with a long-lasting dilation (Fig. 3B, red curve). Video examples of pupil responses with and without eye movements can be viewed in the Supplemental material.
To quantify this response we repeated the 50 μA microstimulation 10 times with an ISI of 60 s. For each microstimulation we measured the PDR magnitude (see methods). In addition, PDRs were measured every 12 s between microstimulations (control responses)—four control measurements between two test measurements. Figure 3C shows the pupil responses to microstimulation (black diamonds) together with the pupil responses in control trials (gray diamonds). Note that some data points are missing because of blinks and/or unstable base levels (see methods for selection criteria). Pupil responses to the microstimulation were generally above the 95% confidence interval of the control responses (dashed line). To evaluate the separation between the responses to microstimulation and the control trials, ROC analysis was used (see methods). Figure 3D shows the ROC curve obtained from the data in Fig. 3C. In this case the ROC value (0.87) was significantly above chance level (randomization test; P < 0.01).
The experimental session described in Fig. 3 was repeated 80 times in 32 different tectal sites using a range of different stimulation levels. The ROC analysis and the randomization statistics were used to separate all the experiments into four subgroups: 1) experiments in which the ROC curves for both pecten and pupil measurements were significantly above chance (positive eye movements and positive PDR; gray bars in Fig. 3E); 2) experiments in which only the ROC curve of the pupil edge was significantly above chance (positive PDR; red bars in Fig. 3E); 3) experiments in which only the ROC curve of the pecten edge was significantly above chance (positive eye movement; blue bars in Fig. 3E); and 4) experiments in which none of the measurements was significant (total number of experiments minus the sum of all bars). The proportion of sites with positive eye movements or PDRs increased from 36% at 20–30 μA to 100% at 150 μA. Among the experiments that were negative for eye movements (observed at current levels <100 μA), 37% had a positive PDR. For experiments that were positive to eye movements (observed at all current levels) 37% showed no significant PDR. Thus it was possible to evoke PDRs without eye movements and vice versa.
The population average response curves of all four groups are shown in Fig. 4. Clear average PDRs were observed at the four current levels (left column). Evoked pecten movements, on the other hand (right column), ranged from an almost unnoticeable negative shift at current levels of 20–30 μA (Fig. 4B) to a robust signal at current levels of 100 μA (Fig. 4H). Note that the scale of the y-axis in Fig. 4, A, B, C, and D is enlarged compared with that in Fig. 4, E, F, G, and H (black scale bar on the y-axis). Following the initial negative shift of the pecten edge, a positive average shift was seen in most cases (Fig. 4, D, F, and H). This, we believe, does not reflect rightward eye shifts but rather an influence of the pupil dilation on the pecten measurement. As the pupil dilates, more light enters the eye and the pupil image becomes brighter. Thus a retreat of the dark edge of the pecten is expected purely due to the increase in brightness. This optical artifact was small and revealed only in average traces.
Comparison of electrically evoked PDRs with acoustically evoked PDRs
We elicited and measured acoustically evoked PDRs to compare them with responses evoked by tectal microstimulation. It should be noted that acoustically evoked PDRs in the barn owl were previously explored and characterized in detail (Bala and Takahashi 2000; Bala et al. 2003, 2007; Spitzer et al. 2003). However, in the current work barn owls were under the influence of nitrous oxide during the microstimulation. Therefore for the comparison, it was necessary to measure acoustic PDRs under the same conditions. PDRs from two owls to sequences of 10 similar auditory stimuli with an ISI of 12 s were measured (19 sequences in all). Figure 5A shows the population average response to the first auditory stimulus (dark curve) together with the population average response to stimuli 2–5 (light curve) and the population average response to stimuli 6–10 (gray curve). It is apparent that the acoustically induced PDR underwent habituation. The response magnitudes habituated to an average level that was close to zero (Fig. 5B). In a second set of experiments the auditory stimuli were substituted by microstimulations in the deep layers of the OT (Fig. 5, C and D). This experiment was repeated with eight different stimulation sites (five repetitions in each site) in four owls. The current level in all cases was 30 μA. The electrically evoked PDRs also habituated when the stimulus was presented repeatedly (Fig. 5C); however, the habituated responses maintained an average level above zero, even after 10 repetitions of the stimulus (Fig. 5D).
To compare the time course of the auditory evoked response with that of the electrically evoked response the responses were measured over a longer duration (7 s compared with the 3 s window used earlier). In these experiments, auditory and electrical stimuli were presented with an ISI of 60 s to minimize habituation (20–30 repetitions of each type of stimulus). The experiment was repeated at three recording sites in one owl. The average PDR to all auditory stimuli is shown in Fig. 5E (solid line) together with the average PDR to the microstimulation (dashed line). Both types of stimulation induced average responses that lasted more than the measured 7 s.
PDRs evoked by microstimulation in the external nucleus of the inferior colliculus
Following the finding that microstimulation in the OT could induce PDRs, we extended our experiments into the ICX, the source of auditory input to the OT (Gold and Knudsen 2001). PDRs were measured while applying microstimulation in ICX sites from two different owls. In each site we applied sequences of 10 stimuli with an ISI of 60 s and measured the PDRs. In addition, we measured control trials between stimuli every 12 s. Two levels of stimulation were used: 20–30 μA in 20 different recording sites and 50–80 μA in 28 different recording sites. To pool data from different experiments we first normalized the PDR magnitudes to Z-scores by subtracting the mean from every data point and dividing by the SD of the control trials. Z-scores of all tests with similar conditions were pooled into a single data set to obtain the ROC value. In addition, for display purposes, Z-scores were presented as averages per stimulus position in the sequence (Fig. 6, A and C). In the experiments in which the stimulus level was 20–30 μA, the ROC value of the responses to microstimulation (Fig. 6A, black diamonds) relative to control trials (gray diamonds) was not significantly >0.5 (randomization method; P > 0.05). The average response pattern to the 20–30 μA microstimulation (black curve in Fig. 6B) is shown together with the average of the control trials (gray curve in Fig. 6B). It can be seen that the average PDR to microstimulation at the low current level was only slightly above the control. Stronger current levels in the ICX (50–60 μA), however, induced distinct PDRs. The average Z-scores are shown in Fig. 6C. Here the ROC of the Z-scores was significantly >0.5 (randomization method; P < 0.05). The population average PDR evoked by the higher level of microstimulation in the ICX is shown in Fig. 6D (black line). It can be seen that the ICX evoked PDRs were also long-lasting, exceeding the measured 3 s. In contrast to tectal sites, microstimulation in the ICX sites did not induce detectable eye movements. Note, however, that the maximal stimulation level used in the ICX was 80 μA; it is possible that higher stimulation levels are effective for producing eye movements.
Coupling of low-level microstimulation with acoustic stimulation
In the following experiments, we measured the interactions between low-level microstimulation in the OT (8–20 μA) and auditory stimulation. In this set of experiments, a sequence of 100 auditory stimuli was presented with an ISI of 12 s to induce habituation of the acoustic PDR. Importantly, the ITD and ILD of the auditory stimuli matched the values that were best represented at the stimulation site (see methods). Responses to the first 100 stimuli were omitted from the analysis. The initial habituating sequence was followed by 10 repetitions of a sequence composed of four auditory stimuli, a single electrical stimulus, four additional auditory stimuli, and a single coupled electrical and auditory stimulus (see diagram in Fig. 7A). An ISI of 12 s was maintained throughout the sequence. The experiment was repeated 25 times in one barn owl. The population averages of the pupil responses are plotted in Fig. 7B. The auditory stimulation induced, due to habituation, a small average PDR (Fig. 7B, gray curve). Despite the low levels of microstimulation used in this experiment, a clear PDR to the microstimulation alone was observed in the average profile (Fig. 7B, blue curve). Coupling of the two stimuli induced an average PDR curve (Fig. 7B, red curve) that was above the PDRs induced by each stimulus presented alone (microstimulation or auditory). Note that the difference was most apparent at longer poststimulus times. A bootstrap method, applied to assess the differences between the response magnitudes to the coupled stimulus and the microstimulation alone, did not show a significant difference (P = 0.16). Interestingly, pecten movements, measured in the same experiments, displayed a similar and more significant tendency. The average pecten responses to the auditory stimulation as well as to the electrical stimulation demonstrated a weak initial negative shift (Fig. 7C, gray and blue curves, respectively). The coupled stimulus on the other hand gave rise to a larger negative shift. An ROC analysis performed over the Z-scores of the response magnitudes revealed that this enhancement was significant (bootstrap; P < 0.05), suggesting that the coupled stimulus induced eye shifts toward the stimulus direction more readily than its components alone.
An important question is whether the enhancement effect is specific to sounds with ITDs encoded at the focal location of the microstimulation. To answer this question, we presented, in another set of experiments, two auditory stimuli: one with ITD and ILD values matching the best ITD and ILD of the electrode site (matched stimulus) and the other with ITD and ILD values, yielding minimal responses in the tuning curves of the site (nonmatched stimulus). The two sounds were presented, first alternating every 5 s for 200 repetitions to habituate the responses to both stimuli (responses to the first 200 stimuli were omitted from the analysis). Then, a low-level microstimulation was coupled with every fifth stimulus (starting at stimulus 205), once coupled to its matched and once to its nonmatched auditory stimulus (see time course of experiment in Fig. 8A). Figure 8B shows the population average response to the four conditions (matched coupled stimulation, nonmatched coupled stimulation, matched auditory stimulation, and nonmatched auditory stimulation). The average responses to both auditory stimuli were strongly habituated (Fig. 8B, gray curves). Moreover, they showed a tendency to decline. However, we believe this is an outcome of our criterion to remove trials in which the baseline (first 1 s) was not stable (see methods) together with spontaneous pupil constrictions in the data set. The average responses including all trials did not show this tendency. In contrast to the auditory stimuli, the coupled stimuli gave rise to clear PDRs in both matched and nonmatched conditions. The average PDR to the matched condition (red curve) was above the corresponding PDR to the nonmatched condition (blue curve), a difference that was not significant in the ROC analysis at a level of 5% (but was at a level of 10%). Interestingly, the difference between the two conditions was more apparent during the late period, which was reminiscent of the difference between the average response to the coupled stimulus and the average response to microstimulation alone (Fig. 7B). This resemblance raised the possibility that the substantial responses induced by the microstimulation itself overwhelmed the interaction with the acoustic stimulus. Therefore we performed a bootstrap test for each experiment to assess the difference between the responses to the matched coupled stimuli and the nonmatched coupled stimuli. Only sessions in which a significant difference was observed (P < 0.05) in any direction were used for the analysis (8 experiments of 27). If the interaction is not specific to sounds encoded at the location of the stimulus, the pooling of responses from all 8 tests should give no difference between matched and nonmatched stimuli. However, this was not the case. The average PDR to the matched stimuli, in this subpopulation of sites, was above the average PDR to the nonmatched stimuli (Fig. 8, C and D). This difference was statistically significant (bootstrap, P < 0.05). Thus, we conclude that the response to the coupled stimulus was influenced by the spatial location encoded at the stimulation site.
OT and the orienting response
Microstimulation in the deep layers of the OT was capable of evoking two distinct responses: eye movements and PDRs. The relatively low current levels of microstimulation used here and the fact that both effects could be induced from the same stimulation sites suggest that the same local circuitry triggers both outcomes. Behavioral and physiological assessments of the effective current spread during microstimulation with 20 μA (current levels that were capable of evoking PDRs in this study; Figs. 4A and 7) suggest that neurons ≤200 μm from the electrode tip are directly activated (Tehovnik et al. 2006). This estimation makes it unlikely that the microstimulation used here, with electrodes well within the OT (Fig. 1), directly activated neural elements outside of the OT. Still, since the OT receives multiple inputs from the forebrain (Bravo and Pettigrew 1981; Knudsen et al. 1995), it is possible that the evoked PDRs may be a consequence of antidromic activation through presynaptic fibers from an unknown brain area. However, microstimulation in ICX sites induced a similar PDR. The ICX provides, exclusively, ascending auditory information to the OT (Arthur 2005; Knudsen and Knudsen 1983). Thus it is most likely that the PDRs evoked by ICX microstimulation were mediated through ICX-tectal projections, giving rise to activation of tectal neurons and not to antidromic activity. It is interesting to note that the same microstimulations in the ICX did not induce detectable eye movements, a result that suggests a separation in the OT between the PDR pathway and the eye movement pathway. The first may require less activation to be effective or an activation of a separate population of neurons that are better coupled with the ICX.
Microstimulation in the OT of a wide variety of species is known to evoke head and eye movements toward the location that is represented at the site of stimulation. To name a few: barn owls (Masino and Knudsen 1990), cats (McHaffie and Stein 1982), primates (Sparks 1986), gold fish (Herrero et al. 1998), and iguana (Stein and Gaither 1983). These observations contributed to establish the highly conserved role of the OT in integrating spatial information and controlling gaze direction (Sparks and Hartwich-Young 1989). However, why would microstimulation in the OT result in PDRs? This is not an obvious outcome of gaze control. Perhaps the answer is that the OT is involved in more than just gaze control. Both evoked responses (PDRs and eye shifts) constitute responses to salient stimuli, i.e., they are part of the general orienting response (Sokolov 1963). Therefore our results are in line with the hypothesis postulated by Boehnke and Munoz (2008) that the evolutionary role of the OT is to select incoming stimuli based on saliency and relevance and to trigger the full range of orienting responses.
An additional effect of low-level microstimulation at the same tectal sites was priming—i.e., the pupil response to an already habituated stimulus tended to increase when the habituated stimulus came after an electrical microstimulation. This result was statistically weak, possibly reflecting the substantial PDRs to low-level microstimulation alone. However, the corresponding result that a similar priming effect was observed in the eye movements (Fig. 7C) reinforces the priming effect. The increased response cannot be attributed to general arousal effects or to simple summation of independent responses to two stimuli because it was dependent on the spatial location (in ITD/ILD space) of the region encoded at the stimulation site (Fig. 8). The cellular mechanisms of this effect are unknown. It is possible that the microstimulation directly affects the membrane potential of the principal cells for a short period of time, allowing later arriving auditory inputs to more readily cross the threshold and thereby induce an overall enhanced behavioral response. In several aspects this finding resembles the results reported by Muller et al. (2005): improvement of a behavioral response to a sensory stimulus at a location corresponding with the location of a brief microstimulation in the SC. The interpretation of Muller et al. (2005) to their priming effect was that microstimulation at a specific site mimics the reallocation of attention to the corresponding location. Priming or cueing effects are part of the typical response to salient stimuli (Itti and Koch 2000; Posner 1980; Sokolov 1963). Importantly, behavioral cueing effects have been shown in barn owls (Johnen et al. 2001). Thus the three effects of microstimulation reported here—eye movements, PDRs, and space-specific priming—are all consistent with the orienting response.
An alternative interpretation of our data is that tectal microstimulation created a perception of a sensory event similar to the phosphene phenomenon (Nashold Jr 1970). In principle, a phosphene can be perceived as a salient event, thereby indirectly inducing the orienting responses. To rule out such a possibility is impossible because we can never know what the animal actually perceives. However, it should be emphasized that the barn owls in this study were lightly anesthetized, a situation in which we expect phosphene perception to be suppressed.
Comparison with other species
Interestingly, an early study reported that electrical stimulation in the OT of birds can induce pupil dilation (Showers and Lyons 1968). The pupil response was not quantified and was evoked by nonfocal high current stimulations. Nevertheless, this early observation suggests that the pupil dilation effect we report here is not unique to barn owls; it exists in other avian species as well. However, what about mammals? One hypothesis is that in birds, which do not possess a layered neocortex (Northcutt and Kaas 1995), the OT has a broader function in sensory processing compared with mammals. This hypothesis would suggest different effects of tectal microstimulation between avian and mammalian species. However, we find this hypothesis less appealing. The role of the OT in selecting behaviorally relevant stimuli was previously shown to take place in amphibians (Ingle 1975). It seems unlikely that the brain of mammals evolved completely different structures to take over this basic function. This view is supported by a large body of literature pointing to remarkable functional and anatomical similarity between avian and mammalian brains, including pathways that connect the OT and the forebrain (reviewed in Jarvis et al. 2005). We therefore predict that, if searched for, evoked PDRs by tectal microstimulation may also be observed in mammalian species. Indeed, a previous study anecdotally reported pupil dilation in response to electrical stimulation in the macaque SC (Jampel 1960).
If the hypothesis that signals in the OT initiate the cascade of orienting responses is true, and that this function is conserved in the mammalian SC as well, we expect microstimulation in the SC to induce other orienting responses in addition to PDR, such as vascular reactions and changes in electroencephalographs (EEGs), for instance. Evidence that this prediction is true can be found in the literature. Microstimulation in the SC induces responses in the electromyographic activity of neck muscles independent of eye or head movements (Corneil et al. 2007). In addition, microstimulation in the SC induces ocular accommodation (Sawa and Ohtsuka 1994), freezing responses (Dean et al. 1989), increased heart rate (Keay et al. 1988), arousal in cortical EEG (Redgrave and Dean 1985), and suppression of eye blink reflex (Basso et al. 1996; Gnadt et al. 1997). Taken together, it is clear that microstimulation in the SC can induce a wide range of physiological responses that do not shift the gaze of the animal. Importantly, the above-cited examples constitute responses to salient sensory events (Bradley 2009; Powers et al. 1997; Sokolov 1963; Yeomans and Frankland 1995).
Possible pathways
What is the anatomical pathway that mediates the electrically evoked PDR? The same pathway is likely to provoke sensory evoked PDRs. One possible pathway was suggested by Bala and Takahashi (2000). The OT of the barn owl sends projections to the medial mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF; Masino and Knudsen 1992). The MRF sends axons to the accessory oculomotor complex (Gamlin and Reiner 1991), which in turn projects to the ciliary ganglion (Reiner et al. 1991), a ganglion that controls, in part, the pupil dilator muscle (Pilar et al. 1980). Another source of projection to the accessory ocolumotor complex in birds is the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus (Gamlin et al. 1982). Thus in principle, information from the OT can also reach the ciliary ganglion through tecto-thalmic-hypothalamic tracts (Cantwell and Cassone 2006; Gamlin and Cohen 1986). Thus anatomical links exist for direct contribution of tectal neurons to pupil dilation. However, it is not known whether the tectal recipient neurons in the MRF or in the thalamus are functionally linked with the accessory oculomotor complex and thus these remain hypothetical pathways.
The long-lasting pupil dilation response and the relatively long memory of habituation (>12 s) observed in both the electrically and the sensory evoked PDRs (Fig. 5 and Bala and Takahashi 2000) suggest that at least part of the PDR involves an additional indirect pathway through the forebrain. The forebrain arcopallium (considered homologue to the frontal eye field in primates) sends efferent fibers to the MRF (Knudsen et al. 1995). Thus a pathway carrying information from the OT to forebrain areas may play a role in mediating the PDR, exclusively or in parallel with the descending pathways. In this aspect the tectofugal pathway is one interesting possibility (Karten 1969). The pathway ascends from the OT to the nucleus rotundus (Benowitz and Karten 1976) of the dorsal thalamus, which in turn projects to a nidopallial area called the entopallium (Karten and Hodos 1970). Recent studies suggest that the avian tectofugal pathway carries information about the saliency of the stimulus (Marin et al. 2007; Reches and Gutfreund 2009; Reches et al. 2010). Moreover, it is considered to be homologous to the mammalian colliculo-pulvinar-cortical pathway (Karten 1969; Karten and Shimizu 1989; but see Guirado et al. 2005 for an alternative view), which has been suggested to play an important role in the coordination of spatial attention between the SC and the cortex (Olshausen et al. 1993; Robinson and Petersen 1992; Shipp 2004). The fact that microstimulations as low as 10–20 μA were capable of inducing PDRs suggests that the effect is mediated by the activation of large neurons in the OT (Tehovnik et al. 2006). The tecto-rotundal tract is composed of axons from tectal ganglion cells of layer 13 (Marin et al. 2003), the largest neurons in the deep layers of the OT (Luksch et al. 1998). Thus this pathway may contribute not only to the PDRs recorded here but also to other typical orienting responses.
This work was supported by a personal grant from the Israel Science Foundation and a Joel Elkes grant from the National Psychobiology Institute in Israel (founded by the E. Smith family).
No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the author(s).
We thank A. Reches, Y. Zahar, E. Sabo, and F. Milman for technical support and software development.
↵1 The online version of this article contains supplemental data.
- Copyright © 2010 The American Physiological Society
- Arthur, 2005.↵
- Bala et al., 2003.↵
- Bala et al., 2007.↵
- Bala and Takahashi, 2000.↵
- Basso et al., 1996.↵
- Benowitz and Karten, 1976.↵
- Boehnke and Munoz, 2008.↵
- Bradley, 2009.↵
- Brainard and Knudsen, 1993.↵
- Bravo and Pettigrew, 1981.↵
- Cantwell and Cassone, 2006.↵
- Corneil et al., 2007.↵
- Dean et al., 1989.↵
- Dorris et al., 2002.↵
- du Lac and Knudsen, 1990.↵
- Fecteau and Munoz, 2005.↵
- Gaither and Stein, 1979.↵
- Gamlin and Cohen, 1986.↵
- Gamlin and Reiner, 1991.↵
- Gamlin et al., 1982.↵
- Gnadt et al., 1997.↵
- Gold and Knudsen, 2000.↵
- Gold and Knudsen, 2001.↵
- Guirado et al., 2005.↵
- Gutfreund and Knudsen, 2006.↵
- Gutfreund et al., 2002.↵
- Herrero et al., 1998.↵
- Hooton, 1991.↵
- Horwitz and Newsome, 1999.↵
- Ingle, 1975.↵
- Itti and Koch, 2000.↵
- Jampel, 1960.↵
- Jarvis et al., 2005.↵
- Johnen et al., 2001.↵
- Karten, 1969.↵
- Karten and Hodos, 1970.↵
- Karten and Shimizu, 1989.↵
- Keay et al., 1988.↵
- Knudsen, 1982.↵
- Knudsen, 2007.↵
- Knudsen et al., 1995.↵
- Knudsen and Knudsen, 1983.↵
- Luksch, 2003.↵
- Luksch et al., 1998.↵
- Marin et al., 2003.↵
- Marin et al., 2007.↵
- Masino and Knudsen, 1990.↵
- Masino and Knudsen, 1992.↵
- McHaffie and Stein, 1982.↵
- McPeek and Keller, 2002.↵
- McPeek and Keller, 2004.↵
- Moore and Fallah, 2004.↵
- Muller et al., 2005.↵
- Naatanen, 1995.↵
- Nashold, 1970.↵
- Northcutt and Kaas, 1995.↵
- Ogasawara et al., 1984.
- Oleson et al., 1972.↵
- Olshausen et al., 1993.↵
- Pilar et al., 1980.↵
- Posner, 1980.↵
- Powers et al., 1997.↵
- Reches et al., 2010.↵
- Reches and Gutfreund, 2009.↵
- Redgrave and Dean, 1985.↵
- Reiner et al., 1991.↵
- Robinson and Petersen, 1992.↵
- Rodgers et al., 2006.↵
- Sawa and Ohtsuka, 1994.↵
- Shimizu and Bowers, 1999.↵
- Shimizu and Karten, 1993.↵
- Shipp, 2004.↵
- Showers and Lyons, 1968.↵
- Sokolov, 1963.↵
- Sparks, 1986.↵
- Sparks and Hartwich-Young, 1989.↵
- Spitzer et al., 2003.↵
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- Stein and Meredith, 1993.↵
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- Yeomans and Frankland, 1995.↵
- Zahar et al., 2009.↵

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Nemesis and Nemesis Tandem Kits
Nemesis Kit Package: $19,995
Nemesis Tandem Kit Package: $24,995
Both kits ship as a rolling chassis for shipping purposes only. Buyer to perform assembly of kit.
- ExoSkeletal design utilizing DOM CNC bent seamless steel tubing – TIG welded
- Powder-coating (choice of black or silver)
- Integrated roll hoop
- Removable rod end rear stay for roll hoop
- T6061 aluminium floor pan – 3mm
- T6061 aluminium engine firewall – 3mm
- Seat belt mounts
- Engine bay to accept VW; customer to supply engine
- Transaxle to be supplied by customer VW/Audi longitudinal
- Fully Adjustable inboard Pushrod Front and Rear Suspension
- Billett CNC arms
- Chromoly/teflon rod ends suspension
- CNC Billet Suspension Uprights
- QA1 Adjustable Shocks – adjustable with compression & rebound adjustments with evenly spaced valving changes.
- Coilover Springs
- Timken wheel bearings
- CV joint stub axles
- Collapsible steering column with quick adjustment to suit 5'6″ – 6'3″ driver
- Custom steering rack
- Quick disconnect steering wheel
- 4-piston Wilwood forged billet Superlite calipers front & rear
- 12 inch rotors
- Steel brake lines with braided flexible lines
- Triple pedal assembly with master cylinders
Cooling & Fuel
- Radiator
- Electric Fan
- Aluminum fuel tank (located behind seats) – capacity 5 gallons
- 17×8.5 inch wheels (black or silver)
- Uses OEM/donor electrical harness
- 10,000 RPM analog tach/gauge package
- Fiberglass seat shell and aluminum mounts (two for Nemesis Tandem)
- Fiberglass body panels in a Class-A gelcoat finish, in several colors


text:
|incl. VAT
|excl. VAT
|Return products within 60 days £3.54 Possibility to return products within 60 days
Computer Case Corsair Carbide 300R offers a remarkable range of functionality in a compact chassis perfectly. Its interior is easily accessible and intelligently solved through cooling system ensures the smooth evacuation of hot air from any performance components. It comes with one fan in the front and rear. Optionally, however, can be equipped with up to five other fans. Of course there are integrated dust filters in the front and bottom, which is readily removable for easy cleaning.
Despite the very extensive dimensions Carbide 300R can accommodate graphics cards up to 450 mm long. It contains three standard external optical drives and four department for fixed or 2.5 "solid state drives. The side panels and the position of the optical drives are equipped bezšroubkovým system that will help you install. And regardless of whether you're a professional system integrator, or you build your first computer. Guests will also appreciate a transparent window in the side panel through which you can enjoy the mounted components whenever you want. Likewise, comes in handy sophisticated cable management system that facilitates optimum cooling.
Color: Black
Material: SECC construction/parts from ABS plastic
Format box: Midi Tower
For motherboards: ATX, Micro ATX
3x 5.25 "external
4x 3.5/2.5 "internal
The connectors on the front panel:
2x USB 3.0
1x headphone output
1x microphone in
Cooling system:
2x front 120/140 mm Position of (1x 140 mm fan installed)
1 rear 120 mm fan (installed)
2x top 120/140 mm Position of
2x side 120/140 mm Position of
Expansion Slots:
The cabinet is supplied without power supply (ATX position with a filter at the bottom)
Removable dust filters
Screw less installation components
Max. length graphics card: 450 mm
485 x 450 x 210 mm
Specifications can be changed without notice. Images are for illustrative purposes only. Retail Price (MSRP) means the manufacturer's/supplier's suggested retail price.
Link to Manufacturer's Website: Enter link to the external review


text:
Wednesday, December 31, 2008
Tuesday, December 23, 2008
Adevntures in Gluten Free Dairy Free Holiday Baking
Holidays are full of tasty treats. Which means look but don't touch if you have food allergies. Well, today we spent the entire afternoon making tasty treats for all to enjoy. I know at least one person likes them:
Aiden: They look so yummy I just can't take my mind off them! (his attempt to try a bite)
Sugar Cookie dough
1 cup sugar
1 cup Butter flavored Crisco
2 egg yolks
1 1/2 teaspoons gluten-free vanilla
2 1/4 cups Gluten-Free Flour Blend (see below)
1/4 teaspoon salt
***Gluten free flour blend***
Combine 2 cups rice flour, 2/3 cup potato starch, 1/3 cup tapioca flour and 1 teaspoon xanthan gum. Store in container with tight-fitting lid; stir before using.
Refrigerate for 1 hour, break dough into 3rds. Use 1/3rd of the dough for cut out cookies and the other 2/3rd for specialty cookies below. roll out dough and place cookies on ungreased cookie sheet bake at 350 for 8-12 minutes.
HAWIIAN Snowballs
1/3 of the dough from above recipe
* 1 cup salted, roasted macadamia nuts, finely chopped
* 2/3 cup finely chopped dried pineapple
* 1/4 cup confectioners' sugar, for dusting
1. Preheat oven to 350 degrees, with racks on upper and lower thirds. On a clean work surface, toss nuts with dried fruit. Sprinkle over dough; knead until just blended.
2. Form into 1-inch balls; place 2 inches apart on parchment-lined baking sheets. Bake cookies in upper and lower thirds of oven, switching positions of sheets halfway through, until edges are barely golden, about 15 minutes. Transfer to wire racks to cool completely. Dust with sugar.
Chocolate Raspberry Thumbprints
1/3 of the dough from 1st recipe
3 1/2 ounces bittersweet chocolate, finely chopped
4 ounces almonds, finely chopped (1 cup)
1/3 cup seedless raspberry jam, warmed
1.Preheat oven to 350 degrees, with racks in upper and lower thirds. Place dough in the bowl of an electric mixer fitted with the paddle attachment. Set a small heatproof bowl over a pan of simmering water; add the chocolate, and stir until melted and smooth. Drizzle chocolate over dough; mix on low speed until just combined.
2. Place almonds in a shallow dish. Form dough into 1-inch balls; roll balls in nuts, coating completely. Place balls on parchment- lined baking sheets. Use your thumb to make an indentation in center of each ball. Chill 20 minutes.
3. Bake cookies in upper and lower thirds of oven, switching positions of sheets halfway through, until firm to the touch, 12 to 16 minutes. Remove from oven. Using the handle of a wooden spoon, press indentation of each cookie to redefine shape; fill each with about 1/4 teaspoon jam.
Chex Muddy buddies (gluten free only)
9 cups Rice Chex cereal
1 cup semi sweet chocolate chips
1/2 cup peanut butter
1/4 cup Smart Balance omega light buttery spread
1 tsp gluten free vanilla
1 1/2 cups powdered sugar
Microwave chocolate chips, peanut butter and butter uncovered for 1 min. Stir. Microwave 30 seconds or until smooth. Pour over cereal and mix. Place in a resealable bag and powdered sugar and shake until mixed.
Posted by SensoryMommy at 2:22 PM 0 comments
Friday, December 19, 2008
Happy Snow Day
Over a foot of snow fell between last night and this afternoon.
Posted by SensoryMommy at 1:27 PM 1 comments
Monday, December 15, 2008
Aiden's First Christmas Concert
e-mail me if you would like a dvd copy (much better picture quality)
Posted by SensoryMommy at 8:55 PM 0 comments
Sunday, December 14, 2008
Friday, December 12, 2008
Eli: My good thing is eating this yummy food with you and God.
Eli: Mommy wash my face. Amen!
Eli: Aiden YOU BAD GUY! I good guy.
(anytime Aiden does something Eli doens't like)
Eli: My snow pants make me sad.
Mommy: Why?
Eli: Too squishy
anyone who know Eli this winter knows how hard it has been for him to wear his squishy winter gear. He will now wear snow pants! Even though he doesn't want to.
Posted by SensoryMommy at 7:51 PM 1 comments
Saturday, December 6, 2008
Conversations on a wintery day!
Eli: It's too buggy out here! (referring to the snow flakes that are pelting him as he is walking into a store)
Aiden and Eli bath time conversation
Aiden: Let me be the teacher Eli.
Eli: Ok
Aiden: Introducing my brother Eli! He's very famous!
Eli: oo-ahah, oo-ahh (monkey noises)
**I suspect someone has been watching too much Curious George***
Aiden talking to a little girl at the indoor playground...
Aiden: I am very friendly. (His attempt to ask someone to play)
Aiden: Why does St. Peter bring the cold?
Mommy: (misunderstanding cold and thinking he said "coal"): He brings coal to people who are naughty?
Aiden: Huh?
Mommy: If you get in trouble, St. Peter brings you coal.
Aiden (misunderstanding mommy thinking she said "cold"),But how does he get the cold in his bag?
Mommy: (Again, thinking Aiden said "coal") He puts little pieces in his bag and carries it around.
Aiden: How? Why would someone want cold?
Mommy: That's the point, you don't want coal, you want to be good.
Aiden: But how does he make cold?
Mommy: It's coal like in the trains?
Aiden: Coal??
Mommy: Yes.
Aiden: I thought it was the cold outside.
Posted by SensoryMommy at 6:25 PM 0 comments
The Happy Elf
Last weekend the entire family went to see Happy Elf downtown at the Children's Theater. What a wonderful performance. Both boys were captivated by the music and the dancing. From the elves to santa to all the decorations what a great musical for all ages to enjoy.
Posted by SensoryMommy at 6:10 AM 0 comments
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text:
America hates the Miami Heat. That much is clear. The relationship is so bad that everything LeBron and company do — film commercials, make layups, eat pasta, wipe back to front, whatever — draws the ire of the entire nation. Case in point: Dallas Mavericks shooting guard Jason Terry gets a tattoo of the Larry O'Brien NBA Championship Trophy on his right bicep, yet somehow the Heat is blamed for early celebrations.
When Dwyane Wade left his hand in the air after swishing a three-pointer to put the Heat up by 15 in Game 2 of the finals, Terry took offense. He followed Wade toward half-court, cussing him out. When the Mavericks came back to win in the dying seconds, Terry cited Wade's celebratory gesture as inspiration.
So pardon our schadenfreude, but we hope the Heat destroys Dallas and Terry's stupid tattoo comes back to haunt him. Just in case he doesn't want a painful reminder of his shortcomings permanently inked on his arm, however, we've come up with five ways to transform the tattoo to hide his arrogance:
Jason Terry
• Beautiful butterfly: Terry is obviously a sensitive guy. Why else would he flip out when Wade simply followed through on a sweet shot? So maybe a nice, colorful arthropod on his arm would boost his self-esteem above douchebag level. Just add some wings to the existing tat, and voila.
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• Propeller plane: Despite his nickname and his own annoying airplane celebrations, Terry is not really much of a jet. Instead, his tattoo should feature an old-timey plane that's just like him: slow and prone to breaking down in the clutch.
• Ice-cream cone: Maybe Dallas's defeat will be so crushing that Terry will go off the rails in Gucci Mane fashion. If he does, he already has the rapper's ice-cream cone tattoo halfway done — just in a slightly more subtle spot.
• Jason Terry: He's tall and bald, just like the trophy. The tattoo practically inks itself. Besides, meta-tattoos are in these days. It would be an RIP to his own naiveté.
• Penis: Why not? The basic design is already there. Plus it's less embarrassing than admitting you got a trophy tattooed on your arm before you actually won it.


text: Good afternoon everyone, this is my first post but I have been a frequent lurker on this site the past few years. When It comes to heating I am a novice and would like some more seasoned advice as I am contemplating making a change as far as home heating goes. I live in a 100 year old large home (approx. 3000 sq. ft). The ceilings are 10 ft and there is a unfinished basement used only for our furnaces and electrical panel. We have insulated the upstairs by removing all the plaster and lathes and putting fiberglass insulation. I blew 8 inches of cellulose insulation into the attic and covered that with 12 inches of fiberglass for good measure. Down stairs we insulated partially with fiberglass in areas we totally remodeled and partially with cellulose blown in. There is probably two rooms that have still yet to be insulated. Also, all of our old windows were removed and vinyl inserts put in so we could maintain the old woodwork. Currently we heat with a wood furnace with oil backup that heats via forced air. I live in Nova Scotia Canada where winters aren't terribly cold, most often it doesn't get colder than -10 degree C. This heating season I only started burning my wood in early December (typically I was burning just about 10 cords per year) and I have been burning almost a cord of wood a week. Usually I would start burning in November and stop in mid to late April and only burn 10 cords. This isn't because I keep my house extremely warm either. Basically that is holding my house at between 68 and 72 degrees. I don't know what the issue is and at this point and am just about past caring. What I am wondering is if an indoor wood boiler would burn less wood than I am burning now. I don't even know the name of my current furnace (it was in the house when I bought it) but it isn't any kind of gasification system (which is what seems to be what I am looking for). What I would like is a system that could fit in my basement (but the ceilings are very low < 6') and that could operate via forced air to start with the intent to switch over to radiant heat in the future to save money. With quadruplet 3 year olds I am on a tight budget so cost is a factor, but I really want a system that will keep the place warm. What I am looking for is some input as to what the best brands are out there, how dependable they are, what costs look like for the units, whether they can be installed as a DIY or need to be done professionally, are there any that could fit in a basement less than 6' clearance. I am also looking at potentially working my way backwards and would like some input on that. What I mean by that is potentially starting with buying the radiators, moving on to the piping and installing that and last of all purchasing and installing the actual unit. That way the less expensive things would be addressed first and when I finally had the money for the unit it would just be a matter of installing that. Would that be a viable option or would it not work out. I also would like to know what type of pipes are used to deliver the heated water (is it just regular pex or something different). So I have lots of questions and have done research, but basically what i find is sites with a vested interest in making a certain product sound better than others rather than giving an honest opinion of it. I would like to hear from people who are actually using these brands and what they think and any advice to consider when looking at converting to one. Thanks in advance and sorry for all the questions, but I really don't know a lot about this type of thing. I also wouldn't be opposed to hearing other ideas I haven't considered either, so don't hold back.


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Progressive liberalism in America today is not at all like what has come before. It is not merely a logical extension of the old progressivism popular at the turn of the 20th century, or the New Deal liberalism of Franklin Roosevelt and its outgrowth, the "Great Society" liberalism of Lyndon Johnson. It is not even the same as the 1960s New Left. It is something entirely new. It has roots in these old movements, but it has acquired a new ideology all its own.
The historical roots are twofold: 1) the tradition of radical egalitarianism that first surfaced over two centuries ago in the radical Enlightenment; and 2) various intellectual movements that arose as a negative reaction to the Enlightenment's rationalism, often lumped together in a movement called the Counter-Enlightenment. The first tradition is normally associated with the left, while the second is a phenomenon normally of the right, at least in Europe. The fusion of these two opposing intellectual traditions is a major reason why the postmodern left is so philosophically elusive. It is also a factor in why it has been so politically successful.
The historical inspirations for the New Left were typically leftist. But the postmodern left was also fed by another set of ideas associated with the right-leaning Counter-Enlightenment. Partly a romantic rebellion against the rationalism of the Enlightenment, but also a continuation of some of its more radical egalitarian ideas, the Counter-Enlightenment was characterized by distrust of rational discourse, a disdain for empiricism, contempt for Western liberalism, a hatred of modernity, and a tendency to glorify human passion as the mark of authentic individualism.
Hegel's dialectic in action! The old windbag is probably smiling in his grave. Holmes goes on to distinguish postmodern leftism from traditional liberalism (the postmodern left favors epistemic relativism over liberalism's affinity for natural law, it has no qualms about using state power to coerce opposition to accept its radical egalitarian claims, and it is strongly opposed to open inquiry and debate) and from early-20th-century progressivism (progressives, he stresses, were interested above all in building a new collective society, not in creating a balkanized zone of warring identity tribes, and they approved of the basic cultural and moral frameworks of Western civilization).
Taxonomy aside, he notes one especially interesting thing about their style of argument:
The deconstructionist method used by the postmodernists, albeit ostensibly theoretical in intent, is a powerful political weapon. It is a way to critique society without exposing oneself to easy counterattacks. By promising, for example, to tear away the veil of myth that supposedly props up capitalism and Western culture, it offers an all-purpose method of criticism that is political without appearing to be political. Postmodernists present themselves as relativists, not dogmatists, and thus they can sling arrows at the system from every possible angle. Since they are not held responsible for defending anything that actually exists, they wear their theoretical slipperiness as a badge of honor, as proof of a profound authenticity that is exceedingly difficult to disprove. They are intellectual guerrilla fighters in an asymmetrical war against Western culture, only they often pretend not to be fighters at all, but simply disinterested academics. They attack from the cultural flanks and then slip back into the cloistered protection of the academy, professing an interest only in literary theory or the nature of perception, language, and knowledge.
This actually made me laugh. Those of you who used to read the blog Who Is IOZ? (it's now private, as the author, Jacob Bacharach, has gone on to become a novelist) back in the day should recognize this description. He espoused an intensely moralistic, non-denominational radicalism while sarcastically, ironically deflecting all challenges to him to defend a practical stance (and, perhaps true to his generation's stereotype, he still likes to style himself as too special to fit within anyone else's categorizations). IOZ managed to keep the shtick alive for several years due to his exceptional and entertaining writing ability, but in the hands of an ordinary practitioner, its sanctimony is merely tiresome.
At any rate, the salient point is that, unlike the fellow-traveling left of the early 20th century and the Third-World-liberationist sympathies of the New Left, today's radicals are too jaded/afraid to be caught committing to a positive vision; theirs is entirely negative, relentlessly critical. Everything that actually exists is to be condemned for its imperfection (or, as a wiseacre likes to say, everything's a problem). But how long can you occupy a morally pure "view from nowhere" while still expecting the targets of your attacks to continue taking you seriously? Hopefully, if the appearance of books like this is any indication, not much longer.


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A manga drawing showing a scene of sumo wrestlers fully enjoying the Summer at a beach. How about using it as a yellow, pop-culture lucky charm?
Large Furoshiki Manga Art
Upon unfolding the large furoshiki, you'll burst out laughing! They are traditional Japanese furoshiki, but with bizarre manga drawn on them. You can use them like tapestry, to decorate any space in a cheerful style. They're manufactured and printed by the well-established Matsuo Nassen company, founded in 1926 in Osaka wharf. It's a genuine MADE IN OSAKA article.
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For products that may take up to more than the period of notation to dispatch, another mail will be sent to notify the approximate shipping date in 1-3 business days
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Fox Home Entertainment has released new TV spots promoting today's release on X-MEN: APOCALYPSE on Blu-ray and DVD. The film's Blu-ray comes with various store-exclusives, including steelbook packaging and add-on items.
Fans who pick up the Blu-ray will get a wallop of special features, which are listed below. Each copy (including DVD) contains a Digital HD download, so you can take 2016's favorite film on the go!
Since the dawn of civilization, he was worshiped as a god. Apocalypse, the first and most powerful mutant from Marvel's X-Men universe, amassed the powers of many other mutants, becoming immortal and invincible. Upon awakening after thousands of years, he is disillusioned with the world as he finds it and recruits a team of powerful mutants, including a disheartened Magneto, to cleanse mankind and create a new world order, over which he will reign. As the fate of the Earth hangs in the balance, Raven with the help of Professor X must lead a team of young X-Men to stop their greatest nemesis and save mankind from complete destruction.
The film stars James McAvoy as Professor X, Michael Fassbender as Magneto, Jennifer Lawrence as Raven/ Mystique, Oscar Isaac as Apocalypse, Nicholas Hoult as Beast, Rose Byrne as Moira MacTaggert, Evan Peters as Quicksilver, Sophie Turner as Jean Grey, Tye Sheridan as Cyclops, Alexandra Shipp as Storm, Lucas Till as Havok, Olivia Munn as Psylocke, Ben Hardy as Archangel, Lana Condor as Jubilee and Kodi Smit-McPhee as Nightcrawler.


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"Struggle To Fault"
About: Russells Hall Hospital Russells Hall Hospital Dudley DY1 2HQ
Posted via NHS Choices
Anything else?
I recently had a relatively minor operation that I was in all honesty surprised to even get on the NHS. After an initial assessment by my Consultant he offered to operate and I was expecting to join the back of a long waiting list and be operated on sometime next year. Imagine my surprise to receive a letter in the post giving me an operation in two weeks, so soon in fact I needed to cancel which is not something you hear of very often. Their secretary was extremely helpful and on the phone gave me another date for a months time. Unfortunately this operation was cancelled due to insufficient beds but I know that the procedure was minor in nature and I understand. Within a few days of this cancellation I was given another date for a few days time, I was impressed with the speed as to the appointment (not a complaint you hear very often with the NHS) and duly attended on the day. On the operation day in question I attended the Day Surgery Unit. All of the nurses and staff without exception are a true credit to the NHS, helpful, caring, efficient and knowledgeable. After a relatively quick time on the unit I was visited by the registrar in charge of my surgery, he also was helpful and efficient in explaining the surgery and then I was visited by the anaesthetist. He is again a credit to his craft, fully explaining the general anaesthetic procedure I was about to undergo and what I side effects I could possibly suffer. When it came to the operation (only around two hours post admission) I was taken to the operating theatre by the excellent nurses and assistants. I was a little nervous which I imagined showed but the nurses and anaesthetist put me at real ease. I was expecting some pain with the injections of the anaesthetic and such but I had none, the last thing I remember is falling asleep much quicker than I expected. I woke up after the operation cared for by the post operative nurses, I was expecting to be in some pain from both the anaesthetic mask and the operation but I had none. I awoke more quickly than I expected and I was completely surprised as to how pain free and with it I actually was. I was quickly back on the ward and discharged about an hour later, with full after care advice (and some decent toast) given by the nurses. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of the staff who cared for me, I do not have a complaint about any of them. My post operative pain is much better than I expected (I expected described discomfort = excruciating pain but it actually was only discomfort) and other than missing the hour in my day I would not think I had actually had the surgery. My one minor gripe is the opening of the Day Surgery Unit in the morning nearly caused a mini riot as people who had been in before the admission time were sitting down and the people who came in later jumped the queue, it could do with more organisation, perhaps with ticket numbers or something.
Response from Russells Hall Hospital 4 years ago
Thank you so much for taking the time to give such comprehensive feedback about your experience of our hospital – and for awarding the day surgery team a five star rating. It is always lovely to receive positive comments from our patients – they are a real boost for our staff who work so hard to provide the best possible care to our patients. We will be pleased to pass your feedback on to the department. We appreciate your comments about the day surgery unit booking in system. We run four day surgery theatres a day, and sometimes have patients for the main theatre as well, and so it can get very busy. We are reviewing the whole system flow in the unit to ensure that we offer both a good patient experience, which is very important to us, whilst ensuring that patients are readily available for their surgery and a ticket system is one of the things we will be happy to consider; thank you for your suggestion
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Artists and activists say their goodbyes as Egypt's revolutionary Workshop Series ends
Visual artist Huda Lufti was one of the workshop leaders (Photo: Art Stormer)
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The Townhouse Library and Art Gallery will celebrate on 5 January the end of a two-year Workshop Series in which four prominent artists and activists led participants on an exploratory journey, probing the changing definitions of freedom of expression, human rights, with arts and culture as a platform for political engagement.
The Workshop Series was led by writer Yasser Gerab, visual artist Huda Lutfi, filmmaker Tamer Abdul Hamid and activist Bakr, spanning across 2011 and 2012.
Participants debated volatile topics in post-revolutionary Egypt such as freedom of expression, human rights, and the construction of historical narratives.
The four workshop leaders will be joined at the event by participants and special guest speakers to unveil the fruit of almost two years worth of discussions.
The First Floor Gallery of the Townhouse will also showcase reference materials, images, films, texts and performances that were used and produced during the workshop.
Saturday, 5 January at 7pm
Townhouse Library and First Floor Gallery
10 Nabrawy Street, off Champollion Street, Downtown, Cairo
Top Headlines
- Egyptian exhibition tackles 'Desire, Deceit, and Difficult Deliveries'
- The end of an era: Lebanon says goodbye to Sabah
- Places to go and celebs to see: A slew of fun stuff going down in Egypt this week
- Is the Brotherhood hijacking the Egyptian revolution? Their PR machine swings into action
- Let's talk: Tahani Rached on her revolutionary documentary style


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Energy remains one of the many defining elements of the classic drama "Zoot Suit."
In the upcoming San Diego Repertory Theatre production ---- a collaboration with young actors, musicians and backstage workers from the San Diego School of Creative and Performing Arts ---- that energy is heightened.
"The students bring energy to every performance," said professional actor Raul Cardona, who plays the key role of El Pachuco in the production. "It's a show in many ways about youth, so it's fitting."
This is the third annual summer production combining professional and student talents at the Rep in a program now called Xchange Xperience. The two companies previously collaborated on the well-received productions "Hairspray" and "The Who's Tommy." "Zoot Suit" opens July 20 and continues through Aug. 12 at the theater, at Horton Plaza in downtown San Diego.
First produced in 1977, "Zoot Suit," features a newly updated book and score by noted playwright Luis Valdez and is based on the real-life Zoot Suit Riots in 1943. Set in Los Angeles during World War II, big-band music is popular, and Chicano gang members dress in zoot suits (long jackets with padded shoulders and wide lapels, high-waisted baggy trousers, and a flat-topped fedora).
When a young boy is beaten, a local Chicano gang is blamed, leading to public hysteria, a wrong verdict and riots between young Mexican-Americans and U.S. Mmarines and sailors returning from war. From this chaos, the mythical figure El Pachuco emerges. The show uses the talents of musicians in a small live orchestra, playing Latin music.
Cardona, who appeared in the 1997 "Zoot Suit" production at the Rep when he was a theater student at Southwestern College, says the show is an experience for actors and audience.
"The show delves into activism, and California history, but not the common knowledge of California history," said Cardona, a UC San Diego theater arts graduate who now acts, directs and teaches. "I learned so much from this show when I participated the first time. It opens up new perspectives."
Directed by former Sledgehammer Theatre artistic director Kirsten Brandt, who has also directed at the La Jolla Playhouse and Old Globe Theatre, "Zoot Suit" performances will be accompanied by a series of educational pre-show programs. The subjects include discussions of Latino theater, education, art, music and popular culture.
Playwright Valdez has worked frequently with the Rep during the past two decades. In the new production, his son, Lakin Valdez, plays the role of Henry. The younger Valdez is an actor, director and writer long involved in the family's legendary theater company, El Teatro Campesino.
"The range of talent we have in this production is extraordinary," Valdez said. "For the most part, the productions of 'Zoot Suit' are vastly different from each other, depending on the design and other shifting dynamics. Though the show isn't necessarily a musical, it's always interesting to work with live music, like we are here. It makes it even more special."
Valdez says he, too, sees the show as a portrait of youth in a certain era ---- one that can be understood by youth of any era.
"Any person or group of people that has ever been scapegoated can identify," he said. "The same struggles facing ethnic groups are playing out in certain communities even today. 'Zoot Suit' became iconic because it looks at identity, and everyone has an identity."
The show is also a vital oral history, Valdez said, "that shows how the past controls the future. In that way it's what we call a historia , one of the forms of Chicano storytelling."
Valdez, who recently wrote and is producing a history of murdered Chilean folk singer Victor Jara, says real-life events are often powerful avenues for metaphor and learning.
"We can take cues from those moments in history," he said.


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- Neurological Physiotherapy
- Cardiorespiratory physiotherapy
- Orthopaedic Physiotherapy
- Sports and recreational physiotherapy
The rich history and achievements of this Department include being the training school pioneered by the first African to obtain a degree in physiotherapy (Dr. T. Abayomi Oshin). The Department also parades the first female professor of physiotherapy in Africa (Professor Arinola O. Sanya), the first and to-date the only professor of neurophysiotherapy in West Africa (Professor Talhatu K. Hamzat), the first African faculty in the McKenzie Institute (Dr. O. Ayanniyi), among several others experienced faculties and clinical trainers of highest pedigree. More than 900 physiotherapists have obtained Bachelor's and postgraduate qualifications in various sub-specialties from this Department and are performing excellently well in their various clinics and practice centres. More than 40% of physiotherapy lecturers in Nigeria universities were trained in this Department. In addition, four physiotherapy training programmes in West Africa are headed by alumni of this Department.
Our rich array of alumni include Professor Chukuka Enwenmeka (Provost and Senior Vice President of San Diego State University): Professor Joseph A. Balogun (former Dean College of Health Sciences, Chicago State University, Illinois); Professor Akiniran Oladehin (Chairman, Department of Physical Therapy, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri): Professor Seyi Ladele Amosun (Director, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Cape-Town, South Africa), Dr. Godwin Eni (The first graduate of B.Sc Physiotherapy degree program in 1969), Dr. Kamaldeen Oluseye (King Saudi University), Dr. Francis Fatoye (Manchester Metropolitan University, UK); Professor M.O.B. Olaogun (Obafemi Awolowo university, Ile-Ife); Professor Issac Owoeye (University of Lagos); among others.
Once again, I enjoin you to spare time in touring this site to get a good glimpse of this Department where anyone seeking basic physiotherapy training or needing to update knowledge as a trained physiotherapist can become a better and more robust clinician, an analytical clinical scientist cum researcher and an evidence-based practitioner in the field of physiotherapy.
Professor T. K. Hamzat PhD, NRPT, MNSP
Head of Department & Consultant Clinical Neurophysiotherapist


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Thread: OLAP's usefulness
07-22-04, 12:36 #1Registered User
- Join Date
- Dec 2003
- Location
- Houston, TX
- Posts
- 21
Unanswered: OLAP's usefulness
Is having OLAP really useful or are the database companies trying to take away some of the functionality of the scripting languages? It seems to me that the same thing that OLAP does could be done in Perl, PHP or ASP. Maybe I am not understanding it correctly and I would like your input, but please try to refrain from the marketing mumbo jumbo or a virulent defense of the database software that you have become accustom to using. Try to answer these questions.
1) How does it affect database performance?
2) By having it is there a significant advantage over databases that don't? (please reread paragraph above)
3) Does it do the calculations quicker than the scripting languages?
Since a majority of SQL server and Oracle people use these forums I expect a multitude of posts defending OLAP and how awesome it is. Hopefully interspersed with all the nonsense we will get a couple people who really know what the hell they are talking about.
Ok let the grand OLAP debate begin!I do not fear computers. I fear the lack of them.
-Isaac Asimov (1920 - 1992)


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6 x 9 Burgundy Wine outdoor mat that is sure to complement your décor indoors or out! This is an ideal mat for your poolside or on your patio.
Outdoor Mat Features:
Reversible design.
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Large enough to accommodate patio furniture set.
Different designs to fit into a variety of outdoor décor.
Works well outside with an rv.
Easy to clean just use a garden hose.


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Separate names with a comma.
Discussion in 'Mens Basketball' started by brokenloginagain, Dec 11, 2013.
Gotta be Uthoff, right?
I hope its White... Just something about that guy that makes me want to punch him in the face.
I expect one or two "F Haluska" chants, just because. That 2005 game was good fun.
All the gingers.
Id be ok with this guy too.
White and Dingleberry get my votes.
That's a lot of booing
Uthoff isn't good enough to Boo continuously. I hope they **** with White the whole game. Something as dumb as chanting air ball every time he touches the ball, even though he hasn't thrown up an air ball. Just try to get in his head all game long would be funny to me. See how mentally tough he is (guessing he's not)
The answer is, obviously, the entire team.
That game was maybe one of the most fun I had as a student. Going from "Ohhhhh!!!!" To "booo!!!!" Everytime Haluska touched the ball was hilarious. And it was loud as hell all game long.
Gotta dig deep, son.
Constant "Sit down shutup" chants to Francis, if he doesn't get T'd I'll be disappointed
i figured since Uthoff turned down a scholarship from us (twice) and paid his way to iowa, he'd be a good target. plus he doesn't seem mentally tough. i don't think boo-ing would phase white, and woodbury will be lucky to play more than 10 minutes.
Higgins, definitely.
It will be White. Laughter would be more appropriate for Woodbury.
These guys:
Clearly McCabe
I'll go with White as well. The guy just always appears to be a huge ******* and much like EyeoftheStorm I also have a very strong desire to punch White in the face.
I reserve the right to change this pick as well if any news comes to light that EIU has another rapist, cocaine addict (or his son), or a transfer from ISU that should be hung for treason on their team. That is all.


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Now this is more like it.
Back in 1981, All Pro Series president Bob Harmon and ASA president Rex L. Robbins met to discuss the creation of an event that might someday grow into the greatest showcase in the country for short track teams and drivers.
That dream was realized in the form of the All-American 400, an event that grew to be viewed as the most important Super Late Model race of the season — equal to if not greater than the Snowball Derby. It was deemed the Civil War on Wheels, boldly appropriate as it invited teams from both directions on the map to collide in the centralized location of Nashville, Tennessee.
It was important due to its size and scale, but also because any race at venerable Fairgrounds Speedway Nashville is worth savoring. The list of winners include Darrell Waltrip, Rusty Wallace, Butch Miller, Gary Balough, Mike Garvey and Freddie Query, which makes Victory Lane at the country's oldest track an undisputed path to greatness.
"You just look at the list of winners and that's something you want to be a part of," expected contender Bret Holmes said. "The competition level has always been so evenly matched. To end up on top here said a lot about you, your car and your team."
But like any event, the All-American 400 has endured its unfortunate share of peaks and valleys. The construction of now defunct Nashville Superspeedway set the fairgrounds back for quite awhile. NASCAR's decision to strip All Pro away from venues like FSN to send them to bigger tracks certainly didn't help.
The race was largely lost for a decade, contested using split 200-lap formats between both the Pro and Super Late Models respectively. The Pro All Stars Series had a run at it with a 400-lap Super race back in 2012 but it became burdened by rain and a public relations nightmare.
The 2013 race served as the Southern Super Series championship finale and might have been the most exciting Super Late Model race of the past decade as Chase Elliott won from the back of the field while Daniel Hemric claimed the SSS championship by just a single point over Bubba Pollard.
But such goodness wasn't meant to last as the track made the decision to switch to Pro Lates for 2014 and 2015. The concept intended to provide a massive payday for the local crate motor teams while also inviting a greater entry list than the two that preceded it.
While the result wasn't a total failure and drew quality fields while putting on a fun show, it simply didn't feel like the All-American 400.
"This needs to be a Super Late Model race," Pollard said. "Look at who has won it and the cars they drove. It became a big race because of that history. Super Late Model teams are the best in the country. The Pros put on good shows but I think of Supers when it comes to what short track racing is all about.
"This is just supposed to be a Super Late Model race."
The Daytona 500 isn't contested with ARCA cars. The biggest races generate an air of excitement because they feature the best drivers piloting the most-elite machines in short track racing. And based on the entry list for Sunday's race, it seems the industry agrees.
Pollard will be joined by reigning Southern Super Series champion Donnie Wilson, Midwest Tour champion Ty Majeski, two-time Snowball Derby winner Augie Grill, ARCA winner Dalton Sargeant and likely NASCAR K&N Pro Series West champion Todd Gilliland. That's just the tip of the iceberg. With 42 cars on the official entry list, the All-American 400 is actually going to send several cars home.
That's a rarity in today's Super Late landscape.
But teams will risk that outcome because this race, or more specifically this version of it is worth it. This is what Harmon and Robbins envisioned when they created the event back in 1981. This is a great showcase for the best teams in the discipline.
So let's rock and roll.


text: Transplant CentersCardiac Transplantation (973) 926-7205 In 1986, the Medical Center was designated as the only heart transplantation center in the state by the N.J. Department of Health. More than 275 heart transplants have been performed since the program began. The percentage of patients surviving transplantation is higher than most programs nationwide. In addition, the Medical Center offers left-ventricular assist devices (LVADs) that allow heart transplant candidates more personal independence while awaiting transplantation. Renal Transplantation (973) 926-7555 The Renal Transplant Satellite at Newark Beth Israel Medical Center is an out-patient transplant clinic that manages patients who received a kidney transplant at Saint Barnabas Medical Center. The medical records for Newark Beth Israel Medical Center's former kidney transplant patients are retained by and stored, on-site and electronically, by Newark Beth Israel Medical Center. Records can be accessed by contacting the following number and address: Attn: Health Information Management Newark Beth Israel Medical Center 201 Lyons Avenue at Osborne Terrace, Newark, New Jersey 07112 Telephone: (973) 926-7409 [ top ]


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Bournemouth have reportedly asked Chelsea about the possibility of signing John Terry on loan until the end of the season.
The 36-year-old has spent the last 22 years at Stamford Bridge, with the exception of a brief loan spell at Nottingham Forest in 2000, but has fallen down the pecking order under Antonio Conte this season.
Terry has not started a Premier League game since September and made his first appearance in any competition since November during Sunday's 4-1 FA Cup victory over Peterborough United.
The club captain picked up a red card in that match and will now serve a one-game ban, and with Kurt Zouma returning to fitness and Nathan Ake having been recalled from his loan spell at Bournemouth there is now even more competition for defensive places at Chelsea.
According to The Telegraph, Bournemouth boss Eddie Howe has identified Terry as a potential replacement for Ake, and the possibility of regular first-team football could entice the former England international to temporarily part company with Chelsea.
However, the player is still thought to favour staying at Stamford Bridge in a bid to help them win their fifth Premier League title.