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Jevons and Menger Re-Homogenized?: Jaffé after 20 Years Author(s): Sandra J. Peart Source: American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 57, No. 3 (Jul., 1998), pp. 307-325 Published by: American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3487169 . Accessed: 22/04/2014 13:01
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INVITED SYMPOSIUM SPECIAL ON THE OF NEOCLASSICAL FOUNDATIONS ECONOMICS Jevons and Menger Re-homogenized?:
Jaffe After20 Years
By SandraJ. Peart* Abstract. Following Jaffe's 1976 argument,the effort to de-homogenize beJevons, Walras,and Mengermay have obscured some key similarities tween Jevons and Menger.The articleargues thatJevons's view of human behavior is more complex than has been allowed, and has much in common with Menger'spredispositionfor process, uncertainty,mistakes,and the significance of time in decision making. Some of the key features of the Mengerianeconomic being, featuresthat have often been used to poralso characterize tray him as the "odd man out" among the triumvirate, Jevons's decision makers.Forboth MengerandJevons, the decision maker is plagued by error,indecision, and informationgaps.
Introduction TWENTY YEARS HAVE PASSED since WilliamJaffe lamented the focus of the economics profession on the achievement that, at the time, seemed the sharedby the progenitorsof the "marginal revolution"majorcontribution the notion of diminishingmarginalutility(1976, p. 511). Instead,he argued, differencesthat characterizethe analyses of Walras,Jevons, and Menger are of interest-differences that "the passage of time has revealed more importantthan anything they may have had in common" (1976, p. 511).1 The de-homogenization of Walras,Menger, and Jevons would, he maintained, enable us correctlyto perceive and appreciatethe significanceof their separatecontributionsto economic analysis. The effortto de-homogenizeJevons, Walras,and Menger,however, may have obscured some key similaritiesamong the early neoclassicals, most
* [SandraPeart is Associate Professor of Economics, Baldwin-Wallace College Berea, Ohio.]. Her research interests include classical and early neoclassical economic thought.
American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 57, No. 3 (July, 1998). ? 1998 American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Inc.
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American and Sociology Journalof Economics
Itis not my position thatwe need to between JevonsandMenger. notably andJevons,butrather thatcloseattention Walras, Menger, re-homogenize to the original texts(whichJaff6calledfor in 1976;see p. 523),revealsa muchmore complexview of humanbehaviorin Jevonsthanhas often been allowed,and one thathas muchin commonwith Menger's predisformistakes, underuncertainty, positionforprocess,for decisionmaking of time in decisionmaking.In what follows,I and for the significance economic demonstrate thatsomeof the keyfeatures of theMengerian perhim as the "oddman son, features thathave oftenbeen used to portray decision maker. out"amongthe triumvirate, alsocharacterize theJevonian Whilethereis some evidencein Walras, also, of concernwiththe movewasclearly muchmore mentto equilibrium hisemphasis (with"groping"), of generalequilibrium andthe determination of equifixedon the nature did not constitute a key concernfor librium prices.Pricedetermination and while both considered the economyin termsof Jevonsor Menger, describe thoseinterrelationships interrelated neither to markets, attempted JevonsandMenthen,my argument maybe that mathematically. Perhaps, not!2 be but that Walras should should "re-homogenized," ger I differences that The article as follows. beginby considering proceeds amongWalras, Jevons,and Menger. Jaffeand othershave emphasized as is thatforthe mostparttheseareproperly Here,my argument regarded on betweenWalras on the one handandJevonsandMenger differences of economicman. the other.SectionIIIinvestigates Menger's conception In SectionIV,I demonstrate ecosome key similarities betweenMenger's Ittranspires thatbothMennomicbeingandtheJevonian decisionmaker. characterized (andothers). Jevonshavebeenimproperly byVeblen gerand indeandJevons,decisionmakers areplaguedby error, ForbothMenger SectionV concludeswith some regaps. Finally, cision,and information claimsthathave been made regarding the marksaboutthe contrasting in and Such claims have resulted stance of Jevons may part Menger. policy froma misreading of the natureof economicman in Jevonson the one on the other. handandin Menger
II Differences
the economics of Walras on DIFFERENCES SEVERAL INTERRELATED characterize on the other.Thesedifferences the one handand of Jevonsand Menger
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Re-homogenized? Jevonsand Menger
in Sections IIIandIV.3 somecluesto the similarities outlined First, provide as Jaffeargued, the generalequilibrium focusof Walras placeshimapart from both Themajor forceforWalras's research JevonsandMenger. driving of a competitive marketmodel.Alone amonghis was the specification in a JubileeCelebration at the end of his career, Walras contemporaries, receivedthe honorof beingproclaimed the firstto have "established the conditions of Walras 516). (Jaffe 1976,p. general equilibrium" Accordingly, with the elaboration of a theoryof subjective was muchless concerned He rarely valuation in consumption. used the word "consumption," preinsteadthe term"possession." Such"inattention to consumption" ferring has been attributed to the factthathis gazewas fixedon the marketplace, and nowhereelse (Jaffe1976,p. 516).Hiswas a catallactic theoryof the of pricesunderperfectly free competition: determination "Our taskis to discoverthe laws to which these purchases and sales tend to conform To this end, we shallsupposethatthe market is perfectly automatically. we suppose,to start with,thatmacompetitive, justas in puremechanics chinesareperfectly frictionless" (Walras 1874,p. 84;cf. pp. 71, 255).4 some into the insights interrelationships throughout Jevonspossessed of exchange alsopresupposes a catallactic comeconomy,andhis analysis buthe clearly neverapproached 1992,p. 174;Peart 1996a), munity (Creedy in delineating Walras's interest forgeneral theconditions Thus, equilibrium.5 V of his Theory in Chapter Political find we a mathe(TPE), of Economy matical whatwe now call marginal to marargument relating productivity His "Preface to the SecondEdition" of the TPE also contains ginalutility. reflections of a general-equilibrium butasJevons acknowlhimself character, forward to the eventual results of the edgedin the samepreface, "Looking to bearin mindthatthisbookwas neverput theory, I mustbeg the reader forward as containing a systematic view of economics" (1871,p. xxx).Nor, of course, wasMenger's focus"general in the sense.6 equilibrium" Walrasian In part,the explanation forthisfirstdifference lies in the secondmajor andrather obviousdifference: neither focusedon price JevonsnorMenger whileWalras did for determination, (see, instance, 1874,p. 71). In clearly the idea of is used to derive individual demand and Walras, marginal utility offercurves,andthento determine equilibrium prices.No similar analysis is contained inJevonsor Menger. somerather Jevons,in fact,hassuffered harshcriticism for neglecting the issue. ForbothMenger andJevons,the key economicphenomenon requiring
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and Sociology American Journalof Economics
Givenprices,exchange occurred as was the actof exchange.7 explanation of utilitygain resulted; exchangeceasedwhen long as a preponderance of thefinaldegrees theratio of utility. the (given)ratio of exchange equaled the of existence Jevonsis veryclearthatexchangeequations presuppose which what he refersto as a "theoretically in perfectmarket-a market of his often-critito be given." The significance pricesmaybe presumed cized "trading Jevonsto specifyequilibbody"conceptis thatit enabled of exchange, behavior Insubrium conditions whenprice-taking pertains.8 he turned his fullattention to bargaining situsequentsectionsof the TPE ations(see pp. 1190, arguing-as Menger did-that such situations are of comparative resolvedon "non-economic" grounds knowledge, "dispoof character," and "force "persistence," "adroitness," sition," "experience," or kindliness" of justice "feelings (pp. 124-5;cf. Peart1996a,pp. 106-7). is in initial was to supposea rateof exchange then, procedure, Jevons's will the and to consider whether trades occur, given trading parties' place, willcease(1871,p. 96).Buthe leftno doubt tastes,andatwhatpointtrade in flux. Thuswhen he described that,in reality,priceswere constantly in operation, he readilyadmitted that pricesvariedconstantly: markets "The realcondition of industry is one of perpetual motionandchange" (p. atanyone the priceof the samecommodity mustbe uniform 96);"Though it mayvaryfrommoment to momentandmustbe conceivedas moment, in a stateof continual TheLawof One Pricewas, conse92). change" (p. in observed from In reality.9 reality,differences quently,an abstraction and"extraneous of "caprice" as a result pricesaroseallthe timein practice of the purchasers" andtheir "thedefective credit circumstances," including
imperfectknowledge (p. 91).10
in the Principles, like thatof Jevons,was not to exintention Menger's to focusattention on exchangebehavior. Thus,he plainpricesbut rather of maintained thatprices"areby no meansthe mostfundamental feature inciof exchange," instead the economicphenomenon constituting "only of these activities of an economic dentalmanifestations [trade], symptoms betweenthe economiesof individuals" (1871,p. 191).In reequilibrium whilespeAsa consequence, constantly.11 ality,pricesaresaidto fluctuate not cific pricesmay be observedat a point in time, they will generally anyonebuy grainon a grainexchangeor prevailfor futuretrades:"Let on a stockexchangeandtryto sell themagainbeforea change securities unitsof or let himtryto sell andbuyseparate in market conditions occurs,
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Jevonsand Menger Re-homogenized?
the samecommodity atthe sametime,andhe willeasilybe convinced that the difference betweensupplypricesanddemandpricesis no mereaccident but a general featureof social economy" (pp. 192-3).12
thus nevertriedto linkthe importance of satisfactions analytiMenger to the ratioof exchange while callywithmarket prices.He neverreferred the relation betweenscalesof wantor satisfaction andthe demonstrating of horsesor cowstraded. market Instead, quantities priceis a positedmanof forcesthatshowhow "economizing men" ifestation areinduced "togive goods (that is, definite quantitiesof goods) for other goods" (1871,
pp. 193-4).13
or "points of rest," did,however,use the notionof equilibrium, Menger foran individual: foreconomicexchanges areconstantly "thefoundations andwe therefore observethe phenomenon of a perpetual succhanging, Buteven in thischainof transactions cessionof exchange transactions. we find of rest at for can,by observing times, particclosely, points particular ularpersons, andwithparticular kindsof goods.Atthesepointsof rest,no of goodstakesplacebecausean economic limit to exchange had exchange been reached" as has such 188). But, (1871, already p. Vaughn argued, arepresented as "partial andephemeral" (1990,p. 384).14 equilibria where smallnumbers are Mengerarguedthat in exchangesituations involved,the agreed-upon pricewill settle halfwaybetweenthe supply and demandpricefor "economically (1871, equallycapableindividuals" he recognized thatif bargaining Jevons,however, p. 196).Like capabilities the agreed-upon overtheother. While differed, pricemayfavorone trader he acknowledged that"human has some influence on the result, caprice" maintained the "opposing of the bargainers thatgenerally, efforts Menger to derivethe greatest will balanceout possiblegain fromthe transaction in mostcases,andthatpriceswilltherefore havea tendency to settleatthe of the extreme limits" But "non-eco(p. 197).15 other, average possible nomic" "founded on the of the two infactors, personalities economizing or on otherexternal dividuals conditions the transaction," affecting may in whichcase pricesthen "candeviatefromthisnatural middle interfere, positionbetweenthe limits".
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American Journal of Economics and Sociology
III Menger's Economic Man
In all the receivedformulations of economictheory,whetherat the handsof the the humanmaterial with which the Englisheconomistsor those of the Continent, inquiryis concernedis conceivedin hedonisticterms;that is to say, in termsof a inertandimmutably Thepsychological passiveandsubstantially givenhumannature. and anthropological of the economistshavebeen those whichwere preconceptions and socialsciencessome generations acceptedby the psychological ago. The hedonisticconceptionof manis thatof a lightning calculator of pleasures andpains,who oscillateslike a homogeneousglobule of desireof happinessunderthe impulseof stimulithatshifthim aboutthe area,but leave him intact.He has neitherantecedent nor consequent.He is an isolated,definitivehumandatum,in stable equilibrium forcesthatdisplacehim in one direction or except for the buffetsof the impinging another(Veblen1897,p. 232).
the characterization by Veblen outlined above, Jaff6 man as "a economic posits Menger's bumbling, erring, ill-informedcreature, plagued with uncertainty,forever hovering between alluringhopes and hauntingfears, and congenitallyincapableof makingfinely calibrated decisions in pursuitof satisfactions" (1976, p. 521). Mengerianman is aptly described as operating under uncertainty,with less than full information. In fact, a major theme of Menger'sPrinciples is that decision making is largely about the acquisitionof information,since men "naturally acquire a very obvious interestin being informednot only about all the goods in theirown possession but also about the goods of all the otherpersons with whom they maintain trading relations"(1871, p. 91).16Such behavior is choice thoroughlypurposeful(though not alwayssuccessful),so thatJaffe's of adjective, "bumbling," be somewhat harsh. While the may Mengerian decision maker possesses little informationabout the present, he is constantly trying to increase his knowledge-being "seriouslyconcerned to obtainas exact a knowledge as possible of the quantitiesof goods available to them for this purpose" (1871, pp. 89-90). Moreover, he attempts to acquire informationconcerning futureneeds and wants: "men in civilized societies alone among economizing individualsplan for the satisfactionof their needs, not for a short period only, but for much longer periods of time" (1871, p. 78). He even goes so far as to create social institutionsto gather information(1871, p. 91; cf. Streissler1972, p. 433).17 Menger'sdecision makersknow even less, and possess even more "deficientforesight"about the futurethan the present:"experiencetells us that
IN STARK CONTRAST to
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Jevonsand Menger Re-homogenized?
certain needswillbe feltin the we areoftenmoreor less in doubtwhether future at all"(1871,pp. 81, 82;cf. Streissler 1972,p. 433).Againandagain of goods and the amountof uncerstressesthe timedimension Menger entails. in the this lightof Jevons'spositiondescribed Significantly tainty choices stressedthe in SectionIV, Menger's discussionof intertemporal of future wants,as well as the defective telescopicfacmyopicestimation teachesthata present orone inthe ultyof man:"All experience enjoyment more to men than one of equalinnearfuture usuallyappears important at a moreremote timein the future" (1871,pp. 153-54;cf. Streissler tensity
1972, p. 434).18
Veblen's the economicbeingforMenger is neither lightConsequently, nor reactor to constraints. He cannot a ning calculator, passive changing function. He is be fullysummarized by a static,well-defined preference in theattempt to remove of theworldaround him,butpurposeful ignorant as muchof thatignorance as he can. It is important of economic to keep in mindthatwhile the movement mantoward a slow andpainstaking was, forMenger, equilibrium process, he nevertheless attributed to economicmana fairly specificgoal.Hispuris to "show how men,on thebasisof thisknowledge, pose inthe Principles direct the available of goods (consumption quantities goodsandmeansof to the greatest of theirneeds"(1871,p. production) possiblesatisfaction
Yet while he was adamantabout the sovereignty of pref94; cf. p. 115).19 erences and the purposefulnessof actions, he was also of the opinion that consumersmay be "mistaken" as to what is in fact in theirown best interest He stressed that there are both "real" and "imag(Kirzner1990, p. 102).20
"real" and"imagined" can ined" needs,and,correspondingly, goods:"men withrespect be in error aboutthevalueof goodsjustas theycanbe in error to all otherobjectsof humanknowledge. Hencethey mayattribute value to economicconsiderations, to thingsthatdo not, according possessit in if theymistakenly thatthemoreorlesscomplete assume satisfaction reality,
of their needs depends on a good, or quantityof goods, when this relationship is really non-existent. In cases of this sort we observe the phenomenon of imaginaryvalue"(1871, p. 120). He argued,for instance,that consumers erroneously assign value to primitivemedicines, or love po-
likeJevons,thatpeople displaya weaknessfor tions,and he maintained,
the importanceof satisfactionsthat give intense momen"overestimating tary pleasure but contributeonly fleetinglyto their well-being":
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AmericanJournal of Economics and Sociology
thatstupidmenmay, Butwhathas been saidby no meansexcludesthe possibility of various estimate theimportance as a resultof theirdefectiveknowledge,sometimes Evenindividuals whose in a mannercontrary to theirreal importance. satisfactions and who thereforecertainly endeavorto economicactivityis conductedrationally, foundation in orderto gainan accurate of satisfactions recognizethe trueimportance fromall human are subjectto error.Error is inseparable for theireconomicactivity, knowledge. the imMenare especiallyprone to let themselvesbe misledinto overestimating thatgive intensemomentary only pleasurebut contribute portanceof satisfactions the importance of satisfacfleetinglyto theirwell-being,and so into underestimating tions on which a less intensivebut longer enduringwell-beingdepends. In other more highlythantheirperwords, men often esteem passing,intense enjoyments manentwelfare,and sometimeseven morethantheirlives (1871,p. 148).21
Such an attitudeopened the door for government interventionto correct consumer errorsin valuation.In fact, Mengercalled for state action to encourage thrift-an expression of his paternalisticurge to counteract the circumstancethat "men often esteem passing, intense enjoyments more highly than their permanentwelfare, and sometimes even more than their lives" (Kirzner1990, p. 102). LikeJevons, Mengerheld that mistakenevaluations concerning the capacityof goods to fulfillneeds occur disproportionately among "peoples who are poorest in true goods" (1871, p. 53). Menger'sposition concerning such real and imaginarywants had implications for his price theory. Since in theory prices are based on marginal utility foundations for consumer valuation, while in actualityconsumers may be mistaken regarding those valuations, Menger distinguished between what he called "economic prices"and real-worldprices. Economic prices are the prices that would pertainin the absence of error,if rational economic actorspursuedtheir own best interestswithout the hindranceof incomplete informationeither concerningtheir own wants or marketphenomena. But in the real world, human decision makingis characterized by and other of toward well as as considerations others, goodwill errors, causes. Thus, only rarelydo economic prices pertain;real prices are much more likely to occur.22 Fully rationaleconomic man was, for Menger, an enlightened creature who understoodhis realneeds, and the movement towardfull equilibrium, toward an economy characterizedby an arrayof economic prices, was a slow and uncertainprocess. But it was more. It was, as one scholar has noted recently, "theentire movement of human historyas nineteenth-cen-
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Jevons and MengerRe-homogenized?
tury European liberals, echoing Condorcet,had visualized it" (Silverman of mankind," 1990, pp. 90-91)-or what may be termedthe "improvement to use a phrase that has been coined regardingJ. S. Mill as well as W. S. Jevons (Peart 1990).
IV Jevons's Economic Man
PROCEDURE in the TPEconsisted of analyzing ecoMETHODOLOGICAL JEVONS'S nomic phenomena on the basis of a few main causes (such as privateselfinterest)that could be identifiedas being primaryinfluences in economic the existenceandeven the importance decisionmaking,while acknowledging of a multitudeof additionalinfluences.In social science,Jevons argued,the of economic relationships hinderedprecise theoretical specifi"complexity" cationof laws: "assoon as we attemptto drawout the equationsexpressing the laws of demandand supply,"for instance,"we discoverthatthey have a our powers of mathematical treatment" (1874, complexityentirelysurpassing of cause,Jevons p. 759). As a consequence of such pronouncedmultiplicity manabstract endorsedMill's"comparatively and general"method, "treating kind fromsimple points of view, and attempting to detect generalprinciples of of action"(p. 760).23 This method involved the theoreticalinvestigation effects following from a few main causes of interest,while recognizingthe constituted existence of additionalcauses. In economics, privateself-interest the majorcause fromwhich to start:"we may startfrom some obvious psyto a smaller gain is preferred chologicallaw, as for instance,thata greater one, and we may then reasondownwards,and predictthe phenomenawhich will be producedin society by such a law"(1871, pp. 16-17). Yet Jevons acknowledged that consumers'actions resultedfrom a mulor "noxious"influences. He was, in titude of "extraneous,""capricious," of these lattercauses with pure selfaddition, aware that the intermixture would lead consumers to interest strayfrom his theoreticalconditions for utilitymaximization,and cause prices to deviate from marginalvaluations. And since what the economist actuallyobserves consists of choices made by individualsthat are the result of all-and not simply the main-causal factorsoperatingat once, observed behaviorwill rarelyif ever conformto the economist'ssimplifiedtheory.In practice,choices have the appearance of caprice, and violations of the utility-maximizing conditions (mistakes)
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American and Sociology Journalof Economics
occur.In the case of savingsdecisions,moreover, Jevonsinrepeatedly aremyopic,underestimate the importance sistedthatconsumers of future and undersave. consumption, consequently andsystematic areconspicuous mistakes inJevIndeed,nonsystematic ons's analysisof decisionmaking.He allowed,first,thatnonsystematic mistakes occurred with everytransaction, when, becauseof the interferor becausethey lackinformation or failto ence of "capricious motives," the information contained in pricesignals, consumers orproducers process He even went so faras to maintain makemistaken trades. in the 7PE that areunableaccurately consumers sometimes to assessthe utility associated withparticular actions: "themindoftenhesitates andis perplexed in makthisindicates eithervarying estimates of ing a choiceof greatimportance: the motives,or a feelingof incapacity to graspthe quantities concerned. I shouldnotthinkof claiming forthemindanyaccurate of power measuring and addingand subtracting (1871, feelingsso as to get an exactbalance" p. 13). As a consequence of Jevons's thattransactions involvea set recognition of circumstances muchmorecomplex thanhistheoretical of utility analysis maximization between"theoretically marallowed,the distinction perfect" kets and the realworld-markets "inpractice"-wasof paramount imIn he the TPE three market that "more portance. recognized imperfections or less"characterize decisions in practice: lackof information, lackof comandthe existenceof capricious motives.24 petition, Inthetheoretically information is complete andaccurate. market, perfect In practice, "more or information less" mirrors this prehowever, only Thekey feature of a perfect market was not,Jevonsmaintained, sumption. itslocation, butinstead consisted of thecommon andcomplete knowledge heldby participants in its exchanges.25 "Inpractice" the theoretical is only conceptionof perfectinformation "more or less completely carried out"(1871,p. 86).Notsurprisingly, some were said to be characterized markets flows than by betterinformation others(p. 87). Anyexceptionto "wideandconstant information" (p. 87), meant that trades would occur that Jevonsargued, violatehis equilibrium for exchange,producing conditions "unnatural" relative prices.Conspiracies designedto conceal information were singledout as one cause of the "ordinary conditions of themarket," bearoverthrowing causing "prices no relation to the ing proper existing supplies" (p. 86).
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Jevons and MengerRe-homogenized?
In addition, the conditions of theoreticalperfection rarelyhold true of real-worldtrades, because what is observed is a conglomerate of "accident[s]" influencingbehavior.The theoreticalanalysisof exchange presupposed individualsmotivatedby privateself-interestalone: "Everyindividual must be considered as exchanging from a pure regard to his own requirementsor privateinterests"(1871, p. 86). In practice,however, Jevons acknowledged the importanceof altruismand other extraneous motives (cf. p. 141). In practiceJevons also recognized that the operation of what he termed motives"overwhelms or disguises the theoreticalresponses to, "capricious for instance, an increase in price, and discontinuitiesresult:
We cannotusuallyobserveany preciseand continuous variation in the wantsand deeds of an individual, because the action of extraneousmotives,or what would seem to be caprice,overwhelms minutetendencies.As I have already remarked (p. does not varyhis consumption of sugar,butter, or eggs from 15), a single individual week to week by infinitesimal to each smallchangein price.He amounts, according untilaccidentdirectshis attention continueshis ordinary to a consumption probably rise in price,and he then, perhaps,discontinues the use of the articles for altogether a time(1871,p. 89).26
Individualactions,Jevons reiteratedin the introductionto his TPE,might frequently "have the appearance of caprice,"because of the "numerous and complicated""motivesand conditions"influencingthem (p. 15).27 In the discussion of the "hierarchy of motives"we find evidence of Jevons's belief that, especially among the uneducated laboring classes, economic decisions might persistentlybe incorrect.Jevons circumscribedhis purpose in the TPEby noting that he treated only "the lowest rank of feelings"-those feelings aimed at supplying "the ordinarywants of man at the least cost of labour"(1971, p. 38). His purportedtask was therefore not to assess what people should desire or consume, but instead simply to analyze what they do consume: "The food which prevents the pangs of hunger,the clothes which fend off the cold of winter,possess incontestable the meaning of the word by any utility;but we must beware of restricting moral considerations.Anythingwhich an individualis found to desire and to labour for must be assumed to possess for him utility.In the science of Economics we treat men not as they ought to be, but as they are" (1871, p. 38; cf. p. 39).28 LikeMenger,however, despite disclaimersregardingthe sovereigntyof
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American Journalof Economics and Sociology
consumer of Jevonspossesseda firmnotionof a hierarchy preferences, he attempted to keep his investigation neutral goods.Although regarding the desirability of actions, his own judgments aboutwhattypesof choices shouldprevailare evidenteven in this treatment of the so-calledlower Atthe loweststageof motives(thosemostpurely selfpleasures. privately a manoughtto satisfy andmoderate" desires. interested), onlyhis "proper sincea "higher calculus of moralright andwrong" is required "to Further, how he best show may employthatwealthforthe good of othersas well as himself," the passageimpliesthatuncoordinated actionsof individuals theirown, but not necessarily welfare.Then,if may maximize society's, "theclaimsof a familyor of friends fallupon"the consumer, "itmaybecomedesirable thathe shoulddenyhis own desiresandeven his physical needs theirfull customary (1871,pp. 25-6). LikeMenger, gratification" towardpleasuresthat are lasting Jevons also revealsa predisposition as opposedto fleeting andintense; andlikeMenger, too, thoughmoderate, he supposedthatconsumers makethe wrongchoice in such frequently cases (see his essay on utilitarianism and Peart1990).Suchargu[18791 ments left the door open for important (see Secpolicy interventions tionV). In his discussion of intertemporal decisions, Jevonspreconsumption thatboth in theoryand in practice consumers are sumed,like Menger, benefits from future He systematically myopic, undervaluing consumption. described a situation wherethe usefulnessof a good is distributed over time.Then,"Ifwe reckonall futurepleasures and painsas if they were theutility-maximizing solution wasformally idenJevonsargued, present," ticalto the case of a good distributed acrossdifferent uses (1871,p. 71).If a good is used over n days,and viis the marginal with utilityassociated each day'suse, the distribution madeby a "beingof perfectgood sense
and foresight"29 will be such that i = 2 = v3 = . . . = vn(p. 71). This is
the distribution, "which shouldbe made,and wouldbe Jevonsasserted, madeby a beingof perfect Tosecurea maximum goodsenseandforesight. of benefitin life,all future or pains,shouldact events,all future pleasures with us the force as if same were allowance upon they present, beingmade fortheiruncertainty. Thefactor theeffectof remoteness should, expressing in short,alwaysbe unity,so thattimeshouldhaveno influence" (p. 72).30 thatconsumers arenotconstituted inthis"perhowever, Jevonsinsisted, fect way,"since futurepleasures are discounted relative to presentones
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Jevons and MengerRe-homogenized?
(1871, p. 72): "But no human mind is constituted in this perfect way: a future feeling is always less influentialthan a present one" (p. 72). This flaw implied that,without intervention,individualsdo purportedcharacter not save enough for the future, a problem that Jevons returnedto time and again in his analyses of poverty and overpopulation (1865; 1883; Peart 1996a). Thus, a numberof differenttypes of "mistakes" emerge injevons's analcauses; those associysis: those due to "caprice"and other "extraneous" ated with consumersbeing incapableof makingfinely calibrated decisions; those reflecting individuals'inabilityto accuratelyassess satisfactionsacto cruingfrom consuming specific bundles of goods; mistakesattributable benefits associated with parconsumers'ignorance concerning the "true" ticular goods; and, most serious, consumers' lack of appreciationof the "true"benefits of future consumption. Jevons apparentlypresumed that some types of mistakes were empiricallyless importantthan others: the effects of caprice, for instance, were presumed to be small, and also to balance over time. Yet other mistakes,such as those associatedwith intertemporalconsumptionas well as systematicundervaluingof specific goods (e.g., libraries),could not be glossed over so simply, and requiredformal considerationby economic theorists.These latteralso formedthe analytical basis forJevons'smany policy recommendationsin favorof educatingconsumers as to the errorof their spending ways.
AND MENGER both used to analyze economic choices THE PROCEDURE JEVONS decision making,and out"correct" "incorrect" and between distinguished and the lined the results for economic agents economy that flow from a series of correct (equilibrium)choices. Such a procedure carrieswith it a mixed policy message that may have contributedto some confusion concerning the overall policy stance of these writers. Menger'sview of the economic system saw it governed by consumer valuationsin the case of the economic model in which the effects of error and other complicationsare nonexistent, ignored, or presumedto balance. conreflect the underlying realities of "correct" If prices that "correctly" sumer valuationswere to prevail-"economic prices"-then the resource
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and Sociology American Journalof Economics
wouldreflect the (correct) wishesof sovereign allocation thatwouldresult thatmarkets willtendtoward consumers. seemsto havepresumed Menger an array of economicprices,but he clearly maintained that,forthe most in place part,such an arrayof pricescannotbe assumedto be already His awareness of errors and other (Kirzner 1990,p. 103). entrepreneurial aberrations servedto separate the real-world economyfromhisconsumermodel. governed"economic" Much the samemaybe saidof Jevons,who, likeMenger, hasalsobeen as an extremelaissezfaireliberal on the one handand an ininterpreted terventionist on the other.ForwhileJevons's theoretical analysis pertained to equilibrium andpresupposed he clearly information, exchanges perfect maintained that, in practice,tradesare effectedby myopic,poorlyinor simply Thestrong consumers. laissezfaire formed, impatient, capricious in his TPE flow fromthe assumptions of perfectinforpolicystatements mation andrationality, buttheydo not holdup generally as representative of "Jevons's economics." Onetentative conclusion thatemerges fromtheforegoing representation of JevonsandMenger followsfromtheirdiffering of the soconceptions calledmovement toward Both and view conJevons equilibrium. Menger and myopic.ButMenger sumersas impatient sees consumers as actively their own decision-making improving processes,while Jevons regards themas somewhat lessableto effectsuchimprovement without education.
Notes 1. Jaffeacknowledged thata few authors had already alludedto suchdifferences; see forthethen-common (1954,p. 918)andHicks,who showedlittleenthusiasm Schumpeter of treating the threerevolutionaries as one (1934,p. 338). practice 2. Thereis no reasonto supposethatthismustbe an all-or-nothing Jevons proposition. sharessome featureswith his contemporaries, most notablywith Menger, and he also ardepartsfromthem in otherrespects.But the "homogenization/de-homogenization" Thisis because,following gumentprovidesa usefulstarting pointfor our investigation. Jaffe'scall for de-homogenization as a resultof thatcall),com(thoughnot necessarily monalities betweenMenger andJevonshavebeen neglected.Itis thosecommonfeatures thatthis investigation seeks to highlight. for why MengerandJevons 3. I do not claimto have, as yet, found theexplanation hold similar beliefs about consumerbehavior.But it does seem reasonable to suggest thattheirfocus on exchange,in contrast to Walras's emphasison pricedetermination,
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Jevons and MengerRe-homogenized?
into the natureof consumerdecisionmaking.Thus led them to delve more insistently for the similarities thatfollow. the contrast outlinedhere is at leasta partial explanation on this matter, thatit is in thiscontext 4. In oppositionto Schumpeter Jaffemaintains invokedmarginal thatWalras utility.See 1976,p. 516. to the Theory 5. See Black'sintroduction (1970),where he sugof PoliticalEconomy in this regard is less thansatisfactory. gests thatJevons'streatment made by MarkBlaug(1990) in this contextis particularly 6. The distinction helpful. Walrasian He arguesthatone mightcharacterize economics,wherebythe economyis whereas as "general economics, equilibrium" equations, depictedas a set of simultaneous ecothe analysisby Menger(and, I would add,Jevons)is best called"total equilibrium to Marnomics"wherebyeverything else; both are contrasted depends on everything or "one-at-a-time economics" (p. 186). analysis, shallian-style equilibrium partial the focal point of value theoryfromlong-run 7. Blackarguesthatthe TPE"shifted deterto short-run 'normal' values determined by cost of production exchange-ratios mined by the psychologyof the partiesmakingthe exchange"(1970,p. 11). I would modify this somewhat to argue that Jevons's TPEattemptsto explain price-taking exchange.In Menger,too, the focus is on exchange:"Acorrecttheoryof price must insteadbe directedto showinghow economizing men, in theirendeavorto satisfytheir of goods) for needs as fullyas possible,areled to give goods (thatis, definitequantities othergoods"(1871,pp. 193-4). where 8. See Blaug(1985,p. 312). The trading body was used to rule out situations in The device are indeterminate. arose, correspondence part,as a resultofJevons's prices to two traders, Jenkins,where diagrams Jonesand referring earlyin 1868with Fleeming See the Brown,are used, andJenkinsrightly objectedthatpriceswere not determinate. 4 and 11, 1868,in Jevons(1972-81, Vol. 3, lettersfromJenkinsto Jevons,datedMarch pp. 167-78), as well White(1989,pp. 4430. Walras andMenger also reliedon abstraction. 9. BothWalras (1874, See, forinstance, for that"Ishallpresenta simplecase [of exchange] remarks p. 84), as well as Menger's observethe relationship we wishto consider thispurposein whichwe canmostcarefully undisturbed (1871, p. 182). The differenceis one of degree: by secondaryinfluences" and explicitly consider andJevonsappearconvincedthatpricesvaryconstantly Menger alludesto the issuebutforthe mostpartis unconcerned thatphenomenon, whileWalras of the "adjustment 3rdeditionof the process"in Walras's by it. Fora rareexamination thatregretssubsequent (1995). Elements, changesto latereditions,see Walker would balanceacross 10. Jevons sometimespresumedthat the effects of "caprice" will be correct: "The use of an so thaton average,an aggregate individuals, specification average,or, what is the same, an aggregateresult,depends upon the high probability in thelongrun,as oftenin one direction anddisturbing causeswilloperate, thataccidental eachother" discussion as the other,so as to neutralize (1871,p. 16;cf. p. 90). ForJevons's of his of thismethod,see 1874,pp. 334-98. Peart(1995)containsa detailedexamination of thisissue, see note 15 below. in thisregard. ForMenger's treatment assumptions than rather 11. Moss has arguedthatMengercalled his a theoryof price formation in order to underscorethe indeterminateness of the outcome of price determination exchange(1978,pp. 26f;cf. Menger1871,p. 194).
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AmericanJournal of Economicsand Sociology
12. Jevons also used the marketsfor grainand securitiesin his discussionsof the of markets "inreality." operations commodities thatcanbe exchanged eachotherin certain definite 13. Cf.:"Thus against of some othereconomicgood, for instance), (a sum of money and a quantity quantities in short, commodities thatcanbe exchangedforeachotheratwill by a saleor apurchase, do notexist-even on givenmarkets thatareequivalents in theobjective senseof theterm, of the and at a given point in time.Andwhat is more important, deeperunderstanding causesthatlead to the exchangeof goods andto humantradein generalteachesus that of this sortare utterlyimpossiblein the very natureof the case and cannot equivalents exist in realityat all. In this respect,Mengergoes a step beyondJevons:Mengerinsists thatpricesvaryat a point in time and throughtime,whileJevons'semphasisis on the latter.See the evaluations (1972,p. 436) andJaffe by Vaughn(1990, p. 383), Streissler (1976,pp 519-20). 14. An additionaldifference of degree exists, now between Jevons and Menger. found the notion of equilibrium morecompellingthandidMenger, Jevons apparently and thus insisted upon describingthe conditions for equilibriumtrades in mathematicalterms.The evidence does not suggest, however, thatJevons was convinced that such equilibriawere long lasting, or wide ranging.Instead,he seems to have been convinced (see above, p. 316-17) that what we observe around us is largely trades. His rationalefor treatingequilibriumtradeswas a desire to nonequilibrium treatthe simplerproblem(equilibrium) before tacklingthe moredifficultone (movement towardequilibrium), as opposed to an argument thatthe formerareempirically significant(Peart1996a,pp. 90ff). 15. Perhapsfor this reason,Mengerarguedthataveragepricesmightserve approxi"Where correctness of the estimates matelyas a basisforvaluation: only an approximate is required, averagepricescan properlyserve as the basis of valuation,since they are for thispurpose.Butit is clearthatthismethodof valuinggoods most suitable generally insufficient andeven erroneous, even forpractical mustproveitselfcompletely life,wherever a higherdegreeof precision becomesnecessary" (1871,p. 274).In general,he was waryof aggregation. is the improvement of things,andof our 16. Thus,forMenger, technological progress or a changein the information contentof goods (Streissler 1972,p. 431; understanding, cf. p. 432).Agentsareportrayed as activeproblem solvers.See the assessment by Mitford (1990,p. 218). of Menger's time: economicmanis thathe livesin andplansthrough 17. A key feature "Theideaof causality, fromthe ideaof time.A processof change however,is inseparable involvesa beginningand a becoming,and these are only conceivableas processesin time"(1871,p. 61). of such choices(1871,p. 148),citedabove (pp. 313-14). 18. Mengerdisapproved uses the phrase"economizing individual[s]" 19. Menger repeatedly. 20. People may be mistaken both with respectto theirabilityto appraise their"own of the quantities statesof mind"and to "their available to knowledgeof the magnitudes them and of the different qualitiesof goods"(1871, p. 148).As an economybecomes morecivilized,fewerimaginary goods are consumed(see 1871,pp. 53-54).
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Jevons and MengerRe-homogenized?
21. Thisattitude, of course,has a long history.SeeJ. S. Mill's very similar positionin as well as the treatment inJevons,discussedbelow, andMarshall Utilitarianism, (1890), of such claims, Fisher(1892), and Pigou(1920). For a discussionof the pervasiveness see Peart(1996b). 22. As notedabove,Menger foresawthatovertimesucherrors woulddiminish; hence he was convincedthat"real world"pricesmustmove closerto "economic" pricesover time.See Menger (1871,p. 70), andVaughn(1990,p. 384). 23. Sucha procedure, however,yieldedlimitedpredictive power(1874,p. 760). 24. Distinctions becomeblurred. sometimes Jevonson amongthesethreephenomena as a capricious occasionrefersto lackof competition motive,or as a causeof imperfect information to as a cause of iminformation. is sometimesreferred Further, imperfect In fact,lack of competition is rarelydiscussedas a distinct considperfectcompetition. eration.Edgeworth, who took Jevonsas his starting point (Creedy1992,p. 174), comof competition mencedhis discussionwith the consideration (1881,pp. 170. He argued thatJevons'sLawof Indifference only when thereis "perfect pertained competition" (p. of Jevonsfor not havingdealtwith the problemof the number 109),and he was critical of people in the market (Creedy1992,p. 120). his famous"trading bodies"(1871, 25. Jevons makesa similar argument concerning was verymuchconcerned withhow the number pp. 88-89). As notedabove,Edgeworth of traders affectedcompetition, with the natureof Jevons's"trading and, consequently, bodies."Hisdescription is apt:"[Jevons's] coupleof dealersare,I takeit, a sortof typical of 'Indifference,' whose originin an 'openmarket' is so couple, clothedin the property and "inthe lucidlydescribed. . ." (1881, p. 109). Eachis 'a "representative particular," thereis "presupposed a classof competitors" he refers background" (p. 109).Elsewhere to "individuals clothedwith the properties of a market" (p. 31, nl). 26. Theremay actually be two conceptually different issues here:lumpinessof conunitsand extraneous motives. sumption 27. Jevonsdidnot oftenelaborate uponthe motiveshe hadin mind,butin one passage he focusedon "motives moreorless extraneous to a theoryof Economics"-knowledge," "forceof character," and "feel"adroitness," "disposition," "persistence," "experience," also referred to such motives (1871,pp. 124, 125).Menger ings of justiceor kindliness" as "extraneous" to economics. an exampleof thistype of analysis: 28. Jevons'sdiscussion of gambling constitutes "If a personwith a certainincome prefersto runthe riskof losing a portionof it at play, rather thanspendingit in any otherway, it mustno doubtbe concededthatthe political economist,as such, can make no conclusiveobjection.If the gamesteris so devoid of othertastesthatto spend money over the gaming-table is the best use he can discover for it, economicallyspeaking,there is nothingfurtherto be said. The questionthen becomesa moral,or a politicalone"(1871,pp. 160-1). Evenhere,Jevons'sdisapproval is evident:gamblersare "devoidof other tastes."The treatment by Walrasis similar, "From otherpointsof view the questionof whethera thoughsomewhatmoreextreme: to killhis familyis a very drugis wantedby a doctorto curea patient,or by a murderer seriousmatter, but fromour point of view, it is totallyirrelevant. So faras we are con-
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AmericanJournal of Economics and Sociology
case than cerned,the drugis usefulin bothcases, andmayeven be moreso in the latter in the former" (1874,p. 65). to decisionsmadeat a pointin time(1871,p. 60). 29. A similar phrasepertains is similar: the "prudent" treatment consumer 30. Marshall's being saidto "endeavour to distribute his meansbetweenall theirseveraluses, presentandfuture,in such a way thattheywill havein eachthe samemarginal Marshall (1890,p. 119).LikeJevons, utility" thatconsumersmake two "deductions" value of a good": maintained fromthe "future of obtainingfuturepleasures,and a the first,which is justified, due to the uncertainty second, which is not, due to lack of prudence,or impatience(1890, p. 120). On the of the savings decision by Jevons, Fisher,Marshall, similartreatment and Pigou, see Peart(1996b). view thatMenger favorslaissezfaire,as well as therecentchallenge 31. Onthemajority to thatargument, see Kirzner (1990,p. 94);foran overviewof conflicting interpretations of Jevons'spolicystance,see Peart(1990). References 4th ed. New to Theory Black,R. D. Collison.1970.Introduction of PoliticalEconomy. York:Penguin,pp. 7-40. in Retrospect. 4thed. Cambridge: Theory Blaug,M.1985.Economic Cambridge University Press. . 1990.Comment on O'Brien's "Lionel Robbins Connection." In and the Austrian andHisLegacy Annual to History in Economics. CarlMenger supplement ofPolitical Vol. 22. Editedby B. J. Caldwell.Durham, NC:Duke University Press, Economy,
pp. 185-8. Creedy, J. 1992. Demand and Exchange in Economic Analysis: A Historyfrom Cournot
VT:Edward to Marshall. Worcester, Elgar. F. Y. 1881.Mathematical New York: M.Kelley,1967. Phychics. Edgeworth, Augustus
Fisher, I. 1892. Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Prices. New
YaleUniversity Haven,CT: Press,1965. Vol. 2, October, Walras." J. R. 1934."Leon Hicks, Econometrica, pp. 338-48. " Historyof Political Role in the 'Marginal Revolution.' Jaffe,W. 1972. "LeonWalras's
Economy, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 379-405.
EconomicInquiry, Vol. --.1976. "Menger, Jevons and WalrasDe-Homogenized." XIV,December, pp. 511-24. An InquiryConcerning theProgress Jevons,W.S. 1865.TheCoalQuestion: of theNation, and the Probable Exhaustionof our Coal-mines. Editedby A. W. 3rd ed. [19061. Flux.New York:KelleyReprints, 1965. . 1871. Theory 4thed. Edited Macof PoliticalEconomy. by H. S.Jevons.London: millan,1911.
. 1874. The Principles of Science: A Treatiseon Logic and Scientific Method. Lon-
don:Macmillan, 1909. . 1879. "JohnStuart Mill'sPhilosophyTested.IV. Utilitarianism." Contemporary Vol. 36, November, Review, pp. 521-38.
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. 1883. Methods of Social Reform.New York: Kelley Reprints, 1965. 1972-81. Papers and Correspondence of William Stanley Jevons. 7 vols. Edited by R. D. Collison Black. London: Macmillan. Kirzner,Israel. 1990. "Menger, Classical Liberalism,and the AustrianSchool of Economics." In Carl Menger and His Legacy in Economics. Annual supplement to History of Political Economy, Vol. 22. Edited by B. J. Caldwell. Durham, NC:Duke University Press, pp. 93-106. Marshall,A. 1890. Principles of Economics. 8th ed. London: Macmillan, 1930. Menger, C. 1871. Principles of Economics. Trans. byJ. Dingwall and B. E. Hoselitz. Intro. by F. A. Hayek. New York: New York University Press, 1976. Mitford,K. 1990. "Menger'sMethodology." In CarlMenger and His Legacy in Economics. Annual supplement to History of Political Economy, Vol. 22. Edited by B.J. Caldwell. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, pp. 215-40. Moss, L. S. 1978. "CarlMenger's Theory of Exchange." Atlantic Economic Journal, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 17-29. Peart, S. J. 1990. "W. S. Jevons's Applications of UtilitarianTheory to Economic Policy." Utilitas,Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 281-306. . 1995. " 'DisturbingCauses,' 'Noxious Errors,'and the Theory-PracticeDistinction in the Economics of J. S. Mill and W. S. Jevons." Canadian Journal of Economics, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 1194-1211. - 1996a. The Economics of William StanleyJevons. London: Routledge. 1996b. "Impatience, Self-Reliance, and Intertemporal Decision Making in Early Neoclassical Economics." Paper presented at the June 1996 Annual HESConference, Vancouver, BC. Pigou, A. C. 1920. The Economics of Welfare.3rd ed. London: Macmillan. Schumpeter,J. A. 1954. History of Economic Analysis. New York:Oxford UniversityPress. Silverman, P. 1990. "The Cameralist Roots of Menger's Achievement." In Carl Menger and His Legacy in Economics. Annual supplement to History of Political Economy, Vol. 22. Edited by B. J. Caldwell. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, pp. 69-92. Streissler, E. 1972. "To What Extent Was the Austrian School Marginalist?" History of Political Economy, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 426-41. Vaughn, K. I. 1990. "The Mengerian Roots of the Austrian Revival."In Carl Menger and His Legacy in Economics. Annual supplement to History of Political Economy, Vol. 22. Edited by B. J. Caldwell. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, pp. 379-407. Veblen, T. 1897. "The Place of Science in Modem Civilisation."In The Portable Veblen.
Editedby M.Lerner. New York:Penguin,1976,pp. 215-40.
Walker, D. 1995. "Walras'sMatureModels of the Money Market."Paper presented at the June 1995 Annual HES Conference, South Bend, Indiana. Walras, L. 1874. Elements of Pure Economics. Trans. by W. Jaffe. Philadelphia, PA:Orion
1984. Editions,
White, M. V. 1989. "Why Are There No Supply and Demand Curves in Jevons?" HOPE, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 425-56.
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Mayor Nutter is joining the chorus of Democrats demanding that presumptive GOP presidential candidate Mitt Romeny release more tax returns.
Nutter and a long list of mayors -- many of whom are in Philly for a leadership meeting of the U.S. Conference of Mayors -- sent a strongly worded letter to Romney today. The full text is below:
Dear Governor Romney,
Transparency leads to trust. And public release of your tax returns is the only way the American people can know if they can trust your judgment, perspective and motivations.
But the American people have waited long enough and heard enough excuses about why you refuse to disclose your tax returns. It's time to come clean Governor Romney.
Your own father set a precedent for presidential candidates, of both parties, when he said public release of several years of tax returns was necessary, explaining that "one year could be a fluke, perhaps done for show." President Obama has released 12 years of tax returns, John Kerry released 20 years' worth and Bob Dole released nearly 30 years. Without releasing additional tax returns, you would go down as one of the most secretive presidential nominees in modern history. Even Richard Nixon released more years of tax returns than you.
Remember when you auditioned to be John McCain's vice presidential pick? You gladly handed over twenty-three years of tax returns. Now, as you audition for the American people, you think only one full year is good enough. It isn't.
We know you have a bank account in Switzerland. We know you have continued holdings in offshore tax havens like Bermuda and the Cayman Islands. And we know you've already paid a significantly lower tax rate than most middle class families. The question is why? What else are you trying to hide? Were you trying to avoid paying your fair share? Is there shifty accounting in the rest of your tax returns that would shock Americans? You are running for the highest office in the greatest country on Earth. Don't you think the American people deserve to know the truth?
We do. Transparency is the only way the American people can trust that their President is on their side. It's time to release your tax returns, Governor.
Mayor Michael Nutter, Philadelphia, PA
Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa, Los Angeles, CA
Mayor Tom Barrett, Milwaukee, WI
Mayor Julian Castro, San Antonio, TX
Mayor Anthony Foxx, Charlotte, NC
Mayor Bill Bell, Durham, NC
Mayor RT Rybak, Minneapolis, MN
Mayor Michael Coleman, Columbus, OH
Mayor Dave Bing, Detroit, MI
Mayor Mark Mallory, Cincinnati, OH
Mayor Greg Stanton, Phoenix, AZ
Mayor Pedro Segarra, Hartford, CT
Mayor Pete Lagiovane, Chambersburg, PA
Mayor Richard Gray, Lancaster, PA
Mayor Helen Thomas, Darby Borough, PA
Mayor Ed Pawlowski, Allentown, PA
Mayor William Euille, Alexandria, VA
Mayor John Callahan, Bethlehem, PA
Mayor Cindy Lerner, Pinecrest, FL
Mayor Kenneth Wright, Portsmouth, VA
Mayor Brian Moore, Petersburg, VA
Mayor Rick Vilello, Lockhaven, PA

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Didn't stay at the hotel but went to the bar/club, they have some great cocktails. Try to go during happy hour for buy one get one free. Great music and atmosphere, they have a pool near the dance floor and people rock up in bikinis and swim wear!
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text: After crisscrossing the country on tours with Keith Sweat, New Edition and Puff Daddy and the Family, Atlanta-based R&B quartet 112 is finally set to release the follow-up its 1996 self-titled debut.The new album is entitled "Room 112," a title that comes from the group's hit single, "Only You," and one that members Slim, Mike, Q and Daron hold close to their hearts for sentimental reasons. "Notorious B.I.G. rhymed on ['Only You']," Q explained to the MTV Radio Network, "and there was this line that he had in the song where he said, 'Room 112, where the playas dwell.' So this album is called 'Room 112' for that reason -- in memory. To let everybody know that he's still with us everyday." [28.8 RealVideo] Mase turns up on the first single, "Love Me," while Puff Daddy, Kelly Price, Lil' Kim and Dallas Austin make guest appearances on 112's new album, which is due in stores on November


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TANZANIA!. http :// www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-XldXGxqDk. Mwanza. Mwanza. International Health Partners of TZ. International Health Partners of TZ. Nyakato (KKKT) Health Center. What you'll learn at KKKT. Interviewing Skills/Clinical Reasoning. What you'll learn at KKKT.
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HandPicked 8–Stuff That Matters
There's always a lot going on in the space we call 'real food', but not every story generates a whole post on its own.
That's why we've created the HandPicked 8–to give you a quick idea of some of the things happening in the wide world of food.
June is here. What are you looking forward to at your farmers' market? What's got you excited about real food these days?
Here are some good things to check out–this week's HandPicked 8.
1. WTF, FDA? A story up on offthegridnews.com reports that proposed new rules would (among other things) so severely restrict the use of compost it would amount to an outright ban. How is this possible? Judith McGeary, executive director of the Farm and Ranch Freedom Alliance is interviewed in this article and paints a pretty bleak picture. We have to watch this story.
2. Our friend, Gabrielle Langholtz was part of Edible Institute's recent gathering. She has put up an afterthought entitled "What I Wish I'd Said at Edible Institute: Thoughts on Serious (Food) Media in the Digital Age". Among other things, Ms. Langholtz sees a 'parallel between the changes in the food environment and the changes in the media environment'. This is, for sure, worth a read.
3. CivilEats.com has compiled a rather impressive list of the top 24 food and agriculture reporters (who happen to be women) that 'you should know about'. Naomi Starkman writes that 'Women are the backbone of today's food media. And yet, the women reporting on this issue area don't always get the attention they deserve.' We agree. So, which of your faves went missing from this list?
4. Here it is: Obama Failed the Foodies. That's what NewRepublic is saying straight out in an article by Jason Zengerle. How Barack Obama Sold Out the Kale Crowd is a clear-eyed appraisal of the weak support 'good food' has gotten from this president. Here's a pretty telling quote: "He (the President) has overpromised reforms, underestimated the strength of his opposition, and then flinched from real fights." Damn.
5. Stress eating is something we all do on occasion. Coping with stress with a trip to the fridge can actually be a help because some foods may help you feel better, according to Epicurious.com. Red bell peppers, yogurt with nuts, peppermint and vanilla tea, popcorn and raw carrots make their list. Check it out.
6. Here's something we hope you never encounter. What Happens When CSAs Go Belly Up is up right now on modernfarmer.com. Meaghan Agnew writes that bankruptcy at a Groton, Massachusetts farm has raised many questions about the legal ramifications when a CSA goes dark. Not a good story.
7. We have always loved the vitality, the verve, and the humor at cuesa.org (Center for Urban Education about Sustainable Agriculture) in San Francisco. The organization has launched a clever poster campaign on the city's MUNI public transportation system touting the iconic stature of the Ferry Plaza Farmers Market. Good stuff.
8. If they haven't already shown up at your farmers' market, they soon will–garlic scapes. Every season we hear someone ask,'what the heck is a garlic scape'? And the answer: they're the plant's flowerless green stalks. The scapes are usually lopped off to allow the garlic plant the lion's share of the soil's nutrients. Foodandwine.com has put up a helpful Everything You Need to Know About Garlic Scapes to answer the questions that arise when these flavorful squiggles make their appearance.
And that's some of the good stuff on our plates, June 4, 2014!
Have an idea for a story? Send it to us, we'll try and use it.
Photo credit: Staci Strauss
Love & Greens: The Story of Sky Farm
Chris Regan and Ashley Mayne produce a wide array of delicious greens for the Hudson Valley.
Handmade tacos in the heart of Woodstock, New York.
With his new book, Forrest Pritchard tells the stories of 18 farms from all across America.
Forrest Pritchard and Smith Meadows are prime examples of sustainable family farming.
Jonathan Waxman shares his food philosophy with Slow Films.
A group of star chefs play with fire for a good cause.


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Unfortunately, this job is expired as of 8/7/2015.
To continue in your search through the appropriate job categories, click either Administrative Staff, Higher Education Executives, Faculty, Post-Doc and Graduate Assistants, . You can also utilize "guess-free" keyword search tools with up to eight pre-defined criteria. Search for and Apply to academic postings directly from the site. Post your background either confidentially or overtly. Stand out and be discovered!
FULL-TIME HUMAN RESOURCES GENERALIST: (Non-Unit Professional Position) Normal hours: 8:30 AM ? 5:00 PM (Monday ? Friday). Anticipated start date: October, 2015. As necessary the individual appointed to this position may be required to work more than the normal hours to accommodate the requirements of the work area. Reports to Director of Human Resources, and works with the Director and Vice President of Human Resources as necessary.
Salary: $55,000-65,000 with complete fringe benefit package. Actual salary will be commensurate with academic background and experience
Deadline Date: August 7, 2015
Northern Essex Community College is an affirmative action/equal opportunity employer and does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, disability, religion, age, veteran status, genetic information, gender identity or sexual orientation in its programs and activities as required by Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and other applicable statutes and college policies. The College prohibits sexual harassment, including sexual violence. Inquiries or complaints concerning discrimination, harassment, retaliation or sexual violence shall be referred to the College's Affirmative Action and/or Title IX Coordinator, the Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination, the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission or the United States Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights
|Employment Type:
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Takamine TRI-AX 2 Active Sound Pickup
Takamine TRI-AX 2 Active Sound PickupDetails
The Takamine Tri-Ax 2 Active Pickup transfers the most detailed sound from your guitar to an amplifier. The pickup features tri-axial technology, making it more receptive to your guitar's specific dynamics and the strings' vibration nuances. The Tri-Ax 2 is designed to be resistant to feedback, making it fully reliable at all live venues. The 1000 hour battery life and subtle controls make this the ideal pickup for the regularly gigging musician.
Product Ref: 74606View Full Description
Buy on finance from £7.61 per month Finance from £7.61 per month
Please note: This is only available where all items in the order are dispatched in a single delivery.
To make it as easy as possible for you to get the gear you want, we offer a range of instant finance options. If you spend £250 or more online, you can choose to pay over 48, 36 or 24 months. The majority of decisions are given instantly, so you could get your new gear sooner than you thought!
Representative Example
To help you understand how our finance options work, the examples below are based on a total order value of £250:
|Deposit to Pay
|Total Payable
|Classic Credit 48 Months 14.9%
|No Deposit
|48 months: £6.83
Final payment: £6.83
No settlement fee
|Classic Credit 36 Months 15.9%
|No Deposit
|36 months: £8.65
Final payment: £8.65
No settlement fee
|Classic Credit 24 Months 18.9%
|No Deposit
|24 months: £12.41
Final payment: £12.41
No settlement fee
How to Apply
Applying for finance couldn't be easier - if your order totals £250 or more, simply proceed through the checkout as normal, then select Pay by Finance on the payment page, then click the orange APPLY FOR INSTANT FINANCE button. This will start your application with V12 Retail Finance, our finance partner, and completing this form should take approximately 10 minutes.
You should get an instant answer on whether your application has been successful, though in some rare cases V12 may need to look at the application in more detail.
Please note: This is only available on orders placed via the website consisting of a single delivery, and is not available in store or via phone currently.
Full DescriptionView Full Description
The Tri-Ax 2 has been designed to fully integrate itself alongside your CoolTube preamp. The 'system matched' technology allows the pickup to connect via an included aux cable. This allows access extensive features to a wealth of EQ, volume and tone controls to obtain the most from your pickup. Alternatively, the Tri-Ax can be installed directly to the acoustic guitar and will deliver a rich, accurate signal directly to your amplifier or mixer.
Sound Character
Being at the forefront of magnetic pickups, the Tri-Ax 2 has sonic richness and density. The magnetic pickups can receive a wider spectrum of sound ranging from the wood tone, to the guitar size, and even the string sound. The adjustable pole pieces allow you to intricately tweak the sound to your own preference and balance out any unwanted hum. The tonal characteristics are generally warm with outstanding presence.
- Magnet: Dual-Coil
- Sensitivity: Passive/Active
- Controls: Volume
- Battery Life: 1000 Hours with CR2032 Cell
- Outputs: Aux, Cable to End Pin
- Minimum Soundhole Size: 3.5 Inches
- Colour: Black
The product price includes 6 years' warranty and 180 day money back guarantee.
However, the Gear4music extended warranty scheme provides an enhanced service, and is designed to offer a higher level of protection than many 'free' warranties offered by some retailers and manufacturers.
The highlights of this enhanced warranty service are:
- Warranty is extended to 6 years from the date of delivery.
- Our Money Back guarantee is extended from 30 days to 180 days (terms apply after 30 days)
- Collection and delivery costs are included for the first 2 years
- Claim 50% cash back on the cost of the policy after 6 years if it has not been used!
- Warranty is transferable if the item is re-sold
- Loan or replacement equipment will be provided if the product isn't repaired within 30 days
- If an item can not be repaired, a similar alternative product or cash discount (as defined in this policy) will be offered
- The policy can be cancelled within 30 days, and at any time after that for a pro-rata discount
Please note that this extended warranty is currently only available on products sold within the EU or EEA, and is subject to the terms and conditions as detailed on the extended warranty certificate provided.
For customers in outlying areas of the country, the price of the Extended Warranty may be marginally higher, due to the potential for higher collection and redelivery transport costs.
This enhanced warranty is in addition to the standard Gear4music and manufacturer warranty policies, and the Gear4music terms and conditions of trade. No statement or condition of sale contained within these terms affects or restricts your statutory rights as defined under the Consumer Contracts Regulation 2014.
Once the product is delivered, you have 180 days to decide that you definitely want to keep it. If you decide it is not suitable for any reason, you can return it back to us for replacement or full refund, including standard delivery charges.
All Products are new unless stated, and include a minimum of 2 years warranty.
Some items are only eligible for money back guarantee if they are returned to us unused and sealed in the original packaging, and in the case of software, unregistered. These items include:
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- Mouth / Lip Care Products
We are unable to accept returns of any custom made items designed to work together as a unique package, such as computer system built to a customer's personal specifications. Exceptions may only be possible with prior agreement of the vendor, and may be subject to a cancellation fee.
If you also purchase items that do not qualify for free delivery, some delivery charges may be applied to your order which will be shown in your shopping basket.


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Christina Aguilera is pushing some big news on her relaunched website in less than a day, but the cover art for her newest single, Not Myself Tonight, was released. Christina is wearing some sexy patent leather outfit, a metal belt, a leather arm band., and matching patent leather gloves. Drawn in are a devil tail and horns making you think this might be old school Aguilera coming back to drop some good music again.<
Christina Aguilera gets devilish
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January 12, 2002
Zuma Beach 3-4 foot and fun.
VQS Sea Slug Championships
On Saturday January 12, 2002 the Championship of the Volcom Sea Slugfinalized two things. One, who was going to win the season in eachdivision, and two, who would be the top 5 surfers to go on to the VQSChampionships in Newport on March 30th & 31st. With the event carrying a double rating the surfers got to decide this in fun waves and a greatday with 75 degree temps on the beach.
In the Grom division we saw a few first time finalists and a first timeSea Slug winner. Timmy Pfannenstiel who has made many a final but hadnot taken home the prize did it this time. Timmy took the first placePaddle trophy and ton of prizes and grinned all the way home. Timmylocked up the second place spot overall just behind Nick Rozsa who wonthree events this year.
In the Juniors division we saw another first time winner in FrankTesoro. Frank was stoked and walked away with enough goods and thesnowboard to be a happy camper. Nate Tyler came down from up north andsecured his overall season victory with an impressive second placeshowing. The Malibu gang had a good showing as well with three of themmaking the final.
In the Mens division the trend continued with a new Sea Slug winner,only this time it's not his first win. Nathaniel Curran came down to win and he did just that taking home the $150 bucks and a bag of goodies. In second was the overall points champion Yves Bright and in third was double finalist Nate Tyler.
Additional product sponsors for the event were: Bully's Leashes, GlobeShoes, Smith Eyewear, Vita Water Drinks, Dukes, Astro Deck, Cliff Bars,Head Hunter Sunblock, Freestyle Watches, Famous Surf Wax, Surfer,Surfing, & Transworld Magazines, Future Fin System and Val Surf & Sportand Becker Surf & Sport, my mom for tabbing and dad for shooting allthe pictures.
If you know you are in top 5 of your division and you did not give meyour address make sure you contact Troy Powell at firstname.lastname@example.com:email@example.com> for your invite to the VQS Championships in Newport on March 30th & 31st. You don't want to miss it.
1st. Timmy Pffanestiel
2nd Nick Rozsa
3rd Kelly Jacobson
4th Phillip Skene
5th Garrett Carpenter
6th David Louge
1st Frank Tesoro
2nd Nate Tyler
3rd Jamie Jacobson
4th Nick Rozsa
5th Keegan Gibbs
6th Spencer Guilburt
1st Nathaniel Curran
2nd Yves Bright
3rd Nate Tyler
4th Nick Nevarez
5th Rusty "Carl" White
6th Adam Swanson


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The financial terms of the deal were not disclosed, and the transaction is yet subject to the approval of the Competition Council, with the expected closing in the second half of June.
The legal advisers were Tuca Zbarcea & Asociatii on the buy side and Sfiraiala & Asociatii on sell side. The financial and fiscal adviser was KPMG.
Through the deal, the investment fund said it is aiming to consolidate a leading travel services provider in Romania able to extend operations to other Eastern Europe countries.
The online is considered by GED as a key business line due to the expected 2 digits percentages increases on the demand of this type of services.
Paravion will remain as the online company of the group offering air tickets, hotel bookings and rent a car reservation services, keeping its brand name and operating independently of Happy Tour, which is operating at the corporate level. Paravion.ro has achieved €5 million turnover in 2009 and expects to increase up to €7 million in 2010.
The project will be developed together with Paravion team, including Remus Vizan, one of the former owners of Paravion.ro who has joined Paravion.ro as Deputy General Manager.
GED Capital Development is a European Private Equity firm operating in the small buyout and growth capital segment in southeast Europe and the Iberian Peninsula. The group manages a total fund volume of around €350 million through several vehicles.
The fund's investment portfolio includes Rosegur; Red Projects, Fonomat, Fama, Happy Tour, Diamedix, Total Euro Busines and Infopress.
GED acquired recently 92% of Infopress, the largest provider of printing services in Romania, for an estimated €12 million.
The PE fund said it would invest further in Romania for the remainder of the year, around €20-25 million in new transactions and in companies already under its management, Anca Ionescu, deputy managing director GED Romania, told Wall-Street.
Inregistreaza-te pe Wall-Street sau conecteaza-te prin Facebook pentru a primi periodic articole similare.
In lipsa unui acord scris din partea InternetCorp, puteti prelua maxim 500 de caractere din acest articol daca precizati sursa si daca inserati vizibil linkul articolului GED acquires Paravion.ro.


text: My redmax trimmer along with my mowers and backpack blower got scewed up in katrina and when I went back to see the damage the shed blew off ad water had supmerged everything. Well we came back to kenner outside of no before we went to mississippi. And I felt compression in the crank so I decide before throwing it out to work on it. It looked like crap but I took out the plug and sprayed wd40 and cleaned the plug. Then, I put gas in and cleaned the fliter. Well It started right up and ran great. My mowers took a little time with the carbs being screwed up. But everything runs and my dad is taking care of the biz while I'm up here. I'm looking forward to getting some type of biger mower than these stupid 21" mowers. My equipment survived katrina! Now to cut these HIGH lawns.


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Hamas launches rockets into Israeli towns
The militant Islamic movement Hamas has fired mortars and rockets at Israeli towns and Jewish settlements in and around the Gaza Strip.
Hamas says the killing of one of its top officials by Israel means its ceasefire is over.
Promising revenge for the assassination of Ismail Abu Shanab, Hamas has launched at least five home-made rockets at the Israeli town of Sderot.
One slammed into a house causing extensive damage.
No one was hurt, but several people were treated for shock.
The militant group also fired several mortars at the Jewish settlement of Gush Katif.
Meanwhile, Israeli troops have raided the West Bank town of Jenin for the second night running, arresting a number of wanted Palestinian militants.
Topics: unrest-conflict-and-war, israel, palestinian-territory-occupied
First posted


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Alternative Title: "Browne's Vulgar Errors"
Learn about this topic in these articles:
discussed in biography
Browne began early to compile notebooks of miscellaneous jottings and, using these as a quarry, he compiled his second and larger work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or, Enquiries into Very many received Tenets, and commonly presumed truths (1646), often known as Browne's Vulgar Errors. In it he tried to correct many popular beliefs and superstitions. In 1658 he published his third book,...


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Now Hosting Friday Style, a fun filled event just for you. Click listing for full details
Open every Wednesday, Friday and Saturday.
Wednesday 7.30am - 2pm
Friday 8.30am - 2pm
Saturday 7.30am - 2pm
Every Friday during Spring from 9am - 2pm,Eumundi Square will be hosting "Friday Style" with free workshops , makeovers and events.
The workshops will be run by local artists, designers and jewellers each Friday.
Each week style workshops start from 10am, with the extreme makeover at 10:30am followed by fashion parade at 11:30am.
Important Dates: Model quest - (all ages) Heat 2 Friday 23rd Sept & Heat 3 Friday 21st Oct. Grand Final Friday 18th Nov.
Serena's image will also be hosting the style workshops and the fashion parades being held on Oct 14 and Nov 25.
For the full weekly event program see http://www.facebook.com/eumundisquare or http://www.iloveeumundimarkets.com
90 Boutique Stores are open
For the kids, each Friday there is a crèche available for up to 3 hours per child as well as kid's workshops and petting zoo.


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Fogo rentals, holiday lettings direct from the owners
Enjoy the destination Fogo for rent with IHA the portal for seasonal direct by owners rental ads. Book without any commission nor agency fees your holiday letting in Fogo directly with owners. The listings for the destination Fogo for rent are verified and offer a wide selection of the cheapest villas, flats, houses and chalets. Many photos and rental descriptions are available to organize your stay in family or with friends under the sun: Fogo with IHA means "the time of a holiday".
10 bedrooms House for rent from 1 to 18 people
£269* Month
Breakfast included
book direct with the owners
2 weeks£143*
from £9/Night*
See the rates
Up to-47%
Depending on the season
15 requests already received
Advert 47969
Display the map
House < 118 Sq.ft.. not overlooked, mountain, farmland, Vineyards viewHouse Rental in Chã das Caldeiras #47969 >Parking
Interior facilities
- 7 Bathroom
- 7 Shower room
- Living room 140 Sq.ft.
- Typical style kitchen
- Dining room
- Mountain holidays
- Ideal for group and all age groups
- Children welcome
- Setting : Quiet, Grape region
- Forest at 6mi.
- Eco-tourisme, Meublés de Tourisme : 2 stars
View the advert


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This first sentence is the biggest load of BS ever constructed. Obama has not given up ground on ANYTHING and all that Bonehead has done is capitulate.
The Author is truly living in BIZARRO WORLD!
Republican House Speaker John Boehner essentially stormed out of the negotiations a couple of days ago
Boehner didn't storm out of anything. They like to try to pretend that Obama is always cool and reasonable and Boehner throws tantrums.
Bunch of garbage. Obama is "storming" all over the place. Boehner is very cool.


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Results 1 to 2 of 2
06-14-10, 14:45 #1Registered User
- Join Date
- May 2009
- Posts
- 56
Unanswered: Improve Database optimizations and skills
Hi all, I am looking for a way to optimize my Sql Server 2005 database more or improve my database skills. I have been working with Sql Server for about 1 1/2 years now, but I still feel like there is a lot I don't know.
I don't know if people want to just list general things I can work on, with the most important things first, and then from there I could list what I do and don't know. I feel like listing that stuff now would make for a long-winded list.
Personally, I am thinking indexing might be useful. Currently I just use DETA to analyze queries that are used a lot to build indexes. Not sure if that is good practice or not, but it's all I know at this point.
If people need me to be more specific, just let me know. I just know there is a lot you can do, from optimizating queries, to database design, to how the database is stored on harddrives. Thanks.
06-14-10, 16:12 #2Registered User
Provided Answers: 17
- Join Date
- Jan 2003
- Location
- Massachusetts
- Posts
- 5,862
I have been working with SQL Server for 12 years, and there is a lot I don't know, either.
If you want a better understanding of performance tuning, take a look at the query plans of the queries you are tuning. in short, you want to find and eliminate any large arrow, or table scan of a large table. Table scans on a lookup table with < 100 rows is not really worth looking into. Also mess around with Profiler, so you can identify which queries are the most interesting. Once you start with these, you may have some more detailed questions. The Index Tuning Advisors are nice, but it also helps to know why they are suggesting the fixes they are pointing out.


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Welcome to LG webOS - Smart TV, Phone, Signage, Appliance User to User Support Forum
Register now to gain access to our webOS user support forum. Once registered and logged in, you will be able to post a user to user support request topic to this site or reply to existing topics posted by other users. You can also take part in our other webOS user forums. You'll be able to customize your profile, receive reputation points, while also communicating with other members via your own private inbox, plus much more!
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By Alex
Be very careful on ebay, I just bought was was listed as a Palm Pre 2 on ebay from alltechwholesale come to find out that they pawned me a pre plus for verizon! the listing clearly said Palm Pre 2.
Not sure if they are scamming people or are just have complete lack of knowledge of what they are selling. Came in the box with a sticker that even said pre 2..lol on a plus!
Watch out people!! I filed a claim with ebay....here is their store: http://stores.ebay.com/GreenTrade-Electronics?_trksid=p4340.l2563
By Alex
The pre 2 on ebay seems to be going up in price, I suppose it's demand and lack of quantity.


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AD Management Tool
Visit Publisher Site
Get AD Management Tool Hosting
Lepide Active Directory Management and Reporting software is designed to offer greater controls to AD administrators for effective AD management. This tool comes with built-in features to track down AD objects configured to a network and manage both local and remote objects from a central location. This AD management tool also has the feature of report generation that helps administrators to gather information about objects and resources.Visit publisher site: AD Management Tool
Listing Details
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- 12.11.01
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- Nov 27, 2012
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Expensive, i believe ad managers have enought knowledge to make same thing fast and withou spending money


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Filthy bartender girl Victoria Allure fucks seduces her black customer
Description:Fabulous brunette diva shows off her blue lingerie set. Black dude gets what she wants and starts to eat Victoria's delicious pussy.
Category:+18 only (Adult)
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Mulled wine is one of the treats of the season. Make it for a party or for a chilly night at home watching movies. The sweet spices are also a perfect match for a plate of gingerbread or molasses cookies, fruitcake, or other holiday treats.
Mulled Wine – Spicy, Warm and Aromatic
5 ounces red wine
1 ounce brandy
1 tablespoon honey
1 cinnamon stick
1 3-inch orange peel
1 whole clove
1 slice ginger root
Directions: In a small saucepan, slowly heat red wine, brandy, and honey. Do not attempt to boil. Add cinnamon stick, orange peel, clove, and ginger. Simmer on low heat for 10 – 15 minutes and serve immediately.
Recipe is easily doubled or quadrupled, just multiply amounts by number of servings you want.
From dailyburn.com


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Signal-to-noise ratio
the ratio of one parameter, such as power of a wanted signal to the same parameter of the noise at a specified point in an electronic circuit, etc
1. (SNR, "s/n ratio", "s:n ratio") "Signal" refers to useful information conveyed by some communications medium, and "noise" to anything else on that medium. The ratio of these is usually expressed logarithmically, in decibels.
2. The term is often applied to Usenet newsgroups though figures are never given. Here it is quite common to have more noise (inappropriate postings which contribute nothing) than signal (relevant, useful or interesting postings). The signal gets lost in the noise when it becomes too much effort to try to find interesting articles among all the crud. Posting "noise" is probably the worst breach of netiquette and is a waste of bandwidth.
[Jargon File]
Tagged: s
Read Also:
- Effective osmotic pressure
effective osmotic pressure n. The part of the total osmotic pressure of a solution that governs the tendency of its solvent to pass across a boundary, usually a semipermeable membrane.
- Effective renal blood flow
effective renal blood flow n. Abbr. ERBF The amount of blood flowing to the parts of the kidney that produce urine.
- Effective renal plasma flow
effective renal plasma flow n. Abbr. ERPF The amount of plasma flowing to the parts of the kidney that function in the production of urine.
- Effective-resistance
noun, Electricity. 1. the resistance to an alternating current, expressed as the ratio of the power dissipated to the square of the effective current.


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Living as a spinster and caring for her sister's illegitimate child, Julia Larson has never known passion. So she's surprised by the feelings that are stirred up when a secretive new ranchhand shows up to work on the Larson ranch. He's not a man she can trust, but as a violent fight for her land's water rights heats up, he may be the man she needs.
Wolf McCloud charms the ladies, but never sticks around long. Having traced the mother who abandoned him to Northern California, he never expects to be drawn to Julia Larson as more than a means to an end. Wolf wants to track down his past, but the possibility of a passionate future with Julia may be a call too rich to resist.
©1995 Jane Bonander (P)2014 Audible Inc.
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Full Zone 261 in Best Video FormatNow you can see Zone 261 in HD video with duration 110 Min and was published in with MPAA rating is 0.
- Original Title : Zon 261
- Movie title in your country : Zone 261
- Year of movie :
- Genres of movie : Horror,
- Status of movie : Released
- Release date of movie :
- Companies of movie : Kruthuset,
- Countries of movie : Sweden,
- Language of movie : svenska, ,
- Durationof movie : 110 Min
- Average vote of movie : 0
- Youtube ID of movie :
- Translation of movie : EN,ES,SV,
- Cast of movie :Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson (Big John - Icelandic Viking Squad), Malin Arvidsson (Kpt. Widman), Peter Eggers (Beck-Friis), Sölvi Fannar Viðarsson (Egill Sturlaugsson - Viking Squad Leader), Rafael Edholm (Lt.Col. Saedén), Rafael Edholm (Sampo / Boss Monster)
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Tags: sweden, monsters, infected,


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Chudz Blog 2
Published by Chudz in the blog Chudz's blog. Views: 98
Chudz Blog: (Entry 2) CB reporting . . .
Note: For the sake of brevity, Chudz Blog is now being referred to as "CB", and Mr. Beanie Bear will mostly be referred to by his sobriquet of "Mr. B".
(The Scene: Our three characters have dragged the charred mini-fridge out of the tower and into a nearby, deserted field, where Chudz is delivering a eulogy.)
Chudz says: It was a good fridge and a brave fridge. It steadfastly cooled our . . . sniffle . . . beer through all seasons, never faltering once. We will miss our fridge, our friend, our ever cooling companion in the days ahead. But we must be steadfast ourselves and resolute in our determination to move on. Fare you well, our lovely mini-fridge.
Mr. B. blows his nose into a Smokey the Bear hankie. HONK!
CB wipes a mechanical tear from his eye and transforms into a back-hoe, in order to dig the last resting place for the mini-fridge.
Chudz says: A mechanical, transforming blog . . . that was truly an outstanding idea you had there, Mr. B.
Mr. B. grins like the Chessire Cat.
(The Scene: The mini-fridge has been buried. CB has transformed back into his usual mechanical-looking, Frankenstein-type self. And Chudz is busily counting up the beers—that were put on life-support—in an ice-filled washtub.)
Chudz says: Hey guys, there's 42 beers here. Are you thinking what I'm thinking?
Mr. B. is thinking about two female bears and a hot-tub full of honey.
CB says: Two 21 beer salutes?
Mr. B. puts the hot-tub thought on hold.
Chudz shouts: Let's do it!
(The Scene: An hour or two has passed, and the ground is now littered with empty beer cans. Mr. B. is sprawled out on his back, tongue lolling out one side of his mouth, snoring loudly. Chudz is passed out, hugging the empty washtub. And CB has transformed into something resembling a reclining chair and a lawn mower.)
Farmer Jenkins pulls up in his old pick-up truck and honks the horn. HONK!
Mr. B. launches himself into the air, thinking Goldilocks is after him.
CB whirls through several transformations, until he's finally back to normal, with a little dizziness added in.
Chudz pats the washtub affectionately.
Chudz mumbles: I love you too, baby. . . .
Farmer Jenkins honks the horn again. HONK!
Chudz wakes up and looks around, bleary eyed, until he notices Farmer Jenkins.
Farmer Jenkins pokes his head out through the side window of his truck
Farmer Jenkins says: If'n you miscreants dun buried another mini-fridge in mah field, I'ma gonna shoot you fulla rock salt again!
Mr. B. thinks, Yoinks!
Chudz gulps.
CB says: Again?
Farmer Jenkins lets out a sigh and reaches toward his gun rack, and the waiting shotgun.
Chudz yells: RUN!
(The scene ends as Farmer Jenkins is fishtailing through the field, steering with one hand while shooting at our former mourners, who are scrambling back toward the tower.)
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I've been dying to try the Holiday 2014 ELF Cheeky Glow Contour Palette but was unable to find them in stock anywhere but at a local beauty supply retailer and they just happened to have BOGO on all holiday items, BONUS (so of course I just picked up 2 of these just in case I needed a backup, haha). It was such an amazing deal, for $5 you get this large-ish contour palette consisting of a highligher, blush and bronzer - and if that wasn't enough they even throw in an angled blush brush!
So of course, now I have it here for you for review.... for science!
|ELF Cheeky Glow Contour Palette and Brush for Holiday 2014
The quantity of each product seems to be comparable to the full-sized blush singles from ELF, so it's quite a decent size. The packaging is sleek and simple and quite frankly, I love the clear window that lets me see the products inside (I have enough dark or opaque compacts to open as it is so it's nice to see the color of the powders clearly).
The bristles of the brush hair are a little too rough for my taste and they seem somewhat scratchy on the delicate skin of the face. I don't know about you guys but my skin is like paper so I can get red and irritated very quickly! I really would have bought this product without the brush, but I guess if you don't have that many brushes, this is a nice add-on bonus.
|Close-up of ELF Cheeky Glow Contour Palette for Holiday 2014
Here's a close-up of the products, you can see that the bronzer is a matte, fairly light-toned shade (I don't think this would work well for darker skinned ladies, and I'm even skeptical about it working on medium gals). The blush is a shimmery peach - I know the finish is not everyone's cup of tea but I like it when my face looks like a happy disco ball! The highlighter is a pinkish hued satin finish with finely milled shimmer particles.
|Swatches of ELF Cheeky Glow Contour Palette for Holiday 2014
My photo above of the swatches came out very true to color and I think it's safe to assume that if you were to swatch these on your fingers, you would see the same results. Unfortunately, ELF did not come out with variations of this Contour Palette, which would have been very nice - so I really don't think this particular iteration is suitable for much more than fair to olive skin tones.
I also want to point out that if you do not like your bronzer to lean orange even slightly, this set won't be for you. I happen to be very fair skinned (MAC NC15) and this trio just happened to work well but even for me the bronzer was a tad orange, especially paired with the tangerine-peach blush.
|ELF Cheeky Glow Contour Palette for Holiday 2014 Applied to Face
The highlighter was noticeable but not too bright or overbearing so this is something I could see myself wearing on a regular basis but I might pair it up with another bronzer. As I mentioned before, I like the blush, it is almost a dupe for NARS Orgasm.
Don't mind my watery eyes in the photo, I was experiencing some allergies but still wanted to take a snapshot to show you what the product looked like on.
I hope ELF continues to make these more than just on a Limited Edition basis because the quality was definitely there but the shade selection could be expanded. I would love to see a taupe-leaning bronzer and a pink/red-based blush for a more natural flush.
Have you tried out this palette? What do you think?