text:
Maria Peralta
Hometown: Bronx, N.Y.
Major: Women's Studies
Activities: Member of Womyn's Center , BLSU, Sustah Girl, HAVOC volunteer – food salvage, USE leader - 3 years, Gates Scholar, Opportunity Programs Summer Resident Advisor, Junior semester in Amsterdam
Wrote and Implemented Teen Pregnancy Prevention Grant - summer 2009-10
"The Higher Education Opportunity Program has provided me and my peers with the assistance and encouragement to succeed at an elite institution like Hamilton. The staff is supportive and creates a family like atmosphere. The trust and relationships I built with the HEOP staff allowed me to ease in to my college experience. I always have support despite being miles away from home."
Amber Wheeless '11
Hometown: Worland, WY
Major: Religious Studies
Minor: Art History
Activities: Womyn's Center, Rainbow Alliance, Project SHINE tutor, Emerson Collaborative Research Grant recipient, HEOP Summer Programs RA, Alternative Spring Break, Academic Center for Excellence supervisor, Wellin Hall tech crew
Travelled through SIT's study abroad program in New Delhi, India.
"The Opportunity Program is my support system and family here at Hamilton. My peers and mentors in the Program are here both to help me when I am struggling and to celebrate with me when I succeed. Being a part of the Opportunity Program encourages me to be the best version of myself by making me accountable for my own personal and academic excellence. I couldn't be more thankful for the resources and support the Program provides me with each and every day."
Temi Ojo '11
Hometown: Chicago, IL
Major: Biology
Minor: Pre-Med
Activities: Cultural Chair of Black Latino Student Union, Hamilton College Cheerleading Team, Finesse Step Team, Sustah Girl Member
Studied abroad in Tanzania and Australia.
"When I was in high school, I was a part of a program called LINK Unlimited that helped me grow and flourish in my academic and personal life. I wanted that same feeling, so when I got accepted into Hamilton's Opportunity Programs, I felt right at home. Coming from a place like Chicago to Clinton, New York was a a big culture shock. During the summer, the program works really hard to get you adjusted to the heavy work load and campus life. The people in the office are your big supporters on campus, and whenever I needed something or simple words of wisdom they were always there to help. They do not let you fail at anything. They do not only help with your academics, but they make sure you grow as a person. Many times I have heard in the Opportunity Programs Office, "If you don't make yourself be seen, then you won't be... Speak up!" I have carried that advice with me everywhere and I am eternally grateful to Opportunity Programs."
Caitlin O'Dowd '11
Hometown: Jordan, Oman, Tunisia, Syria, Israel, Egypt
Major: Women's Studies
Minor: Government
Activities: Womyn's Center member, Sustah Girl member, Volunteer at Evelyn's House (Utica), Tutor for Young People's Project (Utica), HEOP Summer English Tutor
"I have spent most of my life overseas being the daughter of a diplomat and was particularly nervous about going to college in the United States as my immediate family still lives overseas. I was happy to get accepted into the Opportunity Program and it is because of this program that I made the final decision to come to Hamilton College. This program helped me make one of the hardest transitions in my life thus far and has helped me grow and achieve things that two years ago seemed impossible. The OPPORTUNITY to grow, change, learn, love and succeed are things that this program has given me and other students and I am very proud to be a part of something so great."
Sujitha Amalanayagam '10
Hometown: Bronx, NY
Major: Neuroscience
Activities: EMT (Emergency Medical Technician)- Three Years; EMT Crew Chief- junior year; Member of Emerson Literary Society (ELS); Member of Sustah Girls; Member of La Vanguardia (sophomore year)
"Home away from home. Opportunity Programs is my social network and support system. It is a great feeling to know that you are not alone and that you have a family here at Hamilton to help you with anything you need."
Charles (Siege) Santiago '09
Hometown: Brentwood, NY
Major: Sociology
Activities: Multimedia Intern for ITS; President and Host- Rhymelab Performance Group; 2008 Nominee, Bristol Fellowship- planning to study hip-hop's impact on race and class ideology around the world; Vice President and Historian- La Unidad Latina, Lambda Upsilon Lambda Fraternity, Incorporated, Alpha Tau Chapter; Business and Legal Intern for Atlantic Records, NYC- Summer 2006; LaVanguardia
"Opportunity Programs has been an integral factor in both my personal and academic success at Hamilton. In my four years as a student here, they've motivated me to become the leader I've always had the potential to become."
Katherine Kroleski '09
Hometown: New Rochelle, NY
Major: Sociology
Activities: Women's Ice Hockey Asst. Captain 2008; President of Student Athlete Advisory Committee (SAAC) 2008;Orientation Coordinator 2008, Orientation Leader 2006, 2007;NESCAC and Liberty League Representative;Women's Softball;Committee on Athletics; Chair for Relay for Life 2008;Dean of Students Office Intern; HAVOC participant
"The Opportunity program is one of those programs that when you read about it, you may get discouraged. It doesn't seem to be the most enjoyable. However, I promise you that if you come into it with an open and positive mind it will be one of the most rewarding experiences you have at Hamilton."
Jai Moorjani '09
Hometown: New York, NY
Major: History
Activities: President, Tropical Sol; Vice President, Ballroom Dancing; Opportunity Programs Office Assistant; Asia Cultural Society member (ACS) – Freshman, Sophomore
Track and Field- Freshman; Brothers member- Freshman; Barista- Kafe 101
"The Opportunities program is a network of support that provides us with the tools and skills needed in order to be a successful student. They are my friends, my family and my pathway to a better future. I am grateful for their assistance. If not for the Opportunities Program, I would not be the person I am today."
Stephanie Ryder '09
Hometown: Brooklyn, NY
Major: Government
Activities: Judicial Board Class Representative; Co-chair of the Senior Gift; GOLD Scholar; Co-Captain - Women's Rugby team; Varsity Ice-Hockey member - 2 years; HALT (Hamilton Alumni Leadership Training) member; Internship: Paralegal at Clayman & Rosenberg
"The Opportunity Programs summer program proved to be my biggest academic challenge. While it took a lot of hard work and sleepless nights, it all paid off when classes started in the fall. While my room mates were struggling to adjust to their new collegiate workloads, Opportunity Programs had already prepared me to deal with my coursework and time managment, all the while creating a familiar outlet for help unavailable to my other classmates."
Abdelwahab Abdelghany '10
Hometown: Bronx, NY
Major: World Politics
Activities: Founder and President of Muslim Student Association; Senior Multicultural Ambassador - 2 years; Interfaith Council member; Student Manager - Beineke Village;
Accepted to New York Semester Program
Internships: America's Promise - First Focus, Citigroup, Bloomburg LP
"People refer to HEOP as comprehensive academic support program. The Hamilton HEOP program on the other hand is more like a mall; with everything a college student needs!"
Ashlyn Razzo '11
Hometown: Bronx, NY
Major: Theatre
Activities: Untitled@Large Member; USE Leader; Assistant Athletic Trainer for Women's Soccer & Lacrosse teams; Tour Guide; Member of HAVOC; Overnight Host; Hamilton College Ambassador; HEOP Resident Advisor Summer Program
"Words can not express what it felt like to look out into the audience of the opening night of my first play at Hamilton and, mid-bow, see the ear-splitting grins of the four amazing women of the Opportunity Programs. These women are my friends, my advisors, my family, my everything. Without them, I don't know where I would be at Hamilton. One thing is for sure, I definitely would not have had half as many laughs and great memories had they not been in my life. They make life at Hamilton better than anything I could have every imagined and then some."
Luvuyo Mandela
Hometown: Durban, South Africa
Major: Philosophy
Activities: President, Brother's Organization; Resident Advisor- 2 1/2 years; GOLD Scholar; Alcohol Coalition member; BLSU member, Events Staff Manager; Audio Visual Paraprofessional; Search Committee for Residential Life Director
"The wonderful ladies in the Opportunity Programs have been a great and loving foundation that has allowed me to flourish in my various capacities. Opportunity Programs has challenged me to be myself and be my own determinant of the character I have become. I am proud to have come through the ranks and look forward to the future challenges Mama and the ladies have prepared me for."
Jia Huang '09
Hometown: Brooklyn
Major: Asian Studies
Minor: Education
Activities: SHINE - tutor at Refugee Center in Utica; HAVOC volunteer; Volunteer in Clinton Elementary School; Teacher Assistant - Clinton Early Learning Center; Asian Cultural Society (ACS) member; Sustah Girl member; Abroad program in India
"Opportunity Programs does not only provide me with financial and academic support, but more importantly, with emotional support and caring that only family members can provide. I am truly grateful to the program and the staff members, and also to myself for siezing this opportunity to make my dream come true."
Renaldo Davis '09
Hometown: Bronx, NY
Major: Communications
Activities: Resident Advisor; Brothers member; ALCC Supervisor; Social Chair - Delta Upsilon; Varsity Football - Freshman and Sophomore Years; Summer Internship - Advance Media Sales Intern - ESPN
"I remember I was less than happy when I found out I would have to spend the summer before college taking classes. Now I appreciate those five weeks and understand I would not be where I am today if it were not for the Opportunity Program".
Byron Johnson '09
Hometown: Chicago, IL
Major: Psychology
Activities: Former President of Black Student Union; Brothers member; LaVanguardia member; Accepted Mentor; Inducted into Doers and Thinkers
"The Opportunity Program is more than providing many students the opportunity to attend Hamilton College; the program enables individuals to personally grow and achieve in many areas of life, surpassing their own expectations. Without the Opportunity Program and the staff, I would not have learned the valuable skills that will allow me to pursue my goals."
Marie Piayai '09
Hometown: Chadwicks, NY
Major: World Politics
Activities: Resident Advisor; Site coordinator for DEAR (Drop Everything and Read); VITA volunteer; Orientation Leader; Semester in Washington DC participant
"Without the HEOP program, I would not be the student I am at Hamilton College. The program showed me what it meant to be a college student and made me realize that it is important to make myself stand out in any surrounding. They expect and bring out the best in all of their students. The Opportunity Programs office has enabled and motivated me to pursue my goals."
Gabriela Frias '08
Hometown: Brooklyn, NY
Major: English Creative Writing
Activities: Hamilton College Accessibility and Diversity Committee member; Spectator features writer, copy editor; Inducted in Was Los (honor society); Past President of Tropical Sol; Member of La Vanguardia, HEAT dance troupe, Sustah Girl
"Throughout my experience in the HEOP/Scholars program, I have evolved and made a significant change to how I am as a person and student. I started the program as a timid and quiet person with the feeling of inadequacy. But with the support of the program and the people behind it at Hamilton, I really did break out of that mold and it changed me for the better. The warm and caring HEOP staff at Hamilton and the amazing resources that are given to us makes it so worth while; I wouldn't have been able to have such a great academic and life experience without the help of Opportunity Programs."


text:
CIS 106. Assignment: Networking
Assume that you were recently hired by a manufacturing company as a systems administrator trainee. Your first assignment is to develop a paper that communicates the various functions of telecommunications to end users. As a result, you should try to keep your explanations of the technology as simple as possible.
Write a four to five (4-5) page paper in which you:
- Describe the features of telecommunications networks, including key networking technologies. Cover the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, including each logical layer.
- Discuss whether telephone networks and computer networks will remain distinct in the future.
- Describe various network media and how they are changing.
- Explain the differences among LANS, WANS, CANS, and MANS.
- Describe three (3) ways in which businesses use Internet services and protocols. (For example, what is VoIP and how is it used?)
- Use at least three (3) quality resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and similar Websites do not qualify as quality resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
- Be typed, double-spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
- Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student's name, the professor's name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
- Illustrate the use of information and communication technologies to solve problems as an information technology professional.
- Use technology and information resources to research issues in information technology.
- Write clearly and concisely about introductory information technology topics using proper writing mechanics and technical style conventions.
Tutor Answer
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2122 Tutors
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Saturday, June 6, 2009
What Is Our Current Data Storage Capacity?
Considering that data storage costs comprise as much as 15 percent of IT operational spending and up to 20 percent of IT capital spending[i], storage capacity and data volumes are worthy of management attention. Enterprise IT usage policies and storage quotas are key controls for managing the growth of data. Strategic planning and development of an enterprise data life cycle policy and associated procedures can help organizations eliminate unneeded data and reclaim data storage space.
Management of storage capacity requires the ability to routinely monitor it. Manual monitoring of storage capacity is impractical in large environments. A storage resource management tool can provide automated monitoring and control of many storage resources. For more information on storage resource management tools, see my paper "How Much Data Do We Have?"
When examining hard drive media capacity, IT management needs to understand there is a significant difference between raw capacity and usable capacity. This is an extremely important fact to keep in mind when dealing with storage equipment vendor sales personnel. The Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) defines usable capacity of a disk as "…the total formatted capacity of the disk." Formatted capacity does not include raw capacity reserved for metadata, disk size equalization, or check data. Usable capacity is the number to focus on when shopping for additional disk based storage.
The amount of usable capacity available from a given raw capacity varies depending upon how the disk or array of disks is configured. RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) configuration has a significant impact on the ratio of raw space to usable capacity. For example an array of disks configured for RAID 1, in which all data is mirrored, will use two units of raw capacity for every unit of usable storage. Therefore an array with 50 TBs of raw capacity configured for RAID 1 will yield less approximately 25 TBs of usable capacity.
To read my entire white paper on this topic, go to http://www.storagestrategies.com/data_storage_strategies_whitepapershome.html
[i] Corporate Executive Board
Tuesday, March 24, 2009
Thursday, January 22, 2009
How Fast Is Our Data Volume Growing?
- It is very important to understand the growth rate by type of data. Examination of volume growth trends by type can help storage managers identify possible system problems and anomalous user behavior.
- Data storage managers should collect data and regularly report to management on changes in the volume of data stored
- Data storage managers should keep a weather eye on opportunities to reduce the data volume through elimination of unnecessary or duplicate data and archiving.
- IT management can help abate the unstrained growth of data through user education and policy.
Despite the fact that the relative cost of computer data storage media per unit volume has fallen 63 percent since 1998[i], the overwhelming data volume growth is causing storage costs to grow rapidly. Industry has responded to the market's need for more intelligent storage of data. A tiered storage model and data deplication solutions have entered the main stream and can help economize on data storage investments.
To read my entire white paper on this topic, go to www.storagestrategies.com
[i] Bureau of Labor and Statistics Producer Price Index for computer storage media. http://data.bls.gov
Friday, January 2, 2009
How Much Data Do We Have?
In order for management to answer this question, it will need to employ some sort of monitoring tool to detect and report on data stored on all disk arrays, servers, and workstations. A number of tools that can collect and report this data exist. A snap shot of meta data from all existing files provides a rudimentary core of information to analyze. However, in order to effectively manage data storage over time regular detailed reports are necessary.
To read my white paper, "How Much Data Do We Have?", which includes a list of leading SRM solutions, go to our web site at: www.storagestrategies.com
Wednesday, December 31, 2008
Interview with Dave Wennergren, Deputy CIO of DoD
I had the good fortune to meet with Dave Wennergren, the Deputy CIO of the Department of Defense recently. Dave also serves as the Vice Chair of the Federal CIO Council. I met him when he was working as Deputy CIO for the Department of the Navy, when I was working on the Navy Marine Corps Intranet (NMCI) program. Dave is an energetic and enthusiastic person the DoD is lucky to have as a career IT executive. He's a strong advocate of government adopting industry best practices and leveraging new capabilities to improve mission effectiveness. His long held reputation as an agent of change will serve him well with the new administration. Here are a few pearls of wisdom and insight from Dave:
- "The change pace must be dramatically faster or we will risk becoming dramatically irrelevant."
- He's a fan of managed services and would like to see the government embrace more of it.
- Information sharing is a must. We can't build walls. We have to figure out to how to share securely in a Web 2.0 environment.
- He's an advocate of measuring the effectiveness of information sharing and solutions that include measures to gauge effectiveness.
It's refreshing to speak with an IT executive eager to leverage new capabilities to improve mission effectiveness but pragmatic about measuring that progress in an objective fashion. It was clear Dave has adopted several tools Karen Evans successfully employed as the OMB CIO. We're fortunate to have him as a source of continuity as the administration changes.
Tuesday, December 23, 2008
Interview with Karen Evans, Outgoing CIO of OMB
I recently had the pleasure of interviewing Ms. Karen Evans the CIO of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). For those a little rusty on your Civics, OMB supports execution of the President's management agenda and oversees the departments and agencies in the Executive branch of the Federal Government. Big job. Ms. Evans has been responsible for implementing a management framework to manage IT as a portfolio and strategic investment. She was quick to point out that although IT is a strategic asset, it is also just an enabler of the mission. Her comments were very candid and caveated by the fact that she's got 30 days left in her job. She was unwilling to comment on any forward looking projections regarding the next Administration but offered that the Transition Team seemed to respect the basic management framework OMB has used to review IT strategic plans, progress toward those plans, and portfolio investments.
Parting shots she had to offer:
- The Government needs to continue to work on structuring contracts to ensure vendors are incented to behave in ways that benefit the customer.
- Industry should look for niches where there's a need and the Government's struggling on developing a solution, develop a solution, and relieve the Government of the burden of development.
- Industry must demonstrate the ability to deliver solutions and services while meeting Government requirements for transparency (FOIA), data quality, security, and privacy.
- The most significant challenge going forward is managing risk while delivering on mission and ensuring the above requirements are satisfied.
I have to admit, going in; I was expecting to hear a little more talk about IT from U.S. Government's senior CIO. But, in retrospect, it makes sense the person responsible for overseeing the planning and execution of over $60B of Federal spending on IT would be more focused on wise management of those resources rather than the sizzle.
Thursday, December 18, 2008
To start off here are ten questions regarding data management every IT manager must be able to address to be successful. Can you answer these questions?
- How much data do we have?
- How fast is our data volume growing?
- What is our current data storage capacity?
- What are our most critical applications/data?
- Is our data backed up regularly and are data restoration processes and procedures tested regularly?
- Are data backups and data archives stored at a secure off site location?
- How long will it take to restore access to data if our primary data stores are corrupted or destroyed, and how much data are we willing to lose to recover?
- Do we have a documented data retention policy and do local operating procedures ensure it is implemented?
- Do we have policies and procedures for provisioning additional data storage to users?
- Are our data storage personnel appropriately trained and certified?
If you can't answer these questions because you don't know or can't give an affirmative answer, subscribe this blog and stay tuned for more.
To read my white paper, "Ten Things IT Management Needs to Know About Their Data Storage", go to this link to down load it: www.storagestrategies.com


text:
Babies run over your root window, and look for a window to hide under.
It's just like xroach, with babies instead of cockroaches.
This program was written by Michael Lawley.
No installation instructions: this port has been deleted.
The package name of this deleted port was: xbaby
PKGNAME: xbaby
distinfo: There is no distinfo for this port.
NOTE: FreshPorts displays only information on required and default dependencies. Optional dependencies are not covered.
No options to configure
Number of commits found: 15
Remove ports maintainted by ports@ which have passed their EXPIRATION_DATE
astro/gkrellsun Abandonware
astro/xrmap No more distfiles
audio/midimountain Abandonware
audio/gkrellmss Abandonware
audio/gnapster Abandonware
databases/xbase No more public distfiles
databases/xbsql No more public distfiles
games/gtkabale No more public distfiles
games/battleball No more public distfiles, does not compile on ia64 or
games/race No more public distfiles
games/stvef-paks No more public distfiles
games/stvef-server No more public distfiles
games/tome No more public distfiles
Deprecate some ports where I can't find distfiles and upstream
-remove MD5
For ports maintained by firstname.lastname@example.com, remove names and/or
e-mail addresses from the pkg-descr file that could reasonably
be mistaken for maintainer contact information in order to avoid
confusion on the part of users looking for support. As a pleasant
side effect this also avoids confusion and/or frustration for people
who are no longer maintaining those ports.
Convert most of remaining ports that depend on xorg-libraries to
modular xorg.
- supply corresponding USE_XORG for all imake-using ports that need it
- USE_IMAKE no longer implies USE_XLIB in absence of USE_XORG
- retire USE_X_PREFIX which is not really used anywhere after the
above change
- a few minor nits like whitespace and SF macro
Tested by: 2 tinderbox runs by pav
Approved by: portmgr (pav)
- Welcome X.org 7.2 \o/.
- Set X11BASE to ${LOCALBASE} for recent ${OSVERSION}.
- Bump PORTREVISION for ports intalling files in ${X11BASE}.
Reset bouncing maintainer address.
Noticed by: jmelo
[Maintainer Update] games/xbaby fix unfetchable distfile
* Change EXTRACT_SUFX to fix unfetchable distfile
* Change MAINTAINER(change e-mail address to my another one)
PR: ports/89374
Submitted by: HIYAMA Takeshi <firstname.lastname@example.com>
SIZEify (maintainer timeout)
Use PLIST_FILES (bento-tested, marcus-reviewed).
port:game/xbaby change MASTER_SITES and distfile
Distfile in Original disappeared, so change to HP-UX paxkage site.
And please change MAINTAINER e-mail address.
PR: ports/51980
Submitted by: HIYAMA Takeshi <firstname.lastname@example.com>
Update MAINTAINER's address.
Change maintainer's address.
Convert category games to new layout.
Servers and bandwidth provided byNew York Internet, SuperNews, and RootBSD
No vulnerabilities have been reported in the past 14 days
* - modified, not new
All vulnerabilities


text:
Mingchi Kuo of KGI Securities who is known to be more accurate as compared to other analysts tracking Apple has revealed that WWDC 2013 may see the launch of a slimmer MacBook Pro based on Intel's Haswell processor along with MacBook Air with improved microphones.
Kuo is of the opinion that the use of Haswell has allowed Apple to design a slimmer version of MacBook Pro with fewer batteries as the processor consumes much less power. "We expect the new MacBook, featuring an upgrade to Intel's (US) Haswell processor, will be in the spotlight for Apple at the upcoming WWDC from June 10. Along with the new processor, we expect the following modifications to each product line:" wrote Kuo notes 9to5Mac.
According to the analyst, Apple may upgrade the current camera specs from HD to Full HD thereby improving Facetime as well as the video conferencing quality in the high-res Retina display.
"MacBook Air to share dual built-in microphone design of Retina MacBook Pro. We forecast that this year's new MacBook Air model will also have dual built-in microphones as a result of positive feedback on this feature in Retina MacBook Pro, which delivers clear voice quality on Facetime and VoIP service." Kuo added further.


text:
Human pelvis is that region which is located in the lowest part of the abdomen. Pain in this region is known as pelvic pain. Pelvic pain is a pain, which though common in women, can also be experienced by men. The pelvic pain is often felt in the lower abdominal region and can radiate towards the back, thighs and legs. It is indicative of an underlying medical condition, which can be mild, such as menstruation; or serious, such as a tumor or ectopic pregnancy. There can be psychogenic reasons, infectious causes, gynecological causes and dysfunction of the other organs, such as intestines, resulting in pelvic pain. Pelvic pain can be sharp or stabbing in nature or dull or crampy in nature. Everything depends on the underlying medical condition causing it. Other than medical history, physical and pelvic exam, different types of tests and investigations need to be carried out to identify the cause behind the pelvic pain. Treatment also depends on the cause. Conservative treatment, such a rest, ice/heat packs, pain killers works for mild pain. However, persistent pelvic pain accompanied by other symptoms, such as vomiting, bleeding, fever etc. should never be ignored. Pelvic pain and any type of pain which persists for more than 3 to 6 months is considered as chronic pain.
In our PELVIC PAIN INFORMATION CENTER we have covered lots of conditions in which we experience pelvic pain, their causes, symptoms, investigations, pathophysiology and treatment. Given below is a brief summary on some of the topics covered under this section. For more topics and a detailed read, please refer to the side menu and read on under our PELVIC PAIN INFORMATION CENTER.
Pelvic Pain
Pelvic pain often occurs in the lower abdominal region. Pelvic pain can be constant or sporadic. Pelvic pain is commonly experienced by women, as a dull pain during their menstruation. Pelvic pain is a symptom of an underlying problem with any of the pelvic organs like uterus, ovaries, cervix, fallopian tubes or vagina. Pelvic pain may also be due to an infection or other problem with urinary tract, lower intestines, rectum, bone or muscle. In males, the common cause for pelvic pain is prostate gland problems. Pelvic Pain is classified into Acute Pelvic Pain and Chronic Pelvic Pain.
Depending On The Cause And Origin Of The Pain, The Pelvic Pain Is Described As:
- Localized Pain.
- Colicky Pain.
- Sudden Onset of Pain.
- Slowly-developing Pain.
- Pain Involving the Entire Abdomen.
- Pain Aggravated by Movement or During Examination.
Causes of pelvic pain are many and include: Inflammation, fibrosis, injury, pressure, inflammation of intraperitoneal regions, muscle contractions, psychogenic factors, ectopic pregnancy, PID-pelvic inflammatory disease, twisted ovarian cyst, ruptured fallopian tube, ovarian cyst rupture, miscarriage, appendicitis, menstrual cramps, endometriosis, endometrial polyps, uterine fibroids and adhesions in the pelvic cavity etc.
Depending on the cause, other symptoms of pelvic pain include: Pain which can be dull to sharp, acute cramping during menstruation, dyspareunia, painful urination or bowel movement, hematuria, hematochezia, menorrhagia, irregular vaginal bleeding, bleeding after intercourse and patient can also suffer from depression.
Treatment is done by treating the underlying cause of the pelvic pain and it includes: Antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, oral contraceptives, physical therapy (PT) and relaxation methods.
Investigations done for pelvic pain are: Medical history, physical exam, pelvic examination, blood tests, urinalysis, pregnancy test, culture of cervical cells, x-ray, CT scan, ultrasound, MRI, laparoscopy, high vaginal swab and FBC.
To read in detail about the types of pelvic pain, their causes, symptoms, pathophysiology, investigations and treatment for pelvic pain, please refer under our side menu where our PELVIC PAIN INFORMATION CENTER is located.
Genitofemoral Neuralgia
Genitofemoral nerve neuralgia is a common medical condition in which pain is felt in the lower abdomen. This can happen in both females and males. The pain observed is usually unilateral and present over the lower abdomen and pelvic region. Pain occurs rarely bilaterally. Pain can be referred to the groin and inner thigh. Common cause of this condition is pinched nerve in the inguinal canal after the repair of the inguinal hernia.
Genitofemoral neuralgia is a very common source for lower abdominal and pelvic pain. Genitofemoral neuralgia is classified into acute and chronic pain.
Common symptoms include: Pain in the pelvic region and lower abdomen, and pain radiating to the groin and inner thigh. Causes are injury to the groin, inguinal ligament sprain, work injuries, problems in the spinal canal, pelvic abscess/tumor, and after surgery in the pelvic region, numbness in the lower abdomen, anterior abdominal wall weakness. Treatment consists of pain medicines (acetaminophen), NSAIDs (naproxen), topical anesthetics, corticosteroids, opioids (tramadol), antidepressants (Cymbalta), anticonvulsants (Lyrica), TENS unit, cold pack, physical therapy, trigger point injection, psychotherapy, biofeedback, laser therapy etc.
To read more about Genitofemoral Neuralgia and its causes, symptoms, investigations and treatment in detail, Pease refer to our section PELVIC PAIN INFORMATION CENTER on the side menu.
Perineal Pain or Perineum Pain
Pain in the perineum or in the perineal region, is known as perineum pain. In males, the region between the anus and testicles is perineum; and in females, the region between the anus and the vagina is perineum. Common causes of perineum pain are: Abscess, prostatitis, trapped pudendal nerve, postpartum perineural cyst ischiorectal abscess, ejaculatory duct obstruction, benign prostatic hypertrophy, femoral hernia, trauma, renal calculi, psychogenic causes, obstructed hernia, urinary tract infection and prostate cancer.
Gynecologic causes for perineal pain include: Ovarian cysts, endometriosis, ectopic pregnancy, pelvic inflammatory disease, ovarian torsion and dysmenorrhea. Abdominal Causes are: Colitis, proctitis and appendicitis. Symptoms depend on the cause of the pain. So, to read about them in detail please refer to our side menu and read under our PELVIC PAIN INFORMATION CENTER.
Treatment mainly depends on the cause and is done by taking bed rest, lots of fluid intake, reduced consumption of alcohol and spicy food. In case of fever, medicines such as antibiotics and antipyretics are started.
Investigations done for perineal pain include: Medical history and physical examination, blood tests, urinalysis and radiological testing.
Groin Pain
Pain in the groin region is known as groin pain and it is classified according to its cause:
- Acute/Traumatic.
- Chronic/Overuse.
- Degenerative Inguinal Pain.
- Congenital/Anatomical Inguinal Pain.
- Referred Groin Pain.
- Unilateral Groin Pain.
- Bilateral Groin Pain.
Accompanying symptoms depend on the cause and include: Pelvic pain, fever, warmth and redness surrounding the affected region, lump/bulge in the groin area/ scrotum, difficulty in running, swimming etc., tiredness, sore throat, fever, cough, headaches, loss of appetite, lower back pain, itchiness and pain in the genital region, painful urination, lower abdominal pain, vaginal or rectal discharge, swollen lymph nodes, difficulty in walking, hip muscle weakness.
Serious and life threatening symptoms include: Hematuria, hematochezia, abnormal rectal discharge, mental confusion, dyspnea, dizziness, urinary changes, genital ulcer, severe pain in the abdomen, nausea, scrotal swelling and yellow discharge from vagina or penis.
Causes of groin pain include: Hip arthritis/ fracture, injury to the pelvis, hip, testicles; ligament/ muscle/ tendon strain. Infectious Causes like: Abscess, inflammation of testicle, skin infections, infection in legs and STDs.
Non-Infectious causes are: Allergic reactions, hip arthritis, cancer of testicles/ lymphoma, pinched nerve renal calculi, medication reaction, low back injury, testicular torsions and surgical procedures.
Treatment for Groin Pain depends on the cause and the results of the investigations. Treatment includes: Physical therapy, ice therapy, NSAIDs, local steroid injections, RICE treatment, exercise, massage and manipulation.
Investigations for Groin Pain are: Medical history and physical examination, urine analysis, blood tests, hip x-rays, provocation ultrasound, MRI, ultrasound, MRI arthrography and bone scan.
Other Pelvic Pain Diseases Which are Covered in this Section:


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Sports Illustrated ran an informative piece today by Michael McCann analyzing Gordon's chances should he seek relief from his one-year suspension in the Ohio court system.
The crux of Gordon's argument would be that while he failed his test under the NFL's drug policy which merely requires any trace of marijuana in his confirmatory test, under Ohio law the confirmatory test must also be positive. Because Gordon's first test was above the 15 nanogram limit, but his second, the confirmatory test, was below it, he would actually have passed under Ohio law.
That seems pretty clear cut, assuming Ohio law applies.
The NFL's defense, according to McCann is four-fold:
(1) The judge might be loath to override collectively-bargained-for rules set up between the league and its players.
It seems like this depends whether the Ohio law is deemed to protect players from unfairly strict policies from employers. If that's the case, it should obviously supersede the CBA. If the law is merely a default in the event there's no contractual agreement between the two parties about what constitutes a positive drug test, then it likely would not. (I don't know how this law has been interpreted in the past, though apparently two Minnesota Vikings players won an injunction that turned on this point in Minnesota.)
McCann makes a related argument that if players could run to the states for relief, then you'd have different testing thresholds for every team in the league, giving some a competitive advantage. While that's a minor problem (I seriously doubt the Vegas odds will shift based on state drug-testing laws) the NFL and players could remedy that by bringing the CBA's policies in accordance with all state laws. Moreover, it would seem more impactful laws like some states not having sales or income taxes should affect the competitive landscape to a far greater extent, and the league is doing just fine.
(2) The NFL is not technically Gordon's employer.
If the NFL wins on this, the fix is in. For purposes of this case, the NFL is acting exactly like an employer and, according to McCann, has argued in the past it was the players' employer when it suited its interests.
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(3) Ohio may only establish minimum procedures for testing
This also seems like a weak defense especially if the point of the law was to protect employees from unfair employer drug policies. (I wonder if the invasiveness of the testing (70 tests in the past year) could also be used to argue the NFL is out of control here).
(4) Injunctions are hard to come by because you need to show:
a) He would probably win in a full trial – the Vikings players ultimately lost, but the facts were different. If Ohio law does supersede the CBA, this seems pretty open and shut.
b) Irreparable harm, i.e., not something that could be remedied later by a cash payout. I think this is also easy – he's an athlete in his physical prime. Money isn't the only goal – he can never have that year of his career back, and NFL careers are typically very short. He has a small window to perform at the highest level of his craft.
c) Injunction doesn't harm the NFL more than it harms him – this is a layup. The NFL needs to fix its marijuana and testing policies anyway and probably makes more money with Gordon in it than out.
d) Injunction would advance the public's interest – not sure exactly what this means, but seems like the public in Cleveland has a big interest in seeing Gordon play.
It seems to me the biggest question is what the judge makes of the CBA's harsh testing rules and whether they're superseded by Ohio law in the interest of protecting employees against unfairly strict employer drug policies. If that's the case, the other defenses seem pretty weak to me. Then again, I was only a lawyer in the technical sense (I passed the bar, but never practiced), don't know much about labor law, don't know much about Ohio law and we don't know who the judge is yet because Gordon, to our knowledge, hasn't yet filed suit.
But from the SI article, I think Gordon's case sounds promising should he go that route. If you drafted him, don't drop him just yet.
Update: from McCann on Twitter:
@Chris_Liss @MichaelSalfino @gehler_kyle I'm thinking 80/20 that Josh Gordon's suspension remains. He has a low-odds, but not 0-odds, shot.
— Michael McCann (@McCannSportsLaw) August 29, 2014
Update II: Cedric Hopkins from Field and Court also posted his take:
I've been asked a number of questions re: the procedure/timing for Josh Gordon getting a TRO. Here are the details: http://t.co/dnX845JeLP
— Cedric Hopkins (@FieldandCourt) August 29, 2014


text:
Mathematics/Computer Science
Does Scripture Support Standardized Testing?
Trinity Western University
Langley, British Columbia, Canada
A standardized test involves observations of an individual's behaviour made under specified conditions for the purpose of meaningfully comparing it with that of other people. Because of the very extensive use of these instruments, a storm of criticism has arisen and a great deal of misunderstanding surrounds them. While the critics have often been right, standardized tests do yield information which can facilitate good decision making. Provided we have a clear understanding of their limitations and we use them with a view toward service, standardized tests may indeed help to move us toward the goals of justice and equity.
Tucked away in the seventh chapter of the book of Judges, the Bible recounts a fascinating tale of personnel selection. Having received assurance through his "fleece test" that God intended to use him to deliver Israel, Gideon assembled an army of some 32,000 men to face the Midianite hordes. Unfortunately, God said that he had too large an army to do the job since the Israelites would be inclined to take the credit for victory. In the first stage of the selection process, one with considerable face validity, all those who admitted to being fearful were dismissed! As a result, only 10,000 remained. However, God evidently wanted a hand-picked group, since the results of the second stage of the process were even more dramatic. Gideon was instructed to bring the 10,000 would-be warriors to the water's edge. Those who passed this behavioural test by lapping water from cupped hands numbered a mere 300 men- the exact number God needed to effect a remarkable victory.
A few pages later in the same book (Judges 12) we find the less familiar record of a selection test with absolutely dichotomous outcomes- life or death. To determine the truth or falseness of an Ephraimite's denial of his tribal identity, Jephthah's men simply asked their suspect to say the word "Shibboleth" aloud. If he was unable to correctly pronounce the initial "sh" sound, he was judged to be lying; 42,000 unfortunate victims failed this decisive test on that occasion.
These two accounts illustrate the fact that procedures we would now categorize as "psychological testing" are not an invention of the current century. Nor are they unique in ancient times to the nation of Israel. Philip DuBois (1976) documents the extensive use of achievement testing in China over a period of 3,000 years. Though the content and some of the procedures involved were gradually modified, their basic purpose of selecting persons suitable for public office was retained. As early as 1115 B.C., candidates were required to demonstrate proficiency in the five essential areas of mathematics, music, archery, horsemanship, and writing. In a later era, moral qualities of integrity and piety were also taken into account, along with knowledge of law, finance, geography, agriculture, and military matters.
While psychological testing is clearly not a new phenomenon, its systematic and extensive application has been a prominent feature of only the present century. Unlike the significant though limited use of examinations by the ancient Chinese, in our culture there are tests for nearly every conceivable purpose, and practically everyone's life is influenced in one way or another by these devices. It has been estimated that over 2,500 different psychological tests are currently in use in the United States, and that more than 200 million copies of these tests are marketed annually (Weiner & Stewart, 1984). The Scholastic Aptitude Test alone, faced as part of the admissions ritual by applicants to many North American colleges, is taken every year by more than 1.5 million hopeful high school graduates (Chance, 1988). Comprising some 200 multiple choice questions and taking three hours to complete, the SAT is designed to measure abilities in both mathematical and verbal areas. As a group, these students pay over $20 million for the privilege of enduring these three hours of sweat and toil.
It is evident that standardized psychological tests are a major component of twentieth-century North American culture. Despite persistent criticisms of tests and their creators, it is almost certain that they are here to stay. It therefore behooves us to be informed as to their nature and influence, and to thoughtfully evaluate the significant role they play in our lives.
The Nature of Standardized Tests
A good deal of confusion surrounds the development and use of psychological tests. While a definition will not solve the problem completely, it may provide a helpful starting point. A fairly typical one is given by Lee Cronbach (1984) in his widely used text Essentials of Psychological Testing: "A test is a systematic procedure for observing behaviour and describing it with the aid of numerical scales or fixed categories" (p. 26). Probably the key word in this statement is "systematic." We frequently observe and describe other people's behaviour, even using numbers to do it (e.g. "a 110% effort"), but seldom is the whole process an orderly one. Consequently, the results obtained are of fairly limited value.
Fundamentally, a test involves observing and recording a sample of someone's behaviour. The purpose of the observation is to determine the amount of a particular characteristic (extroversion, numerical skill, etc.) possessed by the individual. In order to make this kind of inference with any confidence, the observations need to be made in at least partially controlled or specified circumstances. For example, if records of how much talking different people do to others around them are sometimes taken in shopping malls, sometimes in staff lunch rooms, and sometimes at birthday parties, the results are not comparable and the observations tell us less about the individuals we are testing than about the situations they are made in. In order to achieve interpretable observations, test users typically examine the behaviour of different people in fairly similar settings.
This characteristic of making the observations in prescribed environments is what gives rise to the notion of "standardized testing." Many observations of behaviour are intended to infer something about the individual, but lack this quality of transferability. For example, the exam I give to my Introductory Psychology class is designed to help me determine how much of the discipline each of the students has understood and retained. However, the specifics of this exam reflect the textbook we use, the additional readings I assign, the tone of class discussions, and the special emphases I make in my lectures. Thus, it is not particularly suitable for someone else's Introductory Psychology class, nor even for my own class on another occasion. My exam lacks standardization, or the characteristic of being designed and administered so as to make results obtained at different times and in different places more meaningfully comparable. Without doubt, standardization is a matter of degree; some tests have nation-wide applicability, while others are of more limited local use. Tests created and used by teachers and professors for their students are not generally regarded as standardized tests. Rather, this term is reserved for those instruments that are developed, published, and made available for more widespread use. Though many of the same ingredients are needed to create good tests for classroom use, the focus of the present discussion is on standardized testing.
Procedures we would now categorize as "psychological
are not an invention of the current century.
Nor are they unique in ancient times to the nation of Israel.
In addition to being standardized to different degrees, published tests also vary widely in the domain being assessed as well as in the quality of the instrument. The realm of testing is often divided into the cognitive and non-cognitive domains, reflecting evaluation of abilities and achievement in mental functioning on the one hand, as opposed to variations in personality traits, interests, attitudes, and beliefs on the other. The former are somewhat more clearly defined, and right or wrong responses can readily be specified. The ability areas are hence easier to measure meaningfully. The personality and interest domains involve characteristics that are inherently fuzzy and elusive, making their assessment particularly hazardous. Tests of these characteristics are generally of lower quality psychometrically than are measures of ability.
Beyond these two traditional realms of assessment lies the whole area of situational testing in which the context of evaluation is quite similar to what one encounters in daily life. Examples would be the practical portion of a driver's licence exam or a test given to police recruits in which we systematically record their ability to notice details during simulated job activities.
Published tests are generally evaluated on three major criteria. The first, standardization, reflects the extent to which the instrument can be meaningfully employed in a variety of times and places. This depends on the care with which the test has been constructed and the adequacy of the normative data available. Norms provide the basis for score interpretation. The second and third criteria, reliability and validity, require some further comment.
To the extent that the scores produced by a test are accurate or consistent, we have a reliable measuring tool. A tape measure, for example, is a reliable measure of a person's height since multiple measurements of the same individual taken at various times and different places will yield results that are very nearly equivalent. Similarly, an IQ test which yields a score of 106 is relatively reliable if the same person earns 108 next week, but not very reliable if he/she scores 131 on a subsequent occasion. Although reliability reflects how much a person's score would vary across different testing occasions, it is usually determined by retesting a whole group of people and noting the extent to which the ordering within the group (best, second best, third best, etc.) is preserved. Further details of how reliability is estimated and what affects it are discussed in numerous books on testing (see for example Essentials of Psychological Testing by Cronbach). For our present purposes, it is to be emphasized that reliability is a criterion by which some tests look fairly good and others are seriously lacking.
The most crucial ingredient of a good test is validity. It can be simply defined as the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure or achieves its stated purpose. For example, if a test is marketed as a tool for selecting used car salespeople and those who pass it sell three times as many cars under similar conditions as those scoring below a designated minimum grade, the test's claim to predictive validity is warranted. On the other hand, if an intelligence test purports to measure innate general reasoning ability, but more specifically reflects familiarity with middle class Western culture and experiences, it obviously lacks validity. The diversity of ways in which validity is assessed is beyond the scope of our present discussion, but always relates to the test's fulfillment of its stated purpose.
It has been
estimated that over 2,500 different psychological tests
are currently used in the United States,
and that more than 200 million copies of these tests are marketed annually.
It should be emphasized then, that while tests typically attempt to ascertain the amount of some particular mental or psychological characteristic an individual possesses, the extent to which this objective is in fact reached varies widely from test to test. No available test is perfectly reliable, and certainly none is completely valid. We must not lose sight of the fact that every test, no matter how prestigious, is a fallible measuring tool. It may provide us with useful information we would not otherwise have, but it neither magically nor perfectly reflects a person's inner qualities. It simply gives a basis for more meaningful inferences from behaviour than we would otherwise have.
Controversy Surrounding the Testing Enterprise
While there have always been critics who question the value of tests, in the past three decades a veritable tempest of controversy has arisen over their use. One of the earliest attacks entitled The Tyranny of Testing (Hoffman, 1962) was a lucid and engaging critique of objective testing in the cognitive domain. Hoffman was particularly unhappy with objective items such as multiple choice or true-false whose objectivity he regarded as illusory, residing only in the scoring process. He argued forcefully that these items ignore the quality of the reasoning behind an answer, thus seriously penalizing the more capable student. To support his position, he cited numerous examples of items (all drawn from well-known published tests) which could be interpreted in a variety of different ways. In Hoffman's view, objective tests have a useful but strictly limited place, testing relatively simple factual information well, but achieving greater difficulty largely through increased ambiguity and tapping higher cognitive functioning very slightly, if at all.
If an intelligence
test purports to measure innate general reasoning ability,
but more specifically reflects familiarity with middle class Western culture
and experiences, it obviously lacks validity.
Adopting a similar stance, Martin Gross (1962) published a telling indictment of personality testing in a fascinating volume entitled The Brain Watchers. The main target of his attack was the lucrative personnel selection industry in which a wide range of personality tests were being peddled as having almost magical powers to identify the best potential employees. He made the point that frequently the selection process becomes a challenging game in which applicants must identify particular characteristics the tester is looking for, and respond accordingly. The claims made by test-users were elaborate, inflated, and largely unfounded, particularly since faking is known to be a very real phenomenon. The author's own conclusion, in the light of evidence that psychometricians were well aware of the tests' limitations, was not particularly complimentary: "The reticence of these scientist-psychologists has been ably mated to the huzzas and profitable hoopla of their brain-watching colleagues and the slothful ignorance of industry- into a formidable cult that operates only through the grace of many who should know considerably better" (Gross, 1962, p. 275).
In their zeal to
point out the weaknesses of standardized tests,
many critics have allowed strong emotion to take precedence over clear thinking.
During the past twenty-five years, a variety of other critics have entered the fray and numerous recurring complaints have surfaced, accompanied by the responses of test supporters. Many of the concerns, such as those regarding unfairness to minority groups, false claims of identifying innate ability, and invasion of privacy, have their primary application in the area of intelligence testing. Lyman (1986) identified eight common complaints, noting elements of both fact and fancy in most of these. For example, it is evident that no test measures innate ability in its pure form, though the degree to which particular experiences will affect performance varies widely from test to test. Further, there is an element of cultural bias in most, perhaps all tests of ability, even if they carry the label "culture-fair." The critics have something important to say, and test-makers would do well to pay attention to them.
However, in their zeal to point out the weaknesses of standardized tests, many critics have allowed strong emotion to take precedence over clear thinking. As a result, their accusations have at times been badly overstated and quite indefensible. Rudman (1982) reviewed a number of commonly made criticisms of standardized testing and attempted to evaluate the data upon which they are based. Though his own commitment to testing undoubtedly biased his interpretations, he made a good point in challenging Hoffman's charge that tests discourage creativity and penalize the better students. He responds: "...tests are treated anthropomorphically; they are given human qualities. They are assigned the ability to group children, determine their future, support children's goals, dampen creative urges, help children become dishonest, and even undermine the very foundations of education" (Rudman, 1982, p. 221). Rudman went on to argue that, in fact, tests do none of these things; rather, the teachers and administrators who make decisions are responsible if these consequences do occur. In other words, the problem is more in the interpretation and use of the test results than in the test itself. This is a significant point to which we shall later return.
The problem is more
in the interpretation and use
of the test results than in the test itself.
Reflecting on the range of objections that have been raised concerning the use of standardized tests, what reasonable conclusions can be drawn? First, it should be pointed out that the critics have successfully and legitimately dampened the over-enthusiastic zeal of test producers who in their passion to create and market tests have often made extreme and ill-founded claims on behalf of their favourite instruments. One general and very positive impact of the critics, then, has been to force test publishers to be considerably more modest and realistic in how they present their product. This is clearly illustrated in the area of intelligence testing. Van Leeuwen (1982) made the case that it was evident to the early developers of IQ tests that these instruments were in fact culturally relative, but due to their interest in the eugenics movement, they chose to emphasize the innate nature of mental ability. Claims about the permanence and pervasiveness of intelligence were then made, but the evidence over the years has not supported these claims. In his review of recent conceptualizations of intelligence, McKean (1988) notes that the early view of mental ability as a unitary genetically determined trait is becoming progressively less popular. Current theorists emphasize both the diversity and the cultural variation in the concept of intelligence.
But many of the critics are not satisfied with scaled-down claims of what the tests can do. Some of them demand the total abolition of testing, at least of standardized, objective testing. Active debate on this matter continues to the present time and will certainly not be resolved in a few pages. However, one relevant point should be raised at this juncture. If tests are viewed (as I believe they should be) as sources of input for decision-making, then it is an undeniable fact that whether or not tests are used, decisions will still be made. Universities with limited space must accept some and reject other applicants. Employers must sift through the pile of applicants and decide which ones will be hired. Educational funds must be allotted to some and withheld from other children with special needs. Many of the attacks on testing reflect a naive assumption that if the tests are no longer used, then the plague of inappropriate decisions will be terminated. We need to ponder the question as to whether decisions made in the absence of the information provided by appropriate tests will be more equitable, or whether greater unfairness will in fact occur.
A Preliminary Christian Perspective
Having explored something of the nature and scope of standardized testing, and having briefly considered the evaluation made of it from various quarters, we now reflect on the implications which a Christian world view may have for this facet of psychology. What difference does a uniquely Christian perspective make when we examine standardized tests?
One general and very
positive impact of the critics, then, has
been to force test publishers to be considerably more modest and
realistic in how they present their product.
So far as I am able to discern, relatively little has been written in this regard; thus, we are venturing into uncharted territory. One helpful perspective has been provided by Van Leeuwen (1985) in her evaluation of the cognitive movement in which she addressed the concept of intelligence. She finds the whole notion to be heavily biased by a Western emphasis on formal operational thought and by measurement tools which are inherently culture bound. The fundamental concept of the fear of God (closely related in scripture with the idea of wisdom) is missing in our understanding of intelligence, which is therefore probably not very close to the core of what the image of God comprises (p. 174).
The Bible has little either positive or negative-to say about people of low intelligence, but speaks frequently of the "fool" as one who is devoid of moral fibre. Thus, intelligence and wisdom do not seem to be closely related.
The Bible has
positive or negative-to say about
people of low intelligence,
butspeaks frequently of the "fool" as one who is devoid of moral fibre.
While these reflections are valuable, they are exclusive to intelligence, only one of dozens of traits which psychometricians seek to measure. If we were to remove from use all measures of intelligence, the numbers of available standardized tests would be only modestly reduced. What of the remaining hundreds of tests of mechanical ability, dominance, attitudes to authority, and so on? I propose to orgamze some thoughts in this regard in the form of responses to three fundamental questions:
· Is it appropriate to evaluate people?
· Is justice increased or reduced by standardized tests?
· In our use of tests, is our goal to serve or to be served?
Is Evaluation Appropriate?
While it would be possible to interpret Jesus' words in Matthew 7:1-2 as precluding our judging or evaluating one another, the thrust of this passage seems to be directed toward a censorious attitude often inherent in the critical assessments we make of others. Furthermore, the need for evaluation is affirmed in other passages. For example, in I Timothy 3 and Titus 1, criteria are laid down for the selection of elders and deacons. These passages do not specify how these criteria are to be implemented, though an intimate personal acquaintance with the candidate seems to be assumed. The situation, however, is somewhat parallel to a job selection in which tests are currently so often used. I see nothing in these passages to rule out the use of tests, provided they help us implement appropriate criteria more effectively.
If evaluation of other
people is not only tolerated but actually in some cases authorized and required,
then the merits of using tests to facilitate the process need to be considered.
Personnel selection is only s situations in which these sorts of one of numerous
selections must be made, and while tests must not ,predetermine our selection
criteria, they may, when Property applied, facilitate the application of these
criteria. Nor , I believe, does the use of selection tests preclude a
recognition of our need for divine wisdom in making such decisions. If God's
intentions were revealed in times past through the equivalent of dice, then
surely standardized tests can serve that function as well!
Is justice Increased?
There is little disputing that a fundamental theme of scripture is equity and fairness, and that justice is close to the heart of God. Speaking of God in Deuteronomy 32:4, Moses declares: "All His ways are just." The Psalmist frequently appealed to God when he saw unfairness around him (e.g., Psalm 82:2), confirming his belief in God's justice. Furthermore, our essential human duty is described as the responsibility "to act justly, to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God" (Micah 6:8). Clearly, then, we cooperate with the purposes of God when our activities enhance the process of fairness in human relationships.
The question begging an answer is, "Do standardized tests contribute to the achievement of justice?" Obviously, when tests used for selection purposes are biased against people of certain races, social strata, or cultural background in ways that do not relate to successful performance of the task at hand, they are inappropriate. To discern whether or not this is occurring is of course difficult, but clearly the issue of test validity surfaces as a very critical one. Tests of moderate or low validity should be either dropped or used in such a way as to weight their influence in accordance with their limited validity, making way for consideration of other factors of greater potential value. Furthermore, the criteria in place for the determination of test validity need to be closely examined in the light of the goal of equity.
If God's intentions
were revealed in times past
through the equivalent of dice,
then surely standardized tests can serve that function as well.
It is perhaps appropriate here to add a comment in support of standardized tests, a point often overlooked by zealous critics of testing. Given that people are prone to bias and often consciously prejudiced against specific subgroups, we need to consider the possibility that tests may in fact increase justice because they are constructed with deliberate intent to avoid elements of unfairness to minority groups. As Novick contends, "the proper use of well-constructed and validated tests provides a far better basis for making decisions about individuals and programs than would otherwise be available" (Novick, 1984, p. 15). While not all tests are well constructed, and many are improperly used, it seems likely that judicious application of the better ones will lead to decisions that are more equitable than those based on the personal judgement of people who may have difficulty suspending their own values and views. In both the development and the selection of tests for all uses, the minimization of bias and the achievement of justice need to be given priority. When a test does not contribute to the realization of these goals, it should be eliminated.
Is Our Goal to Serve?
One of the recurring concerns articulated by critics of tests is that tests and their creators often wield too much power (Hoffman, 1982). They become masters rather than servants. There is no doubt that testing is a lucrative business, estimated to produce revenues of $60 million annually (Weiner & Stewart, 1984, p. 183). Its economic implications, for the companies involved, if not for society as a whole, are very substantial. Consequently, in their enthusiasm to market a successful product, test developers are inclined to paint an overly rosy picture of what their particular instrument is capable of doing. Likewise, test users whose motivation is one of efficiency and economic advantage are likely to employ tests in a self-serving way with little regard for the welfare of candidates or applicants involved.
It is in this context that I believe a crucial Christian distinction arises. The point which Farnsworth (1985) made with regard to an orientation to service rather that to personal advantage in the applied area of counselling has, equal if not greater relevance to the whol of standardized testing. In all of our creating, selecting, and using of these instruments, the organizational efficiency and economic gain be balanced by a genuine concern for the welfare of the persons being tested. This will have two implications. First, considerable care will be taken in communicating both the results and the limitations of the testing process to clients so that they can gain useful self-understanding experience. These discussions will assist the test taker to know how best to invest his/her unique abilities and characteristics, as well as to organization to more effectively deploy its human resources. Secondly, the goal of economic advantage alone will be an insufficient basis for administering a test. We will establish as a minimum criterion for test adoption the requirement that some benefit accrue to the individual as well as to the organization.
Concluding Reflections
It is perhaps by now evident that t does not see as a viable resolution to the surrounding the use of standardized tests the proposal that we simply abolish them. Such a suggestion is rooted in the naive assumption problems run no deeper than the test instruments themselves. A standardized test is a tool; relatively neutral in itself when appropriately constructed, but with potential for both use and abuse.
We need to
consider the possibility that tests
may increase justice because they are constructed
with deliberate intent to avoid elements of unfairness to minority groups.
Perhaps one of the reasons that tests often been misused is that in this context there is danger rather than safety in numbers. As has been aptly pointed out (Shelley & Cohen, 1986), when we attempt to describe human traits in terms of numbers, two problems tend to arise. First, quantification may usurp the original goal of accurate description and become an end in itself. Secondly, when results are reported in terms of numbers, a deceptive aura of precision surrounds them. This causes us to place more credence in the results than may be warranted, and to forget more quickly that the test score is only an approximation of the individual's true score on that trait. We need to remind ourselves frequently of what tests can and cannot do.
This author does not see as a viable resolution to the problems surrounding the use of standardized tests the proposal that we simply abolish them.
Armed with this word of caution however, we must also avoid the other extreme of blaming tests unduly. Jenifer (1984), in making the distinction between the messenger (the test) and the message (the result obtained by a particular individual), wisely reminds us that we should not blame the messenger when the message is an unwelcome one, provided it is an accurate reflection of reality. This of course brings us right back to validity once again. Tests which have been demonstrated to fulfill their stated purpose can and should be used to the degree warranted by their validity, with appropriate interpretative caution.
The key to beneficial use of standardized tests is to be aware of both their capabilities and their limitations, thus avoiding overinterpretation of the results. In this regard, the conclusion stated by Ravitch (1984), though directed mainly to achievement testing, is well worth quoting:
In sum, there can be no doubt that the tests have their uses as well as their misuses. The standardized test must always be seen as a measuring device, an assessment tool, never as an end in itself. @e skills that it measures are important, but it does not measure every important skill. The information that it gives us about the state of a student's lean-dng is never definitive but only tentative and subject to future change. Above all, we should not permit the standardized test to become the be-all and endall of educational endeavour; we send our children to school not to do well on tests but to become educated people, knowledgeable about the past and the present and prepared to continue leaming in the future. (Ravitch, 1984, p. 67)
If we keep this perspective in mind, we can appreciate standardized tests but not be awed by them. We can use them rather than misuse them, and they will serve us rather than oppress us.
Chance, P. (1988). Testing education. Psychology Today, 22(5), 20-21.
Cronbach, L.J. (1984). Essentials of Psychological Testing (4th ed.). New York: Harper & Row, Publishers.
DuBois, P. (1976). A Test-dominated society: China 1115 B.C.1905 A.D. In N.L. Barnette Jr., (ed.), Readings in Psychological Tests and Measurements. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company-
Farnsworth, K . E. (1985). Furthering the kingdom in psychology. In A.F. Holmes (ed.), The Making of a Christian Mind. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Gross, M.L. (1962). TheBrain-Watchers. New York: Random House.
Hoffman, B. (1962). The Tyranny of Testing. New York: Collier Books.
Jenifer, F.G. (1984). How test results affect college admissions of minorities. In C.W. Daves (ed.), The Uses and Misuses of Tests. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Lyman, H.B. (1986). Test Scores and What They Mean (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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Divine folly is wiser than human wisdom, and divine weakness stronger than human strength.
-from I Corinthians 1


text:
Hearing Is Set on Lawsuit Over Sites for Casino Workers
Wednesday, January 16, 2008
A federal judge set a hearing for tomorrow to help determine the legitimacy of the use of Las Vegas casinos as sites for the Nevada Democratic caucuses, just two days before delegates are selected in the increasingly heated battle between Sens. Hillary Rodham Clinton (N.Y.) and Barack Obama (Ill.).
Established to allow thousands of casino employees working Saturday to participate, the hotel-based caucus precincts have become enmeshed in legal and political controversy ahead of the first balloting in the nominating process that is expected to include a large percentage of Latinos.
The Culinary Workers Union Local 226, whose members man the nine casinos hosting at-large caucuses, began distributing fliers yesterday accusing Clinton of not supporting their right to vote, citing her "I don't know" reply to a local Nevada reporter who asked whether she opposes caucusing in the casino sites. Obama, who won the union's endorsement last week, told workers Sunday that Clinton's supporters wanted to "change the rules" because the union "decided to support the outsider."
Former president Bill Clinton, stumping in the Las Vegas suburb of Henderson on Monday, criticized the casino caucuses, saying that only culinary union workers would benefit. Why "make a special rule only for these workers?" he asked. "For the rest of you other workers, tough luck. I think the rules ought to be the same for everyone."
The sites were established by state Democrats in consultation with the presidential campaigns and national party officials in a bid to accommodate thousands of casino employees who will be on the job at noon local time Saturday, when the caucuses begin. Rather than casting ballots in the precinct where they live, shift workers within 2 1/2 miles of the Strip can attend at-large caucuses being held in ballrooms of many of the hotel casinos. Workers in almost every casino on the Strip are organized by the culinary union.
The suit, brought by several individuals and the Nevada State Teachers Union, alleges that the casino sites create a "preferred class of voters." Lawyers for the plaintiffs, several of whom are backing Clinton, have asked U.S. District Judge James C. Mahan to shut the sites because they would award a "disproportionate allocation of delegates" to participants who work in the casinos, to the disadvantage of voters in the more than 1,700 other precincts.
Of the more than 10,000 delegates who will be chosen to attend the state's presidential nominating convention, more than 700 could be selected in the casino caucuses depending on the turnout, the teachers union's suit alleges, making those locations more valuable than entire counties in less populated regions of the state. "The party blatantly intends to treat one group of party members more favorably than others," the union's lawyers said in a brief.
Nevada Democratic officials have rejected the suit, saying all parties agreed to the ground rules in March.