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Policy Brief - Harvard Project on Climate Agreements, Belfer Center
The Durban Platform Negotiations: Goals and Options
The Durban Platform Negotiations: Goals and Options1
See link to a PDF version of this Viewpoint at the bottom of this page.
In December 2011, parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, which launched a new round of negotiations aimed at developing "a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed outcome with legal force" for the post-2020 period.2 The Durban Platform negotiations got underway this year and are scheduled to conclude in 2015. This Viewpoint analyzes the elements of the Durban Platform and the possible role that a new instrument might play.
The Durban Platform
The Durban Platform represents a finely balanced compromise among the principal negotiating groups in the UN climate-change regime: The European Union (EU), supported by small-island and least-developed countries (LDCs), sought a fast-start mandate to negotiate a new legally-binding instrument engaging all countries, as a condition for its agreement to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol.3 The Durban Platform addresses this demand by establishing a process to negotiate "a treaty, another legal instrument or an agreed outcome with legal force," which begins this year and is scheduled to conclude in 2015.4 In exchange, the European Union agreed to extend the Kyoto Protocol for another five to eight years, through adoption of an amendment at this year's Conference of the Parties (COP) in Doha, Qatar, providing for a second commitment period for the period 2012–2017 or 2012–2020.5
The United States insisted that it would accept a mandate to negotiate a new outcome of a legal nature only if the mandate was "symmetrical" in its application to developing as well as developed countries. The Durban Platform addresses this concern by calling for "the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response"6 and by providing that the outcome of the Durban Platform negotiations will be "applicable to all parties."7 These provisions represent a dramatic departure from the Kyoto Protocol negotiating mandate, which had categorically excluded any new commitments for developing countries.8
Among the BASIC group (Brazil, South Africa, China, India), China said that it would accept legal commitments only for the post-2020 period, while India resisted the EU's calls for a new legally-binding instrument. Consistent with these views, the Durban Platform outcome will "come into effect and be implemented from 2020"9 and could take the form of an "agreed outcome with legal force"—a formulation whose meaning is unclear but is presumably different from a "treaty" or "another legal instrument," since it is listed as a third alternative.10 In exchange for their agreement to a new negotiating mandate, the BASIC countries achieved their main demand, namely, acceptance by the EU of a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol.
Finally, given the "ambition gap" between the pledges made under the Copenhagen/Cancun framework and the aggregate emissions pathways necessary to hold global warming below 2°C, 11 the small-island and least-developed countries insisted that the Durban Platform launch a work plan to enhance the level of ambition of countries' mitigation efforts, in order ensure "the highest possible mitigation effort by all Parties."12 Although the new instrument negotiated under the Durban Platform is to apply from 2020 onward, the paragraphs of the Durban Platform decision regarding the ambition gap are silent about the time period to which they apply and arguably address the period prior to 2020, since that is the time period covered by the Copenhagen/Cancun pledges.
The Durban Platform is significant not only for what it says, but for what it does not say. For example, it makes no reference to the 2007 Bali Action Plan,13 which had divided the negotiations into two tracks, one for developed and the other for developing countries, suggesting that the Durban Platform negotiations represent a fresh start rather than a continuation of the Bali Action Plan process. To drive home this point, the Durban decision established a new Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP) and provides that the existing Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA), which had been established in Bali at COP-13, will terminate at the end of 2012.14
Similarly, the Durban Platform makes no reference to the principle of equity or the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDRRC), and it does not repeat the Convention's language that developed countries should "take the lead" in combating climate change.15 Indeed, the Durban Platform contains no reference to developing, developed, Annex I or non–Annex I parties,16 the categories that have dominated the climate-change regime thus far. Although the principles of equity and CBDRRC are implicitly incorporated by the statement that the Durban Platform outcome will be "under the … Convention,"17 the lack of any explicit reference to these principles represents a significant shift in how the Durban Platform decision frames the new round of negotiations.18
More generally, although the Durban Platform addresses process issues such as timing, it is almost completely silent about the substantive content of what is to be negotiated. In effect, it is an empty vessel that can be filled with whatever content the parties choose. The only signal that the Durban Platform provides about substantive outcomes is a laundry list of issues that includes "mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology development and transfer, transparency of action, and support and capacity-building."19 This list is pretty thin gruel, however, since it provides no guidance as to how any of these issues should be addressed or even that they ought to be included in the final outcome. As a result, everything is, in effect, on the table. Key substantive issues include:
- Regulatory approach—Will the new regime be based on absolute emissions reduction targets like the Kyoto Protocol, or will it take a different approach to emissions reductions?
- Level of ambition—What level of emissions reductions should the Durban Platform negotiations seek to achieve? The G-8 countries have agreed to a global goal of reducing emissions by 50 percent by 2050,20 but parties to the UNFCCC have been unable to agree on a "shared vision" about either a long-term emissions target or a date when global emissions should peak, and the Durban Platform is silent on both of these issues.21
- Legal form—Could the requirement that the Durban Platform outcome have "legal force" be satisfied by commitments that are legally binding under a country's domestic law, rather than under international law?22 Would this be consistent with the language in the preamble of the Durban Platform about the need to strengthen "the multilateral, rules-based regime under the Convention"?23 Would this be one way to ensure that the outcome is "applicable to all Parties?"
- Process—Will countries' commitments be defined through international agreement as in Kyoto or through unilateral national decision-making as in Copenhagen?24
- Differentiation—In what manner and to what extent will the Durban Platform outcome differentiate among countries? Will commitments be differentiated in terms of their type, their timing, their stringency, or in some other manner? Might differentiation of other provisions be based on "type of commitment" undertaken by a country rather than on "type of party"?
- Relation to Kyoto Protocol—Will the Kyoto Protocol be subsumed by the new instrument and terminate, or will it continue to exist in parallel with the new instrument, through adoption of a third commitment period that applies to the post-2020 period?
What Should Be the Goal of the Durban Platform Negotiations?
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) at levels that would prevent "dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."25 So one obvious objective of the Durban Platform outcome, as an instrument to be negotiated "under the Convention," is what might be called "climate effectiveness." In theory, atmospheric concentrations of GHGs could be stabilized through "climate engineering,"26 but in practice, the UNFCCC regime has focused on achieving climate effectiveness through reductions in net greenhouse-gas emissions. The exact level of reductions necessary in any given period (say, from 2020–2030) to meet the Convention's objective is a function of three factors: first, the level of temperature increase deemed to be safe; second, the concentration levels necessary to keep global warming within that safe level; and third, the choice of an emissions pathway to achieve the desired concentration level.27 In Copenhagen and Cancun, states specified the first factor, by agreeing to limit global warming to no more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels,28 but the other two factors remain open questions. As a result, we cannot define precisely the level of emission reductions over any particular time period necessary to achieve climate effectiveness. Moreover, since climate change is generally a "stock" rather than a "flow" problem, which depends on cumulative emissions rather than on the level of emissions at any particular point in time, the choice of emissions pathways is not primarily an issue of climate effectiveness, but depends on other factors such as economic costs.29
What we can say, as a first approximation, is that climate effectiveness can be measured by the magnitude of global emissions reductions achieved over time and that the greater the cumulative emissions reductions, the greater the climate effectiveness. Of course, beyond a certain point, greater emissions reductions might not produce any climate benefit. But, in practice, current mitigation efforts are not close to reaching that level. Quite the reverse: the emission reduction pledges currently on the table fall well short of putting us on a pathway that would limit global warming to no more than 2°C.30
What are the implications of a climate-effectiveness goal for the design of the Durban Platform instrument? Many environmentalists implicitly assume that climate effectiveness depends on the stringency of an agreement's emissions reduction commitments: the more stringent the commitments, the better. But, as Scott Barrett persuasively argues, effectiveness is a function not only of the stringency of commitments, but also of the levels of participation and compliance.31 Weakness along any of these three dimensions will undermine an agreement's effectiveness, regardless of how well it does on the other two. And because stringency, participation, and compliance are interlinked, we must consider how varying one factor affects the others. More stringent requirements promote climate effectiveness, all other things being equal. But they do not necessarily boost climate effectiveness if they result in lower participation and/or compliance. Conversely, high participation and compliance are desirable in and of themselves, but they do not make an agreement more effective if they are bought by watering down an agreement's substantive requirements. Achieving the greatest emissions reductions requires solving an immensely complex equation involving all three factors.
Moreover, since climate change depends on cumulative emissions rather than on emissions at any particular point in time, we need to consider stringency and participation as dynamic variables. Less stringent commitments or participation now might produce greater climate effectiveness in the long run, if they are part of an evolutionary framework that leads to greater action later.32
Thus far we have been focusing on climate effectiveness as the goal of the Durban Platform negotiations. But this is not the only possible objective. Two other oft-mentioned goals are benefit-cost optimization and climate justice.
Benefit-cost optimization requires us to consider not just the climate benefits of emissions reductions but also their costs, including, in particular, their economic costs.33 From this standpoint, the goal of climate policy is to maximize net benefits over time, so reducing emissions makes sense only insofar as the benefits of doing so outweigh the costs. Calculating costs and benefits is extremely difficult, of course, particularly given that many of the benefits of reducing emissions involve non-market goods that are difficult to value and will be realized far in the future.34 Nevertheless, some rough weighing of costs and benefits, even if not explicit, is the basis of most decision-making.
To the extent that benefit-cost analysis figures in determining what level of climate change is "dangerous," then benefit-cost analysis and climate effectiveness merge together. But, in practice, the choice of a 2°C temperature goal had a primarily environmental rather than economic rationale.35 If the costs of achieving the 2°C goal exceed the climate benefits, then the goals of benefit-cost optimization and climate effectiveness would diverge.
The Durban Platform outcome might also aim not simply to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions, but to achieve climate justice. In contrast to climate effectiveness, for which a relatively straightforward and well-accepted metric exists, there is little consensus about what climate justice entails. Some accounts of climate justice focus on historical responsibility, others on duties to future generations, others on a fair division of burdens based on current capabilities, and others on an egalitarian principle that posits an equal right of individuals to the "atmospheric space."36
What is the relationship of climate effectiveness and climate justice? To some degree, the two are intertwined, since considerations of climate justice may be important factors in determining what level of climate change (1.5°C? 2°C?) is deemed acceptable versus unacceptable.37 For example, we may prefer a 1.5°C rather than a 2°C limit because of concern about the injustice of inflicting catastrophic damage on small-island and least-developed countries.
The UN climate-change regime also makes climate justice an important factor in determining how the burdens of achieving climate effectiveness are distributed by emphasizing the principles of equity and CBDRRC. Here, climate justice does not constitute an end or goal in itself. Rather, it is relevant in determining the means by which the end of climate effectiveness is achieved.
Finally, some conceptions of climate justice may, in practice, be in tension or even conflict with the goal of climate effectiveness, if these conceptions are not accepted by states and hence discourage participation and/or compliance. For example, a proposal by experts from the BASIC group entitled, "Equitable Access to Sustainable Development,"38 would establish a global carbon budget for the period from 1850 onwards and then allocate that budget on the basis of equal per capita emissions for those both living and dead. Since, according to this proposal, industrialized countries have already unjustly occupied more than four times their fair share of the "atmospheric space," they should have negative net emissions in the future. Whatever its merits from a philosophical standpoint, this conception of climate justice stands no chance, politically, of being accepted by industrialized countries, so it would not contribute to climate effectiveness. To the extent that other conceptions of equity—for example, based on historical entitlements—are equally unacceptable to developing countries, then they suffer from the same liability. If the overriding goal of the UN climate-change regime is to achieve climate effectiveness, then the Durban Platform outcome must reflect climate justice in a manner that is acceptable to the major emitters, both developed and developing, so as not to discourage participation and compliance.
Three Models of International Law
In general, international law can perform three sorts of functions: a contractual function, a prescriptive function, and a facilitative function. Which of these roles can international law play in addressing the climate change problem? To what degree can it promote the goals of climate effectiveness, benefit-cost optimization, and/or climate justice?
Contractual model
Ordinarily, international negotiations are predicated on a contractual model. The rationale of contracts is that they leave both sides better off. They produce what economists refer to as a "Pareto improvement." States engage in treaty negotiations because they think they will be better off with a treaty than without one. If a treaty will not improve a country's position, then it has no incentive to participate.
Often, climate-change agreements like the Kyoto Protocol are portrayed as imposing burdens. But if climate-change agreements imposed only costs, then there would be no reason to negotiate them. From a contractual perspective, the premise of the Durban Platform negotiations is that there are potential outcomes that would yield a net global benefit: that is, outcomes where the costs of reducing emissions are outweighed by the benefits of avoiding climate change.
In a contractual model, international climate negotiations are a means to promote benefit-cost effectiveness and should focus on two questions: First, what level of emissions reductions over time produce the greatest global benefit? The answer to that question determines the overall level of emissions reductions that the agreement should seek.39 Second, how should that global net benefit be divided among countries? In order to leave every state better off (and hence satisfy the contractual model), the agreement must allocate the burden of reducing emissions in such a way that the cost for each country of reducing emissions is less than climate benefit it receives from the agreement. But, beyond this minimum condition, the contractual model is silent about distributional issues.
Often, who gets the most out of an agreement depends on the relative power of the players: the countries that are most powerful are able to capture the biggest share of the gains. The UNFCCC, in contrast, provides that the climate-change regime should be guided by the principles of equity and CBDRRC.40 This suggests that states with greater responsibilities and capabilities should receive less of the net benefit of the agreement, while those with lesser responsibilities and capabilities should receive more.
The principal function of internationally-binding agreements, from a contractual perspective, is to provide an assurance that countries will comply. Each country benefits from an agreement only if their actions are reciprocated by others—in the case of climate change, for example, only if each country gets the benefit not only of its own emission reductions, but of those by other states as well. International agreements define these reciprocal actions and, through the process of treaty commitment, provide an assurance of mutual compliance.41
In many contexts, the contractual model describes how international law works. The contractual model is the basis, for example, of arms control agreements and the international trade regime. In these issue areas, negotiations are hard fought, since each state wants to capture the biggest share possible of the overall benefit provided by the agreement. But ultimately agreement is possible because outcomes exist that each participant thinks will leave them better off. The set of these outcomes defines what negotiations theorists refer to as the "contract zone."
The negotiation of the Kyoto Protocol Annex B targets were arguably predicated on the contractual model of international law, and many assume that the Durban Platform negotiations should follow this model as well. But the contractual model faces several difficulties in the climate-change context.
First, even when there is, in principle, an outcome that would leave all sides better off, the parties to a negotiation may not be able to achieve it. If the distribution of benefits is too unequal, the parties that are short-changed may refuse to agree, preferring no agreement to an inequitable one.42 Or negotiations may involve so many countries or so many issues that they become unwieldy. Or the rules of procedure could give a small number of countries the ability to block an agreement from which the vast majority would benefit, by requiring that decisions be made by consensus. All of these dynamics are, to some degree, arguably present in the Durban Platform negotiations.
But the contractual model faces a more fundamental problem in connection with climate change: many of the big players such as the United States and China, whose participation is critical, do not seem to believe that they would be better off through a reciprocal exchange of commitments. This is very different from the situation in the 1990s when the Kyoto Protocol was negotiated.43 At that time, Annex I countries wished to reach an agreement, so they engaged in serious substantive negotiations, first about the Kyoto Protocol and then about the Marrakesh Accords. But, in the end, few countries have proved willing to participate in the Kyoto Protocol's regulatory approach, some of these countries are now dropping out,44 and the remainder account for a small and shrinking share of global greenhouse-gas emissions.45 Today, the European Union is the only major economy that clearly accepts the basic premise of the contractual model. The United States, China, and the other major economies all seem unwilling to do more to reduce their emissions in exchange for action by others. That is why, despite frequent meetings, the negotiations have made so little progress over the last decade, with states preferring to restate their positions over and over again, rather than to engage in genuine negotiations about substance.
Why is there relatively little acceptance of the contractual model in the climate-change context? One possible explanation is that states do not take the climate-change problem seriously. This may be true of some countries, or of groups within some countries, but probably not many. The more basic problem is that, in deciding whether to commit, states do not simply weigh economic and environmental costs and benefits; they also factor in the costs to their national autonomy, which are potentially immense. Climate change implicates virtually every area of domestic policy, including industrial, agricultural, energy, transportation, and land-use policy. As a result, the climate-change regime raises much greater domestic sensitivities than other international regimes, which have a more limited scope.
How do these autonomy costs compare to the environmental benefits of a climate-change agreement? For least developed and small island states, the environmental benefits of an agreement clearly outweigh the costs to their national autonomy, since these countries will be most heavily affected by climate change. But for the United States, China, and the other major economies, the net benefits of an agreement are highly uncertain (owing to uncertainties both about the economics costs of reducing emissions and the environmental benefits), while the costs to future autonomy are real and immediate. For these countries, the main obstacle to agreement is not concern about reciprocity and compliance. Nor is it simply a matter of the wrong negotiating forum or the wrong rules of procedure. All of these factors, of course, contribute to making the climate change negotiations so difficult. But the overriding obstacle to agreement is that many of the key players are more concerned about binding themselves than they are desirous of binding others. So they are not willing to engage in a serious negotiation about a reciprocal exchange of commitments. Unless they have a change of heart, the contractual approach will fail the test of participation, as Kyoto has.
Prescriptive model
Some discussions of climate change assume that international law can prescribe what countries should do, though usually they do not say so explicitly. Consider, for example, the BASIC expert group's climate-justice proposal, described above, which would allocate the total global budget of greenhouse-gas emissions since the Industrial Revolution on an equal per capita basis.46 In contrast to the contractual model, where the aim of an agreement is to leave all sides better off, an agreement reflecting the BASIC experts' conception of climate justice would entail a massive redistribution of wealth from developed to developing countries to correct for putative historical injustices, leaving developing countries better off and developed countries worse off. Since developed states are very unlikely to agree to such a regime, this proposal is implicitly premised on a prescriptive model of international law, which can impose a result on unwilling states.
In a prescriptive model, the role of international law is not to assure compliance with privately-negotiated rules, which all parties perceive as promoting their interests, but rather to require the "correct" result—as a matter, say, of climate effectiveness or climate justice. If we believe that one side is right and the other wrong—for example, as a matter of justice—then the law is justified in proclaiming winners and losers rather than seeking a compromise that leaves all sides better off.
The prescriptive model is the basis of domestic legal systems, in which legal institutions can create winners and losers—legislatures by prescribing new legal rules and courts by applying them to particular disputes. Internationally, a prescriptive model would require analogous institutions that could impose legal rules on non-consenting parties—for example, through COP decisions adopted without consensus or through judicial opinions.
Although few explicitly acknowledge that they assume a prescriptive model of international law, such a model undergirds proposals like that of the BASIC experts regarding equitable sharing of the atmospheric space. It is also provides the basis for the proposal by Palau that the UN General Assembly request an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ) concerning states' obligations to reduce their greenhouse-gas emissions.47 Because requests for advisory opinions by the General Assembly do not require consensus, they provide a mechanism that enables international rules to be defined for states without requiring negotiations. Of course, in theory, the ICJ is required to base its advisory opinions on existing legal rules. But because the rules in question concerning transboundary pollution are extremely general,48 their application to the problem of climate change will inevitably have a prescriptive element.49
How well does the prescriptive model do with respect to climate effectiveness? Assuming that international institutions existed that could prescribe norms, they could potentially adopt stringent norms. And since the norms would apply to all states, whether they agree or not, the prescriptive model need not address the problem of participation. Instead, the prescriptive model founders on the problem of compliance. Since enforcement mechanisms are conspicuously absent in international law, international law has no way of inducing states to comply with its prescriptions. For example, even if the ICJ were to issue an advisory opinion finding that international law requires states to reduce their emissions, the opinion is unlikely to change the behavior of key countries such as the United States and China. The assumption that the Durban Platform outcome could tell a country such as the United States or China what to do seems similarly unrealistic.
Facilitative model
Since the prescriptive and contractual models are unlikely to deliver compliance and participation, this suggests that the Durban Platform should instead seek an outcome that reflects a different model of international law, which focuses on its catalytic and facilitative role. A considerable amount is already being done "on the ground" to address climate change at the national and sub-national levels and by private actors.50 The question for the Durban Platform negotiators is how the international climate-change regime can best encourage, reinforce, and facilitate these activities that are bubbling from the bottom up.51
International law can serve a number of catalytic and facilitative functions.52 Meetings like the 2009 Copenhagen COP focus attention on the climate-change issue, help raise public concern, and prod states to do more. Although the national pledges made in the run-up to Copenhagen fell short of putting the world on a pathway likely to meet the 2°C temperature limit, they represented a significant improvement from business-as-usual. Systems of reporting and expert review shine a spotlight on what countries are doing and allow more accurate assessments of the overall effectiveness of these national actions. And mechanisms for the provision of financial and technological assistance allow greater action by countries currently held back by a lack of capacity.
The Copenhagen Accord and Cancun Agreements reflect a facilitative model by seeking to encourage national pledges, establishing reporting and assessment mechanisms to promote transparency, and creating the Green Climate Fund to assist developing countries with mitigation and adaptation. The Durban Platform outcome could memorialize these facilitative arrangements in treaty form. Or it could go beyond them—for example, by making the national pledges under Copenhagen legally-binding.
Since states may want to go at different speeds, the Durban Platform outcome also could create a hybrid of the contractual and facilitative models, involving a core agreement and a number of optional annexes among which countries could pick and choose. For example, one annex could consist of Kyoto-style emissions targets and another could take the form of a schedule listing national laws that countries commit to implement. The result would be a "house with many rooms," in which all countries could find a place.
By giving countries flexibility, this type of approach would likely score well in terms of participation and compliance, but less well in terms of stringency. The hope would be that, over time, participation and compliance would provide dynamic feedbacks, leading countries to ratchet up their level of ambition as they became more comfortable with the system. But whether this would happen at all or would happen quickly enough to prevent dangerous climate change, is very uncertain. It is doubtful that a facilitative approach would lead to emission reductions sufficient to limit global warming to less than 2°C. Nevertheless, a facilitative outcome could still be of great value, if it limited global warming to less than would occur in the absence of an agreement—to 3–4°C, say, rather than the 5–7°C that could result if states continue on their business-as-usual trajectories. And it may well be of greater value than an agreement based on a contractual model that failed to optimize among stringency, participation, and compliance, considered dynamically over time.
The Durban Platform negotiations present a set of alternatives that are sub-optimal from a climateeffectiveness standpoint. On the one hand, we can pursue a comparatively unambitious outcome, which is likely achievable and would represent an improvement in climate effectiveness compared to business-as-usual, but which is unlikely to prevent dangerous climate change. On the other hand, we can go for broke, seeking a more ambitious agreement that, if fully implemented, would prevent dangerous climate change, but that is unlikely to be achieved and, in any event, would face serious problems of participation and compliance.
Why not hedge our bets by pursuing both options simultaneously? We could pursue the facilitative approach by continuing to elaborate and implement the Copenhagen Accord and Cancun Agreements, while at the same time seeking to negotiate a more ambitious outcome in the Durban Platform process. The danger is that, given limited political resources, one process will sap the energy behind the other.53
All of the options thus pose risks, albeit for different reasons. The choice among them requires a difficult political calculation involving many imponderables. Until there is agreement about which option to pursue, the Durban Platform process will continue the pattern of the last decade, in which states are engaged, not in a negotiation of the text of an agreement, but rather a meta-negotiation about what to negotiate.
1 I would like to thank the Smith School of Enterprise and Environment at the University of Oxford for very generously providing me a research home while I worked on this Viewpoint. Thanks also to Sue Biniaz, Elliot Diringer, Bob Hahn, and Lavanya Rajamani for their very helpful comments on this Viewpoint.
2 Establishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, UNFCCC Decision 1/CP.17, Dec. 11, 2011, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1. For a legal analysis of the Durban Platform decision, see Lavanya Rajamani, "The Durban Platform for Enhanced Action and the Future of the Climate Regime," 61 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 501 (2012).
3 Council of the European Union, Council Conclusions on the EU Position at the 17th Session of the Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC, 3118th Environment Council meeting (Oct. 2011), available at http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/ docs/pressdata/en/envir/125026.pdf (conditioning EU's openness to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol on adoption of a "roadmap" for development of a "multilateral, rules-based legal framework engaging all Parties," and stressing that the duration of a second commitment period "should … be compatible with the timeline for the development and entry into force of a future global and comprehensive legally-binding framework engaging all parties").
4 Durban Platform, paras. 2–4.
5 Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol, KP Decision 1/CMP.7, Dec. 11, 2011, UN Doc. FCCC/KP/CMP/2011/10/Add.1.
6 Durban Platform, preamble para. 1.
7 Id. para. 2. As discussed below, the negotiations will also take place under a new mandate, the Durban Platform, rather than under the Bali Action Plan, which some developing countries insist established a "firewall" between mandatory commitments by developed countries and voluntary actions by developing countries. Rajamani, note 1, at 505.
8 Berlin Mandate, UNFCCC Decision 1/CP.1, April 7, 1995, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/1995/7/Add.1.
9 Durban Platform, para. 4.
10 Id. para. 2; see Rajamani, supra note 1, at 506–07.
11 UNEP, The Emissions Gap Report: Are the Copenhagen Accord Pledges Sufficient to Limit Global Warming to 2° C or 1.5° C? (Nov. 2010); UNEP, Bridging the Emissions Gap (Nov. 2011).
12 Durban Platform, para. 7.
13 Bali Action Plan, UNFCCC Decision 1/CP.13, Dec. 15, 2007, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2007/6/Add.1.
14 Durban Platform, para. 1.
15UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, art. 3.1, May 9, 1992, 1771 UNTS 107.
16 Rajamani notes that the Durban Platform is perhaps the first COP decision in the history of the climate-change regime not to refer to these categories. Rajamani, supra note 1, at 509.
17 Durban Platform, para. 2.
18 Rajamani, supra note 1, at 502.
19 Durban Platform, para. 5.
20 "G8 Leaders Declaration: Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future," para. 65, July 8, 2009.
21 Interestingly, the decision does not include "shared vision" among the elements to be included in the ADP work plan.
22 The possibility that the Durban outcome might derive its "legal force" from a country's domestic law is suggested in the Indian submission regarding the ADP work plan. Indian Submission on ADP Work Plan, para. 7, UN Doc. FCCC/ADP/2012/Misc.3, at 33 (April 30, 2012).
23 Durban Platform, preamble para. 3.
24 Daniel Bodansky, "A Tale of Two Architectures," 43 Arizona State Law Journal 697 (2011).
25 UNFCCC, art. 2.
26 Daniel Bodansky, "Governing Climate Engineering: Scenarios for Analysis," Harvard Project on Climate Agreements, Discussion Paper 11-47 (Sept. 2011).
27 UNFCCC art. 2.
28 Copenhagen Accord, para. 1, UNFCCC Decision 2/CP.15, Dec. 18, 2009, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2009/11/Add.1; Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the Work of the AWG-LCA, para. 4, UNFCCC Decision 1/CP.16, Dec. 10, 2010, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1.
29 The need to consider other factors in choosing an emissions pathway is recognized in Article 2 of the UNFCCC, which provides that stabilization of GHG concentrations "should be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner."
30UNEP Emissions Gap Report, supra note 11.
31 Scott Barrett, Environment and Statecraft: The Strategy of Environmental Treaty-Making (Oxford Univ. Press 2003).
32 Daniel Bodansky and Elliot Diringer, The Evolution of Multilateral Regimes: Implications for Climate Change(Pew Center on Global Climate Change 2010).
33 Kenneth J. Arrow et al., "Is There a Role for Benefit-Cost Analysis in Environmental, Health and Safety Regulation?" 272 Science 221 (1996).
34See generally Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Workshop Proceedings: Assessing the Benefits of Avoided Climate Change: Cost-Benefit Analysis and Beyond (2010).
35 Carlo C. Jaeger and Julia Jaeger, "Three Views of Two Degrees," 11(1) Regional Environmental Change S15-S26 (March 2011), DOI 10.1007/s10113-010-0190-9.
36Compare Steve Vanderheiden, Atmospheric Justice: A Political Theory of Climate Change (Oxford Univ. Press 2009) with Eric A. Posner and David Weisbach, Climate Change Justice (Princeton Univ. Press 2010).
37 I am indebted to Stephen Gardiner for this point.
38 BASIC Experts, "Equitable Access to Sustainable Development: Contribution to the Body of Scientific Knowledge" (2011), available at http://www.erc.uct.ac.za/Basic_Experts_Paper.pdf.
39 Since environmental costs and benefits generally depend on cumulative emissions over time, rather than emissions at any particular point in time, an emissions budget could be calculated for a very long period of time, such as a century. This would allow the market to determine the emissions pathway that minimizes economic costs. In practice, however, a very long-term target would likely lack credibility, so global emissions targets need to be calculated for shorter periods of time.
40 UNFCCC, art. 3.
41 Daniel Bodansky, "Climate Commitments: Assessing the Options," in Beyond Kyoto: Advancing the International Effort Against Climate Change (Pew Center on Global Climate Change 2004).
42 Steven J. Brams and Alan D. Taylor, Fair Division: From Cake-Cutting to Dispute Resolution (Cambridge Univ. Press 1996).
43 The Kyoto Protocol negotiations began with the adoption of the 1995 Berlin Mandate and ended with the adoption of the 2001 Marrakesh Accords, which provided the rulebook for how the Protocol would work.
44 Japan and Russia have announced that they will not participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol, and Canada is withdrawing from the Protocol altogether.
45 The countries likely to participate in a Kyoto Protocol second commitment period accounted for about 5.2 GtCO2-eq emissions in 2009, or only a little more than 10 percent of global emissions of 49.5 GtCO2-eq. UNFCCC, National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Data for the Period 1990–2009, Nov. 16, 2011, UN Doc. FCCC/SBI/2009/9 (inventory of GHG emissions of EU, Australia, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine); UNEP, Bridging the Emissions Gap 15 (Nov. 2011) (estimate of global GHG emissions).
46BASIC Experts Proposal, supra note 38.
47 "Press Conference on Request for International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion on Climate Change," UN Press Release, Feb. 3, 2012.
48 One relevant rule, for example, requires states to use due diligence to prevent transboundary pollution. See Günther Handl, "Transboundary Impacts," in Daniel Bodansky, Jutta Brunnée, and Ellen Hey, Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law 531 (Oxford Univ. Press 2007). But the ICJ has a huge amount of leeway in defining how this rule applies to climate change.
49 Armin van Bogdandy and Ingo Venzke, "Beyond Dispute: International Judicial Institutions as Lawmakers," 12 German Law Journal 979 (2011).
50 Miranda Schreurs, "From the Bottom Up: Local and Subnational Climate Change Politics," 17 Journal of Environment and Development 343 (2008).
51 On bottom-up approaches generally, see David G. Victor, Global Warming Gridlock: Creating More Effective Strategies for Protecting the Planet (Cambridge Univ. Press 2011).
52 Peter M. Haas, Robert O. Keohane and Marc Levy, Institutions for the Earth: Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection (MIT Press 1993).
53 Arguably, this is what happened following the adoption of the UNFCCC. The UNFCCC established a system of pledge and review. But this system was never given a chance to flourish, because almost from the moment the Convention entered into force, states shifted their attention to the Kyoto Protocol negotiations.
Daniel Bodansky, Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law, Arizona State University
Viewpoints present policy proposals, considered opinions, and commentary by distinguished policymakers, leaders from business and non-governmental organizations, and scholars. The Harvard Project on Climate Agreements does not advocate any specific climate change policy proposals. Statements and views expressed in Viewpoints are solely those of the authors and do not imply endorsement by Harvard University, the Harvard Kennedy School, or the Harvard Project on Climate Agreements.
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text:
We conduct research on the effects of coastal habitat change and restoration on living
marine resources such as seagrasses, marshes, reefs, and fish. Major programs include:
We develop tools for detecting and mitigating the risks of harmful algal to human
health and coastal economies and ecosystems. Our algal toxin test kits and other
molecular-based tools enhance the HAB monitoring capabilities of public health officials,
tribal and state marine resource managers, commercial and subsistence fishermen,
aquaculture facilities, and academic research programs. We are improving seafood
safety and food security within the US and internationally.
We provide research and management guidance to improve marine spatial planning, specializing
in evaluating effectiveness of protected areas and in siting aquaculture and restoration
projects. Our capabilities include scientific and deep-technical diving and ROV
and underwater acoustics. We also have expertise in the delineation, recovery and
restoration of injured habitats and support federal, state and local habitat protection
and restoration, including Department of Justice litigation of habitat injuries
in public trust waters.
We develop information and tools to help communities understand how sea level rise
and weather extremes will impact their shorelines and waterfront properties. We
also offer guidance for effective shoreline management based on enhancing the stabilization
capabilities of natural shorelines, and we assist coastal communities in adapting
to changing shorelines.
Our Alaska team works with coastal managers and Alaska communities to anticipate and adapt
a changing environment, balance multiple coastal uses, and sustainably manage
The Rice Library has maintained a lending collection on the Beaufort, North Carolina campus for over 100 years. The collection contains marine science research materials that cover biology, botany, chemistry, coastal management, conservation, ecology, fisheries, habitat restoration, population dynamics, and pollution. The library serves not only local NCCOS research programs, but also government and academic research programs worldwide.
Over 100 NOAA
employees are housed in our Beaufort, North Carolina and Kasitsna Bay,
Alaska campuses. NCCOS
manages the campuses. We share space with
Fisheries and the North Carolina Estuarine Research Reserve staff in Beaufort, and
offer field-housing to visiting researchers and students in Kasitsna Bay.
In partnership
with the University of Alaska, public schools, tribal organizations, and marine
conservation groups the Kasitsna Bay Lab hosts scientific diver training and marine
ecology and oceanography classes; marine science training for tribal environmental
staff; field science camps for primary and secondary school students; and
NOAA undergraduate
and graduate student interns.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Get an overview of this hotelFamily ski hotel with 4 restaurants
Popular property highlights
Located near the slopes, this Vail hotel is in the mountains, within a 10-minute walk of The Steadman Clinic and Vail Ski Resort, and close to winter sports such as cross-country skiing and skiing lessons. Betty Ford Alpine Gardens and Gerald R. Ford Amphitheater are also within 1 mi (2 km).
Hotel Features
Spend your day on the slopes, and return to Solaris Residences to take a dip in an indoor pool and relax in a full-service spa.
Room Amenities
All 79 individually decorated rooms provide free WiFi, free wired Internet, and DVD players. Guests can enjoy fireplaces, and other standard amenities include kitchens with refrigerators and stovetops.Information missing or incorrect? Tell us!Opens in a new window
Solaris Residences
Hotel Amenities
Hotel Amenities
Indulge in a treatment at the full-service spa or enjoy a swim in the indoor swimming pool after a day on the slopes. Conveniences like ski storage and shopping on site allow you to spend less time with logistics and more time on the slopes.
Dining is available at one of the hotel's 4 restaurants and guests can grab coffee at the coffee shop/café. Wireless Internet access is complimentary. Parking is available onsite for a surcharge.
Solaris Residences is a smoke-free property.
- 24-hour front desk
- Total number of rooms - 79
- Number of floors - 8
- ATM/banking
- Babysitting or childcare
- Luggage storage
- Number of restaurants - 4
- Coffee shop or café
- Free newspapers in lobby
- Dry cleaning/laundry service
- Elevator/lift
- Express check-in
- Express check-out
- Fitness facilities
- Full-service spa
- Tours/ticket assistance
- Free WiFi
- Laundry facilities
- Spa treatment room(s)
- Multilingual staff
- Valet parking (surcharge)
- Porter/bellhop
- Safe-deposit box at front desk
- Year Built 2010
- Free area shuttle
- Shopping on site
- Ski storage
- Smoke-free property
- Number of buildings/towers - 1
- Spa services on site
- Supervised childcare/activities
- Indoor pool
Available in all rooms: Free WiFi , Free wired Internet
Available in some public areas: Free WiFi
Valet parking (surcharge)
Room Amenities
- Air conditioning
- Video-game console
- DVD player
- Shower only
- Fireplace
- Hypo-allergenic bedding available
- Separate sitting area
- Furnished balcony
- In-room climate control (air conditioning)
- Free newspaper
- Phone
- Free local calls
- Microwave
- Kitchen
- Partially open bathroom
- Daily housekeeping
- Turndown service
- Second bathroom
- Designer toiletries
- Free toiletries
- Hair dryer
- In-room massage available
- Slippers
- Rainfall showerhead
- Room service (limited hours)
- In-room childcare (surcharge)
- Iron/ironing board
- Cribs/infant beds available
- Washer/dryer
- Cookware, dishware, and utensils
- Blackout drapes/curtains
- Separate living room
- In-room safe (laptop compatible)
- Separate dining area
- Dishwasher
- Full-sized refrigerator/freezer
- Stovetop
- Cable TV service
- Free WiFi
- Free wired Internet
- Down comforter
- Frette Italian sheets
- Individually furnished
- Individually decorated
- Espresso maker
Where to Eat
Matsuhisa Nobu - This fine-dining restaurant serves dinner only. Guests can order drinks at the bar and enjoy alfresco dining (weather permitting). Reservations are required.
Bol - This family restaurant serves dinner only. Guests can enjoy drinks at the bar. A children's menu is available.
Cinebistro - This bistro serves dinner only. Guests can enjoy drinks at the bar. A children's menu is available.
Yettis Grind - This coffee shop serves breakfast only. Guests can enjoy alfresco dining (weather permitting).
Room service (during limited hours) is available.
Nearby Things to Do
Recreational amenities at the hotel include an indoor pool and a fitness center.
The recreational activities listed below are available either on site or nearby; fees may apply.
- Golfing nearby
- Downhill skiing nearby
- Cross-country skiing nearby
- Snowboarding nearby
- Snowmobiling nearby
- Snowshoeing nearby
- Mountain biking nearby
- Hiking/biking trails nearby
- Ski lessons available nearby
- Ski equipment rental shops nearby
- Golf lessons available nearby
- Bicycle rentals on site
- Bowling alley on site
- Ice skating on site
Spa Services
Solaris Spa has 3 treatment rooms including rooms for couples. Services include massages, facials, and body scrubs. The spa is equipped with a spa tub.
- Number of treatment rooms 3
- Couples treatment rooms
- Body scrubs
- Spa tub in spa
- Massages
- Facial treatments
If you have requests for specific accessibility needs, please note them at check-out when you book your room.
- In-room accessibility
- Roll-in shower
Hotel Policies
Check-in time starts at 4 PM
Minimum check-in age is 18
Check-out time is 10 AM
Payment types
Children and extra beds
- Children are welcome.
- Rollaway/extra beds are not available.
- Cribs (infant beds) are available.
- Pets not allowed
You need to know
Extra-person charges may apply and vary depending on property policy.
- The name on the credit card used at check-in to pay for incidentals must be the primary name on the guestroom reservation.
Optional extras
- Valet parking fee: USD 40.00 per night
Hotel Name
- Solaris Residences
- Solaris Residences Hotel
- Solaris Residences Hotel Vail
- Solaris Residences Vail
We should mention
Reservations are required for massage services and spa treatments. Reservations can be made by contacting the hotel prior to arrival, using the contact information on the booking confirmation. Only registered guests are allowed in the guestrooms.


text:
SHAWNEE, Kan. – Baytril 100 (enrofloxacin) Injectable, manufactured by Bayer Animal Health, has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treatment of Mycoplasma bovis — a major pathogen for Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) that has a significant health and economic impact on cattle operations across the country.
"Mycoplasma bovis is often overlooked, but can be a very opportunistic and damaging pathogen," said Dr. Fiona Maunsell, of the College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida. "It presents itself in a wide range of clinical manifestations, including mastitis and respiratory, ear and joint infections. Early diagnosis and treatment is critical with Mycoplasma bovis to prevent irreparable damage."
Mycoplasma bovis is a slow-growing, very contagious infection that is easily spread throughout herds via nose-to-nose contact, contaminated water and feed and, even inhaled by calves as they suckle dams shedding the infection. Symptoms can be similar to other BRD indicators, such as coughing, depression and fever, but also can include head tilt, ear droop and ocular and nasal discharge. Recent data have shown that Mycoplasma bovis plays a larger role in respiratory and other infections in beef cattle than previously thought, with an estimated $32 million a year in damage to the United States beef industry, primarily through losses in weight gain and carcass value1.
With this approval, Baytril® 100 (enrofloxacin) is now labelled and proven effective as a single-injection treatment for all major pathogens of BRD in cattle and non-lactating dairy heifers less than 20 months of age, including Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Histophilus somni and Mycoplasma bovis.
Clinical field studies of single-injection treatment efficacy results against Mycoplasma bovis indicate Baytril 100 was effective on more than 70 percent of calves treated by Day 6; and 88 percent of calves treated with Baytril® 100 were considered continued successes on Day 102.
"Baytril 100 has long been valued by veterinarians and producers as a quality single-dose therapy for BRD," said Dr. Cary Christensen, Senior Director, Food Animal Products Business Unit at Bayer Animal Health. "With the approval of Baytril 100 for treatment of the critical pathogen Mycoplasma bovis, they now have assurance that using Baytril 100 as their first line BRD treatment can provide the results needed for an efficacious response to the infection."
Baytril 100 has been the choice for many bovine veterinarians and beef cattle producers since its introduction in 1998 and is the largest-selling, single-dose antibiotic in its class. The first FDA-approved fluoroquinolone antimicrobial for use against BRD, Baytril 100 is a proven and effective management product.
For more information about Baytril 100, call Bayer Veterinary Services at 1-800-422-9874 or visit www.Baytril100.com.
Federal law restricts this drug to use by or on the order of a licensed veterinarian. Extra-label use of this product in food-producing animals is prohibited.
Do not use in female dairy cattle 20 months of age or older. Use of enrofloxacin in this class of cattle may cause milk residues.


text: Seller: gadgetsleader (91,716) 99.2%, Location: Hong Kong, Ships to: Worldwide, Item: 272437534269 Manufacturer Part Number: Does not apply, Product Name: Earphone Dust Stopper, Brand: uxcell, Net Weight: 17g, Fit Port Size: for iPhone,iPad and iPod touch, Package Content: 20 x Earphone Dust Stopper, Material: Stainless Steel, Total Size: 1.5 x 0.4cm/0.6"x 0.2" (L*D), MPN: Does not apply, Color: Silver Tone, Details: --> 2015030917490513493 ABOUT US --> PAYMENT SHIPPING RETURNS Allegra K is a Hong Kong based fashion retailer with products lines across womenswear, menswear, footwear and accessories. We aim to provide high quality, stylish clothings & accessories at good price. 100% customer satisfaction is our main goal. We can't spell SUCCESS WITHOUT U. --> We ONLY accept Paypal. We appreciate prompt payment and look forward to your business in the future. Unpaid item will be filed without receiving payment in 7 days from listing ended. International Buyers - Please Note: Import duties, taxes and charges are not included in the item price or shipping charges. Buyers are responsible for these charges. Please check with your country's customs office to determine what these additional costs will be prior to bidding/buying. Note that delivery times may vary, particularly during peak periods or inclimate weather conditions. All items will be dispatched from our warehouse in China or Hong Kong directly. We will ship worldwide EXCEPT Italy, Nigeria, Vietnam, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, India, China, Hong Kong, Macau Due to Custom restrictions, we do not ship lighters to US We cannot ship on weekends and we do not offer Saturday, Sunday or holiday delivery. All our items will be shipped to buyer's PayPal address, please confirm your address on PayPal before you bid --> Returns for exchange are permitted and must be initiated by the buyer within 30 days upon receipt. If you would like to return your product(s) for repair / replacement / refund, please kindly contact our customer service representatives via email for an authorized RMA number. Your returned product(s) will not be processed without a completed RMA. Buyers are responsible for the return shipping costs under any circumstances. --> Desktop Mobile Buy Watch


text:
WHITTIER - Edward "Ed" Nixon, the lone surviving brother of President Richard Nixon, joked recently that his signature wasn't as legible as it once was because of the 1968 presidential campaign.
As mail operations manager, he and 75 volunteers read and responded to all of the campaign's correspondence.
"My signature was at the bottom of about 150,000 pieces of communication," he said during a phone interview from his Washington state home. "My signature has never been the same."
Nixon, 83, was unable to attend the library's celebration over the weekend, but plans on attending tonight's gala in Washington, D.C.
He doesn't get back to Whittier as much as he would like, he said, but he has fond memories of growing up in this city.
"In those days, we were surrounded by orange groves, strawberry patches and avocado trees," said Nixon, who was the youngest of Frank and Hannah Nixon's five sons.
He recalled the family's home on Santa Gertrudes Avenue and Whittier Boulevard, although many of the places he remembers are no longer in existence.
Nixon, president of Nixon World Enterprises Inc., a service company based in Washington state, attended Lowell Joint Elementary School, and the first three years of his high school career were at Whittier High School, just like his older brothers.
But the family moved to Pennsylvania before his senior year.
"I considered going to Whittier College, but Dick, who was in Congress at the time, suggested I consider other schools."
Curious advice since Richard Nixon, who died in April 1994, completed his undergraduate work at Whittier College, before graduating from North Carolina's Duke University School of Law in 1937.
"With such an age difference, and Dick being the oldest, he became my mentor," Ed Nixon said.
Ed Nixon, who never had any political ambitions, said his brother encouraged him to leave California to attend college.
"I wanted to go to Cal Tech or Stanford because I was a Californian," Ed Nixon explained. "But Dick said, `You're an American; take a look at what's outside of California."'
His brother wanted Ed Nixon to see what the South was going through, the segregation that was occurring in 1948.
"It was one thing to hear about the racism, where people had to use different restrooms, drinking fountains, just because of the color of their skin, but to live in that environment - it was a wake-up call," Ed Nixon said.
He graduated from Duke University with a bachelor's in geology and later earned a master's in geology engineering from North Carolina State University.
A favorite memory of time spent with his older brother was a car trip.
Richard Nixon asked his brother, who was 17 years his junior, to join him to pick up a car that he had bought straight off the assembly line in Michigan.
"We went by train the one way, and then took Route 66, from Chicago, back home," Ed Nixon recalled. "It was wonderful spending that time with him."
As the brother of the only U.S. president to resign from office, Ed Nixon rarely talks about the Watergate scandal.
"I lived through Watergate," he said. "I was on the campaign trail and was aware something was going on, but it wasn't until after the election that I knew what happened."
In June 1972, five men connected to the committee to re-elect President Nixon broke into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex.
Ultimately, Ed Nixon said, President Nixon's legacy will be left to historians to dissect.
"Dick led the way on a lot of areas, such as the environment and health care," he said.
And what would his brother think of what's happening in the world today?
"There are so many huge problems, I don't know what he'd say."
But after a beat, Ed Nixon said with a laugh, "Maybe learn Mandarin."


text:
Anyone else see that screen name?
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Anyone else see that screen name?
Most forums don't allow screenames to be exact copies of player names. Not sure if that's in the PD rules.
You, Never? Did the Kenosha Kid?
I could make it that way, but I hadn't before.
Glad to see he finally sobered up enough to use a computer.
Come to the Dark Side -- There's cookies!
I'll change it if you want. Just let me come up with a winner.
But if anyone really thought I was Jeff Foster, you're not too bright.
So, no one said anything so I guess I'll continue to be Jeff Foster.Originally Posted by Jeff FosterThis quote is hidden because you are ignoring this member. Show Quote
Who is that on your Avatar? She looks familiar.Originally Posted by Jeff FosterThis quote is hidden because you are ignoring this member. Show Quote


text: Scorpion Hires Wilkinson As Director Of Development Press Release | January 2, 2014The following is from Scorpion…Scorpion Sports, Inc. brings veteran motorcycle apparel developer Edward Wilkinson on board as Director of Development.John Kim, vice president of business operations, stated, "We are incredibly fortunate to bring Edward on board to oversee and expand our development team. Not only is he an avid motorcyclist, he is also a materials and production expert. He was the innovator behind Klim's successful dual sport line and we are excited to bring his broad range of skills, experience and enthusiasm to the Scorpion family. Scorpion's vision is to offer high end, technically advanced motorcycle apparel at a reasonable price, and adding Edward to an already experienced and seasoned development team will help solidify our position to do just that.""After looking at several brand opportunities I felt that Scorpion has the most potential as well as the unique resources to enable them to bring advanced technologies to market in a way that no other company can," said Wilkinson. "I am excited and honored to be a part of such a dynamic and dedicated team, and I am looking forward to bringing consumers a whole new range of ground-breaking and technologically advanced riding gear."Scorpion has spent the last year re-building their infrastructure from the ground up, and is now poised for dynamic expansion. "They have unique supply resources that will enable them to bring a variety of innovative products to market quicker, and at better price points than any of their competitors," says Wilkinson.Scorpion Sports USA has a warehouse and corporate offices in Santa Fe Springs, California, and a distribution center in Louisville, Kentucky. The Scorpion Sports factory is a state-of -the-art, 810,000 square foot campus staffed with more than four hundred skilled technicians. In addition to motorcycle apparel the Scorpion factory also manufactures world-class helmets. For more information visit www.scorpionusa.com By Press Release Comments


text:
Toggle: English / Spanish
Ebstein's anomaly is a rare heart defect in which parts of the tricuspid valve are abnormal. The tricuspid valve separates the right lower heart chamber (right ventricle) from the right upper heart chamber (right atrium).
The condition is congenital, which means it is present from birth.
Ebstein's malformation
The tricuspid valve is normally made of three parts, called leaflets or flaps. The leaflets open to allow blood to move from the right atrium (top chamber) to the right ventricle (bottom chamber) while the heart relaxes. They close to prevent blood from moving from the right ventricle to the right atrium while the heart pumps.
In persons with Ebstein's anomaly, the leaflets are unusually deep in the right ventricle. The leaflets are often larger than normal. The defect usually causes the valve to work poorly, and blood may go the wrong way back into the right atrium. The backup of blood flow can lead to heart swelling and fluid buildup in the lungs or liver. Sometimes, not enough blood gets out of the heart into the lungs and the person may appear blue.
In most cases, patients also have a hole in the wall separating the heart's two upper chambers and blood flow across this hole may cause oxygen-poor blood to go to the body. There may be narrowing of the valve that leads to the lungs (pulmonary valve).
Ebstein's anomaly occurs as a baby develops in the womb. The exact cause is unknown, although the use of certain drugs (such as lithium or benzodiazepines) during pregnancy may play a role. The condition is rare. It is more common in white people.
Symptoms range from mild to very severe. Often, symptoms develop soon after birth and include bluish-colored lips and nails due to low blood oxygen levels. In severe cases, the baby appears very sick and has trouble breathing.
Symptoms in older children may include:
Newborns who have a severe leakage across the tricuspid valve will have very low levels of oxygen in their blood and significant heart swelling. The doctor may hear abnormal heart sounds, such as murmur, when listening to the chest with a stethoscope.
Tests that can help diagnose this condition include:
Treatment depends on the severity of the defect and the specific symptoms. Medical care may include:
In general, the earlier symptoms develop, the more severe the disease.
Some patients may have either no symptoms or very mild symptoms. Others may worsen over time, developing blue coloring (cyanosis), heart failure, heart block, or dangerous heart rhythms.
A severe leakage can lead to swelling of the heart and liver, and congestive heart failure.
Other complications may include:
Call your health care provider if your child develops symptoms of this condition. Seek immediate medical attention if breathing problems occur.
There is no known prevention, other than talking with your doctor before a pregnancy if you are taking medicines that are thought to be related to developing this disease. You may be able to prevent some of the complications of the disease. For example, taking antibiotics before dental surgery may help prevent endocarditis.
Bernstein D. Ebstein anomaly of the tricuspid valve. In: Kliegman RM, Behrman RE, Jenson HB, Stanton BF, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 19th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 424.7.
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text:
shel wrote:jeeprs wrote:Do you think if a body was in suspended animation, and came to again, the subject would be saying 'now, where was I...'
Depends on the process (could be instantaneous?), and I guess whether or not the subject knew that they were going to be put into suspended animation. Regarding causal factors, there would be no cause for the subject to be any different than they were before suspension. Their intents and purposes would be the same.
I thought it was Buddhism that taught that nothing remained permanent from moment to moment. So I think the prospect of 'freezing a moment of thought' is rather like a scientific fantasy actually. It also implicitly states that the act of intention and the nature of consciousness is simply the disposition of the physical body, which is a basically materialist view. You are of course free to advocate materialist views, but they are generally at odds with the Buddhist understanding.


text:
All Current Offers
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The CGEM DX 1100 HD combines Celestron's newly designed CGEM DX Computerized Equatorial mount with its new EdgeHD optical system. With an optical tube assembly weighing only 28 lbs, this telescope is still portable enough to be taken to dark skies, and has 89% more light gathering power than an 8" telescope and 40% more than the 9.25".
The EdgeHD optical system takes all of the compact power popularized by the Schmidt Cassegrain Telescope (SCT) and combines it with an improved high definition optical system for wide field, astrograph quality images. As a visual instrument, EdgeHD optics deliver pinpoint images even with your widest field eyepiece. You can search for all of the Messier Catalog objects, and see hundreds of other equally interesting NGC, IC and Caldwell objects with amazing clarity. For astrophotography, the EdgeHD optics produce aberration-free images across your favorite CCD or DSLR camera. All EdgeHD optics are designed to produce an extremely flat focal plane precise enough to match the strict tolerances of the largest commercial CCD detectors, allowing all stars to be in tight focus to the very edge of the chip.
The CGEM DX mount is the newest member of our fully computerized Equatorial mount series capable of carrying Celestron's high-end 11" and 14" optical tubes. The CGE PRO style, 2.75" leg tripod holds even our 14" optics securely and vibration free, which is ideal for both imaging and visual observing. Capable of holding 50 lbs of payload and slewing at 5° per second, you will be able to instantly point to any of the celestial objects in the database.
This product is serviced and supported by its manufacturer according to the terms and conditions included in the packaged product. Orion's limited warranty does not apply. Please contact the manufacturer directly for technical support.
Please note this product was not designed or intended by the manufacturer for use by a child 12 years of age or younger.
Level 1 Beginner - Suited for a wide range of uses, these telescopes are simple to operate and set up. Some initial assembly may be required. Very good optical and mechanical quality. Great for families, young people, and folks who don't want to mess with equipment but just want to take a look. Any of these scopes will show you countless lunar craters, Saturn's rings and a myriad of star clusters and nebulas! Referring to the manual is recommended.
Level 2 Intermediate - These scopes offer higher performance and more advanced features than Level 1: Beginner models. They typically take a bit longer to learn and need some set-up or adjustments. But anyone with the slightest technical bent will have no problem getting familiar with these models. Referring to the manual is recommended.
Level 3 Advanced - These scopes provide the best performance but may require more skill to master and appreciate. They have exceptionally fine optics and mechanics. Some are easy to use but are but on the large or heavy side. Some are intended for specialized uses. These scopes will appeal to the more technically inclined. Referring to the manual is highly recommended.
Level 4 Expert - Expert telescopes offer uncompromising optical and mechanical quality for the most demanding amateur astronomer. They may be technically involved or designed for specialized use, such as astrophotography or detailed deep sky observation. They carry a premium price, but are designed to provide the ultimate performance in the field. Referring to the manual is highly recommended.
For telescopes, the optical diameter (also known as aperture) is the size of a telescope's main light-collecting lens or primary mirror, measured in millimeters or inches. Telescopes with larger optical diameters collect more light, which leads to an increase in brightness and image resolution compared to smaller instruments.
For binoculars, the optical diameter (also known as objective lens diameter) is the size of each of the front-facing objective lenses of a binocular measured in millimeters. Binoculars with larger objective lenses collect more light, which increases image resolution and brightness. Binoculars with larger objective lenses are recommended for low light situations, and binoculars with at least 50mm or larger objective lenses are recommended for pleasing astronomical observations at night.
Orders received by 1pm Eastern Standard Time for in-stock item the same business day. Order received after noon will ship the next business day. When an item is not in-stock we will ship it as soon as it becomes available. Typically in-stock items will ship first and backordered items will follow as soon as they are available. You have the option in check out to request that your order ship complete, if you'd prefer.
A per-item shipping charge (in addition to the standard shipping and handling charge) applies to this product due to its size and weight. This charge varies based on the shipping method.
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Online or in your mailbox. Check out our colorful catalog, filled with hundreds of quality products.
Please send me email about sales, new products, and astronomy.
Since 1975 Orion Telescopes & Binoculars has been offering telescopes for sale direct to customers, with an unswerving commitment to best quality products, value and unmatched customer care. Our 100% satisfaction guarantee says it all.
Orion offers telescopes for every level: Beginner, Intermediate, Advanced, and Expert. From our entry level beginner telescopes for amateur astronomers to our Dobsonian telescopes to our most advanced Cassegrain telescopes and accessories, you can find the best telescope for you. Because we sell direct, we can offer you tremendous value at a great price. Not sure how to choose a telescope? Orion's Telescope Buyer's Guide is a great place to start.
Orion binoculars are known for quality optics at a great price. We offer binoculars for every viewing interest, including astronomical binoculars, compact binoculars, waterproof binoculars, birding binoculars, and sport and hunting binoculars.
Orion's telescope and astrophotography accessories will enhance your telescope enjoyment without breaking the bank. Expand your viewing experience with accessories ranging from moon filters to power-boosting Barlow lenses to advanced computerized telescope mounts. Capture breathtaking photos with our affordable astrophotography cameras. And when you're stargazing, Orion's telescope cases and covers, observing gear, red LED flashlights, astronomy books and star charts will make your observing sessions more convenient, comfortable and meaningful.
At Orion, we are committed to sharing our knowledge and passion for astronomy and astrophotography with the amateur astronomy community. Visit the Orion Community Center for in-depth information on telescopes, binoculars, and astrophotography. You can find astrophotography "how to" tips and share your best astronomy pictures here. Submit astronomy articles, events, & reviews, and even become a featured Orion customer!


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Walker lands on disabled list with hand injury
PITTSBURGH -- After carrying Neil Walker all week despite his inability to play with a laceration on his right hand, the Pirates on Friday belatedly placed him on the 15-day disabled list.
Walker, whose injury status is retroactive to April 27 and can be activated on May 12, was replaced by infielder Jordy Mercer, recalled from Triple-A Indianapolis.
Walker was injured trying to break up a double play last Friday in St. Louis. He had reported daily progress in his workouts, and had an extensive workout on Friday afternoon at PNC Park, prior to the decision to place him on the DL.
The move, oddly, was influenced by an injury to another player which furthered weakened the Bucs' bench: Jose Tabata is limited by a tweak of his left hamstring, and his availability will be limited through the weekend series with the Nationals.
"You hate to throw him on the DL that quick, without giving him some down time to see what's there," manager Clint Hurdle said of Tabata. "We'll see if we can carry him through the weekend. Then we may have to do something. Tuesday is probably the day we'll have to make that decision."
Mercer was hitting .333 with 19 RBIs in 26 games with the Indians. He spent much of the 2012 season with the Pirates, often used as a defensive replacement while totaling only 62 at-bats in 42 games.
Tom Singer is a reporter for MLB.com and writes an MLBlog Change for a Nickel. He can also be found on Twitter @Tom_Singer. Andrew Simon is a contributor to MLB.com. This story was not subject to the approval of Major League Baseball or its clubs.


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EDITOR'S NOTE: This is the third of four profiles of the candidates running for the 4th state Senate District seat: Mickey Harrington, Dan Levine, Jim Nielsen and Jann Reed. Their 30-minute interviews with this newspaper's editorial board can be heard online at ChicoER.com/election.
No stranger to public office, 4th state Senate District hopeful Jim Nielsen, a Republican from Gerber, was elected to the Assembly in 2008. He previously served as a state senator from 1978-1990 and served on the Board of Prisons from 1991-2000.
During his 30-minute talk with this newspaper's editorial board, Nielsen was asked about the divisiveness in Sacramento right now. He said he has worked on several issues that crossed political lines.
Examples included the Higher Education Masterplan review, CalWorks reform and current efforts to repeal the rural fire tax.
As for areas where he would not compromise, Nielsen cited his values on abortion and public safety. Also, education should be "leveled up," not leveled down and he encourages charter schools.
On water, Nielsen said area of origin water rights must be protected. He also predicts gasoline will shoot up to $6-$7 a gallon if cap-and-trade laws under AB 32 aren't reined in.
The bullet train plans will cost twice the estimates, he said, and the state would pay $350 million a year in general fund money.
He called "$19 billion for the twin tunnels" for water delivery under the delta "Jerry (Brown)'s pipes dream."
Nielsen said he doesn't believe raising taxes "can fix this budget."
He also believes there will be consensus soon that Assembly Bill 109 (prison realignment) is not working.
Nielsen said he self-selects a limit on introducing only about 10 bills a year, and would like to see other legislators do the same.
"We don't need 7,000 stupid bills a year."
He'd also like to require members of the Legislature to "spend most of their time in Sacramento sitting on budget and in the oversight committees."
Nielsen's television commercials talk about repeal of "crazy regulations on businesses and farms." One example, when asked, was new technology rules, such as for diesel engine emissions. He said these should be phased in over a longer period of time.
"Then a business knows what they can invest in. They can amortize that," rather than making expensive changes due to bureaucratic rules.
Another example was agricultural heat regulations. For large acreage, water must be every 200 feet and supervisors must be very nearby — "crazy stuff," he said.
Nielsen has received criticism by some who believe he was hand-picked by state Sen. Doug LaMalfa to win LaMalfa's Senate seat. Nielsen was not seeking re-election for his current assembly seat, and LaMalfa announced he would vacate his position two years early to run for Wally Herger's vacant federal House of Representatives position.
Nielsen also said there is "no merit" to the criticism.
"If anyone else wanted to run, they could have."
Staff writer Heather Hacking can be reached at 896-7758, firstname.lastname@example.com, and followed on Twitter @HeatherHacking.


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First Bottle Opener To Be Inspired by the Comic Book...
Diamond Select Toys presents The Walking Dead One-Eyed Zombie Bottle Opener the first to be inspired by the hit comic book.
Cast in solid metal, with magnets on the back, the hole in the head of this doubly deceased zombie is actually where a bottlecap is inserted, and some slight pressure will pop that sucker right off! And with the reusable box, you can keep it safe and secure until the apocalypse. Scheduled to arrive in stores in late August, the opener has a suggested retail price of $18.
Source: DST
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GRAND TERRACE >> All southbound lanes of the 215 Freeway will be closed tonight for Caltrans work.
The first closure from Iowa Avenue to Barton Road is scheduled to begin at 11 p.m. tonight until about 8 a.m. Saturday, according to Caltrans. Motorists will be detoured around the freeway where construction crews will be working on a railroad bridge that was recently placed above the freeway.
A similar closure will take place Saturday night.


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SAFETY work is set to be undertaken at a road crossing where a pedestrian was injured in December.
The crossing on Stockbridge Road in Fulflood is set for improvement work by the county council.
On December 18, a 26-year-old Winchester man was seriously injured in a collision with a car.
The accident took place just yards from Winchester MP Steve Brine's office, and he wrote to Hampshire County Council asking them for improvements to the line painting marking the crossing.
Mr Brine said: "While clearly the accident is still being investigated, it is clear to many that the crossing could do with some work to tidy it up and freshen the markings for the benefit of pedestrians and drivers.
"It was a shocking accident that happened just before Christmas and we were all relieved the young man seems to have recovered so well. All credit to Hampshire County Council, especially Ken Thornber, council leader, who came back to me promptly in person to confirm they have added the job to their summer programme when the warmer temperatures and dryer road surfaces are more suited to painting."


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A Primer on Relationships (with EE)
It's about time we got serious and defined this relationship. You know the one where we pair a couple of ExpressionEngine entries together like an eHarmony match made in nerd heaven. If you've never dabbled in the ways of Cupid, then it's time you learn. Relationships or Related Entries in ExpressionEngine are a simple and powerful way to reuse existing data and avoid the ultimate no-no: duplicate data.
One of the best bits of advice that I received as a young developer was to make sure that my data was only in the database once. Database optimization, only editing data in one place, the reasons go on and on, and are perhaps best saved for an article in _DBA's Rule The World_ magazine. What about us EE users though? How can we be cautious about duplicate data by taking advantage of EE Relationships? How does it benefit us, and more importantly our end users?


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|Inside the Bubble ~ Lisa LoCicero
Lisa LoCicero Comes Home to Michigan
At a recent fan event in her home state of Michigan, 'General Hospital's' Lisa LoCicero (Olivia) took a few moments to speak with Soapdom.
LoCicero (Olivia) and her co-star Kelly Sullivan (Kate) were in town to mingle with fans in Troy, Michigan recently along with former 'GHer' Jen Lilley (ex Maxie).
The three (along with LoCicero's parents) had literally just driven into town a few hours prior following a fan event in Chicago.
Soap Tweets
Follow Your Faves


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Jennifer Nettles Stands Up for 'Inspiring' Gay Community
Country artists aren't known for being outright activists for gay rights, but some have still preached acceptance when asked. Carrie Underwood, however, has spoken out about gay rights several times, and Martina McBride, Toby Keith and Dolly Parton have joined her. Now, it's Jennifer Nettles who is making her stance known.


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Sideshow Collectibles has released images of their upcoming Tomb Raider sculpture: Lara Croft: Snow Day. This statue will be available for Pre-Order through the Sideshow Newsletter on Thursday, April 8th, which is typically published between 6PM and 7PM (Pacific Time).
The exclusive edition of the Lara Croft: Snow Day Statue will be priced at $259.99 and will include a print of the design artwork created by Adam Hughes, while the regular edition, without the print, will be priced at $249.99.


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Saga heroes and villains like you've never seen them before...
Hasbro Star Wars Unleashed
To insure your action figure collection, get in touch with our sponsor Collectibles Insurance.
To get your figures graded, go to ActionFigureAuthority.com.
For a great selection of film, comic and TV action figures and collectibles, check out BigBadToyStore.com, BriansToys.com, ToyWiz.com, MonkeyDepot.com, Urban-Collector.com, NeutralZ.com, and Sekaido.com.
For a great selection of pop culture apparel, check out 80sTees.com.
Here's a really cool series that I was sad to see go away. With access to the rich cast of the Star Wars saga, Hasbro transformed each character into a dynamic "Unleashed" statue. While cast in plastic to keep costs down, these affordable action display pieces packed incredible detail. Darth Maul was my first, the Sith Lord crazily captured in a fiery ring of translucent flames (Dark Force powers?). After a few years absence, the line made a brief comeback with a Target exclusive Boba Fett (equally cool), but fan/retailer demand just wasn't strong enough and "Unleashed" faded into Star Wars history.


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Everything Silicon Valley knows about executive compensation is wrong.
Companies in the valley believe financial rewards are the most effective way to prod executives to do their very best. Want to encourage innovation? Grow the share price? Shower them with stock options. Dangle the carrot of bonuses.
That money motivates us to do our best is the ultimate expression of faith in the free market. Challenging this orthodoxy is heresy.
Yet research overwhelmingly indicates not only that money is not an effective incentive for creativity and innovation — it actually may make performance worse.
I was initially turned on to this research about compensation when I watched a talk given by Dan Pink called "The Surprising Science of Motivation." Pink has been studying and writing books about the changing nature of work for more than a decade. Along the way, he has been studying what motivates creative and innovative people for a book.
In the talk, Pink begins by describing an experiment involving a candle, a box of thumbtacks and a book of matches. The goal: Attach the lighted candle to the wall so it doesn't drip on the floor.
Pink said one researcher put together two groups to solve the candle problem. Group one was timed but offered no reward. Group two was offered $5 if its time was in the top 25 percent, and $20 if its time was the fastest.
Group two took an average of 3.5 minutes longer than group one to solve the problem.
"This makes no sense," Pink says with mock surprise in the TED talk. "I'm an American. I believe in free markets. That's not how it's supposed to work, right?"
Pink said that what appears to be a motivation intended to sharpen thinking in fact dulls it by amplifying the pressure to perform.
"And it's not an aberration," Pink said. "It's been repeated over and over again. These incentives often don't work, and in fact do harm. This is one of the most robust findings in science. And one of the most ignored."
I spoke recently with Pink, who has been on a crusade to get businesses to rethink compensation incentives. He clarified that financial rewards can work in some cases, when tasks are straightforward and mechanical. It's when creativity and innovative thinking are called for where the traditional thinking about compensation fails.
Among the research Pink surveyed was work done by Dan Ariely, a behavioral economist at the Fuqua School of Business at Duke University who is author of a new book called "The Upside of Irrationality: The Unexpected Benefits of Defying Logic at Work and at Home." Ariely said traditional compensation schemes are particularly out of whack at the executive level, where strategy and vision and innovation require more out-of-the-box thinking.
"They think of the executive as trapped in a cage, and if we just put the cheese in the right place, they'll do the right thing," Ariely said. "It just doesn't work like that."
To show how what seem like the right incentives can actually produce the wrong outcome, he uses a thought experiment.
"Imagine you're going to have brain surgery," Ariely said. "And you tell the doctor, 'If you do well then I will buy you a boat. But if this turns out badly, I will sue you.' "
His question: Will the doctor perform better?
His response: "Well, they will definitely be more anxious."
The anxiety caused by focusing on big rewards leads to narrow thinking, Ariely said. It dampens creativity rather than amplifies it.
These two are not saying money doesn't matter. The problem is too much money. Both Ariely and Pink suggest a company should pay well enough, but not offer excessive rewards.
They also suggest finding different ways to measure performance beyond sales and earnings. Tie pay to customer satisfaction, employee contentment or innovation.
The response to this message from companies has been — silence. Ariely said he's had a hard time even persuading companies to measure the effectiveness of their compensation programs, or to let him interview employees and executives about their impact.
"I talk to a lot of companies about this," Ariely said. "Let's study bonuses. Everyone says bonus season is so unhappy, we don't want them to think more about bonuses. Which is crazy. Why not fix it?"
Even if companies did see the data, Ariely is not convinced much would change.
"Imagine you got $8 million in a year," Ariely said. "Now imagine I said this doesn't work, let's cut your salary down. What would you say?"
Of course, in theory, it's not up to you or me or the CEO. The boards of directors should be applying this sort of critical analysis to executive pay. Instead, boards too often seem to serve at the mercy of management, rather than vice versa.
As a result, executive compensation is spiraling out of control, with little sign companies are getting what they're paying for.
That is the real truth about compensation in Silicon Valley. Nobody is about to let a few pesky facts get between them and the trough.
Contact Chris O'Brien at 415-298-0207 or email@example.com. Follow him at twitter.com/sjcobrien and read his blog posts at www.siliconbeat.com.


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Roger Karnbad/Celebrity Photo
Valerie Bertinelli, Phylicia Rashad and Queen Latifah won't be the only stars officially whipping their figures into shape with Jenny Craig. Just six weeks after giving birth to her second child, Nicole Sullivan of Lifetime's Rita Rocks plans to begin a new role, losing 35 lbs. of baby weight as a spokesperson for the weight-loss program. "Baby weight's different than other stuff," she tells PEOPLE exclusively. "You spend a year of your life eating what you want and enjoying letting the baby have what it feels like having — and I'[ve] lost track of what I'm supposed to be doing that's right." In addition to retraining herself about portion control, the actress (whose show returns Oct. 5) hopes that access to one of the program's personal weight-loss counselors will keep her cravings in check. "If I could have done it on my own I would have," Nicole explains, continuing, "There's going to be someone I can ask questions — and someone to call me on my B.S." To jump-start dropping one pound below her wedding-weight of 126 lbs., Nicole is keeping her goals real. "We all say we want to get healthy — and we do. We also want to look cute," she laughs. "I want to put my jeans on and have my jeans look cute." But beyond being able to slip back into her skinniest denim, "I want to be able to go snowboarding and have a fun day on the mountain without being out of breath all the time. I don't want to feel like I'm too old," she says. "I'm too young to feel like I'm too old to do stuff, basically is my motto."