text:
Canadians Advance East of Arras 3
The Film
Running Time
08 min 36 s
Topical Film Company
Compilation film of British and Canadian forces in the Advance to Victory, Western Front, August-October 1918.
Long shots of shells bursting on Bourlon Wood, and of Infantry moving up near Inchy, probably 63rd (Royal Naval) Division, on 4 September. British troops resting on the Cambrai Road with the rubble of the sugar factory behind them. 16th (Canadian Scottish) Battalion, Canadian 1st Division, moving up in column through rear area transport near Cagnicourt. A returning column of German prisoners. An advanced dressing station, probably near Epéhy, showing in some detail two Royal Army Medical Corps sergeants bandaging the leg of a German prisoner. Men of the Royal Naval Division "who the day before had captured Braincourt and Anneux', which they did on 27 September, cheer the camera and march away. German guns, ranging from heavy pieces to machineguns, captured by the Canadian Corps, set out in a park. British or Canadian soldiers posed on the captured German A7V tank Hagen. A column, possibly 1st Battalion, Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry, 5th Division, marching through the ruins of Bapaume. The unfinished Canal du Nord, very steep at this point. A more shallow crossing, with field kitchens moving up and over a temporary bridge. Another column of German prisoners. British troops march along the bed of the canal filmed from a bank. Royal Engineers bring up rails on a flatcar to repair a light railway. An Royal Field Artillery 18- pounder crosses the temporary bridge. A posed group of women, children and old men in Ecourt-St-Quentin — captured by Canadian 4th Division on 4 September — with the Canadians, including three Frenchmen who hid from the Germans. In the midst of the heavy fighting, thousands of British soldiers leave France every day for fourteen days holiday in England.
Pieces of History
Military Logistics of the Canadian Expeditionary Force, 1914–1919
Michel Litalien
Canadian military logistics is a dimension of the history of the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) that is often overlooked. Yet just a few days after Canada's entry into the First World War, it was obvious that there was no way of ignoring it. When huge numbers of military and civilian volunteers showed up at Valcartier, near Quebec City, in August 1914, logistical support services, which had only recently been established, were soon put to the test. Clothing and equipping the members of the first contingent turned out to be a real headache. Manufacturers had to be found and contracts drawn up in a hurry for the production of uniforms, boots, belts, weapons, vehicles and so on. From a logistical standpoint, mobilizing the first contingent destined for Europe was a nightmare.
Throughout the Great War, the Canadian Expeditionary Force's logistical support system was an immense, complex operation. Of all the support services, the Canadian Army Service Corps (CASC) was the most diversified. Its main responsibilities were transporting combat troops, delivering equipment and materials, and providing the troops with fresh supplies. In addition to these essential tasks, the CASC also evacuated the wounded (ambulance drivers belonged to the corps), salvaged equipment that had been captured from the enemy or left behind on the battlefield and delivered mail. The CASC worked closely with the Canadian Ordnance Corps, the Canadian Army Medical Corps, and the Canadian Artillery Corps for the transportation of specialized ordnance.
The CASC operated from seaports located hundreds of kilometres from the battlefield, all the way to just behind the front lines. Its replenishment system could supply not only small groups of just a few men but also formations the size of an infantry battalion (approximately 1,000 men).
Resupplying front-line units was a multistep process. From ports and depots, supplies were first taken by railway to railheads. From there, CASC units were responsible for moving the supplies by truck or light railway to supply dumps. These operations took place in the third line of supply. Thanks to their small size, light railways could run and reach areas closer to the front lines more easily. It was also harder for enemy artillery to pinpoint them. The administrative area behind the front lines was crisscrossed by light rail lines that were built and maintained by Canadian railway troops.
From the supply dumps, the CASC's divisional train and ammunition supply column, both of which were horse-drawn, were responsible for bringing supplies closer to the front lines, to their respective divisions or individual units. This was the second line of supply.
Lastly, operations to supply front-line units constituted the first line of supply. These units had to come back to the rear to get their own supplies of gear, ammunition, weapons, technical and communications equipment, water, medication and food. These supply expeditions were carried out chiefly at night so that the soldiers could not be seen by the enemy. But assigning combat troops to this task meant that a battalion's defensive positions at the front would be short of manpower for a time and so vulnerable to enemy attack.
Toward the end of the war, however, a Canadian officer from Montreal proposed using the tumpline system — the method that Canada's aboriginal people and coureurs de bois had used to carry large loads on foot. Before the introduction of this system, infantryman had to carry supplies in their arms, thus limiting the quantity of materials due to their size and weight. The tumpline system, which involved the use of a head strap, allowed the soldiers to carry more weight and freed up their arms, thus giving them more freedom of movement. With this system, each soldier was able to transport a greater quantity of supplies and so fewer men were required for the job, leaving more troops to ensure the defence of the front lines.
Besides regularly providing drivers and vehicles to other units, the CASC also maintained and repaired its vehicles. It also had to make sure that the troops were fed, which meant that fresh and hard rations had to be allocated and distributed properly; its military cooks oversaw the operation of field bakeries and butcheries.
The CASC was not the only logistical support corps to play a key role in the CEF. The Canadian Ordnance Corps was responsible for procuring, storing and distributing uniforms, boots, equipment, weapons, ammunition and shells to combat troops. Specialized supply depots, located in the second line of supply, helped ensure more effective distribution.
The Canadian Ordnance Corps' other major role was to maintain equipment in the field. The repairmen in the specialized ordnance mobile workshops could get closer to the deployed units and repair their weapons, both light and heavy, as well as their equipment. If the mobile workshops were not able to do the repairs on site, the weapons and equipment were shipped to heavy or stationary workshops at the rear, where virtually anything could be reassembled or rebuilt. The small detachments of the Ordnance Corps worked closely with the various units of the Army Service Corps.
Despite the gradual mechanization of the war, horses remained a vital component of the CEF. The cavalry, the artillery and, of course, the Army Service Corps used huge numbers of horses right up to the end of the war. At one point, Canadians were using as many as 24,000 horses and mules in their overseas operations. Horses could often manage in places where motorized vehicles could make no headway! Inevitably, some horses suffered injuries or fell ill. The Canadian Veterinary Corps operated mobile sections to take care of horses; it also ran veterinary hospitals for horses, advanced remount depots and specialized basic provisions depots.
Other logistical support services also played a crucial role in enabling combat troops to get on with their job. The Canadian Postal Corps, for instance, helped maintain the morale of soldiers at the front, at the rear and also those convalescing in hospitals. Army chaplains, who constituted the smallest organized support group, provided religious services to Canadian soldiers of different faiths and offered moral support at difficult times. Lastly, despite the enemy's efforts to maintain a naval blockade by submarines, the Canadian Forestry Corps ensured that Great Britain, France and the Canadian Expeditionary Force obtained all the timber they needed to carry out their military operations.
Thousands of men served in these various organizations. The Army Service Corps, for example, counted over 17,000 officers and non-commissioned soldiers in its organization. Even if these units were not combat troops, many of them, including the Army Service Corps, played important roles in all military actions. One hundred and four members of the CASC were killed, and 363 were wounded.
Selected Bibliography
Brown, Ian Malcolm. British Logistics on the Western Front, 1914-1919. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 1998.
Canadian Army Service Corps, 2nd Divisional Train: Record of Service of Officers, 1914-1919. Brian Pontifex, comp. Toronto: Carswell, 1920.
Davies, W.J.K. Light Railways of the First World War: A History of Tactical Rail Communications on the British Fronts, 1914-18. Newton Abbot, UK: David & Charles, 1967.
French, Cecil. A History of the Canadian Army Veterinary Corps in the Great World War, 1914-1919. C.A.V. Barker and Ian K. Barker, eds. Guelph: Crest Books, 1999.
Jackson, H.M. The 127th Battalion, CEF; 2nd Battalion, Canadian Railway Troops. Montreal: Industrial Shops for the Deaf, 1957?.
Johnston, James Robert. Riding into War: The Memoir of a Horse Transport Driver, 1916-1919. Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions and The New Brunswick Military Heritage Project, 2004.
Love, David W. "A Call to Arms": The Organization and Administration of Canada's Military in World War One. Calgary: Bunker To Bunker Books, 1999.
Phelan, Frederick Ross. "Army Supplies in the Forward Area and the Tumpline System: A First World War Canadian Logistical Innovation." Canadian Military History 9, no 1 (Winter 2000): 31-45 [reprinted from the article published in the Canadian Defence Quarterly in October 1928].
To the Thunderer his Arms: The Royal Canadian Ordnance Corps. William F. Rannie, ed. Lincoln, ON: W.F. Rannie, 1984.
Warren, Arnold. Wait for the Waggon: The Story of the Royal Canadian Army Service Corps. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1961.
Canadian Small Arms of the First World War
Phil White
Historian, Canadian War Museum
Although the carnage of the First World War was unprecedented, there was nothing truly new about the small arms used during the fighting. The story behind these weapons and their terrible efficiency stem from the tremendous advances in science and technology made throughout the late 19th century.
By 1850, arms factories in Europe and the United States were making the most of advances in metallurgy and mass production, and were capable of manufacturing hundreds of rifles daily. Repeating rifles, which could fire several shots before being re-loaded, were used extensively during the American Civil War (1861-65), as were the first simple multi-barrelled machine guns. More powerful ammunition was available in the 1870s. The American inventor Hiram Maxim introduced the first true machine gun, capable of firing 450 rounds per minute, in 1884. The water-cooled barrel gave Maxim's machine gun the ability to fire for hours without stopping. By the turn of the century, most European and North American soldiers carried high-powered rifles that could fire 15 shots per minute at an effective range of 800 metres. The days of reloading a single-shot rifle, in the open, five or six times a minute, were long gone. The stage was set for the killing fields that were to come.
Two Rifles
Two late-19th-century inventions, the Lee-Enfield rifle and the Ross rifle, the first Canadian-made military rifle, are central to this story.
In the late 1870s, the British Army accepted Scottish-born Canadian James Paris Lee's rifle design for trials, ultimately resulting in the adoption of the Lee-Metford rifle, then later the Lee Enfield Mk 1 rifle. It was purchased by Canada and used in the South African War.
Sir Charles Ross designed his straight-pull bolt-action rifle and patented the design in 1897. The bolt mechanism, based on the Austrian Mannlicher rifle, also included Ross's own innovations. In theory, this type of bolt-action was very easy to use and could be reloaded very quickly. The more quickly a rifle can be re-loaded, the more firepower it provides. Its drawback was a complicated manufacturing process and its fragile loading mechanism. Ross revised his design, introducing it as the Model 1900, then later with an improved bolt mechanism in 1901, both of which were submitted to American trials as a potential service rifle.
After the South African War, Sir Fredrick Borden, Canada's Minister of Militia and Defence, lobbied unsuccessfully to have the Lee-Enfield rifle built by a British firm in Canada. When the British turned down Borden's request, the Canadian government turned to Ross and his rifle. After a series of modifications, Canada accepted the design, Ross built a factory at the Citadel in Quebec, and the rifle went into production. In 1904, the Royal North West Mounted Police received 1,000 rifles, the Department of Marine and Fisheries another 500. In the coming years, the rifle underwent continual modifications and developments to suit various requirements, including target shooting by the Canadian team at Bisley, where the Ross excelled. In August 1905, the militia received its first order of 1,000 Ross Mk 2 rifles. By 1911, the Mk 3 had been accepted and was being manufactured for the militia.
Britain tested the Ross rifle between 1900 and 1912, rejecting it because of problems with the design, including a propensity to jam.
The British Army continued to use the Lee-Enfield and in 1903, introduced the Short Magazine Lee-Enfield (S.M.L.E.) into service. The S.M.L.E., a shortened version of the Lee-Enfield Mk I, had been developed as a result of experience gained during the South African War. The design and construction were simple, if not crude, but also robust, functioning under less than ideal conditions.
Ross continued to develop and fine-tune his design, resulting in dozens of variations. Between 1903 and 1915, 419,130 Ross rifles were manufactured, with most going to Canadian troops, and some to Newfoundland and Britain.
The Canadian forces entered the First World War with the Ross rifle, Mk 2, Mk 3, and its subsequent variations. Almost immediately, its shortcomings became evident.
On March 10, 1915 the 1st Canadian Division went into battle at Neuve Chapelle, France. The Canadians were heavily engaged and, to the horror of the soldiers, their Ross rifles began to jam. The reasons for this were numerous: the ammunition provided was often inconsistent in size; muddy conditions allowed dirt to build up in the complicated loading mechanism, and the heat generated by rapid-firing caused the closely machined parts to expand and seize. A design flaw also made the bolt difficult to lock, if it had been assembled improperly, and some bolts were said to have blown back into the user's face. Canadian soldiers soon began discarding the Ross in favour of the British S.M.L.E. Mk 3*, when they could find them in the field. General E.A.H. Alderson, commander of the 1st Canadian Division, was forced to issue an order banning the use of the S.M.L.E by Canadian troops.
When the Canadians fought at the Second Battle of Ypres, in late April 1915, the Ross failed again. Outnumbered and facing the first gas attack of the war, the Canadians found their rifles jamming. Some reports had them "Clubbing furiously at their seized bolts with trenching tools and boot heels." By the end of the battle, hundreds had discarded their Ross rifles in favour of the trusted S.M.L.E.
By June 1915, British Field Marshal Sir John French ordered the Canadians under his command to be re-armed with the S.M.L.E. However, the 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions that soon arrived in Europe still carried the Ross.
In May 1916, a study into the Ross's problems confirmed the jamming and recommended modifications to the rifle's bolt-stops. Earlier tests had reported the Ross worked well with Canadian ammunition made at Dominion Arsenals in Quebec, but this ammunition was in short supply. New, poorly fitted stocks made from improperly seasoned birch were also causing problems as the wood warped and pressed against the metal frames. In light of the report, a few rifles were re-built with 26-inch barrels, trimmed stocks and larger bolt-stops. Although the rifles were reported to have worked "superbly," soldiers had lost all confidence in them. In mid July, Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig re-armed Canadians with the S.M.L.E. and the Ross was officially withdrawn from front line service by the end of that year.
By this time Sir Charles Ross was running into other problems. Skilled labourers were finding better work in the United States, machinery ordered in 1914 had yet to arrive, and supplies were increasingly difficult to secure. Ross won a $22,500,000 contract to make one million rifles for Russia, but had to let it go to the United States due to inability to meet his deadline. A second order from Russia was cancelled after the Mk 3 was withdrawn from Canadian service. On March 28, 1917, the Canadian Government expropriated the Ross Rifle Company. Canada's first and only national rifle had failed as a battlefield weapon.
The Machine Gun
In 1912, the British Army adopted the water-cooled Vickers Mk 1machine gun, an improvement over the 1884 Maxim design, as its standard machine gun. The slightly lighter Vickers, like the Maxim, made use of an ammunition belt, and could fire 450 rounds per minute. Its water-cooled barrel could sustain this fire over very long periods of time, often for hours. Classified as a medium machine gun, the Vickers Mk 1 was used primarily on a tripod from defensive positions. It could be fired directly at a visible target, or indirectly, like artillery, at targets or positions at long range or behind obstacles.
In response to the need to provide quick-moving infantry with machine gun support, light machine guns appeared on the battlefield in 1914. The Lewis, the first light machine gun used by the British and Canadian forces, had been introduced into service with the Belgian army in 1913. It weighed about 18 kg and could be carried "over the top" like a rifle, to give advancing troops added firepower.
Due to a shortage of light machine guns, the British and Canadians also adopted the Hotchkiss machine gun in 1916. The Hotchkiss was based on the French medium machine gun the Mitrailleur Mle. 09, modified for use as a light machine gun. Although lighter than the Lewis, the Hotchkiss was more complicated and was used mainly by the cavalry. The Hotckhkiss remained in service for training and home guard use after the First World War and was not declared obsolete until 1946.
The decisions regarding when and how to deploy, or advance against small arms fire relate to the concept of the 'beaten zone' or 'killing zone' that existed between the lines, and the time-versus-lead equations; the idea that a storm of bullets and/or artillery shells poured into a given area made the task of 'advancing to contact' extremely difficult, if not impossible. This led to obvious challenges: crossing the zone more quickly (tanks) or by stealth (surprise attack, often without pre-shelling); better tactics to bypass resistance (storm troops, combined arms warfare); and heavier bombardments to keep enemy heads down, destroy obstacles, etc; and in the meantime, drove troops into the ground (trenches) to escape slaughter.
Close Combat
Most of the casualties during the war were inflicted by artillery or small arms fire coming from a distance. However, there was still some close and brutal fighting, often as part of larger operations, but particularly during trench raids.
All rifles were fitted with bayonets, which took the form of a long knife or spike that could be attached to the muzzle of the rifle, effectively forming a spear. By the First World War, British, and Canadian soldiers had been training to use bayonets for 200 years and were very efficient in its use. The bayonet also had an enormous psychological impact. Hundreds or thousands of enemy troops running towards you firing their rifles, screaming and brandishing long blades or spikes, was a terrifying and demoralizing sight. Despite the psychological advantage, many officers considered the bayonet perfectly useless, even in the 19th century. Firepower and broken terrain could keep cavalry at bay from c1860 onwards in most battles, thereby removing the bayonet's one real advantage – warding off cavalry. When fighting in the confined spaces of the trenches, the length of a bayonet fixed to the muzzle of a rifle could be a great disadvantage. To this end, many soldiers equipped themselves with other weapons, both standard and non-standard issue. These weapons were especially important for trench raids.
Usually conducted at night, trench raiding was extremely brutal, tending to resemble medieval warfare. Soldiers made use of pistols, grenades, clubs, axes, morning stars, knives and even sharpened shovels. As a defensive measure, body armour was brought back into use and worn openly by infantry for the first time since the 17th century.
Pistols were issued officially to officers and NCOs exclusively, but they were also occasionally picked up or traded by soldiers and used for close fighting.
At the beginning of the First World War, Sam Hughes, Minister of Militia and Defence, ordered 5,000 semi-automatic .45 ACP calibre Colt model 1911 (Government Model) pistols through one of his "Honorary Colonels," causing a short-lived political scandal. The pistols were issued to non-commissioned officers and made available to officers for purchase, along with some older Colt revolvers left over from the South African War. Canadian officers serving with the Royal Canadian Horse Artillery, or other units assigned to British formations, were issued with Webley revolvers of various marks.
With the forces rapid expansion, the military needed more pistols by mid 1915. Due to shortcomings found with the Colt Model 1911, the government purchased 1,500 Smith & Wesson .455 Hand Ejector Second Model revolvers on August 21, with later orders for 13,000 between 1915 and 1917. Revolvers were considered more reliable in harsh conditions.
Immediately after the ceasefire of November 11, 1918, many First World War small arms developments were shelved. Advances had been made in designing lighter, more efficient machine guns and submachine guns, but, in the debt-ridden postwar years the last thing most governments wanted to spend money on was small arms.
The Department of Militia and Defence was now faced with the disposal of the unwanted Ross rifles. Some 120,000 Mk 2 and Mk 3 rifles were taken overseas and turned over to the British, and 20,000 were sold to the United States for training. Of the rifles sent overseas, 9,334 were later returned to Canada. The Ross continued in use as a sniper rifle throughout the war, and well into the Second World War, making use of its initial design as a sporting and target rifle. Many Ross rifles were also re-issued during the Second World War for training and Home Guard use and eventually made their way into the hands of the armies of China, Chile, the Baltic states, Spain, New Zealand, Holland, India, Indonesia and the Soviet Union.
The S.M.L.E. remained in service well into the Second World War and was replaced in 1942 by the Lee-Enfield No. 4. James Paris Lee's basic rifle design is still in limited service with the Canadian Forces in the 21st century with the Canadian Rangers and Cadets.
The machine gun continues to be a vital part of the arsenals of all armies. The Vickers machine gun was used in the Second World War, the Korean War, and was not officially declared obsolete until the 1960s. The Lewis gun saw limited service in the Canadian Army during the Second World War, notably at Hong Kong.
The bayonet is stilled issued and used as a standard attachment to most military rifles worldwide.
The small arms designs that were rooted in the late 19th century and used during the First World War evolved very little throughout the first half of the 20th century. Although infantry tactics evolved considerably and the casualty figures of the First World War seem incomprehensible today, killing over open sights remains the foot soldier's basic role.
Selected Bibliography
Edgecombe, David W. Defending the Dominion, Canadian Military Rifles 1855-1955. Ottawa: Service Publications, 2003.
---. Small Arms of the World: A Basic Manual of Small Arms. 12th rev. ed. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1983.
Ezell, Edward C. Handguns of the World: Military Revolvers and Self-Loaders from 1870-1945. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1981.
Hogg, Ian V. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Firearms. London: New Burlington Books, 1978.
---. Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th ed. Iola: Krause Publications, 2000.
Law, Clive M. Canadian Military Handguns, 1855-1985. Bloomfield, ON: Museum Restoration Services, 1994.
---. Without Warning: Canadian Sniper Equipment in the 20th Century. Ottawa: Service Publications, 2004.
Maze, Robert J. Howdah to High Power: A Century of British Breechloading Service Pistols (1867-1967). Tucson: Excalibur Publications, 2002.
Meek, John F. Over the Top: The Canadian Infantry in the First World War. Orangeville, ON: John F. Meek, 1971.
Morton, Desmond. A Military History of Canada. Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers, 1985
Nelson, Thomas B. The World's Submachine Guns. Cologne, Germany: International Small Arms Publishers, 1963.
Phillips, Roger. The Ross Rifle Story. Sydney, NS: John A. Chadwick, 1984.
Rawling, Bill. Surviving Trench Warfare: Technology and the Canadian Corps 1914-1918. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992.
Saunders, Anthony. Weapons of the Trench War, 1914-1918. Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton, 1999
Skennerton, Ian D. The British Service Lee, Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield Rifles and Carbines 1880-1980. London: Arms and Armour Press, 1982.
---. The Lee-Enfield Story. Piqua: I.D.S.A. Books, 1993.
Artillery: The Great Killer
Tim Cook
Historian, Canadian War Museum
In 1914 and 1915, artillery proved it was the great killer. For those caught in the open, shrapnel and high explosive shells wreacked havoc. Thousands were left rotting on the battlefields. However, artillery guns were vulnerable to small arms fire, and they could be driven away from the front. But the guns were soon firing indirectly from hidden positions several kilometeres to the rear, still causing terrible damage. Soldiers were forced to find safety in trenches, digging beneath the ground to escape the murderous fire.
As trenches were strengthened with barbed wire, deep dugouts, and machine -guns, an enormous weight of fire was needed to smash the enemy defences and support the infantry. But there were not always enough shells in the early years to feed the guns. And so the infantry were killed in the tens of thousands as they attacked undamaged enemy trenches in frontal assaults. As the war lengthened, artillerymen received nearly unlimited supplies of shells through the enormous production of munitions factories. New tactics were also developed to improve the accuracy of the guns.
Artillery shells contained high explosives, shrapnel, and, later in the war, poison gas and smoke. Both the high explosive and shrapnel shells were timed to detonate in the air above a target. High explosive shells blasted holes in the trenches and the concussion alone could kill, as lungs collapsed under the force of the explosion. Shrapnel shells were equally deadly, consisting of more than 300 rounded metal balls that exploded downward in a cone-shaped rain of whirling metal. As well, the casing of the shell was designed to explode outward, creating jagged, uneven shards of steel that tore through flesh.
By 1916, commanders believed that massive artillery shoots, involving hundreds of thousands of shells, would annihilate the enemy defenders. This would allow the infantry to punch a hole through enemy lines and restore mobility on the Western Front.
However, it was often hard to hit, and then destroy, the narrow and well-fortified trenches. The problem also lay in the shell fuses. Earlier types were not sensitive enough to explode on contact, especially with shells tasked to clear barbed wire. As a result, many of the shells exploded in the ground, killing very few of the enemy, leaving the infantry to fight their way through defences-in-depth. By the end of 1916, newer, sensitive fuses that exploded on the slightest contact harnessed the destructive power of the artillery and, equally important to the infantry, cleared barbed wire from in front of enemy trenches.
Tactics again changed during the later phases of the bloody battles of the Somme in the last half of 1916. The gunners would never be able to destroy all of the German defences, and even one machine -gunner could kill hundreds of attacking infantry. Instead, the artillery sought to suppress enemy fire through a "creeping barrage," and give their own attacking infantry enough time to cross the killing zone of nNo Mman's Lland.
Gunners fired their shells to create a "creeping" wall of fire that slowly moved forward over the enemy lines at fixed intervals: 50 yards (46 m) every couple of minutes, less for muddy ground, more for open warfare. In effect, it was a screen of fire and explosives. As this moving wall of shrapnel and high explosives chewed up the ground in its path, the infantry were told to "lean into the barrage" and stay as close as possible. Although friendly fire was expected and occurred, the casualties would still be lighter than if the creeping barrage moved off and allowed German machine -gunners, waiting in the safety of deep dugouts, to get to the top of their trenches before the infantry crossed nNo Mman's lLand.
At the Battle of Vimy Ridge in April 1917, the gunners had perfected the creeping barrage. Yet enemy gunners still took a fearful toll as they laid down their own counter-barrages to catch the follow-on waves of infantry. The enemy guns had to be stopped, or slowed, but it was exceedingly difficult to identify, target, and destroy camouflaged guns several kilometeres away.
Accurate intelligence was essential, and new and refined forms of science aided the gunners. The Canadian Corps was lucky to have Brigadier-General Andrew McNaughton, commander of the counter-battery office for much of the war, who embraced new technology and tactics. A prewar professor at McGill University, he turned to science to save his soldiers lives.
The Canadian Counter Battery Office (CCBO), established in February 1917, gathered intelligence and processed information on the enemy to assist in knocking out his guns. Aerial reconnaissance from the Royal Flying Corps (later Royal Air Force) was of great assistance as airmen photographed the front from great heights. Later in the war, observation aircraft circled the battlefield, passing real-time information to the gunners through letter drops and primitive wireless radio.
As the CCBO developed after April 1917, this information-gathering and target-selection became more sophisticated, with new technology, like sound-ranging and flash-spotting, assisting gunners to find and destroy enemy targets.
Flash-spotting involved the coordination of observers. At least three posts were needed, usually spread out along several kilometeres. When an enemy gun position was spotted by the revealing flash as the shell left the barrel, the observers were telephoned by headquarters to turn their attention to that spot. After studying the flash of the gun, the observers would hit a key that was connected to a lamp at headquarters. From the observers' bearings, and by triangulating their estimates, enemy guns could be located with high precision.
Sound-ranging worked on a similar principle. Listeners sat two kilometeres behind the line with their microphones. Additional posts were manned well ahead of these positions. As long as there was not more than one shell per second being fired, on hearing the crash of an enemy gun, the forward listening post pressed a key that started an oscillograph, an instrument that recorded on film the sound of the shell in flight as it reached each microphone in turn. The time-intervals between the microphones allowed the CCBO to analyse the information and, if conditions were optimal, pinpoint enemy guns to within twenty-five 25 yards (23 m). All available counter-battery guns would be aimed on that spot to deliver a destructive shoot of 50-100 shells. Chemical shells were also used to kill or force the enemy gunners to wear debilitating respirators that severely affected the rate of fire.
In the last year of the war, artillery had perfected the creeping barrage and was steadily improving its counter-battery work. Further tactical refinement allowed gunners to fire more complicated barrages, like a box barrage. The box barrages set up a wall of fire and explosives around an enemy position —-- usually a trench —-- which effectively isolated it from reinforcements. It allowed assaulting Canadian infantrymen to capture and consolidate a position without fear of immediate counterattack.
By war's end, 43,914 gunners had served in the Canadian artillery, and 2,565 had lost their lives from disease, injury, and battlefield wounds. They had fired tens of millions of shells, reducing the landscape to a desolate wasteland, and an estimated 60% of all wounds were inflicted by shell fire. The First World War was indeed a gunner's war.
Selected Bibliography
Cook, Tim. No Place to Run: The Canadian Corps and Gas Warfare in the First World War. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1999.
McNaughton, A.G.L. "Counter-Battery Work." Canadian Defence Quarterly 3, 4 (July, 1926).
McNaughton, A.G.L. "The Development of Artillery in the Great War." Canadian Defence Quarterly 4, 2 (January, 1929).
Nicholson, G.W.L. The Gunners of Canada: The History of the Royal Regiment of the Canadian Artillery, Vol. 1: 1534-1919 Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1967.
Rawling, William. Surviving Trench Warfare: Technology and the Canadian Corps, 1914-1918. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992.
Swettenham, John. McNaughton, Volume I. Toronto: The Ryerson Press, 1968.
Engineers on the Western Front
Bill Rawling
Historian, Department of National Defence
The Western Front made huge demands in matériel, lumber being an excellent example. Wood was needed to revet trenches, support the roofs of dugouts, for plank or corduroy roads, and as sleepers for tramways and railways. These tasks became the responsibility of the military engineers, specialized forestry units being formed for the purpose. Lumberjacks, graders and other skilled men from within the lumber industry were recruited. They cut timber and ran their own sawmills to provide a finished product.
The first forestry companies in the war were formed in 1915, in France. More units were created in England to harvest the island's local resources. All of these were gathered into a corps in 1916 that eventually comprised 43 companies, and was of such a scale as to require its own hospital system. The men received more than the normal food rations, considering the fact that they were engaged in continuous hard labour.
Their work, in Britain and France, saved huge amounts in shipping costs, not to mention freeing up lumber supplies for such industrial endeavours as shoring up mines and building trawlers and other vessels. Nor did the forestry corps limit its work to cutting and preparing wood. Many of its units supported the Royal Air Force by clearing, draining, levelling and grading sites for aerodromes. By the time of the Armistice 11,750 men worked within its ranks, with another 6000 attached in various capacities.
Closer to the fighting there was a need for heavy-capacity means of transport to get the prodigious amounts of ammunition, food, water and other necessary matériel to the front line. One solution to such an intimidating logistical problem was the construction of tramways with specialized labour, with other specialists maintaining and operating the tractors and rolling stock. The result was a system of transport similar to that of a large North American city run by the Canadian Railway Troops. The troops worked on the Western Front and also in Palestine, the 1st Bridging Company serving there in the last part of the war. The system was, in fact, a merging of two networks, tramways closer to the front operating with gasoline-powered tractors while light railways a little farther behind used steam power, the whole being linked to France's broad gauge system, which had been built in the decades before the conflict.
In the end, the war became too mobile for railway troops to keep up, and when an Armistice was declared on November 11, 1918, the railways were some 30 kilometres behind the forward troops, in spite of the work of 25,000 railway construction engineers, two-thirds of them Canadian. Still, they had served their purpose in the almost four years of near-static warfare that characterized the Western Front from late 1914 to the summer of 1918.
It became clear in the early months of the First World War that operations above ground were distinctly hazardous, even suicidal, hence the trenches and dugouts in which soldiers took shelter. An obvious course was to begin operating underground, and within the Canadian Corps three specialized tunnelling companies were formed. Recruited in the main among miners and clay-kickers (the latter dug smaller tunnels to run gas and water mains under city streets), they began their work in 1915, and their role was multi-faceted. First, they used the galleries they excavated under enemy lines to listen in on his own work, the aim being to give fair warning if he began to threaten Canadian lines underground. Second, they might pack the galleries with explosives to destroy enemy defences; generally, however, such operations proved disappointing as German forces usually occupied the crater thus created before Canadian or British troops could reach it.
Tunnelling was particularly hazardous. Working underground can release toxic gas capable of disabling or killing, or one could find oneself tunnelling into an enemy gallery, leading to vicious little skirmishes fought with knives and digging tools. When fighting shifted from a mutual siege to more open warfare in 1918, tunnellers applied their skills to other work, disarming booby traps in dugouts and other underground facilities as the Allies advanced towards the German border. In fact, the only Canadian military engineer ever to be awarded the Victoria Cross was Captain C.N. Mitchell, a tunneller who in 1918 removed explosives from a bridge while under attack.
Field Engineering
The most versatile of the engineers operated on the front line. Originally organized in field companies of a hundred men or so, in 1918 they were reorganized into larger battalions and even brigades. Regardless of how they were administered, their tasks were widely varied. Just behind the front line they were responsible for building and maintaining roads, as well as providing water for humans and animals, the latter task requiring some of them at least to possess knowledge of how to locate and test the precious liquid. To give just two examples, part of the preparations for the assault on Vimy Ridge included laying over 40 miles (65 km) of four-inch (10 cm) pipe, with five pumping stations and a total storage capacity of 560,000 gallons. Following the successful advance at Amiens in August 1918, one of the deepest penetrations achieved on the Western Front, the Canadian Corps and its allies found itself in the midst of a plain scorched dry by the summer sun, but engineers needed only two days to locate sufficient water to keep forward troops satiated.
In the front lines proper, sappers, as they were called, dug trenches, or oversaw this work done by the infantry work parties, and prepared defensive positions with the copious use of barbed wire. On occasion, as for a trench raid, for example, they were called upon to destroy such wire, using long cylinders filled with explosive called ammonal tubes or bangalore torpedoes. When that front line advanced, as in 1918, bridging became a most crucial sapper task, as forward movement could not be maintained without ammunition, water, food, and the other necessities of making war, all of which needed to be transported forward on roads or railways, both of which needed bridges to get across rivers and other, similar obstacles. Small structures made of cork sufficed to get the infantry across, while prefabricated materials called Inglis bridges carried heavier loads.
At the time of the Armistice what could be called field engineers (as opposed to railway and forestry troops) could count 14,285 men within their ranks, with responsibilities only somewhat less diverse than their numbers.
Selected Bibliography
Kerry, A.J. and W.A. McDill. The History of the Corps of Royal Canadian Engineers, Volume I (1749-1939). Ottawa : Military Engineers Association of Canada, 1962.
Chaplin-Thomas, Charmion, Vic Johnson and Bill Rawling. Ubique! : Canadian Military Engineers : A Century of Service. Burnstown, ON: General Store Publishing House, 2003.
Other Materials
The Withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line
none the less hard-fought engagements preparatory to larger operations, pushed the
enemy five miles up the Ancre valley on a four-mile front; and on the night of 22-23
February the Germans fell back three more miles across a front of fifteen miles. The
inability of his forces to withstand British pressure in their present positions strengthened Crown Prince Rupprecht's argument for a general retirement to the Hindenburg Line at an early date. On 30 January Ludendorff agreed, not only because the consequent shortening of the front would release thirteen divisions and many artillery units for the projected offensive in Italy, but also because a general retirement could be expected to upset French and British campaign plans. It was in the German interest to delay as long as possible any struggle on the Western Front, in order to allow time for results from the campaign of unrestricted warfare by submarine and cruiser which had begun on 1 February. The deciding factor, however, appears to have been the need for time to replenish supplies of guns and shells, deliveries of which had fallen far short of von Hindenburg's orders and expectations.
On 4 February the High Command issued an order over the Kaiser's signature for a
withdrawal of the Seventh Army's right wing, the Second and First Armies, and the left wing of the Sixth Army to the Hindenburg Line between 15 and 18 March. This operation was aptly code-named "Alberich", after the malicious dwarf of the Nibelungen saga,28 for it called for the devastation of the whole area to be abandoned - nearly 100 miles of front between Soissons and Arras, averaging almost 20 miles in depth. Under this "scorched earth" policy all military installations and useful war material were removed from the existing forward zone, townspeople and villagers were evacuated and their communities razed, livestock were carried away or destroyed, and all wells were either filled in or polluted. To delay an Allied advance the retreating Germans felled trees across the roads, blew large craters at main intersections, and everywhere beset the pursuers' path with ingeniously laid booby-traps. Well organized rearguards covered the German withdrawal, though these received orders not to counter- attack. The skill of the Germans in concealing their plans from the Allies and the success of their delaying tactics helped prevent any effective follow-up. By the morning of 19 March, 29 divisions had completed the withdrawal with a minimum of Allied interference.29 Four Allied armies found themselves out of contact - from north to south, the right wing of the British Third Army about Arras, the Fifth and Fourth Armies to across the Somme valley, and the left wing of the French between Roye and the Aisne. It took until 5 April to drive in the German outposts and establish a new Allied line in front of the Hindenburg Position.*
The enemy's retirement did not greatly affect the plan of Nivelle's main offensive,
which was to be made east of Soissons. But it seriously upset the preliminary offensive in the north, for the Germans in the salient which converging British and French thrusts were to have pinched out had now escaped containment. Time was lacking in which to build new communications across the devastated area, particularly on the French left, where the retreat had been farthest. Accordingly, the northern attack became an all-British operation, the principal aim of which was to outflank the Hindenburg Line from the north and advance towards Cambrai. General Nivelle was forcibly told by Painlevé and Pétain and other high French officers that his scheme was no longer practicable. Army group commanders opposed the plan as a reversion to the discredited pre-war and 1914 overemphasis on offensive action for its own sake. There were also strategic and political objections. Neither the Russians nor the Italians would be able to mount offensives in time to render assistance; and the prospect of America's early entry into the war seemed another good reason for postponing a major French offensive. At one point Nivelle offered his resignation; but this being refused, he continued with his preparations. After various delays the assault on the Aisne was ordered to open on 16 April, the British offensive a week earlier.
* Taking part in the Fourth Army's advance was the Canadian Cavalry Brigade. On 27 March, Lieut. F.M.W. Harvey, Lord Strathcona's Horse, ran into a wired trench and captured a machine-gun, for which daring act he was awarded the V.C.
Adapted and used with permission from Nicholson, G. W. L., Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914-1919. Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1964, p.218-219.
The 16th (Canadian Scottish) (Princess Mary's) Battalion
Under the commands of Lt-Cols R. G. E. Leckie and C. W. Peck, the 16th Battalion fought in many battles, including Ypres, Vimy Ridge, the Somme, Passchendaele and Amiens. At Regina Trench on October 8, 1916, men of the 16th were restricted at the wire by a storm of enemy machine-gun and rifle fire, not one being able to get through. With complete disregard for the gunfire, the 18-year-old piper James Richardson marched up and down playing his bagpipes, inspiring about a hundred of the Scottish to rush the wire. The soldiers managed to fight their way into the Regina Trench. At Vimy Ridge, Private W. J. Milne engaged in heroic action for which he was awarded a Victoria Cross posthumously. While his company was being held up by enemy machine gun, Milne crawled on hands and knees to bombing distance, wiped out the crew and captured the gun. Later that day, he was killed.
Adapted from Nicholson, G. W. L. Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914-1918.
The Canal du Nord and Bourlon Wood
On the Corps right, troops of the 10th Brigade, hugging their artillery cover, quickly crossed the canal on a two-battalion front between Inchy and Moeuvres. They overcame resistance from the Canal du Nord Line, and established them selves on Red according to schedule. The 11th and 12th Brigades, leading the 4th Division's attack on the right and left respectively, pushed forward but almost immediately met trouble from the south. Opposing General Watson's formations was the German 187th Infantry Division, with its 188th Infantry Regiment directly west of Bourlon Wood, flanked to north and south respectively by the 186th and 187th Regiments. Farther south was the dismounted 7th Cavalry Division; unused to infantry tactics they were quickly defeated. The 52nd Division, attacking on the Third Army's flank, had not achieved the same initial success as the 4th Division, and as a result the Canadian right suffered many casualties from enfilade fire.
In stiff fighting the 87th Battalion gained an entry into the southern part of Bourlon village by 9:45 a.m., and the 54th, passing through, skirted the north end of Bourlon Wood to reach the far side. The slower advance of the British troops to the south compelled the 102nd Battalion to form a defensive flank beside the Bapaume road and defeated the plan to encircle the wood from the south. This left the 54th in a pronounced salient, suffering mounting casualties. The battalion pushed on towards Fontaine-Notre-Dame, finally coming to a halt about 7:00 p.m. just west of the village, the 75th and 87th Battalions coming up on its left. Farther north the 12th Brigade also had stiff fighting throughout the day. The 85th and 38th Battalions, heavily hit by shelling and machine-gun fire during their advance, cleared their part of the Marquion trench system, allowing the 78th and 72nd Battalions to gain all but the extreme right of its Blue Line objective. It took a fresh attack mounted at 8:00 p.m. by the 78th Battalion to overcome the final pocket of resistance.
In the course of the 4th Division's operations on September 27 two subalterns had won the Victoria Cross. Lieutenant G.T. Lyall of the 102nd Battalion, and Lieutenant S.L. Honey, D.C.M., M.M., 78th Battalion, through their skilful leadership and courage in dealing with German strong points both significantly contributed to the capture of Bourlon Wood. Like many another recognition for brave deeds in the war, Lieutenant Honey's award came posthumously.
On the Corps left the 1st Division's success paid tribute to careful planning and well-directed and determined execution. Two guns of the 1st Battery C.F.A. gave the 1st Brigade a good start by moving in front of Inchy-en-Artois and firing point-blank into enemy positions along the canal. Thus aided, the 4th Battalion, having crossed the dry bed with little difficulty, was able to jump ahead to the north-east and capture its assigned portion of the Marquion Line. Here the 1st Battalion pushed through as planned and secured the Green Line in short order. The 2nd and 3rd Battalions now assumed the lead, only to be stopped by heavy fire from the embanked railway which curved north from Bourlon. With the aid of a timely flanking attack by the 72nd Battalion they overcame this resistance and swept on to the Blue Line. The action of the Commander of the 3rd Battalion's left support company, Lieutenant G.F. Kerr, M.C., M.M., in rushing single-handed a German strongpoint near the Arras-Cambrai road played an important part in the 1st Brigade's advance. Kerr, who captured four machine guns and 31 prisoners, was awarded the Victoria Cross.
The 2nd Brigade's role was to follow the 1st up to the Marquion Line and then extend to the left to capture the central portion of the Blue Line on the divisional front. By two o'clock the 7th Battalion was firm on its objective midway between Marquion and Haynecourt. During the afternoon the 5th Battalion went on to occupy Haynecourt and push patrols almost to the main Cambrai-Douai road. On the left, units of the 11th British Division passed through, headed for Epinoy. By the end of the day (September 27) patrols of the 10th Battalion-which had passed through the 5th just east of Haynecourtwere approaching the Marcoing Line, coming first to a heavy belt of uncut wire covered by enemy machine-guns. With mounting casualties the infantry cut the wire and pushed forward; but confronted by a second wire barrier, which marked the line itself, and with darkness approaching, the battalion consolidated on the east side of the Douai-Cambrai road.
On General Macdonell's left the 3rd Brigade had the important task of driving northward beyond the Canal du Nord and capturing in turn the villages of Sainslez-Marquion and Marquion, thereby freeing the eastern bank to permit crossings by the 11th Division. Leading the 3rd Brigade's advance the 14th Battalion crossed south of Sains-lez-Marquion, and swinging north behind the village, quickly captured its part of the Red Line. Four supporting tanks rendered good service in crushing wire barricades and in mopping up the village, but mechanical difficulties kept them from advancing past the Red Line. From Chapel Corner, south-east of Marquion, the German opposition, which had wavered before the initial rush of the 14th, rallied with heavy fire to stop the 13th Battalion, which was following up the initial assault. It took a joint effort by the 13th and 15th Battalions with tank assistance to clear Marquion. The 15th continued northward across the Arras road, mopping up the area east of the canal. By 2:00 p.m. it was firm at the Blue Line, just south of Sauchy-Lestrée.
Both Canadian divisions had received useful help from the tanks-each being supported by a company (of eight tanks) from the 7th Tank Battalion. The four allotted to each assaulting brigade successfully crossed the dry canal under cover of an artillery smoke-screen. Later they contributed to their own concealment by means of smoke dischargers fitted to their exhausts. During the day they gave good service in crushing wire entanglements and silencing with their fire enemy machine-gun posts. Of the sixteen tanks engaged in the first phase of the operation five fell victim to German fire.
About midday, when the 3rd Infantry Brigade had completed its assigned task of clearing the east bank of the canal, units of the 11th Division crossed at four places between Sains-lez-Marquion and the highway and moved smoothly into place on the left of the 1st Division to start the second phase of the attack. The advance to the north and north-east continued without serious interruption, and by dusk Epinoy and Oisy-le-Verger were in British hands.
Adapted and used with permission from Nicholson, G. W. L., Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914-1919. Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1964, p.419-422.
The Expanding Allied Offensive
The first move in the Allied scheme to extend the stalled Amiens offensive on both wings was made on the southern flank on August 20 1918, when the French Tenth Army of General Mangin struck northward from the Aisne between Compičgne and Soissons with twelve divisions. An advance of nearly five miles in two days carried the assault to the river Oise between Noyon and Chauny. On the 21st the French Third Army (General Humbert) on Mangin's left resumed operations with some success, while on the same day north of Albert the British Third Army initiated Sir Douglas Haig's share in the renewed offensive. General Byng's forces struck a telling blow on the 23rd, when a two-mile advance towards Bapaume netted 5000 prisoners from General Otto von Below's badly shaken Seventeenth Army. This achievement was matched on Haig's right flank, where the Fourth Army had taken up the battle astride the Somme and the 1st Australian Division had shattered two German divisions on the southern bank. The next two days saw some slight progress on both the Third and Fourth Armies' fronts, and on August 26 an expansion of the battle into the First Army's sector brought the Canadian Corps once more into action.
The period of rest and refitting that would normally follow participation in such extensive operations as the Amiens battle was denied the Canadians; for in these last hundred days of the war each major offensive so rapidly succeeded its predecessor that unprecedented demands had to be made on the stamina of the forces employed. Back under General Horne's command in its former position east of Arras, the Canadian Corps was confronted by a series of formidable defence positions which the enemy was holding in strength. Immediately in front of the Canadians, about Monchy-le-Preux, were the old British trenches lost in the German offensive of March 1918, and to the east of these lay the enemy's former front line. This was backed up, two miles east of Monchy, by the so-called Fresnes-Rouvroy line, which was actually an extension south of the Scarpe of the original line joining Rouvroy (south-east of Lens) to Fresnes (north-east of Arras). Another mile to the east the approaches to Cambrai were blocked by the strongest position of all-the Drocourt-Quéant line (the southernmost portion of the Wotan I-Stellung), which, extending northward from the Hindenburg Line (Siegfried-Stellung) at Quéant, had been constructed by the Germans to contain any Allied advance into the Douai plain. Still farther east, crossed by the main road at Marquion, was the unfinished Canal du Nord, connecting the Somme Canal with the Sensée Canal. Though not yet extensively fortified it formed in conjunction with the Sensée marshes a major obstacle.
On August 22 General Currie outlined to his divisional commanders his plans for an attack eastward astride the Arras-Cambrai road. The Canadian Corps had been given the task of forcing the Drocourt-Quéant line south of the Scarpe and advancing to the line of the Canal du Nord. Having thus broken the hinge of the Hindenburg system the Corps was to swing southward and sweep down behind that formidable position in order to deny the Germans opposing the Third Army a rallying ground. On Currie's right the 17th Corps, operating on the Third Army's northern flank, was under orders to cooperate with the Canadian Corps, attacking south-eastward along both sides of the Hindenburg position.
General Currie's was an important and a difficult assignment. The enemy's main defence positions, supplemented by various subsidiary switches and strong points, were among the strongest on the Western Front. The ground was pocked with the scars of 1917 and early 1918, and in the litter of old trenches and fortifications German engineers had found ready-made positions which they had considerably strengthened. Furthermore, topography was on the side of the Germans. The battle area spread over the north-eastern slopes of the Artois Hills, whose summits about Monchy were over three hundred feet above the valley-bottoms of the Scarpe and the Sensée. The latter river, flowing generally eastward, together with its tributaries had dissected the hills into numerous deep valleys. The intervening ridges and high points, often mutually supporting, the enemy had fortified with a skill that demonstrated his mastery in military engineering.
The Germans' general defensive plan at this time was to give up ground in the region of the Lys and Ypres salients and to fight a determined rearguard action in the Somme area. Ludendorff overruled the views of those staffs (in particular Crown Prince Wilhelm's) that favoured a major voluntary retirement into the Hindenburg and adjoining defence systems. His purpose was by means of a gradual fighting withdrawal to wear out the Allied forces before they reached the Hindenburg position, thus gaining time to reorganize behind that formidable defence line. The defences about the Arras-Cambrai road in the Monchy area would form the pivot of any German retirement south of the Scarpe, while the security of Prince Rupprecht's northern armies also depended on retaining them.
These positions became the initial Canadian objective. With the enemy expecting attack, except for the actual hour of assault, surprise was clearly impossible. It would be a case of launching successive frontal, grinding assaults against well-established lines manned by tenacious, alert troops.
Adapted and used with permission from Nicholson, G. W. L., Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914-1919. Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1964, p.399-401.


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Category: Ingrid Bergman children
This week, Appellation Mountain's Abby Sandel flashes back to the Golden Age of Hollywood to look at some cool celebrity baby names of the past.
Oscar-winning actress Natalie Portman and husband Benjamin Millepied have yet to officially release the name of their newborn son. Could it be a new trend with celebrity baby names? Fellow celeb parents Penélope Cruz and Javier Bardem never announced their son's name, and neither did Isla Fisher and Sacha Baron Cohen, though in both cases, the news leaked out. Mariah Carey and Nick Cannon dropped hints about their twins' names for days before we all learned that their little ones were called Monroe and Moroccan.
Can you blame them? Whether the parents opt for something as traditional as James or as unusual as Pilot, their choice is discussed, rated, and thoroughly dissected, along with their choice of stroller, nursery décor, and baby clothes.
Things were a little different in Hollywood's Golden Age. Studios reportedly wrote clauses into their stars' contracts, penalizing them for becoming pregnant. While the pressure was greater for women, some men also feared that fatherhood could have a negative impact on their ability to land roles as a leading man.
Actors Loretta Young and Clark Gable had a daughter together in 1935 – but Gable was married to someone else. Young hid her pregnancy with a hiatus in Europe, then stage-managed an "adoption" of her daughter months later.
When Ingrid Bergman – Oscar-nominated for roles as a nun and a saint – started an affair with director Roberto Rossellini, the scandal was epic. Ed Sullivan declined to have her on his show.
And yet, whether we were barely tolerant of celebrities' roles as parents or interested in them beyond reason, one thing remains the same: actors tend to choose interesting names for their children. This list of names, most representing children born from the 1930s into the 1960s, would be perfectly acceptable for starbabies born today.
Their power as trendsetters was no less powerful. Both Errol Flynn and Audrey Hepburn had sons called Sean. Sean entered the US Top 1000 two years after Flynn's son was born in 1941, and took another big leap after Hepburn's Sean debuted in 1960. The pattern repeats for many of these names.

subset: commoncrawl


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Yes.PeterB wrote:The person is real but transient. The person stubs her/his toe. The person loves and is aversive. The person laughs and cries. They are real.
The idea that they will have existence permanently in whole or part is the construct. Not just a mental construct but a psycho -social construct among psycho- social constructs.
What arises when you clench your hand is a fist. When you open your hand the fist does not arise. Nevertheless for the duration of your clenching the fist had reality as a fist. As that which in the English language is named "fist". Which is an action not a thing. A person is an action not a thing. It does have existence however while the conditions for its arising are present..


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Fontana police plan to have extra officers on patrol this weekend to focus on motorcycle safety.
Officers will keep an eye on areas frequented by motorcyclists and locations where motorcycle crashes occur, police said. They're cracking down on riders and people in vehicles who are intoxicated, caught speeding, making illegal turns or other violations, police said.
The California Office of Traffic Safety, through the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration provided funding for the operation.
Reach Melissa via email or call her at 909-386-3878.
Get the latest crime and public safety news on Twitter @IECrime.


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This Slow Cooker Vegetarian Cannellini Bean and Kale Soup with Shaved Parmesan can cook all day while you're at work and was adapted from one I saw in The Italian Slow Cooker, a book that's loaded with good ideas. I increased the amount of stock (and might use even more next time), added some dried Italian herbs, and served the soup with shaved Parmesan Cheese instead of croutons, for a Phase One soup that was warm and filling, and loaded with flavor.
(You can see more vegetarian ideas by checking the Recipes-by-Photo Index Page for Meatless Monday or Vegetarian Recipes in the recipe index. For Meatless Monday ideas from other bloggers check Meatless Monday at BlogHer, or visit my Meatless Monday Pinterest board.)
Slow Cooker Vegetarian Cannellini Bean and Kale Soup with Shaved Parmesan
(Makes 6-8 servings; recipe adapted from The Italian Slow Cooker by Michele Scicolone.)
I used my Crock-Pot 5-Quart Smart-Pot for this recipe.
2 T olive oil
2 medium onions, chopped small
2 T minced garlic (or less if you're not a garlic fan)
2 tsp. dried Italian Seasoning (contains oregano, basil, marjoram, thyme and rosemary)
2 cans (15 oz. can) Cannellini beans and juice (or use 4 cups cooked cannellini beans and a little water)
1 can (14.5 oz.) petite diced tomatoes with juice
8 oz. finely chopped kale, washed if needed (about 8 cups finely chopped kale)
4-5 cups chicken or vegetable stock (I used 4 cups, but next time I would probably use 5)
4 fresh sage leaves, or 1/2 tsp. dried rubbed sage
1-2 pieces of Parmesan rind to add flavor (optional)
freshly shaved Parmesan, to garnish (optional)
This soup will keep for at least a week in the fridge, and it freezes well.
Low-Carb Diet / Low-Glycemic Diet / South Beach Diet Suggestions:
Find More Recipes Like This One:
Nutritional Information?
More Meatless Ideas with Kale:
Vegetarian Lasagna with Kale and Mushroom-Tomato Sauce from Kalyn's Kitchen
Spaghetti with Kale and Tomato Sauce from Bell'Alimento
Vegetarian Whole Wheat Pasta with Fried Kale, Tomato Sauce, and Goat Cheese from Kalyn's Kitchen
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Posted 6 years ago
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Hello. This is a G9244854 Singer Sewing Machine which I believe was made in 1922 (?). It is in pristine condition and it still works but needs a new belt. I have the original owner's manual as well. I am not posting this for sale here but I'm wondering if anyone knows how much it is worth or where I might do some research to find out more about it's value. Thanks so much!


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Here is a list of events and goings-on in the world of genealogy blogging. Here's what is happening in the coming week:
Scanfest will not be held in October and will return to AnceStories in November.
Data Backup Day – November 1
Don't forget that the first day of each month has been designated as Data Backup Day – and here are some great resources to get you started. Post about how you backup your data (or don't backup your data) and we'll carry your post here at GeneaBloggers on November 1st!
Daze of the Week!
Some of you may have noticed that in each Genealogy Blogging Beat we now feature national holidays and some of the more offbeat holidays. Here are some dates next week to look out for so you can plan your blog posts for next week:
- October 26: Mule Day (US), National Frankenstein Day
- October 27: Make a Difference Day, National Tell a Story Day (UK), Navy Day (US)
- October 28: Feast of St. Jude, Mother-in-Law Day, Reformation Sunday
- October 29: Internet Day
- October 30: Create a Great Funeral Day, National Candy Corn Day
- October 31: Halloween, National UNICEF Day, Samhain
- November 1: All Saints Day, National Authors Day, National Men Make Dinner Day
- November 2: All Souls Day, Cookie Monster Day, Plan Your Epitaph Day
Happy Blogiversary!
If your blog anniversary is coming up soon, make sure it gets on our GeneaBloggers calendar! Remember to send your blog anniversary info to GeneaBloggers.
Genealogy Webinars This Week
For more information on genealogy webinars check out GeneaWebinars.
Appearances By GeneaBloggers Members
For a listing of speaking engagements by genealogy bloggers, along with their profiles and available presentations, visit GeneaSpeak.
GeneaBloggers on Facebook
Check out the Facebook page for GeneaBloggers (http://www.facebook.com/Geneabloggers) and click LIKE in order to follow the latest news and events related to GeneaBloggers on Facebook.
52 Weeks of Abundant Genealogy
52 Weeks of Abundant Genealogy is a series of weekly blogging prompts (one for each week of 2012) that invite genealogists and family historians to highlight those genealogy resources for which they are thankful. This is also a way to mention a favorite site or tool to others and if you don't already utilize that resource, you'll be able to follow the blog posts that help you understand why the resource is important!
You do not have to be a blogger to participate. If you do not have a genealogy blog, write down your thoughts on your computer, or simply record them on paper and keep them with your files.
- Week 44: Genealogy Conferences. What was your best genealogy conference experience? Why is it so memorable in your mind? Who hosted the event? What did you learn from this experience? How does it impact your genealogy research today?
This week's prompt runs from Sunday, October 28, 2012 through Saturday, November 3, 2012.
GeneaBloggers Calendar
And don't forget to check out other upcoming events at the Geneabloggers Calendar. This is the same Google calendar that has been in existence for quite some time. And if you subscribe to the calendar you'll receive email reminders of events.
© 2012 copyright, Thomas MacEntee


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Plouffe pulled from game with triceps contusion
MINNEAPOLIS -- Third baseman Trevor Plouffe left Saturday's 5-3 win over the Tigers in the seventh inning with a left triceps contusion. He's day to day.
Plouffe was hit by a pitch on his left arm on a 91-mph fastball from reliever Jose Ortega in the fourth inning, but he remained in the game. It turned out to be important for the Twins, as he laced a go-ahead two-run single back up the middle in the fifth off reliever Phil Coke.
But Plouffe was eventually removed from the game in the top of the seventh, as Eduardo Escobar moved over from shortstop to third base and Pedro Florimon came in at short.
"It got me right above the bone, which is pretty fortunate," Plouffe said. "But it was pretty solid."
Plouffe said he could really feel it on two check swings during his at-bat in the fifth, but he was still able to come through with what proved to be the game-winning single.
"I had some adrenaline going," Plouffe said. "But bending my arm was tough, and checking up on those two swings was when I really felt it. But I was able to get through it and when I got my arms extended, I was OK."
Plouffe said he remains hopeful he'll be back in the lineup Sunday, but it depends on how it will react overnight.
"I want to be in there, absolutely, but we'll see how it goes tonight," Plouffe said. "If I just try to move it around, I think I'll be OK."
Rhett Bollinger is a reporter for MLB.com. Read his blog, Bollinger Beat, and follow him on Twitter @RhettBollinger. This story was not subject to the approval of Major League Baseball or its clubs.


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This game was classified by the community with the following category scores - Violence=1/3, Sex=0/3, Mature Content=1/3. Sketchy Tower Defense offers classic tower defense gameplay with unique uncluttered graphical style that provides endless hours of fun. Play a variety of fun levels in single player, two player offline co-op, or two player offline competitive mode!
Buy Xbox content on Xbox.com. Your Xbox 360 console will automatically download the content next time you turn it on and connect to Xbox Live.Learn More


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Connect with us:
In recognition of April as National Youth Sports Safety Month, MomsTeam asked our friends in the medical, health, fitness, nutrition and athletic training communities to write blogs answering two questions: first, how or why did they get into their field, and second, how have they made a difference in the life of a youth athlete in the past year.
Today, we hear from Michael Goldenberg, an Athletic Trainer at the Lawrenceville School in Lawrenceville, New Jersey.
By Michael S. Goldenberg, MS, ATC


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SU Sport Clubs are recognized student organizations formed by individuals with common interests in a sport or physical activity. These interests can be instructional, recreational, and/or competitive in nature. Although SIRA provides support and guidance for sport clubs, effective sport clubs must be student intiated, student led and student managed. Check out the links below for each club to learn more and/or to get involved….
What you'll need to join a Sport Club…
- Participant Packet (PDF)
Information for Sport Club Officers:
- Travel Release (PDF)
- Travel Checklist (PDF)
- Accident Report (PDF)
- Emergency Procedures (PDF)
- Officers Manual (PDF)
- Funding Request (PDF)
- Semester Report (PDF)
- Facility Request (PDF)


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Sun 1 July 2012 Results
No meetings found
Racing Tips
Friday's racing preview
Dance The Dream is fully expected to take top honours in the Dubai Duty Free Handicap at Newbury by Chris Wilson.
Ayr Gold Cup: Runner-by-runner
Check out Matt Brocklebank's guide to Saturday's William Hill Ayr Gold Cup, with SIX places up for grabs with Sky Bet.
Alex Hammond: Great Scott!
Alex Hammond covers a smorgasbord of topics in her latest blog including a positive word for George Scott's Mill Reef hope James Garfield.
Football Tips
Our best bets
Check out all of our available betting tips and previews of the forthcoming sporting action.
Betting Zone: Tipping record
A look at how the Sporting Life recommended bets have performed.
Wednesday Carabao Cup tips
12/1 Sunderland can spring a Carabao Cup upset on Wednesday night, says our Andy Schooler.


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Personal Property Taxes Due Oct. 5
Sept. 22, 2008
News Highlights
- Residents encouraged to pay by mail, phone, computer or kiosk.
- Payments received or postmarked on Oct. 6 will be credited as on time this year.
- Cashier counters will be open extended hours beginning Sept. 29.
More Information
Fairfax County residents are reminded that 2008 personal property taxes must be paid by Oct. 5. Residents can take advantage of several payment options by mail, telephone, computer or kiosks throughout the county to avoid last-minute lines. Since Oct. 5 is a Sunday, payments received or postmarked on Monday, Oct. 6, will be credited as on time.
There is a 10 percent penalty plus interest for late personal property tax payments, and late payments are subject to multiple collection actions and additional fees. Personal property includes automobiles, trucks, motor homes, motorcycles, trailers, campers, boats, outboard motors, planes and business property.
In addition to registering with the Department of Motor Vehicles, automobiles purchased or moved into the county must be registered within 60 days of the purchase or move-in date. Residents of the towns (corporate limits only) of Clifton and Herndon are required to purchase town decals.
Tax payments can be made:
On the Internet – Visit www.fairfaxcounty.gov/dta and pay by check or credit
card (VISA, MasterCard, American Express and Discover).
At banks – Pay by check or cash (not credit card) at local
branches of the following banks in Fairfax County: Bank of America, Sun
Trust and Wachovia. These payments must be made on or before the due
date of Oct. 5. Residents must bring their bill and pay the exact
amount billed.
By phone – For VISA, MasterCard and American Express, call
703-222-6740, TTY 711. If using Discover, call 703-222-8234, TTY
703-222-7594, between 8 a.m. and 4:30 p.m., Monday through
By mail – Send checks only (no cash) payable to the Fairfax
County Department of Tax Administration,
12000 Government Center Parkway, Suite 223, Fairfax, VA 22035.
At the county's electronic kiosks – Use VISA, MasterCard,
American Express or Discover cards at county kiosks located in the
following libraries: Centreville, Chantilly, Dolley Madison, Fairfax
City, George Mason, Herndon Fortnightly, John Marshall, Kings Park,
Kingstowne, Pohick, Reston, Sherwood and Tysons-Pimmit. Additional
kiosks are located in the Tysons West Park Transit Station, Adult
Detention Center (Sheriff's Office), Fairfax City Museum, Mason
Governmental Center, McLean Governmental Center, South County Center,
Inova HealthPlex in Alexandria, Fairfax County Community Services
Center, Herrity Building, Pennino Building, Housing and Community
Development Building, Fairfax County Government Center and Town of
Warrenton Library.
- In person – Pay by check, cash or credit card (VISA, MasterCard, American Express and Discover) at the Fairfax County Government Center, Department of Tax Administration, 12000 Government Center Parkway, Suite 223, Fairfax. Regular office hours are from 8 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. DTA cashier counters will be open to the public on extended hours until 6 p.m., Sept. 29-Oct. 3 and Oct. 6, and on Saturday, Oct. 4, from 8 a.m. to noon.
Failure to receive a bill does not exempt individuals from paying personal property taxes or from incurring late payment penalties. Residents are asked to check their tax bills upon receipt to make sure the information is accurate. If they did not receive a bill or if the bill is incorrect, they should call 703-222-8234, TTY 703-222-7594.
Declaration forms are available at the Department of Tax Administration, or by calling 703-222-8234, TTY 703-222-7594. Residents also can download tax forms, report vehicle changes and calculate the proration of certain vehicle taxes online at www.fairfaxcounty.gov/dta.
Fairfax County Office of Public Affairs
12000 Government Center Parkway, Suite 551
Fairfax, VA 22035-0065
Contact: Merni Fitzgerald, Director of Public Affairs
703-324-3187, TTY 711, Fax 703-324-2010
Media Pager: 703-324-NEWS (6397)
Fairfax County is committed to
nondiscrimination on the basis of disability in all county programs,
services and activities. To request this information in an alternate
format, call the Office of Public Affairs at 703-324-3187, TTY 711.


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Big crash on Truxtun Avenue snarls traffic Thursday morning
BAKERSFIELD, Calif. (KBAK/KBFX) Two people were injured Thursday morning in a crash that closed lanes of busy eastbound Truxtun Avenue. The roadway has since reopened.
The crash involved four vehicles, one of which apparently crossed into oncoming traffic, police said.
Officers on scene didn't say what caused the crash or who was at fault.
Six people were involved in the crash just east of Coffee Road. Police didn't release any names.


text: The Blackest (and Bluest) Day! In the annals of Archie Comics history, it doesn't get more explosive than this, the return of the Man From R.I.V.E.R.D.A.L.E., the return of writer Tom DeFalco, and the unveiling of a character kept under wraps for decades! Evil spy ring C.R.U.S.H. is out to obtain Formula Z, but first they must get past the defenses of the Man from R.I.V.E.R.D.A.L.E. as he vigorously guards the secret formula! Fortunately for C.R.U.S.H., the Man from R.I.V.E.R.D.A.L.E. is none other than Archie Andrews, and he's as girl crazy as ever! C.R.U.S.H. dispatches the beautiful Sharry the Spy Girl, who is determined to use all of her feminine wiles to obtain that formula! Can Archie resist the paralyzing pull of pulchritude or will he lose the formula to crafty C.R.U.S.H.? Add to this Andy Andrews, star of a never-published tale of intrigue from the 1950s wherein the intrepid foreign correspondent went undercover behind the Iron Curtain!


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Hurdle, Pirates move on from Sunday's melee
PITTSBURGH -- Clint Hurdle had given Joe Torre, MLB's executive vice president of baseball operations, his take on Sunday's fight between the Pirates and Brewers earlier in the day and he was in no mood to share his perspective with the media.
"I shared my views with Joe, and we'll see how it plays out," said Hurdle. "Sometimes in this game, we do lose respect for the opposition and for the game. That's when it can get complicated."
Hurdle was more willing to expound on the potential effect of such an incident, which saw inactive Travis Snider take charge as the war of words between Gerrit Cole and the Brewers' Carlos Gomez threatened to escalate.
Any effect, that is, beyond the benefit that could result if Martin Maldonado accepts Russell Martin's challenge. The Pittsburgh catcher, still upset at Maldonado's rabbit punch on Snider, wants to get in the ring with the Milwaukee catcher.
"If he wants to have a fight for charity in the offseason, my contract comes up at the end of the season," Martin said. "So before I sign a contract, I can do whatever I want. If he's up for that, I'm down. [His action] wasn't necessary. I know in his mind he's protecting his teammate. But he wasn't. He got a free shot in there. I'm getting a little heated just talking about it.
"In my code, you don't throw a punch at somebody unless they're looking you in the eye."
As for the trite suggestion that such altercations can galvanize and inspire a team, Hurdle didn't shy away from a possibly unpopular view.
"I've played on teams where a spark or altercation actually can help," Hurdle said. "But we're already motivated. We just haven't played well enough collectively to have won more games.
"What was in evidence there is that our guys are going to play with intensity. They will support a teammate when called upon to do so."
Tom Singer is a reporter for MLB.com and writes an MLBlog Change for a Nickel. He can also be found on Twitter @Tom_Singer. This story was not subject to the approval of Major League Baseball or its clubs.


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Daniel Day-Lewis is expected to land a Bafta nomination later for his critically acclaimed performance as US president Abraham Lincoln.
Lincoln, a political biopic which focuses on the president's bid to emancipate the slaves as the American Civil War comes to an end, is directed by Steven Spielberg and is also tipped to dominate this year's Oscars.
Other films expected to feature in the nominations at Bafta's HQ in Piccadilly include Shadow Dancer, a thriller set in Northern Ireland during the Troubles, which is based on a novel by journalist Tom Bradby.
Andrea Riseborough, who plays an IRA member turned MI5 informer in the film, has already been recognised for her performance with a nod in the shortlist for the EE Bafta Rising Star Award 2013.
The latest 007 film, Skyfall, is also likely to feature heavily with director Sam Mendes and Bond baddie Javier Bardem expected to be recognised by Bafta with a possible nomination for Dame Judi Dench's portrayal of spymaster M.
Tom Hooper, the man behind the huge hit The King's Speech, is likely to see his latest film, a big screen adaptation of the musical Les Miserables, feature in the Bafta running.
Hooper, who learned his trade on TV shows including Byker Grove and EastEnders, could secure a nomination with the film's stars Hugh Jackman and Anne Hathaway.
Veteran duo Sir Anthony Hopkins and Dame Helen Mirren are likely to be recognised for their roles in Hitchcock.
Sir Anthony played the legendary film-maker, and Dame Helen took on the role of his wife, in the biopic.
The event, formally known as the EE British Academy Film Awards, will take place on Sunday February 10 at the Royal Opera House, in Covent Garden, with Stephen Fry hosting.
Daniel Day-Lewis is expected to land a Bafta nomination(Bafta)


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Steve Sabol has brain tumor
11 hours, 12 minutes ago
tweet38EmailPrintMOUNT LAUREL, N.J. (AP)NFL Films president Steve Sabol will undergo radiation and chemotherapy treatment after doctors discovered a tumor on the left side of his brain.
NFL.com cites an NFL Films statement Friday about the 68-year-old Sabol, who was hospitalized March 5 in Kansas City, Mo., after suffering a seizure.
(Sabol) will begin treatments soon, the companys statement said. Steve is in good spirits and is deeply appreciative of everyones good wishes.
Sabol has worked with NFL Films since 1964. His father, Ed, was elected on the day before the Super Bowl last month to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio.


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The Straight Scoop on OOP
Flexible and Straightforward, Object-Oriented Programming is the Ideal Tool for Creating Reliable Applications to Manage Complex Tasks
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming technique that lends itself to structured and modular software code. Modular coding can be implemented with virtually any programming language from ladder to function block, but OOP was designed from the ground up with modules in mind.
This means that OOP tools and programming languages naturally lead to discrete modules or blocks of code linked together with rules that are part of OOP programming languages.
The flip side to modular programming is simple, monolithic or "spaghetti" style programming. These types of programs don't use modules but rather have all code in one continuous string. Monolithic programming skips advanced programming techniques and goes straight for the quick fix. This often means programmers are writing code without first thinking about the overall structure of the program. This may appear an expeditious way to write a program, but problems often result.
A program written without a pre-defined structure can become very complex, and even incomprehensible to all except the original programmer. Even the original programmer can become confused as the program grows more complex or when the program needs to be revisited after a period of time.
By contrast, structured and modular programming requires thought and planning prior to coding. If structure and modules are desired, then OOP is an ideal tool.
Modular coding in general and OOP in particular offer many advantages over monolithic code including ease of test, reuse of code and portability to different hardware target platforms.
OOP was developed for good reasons, and under the right circumstances it can produce excellent results and do things that are virtually impossible sans OOP. With OOP, a skilled programmer can program an application in an organized manner.
It only takes one skilled programmer to properly develop an OOP framework. That framework can then be used by other programmers. The beauty of OOP lies in its ability to manage complex tasks, its flexibility, and its ability to make efficient use of hardware.
Inside OOP
OOP is a high-level extension of the modular code concept. By building cleverly thought out, reusable modules of code, repetitive programming is avoided. Code also becomes more organized and readable.
Individual modules of code, or classes, can "inherit" each other's contents. A child class inherits the contents of a parent class. Inherited contents can be modified by adding new code or improving old code. For example, a parent class can be written to allow a PC to exchange data with a particular brand and model PLC.
A child class can also be created for a different PLC, and with the child inheriting the parent's common functionality while still providing a programmer with a way to add hardware specific details.
An object is an instance of a class, and it contains data and code that operates on that data. Multiple objects or modules are linked together to build programs.
Objects can be linked together in a tree structure by having them contain each other's memory addresses. Those addresses can then be followed from object to object. This functionality is called traversal. As the program traverses, each object is accessed and the program gathers information about that object or provides services such as settings management to that object.
For example, the traversal function can be used to build a test and validation document for the entire program by traversing a tree of objects that contain the file name of a test and validation document that describes the object and its requirements. The traversal function collects all test and validation information together in an organized fashion.
By traversing a similar tree of objects, a programmer can gather all of the pertinent information describing those objects. This information could then be used to build a new program with a similar structure on another machine, a technique called serialization.
An entire Graphical User Interface (GUI) page can be transported from one hardware platform to another by serializing an object that contains a description of the GUI page.
When to OOP
OOP does take more work up front than monolithic code, so OOP should only be applied when dictated by circumstances.
OOP systems are particularly useful when all the eventual uses and applications of a program can not be known in advance. Some OOP languages are also well-suited for situations where a software program is needed to control a variety of hardware. For example, a corporate-level software engineer is responsible for implementing an advanced control algorithm across several plants. These facilities contain a variety of software operating system and hardware platforms. OOP's inherent flexibility would allow the software engineer to create a base program that could then be easily modified for each platform.
Another situation where OOP excels is when equipment or processes need to be connected together in unforeseen ways. Each module can be written to control a particular process, and these modules can then be linked together as needed.
Building with modular connectable blocks lets one swap only the required modules out if and when a process changes. Existing blocks from old projects can also be used to program new projects quickly.
If a module is structured correctly the first time, a permanent solution is created that can be used again and again. If mistakes are found in a module or if a module is improved, it is a simple task to update the module in all of the programs in which that module exists.
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