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Copyright 2002 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0022-0663/02/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//0022-0622.214.171.1248
Revision of Achievement Goal Theory: Necessary and Illuminating
Judith M. Harackiewicz
University of Wisconsin—Madison
Kenneth E. Barron
James Madison University
Paul R. Pintrich
University of Michigan
Andrew J. Elliot and Todd M. Thrash
University of Rochester
C. Midgley et al. (2001) raised important questions about the effects of performance-approach goals. The present authors disagree with their characterization of the research findings and implications for theory. They discuss 3 reasons to revise goal theory: (a) the importance of separating approach from avoidance strivings, (b) the positive potential of performance-approach goals, and (c) identification of the ways performance-approach goals can combine with mastery goals to promote optimal motivation. The authors review theory and research to substantiate their claim that goal theory is in need of revision, and they endorse a multiple goal perspective. The revision of goal theory is underway and offers a more complex, but necessary, perspective on important issues of motivation, learning, and achievement.
In a recent article in Journal of Educational Psychology, Midgley, Kaplan, and Middleton (2001) focused on the question of whether performance-approach goals are adaptive and if so, whether they are uniformly adaptive or adaptive only under certain conditions. Midgley et al. (2001) made a number of cogent and important points about the nature of goal theory and research on performance-approach goals, and we compliment them for highlighting crucial avenues for future research. However, Midgley et al. (2001) concluded by claiming unequivocally that there is no need to revise goal theory: "Is there evidence of the need to adopt a revised goal theory perspective (Harackiewicz, Barron, & Elliot, 1998; Pintrich, 2000b)? We do not think so" (p. 83). In contrast, the present authors, representing three different research programs, believe that recent theoretical developments and empirical findings warrant a revision of goal theory that is both necessary, given the data, and illuminating, given the prospect for a richer understanding of motivational dynamics. Accordingly, in this response we suggest that recent theorizing has identified three important reasons to revise goal theory: (a) the importance of separating approach from avoidance strivings (Elliot, 1997; Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996; Pintrich, 2000c), (b) the unique positive potential of performance-approach goals, relative to mastery goals (Harackiewicz et al., 1998), and (c) identification of the ways in
which performance-approach goals can combine with mastery goals to promote optimal motivation (Barron & Harackiewicz, 2000, 2001; Pintrich, 2000b). These new theoretical perspectives have generated hypotheses that move beyond dichotomous mastery versus performance goal comparisons to a multiple goal perspective that has enriched our understanding of motivation and achievement.
Separating Approach From Avoidance Strivings
A cornerstone of the multiple goal perspective is the distinction between performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals. This stands in contrast to what we will refer to as normative goal theory, where the basic distinction is a dichotomy between a mastery goal construct and a performance goal construct. Mastery goals represent a focus on learning and self-improvement, and performance goals represent a more general concern with demonstrating ability and trying to do better or not appear worse than others (Ames, 1992; Dweck & Leggett, 1988). As Midgley et al. (2001) rightly pointed out, it was not until recently that theory and research suggested there are important differences between approach and avoidance forms of performance goals. Performanceapproach and performance-avoidance goals are two functionally separate goals leading to different outcomes, with performanceavoidance goals linked with maladaptive outcomes (Elliot, 1997, 1999; Elliot & Church, 1997; Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996), and performance-approach goals linked with some adaptive outcomes, especially achievement (Elliot, 1999; Harackiewicz et al., 1998). The key theoretical point is that there are important reasons to distinguish between approach and avoidance forms of performance goals. Although it is important to avoid a proliferation of constructs in motivation research, it is also important to maintain distinctions between constructs when they reflect important and functional differences (Pintrich, 2000a). Midgley et al. (2001) accepted this revision of goal theory and have made use of it in their own empirical work (Midgley et al., 1998). However, there seems to be an internal inconsistency in the Midgley et al. (2001)
We thank Amanda Durik and Corwin Senko for helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Judith M. Harackiewicz, Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1202 West Johnson Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706; Kenneth E. Barron, School of Psychology, James Madison University, MSC 7401, Harrisonburg, Virginia 22807; Paul R. Pintrich, Combined Program in Education and Psychology, University of Michigan, 1406 SEB, 610 East University Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; or Andrew J. Elliot or Todd M. Thrash, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Meliora Hall, Rochester, New York 14627. E-mail: email@example.com, firstname.lastname@example.com, email@example.com, email@example.com, or email@example.com
article if they accepted the distinction between approach and avoidance but then concluded that no revision of goal theory is needed. At a logical level, this distinction is a key premise of the multiple goal perspective, and accepting this distinction implies the need to revise goal theory to include both types of performance goals. More important, at a scientific level, Midgley et al. (2001) rejected the proposition that performance-approach goals can have adaptive outcomes and concluded, in line with normative goal theory, that performance-approach goals primarily have maladaptive outcomes. If all performance goals are maladaptive, as suggested by Midgley et al. (2001), there seems little scientific utility in continuing to distinguish between approach and avoidance forms of performance goals in future research (Pintrich, 2000a). However, performance-approach goals can have positive outcomes (Harackiewicz et al., 1998) and can play a different role in achievement dynamics than performance-avoidance goals (Elliot, 1999). Accordingly, it is important for researchers to keep the distinction for logical, scientific, theoretical, and empirical reasons and to continue to explore the differential roles that performanceapproach and performance-avoidance goals play in motivation and learning.
The Positive Potential of Performance-Approach Goals
Because there was no distinction between approach and avoidance goals in early research, it is difficult to review the literature on performance-approach goals. The majority of the extant research was from the perspective of normative goal theory. Measures of performance goals based on this dichotomous framework vary dramatically, with some composed entirely of positively valenced items (hence assessing a performance-approach goal) and others composed of both positively and negatively valenced items (hence assessing a hybrid performance-approach/avoidance goal; Elliot & Church, 1997). Ideally, the items used in these measures would be readily accessible, affording recategorization in terms of approach avoidance. Unfortunately in many instances, the item content has not been published and, as we know from personal experience, efforts to acquire such information are often unsuccessful. Midgley et al. (2001) addressed this critical measurement issue in a manner that we find confusing. Rather than limiting their review to studies that used performance-approach goal measures (whether defined explicitly as such or as determined through recategorization), they reviewed, in interspersed fashion, studies with performance-approach goal measures and studies with performance goal measures of unspecified composition (generically labeled performance goals). Thus, although the headings of the first and third sections of their literature review focused explicitly on performance-approach goals (Performance-Approach Goals: Good for What?, Performance-Approach Goals: Good at What Cost?), the studies reviewed in each section and, presumably, the conclusions offered, followed from a mixed empirical base. As such, we find it difficult to interpret these sections of their article. Midgley et al. (2001) offered three primary summary statements based on their review of the literature, and some of their conclusions diverged from those we have drawn in recent reviews of studies using explicit or recategorized performance-approach goal measures (Elliot, 1999; Harackiewicz et al., 1998; Hidi & Harac-
kiewicz, 2000; Pintrich, 2000c). We would like to discuss each of Midgley et al.'s (2001) summary statements, in the context of our understanding of the extant literature. First, Midgley et al. (2001) concluded that the literature on performance-approach goals is less consistent than that for mastery and performance-avoidance goals. We concur and have offered several reasons for this differential consistency (see Elliot & Thrash, 2001; Thrash & Elliot, 2001). One reason is that performance-approach goals are conceptualized and operationalized in very different ways by different researchers, whereas mastery goals are conceptualized and operationalized more uniformly. For example, some define and assess performance-based goals in terms of self-presentation (e.g., trying to look a certain way to others), whereas others focus exclusively on a norm-referenced definition of competence (e.g., trying to do well relative to others). We think that the latter is preferable to the former, because self-presentation has nothing to do with competence per se, and competence should be at the core of any achievement goal construct (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). We would expect norm-referenced goals and goals that include a self-presentation component to yield somewhat different consequences, with the self-presentation component producing a less positive empirical profile. This analysis provides another potential explanation for the differential consistency between performance-approach goals and mastery goals. Another reason for the differential consistency is that unlike mastery and performance-avoidance goal regulation, which typically represents pure approach and pure avoidance motivation respectively (Elliot, 1997), performance-approach goal regulation can represent a motivational hybrid, in that performance-approach goals may be undergirded by approach and avoidance motivational concerns (e.g., need for achievement and fear of failure; see Elliot & Church, 1997). The motivation underlying the goal is presumed to influence how the goal is pursued and experienced; thus, performance-approach goals could yield variable consequences as a function of their different motivational bases. This issue may account, in part, for the differential consistency between performanceapproach goals and both mastery and performance-avoidance goals. Second, Midgley et al. (2001) concluded that the literature on performance-approach goals and adaptive outcomes is inconsistent. Although the empirical pattern for performance-approach goals is less consistent than that for mastery and performanceavoidance goals, we contend that outcomes in performance-approach goal research are more consistent than Midgley et al. (2001) suggested (see Elliot, 1999; Harackiewicz et al., 1998; Pintrich, 2000c, for reviews). For example, performance-approach goals are positively related to adaptive variables such as task value (e.g., Bong, 2001; Church, Elliot, & Gable, 2001; Wolters, Yu, & Pintrich, 1996), academic self-concept (e.g., Pajares, Britner, & Valiante, 2000; Skaalvik, 1997; Wolters et al., 1996), effort expenditure (e.g., Elliot, McGregor, & Gable, 1999; Lopez, 1999), and performance attainment (e.g., Barron & Harackiewicz, 2001; Elliot & Church, 1997; Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Elliot et al., 1999; Harackiewicz, Barron, Carter, Lehto, & Elliot, 1997; Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, Carter, & Elliot, 2000; Lopez, 1999; Skaalvik, 1997; Tanaka & Yamauchi, 2000; Wentzel, 1993). When different results occurred with these variables, they were null findings (e.g., Tanaka & Yamauchi, 2001). Performanceapproach goals have been shown to be unrelated to some adaptive
variables such as deep processing (e.g., Elliot et al., 1999; Harackiewicz et al., 2000) and intrinsic motivation (e.g., Church et al., 2001; Elliot & Church, 1997; Harackiewicz et al., 1997, 2000; Tanaka & Yamauchi, 2001). If different results occurred with these variables, they were positive relationships (e.g., Archer, 1994; Lopez, 1999; Pintrich, 1999, 2000b; Skaalvik, 1997; Wolters et al., 1996). Third, Midgley et al. (2001) concluded that the literature on performance-approach goals and maladaptive variables is more consistent than that for performance-approach goals and adaptive variables. Midgley et al. (2001) suggested that performanceapproach goals are consistently linked to variables such as selfhandicapping, help avoidance, challenge avoidance, fear of failure, low persistence, a desire to work alone, less cooperativeness, self-reported cheating, and the adoption of subsequent performance-avoidance goals. This characterization of the literature is puzzling to us, as even some of the studies discussed by the authors seem to belie this conclusion. For example, the results concerning students' performance-approach goals and self-handicapping are quite inconsistent: Performance-approach goals were positively related in one study (Midgley, Arunkumar, & Urdan, 1996), unrelated in another (Midgley & Urdan, 1995), positively and unrelated in another (Midgley & Urdan, 2001), and negatively related when accompanied by mastery goals in another (Pintrich, 2000b). Likewise, the results concerning students' performance-approach goals and help avoidance are quite inconsistent: Performanceapproach goals show a significant positive relationship at the zero-order level but either null or mixed results (sometimes positive, sometimes even negative) in regression analyses (Middleton & Midgley, 1997; Ryan, Hicks, & Midgley, 1997; Ryan & Pintrich, 1997). For most of the other variables that Midgley et al. (2001) focused on, there are few tests or the results are inconsistent (for an exception, see work on fear of failure; Elliot & Church, 1997; Elliot & McGregor, 1999). We do think that performanceapproach goals have some negative consequences, but the empirical evidence is meager at present, and additional research is clearly needed.
Benefits of Pursuing Both Performance-Approach and Mastery Goals
Researchers using survey methods consistently find that mastery and performance-approach goals are either unrelated or positively correlated (see Harackiewicz et al., 1998, for review): Students can and do pursue multiple goals. As Midgley et al. (2001) correctly noted, there may be important interactions between performanceapproach and mastery goals, and research should address how goals combine to promote motivation and achievement. However, interactions are only one of the ways in which multiple goal benefits may be revealed. Testing the multiple goal perspective demands a different methodology than the one used in early goals research: It requires that we consider multiple outcomes and that we test the independent and interactive effects of mastery and performance-approach goals on each outcome. This analytic strategy allows direct comparisons with normative goal theory, which predicts positive main effects for mastery goals and null or negative effects for performanceapproach goals. In contrast, the multiple goal perspective asserts that both goals can have positive effects, and Barron and Harac-
kiewicz (2000, 2001) recently identified four patterns that can reveal the advantage of multiple goal pursuit relative to single mastery goal pursuit. In an additive goal pattern, mastery and performance-approach goals have independent, positive effects on an educational outcome, resulting in positive main effects for both mastery and performance-approach goals on a single outcome. In an interactive goal pattern, above and beyond main effects, mastery and performance-approach goals interact, resulting in a positive Mastery Performance-Approach Goal interaction effect on a single outcome. Note that in both cases, students who endorse both goals have the most adaptive outcomes but with different implications for multiple goal dynamics (Pintrich, 2000b). If the effects are additive, then positive performance goal effects do not depend on a high level of mastery goals. In the case of an interaction effect, however, one could argue, as Midgley et al. (2001) did, that positive performance goal effects depend on a high level of mastery goals. This analysis is consistent with the multiple goal perspective and can be distinguished from what normative goal theory would predict: that students who are high in mastery goals but low in performance-approach goals should show the most adaptive pattern, because being high in performance-approach goals should depress the generally positive effect of mastery goals. In the absence of such a maladaptive effect when both goals are high, there is a need to revise normative goal theory. In a specialized goal pattern, rather than promoting the same educational outcomes, mastery and performance-approach goals affect different outcomes. A positive main effect for mastery goals on one educational outcome and a positive main effect for performance-approach goals on another would be evidence for the specialized pattern. For example, mastery goals might predict interest, whereas performance-approach goals might predict grades. Finally, in a selective goal pattern, individuals focus on the achievement goal that is most relevant at a particular point in time. In other words, different goals may be adaptive in different situations, and students who can selectively shift between goals may be particularly advantaged (see also Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1999). For example, students might pursue mastery goals when they read texts but pursue performance-approach goals when they prepare for exams. As a result, students who adopt both goals might have the highest overall level of performance (e.g., grades). A series of analyses yielding a main effect of mastery goals on one measure collected at one point in time, a main effect of performance-approach goals on another measure, and either two main effects or a positive interaction on an overall measure of performance would be evidence for the selective pattern. Detection of specialized or selective goal patterns requires multiple measures, but these more complex patterns may yield important insights into multiple goal dynamics. Armed with a clearer understanding of the patterns of data that would support a multiple goal perspective, we turn now to a review of studies in which it is possible to evaluate multiple goal effects. In particular, we will discuss studies cited by Midgley et al. (2001) as supportive of normative goal theory and explain why they actually provide support for the multiple goal perspective. Although a comprehensive review of all goal studies is clearly beyond the scope of this brief commentary, a more constrained review is possible. One option is to focus on one educational context (college) in which a sufficient number of studies have used
explicit or recategorized performance-approach goal measures. We located 14 studies reported in 12 articles that tested the independent and interactive effects of performance-approach and mastery goals, affording a comparative test of both the multiple goal perspective and normative goal theory. We reviewed the independent and interactive effects of mastery and performance-approach goals on two important outcomes: academic performance and interest. See Table 1 for a summary of studies of academic performance in college contexts. The majority of researchers reported significant positive main effects of performance-approach goals, unqualified by interactions with mastery goals. This contrasts the conclusions of Midgley et al. (2001), who argued that the typical finding is that performance-approach goals can only be adaptive when mastery goals are also high. Their claim that positive effects of performance-approach goals depend on a high level of mastery goals implies a significant positive interaction that has not been found in any college study to date. Midgley et al. (2001) also appeared to claim support for normative goal theory if individuals high in both goals attain higher performance, but this pattern can be caused by two independent effects (i.e., the additive pattern), with different implications for goal dynamics. There are, as Midgley et al. (2001) noted, a few studies that did find positive effects of mastery goals on performance, but in each case, performance-approach goals also had
independent positive effects (e.g., Church et al., 2001; Elliot & McGregor, 1999; see Footnote b in Table 1), consistent with the additive goals pattern. In sum, the overall pattern of results on academic performance in college settings offers no support for normative goal theory and some provocative support for the multiple goal perspective. The fact that performance-approach goals have such consistent positive effects on academic performance may tell us more about how competence is traditionally defined and evaluated on college campuses. Harackiewicz and colleagues have often discussed their findings in terms of the competitive climate (where mere presence in a college class signifies survival of a competitive selection process), the use of norm-referenced grading practices, and the reliance on multiple-choice exams in large introductory courses (Harackiewicz et al., 1997, 1998, 2000). However, positive performance-approach goal effects have now been documented on mathematical problem solving (Barron & Harackiewicz, 2001), short-answer and essay exams (Elliot et al., 1999), pop quiz performance assessing long-term retention (Elliot & McGregor, 1999), grades in mastery-oriented chemistry classes (Church et al., 2001), grades in advanced courses (Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, & Elliot, 2002), and grades in upper-level psychology courses where evaluation was based on projects, presentations, and essay exams (Barron, Schwab, & Harackiewicz, 1999). We agree with
Table 1 Summary of Goal Effects on Performance Outcomes
Study Barron & Harackiewicz (2001) Barron, Schwab, & Harackiewicz (1999) Church, Elliot, & Gable (2001) Elliot & Church (1997) Elliot & McGregor (1999) Elliot & McGregor (2001) Elliot, McGregor, & Gable (1999) Harackiewicz, Barron, Carter, Lehto, & Elliot (1997) Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, Carter, & Elliot (2000) Data analytic method Regressiona Regression Regression Regression Regressionb Regression Regression Regression Regression Performance outcome Study 1: No. correct math problems Study 1: No. errors Final grade in class Study 2: Final grade in class Final grade in class Study 1: Exam score Study 2: Exam score Study 2: Pop quiz score Study 3: Exam score Study 1: Exam score Study 2: Exam score Final grade in class Final grade in class Semester GPA Subsequent psychology GPA Subsequent overall GPA Ancillary study: Final grade Final grade in class Semester GPA Subsequent psychology GPA Subsequent overall GPA Mastery goal main effect ns ns ns .20 ns ns ns .13 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns .09 ns ns Perf-a goal main effect .10 ns .17 .14 .36 .21 .24 ( .11) .18 .15 .17 .21 .15 .13 .23 .13 .12 .16 .15 ns .10 M P interaction ns ns ns ns .20 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, & Elliot (2002)
Note. When method of analysis is regression, standardized regression coefficients are reported for significant effects and ns is used to indicate nonsignificant effects. Perf-a performance-approach; M mastery; P performance; GPA grade point average. a Barron and Harackiewicz also manipulated difficulty of the math problems, which further qualified the main effect of performance-approach goals. When students were tested with easier problems, the beta for the performance-approach goal main effect was .22. When problems were more difficult, the beta for the performance-approach goal main effect was .00. b Although Elliot and McGregor reported that the main effect for performance-approach goals was not significant on pop quiz performance, the regression analysis had controlled for initial exam score. This is important to note because initial exam score was the best predictor of pop quiz performance ( .42), and performance-approach goals were a significant predictor of initial exam score ( .24). Thus, performance-approach goals do exert a positive effect (albeit indirect) on pop quiz performance, and the indirect effect is reported in parentheses. In a personal communication, A. J. Elliot (April 24, 2001) indicated that when the model was rerun without controlling for initial exam performance, both mastery ( .15) and performance-approach ( .16) goals significantly predicted pop quiz performance.
Midgley et al. (2001) that it is important to consider what traditional measures of performance such as grades reflect and that we need to extend our investigations to include more qualitative measures of performance. Nonetheless, the fact remains that grades are the most widely accepted measure of academic performance. Grades in a variety of college courses are best predicted by performance-approach goals (Church et al., 2001; Elliot & McGregor, 1999; Harackiewicz et al., 2000). In fact, if the only outcome variable we examined were academic performance, we would infer very little support for normative goal theory or for a multiple goal perspective. However, along with Midgley et al. (2001), we believe that it is critical to consider other aspects of achievement behavior, and another important variable is interest. As instructors, we view the cultivation of interest as an important goal, and for students, interest may be a key to life-long learning (Hidi, 1990; Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Maehr, 1989). See Table 2 for a summary of studies of interest in college contexts. Clearly, the majority of researchers found a positive main effect of mastery goals and no evidence of performance-approach goal effects. For example, students who endorse mastery goals at the outset of introductory courses are more likely to report interest in the class and enroll in additional courses in that discipline (Harackiewicz et al., 2000). If we only considered interest outcomes, we would infer strong support for normative goal theory and reject a multiple goal perspective. Table 2 Summary of Goal Effects on Interest Outcomes
Study Archer (1994) Barron & Harackiewicz (2001) Barron, Schwab, & Harackiewicz (1999) Church, Elliot, & Gable (2001) Elliot & Church (1997) Harackiewicz, Barron, Carter, Lehto, & Elliot (1997) Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, Carter, & Elliot (2000) Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, & Elliot (2002) Pintrich & Garcia (1991) Data analytic method Correlation MANOVAa Regression Regression Regression Regression Regression Regression Regression
By examining both outcome measures together, however, we find strong support for the multiple goal perspective, in the specialized goal pattern (see Tables 1 and 2). Mastery and performance-approach goals independently promoted different achievement outcomes: Students adopting both goals are optimally motivated in this educational context. Both performance-approach and mastery goals are adaptive in college education. Normative goal theory cannot account for this pattern of results, contrary to Midgley et al.'s (2001) conclusions. We believe that our review provides evidence for the need to revise goal theory. Of course, much work remains to refine and test the theoretical propositions generated by the multiple goal perspective, and Midgley et al. (2001) have identified important issues to address. However, progress is cumulative, and we need a good understanding of prior research to make continued progress.
Future Directions for Theory and Research
The three issues we have discussed here suggest that a revision of goal theory is necessary and illuminating. However, the fact that we have focused on college students in part of our review may raise questions about the generalizability of positive performanceapproach goal effects and about the relevance of a multiple goal perspective for earlier grades. It is important to note that positive performance-approach goal effects are not limited to college populations. Although the results are not as consistent as in the college
Interest outcome Positive attitude Positive attitude Study 1: Enjoyment Study 1: Free choice behavior Study 1: Behavioral inclination Interest in class Study 2: Interest in class Interest in class Interest in class Enjoyment of lectures Interest in psychology Behavioral measure of continued interest Enjoyment of lectures Interest in psychology Behavioral measure of continued interest Major in psychology Task value Task value
Mastery goal main effect .39 .39 .22 .31 .17 .38 .31 .19 .22 .41 .16 .16 .35 .13 .12 .47
Perf-a goal main effect .18 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns .10
M P interaction ns ns ns ns ns ns .19 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Correlation ANOVAb
Note. When method of analysis is regression, standardized regression coefficients are reported for significant effects, and ns is used to indicate nonsignificant effects. When the method of analysis is ANOVA or MANOVA, a or is used to indicate significant effects and their direction, and ns is used to indicate nonsignificant effects (see accompanying footnote for more detail about effects). When the method of analysis is correlation, we report zero-order correlations between the interest outcome and that particular goal. Perf-a performance-approach; M mastery; P performance; ANOVA analysis of variance; MANOVA multivariate analysis of variance. a Archer conducted a median split of mastery and performance-approach goal measures to test a 2 2 MANOVA and reported two significant main effects. Students with high-mastery– high-performance goals demonstrated the highest positive attitudes (M 10.86), followed by high-mastery–low-performance goals (M 10.27), low-mastery– high-performance goals (M 9.00), and low-mastery–low-performance goals (M 8.28). b Pintrich and Garcia trichotomized mastery and performance-approach goal measures to test a 3 3 ANOVA and reported two significant main effects. The mastery goal effect revealed that students who were high in mastery goals reported the most task value (M 6.24), followed by students who were moderate (M 5.76) and low (M 5.13) in mastery goals. The performance-approach goal effect showed that students who were high in performance goals reported the most task value (M 5.99) compared with students who were low (M 5.65) or moderate in performance goals (M 5.55).
setting, there are several studies that report positive performanceapproach goal effects in line with the multiple goal perspective in middle school and high school contexts (Bouffard, Vezeau, & Bordeleau, 1998; Lopez, 1999; Pintrich, 2000b; Skaalvik, 1997; Tanaka & Yamauchi, 2001; Wentzel, 1993; Wolters et al., 1996). Midgley et al. (2001) were absolutely correct that we need to explore more fully the role of personal and contextual characteristics as moderators of the relations between goals and outcomes, and researchers have already begun to study such moderation. For example, Harackiewicz and Sansone (1991) argued that goals may be most effective when they are consistent with or "match" the general context in which they are pursued, and we suspect that performance-approach goals become more adaptive when pursued in educational contexts that afford a good match (such as some secondary schools and many colleges and universities). Indeed, Harackiewicz and Elliot (1998) reported evidence that the effects of experimentally manipulated performance-approach and mastery goals on interest vary as function of context. The role of contextual factors as moderators will be an important direction for future research. Another possibility is that college students at select universities may have already developed an array of effective self-regulatory strategies for achieving their performance-approach goals, a pattern that may not be found with younger students or with older students who are more diverse in terms of achievement level, knowledge, and skills. We need more research on younger and more diverse populations to understand the role of multiple goals in facilitating or constraining student motivation, cognition, and learning (see Bouffard et al., 1998, for a cross-sectional developmental study). Moreover, as Midgley et al. (2001) noted, there may be some long-term developmental costs to endorsing a consistent performance goal orientation. We second Midgley et al.'s (2001) call for more longitudinal research so that we can examine the developmental role that performance-approach goals play as children age and move through different educational contexts. Harackiewicz et al. (1998) have also identified another important moderator variable not considered in Midgley et al.'s (2001) review—individual differences in the need for achievement. This personality variable has proven to predict the goals students adopt in their college courses (Elliot & Church, 1997; Harackiewicz et al., 1997) as well as moderate the effects of goal manipulations. In experimental studies comparing mastery and performance-approach goals (Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1994; Harackiewicz & Elliot, 1993), mastery goals were particularly effective in enhancing intrinsic motivation for individuals low in the need for achievement, but only performance-approach goals enhanced interest for achievement-oriented individuals. These results suggest that no single goal manipulation is sufficient to raise interest for all participants but rather that some goals are better for some individuals. Consideration of individual differences highlights another way in which the selective goal pattern might play out. In situations emphasizing both goals, individuals could select the one goal optimally suited for them. In other words, individuals low in the need for achievement could focus on mastery goals, whereas achievement-oriented individuals could focus on performanceapproach goals. Thus, the selective goal pattern takes on added significance when goals are assigned externally. Benefits of multiple goals would be revealed, not because both goals were being simultaneously pursued, but because different individuals focused
on different goals. Barron and Harackiewicz (2001) documented preliminary support for this selective goal pattern in a recent experiment, and we call for further intervention studies to explore multiple goal dynamics. In sum, not only may different achievement goals be more effective in different situations, but different achievement goals may be more effective for different individuals. Beyond examining multiple goals and their interactions, we need to revise goal theory to reflect the possibility that individuals can pursue multiple pathways to achieve similar goals or outcomes. The principle of equifinality posits that the same goals can be achieved in multiple ways or by different actions (Ford, 1992; Pintrich, 2000c; Shah & Kruglanski, 2000). Students may use different types of self-regulatory strategies to control their cognition, motivation, and behavior to reach their goals (Pintrich, 2000c). Some may reach their goals by just trying harder or persisting, others may reach their goals through the use of more surface strategies, whereas others opt to use deeper processing strategies or to adaptively seek help. In addition, students may have different affective experiences as they enact different strategies in the service of their goals (Pintrich, 2000b, 2000c). The important point for future theory and research is that we need to understand the development of these different patterns of selfregulation and the outcomes that are generated by different patterns of multiple goals. We will not begin to understand these complex processes if we continue to rely on a simplistic generalization that mastery goals are always good and performance goals are always bad. The multiple goal perspective poses a challenging research agenda, but it also offers the potential for a more sophisticated understanding of the complex phenomena of motivation, learning, and achievement. At the classroom or school level, the multiple goal perspective allows for the possibility that teachers and schools can achieve similar goals in different ways. As the long history of educational reform efforts tells us, there is no one "magic bullet" or one pathway to achieve the goals of having motivated, engaged, knowledgeable, skilled, and happy students. There are different ways to achieve these valued outcomes, and researchers should help schools understand the options and the potential rewards and risks of adopting different strategies based on scientific theory and evidence. There are plenty of politicians and educators who already "know" the answers to our educational problems, but the role of researchers is to help frame the problems and bring to bear empirical evidence on the problems and suggested solutions. As researchers, it is important for us to foster a critical perspective on educational problems and to rely on empirical evidence in our suggestions for improvement. The multiple goal perspective suggests that there may be multiple pathways to improve schools, not just one "mastery road" that all must travel. In conclusion, there is much research to be done, and Midgley et al. (2001) have started the conversation off in the right manner by pushing us to consider important questions. At the same time, it is clear that the revision of goal theory is underway and should not be constrained by an insistence that no revisions are needed or warranted. The multiple goal perspective offers theoretically important constructs, new research methodologies, and empirically supported generalizations that represent a clear improvement over normative goal theory. It would be a setback to the field and to the goal of scientific progress if we fail to revise our theories as new ideas and new evidence are brought to bear on the important questions of motivation, learning, and achievement.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–271. Archer, J. (1994). Achievement goals as a measure of motivation in university students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 430 – 446. Barron, K. E., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000). Achievement goals and optimal motivation: A multiple goals approach. In C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 229 –254). New York: Academic Press. Barron, K. E., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2001). Achievement goals and optimal motivation: Testing multiple goal models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 706 –722. Barron, K. E., Schwab, C., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1999, May). Achievement goals and classroom context: A comparison of different learning environments. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. Bong, M. (2001). Between- and within-domain relations of academic motivation among middle and high school students: Self-efficacy, taskvalue, and achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 23–34. Bouffard, T., Vezeau, C., & Bordeleau, L. (1998). A developmental study of the relation between combined learning and performance goals and students' self-regulated learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 309 –319. Church, M. A., Elliot, A. J., & Gable, S. L. (2001). Perceptions of classroom environment, achievement goals, and achievement outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 43–54. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256 –273. Elliot, A. J. (1997). Integrating the "classic" and "contemporary" approaches to achievement motivation: A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 10, pp. 143–179). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34, 169 –189. Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218 –232. Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1994). Goal setting, achievement orientation, and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 968 –980. Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 461– 475. Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (1999). Test anxiety and the hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 549 –563. Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 501–519. Elliot, A. J., McGregor, H. A., & Gable, S. L. (1999). Achievement goals, study strategies, and exam performance: A mediational analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 628 – 644. Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2001). Achievement goals and the hierarchical model of achievement motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 139 –156. Ford, M. (1992). Motivating humans: Goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Carter, S. M., Lehto, A. T., & Elliot, A. J. (1997). Determinants and consequences of achievement goals in the college classroom: Maintaining interest and making the grade. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1284 –1295.
Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., & Elliot, A. J. (1998). Rethinking achievement goals: When are they adaptive for college students and why? Educational Psychologist, 33, 1–21. Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Tauer, J. M., Carter, S. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2000). Short-term and long-term consequences of achievement goals in college: Predicting continued interest and performance over time. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 316 –330. Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Tauer, J. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2002). Predicting success in college: A longitudinal study of achievement goals and ability measures as predictors of interest and performance from freshman year through graduation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 562–575. Harackiewicz, J. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1993). Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 904 –915. Harackiewicz, J. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1998). The joint effects of target and purpose goals on intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 675– 689. Harackiewicz, J. M., & Sansone, C. (1991). Goals and intrinsic motivation: You can get there from here. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 7, pp. 21– 49). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Hidi, S. (1990). Interest and its contribution as a mental resource for learning. Review of Educational Research, 60, 549 –571. Hidi, S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000). Motivating the academically unmotivated: A critical issue for the 21st century. Review of Educational Research, 70, 151–179. Lopez, D. F. (1999). Social cognitive influences on self-regulated learning: The impact of action-control beliefs and academic goals on achievement-related outcomes. Learning and Individual Differences, 11, 301–319. Maehr, M. L. (1989). Thoughts about motivation. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education: Goals and cognitions (Vol. 3, pp. 299 –315). New York: Academic Press. Middleton, M. J., & Midgley, C. (1997). Avoiding the demonstration of lack of ability: An underexplored aspect of goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 710 –718. Midgley, C., Arunkumar, R., & Urdan, T. (1996). If I don't do well tomorrow, there's a reason: Predictors of adolescents' use of academic self-handicapping behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 423– 434. Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. (2001). Performance-approach goals: Good for what, for whom, under what circumstances, and at what cost? Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 77– 86. Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., Middleton, M., Maehr, M., Urdan, T., Hicks Anderman, L., et al. (1998). The development and validation of scales assessing students' achievement goal orientations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23, 113–131. Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. (1995). Predictors of middle school students' use of self-handicapping strategies. Journal of Early Adolescence, 15, 389 – 411. Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. (2001). Academic self-handicapping and achievement goals: A further examination. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 61–75. Pajares, F., Britner, S. L., & Valiante, G. (2000). Relation between achievement goals and self-beliefs of middle school students in writing and science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 406 – 422. Pintrich, P. R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 459 – 470. Pintrich, P. R. (2000a). An achievement goal theory perspective on issues in motivation terminology, theory, and research. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 92–104. Pintrich, P. R. (2000b). Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal
REVISION OF GOAL THEORY orientation in learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 544 –555. Pintrich, P. R. (2000c). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 451–502). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pintrich, P. R., & Garcia, T. (1991). Student goal orientation and selfregulation in the college classroom. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 7, pp. 371– 402). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Ryan, A., Hicks, L., & Midgley, C. (1997). Social goals, academic goals, and avoidance seeking help in the classroom. Journal of Early Adolescence, 90, 1– 8. Ryan, A., & Pintrich, P. R. (1997). "Should I ask for help?" The role of motivation and attitudes in adolescents' help seeking in math class. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 329 –341. Shah, J., & Kruglanski, A. (2000). Aspects of goal networks: Implications for self-regulation. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 85–110). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Skaalvik, E. M. (1997). Self-enhancing and self-defeating ego orientation: Relations with task and avoidance orientation, achievement, selfperceptions, and anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 71– 81. Tanaka, A., & Yamauchi, H. (2000). Causal models of achievement
motive, goal orientation, intrinsic interest, and academic achievement in classroom. The Japanese Journal of Psychology, 71, 317–324. Tanaka, A., & Yamauchi, H. (2001). A model for achievement motives, goal orientations, intrinsic interest, and academic achievement. Psychological Reports, 88, 123–135. Thrash, T. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2001). Delimiting and integrating achievement motive and goal constructs. In A. Efklides, J. Kuhl, & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Trends and prospects in motivation research (pp. 3–21). Boston: Kluwer. Wentzel, K. R. (1993). Motivation and achievement in early adolescence: The role of multiple classroom goals. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 4 –20. Wolters, C. A., Yu, S. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (1996). The relation between goal orientation and students' motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 8, 211–238. Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (1999). Acquiring writing revision skill: Shifting from process to outcome self-regulatory goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 241–250.
Received October 5, 2001 Accepted October 7, 2001
Call for Nominations
The Publications and Communications (P&C) Board has opened nominations for the editorships of Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books, Developmental Psychology, and Psychological Review for the years 2005–2010. Robert J. Sternberg, PhD, James L. Dannemiller, PhD, and Walter Mischel, PhD, respectively, are the incumbent editors. Candidates should be members of APA and should be available to start receiving manuscripts in early 2004 to prepare for issues published in 2005. Please note that the P&C Board encourages participation by members of underrepresented groups in the publication process and would particularly welcome such nominees. Self-nominations are also encouraged. Search chairs have been appointed as follows: • Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books: Susan H. McDaniel, PhD, and Mike Pressley, PhD • Developmental Psychology: Joseph J. Campos, PhD • Psychological Review: Mark I. Appelbaum, PhD To nominate candidates, prepare a statement of one page or less in support of each candidate. Address all nominations to the appropriate search committee at the following address: Karen Sellman, P&C Board Search Liaison Room 2004 American Psychological Association 750 First Street, NE Washington, DC 20002-4242 The first review of nominations will begin November 15, 2002. The deadline for accepting nominations is November 25, 2002.


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I'm dedicated to providing optimal health care in a relaxed environment where I treat every patients as if they were my own family....more
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Hello Sir, Can sugar patients eat fish. If they should consume how many grams of fish they should eat. Let us know Thanking you.
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I am suffering from premature ejaculation problem. What should I do. Is there any medicine that I can take.
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B.Sc. - Dietitics / Nutrition, Nutrition Certification,Registered Dietitian
Dietitian/Nutritionist, Delhi
1. Use mild shampoo to wash hair (you can make your own shampoo using reetha and shikakai at home) 2. Stop using conditioners. Use natural conditioners like Egg, Yougurt and Lemon. 3. Massage your scalp with a mix of oils like olive, coconut, sesame, castor oil at night. 4. Apply raw amla juice on hair thrice a week. 5. Rub your scalp with the juice of white onion. 6. Use a paste of bhringraj on hair. 7. You can use some good hair packs like - fenugreek and yogurt, egg and green tea. 8. You can rinse your hair with organic apple cider vinegar after washing your hair to maintain ph balance of your hair. 9. Hair health depends on the amount of protein in your diet. Foods like chicken, eggs, fish, nuts, dry fruits gives you the required nutrients to keep your skin and hair healthy. So consume plenty of them. Eat things rich in Vitamin C like amla and oranges. 10. Drink lots of water to flush out toxins from the body.
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President Obama has signed legislation that aims to help pension plans cope with losses they sustained when financial markets tumbled in 2008 and 2009.
Lawmakers removed the pension provisions from a package of tax-break extensions and attached them to a measure that temporarily cancels a looming cut in Medicare payments to physicians.
The 1,070-ft-tall Salesforce Tower development, nearly derailed by the Great Recession, is approaching completion in San Francisco.
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FastTrack is a quick way for beginners to learn to play an instrument. These DVDs make the perfect companion to the successful method books and CDs – teaching you what you need to know to get playing right away, plus the fun stuff you want to know. The drum DVD teaches music notation, riffs and licks, syncopation, rock, blues and funk styles, and improvisation.


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New breakthrough in Milly murder hunt
Last updated at 08:22 15 March 2005
Surrey Police are working with Scotland Yard on a possible connection between the high profile cases and a series of attacks linked to the Amelie killing.
The news came as the Surrey force revealed details of a major breakthrough in the Milly investigation and appealed for help in tracing a red car which "may well have been used" in the 13-year-old's abduction.
Detective Chief Inspector Brian Marjoram, who is leading the search for the schoolgirl's killer, said his team were liaising with the Met over "possible links" with the Amelie inquiry, codenamed Operation Yeaddiss.
Amelie, a 22-year-old French student, was found battered to death on Twickenham Green, south west London, last August.
Her murder has been linked with five other attacks in the area, including the killing of 19-year-old gap-year student Marsha McDonnell in nearby Hampton.
Just a few days after Amelie was killed, some of her belongings were found dumped in the River Thames at Walton-on-Thames near where Milly lived.
Mr Marjoram said: "We are liaising closely with the Metropolitan Police team (on Operation Yeaddiss) and we will keep an open mind about any possible links, although the offences are not formally linked."
Car captured on CCTV
Mr Marjoram was commenting as he announced details of a major breakthrough in the Milly Dowler murder investigation, codenamed Operation Ruby.
The force is appealing for information about a red Daewoo Nexia, which it believes could hold a vital clue in the hunt for her killer.
The car was captured on CCTV just a few yards from where she was last seen.
Milly was spotted by a friend who saw her walking home from school along Station Avenue in Walton-on-Thames, Surrey, just after 4pm on March 21, 2002.
Her body was discovered six months later by a couple picking mushrooms in Yateley Heath woods, near Fleet in Hampshire.
The red Nexia, a 1996 N-registration model, was captured on CCTV at the junction of Copenhagen Way and Station Avenue less than half an hour after Milly was last seen.
It appeared to be sitting low on its rear wheels. The images have already been sent to specialists in the US for enhancement.
Connections with local area
Detectives believe that the car may have been driven by someone who had connections with the local area at the time of Milly's disappearance.
They said they were appealing for information about the Nexia following a "significant development" in the hunt for Milly's killer, although they refused to detail exactly what this development was.
Mr Marjoram said: "We would like to confirm the identity of the owner of the car and find out where it is now. It may well have been used in the abduction of Milly.
"We are trying to trace anyone who owns a red Daewoo Nexia of that year and who was in the vicinity of Station Avenue on March 21 2002.
"We are also trying to trace anyone who saw the same car in the vicinity of Yateley Heath woods in Hampshire shortly after that date."
But he added: "I would not want to be drawn on whether Milly was in that car or not. It is too early to say."
The killer 'should be looking over their shoulder'
Mr Marjoram said that just days away from the third anniversary of Milly's disappearance, detectives were as determined as ever to catch her killer.
"We have committed a huge number of resources to solving this case and remain determined to find the person responsible for Milly's murder," he said.
"I want that person to be looking over their shoulder all the time, I want them to be fearing that knock on the door."
Police insisted there were still other active lines of inquiry in Operation Ruby.
The force said it was also investigating a registered sex offender who lives in south west London in connection with Milly's abduction and murder.
He is the subject of "ongoing forensic inquiries".
The Operation Ruby team has also been investigating the movements of Lance Corporal David Atkinson, 31, the soldier who murdered student Sally Geeson and then jumped to his death from a hotel window.
Mr Marjoram said today: "He has not been eliminated from the investigation but all the indications so far indicate that he was on a course on March 21 2002 (the day Milly disappeared)."
The hunt for Milly's killer is the largest operation of its kind in the history of Surrey Police.
The force has followed up more than 11,500 lines of inquiry, taken more than 4,200 statements and received more than 6,000 telephone messages during the course of the inquiry.
Mr Marjoram said: "We've gone to extraordinary lengths to crack this case and to find Milly's killer. We will not give up until we have done so."
Anyone with information is asked to contact police on 0845 125 2222. There was still a £50,000 reward for information which leads police to Milly's killer.
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