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Anglo-Saxon paganism, or as it has also been known, Anglo-Saxon heathenism,[Note 1] refers to the religious beliefs and practices followed by the Anglo-Saxons between the fifth and eighth centuries CE, during the initial period of Early Mediaeval England. A variant of the wider Germanic paganism found across much of north-western Europe, it itself encompassed a heterogeneous variety of disparate beliefs and cultic practices.[1] Developing from the earlier Iron Age religion of continental northern Europe, it was introduced to Britain following the Anglo-Saxon migration in the mid fifth century, and remained the dominant religion in England until the Christianization of its kingdoms between the seventh and eighth centuries, with some aspects gradually blending into English folklore.
As with most religions designated as being pagan by later Christian writers, it was a polytheistic belief system, focused around the worship of deities known as the ése (singular ós). The most prominent of these deities may have been Woden, for which reason the religion has also been called Wodenism,[2] although other prominent gods included Thunor and Tiw. There was also a belief in a variety of other supernatural entities who inhabited the landscape, including elves, nicor and dragons.[3] Cultic practice largely revolved around demonstrations of devotion, including sacrifice of inanimate objects and animals, to these deities, particularly at certain religious festivals during the year. Pagan beliefs also influenced funerary practices, where the dead were either inhumed or cremated, typically with a selection of grave goods. There was also a magical component to the early Anglo-Saxon religion, and some scholars have also theorised that there may have been shamanic aspects as well. These religious beliefs also had a bearing on the structure of Anglo-Saxon society, which was hierarchical, with kings often claiming a direct ancestral lineage from a god, particularly Woden. As such, it also had an influence on law codes during this period.
Along with leaving traces in English folklore, the deities of this religion provided the basis for the names of the days of the week in the English language. Despite this, there is much that we do not know about this Mediaeval religion, and what is currently known about it comes from the study of the few first hand written accounts that survive from this period, such as those found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, through the study of literature from the later Christian period such as the Beowulf poem,[4] and also from the available archaeological evidence. What is known about the religion and its accompanying mythology have since influenced both literature and Neopaganism from the eighteenth century onwards.
The Anglo-Saxon tribes were not united before the 7th century, with seven main kingdoms, known collectively as the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. Certain deities and religious practices were specific to certain localities.
Our literary sources on Anglo-Saxon England set in with Christianization only, leaving the pre-Christian 6th century in the prehistoric "Dark" of Sub-Roman Britain. Our best sources of information on the pre-Christian period are 7th to 8th century testimonies, such as Beowulf[5] and the Franks Casket, which had already seen Christian redaction but nevertheless reflects a living memory of original traditions.
The transition of the Anglo-Saxons from the original religion to Christianity took place gradually, over the course of the 7th century, influenced on one side by Celtic Christianity and the Irish mission, on the other by Roman Catholicism introduced to England by Augustine of Canterbury in 597. The Anglo-Saxon nobility were nearly all converted within a century, but the original religion among the rural population, as in other Germanic lands, didn't so much die out as gradually blend into folklore.
As elsewhere, Christianization involved the adoption of original folk culture into a Christian context, including the conversion of sacrificial sites and original feast days. Pope Gregory the Great instructed Abbot Mellitus that:
:I have come to the conclusion that the temples of the idols in England should not on any account be destroyed. Augustine must smash the idols, but the temples themselves should be sprinkled with holy water, and altars set up in them in which relics are to be enclosed. For we ought to take advantage of well-built temples by purifying them from devil-worship and dedicating them to the service of the true God.[6]The question of religious allegiance of the individual kings was not a political one, and there is no evidence of any military struggle of a native vs. a Christian faction as in that between Blot-Sweyn and Inge the Elder during the 1080s in the Christianization of Sweden, and no military "crusade" as in the 8th century Saxon Wars of Charlemagne's. Each king was free to convert to Christianity as he pleased, due to the sacral nature of kingship in Germanic society automatically entailing the conversion of his subjects. The only exception may be found in the war of Penda of Mercia against Northumbria. Penda exceptionally allied himself with the Welsh Kingdom of Gwynedd against his Anglo-Saxon neighbours. In the Battle of Hatfield Chase, Penda together with Cadwallon ap Cadfan (who was nominally a Christian but according to Bede given to barbarous cruelty[7]) resulted in the death of Edwin of Northumbria (who had been baptized in 627). As a result, Northumbria fell into chaos and was divided between Eanfrith and Osric, who both reverted to paganism as they rose to power. Both Eanfrith and Osric were killed in battle against Cadwallon within the year. Cadwallon was in turn defeated by Oswald of Northumbria in the Battle of Heavenfield shortly after. Penda again defeated Oswald at the Battle of Maserfield in 641, ending in Oswald's death and dismemberment. The outcome of the battle ended "Northumbrian imperialism south of the Humber" and established Penda as the most powerful Mercian ruler so far to have emerged in the midlands and "the most formidable king in England,"[8] a position he maintained until his death in the Battle of Winwaed in 655.
Charles Plummer, writing in 1896, describes the defeat of Penda as "decisive as to the religious destiny of the English".[9] Bede makes clear, however, that the war between Mercia and Northumbria was not religiously motivated: Penda tolerated the preaching of Christianity in Mercia, even including the baptism of his own heir, and held those reverting to paganism after receiving baptism in despise for their faithlessness.[10] This testament of Penda's religious tolerance is particularly credible, as Bede tends to exaggerate Mercian barbarism in his account of Oswald as a saintly defender of the Christian faith.
After Penda's death, Mercia was converted, and all the kings who ruled thereafter were Christian, including Penda's sons Peada, who had already been baptized with his father's permission, as the condition set by king Oswiu of Northumbria for the marriage of his daughter Alchflaed to Peada, to the husband's misfortune, according to Bede, who informs us that Peada was "very wickedly killed" through his wife's treachery "during the very time of celebrating Easter" in 656.[11]
Penda's death in 655 may be taken as marking the decisive decline of paganism in England. Some smaller kingdoms continued to crown openly pagan Kings, but newly Christian Mercia became instrumental in their conversion. In 660 Essex crowned the pagan king Swithhelm. Swithhelm accepted baptism in 662 but his successor Sighere of Essex encouraged a pagan rebellion in 665 that was only suppressed when Wulfhere of Mercia intervened and established himself as overlord of Essex. It is not recorded if Sighere ever accepted baptism but he was forced to marry Wulfhere's Christian niece, who he later divorced.
Æthelwealh of Sussex accepted baptism at the behest of Wulfhere of Mercia, although the year in unrecorded. In 681 the Bishop Wilfrid arrived in Sussex to begin preaching to the general population. Bede records that the king had converted "not long previously", but Wulfhere had died in 675. Therefore Æthelwealh's baptism can only be assigned with certainty to Wulfhere's reign of 658-675, although it was probably at the very end of this period.
This left the Isle of Wight as the last openly pagan kingdom. Wulfhere of Mercia had invaded in 661 and forced the islanders to convert, but as soon as he left they had reverted to paganism. They remained pagan until 686 when they were invaded by Cædwalla of Wessex. The last openly pagan king Arwald was killed in battle defending his kingdom, which was incorporated into the Kingdom of Wessex. His heirs were baptised and then executed.
Cædwalla himself was unbaptised when he invaded the Isle of Wight. However, throughout his reign he acted in cooperation with the church and gave the church a quarter of the Isle of the Wight. He abdicated in 688 and traveled to Rome to be baptised in 689.
Wilfrid was still converting the Pagan population of Sussex in 686. In 695 Wessex issued a law code proscribing fines for failing to baptise one's children and for failing to tithe.
By the 8th century, Anglo-Saxon England was at least nominally Christian, the Anglo-Saxon mission contributing significantly to the Christianization of the continental Frankish Empire. Germanic paganism again briefly returned to England in the form of Norse paganism, which Norse Vikings from Scandinavia brought to the country in the 9th to 10th century—but it again succumbed to Christianisation. Thus, mention of the Norse "Thor, lord of ogres" is found in a runic charm discovered inserted in the margin of an Anglo-Saxon manuscript from the year 1073.[12] Polemics against lingering pagan customs continue into the 9th and 10th centuries, e.g. in the Laws of Ælfred (ca. 890), but England was an unambiguously Christian kingdom by the High Medieval period.
"A worm came creeping, he tore a man in two, then Woden took nine Glory-Twigs, then struck the adder, that it flew apart into nine [bits]... [Woden] established [the nine herbs] and sent [them] into the seven worlds, for the poor and the rich, a remedy for all, it stands against pain, it fights against poison, it avails against three and against thirty, against foe's hand and against noble scheming, against enchantment of vile creatures."
—The Nine Herbs Charm.
Currently, very little is known about the pagan cosmology or world view followed by the early Anglo-Saxons. In the Nine Herbs Charm, there is a mention of "seven worlds", which may indicate that the pre-Christian Anglo-Saxons believed in seven realms. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the realm humans live on as Middangeard, (which was cognate to the Old Norse Midgard) and also to a realm called Neorxnawang, corresponding to the Christian idea of Heaven. Whilst these are terms used in a Christian context, some scholars have theorised that they may have originally been used to apply to earlier pagan realms.[13] Similarly, in the Crist poem, there is a mention of Earendel, which may have been a name of the morning star, identified in the poem with John the Baptist (who heralds the coming of the Christ as the morning star heralds the Sun). Various scholars, such as Brian Branston[14] and Clive Tolley[15] have suggested that the pagan Anglo-Saxons held a belief in a world tree, similar to the Norse concept of Yggdrasil, though there is no solid evidence for this.
The Anglo-Saxon concept corresponding to fate was wyrd,[16] although the "pagan" nature of this conception is subject to some debate; Dorothy Whitelock suggested that it was a belief held only after Christianisation,[17] while Branston maintained that wyrd had been an important concept for the pagan Anglo-Saxons.[18] A description of how the pagan Anglo-Saxons viewed fate, or wyrd and the afterlife was given by the Christian monk, the Venerable Bede, who stated that the heathens viewed "life and death as being like the experience of a sparrow who flies out of a freezing night into a warm hall full of feasting and merriment, and then out into the night again".[19]
Anglo-Saxon paganism was a polytheistic faith, worshipping many deities, who were known as ése. The most popular god appears to have been Woden, as "traces of his cult are scattered more widely over the rolling English countryside than those of any other heathen deity".[20] The importance of Woden can also be seen in the fact that he was euhemerized as an ancestor of the royal houses of Kent, Wessex, East Anglia and Mercia.[21] There are traces of Woden in English folklore and toponymy, where he appears as the leader of the Wild Hunt and he is referred to as a healer in the Nine Herbs Charm, directly paralleling the role of his continental German parallel Wodan in the Merseburg Incantations.[21]
The second most widespread deity from Anglo-Saxon England appears to be the god Thunor, who was a god of the sky and thunder and who was "a friend of the common man",[22] in contrast to Woden who was primarily associated with royalty. It has been suggested that the hammer and the swastika were the god's symbols, representing thunderbolts, and both of these symbols have been found in Anglo-Saxon graves, the latter being common on cremation urns.[23] A third Anglo-Saxon god that we know about was Tiw, who, in the Anglo-Saxon rune poem Tir is identified with the star Polaris rather than with a deity, although it has been suggested that Tiw was likely a war deity.[24]
Perhaps the most prominent female deity in Anglo-Saxon paganism was Fríge, however there is still very little evidence for her worship, although it has been speculated that she was "a goddess of love or festivity".[24] Another Anglo-Saxon divinity was Frey, who is mentioned in both The Dream of the Rood and a poem by the monk Caedmon, in both of which he is compared to the later Christian god Jesus Christ, indicating that Frey was perhaps a sacrificial deity.[24] The East Saxon tribe who settled in southern England and formed the kingdom of Essex claimed to be the descendents of a god known as Seaxnēat, of whom little is known,[25] whilst a runic poem mentions a god known as Ingui and the writer Asser mentioned a god known as Gēat.[25] The Christian monk known as the Venerable Bede also mentioned two further goddesses in his written works; Eostre, who was celebrated at a spring festival (Easter), and Hretha, whose name meant "glory".[25]
Besides the ése, Anglo-Saxons also believed in other supernatural beings or "wights", such as elves, and household deities, known as Cofgodas. These guarded a specific household, and were given offerings so they would continue. After Christianization, the belief in Cofgodas may have survived through the form of the fairy being known as the Hob. Tutelary deities of the household are part of the traditional religions of classical antiquity, such as the Lares of ancient Roman religion and the Agathodaemon of ancient Greek religion.
In Anglo-Saxon England, elves (aelfe) were viewed as malevolent beings who could bring harm to humans. In the 10th century Metrical Charm "Against A Sudden Stitch" (Wið færstice), it states that various forms of sickness, such as rheumatism, could be induced by "elfshot" - arrows fired by elves. They were believed to possess a type of magic known as siden.[26] Alongside the elves, other supernatural beings included dwarves (or dweorgas), ettins (or eoten) and dragons. 'Etaynes' (ettins) and 'wodwos' (wood wos / wildmen) appear in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight [27], and these are potentially remnants of Anglo-Saxon belief. The name 'ettin' roughly translates as 'devourer' (eaten / eater) and is cognate with Jotun in Norse mythos. Another important figure in Anglo-Saxon belief appears to be 'thurse' (giant/ogre/monster), given the large number of place-names and folk-stories associated with derived forms (AS *hobbe-thurse: hobthurse, hobthrush, hobtrash, gytrash, trash etc) [28]. Forms of dwarf (dwerrow, dwerger, dweorgas etc) are not as well supported in the nomenclature of the English countryside implying that 'dwarfs' were not as widely a held customary belief, however 'bug-' (bugbear, bugaboo, scare-bug etc) and '-mare' (woodmare, nightmare) appear to be better supported and are potentially derived from Anglo-Saxon words. The name 'hob' remains contentious, with the accepted meaning 'diminutive of Robert' sitting uncomfortably with the large number of apparently old 'hob-' placenames (hobhole, hobdell, hobgate etc) in England [29].
Legend and poetry
In pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon England, legends and other stories were transmitted orally instead of being written down - it is for this reason that very few survive to us today. After Christianization however, certain poems were indeed written down, with surviving examples including the Nine Herbs Charm, The Dream of the Rood, Waldere and most notably Beowulf. Whilst these contain many Christianized elements, there were certain mentions of earlier pagan deities and practices contained within them.
One of the most prominent surviving myths of the pagan Anglo-Saxons was that of the brothers Hengest and Horsa, who are named in historical sources as leaders of the earliest Anglo-Saxon incursions in the south of Britain. The name Hengest means "stallion" and Horsa means "horse", reminiscent of the horse sacrifice connected to the inauguration of pagan kings. Another important mythological figure is Weyland the smith, a figure who also appeared in other forms of Germanic mythology. An image of Weyland adorns the Franks Casket, an Anglo-Saxon royal hoard box and was meant there to refer to wealth and partnership.[30]
The only surviving Anglo-Saxon epic poem is the story of Beowulf, known only from a surviving manuscript that was written down by a Christian monk sometime between the eighth and eleventh centuries CE. The story it tells is set not in England but in Scandinavia, and revolves around a Geatish warrior named Beowulf who travels to Denmark to defeat a monster known as Grendel who is terrorising the kingdom of Hrothgar, and later, Grendel's Mother as well. Following this, he later becomes the king of Geatland before finally dying in battle with a dragon. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it was commonly believed that Beowulf was not an Anglo-Saxon pagan tale, but a Scandinavian Christian one; it was not until the influential critical essay Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics by J.R.R. Tolkien, delivered in 1936, that Beowulf was established as a quintessentially English poem that, while Christian, looked back on a living memory of paganism. Nonetheless, some academics still hold reservations about accepting it as containing information pertaining to Anglo-Saxon paganism, with Patrick Wormald noting that "vast reserves of intellectual energy have been devoted to threshing this poem for grains of authentic pagan belief, but it must be admitted that the harvest has been meagre. The poet may have known that his heroes were pagans, but he did not know much about paganism."[31]
Cultic practice
As archaeologist Sarah Semple noted, "the rituals [of the early Anglo-Saxons] involved the full pre-Christian repertoire: votive deposits, furnished burial, monumental mounds, sacred natural phenomenon and eventually constructed pillars, shrines and temples", thereby having many commonalities with other pre-Christian religions in Europe.[32]
Places of worship
The pagan Anglo-Saxons worshipped at a variety of different sites across their landscape, some of which were apparently specially built temples and others that were natural geographical features such as sacred trees, hilltops or wells. According to place name evidence, these sites of worship were known alternately as either hearg or as wēoh, and it was widely assumed by nineteenth and early twentieth century scholars that these two terms were synonyms that could be used interchangeably.[33] However, in the latter part of the twentieth century, some etymologists began to theorise that the two words actually had different meanings. Archaeologist David Wilson stated that hearg "may" refer to "a special type of religious site, one that occupied a prominent position on high land and was a communal place of worship for a specific group of people, a tribe or folk group, perhaps at particular times of the year" whilst wēoh sites, the majority of which appeared to be "situated very close to ancient route ways", were instead more "likely... small, wayside shrine[s], accessible to the traveller."[34]
Each of these hearg may have been devoted to a specific deity, for instance, in several cases, a grove of trees was devoted to just one god, as can be seen from the town of Thundersley (from Thunor's Grove), which was devoted to the god Thunor. Popular historian Thor Ewing suggested that some of these sites were not dedicated to a well known deity, but simply to a local animistic one, who was believed to inhabit that very spot.[35]
The pagan Anglo-Saxons built temples to worship their gods, which were "wooden-framed" and contained "an altar and a likeness of one or more gods".[36] Some have suggested that sometimes these temples were built alongside pre-existing sacred sites in the landscape,[36] and indeed, "ancient remains in the landscape held a significant place in the Anglo-Saxon mind as part of a wider, numinous, spiritual and resonant landscape".[37] These temples are mentioned in various later Anglo-Saxon texts, most of which discuss them in reference to their Christianization. Pope Gregory the Great, who was head of the Roman Catholic Church during much of the Christianization of England, variously suggested both that the temples should be sprinkled with holy water and converted into churches, or that they should be destroyed.[38] According to Bede, it was this latter advice that was taken up by Coifi, an influential English pagan priest for King Edwin of Northumbria, who after being converted to Christianity, cast a spear into the temple at Goodmanham and then burned it to the ground.[39] These occasional literary references to Anglo-Saxon temples are accompanied by some limited archaeological evidence. The best known example of this is a room, known by excavators as D2, which was a part of the royal complex at Yeavering in Northumberland, and which has been widely interpreted as a temple room, for it contained buried oxen skulls, two postholes that have been interpreted as holding idols, and no evidence of domestic usage.[40][41] Other possible temples or shrine buildings have been identified by archaeological investigation as existing within such Anglo-Saxon cemeteries as Lyminge in Kent and Bishopstone in Sussex..[42] Although Pope Gregory had promoted the idea, as of yet, no archaeological investigation has found any firm evidence of churches being built on top of earlier pagan temples in England. Nonetheless, as archaeologist David Wilson noted, this is "hardly surprising" due to "the making of crypts and the general rebuilding of churches over the centuries," which would likely destroy any earlier pagan foundations.[43]
The pagan Anglo-Saxons performed animal sacrifice in honour of the gods. It appears that they emphasised the killing of oxen over other species, as suggested by both written and archaeological evidence.[44] Sacrifice itself was not only found in Anglo-Saxon paganism, but was also common in other Germanic pagan religions, for instance the Norse practised a blood sacrifice known as Blót. The Christian monk Bede records that November (Old English Blótmónaþ "the month of sacrifice") was particularly associated with sacrificial practices:
- Bede's original Old English
Se mónaþ is nemned on Léden Novembris, and on úre geþeóde blótmónaþ, forðon úre yldran, ðá hý hǽðene wǽron, on ðam mónþe hý bleóton á, ðæt is, ðæt hý betǽhton and benémdon hyra deófolgyldum ða neát ða ðe hý woldon syllan.
- Modern English translation
This month is called Novembris in Latin, and in our language the month of sacrifice, because our forefathers, when they were heathens, always sacrificed in this month, that is, that they took and devoted to their idols the cattle which they wished to offer.[45]
There are several cases where animal remains were buried in what appears to be ritualistic conditions, for instance at Frilford, Berkshire, a pig or boar's head was buried with six flat stones and two Roman-era tiles then placed on top, whilst at an Anglo-Saxon cemetery in Soham, Cambridgeshire, an oxe's head was buried with the muzzle facing down. Archaeologist David Wilson stated that these may be "evidence of sacrifices to a pagan god."[46]
Many Germanic peoples are recorded as conducting human sacrifice, yet there is no firm evidence the Anglo-Saxons had such a practice, though there is speculation that twenty three of the bodies at the Sutton Hoo burial site were sacrificial victims clustered around a sacred tree from which they had been hanged.[47] Alongside this, some have suggested that the corpse of an Anglo-Saxon woman found at Sewerby on the Yorkshire Wolds suggested that she had been buried alive alongside a nobleman, possibly as a sacrifice, or to accompany him to the afterlife.[48]
Funerary rites
One of the aspects of Anglo-Saxon paganism that we know most about is their burial customs, which we have discovered from archaeological excavations at various sites, including Sutton Hoo, Spong Hill, Prittlewell, Snape and Walkington Wold, and we today know of the existence of around 1200 Anglo-Saxon pagan cemeteries. There was no set form of burial amongst the pagan Anglo-Saxons, with cremation being preferred amongst the Angles in the north and inhumation amongst the Saxons in the south, although both forms were found throughout England, sometimes in the same cemeteries. When cremation did take place, the ashes were usually placed within an urn and then buried, sometimes along with grave goods.[48] According to archaeologist Dave Wilson, "the usual orientation for an inhumation in a pagan Anglo-Saxon cemetery was west-east, with the head to the west, although there were often deviations from this."[49] Indicating a possible religious belief, grave goods were common amongst inhumation burials as well as cremations; free Anglo-Saxon men were buried with at least one weapon in the pagan tradition, often a seax, but sometimes also with a spear, sword or shield, or a combination of these.[48] There are also a number of recorded cases of parts of non-human animals being buried within such graves. Most common amongst these was body parts belonging to either goats or sheep, although parts of oxen were also relatively common, and there are also isolated cases of goose, crab apples, duck eggs and hazelnuts being buried in graves. It is widely thought therefore that such items constituted a food source for the deceased.[50] In some cases, animal skulls, particularly oxen but also pig, were buried in human graves, a practice that was also found in earlier Roman Britain..[48]
Certain Anglo-Saxon burials appeared to have ritualistic elements to them, implying that a religious rite was performed over them during the funeral. Whilst there are many multiple burials, where more than one corpse was found in a single grave, that date from the Anglo-Saxon period, there is "a small group of such burials where an interpretation involving ritual practices may be possible". For instance, at Welbeck Hill in Lincolnshire, the corpse of a decapitated woman was placed in reverse on top of the body of an old man, whilst in a number of other similar examples, female bodies were again placed above those of men. This has led some archaeologists to suspect a form of suttee, where the female was the spouse of the male, and was killed to accompany him upon death. Other theories hold that the females were slaves who were viewed as the property of the men, and who were again killed to accompany their master.[51] Similarly, four Anglo-Saxon burials have been excavated where it appears that the individual was buried whilst still alive, which could imply that this was a part of either a religious rite or as a form of punishment.[52] There are also many cases where corpses have been found decapitated, for instance, at a mass grave in Thetford, Norfolk, fifty beheaded individuals were discovered, their heads possibly having been taken as trophies of war. In other cases of decapitation it seems possible that it was evidence of religious ritual (presumably human sacrifice) or execution.[53][54]
Archaeological investigation has displayed that structures or buildings were built inside a number of pagan cemeteries, and as David Wilson noted, "The evidence, then, from cemetery excavations is suggestive of small structures and features, some of which may perhaps be interpreted as shrines or sacred areas".[55] In some cases, there is evidence of far smaller structures being built around or alongside individual graves, implying possible small shrines to the dead individual or individuals buried there.[56]
Eventually, in the sixth and seventh centuries, the idea of burial mounds began to appear in Anglo-Saxon England, and in certain cases earlier burial mounds from the Neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age and Romano-British periods were simply reused by the Anglo-Saxons. It is not known why they adopted this practice, but it may be from the practices of the native Britons.[57] Burial mounds remained objects of veneration in early Anglo-Saxon Christianity, and numerous churches were built next to tumuli. Another form of burial was that of ship burials, which were practiced by many of the Germanic peoples across northern Europe. In many cases it seems that the corpse was placed in a ship that was either sent out to sea or left on land, but in both cases burned. In Suffolk however, ships were not burned, but buried, as is the case at Sutton Hoo, which it is believed, was the resting place of the king of the East Angles, Raedwald.[57] Both ship and tumulus burials were described in the Beowulf poem, through the funerals of Scyld Scefing and Beowullf respectively.
Everything that we know about the religious festivals of the pagan Anglo-Saxons comes from a book written by the Christian monk, the Venerable Bede, entitled De temporum ratione, meaning The Reckoning of Time,[58] in which he described the calendar of the year. The pagan Anglo-Saxons followed a calendar with twelve lunar months, with the occasional year having thirteen months so that the lunar and solar alignment could be corrected. Bede claimed that the greatest pagan festival was Modraniht (meaning Mother Night), which was situated at the Winter solstice, which marked the start of the Anglo-Saxon year.[16][59]
Following this festival, in the month of Solmonað (February), Bede claims that the pagans offered cakes to their deities.[59] Then, in Eostur-monath Aprilis (April), a spring festival was celebrated, dedicated to the goddess Eostre,[16] and the later Christian festival of Easter took its name from this month and its goddess. The month of September was known as Halegmonath, meaning Holy Month, which may indicate that it had special religious significance.[16] The month of November was known as Blod-Monath, meaning Blood Month, and was commemorated with animal sacrifice, both in offering to the gods, and also likely to gather a source of food to be stored over the winter.[16]
Remarking on Bede's account of the Anglo-Saxon year, the historian Brian Branston noted that they "show us a people who of necessity fitted closely into the pattern of the changing year, who were of the earth and what grows in it" and that they were "in fact, a people who were in a symbiotic relationship with mother earth and father sky".[60]
Ritual drinking
In Anglo-Saxon England, a feudal lord would organise a banquet known as a symbel for his retainers, whether they be Christian or pagan. Paul C. Bauschatz, in 1976, suggested that the term reflects a specifically pagan ritual that had a "great religious significance in the culture of the early Germanic people."[61] Bauschatz' lead is followed only sporadically in contemporary scholarship, but his interpretation has inspired drinking-rituals in Germanic neopaganism.
Regardless of its possible religious connotations, the symbel had a central function in maintaining hierarchy and allegiance in Anglo-Saxon warrior society. The symbel takes place in the chieftain's mead hall. It involved drinking ale or mead from a drinking horn, speech making (which often included formulaic boasting and oaths), and gift-giving. Eating and feasting were specifically excluded from symbel, and no alcohol was set aside for the gods or other deities in the form of a sacrifice.[62]
Various recurring symbols appear on certain pagan Anglo-Saxon artefacts, in particular on grave goods. Most notable amongst these was the swastika, which was widely inscribed on crematory urns and also on various brooches and other forms of (often female) jewellery as well as on certain pieces of ceremonial weaponry. The archaeologist David Wilson remarked that this "undoubtedly had special importance for the Anglo-Saxons, either magical or religious, or both. It seems very likely that it was the symbol of the thunder god Thunor, and when found on weapons or military gear its purpose would be to provide protection and success in battle." He also noted however that its widespread usage might have led to it becoming "a purely decorative device with no real symbolic importance."[63] Another symbol that has appeared on several pagan artefacts from this period was the rune ᛏ, which represented the letter T and is associated with the god Tiw.[64]
Magic and witchcraft
Anglo-Saxon pagans believed in magic and witchcraft. There are various Old English terms for "witch", including hægtesse "witch, fury", whence Modern English hag, wicca, gealdricge, scinlæce and hellrúne. The belief in witchcraft was suppressed in the 9th to 10th century as is evident e.g. from the Laws of Ælfred (ca. 890).
The Christian authorities attempted to stamp out a belief and practice in witchcraft, with Theodore'sPenitential condemning "those that consult divinations and use them in the pagan manner, or that permit people of that kind into their houses to seek some knowledge".[65] Similarly, in the Disciplus Umbrensium, it condemns those "who observe auguries, omens or dreams or any other prophecies after the manner of the pagans".[65]
The word wiccan "witches" is associated with animistic healing rites in Halitgar's Latin Penitential where it is stated that:
The phrase swa wiccan tæcaþ ("as the witches teach") seems to be an addition to Halitgar's original, added by an eleventh century Old English translator.[66]
- Some men are so blind that they bring their offering to earth-fast stone and also to trees and to wellsprings, as the witches teach, and are unwilling to understand how stupidly they do or how that dead stone or that dumb tree might help them or give forth health when they themselves are never able to stir from their place.
The pagan Anglo-Saxons also appeared to wear amulets, and there are many cases where corpses were buried with them. As David Wilson noted, "To the early [Anglo-]Saxons, they were part and parcel of the supernatural that made up their world of 'belief', although occupying the shadowy dividing area between superstition and religion, if indeed such a division actually existed."[67] One of the most notable amulets found in Anglo-Saxon graves is the cowrie shell, which has been often interpreted by modern academics as having been a fertility symbol due to its physical resemblance to the vagina and the fact that it was most commonly found in female graves. Not being native to British seas, the cowrie shells had to have been brought to England by traders who had come all the way from the Red Sea in the Middle East.[68] Animal teeth were also used as amulets by the pagan Anglo-Saxons, and many examples have been found that had formerly belonged to boar, beaver, and in some cases even humans.[69] Other amulets included items such as amethyst and amber beads, pieces of quartz or iron pyrite, worked and unworked flint, pre-Anglo-Saxon coinage and fossils, and from their distribution in graves, it has been stated that in Anglo-Saxon pagan society, "amulets [were] very much more the preserve of women than men".[70]
Pagan society
Germanic pagan society was structured hierarchically, under a tribal chieftain or cyning ("king") who at the same time acted as military leader, high judge and high priest. The tribe was bound together by a code of customary proper behaviour or sidu regulating the contracts (ǽ) and conflicts between the individual families or sibbs within the tribe. The aristocratic society arrayed below the king included the ranks of ealdorman, thegn, heah-gerefa and gerefa.[71] An eorl was a man of rank, as opposed to the ordinary freeman, known as ceorll. Free men were also a part of a hierarchy, with at least three different ranks (reflected in different amounts of weregild due for individuals of different ranks), although all free men had the right to participate in things (folkmoots). Germanic pagan society practiced slavery, and such slaves or unfree serfs were known as esne, and later also as theows.
Offices at the court included that of the thyle and the scop. The title of hlaford ("lord") denoted the head of any household in origin and expressed the relation to allegiance between a follower and his leader. Early Anglo-Saxon warfare had many aspects of endemic warfare typical of tribal warrior societies. It was based on retainers bound by oath to fight for their lords who in turn were obliged to show generosity to their followers.[72]
The pagan Anglo-Saxons inherited the common Germanic institution of sacral kingship. A king (cyning) was elected from among eligible members of a royal family or cynn by the witena gemōt, an assembly of an elite that replaced the earlier folkmoot, which was the equivalent of the Germanic thing, the assembly of all free men. Tribal kingship came to an end in the 9th century with the hegemony of Wessex culminating in a unified kingdom of England by the 10th century. The cult of kingship was central to pagan Anglo-Saxon society. The king was equivalent to the position of high priest. By his divine descent he represented or indeed was the "luck" of the people.[73] The central importance of the institution of kingship is illustrated by the twenty-six synonyms for "king" employed by the Beowulf poet.[74]
The title of Bretwalda appears to have conveyed the status of some sort of formal or ceremonial overlordship over Britain, but it is uncertain whether it predates the 9th century, and if it does, what, if any, prerogatives it carried. Patrick Wormald interprets it as "less an objectively realized office than a subjectively perceived status" and emphasizes the partiality of its usage in favour of Southumbrian kings.[75]
Many Anglo-Saxon pagan kings made the claim that they were the semi-divine descendants of Woden, an idea that was transformed after Christianization into the idea of the Divine Right of Christian monarchs ruling By the Grace of God (Dei Gratia).
Records of Anglo-Saxon law codes dating to the 7th century have survived, the first being the Law of Æthelberht, attributed to Æthelberht of Kent (c. 602 CE), then later codes by Hlothhære and Eadric of Kent, and by Ine of Wessex (c. 694 CE). Other codes survive from the 8th to 9th centuries, notably the Laws of Alfred the Great, dating to the 890s.
These law codes contain laws particular to the Church, including the churchfrith offering protection to a wanted criminal within a church building.[76] The secular portions of the laws nevertheless clearly record tribal laws of the pagan period.[77]
Characteristic are its prescriptions of compensation payments or bots, including a weregild to be paid in the case of manslaughter, as opposed to corporeal punishments. The relative amounts of the fines allow an insight into the value system in Anglo-Saxon society. The highest fines in Æthelberht's law code are for the killing of people under the direct protection of the king, and equal fines are paid for adultery with an unmarried woman of the king's household. Alfred has a special law against drawing a weapon in the king's hall. Alfred does prescribe corporeal punishments, such as the cutting out of the tongue, which may however be averted by paying a weregild. Alfred also sets down rules on how to lawfully fight out feuds. Such fights are considered orwige, meaning that deaths resulting from them do not fall under manslaughter. An enemy caught within his home may be besieged for seven days but not attacked unless he tries to escape. If he surrenders, he must be kept safe for thirty days to allow him to call for help from his kinsmen and friends, or beg aid from an ealdorman or from the king. A follower may fight orwige if his lord is attacked. In the same way, a lord may fight for his follower, or any man may fight orwige with his born kinsman excepting against his lord. A man may also fight orwige against another man caught committing adultery with his wife, sister, daughter or mother.
References to ordeals and capital punishment appear in 10th century codes only. Strangely, the wager of battle does not appear to figure in Anglo-Saxon law in spite of being a Germanic pagan custom in origin, but is introduced in England only under Norman rule.
Place names
Many place names in England are named after various things to do with Anglo-Saxon paganism. A number of towns and villages, such as Weedon, Wyville and Harrowden have terms like ealh, weoh and hearh incorporated into them, indicating that they were places used for worship by the pagan Anglo-Saxons, and from using this toponymy, sixty sites of pagan worship have been identified across the country.[78] Other sites are named after specific Anglo-Saxon deities, for instance, Frigedene and Freefolk are named after Frige, Thundersley after Thunor, and Woodway House, Woodnesborough and Wansdyke named after Woden.[79]
Days of the week
The Anglo-Saxons, like other Germanic peoples, adapted the Week-day names introduced by their interaction with the Roman Empire but glossed their indigenous gods over the Roman deities (with the exception of Saturday) in a process known as Interpretatio germanica:
|Modern English day name
|Old English day name
|English day name meaning
|Glossed from Latin day name
|Latin day name meaning
|"Moon's day", personified in related Norse mythology as the god Máni
|Dies Lunae
|"Day of the Luna", the personified moon in Roman mythology
|"Tiw's day"
|Dies Martis
|"Day of Mars"
|"Woden's day"
|Dies Mercurii
|"Day of Mercury"
|"Thunor's day"
|Dies Iovis
|"Day of Jupiter"
|"*Frija's day"
|Dies Veneris
|"Day of Venus"
|"Saturn's day"
|Dies Saturni
|"Day of Saturn"
|"Sun's day", personified as the goddess Sól/Sunna among other Germanic peoples
|Dies Solis
|"Day of the Sun", the sun is personified as Sol in Roman mythology
Folkloric survivals
Various elements of English folklore from the Mediaeval period onwards have been interpreted as being survivals from Anglo-Saxon paganism. For instance, writing in the 1720s, Henry Bourne stated his belief that the Christmas custom of the Yule log was a leftover from Anglo-Saxon paganism, however this is an idea that has been disputed by some subsequent research by the likes of historian Ronald Hutton, who believe that it was only introduced into England in the seventeenth century by immigrants arriving from Flanders.[80]
The Abbots Bromley Horn Dance, which is performed annually in the village of Abbots Bromley in Staffordshire, has also been claimed, by some, to be a remnant of Anglo-Saxon paganism. The antlers used in the dance belonged to reindeer and have been carbon dated to the eleventh century, and it is therefore believed that they originated in Norway and were brought to England some time in the late Mediaeval period, as by that time reindeer were extinct in Britain.[81]
Some claim that notions of the Man in the Moon are a survival of the masculine anthropomorphic figure of the moon in Germanic myths.
Whilst historical investigation into Germanic paganism and its mythology began in the seventeenth century with Peder Resen's Edda Islandorum (1665), this largely focused only upon Norse mythology, much of which was preserved in Old Icelandic sources. In the eighteenth century, English Romanticism developed a strong enthusiasm for Iceland and Nordic culture, expressed in original English poems extolling Viking virtues, such as Thomas Warton's "Runic Odes" of 1748. In the nineteenth century this developed into two movements within the British educated elite, one of which was composed of Scandophiles and the other of Germanophiles, who associated the English with either the Scandinavians or the Germans, respectively.[82] With nascent nationalism in early nineteenth-century Europe, by the 1830s both Nordic and German philology had produced "national mythologies" in Nikolai Grundtvig's Nordens Mytologi and Jacob Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie, respectively. British Romanticism at the same time had at its disposal both a Celtic and a Viking revival, but nothing focusing on the Anglo-Saxons because there was very little evidence of their pagan mythology still surviving. Indeed, so scant was evidence of paganism in Anglo-Saxon England that some scholars came to assume that the Anglo-Saxons had been Christianized essentially from the moment of their arrival in Britain.[83]
The study of Anglo-Saxon paganism began only in the mid nineteenth century, when John Kemble published The Saxons in England Volume I (1849), in which he discussed the usefulness of examining place-names to find out about the religion.[84] This was followed by the publication of John Yonge Akerman's Remains of Pagan Saxondom (1855). Akerman defended his chosen subject in the introduction by pointing out the archaeological evidence of a "Pagan Saxon mode of sepulture" on English soil lasting from the "middle of the fifth to the middle or perhaps the end of the seventh century".[85] From this point onward, more academic research into the Anglo-Saxons' pagan religion appeared. This led to further books on the subject, such as those primarily about the Anglo-Saxon gods, such as Brian Branston's The Lost Gods of England (1957), and Kathy Herbert's Looking for the Lost Gods of England (1994). Others emphasised archaeological evidence, such as David Wilson's Anglo-Saxon Paganism (1992) and the edited anthology Signals of Belief in Early England: Anglo-Saxon Paganism Revisited (2010).
In the 1930s Alexander Rud Mills established in Australia "The Anglecyn Church of Odin", a thoroughly pagan religion but with rituals influenced by the literary style of Anglicanism. The Anglecyn Church went underground as a result of political persecution in 1942, but was revived in 1972 in Melbourne, Australia. [86]
A later reconstructed form of Anglo-Saxon paganism arose in the 1970s as a subset of Germanic neopaganism, in the form of Theodism. It was founded by Garman Lord, who had originally been a Wiccan in the Gardnerian tradition. In 1971, Lord formed a Wiccan coven that emphasized the iconography of Anglo-Saxon paganism, named The Coven Witan of Anglo-Saxon Wicca. However, Lord later abandoned any use of Wiccan teachings, instead focusing entirely upon the resurrection of the pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon religion in 1976 after supposedly having a vision of the deities Woden and Frige.[87]
Similarly, the Wiccan who introduced the Gardnerian tradition to the United States, Raymond Buckland, later wrote a book in 1973 entitled The Tree in which he outlined the creation of a tradition known as Seax-Wica, which uses the symbolism and iconography of Anglo-Saxon paganism, but in a "traditional" Wiccan framework.
- ↑ The religion has been referred to as "paganism" by most scholars, such as David M. Wilson (1992) and Martin Carver (2010), but as "heathenism" by some others, like Brian Branston (1957).
- ↑ Carver, Sanmark and Semple 2010. p. ix.
- ↑ Atkinson 1891.
- ↑ Semple 2010. p. 24-25.
- ↑ Branston 1957. p. 36.
- ↑ Beowulf is dated to the 8th century by some scholars, notably J. R. R. Tolkien (Tolkien, J.R.R. (1958). Beowulf: the Monsters and the Critics. London: Oxford University Press. p. 127. ), but as late as the 11th by others
- ↑ Pope Gregory quoted in Branston 1957. p. 45.
- ↑ "so barbarous in his disposition and behaviour, that he neither spared the female sex, nor the innocent age of children, but with savage cruelty put them to tormenting deaths, ravaging all their country for a long time, and resolving to cut off all the race of the English within the borders of Britain."Bede, H. E., Book II, chapter 20.
- ↑ F. M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England (1943), third edition (1971), Oxford University Press, p. 83
- ↑ Venerabilis Baedae Historiam ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum, ed. Charles Plummer (1896), Oxonii, page 184.
- ↑ Bede c.731. III: XXI.
- ↑ Bede c.731. III: 24.
- ↑ Macleod. Mees (2006:120).
- ↑ Jeep 2001. p. 554.
- ↑ Branston 1957. p. 64.
- ↑ Tolley (2009) - "What is a World Tree and Why Should We Expect to Find One in Anglo-Saxon England?" at the Woodlands, Trees and Timber in the Anglo-Saxon World conference, Institute of Archaeology, University College London.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Hutton 1991. p. 272.
- ↑ Branston 1957. p. 34.
- ↑ Branston 1957. p. 57.
- ↑ Bede quoted in Hutton 1991. p. 272.
- ↑ Branston 1957. p. 29.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Hutton 1991. p. 265.
- ↑ Branston 1957. p. 30.
- ↑ Hutton 1991. p. 266.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Hutton 1991. p. 267.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Hutton 1991. p. 268.
- ↑ Ewing (2008:115)
- ↑ [1] "Sir Gawain & the Green Knight pdf"
- ↑ J Westwood & J Simpson "The Lore of the Land: A guide to Englands Legends" 2005
- ↑ J Westwood & J Simpson "The Lore of the Land: A guide to Englands Legends" 2005
- ↑ http://www.franks-casket.de/english/appendix04.html
- ↑ Wormald 1978. p. 66.
- ↑ Semple 2010. p. 42.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. p. 06.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 08-10.
- ↑ Ewing 2008. p. 47.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Branston 1957. p. 47.
- ↑ Semple 2010. p. 36.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 28-29.
- ↑ Bede c.731. II: 13.
- ↑ Branston 1957. p. 25.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 45-47.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 48-49.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 44-45.
- ↑ Ewing 2008. pp. 24-26.
- ↑ http://dontgohere.nu/oe/as-bt/read.htm?page_nr=113 trans. Joseph Bosworth
- ↑ Wilson 1992. p. 100.
- ↑ Ewing 2008. p. 17.
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 Hutton 1991. p. 274.
- ↑ Wilson 1992]]. p. 87.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 98-100.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 71-75.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 77-80.
- ↑ Hutton 1991. p. 275.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 92-95.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. p. 63.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. p. 53.
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 Hutton 1991. p. 277.
- ↑ Hutton 1991. p. 271.
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 Branston 1957. p. 41.
- ↑ Branston 1957. pp. 42-43.
- ↑ First proposed at the Third International Conference of Nordic and General Linguistics, at the University of Texas at Austin, April 5–9, 1976 (published in 1978), elaborated in Bauschatz, "The Germanic ritual feast" and The Well and the Tree; Pollington, Mead-hall.
- ↑ Bauschatz (74-75).
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 115 and 118-119.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 116-117.
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 Ewing (2008:83)
- ↑ Petterson, David C. Hostile Witnesses: Rescuing the History of Witchcraft from the Writings of Scholars and Churchmen. PO Box 62266, St. Louis Pk, Minnesota 55426: David C. Petterson.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. p. 103.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 103-107.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 108-112.
- ↑ Wilson 1992. pp. 112-115.
- ↑ Kemble, Saxons in England (1876) II. v. 151-181
- ↑ Halsall (1989:155—177).
- ↑ Chaney (1970).
- ↑ Bowra (1952:244).
- ↑ Wormald (118—119).
- ↑ Chaney (1970:174). Chaney notes that: The written formulation of law is largely stimulated by an attempt to cope with the new religion."</blockquote>
- ↑ Chaney (1970:174-176). Chaney notes that: In Kentish law, for example, dooms concerning the church show less alliteration and may be taken as newer. ... the principal features of the first Anglo-Saxon codes arfe the concrete and specific nature of their dooms and the elliptical, unelaborated method of recording what the tribal practice had been.
- ↑ P. H. Reany (1960). The Origin of English Placenames. Page 117.
- ↑ Branston 1957. p. 29-30.
- ↑ Hutton 1996. p. 39-41.
- ↑ Jones and Pennick 1995. p. 159.
- ↑ Tom Shippey, Tolkien and Iceland: The Philology of Envy (2002).
- ↑ Branston 1957. p. 27.
- ↑ Kemble 1849.
- ↑ Ackerman 1855. p. vii.
- ↑ Aussie Odinists behind barbed wire. http://odinicriteofaustralia.wordpress.com/aussie-odinists-behind-barbed-wire/
- ↑ History of Theodish Belief. http://www.englatheod.org/theodhistory.htm
- Books
- Ackerman, John Yonge (1855). Remains of Pagan Saxondom. London: John Russel Smith.
- Atkinson, John C. (1891). Forty Years in a Moorland Parish.
- Bede (circa 731). Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People).
- Branston, Brian (1957). The Lost Gods of England. London: Thames and Hudson.
- Chaney, William A. (1970). The Cult of Kinship in Anglo-Saxon England: The Transition from Paganism to Christianity. California: University of California Press.
- Ewing, Thor (2008). Gods and Worshippers in the Viking and Germanic World. Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-3590-6.
- Griffiths, Bill (1996). Aspects of Anglo-Saxon Magic. Anglo-Saxon Books. ISBN 1-898281-33-5.
- Herbert, Kathy (1994). Looking for the Lost Gods of England. Anglo-Saxon Books. ISBN 1-898281-04-1.
- Hutton, Ronald (1991). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0631189467.
- Hutton, Ronald (1996). The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Jones, Prudence and Pennick, Nigel (1995). A History of Pagan Europe. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-09136-5.
- Kemble, J. (1849). The Saxons in England Vol. I. London.
- Wilson, David (1992). Anglo-Saxon Paganism. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415018978.
- Halsall, Guy (1989). 'Anthropology and the Study of Pre-Conquest Warfare and Society: The Ritual War in Anglo-Saxon England' in Hawkes (editor) (1989). Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England.
- Macleod, Mindy. Mees, Bernard (2006). Runic Amulets and Magic Objects. Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-205-4.
- Academic Articles
- Carver, Martin (2010). "Agency, Intellect and the Archaeological Agenda". Signals of Belief in Early England: Anglo-Saxon Paganism Revisited (Eds:Carver, Martin; Sanmark, Alex and Semple, Sarah), Oxford and Oakville: Oxbow Books, pp. 01-20. ISBN 9781842173954.
- Carver, Martin; Sanmark, Alex and Semple, Sarah (2010). "Preface". Signals of Belief in Early England: Anglo-Saxon Paganism Revisited (Eds:Carver, Martin; Sanmark, Alex and Semple, Sarah), Oxford and Oakville: Oxbow Books, pp. ix-x. ISBN 9781842173954.
- Crawford, Sally (2004). "Votive Deposition, Religion and the Anglo-Saxon Furnished Burial Ritual". World Archaeology Vol. 36. No. 1, 87-102.
- Semple, Sarah (2010). "In the Open Air". Signals of Belief in Early England: Anglo-Saxon Paganism Revisited (Eds:Carver, Martin; Sanmark, Alex and Semple, Sarah), Oxford and Oakville: Oxbow Books, pp. 21-48. ISBN 9781842173954.
- Wormald, Patrick (1978). "Bede, Beowulf and the Conversion of the Anglo-Saxon Aristocracy". Bede and Anglo-Saxon England (Ed: Farrell, R.T.) British Archaeological Reports, British Series, 46.
- Wormald, Patrick (1983). "Bede, Bretwaldas and the Origins of the Gens Anglorum". Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society (Ed: Wormald, P.) Oxford.
|This page uses content from the English Wikipedia. The original article was at Anglo-Saxon paganism. The list of authors can be seen in the page history.


text:
A veteran journalist surveys the American political landscape and illuminates the evolution of the African-American politician - and the future of American democracy.Gwen Ifill began her journalism career at the Boston Herald in 1977, covering race riots by telephone. It was too risky for a young black reporter to venture onto the grounds of South Boston High School. Thirty years later, a black man announced his candidacy for president of the United States.Obama is the leading edge of a sea change in American politics, but his is by no means the only story. Ifill offers incisive, detailed profiles of other prominent black leaders, including Newark Mayor Cory Booker, Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick, and U.S. Congressman Artur Davis of Alabama. She also covers up-and-coming figures from across the nation.Drawing on interviews with such power brokers as Obama, former Secretary of State Colin Powell, Vernon Jordan, the Reverend Jesse Jackson, and many others, as well as her own razor-sharp observations and analysis, Ifill shows why now is a pivotal moment in American history.More
"After 30 years of reporting for newspapers and television, Ifill is programmed to give both sides of the story and avoid expressing an opinion. She lends a sympathetic ear to Obama and Clinton, to the surviving lions and the impatient upstarts, to those who want to erase race from politics and those who think race is indelible. Perhaps that's why, in the end, her book is gently persuasive. Without cheerleading for any individual, it gives us something to cheer about: a breakthrough that is bigger, even, than Obama's." (The Washington Post)
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Very Interesting
- Mia

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Senator Malcolm A. Smith Photos of the Week
Senator Malcolm A. Smith Photos of the Week
Senator Malcolm A. Smith (D-St. Albans) held his 12th Annual Send-A-Vet-A-Valentine program today at the St. Albans Community Living Center and the New York State Veterans Home at St. Albans. Smith distributed over 200 goodie bags filled with socks, clothing, fun games and exercise equipment. All items were donated by WellCare, Healthfirst and Vietnam Veterans of America Chapter 32.
"Veterans have endured a lot and deserve to be honored and appreciated. It is my hope that I will be able to help all veterans, not just the ones in my district to receive the best services possible," Smith said.


text:
Production and distribution
An artist casts a spell on his wife which enables her to remain eternally young. While he inevitably ages, the love that he feels for Mirabella separates them over the course of time.
Full credits (8)
Screenwriters :
Pierre-Adrien Lecerf, Séverine Szczypta
Directors of Photography :
Frank Tawil, Fabrice Villeneuve, Pierre-Adrien Lecerf


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Microsoft Doesn't Buy Nokia: Good News Acquisition talks between Microsoft and Nokia recently broke down with no plans to revive them. We should all breathe a sigh of relief.
'Cheap' iPhone Won't Be Cheap Don't expect the low-cost plastic iPhone to be "cheap," says Pegatron CEO. Instead it will be a mid-range device with a mid-range price tag.
Lumosity's Unique Big Data Set Feeds Brain Research Best known for mind-sharpening games, Lumosity is letting scientists study its database of 40 million players to see how the brain works.
Why Schools Could Save Windows RT Microsoft released the Surface RT to much fanfare last fall, but so far, customers have stayed away. Could heavy discounts for schools be the key Windows RT's path to redemption?
Samsung Denies Zuckerberg's Facebook Phone Request Facebook wants to be "the second Google," but Samsung doesn't want to help it get there.
HTC Butterfly S Boasts Big Screen, Big Battery Butterfly S smartphone steals features from the popular HTC One.
Mobile Boom Means More Work For IT IT will become more active in mobile development and management as the number of mobile device users doubles in the next five years, says PricewaterhouseCoopers.
HTC One Gains Share, Smaller Version Coming HTC sits in third place behind Apple and Samsung. Meanwhile, the company is developing a smaller version of the One, called the One Mini.
LG Racks Up 1M Optimus G Pro Sales LG's phablet device is popular in its home market of Korea. Elsewhere? That's another story.
Microsoft, Virgin Media Back U.K. 'Digital Maker' Initiative Microsoft links its Kudo game developers' site to U.K. IT educational initiative Make Things Do Stuff; meanwhile Virgin Media, others help create weekly online sessions to challenge young developers.
BlackBerry's Turnaround Hinges On Q10 Strong early sales of the keyboard-packing Q10 give BlackBerry's resurrection a chance.
Android 5.0: What To Expect Next version of Google's smartphone and tablet OS debuts this fall, along with new Nexus-branded smartphones.
Google Grabs Half Of All Mobile Ad Revenue Despite its dominance in the mobile market, Google soon could face serious competition from Facebook.
Iowa State Chooses Cloud For Phone System By switching to a cloud voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) service, ISU will save $600,000 annually on its campus phone network.
Why Microsoft Won't Release Office For The iPad Microsoft finally brought Office to iOS. Make no mistake: Its goal is to sell Office 365, not help Apple users. As long as Windows 8 struggles, don't expect to see Office on iPad.


text: Hi all i have recently bought a forge 008 DV, i have a s3 bam on a revo stage 1 map and want to know what colour spring to use and whether i need to use shims or not. I have done a search on here and it looks like the yellow spring should be used but do i need to use the shims too on a stage 1 revo map? Thanks, Hardeep.


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Home > Groceries > Food cupboard > Chocolate & confectionery > Chocolate boxes > Green & Black's Miniature Bar Collection Milk (180g)
Green & Black's Miniature Bar Collection Milk (180g)
Dietary Summary:
Dietary Summary:
Milk and White miniature bar collection. 12 bars of Green & Black's distinctively flavoured Milk and White chocolate bars.
In Stock
£3.95 Standard UK Delivery / Free Over £50 / Next Day Delivery Available
This item is available to collect from store for free.
Product description
This Miniature Bar Collection gives you a taste of our range of distinctively flavoured Milk and White chocolate bars - from vanilla flecked white chocolate and smooth, creamy milk through to our unique cocoa-rich milk chocolate complemented by crunchy butterscotch pieces or roasted almonds.
Product info


text: Got my first athletic field, a cricket field. Great mowing wish all of my contracts were as smooth. $85.00 weekly and it takes me alone about one hour. What do you guys think? Also I have a long grass contractor who gives me a few accounts. When I first looked at the accounts and gave him a price or he gave me the price and I accepted, most all of the accounts were supposed to be every two weeks, that was great but now I will tell him that I am going to mow the short grass for him and he does not want to go so he says wait until next week. The next week will come and he says to wait again. Well then it is monthly and not bi-weekly. The agreement was so that I would make so much per month on these properties. I don't mind doing them but at the extended intervals it takes longer and is harder on the mowers. I want to talk to him about this and don't know if I should explain that he needs to allow me to mow every two weeks or if he is just going to pay me what I would make for the bi-weekly mowing for the month. Any suggestions?


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The Whiteaker Family
Travis, Kelly & Marshall
Wednesday, February 23, 2011
So tomorrow is the big day! Tubes place in ears and adenoids removed. I hope and pray this helps my little guy! I'm sure it will from everyone I have talked to and everything I have read. I hate that he has to be put to sleep but hopefully it will go by fast! Please keep our little guy in your prayers (and us as well) considering I'm a nervous wreck today! I just want it over! He did have a nice weekend thought - played with friends on Friday night and Saturday night. We babysat for a good friend of mine, Heather's little girl named Addison on Friday night and they played very well together not to mention she was a perfect little angel! We even had them sit at the toddler card table to eat dinner and they did perfectly! On Saturday night, some good friends of ours, Jennifer, Joe and Paxton, kept Marshall for a few hours and he didn't even want to leave! So I'm sure he had fun! I love him being around other kids! I think it helps so much!
Here is a little picture of our little guy this past weekend before we went to Church.
He is so stinkin cute!
And since it was such a nice weekend, we took him outside to play and he went crazy when we brought him inside.
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Collecting, connoisseurship and commerce: an examination of the life and career of Stephen Wootton Bushell (1844-1908)
- Authors
- Publisher
- Oriental Ceramic Society
- Publication Date
- Source
- Legacy
- Keywords
Pearce, N. (2005) Collecting, connoisseurship and commerce: an examination of the life and career of Stephen Wootton Bushell (1844- 1908). Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society, 70 . pp. 17-25. ISSN 0306-0926 http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/25438/ Deposited on: 06 April 2010 Enlighten – Research publications by members of the University of Glasgow http://eprints.gla.ac.uk C orrgcrlNc, C oxxol s s EURSHIp AND C otvtvtBRcE : AN ExaMrNATroN oF THE LrpB AND CanBBR oF SrBpuBN WoorroN BusnpLL ( 1844-1908) Lecture given by Nick Pearce on Tuesday 29 November 2005 7-ffh" name of Stephen Bushell will be more than familiar to members of this Society. I Although dead for nearly a century, his contribution to British scholarship in the area of I Chinese ceramics in particular is still recognised and his major works on the subject, such as Oriental Ceramic Art and Description of Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, are still quoted.l In the broader context there is his two-voltme Chinese Art, ftst published in 1904 and 1906 respectively by the Victoria &Albert Museum, as a 'Handbook'to its collections and which was reprinted in 1907 , revised and republished in 1909 and reprinted againinthe decades following. In fact, as Craig Clunas has pointed out, the Handbook was still in print some ninety years after it first appeared.z Even a French edition was prepared: L'Art Chinozs, translated by H. d'Ardenne deTizac and published in Paris in 1910. Although much has been written about aspects of Stephen Bushell's published work and of his association with the Victoria & Albert Museum both as agent and as author, little has been written about his life or, indeed, his other activities. I have already sketched some aspects of his life and work in a recent book that deals with a collection of photographs of Beijing once owned by Bushell and I have drawn upon this research when discussing his art collecting for institutions, private individuals and on his own account.3 However, this


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Aftermath Helps Sponsor Local First Responder Event
Aftermath representative Jeremy Friedrich endured the winter-like spring weather this weekend in order to answer the call of police, military personnel, and EMTs who gathered at the Harley Davidson in Countryside, IL for a special motorcycle riding class. This was the first time Aftermath attended the yearly event, which offered first responders a chance to learn how to ride from the experts.
As a sponsor, Aftermath invited attendees from area police departments, as well as other local first responders. While at the event, Jeremy answered questions about crime scene cleanup, and brought water bottles to help with hydration while the class was going on. The Countryside Police Department was also on hand, and set up a booth to support the Special Olympics. Jeremy relates: "On the day of the event, mother nature decided to allow hail and snow fall upon us." Though he reports that the weather did have an impact on the class, it did not stop some riders from testing out their wheels!
Aftermath was well known by the attendees and those who made it were happy for the company's show of support. As part of the event, Aftermath also gave away a $50 gift card. The lucky winner, pictured above, was Deputy Joe Jackson of the Cook County Sheriff's Office.
Aftermath would like to thank the Countryside Police Department for their dedication and desire to give back to the community. They are big sponsors of the Special Olympics, a cause that is near and dear to many nationwide. Also, a special shout out to Carlos Apantenco of the Countryside Harley Davidson dealership for helping put together this event.
Aftermath is a proud supporter of first responders nationwide. In addition to providing caring, dedicated biohazard cleanup services for families in need, we also do our part to educate other professionals on the importance of proper cleanup. We regularly host seminars and attend local and national conferences and events, in order to promote bloodborne pathogen awareness, PPE training, and additional safety-focused education. It's just one way we say thank you to those who already do so much for us, each and every day.
For more information on our services for law enforcement, check out our special webpage.
For immediate assistance nationwide 24/7, call 877-872-4339.


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Juventus vs Barcelona Final Match Prediction Live Streaming June 6 . Final of UEFA Champions League which is a flagship european club tournament. Lionel Messi, Neymar and Luis Suarez will be leading the line for hot favourite Barcelona, while Juventus dont have as much star power as Barcelona but they have been the best side in Italy for best part of last 5 years winning 4 back to back Serie and going into the final match with a chance to won Final Match.
Barcelona are overwhelming favourites but Juventus had a great season so far, and this is one game where every player will be up for it. Juventus lack that world class game chaning talent in the team but they have a quality players on every position in the team. Evra will have to be on top of his game.
Juventus vs Barcelona Final Match Prediction Live Streaming June 6
arca have won 50% of their UEFA competition matches against Italian opposition whereas Juventus have only won 34% of their matches against Spanish sides. To worry the fans of Juventus even more, out of 7 European Cup final appearances, they have won only twice compared to Barcelona's impressive 4.
The match on Saturday, 06 June 2015 will be shown live in almost all countries around the world.
UEFA Champions League 2014-15 Final:
FC Barcelona vs Juventus
Date: Saturday, 06 June 2015, 22:00 IND
Venue: Berlin, Germany
Match Prediction:
Barcelona will win the Final Match


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Software for Modeling and Design of Diamond Amplifier Cathodes
Award Information
Small Business Information
Tech-x Corporation
5621 Arapahoe Ave., Boulder, CO, 80303-1379
Principal Investigator
Name: Dimitre Dimitrov
Title: Dr.
Phone: (303) 443-2657
Email: email@example.com
Title: Dr.
Phone: (303) 443-2657
Email: email@example.com
Business Contact
Name: Laurence Nelson
Title: Mr.
Phone: (720) 974-1856
Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
Title: Mr.
Phone: (720) 974-1856
Email: email@example.com
Research Institution
Name: Stub
AbstractThe successful operation of the Department of Energy (DOE) next generation X-ray light sources and accelerator facilities depends on developing reliable photocathodes with long lifetime for production of low emittance, high-brightness, high-average current electron beams. Experiments have already demonstrated the potential to generate amplified electron beams from diamond with peak current density greater than 400 mA/mm2 and average current density larger than 100 mA/mm2 but how to optimize the emission from rough surfaces with negative electron affinity is still to be understood. Physics based simulations of diamond amplifiers can offer valuable insight into their operation, provide guidance to experimental approaches and help their design optimization, however, there are currently no available codes that offer these capabilities. General statement of how this problem or situation is being addressed. Charge generation and transport in bulk diamond can now be simulated with the three dimensional code VORPAL but it lacks algorithms for high-fidelity modeling of surface effects and electron emission from diamond. We will develop and implement algorithms for accurate modeling of electron emission from diamond surfaces with negative electron affinity, surface physics phenomena (including quantum mechanical effects), and metal-semiconductor contacts within VORPAL to enable end-to-end simulations for design of diamond-amplified electron sources. What was done in Phase I? We investigated and implemented two proof-of-concept algorithms for electron emission with realistic surface potentials. We verified the prototyped algorithms and compared results from VORPAL simulations with them to experimental data. These results demonstrate the importance of the new capabilities to better understand the physics of electron emission from diamond surfaces. What is planned for Phase II? We will complete the implementation of accurate, quantum mechanical, modeling of electron emission processes, surface region localized states and space-charge effects, surface roughness, and varying electron affinity to enable realistic investigation of electron emission from diamond via simulations. New experiments are being designed to collect data for validation of the implemented models. We will run extensive simulations to compare with experimental data and investigate energy distribution, emittance, and time response properties of electrons emitted from diamond. Commercial applications and other benefits The proposed new modeling capabilities will aid researchers in developing electron sources that meet or exceed the desired operational parameters for future DOE facilities. This project will produce commercial quality software, including a state-of-the-art graphical user interface, and will allow the VORPAL code to increase its potential for generating further commercial revenue when used in the industry to design both diamond cathodes and semiconductor devices.
* information listed above is at the time of submission.


text:
Posts Tagged 'Heartland Film Festival'
Dramatic Escape
"Dramatic Escape" is a wonderful documentary that showcases the transformational ability of programs such as Sing Sing's arts outlet.
The Wrong Light
A harrowing documentary on the evils behind the evils behind the child sex slavery industry, "The Wrong Light" is a must-see.
Heartland: Ben Rock, "Future Boyfriend"
In this podcast Christopher Lloyd talks with old friend Ben Rock about how a guy known for "gross and disturbing" movies got a short into the life-affirming Heartland Film Festival.
Heartland: Wild Prairie Rose
A gorgeous-looking drama about an independent woman who returns to her South Dakota home in 1952 and finds an unexpected pull for the things she'd left behind.
Heartland: Year by the Sea
A warm bowl of chicken soup for the soul, "Year by the Sea" sets up all of the beats you'd expect, then dutifully executes them.
Heartland: Keep Quiet
A riveting documentary in which a leader in an anti-Semitic Hungarian right-wing political party discovers his Jewish heritage.
Heartland: Service to Man
This drama set in the 1960s provides an interesting twist on the familiar tales of racism and integration.
Heartland: Buddy Solitaire
A heartfelt but often predictable film about an awful stand-up comedian who takes a job as a counselor to psychiatric patients.


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Power Out AgainSeptember 20th, 2016
I was just working on an off grid proposal for a solar customer… When the power went out.
It's a sign!
Anyway, I'm taking the night off from Cryptogon.
Green tea: Check
Phone state of charge 54%: Check
Audiobook loaded on phone: Check
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Assistant Manager - Credit Portfolio Analytics
Location : Sydney CBD
Post Date : 26 September 2016
Employment Type : Permanent
Job Reference : 101222
Job Classification : Financial Services
Description :
The Company
The company is a global bank headquartered in Asia
The Role
The role, reporting to the Senior Risk Manager, is responsible for managing and analysing credit data in order to identify and mitigate risks across the retail and corporate lending portfoliose. Detailed responsibilities include:
Your Profile
This role is brand new and will provide the opportunity to work closely with the business to analyse the effect of risks associated with the credit portfolios. To qualify, candidates must have the following experience:
Apply Today
Please send your resume by clicking on the apply button or for further information, contact Paul Ridley in our Sydney office on 02-9240-0455.
Learn more about our Sydney recruitment services: http://www.roberthalf.com.au/recruitment-agency-sydney
19 Martin Place
2000 Sydney


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What is JotForm?
JotForm is a free online form builder which helps you create online forms without writing a single line of code. No sign-up required.
At JotForm, we want to make sure that you're getting the online form builder help that you need. Our friendly customer support team is available 24/7.
We believe that if one user has a question, there could be more users who may have the same question. This is why many of our support forum threads are public and available to be searched and viewed. If you'd like help immediately, feel free to search for a similar question, or submit your question or concern.
How to cancel secure submissions in JotForm embedded in WordPress?Asked by lawandboundaries on March 30, 2015 at 06:55 AM
I have embedded a JotForm in a WordPress.com website. The link which I used to embed the form was not a secure link (http://form.jotformeu.com/form/50815441621347), yet the submissions I have received so far are all recorded as secure. I would like the submissions to be saved not through a secure procedure. How may I fix this?
Thank you,
Your site is secure this means that the browsers will not load non-secure content. You may try to embed the form again with a non-secure version, but I believe it will only load on the non-secure version of the url http://lawandboundaries.wordpress.com/566-2/ .
You can see here more details:
Let us know if we can assist you further.


text:
Prime Minister Tony Abbott has revealed he told President Vladimir Putin to stop trying to restore the "lost glories of tsarism and the old Soviet Union".
Mr Abbott held discussions with Mr Putin on the sidelines of the APEC meeting in Beijing on Tuesday. His earlier threat to "shirt-front" the Russian leader was swapped with a call for an apology and compensation for the victims of the downed Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17.
Speaking at a joint media conference with British Prime Minister David Cameron in Canberra on Friday, Mr Abbott revealed he also issued some blunt advice to the Russian leader.
"One of the points I tried to make to Putin is that Russia would be so much more attractive if it was aspiring to be a superpower for peace and freedom and prosperity; if it were trying to be a superpower for ideas and values instead of trying to recreate the lost glories of tsarism or the old Soviet Union," Mr Abbott said.
The Prime Minister said he never imagined he would be dealing with Russian aggression in an Australian context 12 months ago, before Flight MH17 was shot down in July.
Australia holds Moscow partly responsible for the atrocity that killed 38 people who called Australia home. It believes Russian-backed separatists used a missile supplied by Moscow to shoot down the plane over eastern Ukraine.
"There is a heavy responsibility on Russia to come clean and atone," Mr Abbott said, adding that Moscow's bullying of Kiev was part of a "regrettable pattern" that included the stationing of a naval fleet in the South Pacific while Mr Putin attends the G20 in Brisbane.
He said there was a direct correlation between the decline of Russia's economy and its increasing aggressiveness.
Mr Cameron backed Mr Abbott's strong stance towards Moscow and said the international community's sanctions on Russia were hurting.
"I don't believe there's a military solution to this but I think the sanctions are important. I think the sanctions have had some effect," he said at Parliament. "You can see that in what's happened to the rouble, the Russian stock market, the difficulties Russian banks have."
He warned Mr Putin that sanctions would increase if Russia did not change.


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Tried to read through all the threads and posts to see if this had been addressed but it was too much to go through.
In spiceworks v1 and v2, there were several posts from people that utilize snmp v2 with no passwords. we use it for collecting information internally only and do not need authentication. i really do not relish the idea of setting up authentication for all of our snmp devices for each community that we utilize. We only need non-authenticated read-only access. will this feature be available in the final release of V3...not requiring an snmp password?? thanks!


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A new peak body for the energy storage sector in Australia has been established under the aegis of the Australian Solar Council, with the goal of ensuring the local industry keeps pace with international developments.
John Grimes, CEO of the Australian Solar Council, will also serve as CEO of the Energy Storage Council, whose role will complement that of the renewable energy body behind its founding.
The launch of the Energy Storage Council by the Australian Solar Council is apt given the immense importance of energy storage technologies to the deployment of renewable energy.
Because solar and wind power facilities are dependent upon often fickle weather conditions to generate electricity, enhanced storage technologies are needed to help save energy for usage when the sun isn't shining or the air remains at a standstill.
Grimes nonetheless sees the new industry body as playing far more than just an ancillary support role for the Australian Solar Council and the industry it represents.
"The time is right for this organisation to be developed in its own right and it will be guided by its membership and the needs of the energy storage sector beyond solar applications," he said.
"Energy storage brings exciting new opportunities for the energy industry and energy consumers. Deployed wisely it can significantly bring down electricity cost and make the electricity network more robust, flexible and reliable."
The Australian Energy Storage Council sees the creation of industry standards and protocols for incorporating energy storage into the grid as one of its vital roles at the outset, as part of efforts to ensure that the Australian energy utilities remains abreast of the latest technological developments.
"It is important that energy utilities engage with energy storage sooner rather than later," Grimes said. "Too often the energy sector ignores emerging technology trends and is blindsided when they are deployed widely."


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Speedlinking 14 April 2007
#1 Introduction to Blogging
If you are new in blogging and not yet get familiar with this new blogging space, then I suggest you visit http://codex.wordpress.org/Introduction_to_Blogging before you start your blogging journey.
There some brieft explainations about Feeds, Blogrolls, Syndication, Trackbacks, Pingbacks, Comment Spam, Pretty Permalinks, Post Slugs, Excerpt and Plugins.
The website provides "Basics-A Few Blogging Tips" too.
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text:
Falmouth Eagles coach Phil Angove said he was delighted to learn club captain Tony Whittle had been named in the Cornwall squad.
A highly-rated flanker, Whittle has been one of the Eagles' most consistent performers over the course of the season, and the Falmouth boss said his call up was well deserved.
"It's great for him," said Angove. "And he deserves it. Not to take anything away from the club, but to be selected for the county squad when you're playing for Falmouth is quite an achievement, so I'm really pleased for him."
But despite his excellent formof late Whittle was powerless to prevent the Eagles from losing against Exeter University on Saturday, after a bruising encounter at the Recreation Ground whcih finished 32-3 to the Students.
Exeter ran away with it in the second half, but Angove maintained that he was pleased with the way his side played.
"I thought we did ourselves proud," he said. "Exeter are a fine side, and are probably good enough to be playing a couple of leagues higher than they are, so I was really pleased with the way we played.
"The first half was hugely competitive, and we dominated the forward exchanges."
The Eagels boss had to contend with the loss of forward Joel Rose before the game, forcing him to make changes to his starting lineup.
"I was in a bit of a situation where I could have played him, and he wanted to play, but I felt duty bound not to.
"It's been the same story all season really. At full strength I think we're a top three side - we were in the top three for a while earlier in the season. Player unavailability has been the biggest problem, but that's amateur rugby for you!"


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|2008-02-05, 09:01
|Link #323
Sanae moe over 9000
As it stands, from the way it completely raped Allen, the Level 4 has shown powers on a par with Awakened Tyki Mikk, and seems to exceed Jasdebi in power.
|2008-02-05, 09:10
|Link #324
Senior Member
Join Date: Jul 2007
Location: Gaf's Room
But remember one thing: you can't fight without a weapon. Which is what seperates the level 4 from the rest of the Noahs/Akumas shown so far.
|2008-02-05, 13:29
|Link #325
Sanae moe over 9000
As for exceeding Jasdebi in power, it is questionable, but given Jasdebi's defeat at the hands of Krory's innocence, and the ease of which this Akuma can take hits from Allen's penultimate technique, the Sword of Exorcism, and shrug them off, I'd say this Akuma appears to exceed even the Noah twins in power, or at least resistance to Innocence attacks.
|2008-02-06, 11:52
|Link #327
User Title eaten by ravenous bunnies
IT Support
Join Date: Sep 2007
Location: Zeon
Age: 26
I think u guys are forgetting something if a LVL 4 akuma is more powerful than some Noah's then the earl has no use for the Noah's but the lvl 4 akuma might have some disadvantages thats why he keeps the Noah around
P.S. Jasdebi got defeated when Krory-sama went Crimson-Krory and krory doesn't feel any pain so think about it Crimson-Krory Might be able to beat an lvl 4 akuma while he is in crimson-krory he can also split in half too
|2008-02-06, 17:05
|Link #328
Senior Member
Join Date: Dec 2006
|2008-02-06, 18:03
|Link #330
Senior Member
Join Date: Jun 2007
Location: Puerto Rico
Age: 28
If or when the author decides to hook somebody it will be Allen and Lenalee.
|2008-02-07, 13:35
|Link #332
Senior Member
Join Date: May 2006
Just read 147 wow good stuff. That lvl 4 is wicked! Though he knows he's an Akuma and made to destroy, he seems to do what he wants, even killing his own side. So like this one lvl 4 is taking on the whole black order and laughing and doing a damn good job. I know the base was just attacked by all the other Akumas and led by a Noah, but they attacked the scientist and non-exorcist, but when the exorcist and generals came they easily owned the Akumas and the Noah. So this one lvl 4 is more power than that little army of Akumas led by the Noah that just attacked?
|2008-02-08, 11:01
|Link #335
Pillager of Twilight
Join Date: Nov 2006
Location: Rivers In the Desert
Age: 28
Well, now you can see why the Earl still needs the Noahs.
The Lv 4 may be pwnage-incarnation, but it is also the very definition of a loose-cannon. This might explain why the Lulubell didn't just grab one or two Lv 4s, but an entire army of Lv 3s.
(Also, I have a theory that maybe the Noahs serve some other purpose than fighting, hence the Earl still needs them...
After all, Road's ability isn't exactly combat-oriented)
Seeing how the Lv 4 killed it's own allies, maybe you might one to reconsider the possibility that an Akuma could evolve to the point where it is free from the Earl's control?
And I thought all Exorcist were accounted for? Tiedoll said something like that back when they were in Edo...
|2008-02-08, 14:01
|Link #336
Sanae moe over 9000
The Lv. 4's power level really indicates that the leap in power from level to level really IS exponential.
And, I agree with Chaos2Frozen, the Akuma are the Earl's Foot Soldiers, the Noah could serve special purposes.
(Like has been said, Road isn't exactly a fighter, BUT she could program Noah's Arc, neither is Lulubell for that matter, she's a strategist, and the Earl himself said that Tyki has "Awakened" and that he can look forward to this from every generation of Noah's pleasure, implying the Noah serve a much deeper purpose than just footsoldiers.)
And that Akuma REALLY doesn't discriminate when it kills, if I were Lulubell, I wouldn't want Team-killers in my Army either....
I'm starting to think so too, but I doubt the Earl would be THAT stupid.
|2008-02-08, 16:14
|Link #338
Pillager of Twilight
Join Date: Nov 2006
Location: Rivers In the Desert
Age: 28
As they say in Jurassic Park,
"Life has found a way."
|2008-02-08, 20:54
|Link #339
Sanae moe over 9000
For example, Road's dimension could be used to bring one's deepest fears to life, which can accomplish far more than raw power sometimes.
But at the rate Akuma evolve, if the Lv. 4 is any indication.......
He may just kill anyone.
|2008-02-08, 22:27
|Link #340
User Title eaten by ravenous bunnies
IT Support
Join Date: Sep 2007
Location: Zeon
Age: 26
An other thing i think is up Are Akuma Immortal cause they might have a short life span as then lvl up because they say the soul is they're source of power and the condition of the soul of a lvl 4 is very very bad don't u think it could go bye bye
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Quit hunting and thrashing with hard to grasp zippers. Zipquix makes finding and using zippers easy, even with gloved hands in a white out. Perfect for all your packs, duffel bags and jackets.
Welcome to the Mid-West's #1 source for outdoor clothing and gear. First opened in 1972, Erehwon Mountain Supply had its humble beginnings in an 800 square foot store on Chicago's North Side. read more


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Around An Exceptional La Limo Service
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