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|Largest city
|Other cities
|Wicca, Christianity, Islam
|Ethnic Groups
|Meritocratic monarchy
|Ministry of Cascadia
|n/a km²
|from United States
|October 30th 1969
|Cascadian Dollar
|Time Zone
|Calling Code
|Internet TLD
It is defined as a 'Wiccan State' in its Covenant, and is the only Wiccan theocracy in North America, and is, by far, the largest Wiccan theocracy on a global scale, larger than even some of the various Wiccan states that developed in Africa after the Heaven Wars.
The Matriarchy also lays claim to parts of Northern California directly south of its borders with the New California Republic, and has been in dispute with the NCR over these territories for years, although the dispute has, up to the present, remained at a low "disagreement" status, which is due in large part to mediation by San Francisco.
The Matriarchy currently borders the Nation of Deseret (Utah) to the southeast—with which is has been in near-constant conflict with since the Threefold Reformation and the resulting Heaven Wars—the People's Cooperative and the American Federation to the northeast, the New California Republic and the Commonwealth of Greater San Francisco to the immediate south, and Canada and Alaska to the north and northwest respectively. The Matriarchy was first new theocracy to secede from its parent nation during the Threefold Reformation and the resulting Heaven Wars.
|The Threefold Reformation and the Heaven Wars brought much suffering, but now, with the blessings of the Horned God and the Lady. We have arrived.
—Queen Athena I (Alexandra "Athena" Gardener), founder and first Queen of the Matriarchy
The Matriarchy was founded shortly after the Republic of New England seceded from the United States, shortly after the Threefold Reformation. Although primarily founded upon the principles of a Wiccan theocracy; the Matriarchy was also founded on the beliefs of democracy, federalism, socialism, social equality, racial equality, and basic human rights. It was these beliefs that the Matriarchy's founders felt that the United States federal government had forgotten or disregarded at the beginning of the Cold War and the outbreak of the Vietnam War.
Initially composed out of the former areas of Washington State and Oregon, the region's dense forests provided for excellent camouflage for Cascadian forces from attacking Federal forces during the Second American Civil War, by granting them the ability to use guerrilla tactics and allowing them to gain a significant foothold in the Pacific Northwest and quickly encourage Vancouver Island—part of the Canadian Provence of British Columbia—to join the new nation.
By the end of Second American Civil War and the resulting balkanization of the United States, portions of Northern Idaho, Western Montana, and Northwestern Wyoming, along with Vancouver Island were ceded to the Matriarchy, with the stipulation that control of Vancouver Island would be jointly shared by both the Matriarchy and Canada, with the city of Victoria remaining as the capital of British Columbia. As the Nevada War between the New California Republic and the Nation of Deseret broke out soon after, the Matriarchy served as a mediator between the two nations, assisted by San Francisco.
Today, the Matriarchy is seen as one of the most peaceful of all the North American nations, focusing on strengthening its economy through technological innovation and a thriving international trade and tourism industry, this partly due to the fact that both Boeing and Microsoft are headquartered in Seattle. The Matriarchy is also known for being one of the most socially progressive nations, having granted universal suffrage and equal rights to African-Americans and legalized same-sex marriages almost immediately upon gaining its independence, and later legalizing multiple marriages for people of both genders, women also serve in full combat roles in the Cascadian military. However the Matriarchy also boasts a small, but strong and highly effective military in the form of the Cascadian Defense Forces, meaning that any nation that has decided to attack the Matriarchy would be foolish in doing so.
Society and Culture
Cascadian society is largely open, equal, and free, with universal suffrage. Despite having a hereditary monarchy, Cascadian society is largely meritocratic, meaning that positions and privileges are awarded to those who stand out and denied or revoked to those who do not; this rule also applies to the Cascadian nobility and hereditary titles may be denied to a noble who performs in a shameful or ill-advised manner, and although the term 'nobility' is used, the nobility of the Matriarchy have very little privileges or advantages over the 'commoners', as Cascadian society strives to practice equality and democracy.
Sexual mores and practices within the Matriarchy are fluid and open. Homosexuality is commonplace and is generally seen as being perfectly acceptable and same-sex marriage is completely legal under Cascadian law, as is bisexuality, and polygamy, and is it not uncommon to see people married to multiple spouses of both genders, including the current monarch, Queen Artemis, who herself has two husbands and one wife. Prostitution is also fully legal and is regulated by the state, as in the Netherlands, and both Seattle and the nation's capital, Summerland, have rather sizable red light districts.
All prostitutes in the Matriarchy must be issued a license by the state and comply with regular health checks, failure to do so will result in their license being revoked and a possible arrest. In exchange they must pay a percentage of their earnings in the form of a so-called 'sex tax' which goes back into the system to pay for the health checks and in lieu of a license fee.
Operating a brothel is also legal, and in opinions of some, a safer environment for 'first-timers', as it provides a larger safety net, since many of the staff look after each other. Recently (2011) legislation was passed in the Ministry making it mandatory that all newly licensed prostitutes are only able to work at a licensed brothel for one-two years after obtaining their licenses, after which time they may go into business for themselves if they wish, this law was passed to curb cases of violence against solo operators new to the business.
Polygamy is also legal, but is only allowed under Cascadian law with the stipulation that one person may only have four spouses at any one time (although the gender of the other spouses is not an issue), and must be able to support and provide for all of them and any children financially on an equal basis. The majority of Cascadians are either homosexual or bisexual, or polygamous, or at the very least, accepting of the concept. The transgender are also a large minority within the Matriarchy, and are generally accepted with open arms by Cascadian society.
As a whole, Cascadian society is known for being highly artistic, and the Matriarchy boasts several world-renowned schools of higher learning, including the prestigious Royal Academy of Science & Technology. Environmentalism is strictly enforced, both by Cascadian society and the government, and the Matriarchy is one of several North American nations—along with San Francisco and the New California Republic—that are classified as a 'Green-nation'. All vehicles must have a city rating of 35 mpg (miles per gallon) for trucks and other large vehicles and 40 mpg for highways, whereas sedans and other small personal automobiles must have a city mpg of 40 and 45 for highways.
All vehicles must also have a low emission standard before being allowed to be sold within the Matriarchy's borders and most vehicles that are built and sold in the Matriarchy are electric or run on some type of alternative fuel, like hydrogen or bio-diesel. The Matriarchy also has an extensive mass transit system, primarily limited to railways, trams, and bus services due to the nation's small size. Bicycles are also common forms of transportation within smaller urban areas, as are trams.
The Cascadian Defense Forces (CDF) is also unique in that women who join the CDF serve in positions equal to those on men, and serve side-by-side with men in unisex units, provided that they are physically and personally suited for the job, the definition of what 'suited' entails is largely determined on a case-by-case basis, i.e. the prospective soldier's talents and abilities rather than gender.
Although officially a Wiccan theocracy, there is surprisingly no official state religion within the Matriarchy, unlike other North American theocracies, such as the Nation of Desert (Utah), the role of Wicca in the Matriarchy's founding was more along the lines of using the values of Wicca as a guideline. Freedom of religion is a fundamental right under Matriarchal law, and although a majority of Cascadians are Wiccans, including most members of the Royal Family, there are also an equal number of Christians (of Catholic, Protestant, and other denominations), Jews, Muslims, as well as Buddhists and Hindus within the Matriarchy's borders. Accreditation is given to religious groups that fulfill a set of certain requirements. Currently there are four main officially recognized religious bodies within the Matriarchy.
- The Church of Witchcraft — a Wiccan group, and the closest the Matriarchy has to an official state church
- The Cascadian Church of Christ — a Protestant group
- The Cascadian Church of Our Most Holy Lady — a Catholic group
- The Muslim Order — an Islamic group
- Zionist Society of Cascadia — a pro-Israel group with no ties to any one faith
There are also several other religious groups, including a Buddhist temple located in the capital city of Summerland, and several Mosques throughout the nation. There is also a group known as "the Order of Our Most Holy Green Lady of Roses" (more commonly shortened to "the Order of the Green Lady" or sometimes the "Order of the Green Rose").
The Order of the Green Lady is a group that seeks to further religious tolerance by attempting to combine aspects of both Wicca and Catholicism, specifically the reverence of the Virgin Mary adhered to by Catholics and the belief in a mother goddess by Wiccans, the Order claims that the Virgin Mary and the Goddess that Wiccans honor are one and the same, with the Virgin Mary having been a physical incarnation of the Goddess, and while this claim is largely disputed outside the Order's ranks, their efforts at fostering religious tolerance have been very successful. Although originally founded on a merging of Christian and Wiccan ideologies and sought to bridge the gap between Christendom and Wicca, the Order of the Green Lady has since helped to foster peace between Christians and Muslims,
The Matriarchy also sadly is host to an eco-terrorist group with religious overtones known as the 'Gaia's Resistance Army' or the "GRA". The GRA is responsible for several attacks against Christian, Judaic, and Islamic groups both within the Matriarchy and elsewhere, most especially Utah, and in recent years a bomb blast near the Great Hall in the Matriarchy's capital of Summerland. Both the Church of Witchcraft and the Matriarchy's government have unanimously labeled the GRA as a terrorist organization, as have a majority of the North American Commonwealth member-states, most prominently the Commonwealth of Greater San Francisco.
The Monarchy
The Matriarchy of Wicca is a constitutional unicameral meritocratic parliamentary representative theocratic federal republican elective monarchy with universal suffrage. The current reigning monarch (in this case Queen Artemis) serves as both Head of State and Head of Government, supported by a Cabinet of advisers who act as go-betweens between the monarch and the legislative body, the Ministry.
The Ministry operates on the Westminster system, which is copied from the United Kingdom, as is the basic structure of the monarchy, including prohibiting the monarch—and by extension any member of the Royal Family—from voting in any elections at the Provincial or Federal level, as it is believed that this would conflict with their duties as Heads of State and prevent them from viewing governmental matters impartially.
However, the monarchy also copies aspects from the United States Constitution, such as the reigning monarch receiving a monetary compensation for their services to the State, as well as granting the monarch the command of the Cascadian Defense Forces (although de facto authority of the CDF is in the hands of the Ministry and the Cabinet).
Although the monarchy is hereditary, no Cascadian monarch may ascend to the throne unless first nominated by the Ministry in a national referendum which is then confirmed by the vote of the people, with a two-thirds majority being necessary to confirm the ascension. If the ascension is not confirmed by the vote of the people then the Ministry will hold a referendum and continue nominating a new candidate for the throne from the next in line of the Royal Family until a new monarch is chosen.
The monarchy currently rests, as it has since October of 1969, with the House of Gardener, the family lineage established by Alexandria "Athena" Gardener, the founder and first queen of the Matriarchy.
The monarchy is also unique in that the Covenant of the Matriarchy does not specify that the reigning monarch must the firstborn male heir, only that it must be the oldest child; this means that any of the current monarch's oldest children, male or female, has the right to be elected to the throne.
Although classified by some as an absolute monarchy, the monarch's powers are still largely determined by the Ministry and the Cascadian people. For example, the monarch can, with the advice and/or consent of the Ministry, bestow titles of nobility, such as knighthoods, and has the power to make or break treaties with other powers and nations, and by extension receive foreign ambassadors, but cannot declare war without the prior consent and approval of the Ministry, as exemplified during the Gulf War, when Queen Artemis asked the Ministry for—and was initially denied—a declaration of war against Iraq until a year later.
The Ministry also has the power to remove the monarch from the throne by a unanimous vote of 'no confidence', but only in such cases where the monarch has either, committed treason, taken or given a bribe, or committed some other form of high crime or misdemeanor, the Ministry can also just as easily restore a monarch to the throne if such crimes are found to be false.
The monarch may also abdicate if they so desire for whatever reason, such as illness, as Queen Athena II—the mother of the current monarch, Queen Artemis—did shortly after being diagnosed with cancer, as can the heir apparent—as Queen Artemis' sister, Princess Hera, did shortly after their mother's death—although an abdication of either the monarch or the heir apparent is still generally frown upon by the populace as a whole, and Queen Artemis was at first viewed with suspicion and uncertainty during the first two or so years of her reign after she ascended the throne following the death of her very popular mother.
The Legislative
The legislative body of the Matriarchy is in the form of the "Ministry" (also sometimes rarely known as the Senate). The Ministry is a unicameral body which composed of representatives from each Quarter who represent the interests of their constituents in the government and also make laws and national policy on a wide range of interests. The Ministry has been frequently described as a "streamlined version of the U.S. Congress".
The Ministry meets in the Grand Hall, a large building located in the center circle of Summerland directly across from the Green House, the official residence of the current reigning monarch.
Like the U.S. Congress, the Ministry is empowered by the Covenant to make law, print currency and coin money, enforce taxation (including income laws), manage the economy and the national budget, regulate commerce with other nations, ratify treaties with other powers and nations, borrow money on the credit of the Matriarchy, establish and maintain a national military, create and manage the rules and regulations of the military, and declare war. The Ministry can also establish post offices, issue patients and copyrights, and admit new Provinces into the Matriarchy.
Crime and Law Enforcement
Law enforcement in the Matriarchy falls under two categories, Federal and Local. Local law enforcement is limited to police and sheriffs departments in townships and cities such as Seattle and Tacoma.
Federal law enforcement consists of the "Federal Police Services" (also known as the "FPS" or more simply the 'National Police' and often referred to in slang of the "Feddies"), the FPS is a paramilitary semi-nationalized police force created to investigate crimes that cross Provincial lines and was created after several jurisdictional issues arose in cases when crimes or criminals crossed into different Provinces.
The FPS is the primary form of major law enforcement in the Matriarchy, functioning as a combined form of the FBI and state troopers and focusing on crimes as homicide, sexual assault, violent crimes, and domestic terrorism, whereas local law enforcement is largely focused on dealing with more minor crimes, such as burglary, assault, robbery, and drunk and disorderly.
The legal system of the Matriarchy is copied largely from the United States' legal system of common law, which is turn was copied and modified from the English common law system. At both the Provincial and Federal level jurisprudence follows a common law system. Provincial courts typically handle criminal cases, whereas federal courts deal with more high profile cases. Federal law prohibits a variety of drugs to be used, excluding marijuana, the use of which was legalized quite by accident in the form of collective marijuana farms created in the early 1980s to help stimulate the economy. The legal drinking age in the Matriarchy is 21, whereas the age of consent in 16, much like the United Kingdom, and, as stated above, prostitution is legal and regulated by the state. Gun ownership in the Matriarchy is significantly lower than other North American nations, most likely due to the general antipathy towards violence among Cascadians.
The Matriarchy has been classified by some as a nanny state and the ODIN Program ("Offensive Observational Detection Defense and Investigation Network")—whereby a massive series of closed circuit cameras and staffs of analysts are used to monitor the nation's urban areas—has attracted controversy, most especially in the aftermath of 9/11.
The Royal Cascadian Defense Forces (also abbreviated as the RCDF or more commonly called the Cascadian Defense Forces or the CDF and sometimes called the Royal Matriarchal Defense Forces) is the main military force of the Matriarchy, and consists of three main branches.
- The Cascadian Ground Defense Force (CGDF): Equal to most national armies, responsible for infantry-based attacks and offensives.
- The Cascadian Navy (CN): Responsible for defense from sea and coastal regions.
- Naval infantry: Equal to marine corps, responsible for amphibious assaults, boarding actions, and ship cleanup.
- The Cascadian Air Force (CAF): Responsible for aerial defense and protecting Matriarchal airspace.
The CDF is primarily charged with defending and protecting the Matriarchy from 'invasion or insurrection, indirect or direct aggression, and maintaining the nation's independence' rather than launching a preemptive strike, as well as promoting and supporting the Matriarchy's international peacekeeping efforts.
As such the CDF is often compared to Japan's Self-Defense Force rather than an actual army, and during the early-1980s efforts were made by the government to avoid an overt attitude of militarism, due to the Matriarchy's peaceful intentions and in an attempt to move away from the horrors of the Heaven Wars, this included an initial attempt to avoid the use of military terms, therefore tanks were often referred to as "transports" and the various branches of the CDF were titled as "Ground Defense Force", "Maritime Defense Force", and "Aerial Defense Force" rather than "army", "navy", and "air force". Although these terms quickly fell out of favor, and the navy and air force were soon renamed as such, with the army only retaining the name "Ground Defense Force".
The CDF officially answers to the current reigning monarch (Queen Artemis), although constitutional convention vests de facto executive authority and power in the Cabinet-level Defense Ministry and the Ministry, but the Queen retains "ultimate authority" over the CDF, and holds the power to prevent its unconstitutional use in both peace and wartime. The CDF is an active and regular participant in NATO operations (of which the Matriarchy is a member) and other coalition operations including the North American Commonwealth (NAC) and the West Pacific Coast Coalition (WEPAC), of which the Matriarchy is a founding-member of both organizations, and, most recently, enforcing the current UN-mandated Libyan No-Fly Zone.
Like most former-U.S. militaries, the CDF was founded from various civilian militias during the outbreak of the Second American Civil War, and like the Israeli Defense Forces, the CDF is considered to be one of the most battle-hardened and highly trained military forces in the world, largely due to being involved in several skirmishes and border conflicts since the founding of the Matriarchy, most especially the Nevada War, where the Matriarchy fought alongside the New California Republic and the Commonwealth of Greater San Francisco against the Nation of Deseret (Utah) for control of the Hoover Dam and in the defense of the city-state of New Vegas.
The CDF largely relies on high-tech weaponry and defenses primarily designed and built within the Matriarchy and some foreign nations, the New California Republic and the Commonwealth of Greater San Francisco are notable foreign contributors alongside the United Kingdom, of which the Matriarchy is a major ally.
The CDF is also unique in that it seeks to "end conflicts quickly and efficiently without large loss of human life or dignity", as such the CDF often seeks quicker and more efficient alternatives to direct combat and open war, frequently using special forces units to infiltrate enemy territory and disrupt an enemy's war effort from within, as well as using sabotage and subterfuge, such as disabling communications networks and transport lines rather an open invasion and military occupation.
The Matriarchy is a signatory to, and ratified, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Biological Weapons Convention, and the Chemical Weapons Convention, and is largely against the development and use of nuclear weapons, and officially maintains a policy of deliberately forbidding the development or transport of nuclear weapons through its borders, much like modern-day Japan, and in 1980 the Ministry passed the "Atomic Energy Act" which limits the development of nuclear technology only for peaceful purposes, as in nuclear reactors and power plants (although, due to its high level of technology and strong economy, the Matriarchy is still classified as a "nuclear capable" nation, as it is widely believed that the Matriarchy is more-than-capable of building nuclear weapons and an efficient long-range delivery system if the political climate were to suddenly change).
Women in the CDF
The CDF is also unique in that women are allowed—and in some regards expected—to serve in full-combat roles in all branches of the CDF alongside men and have done so since the CDF's foundation in 1970 (much like the Israeli Defense Forces). This was at a time when most women serving in national militaries were usually only allowed to be clerks, nurses, or drivers, and the CDF has been fully-integrated from 1970 to present. This policy of gender equality and integration in the military was initially instituted to help further the idea of social equality in the early Matriarchy, as well as due to shortages in manpower during the Second American Civil War.
During the Nevada War, female CDF soldiers served valiantly in the defense of San Francisco and the New California Republic from the Nation of Deseret (Utah)'s territorial expansion into Nevada and the threat that expansion posed to the vital power supply at Hoover Dam (then controlled by the NCR), and the city-state of New Vegas.
Many female CDF personnel were either killed or captured by Utahan forces during the course of the Nevada War, which raised concerns in the Ministry, and the general populace, about the possibility of torture and sexual assaults on female soldiers serving on the front-lines, as reports of many female CDF personnel being raped or molested, or even being violently tortured and killed by Utahan soldiers emerged, including one confirmed case involving a female Cascadian POW being brutally beheaded by Utahan soldiers.
Despite these concerns, Cascadian women continued to enlist in the CDF and served alongside their male counterparts with honor and distinction throughout the entire course of the war, most especially in the Second Battle of Hoover Dam, the final battle of the war, and were considered instrumental in helping to bring an end to the war and forge the resulting Salton Sea Treaty.
To this day, the Deseret government continually denies any allegations that Utahan soldiers may have raped or molested Cascadian female POWs during the Nevada War, and claims that most of the cases involving rape of Cascadian female POWs are either false or are being blown out of proportion, and that the actual number of female Cascadian soldiers being raped or molested—if any such events occurred at all that is—by Utahan forces is far lower then claimed.
Cascadian women also valiantly served in the CDF during the Idaho Scramble, including the current Queen, Queen Artemis, and her sister, Princess Hera, who flew a fighter jet over the Cascadian—Utahan border zone during the conflict and Cascadian women also continue to serve on the frontlines in conflicts overseas in places such as Afghanistan and throughout the Middle East.
Women currently make up a larger percentage of active service members in the CDF compared to men, and frequently ascend up the ranks of the CDF to top officer positions at a slightly faster rate than their male counterparts, including to the rank of General, and from 1979 to 1997 Major-General Irene Fuller was one of the longest serving commanders of the CDF.
In 2012, two female CDF pilots, Majors Helena Wellesley and Sally Dixon, enforced the Libyan No-Fly Zone, alongside British RAF pilot Flight Lieutenant Helen Seymour. Since 1980, sexual orientation has had not been factor considered during recruitment or voluntary entry into the CDF, and homosexuals can serve openly in the CDF, and all branches of the CDF have had a larger number of recruits during Gay Pride events when compared to other types of recruitment drives.
The Matriarchy does not keep any records on the number of gay and lesbian members serving in the CDF, stating that the sexual orientation of its personnel is considered to be irrelevant in regard to their role or position in the CDF and is not monitored. Married same-sex couples are also fully entitled to military pensions and death benefits.


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The British Academy of Film and Television Arts/Los Angeles will present Oscar-winning actor Denzel Washington with its Stanley Kubrick Britannia Award for Excellence in Film on November 1, 2007.
Long recognized to be a versatile thespian consistently delivering convincing, stunning performances, Denzel Washington is about to receive one more prestigious honor for his dedication to filmmaking.
The actor has been announced to be the honoree of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts/Los Angeles' Stanley Kubrick Britannia Award for Excellence in Film at the 2007 BAFTA/LA Cunard Britannia Awards, set to take place at the Century Plaza Hotel on November 1, 2007.
"Denzel is a remarkably talented actor who always entertains the audience with the rich array of characters that he has portrayed onscreen," BAFTA/LA chairman Peter Morris commented. "As both an actor and director he continually takes on challenging projects, and we are thrilled to honor and celebrate his immense talents."
Winners of two Academy Awards for his roles in "Glory" (1989) and "Training Day" (2001), Washington first entered show business through the 1977 made-for-television movie "Wilma" to then land his breakthrough in the popular TV series "St. Elsewhere." Also a lauded director, he next can be seen playing Frank Lucas in Ridley Scott's "American Gangster", which will open in theaters nationwide on November 2 this year.

subset: commoncrawl


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- Victor Gurfinkel, Timothy W Cacciatore, Paul Cordo, Fay Horak, John Nutt, Rachel Skoss
- Journal of neurophysiology
- 2006
Across the entire human body, postural tone might play its most critical role in the body's axis because the axis joins the four limbs and head into a single functioning unit during complex motor tasks as well as in static postures. Although postural tone is commonly viewed as low-level, tonic motor activity, we hypothesized that postural tone is both… (More)
- Paul Cordo, Helmi Lutsep, Linda Cordo, W Geoffrey Wright, Timothy Cacciatore, Rachel Skoss
- Neurorehabilitation and neural repair
- 2009
BACKGROUND Conventional methods of rehabilitation in patients with chronic, severe motor impairments after stroke usually do not lessen paresis. OBJECTIVE A novel therapeutic approach (assisted movement with enhanced sensation [AMES]) was employed in a medical device phase I clinical trial to reduce paresis and spasticity and, thereby, to improve motor… (More)
- L Straker, R Burgess-Limerick, +4 authors R Skoss
- Journal of electromyography and kinesiology…
- 2008
Computer display height and desk design to allow forearm support are two critical design features of workstations for information technology tasks. However there is currently no 3D description of head and neck posture with different computer display heights and no direct comparison to paper based information technology tasks. There is also inconsistent… (More)
- L Straker, C Pollock, R Burgess-Limerick, R Skoss, J Coleman
- Journal of electromyography and kinesiology…
- 2008
Computer display height and desk design are believed to be important workstation features and are included in international standards and guidelines. However, the evidence base for these guidelines is lacking a comparison of neck/shoulder muscle activity during computer and paper tasks and whether forearm support can be provided by desk design. This study… (More)
- L M Straker, J Coleman, R Skoss, B A Maslen, R Burgess-Limerick, C M Pollock
- Ergonomics
- 2008
Computers are now widely used by children. Tablet computers are becoming widely available and promoted for use by school children. The primary objective of this study was to compare the posture and muscle activity of children using a tablet computer to the posture and muscle activity of children using a desktop computer and paper technology. Eighteen… (More)
- L Straker, R Skoss, A Burnett, R Burgess-Limerick
- Ergonomics
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Head and neck posture is an important factor in neck pain related to computer use; however, the evidence for an optimal posture is unconvincing. This study measured the 3-D postures of 36 young adults during use of three different display heights. Cervical extensor muscle strain was estimated using modelled gravitational load moments and muscle capacities.… (More)
- Leon Straker, Robin J. Burgess-Limerick, Clare Pollock, Jemma Coleman, Rachel Skoss, Barbara Maslen
- Human Factors
- 2008
OBJECTIVE The 3-D posture and muscle activity in the neck and upper limb were assessed in children using high-, mid-, and book-level displays, which correspond to working conditions frequently observed when children interact with computers or books and paper. BACKGROUND The 3-D posture and muscle activity of children reading and inputting data with… (More)
- Leon Straker, Clare Pollock, J. Piek, R. Abbott, Rachel Skoss, Jemma Coleman
- Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interaction
- 2009
This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution , reselling , loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents… (More)
- Joanna Knox, Paul Cordo, Rachel Skoss, Shane Durrant, Paul Hodges
- Behavioral neuroscience
- 2006
Acuity for elbow joint position sense (JPS) is reduced when head position is modified. Movement of the head is associated with biomechanical changes in the neck and shoulder musculoskeletal system, which may explain changes in elbow JPS. The present study aimed to determine whether elbow JPS is also influenced by illusory changes in head position.… (More)
- Rachel Skoss, Paul Cordo
- 2008
Background. Conventional methods of rehabilitation in patients with chronic, severe motor impairments after stroke usually do not lessen pare-sis. Objective. A novel therapeutic approach (assisted movement with enhanced sensation [AMES]) was employed in a medical device phase I clinical trial to reduce paresis and spasticity and, thereby, to improve motor… (More)
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1.0 oz ROBIC XL ripstop nylon
Ripstop by the Roll
Remember when ULTRALIGHT meant delicate and fragile? Meet 1.0 oz ROBIC® XL. Compared to similar weight standard nylon fabrics, 1.0 oz ROBIC® XL is both stronger and more durable.
The difference starts with the yarn. See below for a typical comparison between fabrics using standard Nylon 6 yarn and ROBIC® yarn:
Translation? ROBIC® fabrics are up to 50% stronger with 2.5x the tear strength. In other words, it's hard to break and tough to rip.
To reduce bias stretch and increase abrasion resistance, 1.0 oz ROBIC® XL also uses a diamond hybrid ripstop grid. This makes it easier to sew, increases comfort for load bearing applications (e.g. hammocks), and extends the overall life of the fabric.
Like the other fabrics in our XL line, we've custom woven 1.0 oz ROBIC® XL to be WIDER than standard fabrics at 68" versus the more common 60" width.
1.0 oz ROBIC® XL is great for widebody hammocks, synthetic quilt shells, chairs, lightweight bags, or any application where lightweight, strong, and highly durable fabric is needed.
Product Details
|Black (N/A), Burnt Orange (16-1448), Charcoal Gray (18-0601), Coyote Brown (N/A), Dark Olive (19-0516), Deep Purple (N/A), Hunter Green (19-5511), Olive Drab (18-0622), Racing Red (19-1763), Robin Egg Blue (3248), Spectra Yellow (14-0957), Vader Blue (N/A)
|68'' (including selvedge)
|1.0 oz/yd2
|ROBIC® nylon 6
|Ripstop Grid
|diamond hybrid (diamond with box)
|Breathable with DWR, uncalendered
Ordering/shipping info
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To maintain fast and efficient fulfillment, please note that no order changes/combinations are permitted after order placement (except address changes). Please see FAQ page for full details.
|Continuous Cut Policy
Please see below for our continuous cut policy. Note this policy applies to each separate product on the order:
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We always attempt to give a continuous-cut if possible, but splices are present in various materials due to the manufacturing process. Unless otherwise notified, all orders will be cut per the above policy.
IMPORTANT: If you are ordering larger amounts and have specific cut requirements, we can make cuts that work for you, but you MUST list these reqts in the notes section of the order. These notes can be added on the cart page.
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SAMPLES - Trouble deciding or want to see the fabric first hand? Head over to our samples page to order a custom sample pack.


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Goa –A State of Beautiful & Exotic Beaches
Location: All
Date posted 28 Sep 2016
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Reviews for the Easily Distracted:
Big Trouble in Little China
Title: Big Trouble in Little China
Uh, Doesn't the New X-Men Movie Come Out This Week? If you're volunteering to watch my kids every time there's a scheduling conflict during a screening, send me your phone number. Otherwise, put a sock in it.
Rating Using Random Objects Relevant to the Film: Five dark and stormy nights out of five.
Brief Plot Synopsis: American trucker attempts to prove his mettle against ancient Chinese sorcery, with mixed results.
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Tagline: "Adventure doesn't come any bigger!"
Better Tagline: "Yes sir, the check is in the mail."
Not So Brief Plot Synopsis: During a brief stopover in San Francisco's Chinatown, truck driver Jack Burton (Kurt Russell) becomes embroiled in: a) the kidnapping of his friend Wang Chi's (Dennis Dun) betrothed, b) a Chinese gang war, and c) the "darkest magic" of nigh-immortal sorcerer Lo Pan (James Hong). His predicament is complicated by both the presence of buttinsky lawyer Gracie Law (Kim Cattrall) and Burton's own inflated opinion of his abilities.
"Critical" Analysis: Big Trouble in Little China opened 28 years ago to almost no fanfare, grossed an anemic $11 million (its budget was almost twice that) and marked the beginning of the end of director John Carpenter's career as a marquee filmmaker. In the years since, Carpenter has directed nine films, a few of which (Prince of Darkness, They Live, In the Mouth of Madness) have achieved cult status in spite of terrible critical reaction. Mostly he's been content to pick up a paycheck as others have remade his older classics.
Given that evidence, Big Trouble in Little China must be a colossal turd, right?
This is actually the furthest thing from the truth. But while yours truly considers BTiLC to be one of the finest movies of the 20th century, it was something of a strange fish, even in a year that saw the release of Howard the Duck, Vamp and that Star Trek movie with whales in it. Russell, still widely known as "the guy from all those '70s Disney movies," plays a blowhard-ier John Wayne in a (relatively) big-budget version of a Chinese martial arts movie, shot through with Howard Hawks-style screwball comedy dialogue. In retrospect, it's astounding 20th Century Fox released it in the first place.
And in reality, they almost didn't. Attempts at studio sabotage included challenging the casting of Russell and Cattrall, rushing Carpenter through the production (in order to beat the similarly themed The Golden Child to theaters), and finally forcing the insertion of Egg Shen's (Victor Wong) prologue scene to try and explain Jack Burton to audiences. In the end, they probably figured -- what with Aliens and The Fly set to come out that summer as well -- they had their bases covered.
I didn't see BTiLC in the theater, and I suspect it never played in my town (we did get Aliens and The Fly however, go figure). I remember renting the VHS with friends because "Kurt Russell + John Carpenter" had already yielded Escape From New York and The Thing, which we knew without fear of hyperbole to be two of the greatest movies of all time. Not having seen it initially on the big screen, I can't speak to what audiences found so off-putting, but I'll bet having an '80s action hero who was more Sylvester the Cat than Sylvester Stallone didn't help.
Consider the years 1985-87 and the movies therein: Cobra, Rambo: First Blood Part II, Top Gun, MIssing in Action 2, Predator, Lethal Weapon. Of those, only Commando took a somewhat humorous approach, and its protagonist was still a ridiculously efficient killing machine. Many Americans probably weren't ready for a protagonist who was actually a sidekick (Carpenter has acknowledged Wang Chi is the real hero of the film), never mind one wearing a Baja jacket and lace-up suede boots (popular with Krokus fans everywhere).
Even so, it's not uncommon to tell someone they don't "get it" if they're too ignorant to find something as hilariously amusing or incredibly deep as you do (see also any interaction between me and Goonies fans). And much as I hate to admit it, plenty of people didn't "get" BTiLCM. It's an eminently requotable film, but if you didn't fully appreciate exchanges like this in 1986:
Egg Shen: "It is black blood of the earth."
Jack Burton: "You mean oil?"
Egg Shen: "I mean black blood of the earth!"
Then you're probably not going to laugh at it now. It's scientifically proven* that the humor lobes in our brain are fully developed by the time we get into junior high, meaning you either grew up guffawing at a duck dressed as Robin Hood repeatedly slamming into a tree, or you didn't.
I suspect many of those reviewing Big Trouble in Little China during its initial run were unprepared for a smirking buffoon for a lead, or the over-the-top kung fu fighting, which is much more commonplace now. Newcomers to the movie even draw comparisons between Jack Burton and Bruce Campbell's Ash (from the Evil Dead films). I can see the similarities, except a) Burton is smart, and b) Ash could easily kick the crap out of Jack Burton.
I could go on, but that kind of nerdy navel-gazing is why everyone already hates J.J. Abrams's Star Wars sequel. Myself, I've always seen Jack Burton as a stand-in for America, or at least how America viewed itself during a newly confident post-Vietnam era: blustering, overconfident, yet somehow still self-aware enough to avoid what would probably be a hurtful relationship with Gracie Law. May the wings of liberty never lose a feather.
* By noted phrenologists
Big Trouble in Little China is not in theaters (I caught it last week at the Alamo Drafthouse). But it is available on DVD and Blu-ray. Pick it up and prepare to experience some very unreasonable things.
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Practical Ways to Get Fit And Manage Your Weight With the Time You Have
by Concita Thomas, Food & Fitness Strategist
This is a 4-page article. Use the numbers below to read all of the pages.
Getting fit has been on your list of things to do for as long as you can remember but you just don't have the time. Even when you get motivated and declare that this time will be different, the other priorities in your life crowd out your workout routine.
Christians are called to take good care of everything that they have and this includes their bodies. However, finding the time to work, take care of a family, contribute to your community, feed your spirit, and exercise regularly may feel like mission impossible. Since most people rarely neglect work, family, or our commitment to others, taking care of your body is often the thing that gets crowded out of the schedule.
The key to starting and sticking with an exercise program is committing to a realistic weekly schedule. By realistic, I mean a schedule that you can stick to without turning your life inside out even when work gets busy, the children are ill, or you need to travel.
While you may be waiting to have a couple of weeks that aren't so busy to get started and get results, you don't need to wait. You can get started and see results with whatever time you have for exercise right now- even if that is no time at all.
Here are three practical strategies (ranging from no time to limited time to even a bit more time) to leverage whatever time you have right now to get started and stay consistent.
This is a 4-page article. Use the numbers below to read all of the pages.


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New Orleans still basking in afterglow of Saints' Super Bowl win
Wednesday, September 8, 2010; 10:19 PM
On a steamy, sunny Tuesday morning, workers behind a barricade that blocked off a side street were busy setting up equipment in a festival area alongside the Superdome called "Champions Square."
A sign in a nearby shop window read, "Thank you boys!" from the "Who Dat Nation." A celebratory billboard image of New Orleans Saints Coach Sean Payton towered above the corner of Poydras Street and Loyola Avenue, a few blocks from the dome.
There still is a decided afterglow in New Orleans from the Saints' stirring run to their first Super Bowl title, in their first Super Bowl appearance, last season. The team's attempt to produce a proper encore begins with the NFL's opening game, at home Thursday night against the Minnesota Vikings and their quarterback, Brett Favre, a nationally televised rematch of last season's NFC title game.
But the story line changes for the Saints as this season begins. Last season they were the loveable losers made good, a symbol of rebirth for a city and a region still working its way back from the destruction of Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
The hardships have continued with the Gulf of Mexico oil spill, and the Saints remain a rallying point, a source of civic pride. But the connection to the "Aints" of the past, the franchise that once was a laughingstock, is an ever-fading memory. These Saints are champions.
"The aura is different now," Victor Lewis, a former physical education teacher, said Tuesday as he walked past downtown shops, wearing a Super Bowl champions shirt. "We were loving the Saints when they were losing, when they were nothing, when they were like dirty drawers. Now that we're the champs, it's big. After the hurricane, after the BP episode, we bonded even more. People thought we'd be wiped off the face of the earth, but we're still here. And now people have to deal with the Saints."
All around town, Saints fans said they're convinced the club is capable of another Super Bowl run. But some acknowledged that even if this season ends with another huge celebration in the French Quarter, it still won't be quite the same as what last season produced.
"I think it'll be a little different," said Anthony C. Robishaux, who said he has been following the Saints since Archie Manning was the team's quarterback in the 1970s.
"The last time, a lot of people weren't expecting it," said Robishaux, wearing the No. 55 jersey of linebacker Scott Fujita, who departed for Cleveland in the offseason. "People didn't believe it would happen. It won't be the same like that again."
Even if the dynamic is a bit different now, however, the bond between the team and city remains as strong as ever, locals said.
"The Saints are a team where the fans and the team are like family," said Lewis, a New Orleans native who lived in San Francisco after Katrina but returned. "On most NFL teams, they just play for the organization. There's no mingling with the fans or conversing with the community. Here the team and the fans are like mother and child."


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Tata Motors is launching a big push to double the export of its commercial vehicles, due to uncertainties in Indian market Tata has taken this step. Tata Motors exported 50,000 units in this year end in March 2016.
Tata Motors have exported 54,029 commercial vehicles in 2015-16, compared to that of 46,413 of 2014-15. Conventionally Indian CV makers concentrate on markets such as, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. But in recent times due to fluctuations in Indian market, Tata is considering Middle East, Africa and Latin America as their next possible market.
Tata's lead market Brazil has affected because of currency fluctuations, now Tata is looking for alternative markets such as, Chile and Venezuela, it also added Bolivia to its list of markets recently. Eastern Europe is also one among major market for Tata Motors.
In the coming two years Tata Motors aims at having local presence in seven to eight markets, including existing Thailand and Bangladesh. Entering African markets also poses a risk of suffering losses due to unstable currency exchange rates.


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$ 1.50
Aster alpinus
This low growing evergreen, native to the mountain of Europe is just 6 inches high, covered with little, daisy like flowers in white, purple, blue, and pink. Provides a real focal point in a border or rock garden, year after year. 25 seeds.
Perennial, zone 3-7
Germination: 14-30 days
Seed Planting Depth: On surface, press in and cover lightly
Starting Indoors/Outdoors: Start indoors 6-8 weeks before last frost.Cold treat seed by sowing into moist soil or paper towel, wrap in a clear plastic bag and place in refrigerator for 2 weeks; then provide 70-75 degree soil temperatures until germination. Sow outdoors in early spring or early fall, spacing 5-10 seeds every 12".
Height and Width: 6" x 12"
Spacing: 10-12"
Light Needs: Full sun
Soil Needs: Average, well drained
Approximate days to flower from seed: Blooms in the second year, late spring to early-mid summer
Uses: R ock garden, garden border, attracts bees and beneficials
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Product Spotlight
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Report: Desire For Convenience, Healthy Choices To Drive Snack Sales
Meat snacks may act as meal replacements.
The world snack foods market will benefit from the growing emphasis on convenience by time-constrained consumers, according to new report by Global Industry Analysts Inc.
Changes in lifestyles and paucity of time are bringing to fore the time-elevating advantages of snack foods. The fast fading line between meals and snacks is churning out additional opportunities for snacking, the report stated.
Easy on-the-go portable packages, such as stand-up pouches, single-serve/ bite-sized packs, resealable bags, and finger-hugging canisters, which add a new dimension to the concept of added convenience, is expected to emerge into a major product variable for commercial success.
Health-driven snackers are setting into motion strong demand for healthy, low fat, low-calorie, organic, fiber-rich, vitamin, mineral fortified snacks, while carefree snackers are igniting demand for diverse taste and flavor profiles to quench their indulgent carvings.
The trend toward healthy eating is expected to spruce up market opportunities in the snack nuts market, given the rising levels of awareness over the perceived wholesomeness of nuts, which are rich in unsaturated fats, antioxidants, and omega-3 fatty acids. The rise in popularity of protein-rich diets is expected to take demand for meat-based snacks to a new high, according to the report.
Meat snacks are expected to continue to play on the meal replacement trend, by lending itself as a healthful, convenient snack. Stringent regulations over labeling of trans-fat content in packaged foods in the developed markets are additionally expected to drive the popularity of trans-fatty acids-free snack products.
Continuous innovations in flavors and tastes, especially exotic and sophisticated flavors, are expected to help the market score huge gains in the upcoming years. Despite shifting consumer perceptions of what is healthy, evergreen issues like taste and flavor are never compromised by consumers, who place great value on taste and enjoyment.
Strong dollar growth is expected to stem from the world meat snacks market, with the United States leading growth with a projected compounded annual growth rate of 7.6 percent over the 2001-2010 period. World market for bakery snacks is expected to witness dollar growth to the tune of 4.5 percent, with sales in the United States and Canada, together, expected to rise by $5.3 billion between the period 2007 to 2010.


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Simplicity 9038; ©1970' The dress with back zipper has princess seaming, slightly lowered round neckline and set-in sleeves. V. 1 has optional purchased belt. Collarless V. 1 & 2 have long sleeves. V. 2 with button trim has self fabric trim. V. 2 & 3 have front pleats. V. 3 has stand-up collar and short sleeves.
Links to reviews/blog postsEdit
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Do you prefer people with the same sense of style as you or not? eg If you're preppy, would you date someone who dresses in a certain's subculture style, or vice versa? If you dress alternatively, would you date someone with even more extreme style than you? What are your limits?
- edgier than meVote A
- less edgy than meVote B
- the sameVote C
- doesn't matterVote D


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vol. 49.
acres. .TherQC/lu difficulty in possession of an unoccupied'tnwt of land of such; di'il)ensions, I09at,ed: asJhis is; and we are not at liberty to il,llport into this,case other tracts that .may be involved iQ like controversy and embraced in complainant's gl'a,ntof 45,ooQ,000 of acres. .. . , It is furthet, argued, .in favor of the equitable jurisdiction claimed it wUlavoid a multiplicity of But it appears for this. that only two af the defendants are.inpossession, clairuingtitle and exwould certainly not require more ercising ownership as to eight lots. possession, and indeed the law than one suit to determine their right is well settled that, under the practice act adopted in Montana, the plaintiff in aniactioll in tbe nature,,()f t;ljectment may join any number of defeI)dl\nts :Without regard to the extent or charactflr of their posses. San Francisco v. H Cal. 461. :,It appears, therefore, thlltthe bill.does not present a case coming the equity jurisdiction oOha.cQurt. .' " The. decree ,of the circuit court is therefore
: f
UNION PAO. ltV. CO.
(C£rcuit Court Qf Appeals, Ef,ghth Circuit. February 8, 1899.)
INJURY' TO, EMPLOYB-OPINION EVJDENpB..
. In an 'action for the death of plaintiff'. husband, a looomotive engineer. alleged to have been caused by the faulty construction of a 'pcrtion of defendant's railroad, an ,engineer, testifying for plaintiff as to the faulty condition, should not be allow,ed, on cross:elCamination, to state that the engineers on the road were all aware of such condition, it being a mere inference. Ordinary care In the construction of a railroad through a cut in a mountain side, which.was alleged to be faUlty in not providing. a culvert under the track to carry off the washings from a gully, cannot oe shown by the opinion of a witness that cut was construoted and the water run out of it exactly as others are ordinarily constructed on roads running throu'gh such places. In· introducing impeaching testimony, by .showing former oontradlotory statements, .itis within the discretion of the trial oourt to permit a leading question to be put to a witness.where that mode of interrogation is best calculated to elicit the truth.' . .'
, ,
... NEGLIGENCE-BuRDEN 011' PROOll'.
In an.actlon to recover for the death of plaintiff's husband, alleged to have been caused by defendant's negligence, a to charge that the burden is on plaintiff, in the. ;llrst instance, to show that 'plaintiff" was in the exercise of due care, being misleading In the use of the word, "plaintiff," is properly refused.
6. B.ulm-MISI.EAD'ING INSTRUCTIONS.
Plaintiff's intestate, an engineer in defendant's employ on a division of Its rallroad constructed along the foot of mountain ranges, was killed by the derailment of his engine by reason Of sand and gravel on the traCk, which. during a storm, had washed down from the mountain side, through a natural gulley. into the railroad cut, and, there being no oulvertfor its escape under the track, was deposited thereoa
ONIO'N PAC. BY. CO.l1.O"BBIEN.
to the depth of stxtnohes. Held tllat, while intestlf,te assjlmed the inoreased hazard of his elllployment que to the fact that the road was oonstructed through a mountainous country, be did not assume l'iskscaused by faulty Qonlltruction and maintenance of the road.bed and track, even though liability to,accidents thereby was increased because the roa4 was ,built in pro;dmity to mountain ranges.
'l.BAME-QUE!lTION FOR,JURY.
The question of negligence in not constructing a culvert in the place in question was one for the jury, to'bedetermined on the evidence 8S to the construction of the t\nd the formation of the land. Tuttw v. Railway Co., 7 Sup. C1;. Rep. 11tl6, u. B. 189, distinguisbed.
In Error to the Circuit Court of the United States for the District of Colorado.' Action by Nora O'Brien against the Union Pacific Railway Company, to recover for the death of plaintiff's husband, alleged to have been caused by defendant's negligence. Verdict and judgment for plaintiff. Defendant brings error. Affirmed. JohnM. Thur8tlm, Willard Teller, H. M. Orahood, and Edward B. Morgan, for plaintiff in error. H. E. Luth6, for defendant in error. Before CALDWELL, Circuit Judge, and BHrnAS and THAYER, District Judges. SHlRA.!!, District Judge. In September, 1890, John O'Brien, the husband of the defendant in error, was in the employ of the Union Pacifio Railway Company as a locomotive engineer, running an engine upon the South Park Division of the company's line. By a derailment of his en4 gine on the 4th day of September, 1890, the said John O'Brien was killed, a.nd the present action was brought by his wife to recover damages therefor. The evidence shows that the accident occurred about 1 o'clock in the morning. of day named, at a place known as "Platte Canyon," the deceased being in charge of an engine which was propelling a train of freight-cars, some 23 in number; that the line of railway is built along the South Platte river, and of necessity there are numerous cuts thereon, caused by the intersection of the line with the spurs projecting from the high lands along which the line is built; that the engine was derailed by reason of sand and gravel which had been washed upon the track to the depth ef some 6 inches, and to a width of about 15 feet; that this deposit of sand and was in a cut, the river bank of which was 6 or 8 feet high, the other bank being much higher, and sloping up the side of the hill or mountain; that on the hill-side of the cut there was a. gulley running back for some distance, which in times of rain would bring down sand and other material; that there was no opening or cuI. vert under the railway track, through which the water and the material brought down by it could escape; that there was along-side the road-bed a small gutter, but, if the water coming down was greater in quantity than this ditch or gutter would carry away, then the surplus would run over and upon the track and rails of the railway; that during the evening preceding the accident rain had fallen, and the water, rushing down the gully named, had carried the sand and gravel upon the track to the
extent already stated. The case was sent to the jury upon the issues or negligence on part of the company in not properly constructing the track, in that no outlet was provided for the water which would be liable to come down upon the track, and deposit thereon sand and other obstructiohs, and of contributory negligence on the part of the deceased; and, upon both issues the jury found in favor of the plaintiff, assessing the damages at $3,000, and, judgment being entered upon the verdict, the company brings the case to this court. 'The first error assigned is based:dpon the action ofothe court in susta!ning an objection to a question asked by the plaintiff in error in crossexamination of a witness, (William HaU,) who testified that he was a locomotive engineer, and was well acquainted with the line of railway upon which the-accident happened; that there are many cuts upon the line; that in August and September rains were usually frequent, and that in rainy weather, on account of the steepness of the mountains, more or less sand would be deposited on the track. Thereupon, counsel for the company asked the question, "Are the engineers all aware of that fact?" which was objected to, and the objection was sustained. It is perfectly clear, from the context, that the purpose of this question was to get the witness to testify to a matter purely of inference from the facts he had previously stated; that is, he had testified that; owing to the surroundings of the railway line, in rainy weather more or less sand would be deposited at various points along the line, and the question objected to waS asked with the view of having the witness draw the inference that .the frequency of the deposits would necessarily bring knowledge of the fact to all the engineers running on the line. The facts having been fully put in evidence, it was for the jury to determine whether the facts proven would justify inference of kIlOwiedge on part of all the engineers; and it was not error, therefore, to sustain the objection to the question proposed. The second error relied on arises on the refusal of the court to permit the same witness, after testifying to facts tending to show the need of a culvert at the cut, where the a.ccident happened, and that in his judgment a culvert would add to the safety of the road, to answer the question: said you thought the culvert would make it much safer; but is not that cut constructed there and the water run out of it exactly as others are ordinarily constructed on roads running through such places?" It is argued on behalf of plaintiff in error that if the company could show that this cut was constructed as cuts in similar places on roads running through a region of like character, it would be evidence tending to show that it had used ordinary care in the construction of this cut. If a bridge upon a line of railway breaks down, the. company may show that the bridge is of an improved make or pattern, and is in common use upon other lines of railway, as evidence tending to show that the company was not in fault in using that make of bridge. If the issue is whether the company uses proper precautions to prevent the escape of sparks from its locomotives, it may show that the same are equipped with the appliances in common use upon other roads. If the charge of
negligence is that the company did not use ties of sufficient size or of proper material, or used rails that were not of sufficient weight, then it might be competent to.show that upon other roads, carrying on the same kind of traffic, similar ties or rails were in common use, and were found to meet the demands put upon them. In all such cases the inquiry is whether the \lSe of a particular article is justified by the usage of other companies, and there is no danger of the jury being misled as to the exact nature or mode of construction of the article inquiren about. It cannot be claimed that cuts upon railways are made according to a certain pattern. The necessity of a culvert or water outlet in a cut depends upon the surroundings, in which no two are exactly alike. We know.from our common knowledge that in many cuts there are to be found culverts, and in others tbere are none. It would have been of no aid to the jury to have proved that in many cuts no culverts were used, without further showing that the surroundings thereof were substantially similar to that where the accident happened; and this would have required an examination into a number of collateral facts, that would have led away the jury from the issues on trial before them. It is said that the question as put to the witness met this difficulty, in that it asked whether the cut was not the same as the "cuts ordinarily constructed on roads running through such places.» This would necessitateone of two results. The witness must, in his own mind, determine whether the places referred to were in fact similar to the one where the accident happened, and the jury must be satisfied to take the opinion of the witness on the fact of the similarity of the respective cuts and their surroundings, or else the witness must describe in detail all the cuts he knew of "running through such places," which could only result in utterly befogging thejury; because, if that line of inquiry should be opened to the· one party, the other must be permitted to show the nature of the cuts in which culverts are found, and also 'to introduce evidence showing the actual nature and surroundings of the cuts which might be described by the witness. Under all the circumstances, and in view of the fact that the contention of the plaintiff was that the making of an outlet for the water was demanded iJ;l this particular cut, by reason of tbe track crossing a gulch or natural water-way, and not simply because it passed through a cut, which fact is not included in the question asked, and for the reason that if that line of inquiry was entered upon, there was danger of distracting the jury by leading them off upon collateral matters, we cannot hold that it was error to exclude the question. The third assignment of errors is that the court erred in permitting leading questions to be put to the witness O'Brien. The defendant had called as a witness George Warnick, who testified to matters tending to show that the deceased had not kept a vigilant watch for obstructions on the track, and on cross-examination he was asked whether, shortly after the accident, he did not, in reply to questions put to him by the witneSf! O'Brien, state that neither he nor the engineer were to blame for
tHe" tMpurpose of impeaching the Witness Warnick, O'Bridn Wag'c'lillegin rebuttal, and he was asked directly whether he had
pufcertain !questions, which were detailed to him, to' Warnick, and whether the'laffer had not answered theni' " Yes" and No;" When impeachingte'8tirbony ofthis ch/mcter is sought to be introduced, it is oithe trial court to permit a catagorical orleading be'put to' ,tbe where that mode of interrogation 'is best calcuhifed toe1icit'the truth. 1 GreenI.Ev. § 435',' ' It is assigned as error that the court refused to' give the instructions asked by defendant, which were four hi number, and read as follows: ' liThe cciurl;', '111 asked to instruct the jury that the burden Of proof is upon the plaintllT,'to!show that the accident occurred by reason of the negligence of the deft'ndantl,'aod that :the plaintiff was in the exercise of due care at the time of tlleacQiqept. and ,that due, care insllch a case reql1tred of the deceased that he be and watchful toavoid such uanger liS his expl:'rience of the road musth,ily,e made him aware he must expect in suchplact's as the place where the itCC)'del'Jt occurred, and under the circumstances detailed by the witnesses; to;.wit, at a time when heavy rains had been met With, and that there has been'olTered no evidence whatever upon that puint by the plaintilT, not even ,,:reputation for care, but there has been evidence offeJ'ed by the defendanttbMtMwas not in the exercise of due care; nor has.there been any evidence ,as to Whether, if the sand had been discovered at the tim,e it might have been' discovered, be could or could not have applied the air-brake in time to pt6ventthe accident." "The court Is' asked to' instruct the jurY' that a party taking employment as an engineer in running a'iocomotive assumes the risks that are incident to the employment,: and to the running of locomotives over tberoads operated by his employe!,; and if the jury believe that the countrythrough which this road ran and its,location was such that sand was frequently l1eposited on the trllock, then thifdeposit of sll.nd on the track when heavy rains occurred must be taken as one of the Qrdinary risks of his employment, and the duty of the engineer WIlS tO"hl:l ;vigilant ill avoiding it; and, if the jury believe that the lack of such vlgilanctl on "the part of the dectlased contrillUted to the accident, then the plaintiff cannot recover." "The courtls asked to instruct the jury that the duty tltat an employer owes to the is to exercise ordinary care in providing the employe a safe place in', which to work; and what is ordinary care is such care as men of ol'dinaryprudence use in similar circulDstances in the Same employ, ment." "The court Is asked to instruct the jury that there is no evidence to show that the cOllstruction 'of a culvert at the place where the accident happened would have avoiqed, or would probably have avoided, the ,accident." The first instruction is faulty, in that it declares that the burden was on the plaintiff in tliefirst instance to show that the "plaintiff" was in the exercise of due care at the time of the accident. It is said that the use of the word "plaintiff" was evidently a clerical error, and that it would be readily'perceived that it was intended to charge that it must be shown that the deceased wits free from negligence; but, if the charge had been given as asked; it might have misled the jury. As framed, it does not state the law correctly, and therefore it cannot be successfuJIy
mainfainedtbat it was error to refuse it,especially in view or the facli that the court did instruct the jury carefully and fully upon the question of negligence on the part of tpe deceased. .. It is claimed on behalf of plaintiff in error. that the second instruction .askedbythe company presents the rule that an employe assumes the ordinary risks of his emploYment, and cannot recover for an injury suIting' and that the court did not present this question to the jury. It is doubtful whether the instruction was intended to to this rule, .for the concluding part thereof only asks .the court to rule to the jury that, if lack of vigiL:mce on the part of the deceased contributed to tbe accident, then the plaintiff could not recover, and it is encourt understood the instruction to be aptirely probable that the plicable ooly, to the question of contributory negligence, which was fully covered by the charge of the court. If thepr!'lsent contention of couns!'llis .correct, then the in!'1truction, as 8!!ked.1 is open to the obje.ction that it confuses together two distinct propositions, tp-W;it, that relating to the risks assumed by an employe in enteljing a.giv!'lnservice, and that relating to the amount of vigilance that should be EIJl;ercised under given circumstances; a mode of asking instructions whlch.cannot be approved, as it is liable to mislead the court.andto confuse the jury. Granting, however, to the plaintiff in error the fit of the exception now urp;ed, it does not appear that it was error torefuse the instruction under the circumstances of this case. It is doubtless true, as· urged in argument, that persons em ployed upon lines of rnHway which are constructed at the foot of mountain ranges are necessarily subjeoted to greater dangers than those employed upon railways passing through a country, for the reason that there is greater liability to obstructions being thrown upon the track in the one case than in the other; and it is unquestionably true that one who engages as an engineer or oth!'lr train-hand npon a line running at the foot of a mountain range assumes the increased risk due to this fact. In neither case, however, does.the employe assume the risks and dangers that are caused by negligence on part of the railway company. It is the duty of the company to use all such reasonable care, as a corporation managed ,by prudent men should use, in constructing and maintaining a track and road-bed in such a condition as not to subject its employes to unnecessary risks and dangers. What will be required of a company in the exercise of ordinary care in constructing its track .will vary with circumstances., A mode of construction which might be entirely safe in case of a line running through a level country might be wholly unsafe i.fillppliedto a line running along a mountain range. The employe has aright to expect that a company operating a line, which by reason of its location is subject to certain hazards, will construct the road-bed and ,track withd;ue reference to such hazards. If the company has used due ',care in the construction of its line, having regard to its surroundings, and yet, by reason of its proximity to mountains, rivers, or other natul'a! objects, there .exist dangers from land-slides or overflows, or other like C8L'lualti,es, a person entering into service of the company assumes
risksCllused thereby, or, to state the proposition in another form, he assumeS the dangers incident to his employment upon a railway track properly and carefully constructed and maintained along a mountain range; but he'does not assume the risks caused by the faulty construction and maintenance of a road-bed and track, even though the liability to acof the imperfect road-bed and track, may be increased because the same is built in proximity to a mountain range. In the case at bar the deceased, when he entered the employ of the company, had the right to assume that the road-bed and track which he was expected to use had been constructed properly, and with ordinary care, having due regard to the location of the track and its surroundings; and if such a road-bed and track, so constructed and maintained, were in fact furnished him,tben he assumed the risks and dangers due to the fact that the line ran along the foothills, and would, of necessity, be subject to the possibility of obstructions being cast upon the track from the adjacent mountains. The plaintiff's case, however, is not based upon the fact that the proximity of the railway line to the highlands caused danger to the employes, but upon the allegation that the company, in constructing its road-bed what nature had marked 'out as a water-way,-to-wit, the gulch upon the hill-side,-did not use due care, and was negligent in that no 'outlet for the water, which the company was bound to know would in the rainy seasons come down the gulch, bearing with it sand, gravel, and other like material. The question is not other nor different from that which arises in all cases where a railway is constructed over a natural water-way, whether in a prairie or mountainous country.. The duty is upon the company to use due care to so construct its road-bed the place where it crosses the water-way that it may be reasonably safe for use; and if to that end a culvert or other means of escape for the water is necessary, and none is provided, but, on the contrary, the road-bed is built solidly across the water-way, thus subjecting the track to the liability of being covered with sand and gravel, then a jury would be justified in finding that the road-bed was improperly built, thereby sustaining the charge of negligence against the company. If the evidence in' this case had shown that, owing to heavy rains, or for any reason, sand, rock, or other obstructions had been washed down the mountain side, and upon the track at a place where the company had no special reason to anticipate such an event, then there would be force in the position that the deceased assumed risks of that character; but the facts developed in the evidence did not present the case in that light. The evidence clearly shows that the sand and gra.vel on the track were washed down the gulch or natural water-way, and the theory of plaintiff's case is that the company was negligent in building a solid road-bed across a natural water-way, and in failing to provide any means for the escape of the water that must be expected to flow down the gulch. Upon t.his issue the case was sent to the jury, and the giving of the struction asked by defendant would not have aided them in reaching a conclusion thereon. Hence, in any view that may be taken of the extent and purpose of this; instruction, it was not error to refuse'it.
The third instruction was fully covered in the charge given, and the general rule of law in the court was not called upon to repeat the , form adopted by counsel. The fourth instruction was properly refused, because there was evidence before the jury tending to show that if a culvert or other outlet for the water coming down the gulch at the place of the accident had been provided, the track would not have become covered with sand and gravel. In order' that it may clearly appear that, as already said, it was not error to refuse the several instructions&sked by the defendant, becauSe the same, in so far as they are correct statements of the law, are braced in the charge of the court, it may be advisable to quote at length therefrom. It was stated to the jury by the court that.. The rules to be applied indetermin ing this controversy, gentlemen, are applicable to 11.11 cases in wbich a person in service rna)' have a right of action against his employer. The circumstancethattbe defendant is a railroad company does not distinguish the case from others of the same class. III general, a person who receives lin injury while in the service of another has no right of action his employer for such injury. It is only when the person employing him hasomittecl someduty-faiJedin sometllingenjoined upon him by the law-that any such right arises. And this right arises only when the person injured is in the discharge of his U uty to the extent that it may be said that lie is free from fault. The persoil injured must be without fault; and the employer must be in fault, before/my right of action can exist. So in all these cases t1Jere is a double aspect. It is first to be ascertained whether the person injm:ed was in any way negligent; and, secondly, whether the employer was negligent in a manner which caused the injury. These features must co-exist; the person employed must be without fault, the other must be in fault. If th'eemployerhad been in fault, and the other bas been negligent also, there is no fight of action. . "(2) And ,in this instance, upon the circumstance developed by tbe" evidence, it is especially necessary to consider first, and decide, whether this man who lost his life waR in fault at the time ot tbe accident. There is some evidence tending to SIIOW that storms inthe region Of'coulltry traversed by tbis railroad are of frequent occurrence in the fall season of the year, and with the effect often to bring down upon the ,track considerable quantities of sand and gra vel; so that, with a storm prevaillng at and before the time of the accident, the circumstances were sneh as to make it reasonable to expect that some such thing would occur as did in fact occur, in respect to washing down gravel and,. sand upon the track; and this made it the duty of the engineer to look outror these things very carefully. It was necessary for him. under all the circumstancl's, to be especially upon his guard in order to avoid injury to his train and to himself. And there is evidence tending to show that he was not in that attitude at the time of the accident. Yon remember that the fireman who was with him upon the engine states that at tbe time of the accident he was of the impression that the engineer was asleep. He cannot state this with certai nty, only from the position in which be sat, and from hill attitude at tbe time. Now, if that be true, there can be no right of action in the plaintiff here for his death, because all the circumstances reqUired him to bevigilanta'nd attentive to his duties in the place in which he was put. If he had been awake. and looking out for obstructions upon the track, it might be that he wOllld have seen this obstruction in time to stop, or at any til.te to check the train. so tbat the engine would not have been overturned. and thus the injury would not have resulted."
vol 4.9./
The court then instructed the jury that the plaintiff.could n.ot recoVer on the ground that the seQtionmen had not properlywlI.tched the track for obstructions, which was one of the matters complainedpf,forthe,rea· SOD ,that sncb negligence,: if it would be due to the act of a fel· for which the ,compaDyw.ould not be liable, and then gave low... the following the giving which iaaseigned as error: "(5); ITherai&,1howaver, another .matter which stands in: a different atti· tude, and that is as to the construction of the road at the place where the acehowthat at, that place, was bllilt across of gulch o.r, draw, and.;if.1 under,stand the, testimony well, a1)<jut,upon the same le\relMthe mouth .of the draw, and that the by the'dra'wbeloWthetrack;and'1owards the river, on the lIide coming' thiswaYI' 'wall clused by the earth taken from the cut, or perhaps by thesandwhich'h8<l washeddo,wn; and it would seem frOID all the <lil.'cIID)stanues detailed in Elvidencethat.. it VVq!lld bave been practicable to make a culvert under the track at that open tbe cnannel towards;<tlle dver,thrQ\lgh !Which the Band ,might have washed out towards th,e and in, that manner obstructionmig/lt have been a voided aUhat placel perhaps not as rullapd complete on this point as it might haVe been made, but I from all that is stated before you. it fairly opentotltis c;onlltructlon. Of course, thatwouhl depend someWhat upon the size ,of the opening in the culvert or channel underneath the and upon the quantity 'ot Ban4 alld gravel coming down through the gulch; but, all the, cir,;umliltanceB, as well as you can understand them from the t8stlmonY"if,youareof the opinion that the track might hay-e been built in this way with ,reasonable expense, and so.as to a void the possi. bility of sand coming upon the track and obstructing it, you are at liberty to say that the company waa negligent in feBpect to the manner of building the track at that pille!!. It seemf5 from testimony this track had been o\:). atructed Jl()t recall.jllst now how often before this time; so that ther!" was enough in the circumstances to call the attention of the company, to the fact ,that there wall from this source, "(6) 'It is tr,ue'that, in building its road, and as a matter of duty towards persolls in its the company; is only required to exercise ordinary dUb care,-such,c/lreand diligE-,I).c!l8s men uSl1a)lybestowupon business of the like nature; so that i;t is not. the highest degree of diligence which you &l;eto.demand of the cOmpany in thiareapect, but only such as men ordinarily such concel"ns.'Xlum the queBtion will be in :your minds, whether lIhe road at ,this place was Puilt· ordinary care an<idiligence, with a view to the protection of the,)ives of persons in the sel'vlce of the company. 'fhe rule is different when it co.mes to the of a passenger. A passenger who ilil injured may compl!\in of almost allYthing as a defect in the road and its structure, showing negligence on the part of the company. But in respect to !,ersons who ari'l employed by the, company, the rule is somewhat differl;lnt; that is to say, there is degree of care and diligence required by the company in respect to the servants of the company than is required in reapE-ct to pel'sonstraveling on the road in of passengers. So, then, gen, tlemen, if you are ableto,relieve tJIedooeased. in respect to saying that he \Vas In the fulfillment of. his duty, well the duty which was required ofhiro Oil the oCilcasion, and,tbat .the company Is negligent in respect' manner may be able to lind a verdict for plaintiff; otherwiae fqr tne 4:lefenda!1t." "(7) M1'. Willard Teller. I would like to ask specially referring to the quee. tioll of this culvljrt. 1J \YQIM like to lla\'6 the court cJIarge tbe jury that there ill no evidence except that of Mr. :ijallin respect to whether a culvert would
be safeI' or' not, and that is' an opinion of his, though t it would be salen is eVideD,ee,in respect to it.' " , , , "The ,Court. J believe: tl;J./&t is true, J: thinktl$$, be "is.the i)nly witness who testified in tbat way. , I think yoq can considel', the matter upon your own judgment andl-nowledge <>CIl\lCP ,.matters; is to say, having' regard to the tt'stimony beforeyoq'. the situation of the road. and the topography of the' ground,the gnlCh coming down in the way described by the witnesses. you,M,meo of some Ilnowlt'dge of affairs, may deterlnine in your own minds, quite independently of Mr., Hall's ttls,timony, whether it was practicable to wake aculverttperewith rea8UDable cost, which w.ould have the,effect toearryawlloY the sand and gravtll so it would not be an oilstru¢tiC?ll'; I beHave they to sOole rork Cl?,ming: down in thl:! sandi w!leU,cr it, would carry it a war so it would not be'.an'bbstructionupon the track." " , Exception is taken to the portions of the charge wherein it is said that the jury might exercise th'eir own' judgment and upon evidence adduced before them in regatd to the situation of the road, t46 topography of the ground, and the existence of the gulch, and determine therefrom not it to a culvert at a reasonable cost, whleh w6uld carrynway the sand a.nd gravel, and prevent the same from becoming an obstruction on the track. It does u()t appear that objection: was taken to this when it was introduced" and, if the jury could not properly cOnsider and weigh the same in reaching a conclusion upon the issue before them,. it was a useless waste of time to put it before them. Clearly, when the jury was called upon to detennirie whether a given part of the road was or was not properly built, it was necessary that they be informed by evidence of the mode in which the track was constructed, of the nature of the ground and its surroundings, in order to aid them in reaching a proper conclusion. If admissible upon the issue, then it would be impossible to prevent a jury frOID using their own judgment and knowledge in determine ing what conclusion should be drawn from· the evillence. The human mind is so constituted that, in considering and weighing different facts, and endeavoring to apply the same to the solution of a matter in dispute, the conclusion reached will be the result of the facts in evidence, viewed in the light cast tIl'areon by the judgment and knowledge belonging to the deciding mind. There' was nothing in the nature of the inquiry involved in the issue submitted tothe jury which took it out of the usual rule that the jury must decide the ultimate question in dispute. ., Counsel for plaintiff in error cite in argument the, decision of the supreme court in the case of 'Tuttle V. Railway Co., 122 U. 8.189,7 Sup. Rep. 1166, wherein it was sought to hold the company liable in damages for the dea.th of a switchman', who was crushed between two ears, the draw-heads of which passed or slipped by each other, which in turn was caused by the of the curve in the line of the railway at the point where the accident happened. The ground of negligence charged was that the curve was so sharp as to render the road unsafe, It was held that there was no rule of law restricting a railway company, so far as its duty to employes was involved, in the character
of. thE! curves put in use, and that engineering questions of this character could not be left to the varying and uncertain opinions of jUries. It may well be, whenItbetlomes necessary to build a line of railway throl'1gh a rough alid broken country, or to construct side tracks in the narrowJirtiita of a railway yard, that it J,llustbe left. to the engineer in .thereof, assuming that he is of cOlllpetentskill and acquire::nents, to define the curves that are called for by the exigenciesof the situation i and, theroa.dbeing builtin accordance with his directions,that anyone entering into the employ of the be held to h'aveassumed the to the sharpne,ssof the curves, the existetice.of which is, of ,opeD: tahis knowledge. This principle, llowev:w"cannot be carried to the extent claimed' in argument by counsel for plaintiff in error: ,..If it. was IlPplicable)? .the broad for it, the result would be that the well-esta:phshed rule that It IS the duty of the comuse due pare in the construction and maintenance of the aqd track, anliin die furnishing of proper machinery for the useofHs 'eipployes, wOl\ld be wholly abrogated. In one sense, it is a questiQn of engineering skill to. determine how a road-ped and. track shall constructed; anq, if the 'conclusion of the engineer in charge thereonsfinal, and cannot be challenged before a court and jury by 6newho has suffered injury by reason of defects in the road-bed and track, then it is useless to say that a railway company is pound .toexercise due carein the construction of its road-bed. for it could always be prepared to prove that the,road was built in accordance with the directions of between .the kind of knowledge called' int9 in deterinfping the sharpness of a curve that is needed in running a railway at a given point and that exercised in determining ,whether tne' exigencies of a given situation require that some escape or.ouUet should1:>e furnished for' water liable to come down a natural water-way, intersecting the line of railway, is so great that it renders, the rule applicable to the one case, inapplicable to the other. The trai'p'ing and knowledge of anengineer is not needed to enable one to understaild the action of water in rushing down a gully or similar water-way, nor to know if an obstruction like a solid railway road-bed is built acro,SS a. water-way· down which any considerable amount of water may be expected to pass, that, unless an outlet is given to it, it must of necessity collect against the' road-bed, and perchance overflow it. Such facts are matters of common knowledge, gathered from the experience and observation of every-day life, and hepcea jury is entirely compe.tent to pass upon an. issue involving considerations of that nature. In the instructions given tne jury the court very carefully presented the decisive involved in the issues, and correctly stated the law applicable The errors assigned are therefore overruled, and the judgment is affirmed" at cost of plaintiff in error.
CO. t
(C£rcuf.t Court, D. Montana. February 25, 1892.)
MINING CI.AIM-NATlJRE OJ' ESTATB-DoWER.
A mining claim in the public domain, as defined by Rev. St. U. So' 52822, is BSUbjeqt'of dower, since the estate is one ,of inheritance, and the'owner bas a title of tbe highest kind.
B. SAME-PATENT-MERGER 011' CLAIM. , , ' When a person ill posSe!l!liOIl of B mining claim obtains a patent therefor, lifter posting notices, making proofs of work, and paying five dollars peraore"as by Rev. St. U. S. 5 the claim, as a separate estate; is merged In the full fee, ' silpple t i t l e . , 8. SAME-DoWER. ,.', . ' I When such a merger takes place, a right of dower in the subordinate estate Is ex. . tlnguished, if the owner thereof has filed no adverse claim in the register's against t4e application for a patent. . " ,
At Law. Action by Mary A. Black against the Elkhorn Mining pany,Limited, to recover dower in a mining lode. A complaint was overruled. , 47 :Ired. Rep. 600. The hearing is now l1POP a demurrer to new matter in the answer. Overruled. ' Word, Smitk &- Word, for plaintiff: Oullen, Sanders &- Shelton, for defendant.
KNOWLEs, District Judge. The plaintiff, Mary A. Black, this action to have dower assigned her in the A. M. Holter lode, in Elkhorn mining district, Jefferson county t Mont. The c 'l1plai'p't sets forth that L. M. Bhtck was the husband of plaintiff; that in his·life.. time he WllS seised of an estate of inheritance in the said A. M. Holter lode; that he conveyed the same to one Burton, and that by. conveyances the title possessed by him passed to defendant; that tiff did not join in this conveyance to BurtoD, and never at any linquished her dower in any way in said premises. The appears, is a corporation. It denies all these allegations of the plaint, and t4en sets up several averments of new matter a . , defense to the cause action set forth in the cumplaint. The plaintifffiled her demurrer to this new matter. I find myselfsoillewhat perplexed in considering the same. The first ground set forth in this new matter is to the effect that plaintiff ought not be endowed of the property described in the complaint, because L. M. Black, her was not at the time of his marriage with plaintiff, or at any time thereafter, seised of" said tenements, with the appurtenances whereofplain; tiff claims to be endowed." This seems something like the averment of a conclusion of law. The third averment of new matter for a defense is that the Elkhorn Mining Company, the grantor of defendant, being seised of the premises and possessed thereof, applied for a patent to said premises from the United States, and that plaintiff filed no adverse claim to this application, and that on the 19th day of November, 1889, the United S,tates issued a patent to said Elkhorn Mining Company for said land. Considering these two defenses together, and the arguments and


text: EnvironmentRecycling junk into art in Iran A 65 year-old sculptor has opened a museum dedicated to the country's culture, history and mythology. 25 Aug 2011 19:21 GMT | Environment, Middle East " /> A 65 year-old Iranian artist has turned his 1,000sqm garden into the country's first open-air museum. He focuses his creative energy on using recycled material and turning what was once considered junk into a shared artistic treasure. The museum is dedicated to the culture of Iran and blends together the country's history, modern art and environmental appreciation. Al Jazeera's Dorsa Jabbari reports from Lavasan in northern Tehran.Source: Al Jazeera


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