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Investors For The Future (IFTF)
- Your Source For Fast Money
Phone: 1-800-225-FAST
Email: email@example.com
Risk: Low
Reward: Medium
What this package offers:
- Detailed descriptions of each investment that will give the lowest risk with medium reward.
- On the fly help when going through the steps, with our 1-800 hotline for all of your needs.
- All the tools you need to start a business (if you choose to)
This is the standard package that has less risk and the most reward. If you follow our steps closely we can guarantee that you will have 5K a month 100% guaranteed
Step 1: Determine if you are going to diversify following these instructions:
Diversification strategies involve widening an organizations scope across different products and market sectors. It is associated with higher risks as it requires an organization to take on new experience and knowledge outside its existing markets and products. The organization may come across issues that it has never faced before. It may need additional investment or skills.
On the other hand, however, it provides the opportunity to explore new avenues of business. This can spread the risk allowing the organization to move into new and potentially profitable areas of operation.
Enterprise's values help to define what the organization stands for. They also identify its capability and competences. Its core values of 'brand, honesty, service, fun, hard work, listening, inclusion and community' are transferable. This means that the skills from the main business can be applied to other business opportunities through diversification, potentially reducing the risks associated with this strategy.
This last example illustrates the risk that diversification poses. Just because a business is successful, like Enterprise, it can never guarantee success in every venture it undertakes. However, the experience with Mexican Inn did not put Enterprise off later acquisitions that were outside the car rental business, for example, TRG Group which is a leading manufacturer of luggage, backpacks and travel accessories.
So in the long run if you diversify you have lower risk because you are involve in a lot of markets so if one crashes it won't affect you that much.
Step 2: Choosing What To Invest in:
There are tons of things that you can choose to invest in. To make it easier we have included a link for you to search all the available investments so you can choose the right investment for you: http://www.investing.com/charts/
Common Types Of Investments:
Stocks are literally certificates that say you own a portion of a company. More broadly speaking, all traded securities, from futures to currency swaps, are ownership investments, even though all you may own is a contract. When you buy one of these investments, you have a right to a portion of a company's value or a right to carry out a certain action (as in a futures contract).
Your expectation of profit is realized (or not) by how the market values the asset you own the rights to. If you own shares in Sony and Sony posts a record profit, other investors are going to want Sony shares too. Their demand for shares drives up the price, increasing your profit if you choose to sell the shares
A Bond is a catchall category for a wide variety of investments from CDs and Treasuries to corporate junk bonds and international debt issues. The risks and returns vary widely between the different types of bonds, but overall, lending investments pose a lower risk and provide a lower return than ownership investments.
Real Estate:
Houses, apartments or other dwellings that you buy to rent out or repair and resell are investments. The house you live in, however, is a different matter because it is filling a basic need. The house you live in fills your need for shelter and, although it may appreciate over time, it shouldn't be purchased with an expectation of profit. The mortgage meltdown of 2008 and the underwater mortgages it produced are a good illustration of the dangers in considering your primary residence an investment.
Money Market Funds:
With money market funds, the return is very small, 1 to 2%, and the risks are also small. Although money market funds have "broken the buck" in recent memory, it is rare enough to be considered a black swan event. Money market funds are also more liquid than other investments, meaning you can write checks out of money market accounts just as you would with a checking account.
Other Investments:
Precious Objects:
Gold, Da Vinci paintings and a signed LeBron James jersey can all be considered an ownership investment - provided that these are objects that are bought with the intention of reselling them for a profit. Precious metals and collectibles are not necessarily a good investment for a number of reasons, but they can be classified as an investment nonetheless. Like a house, they have a risk of physical depreciation (damage) and require upkeep and storage costs that cut into eventual profits.
The money put into starting and running a business is an investment. Entrepreneurship is one of the hardest investments to make because it requires more than just money. Consequently, it is also an ownership investment with extremely large potential returns. By creating a product or service and selling it to people who want it, entrepreneurs can make huge personal fortunes. Bill Gates, founder of Microsoft and one of the world's richest men, is a prime example.
Your Savings Account:
Even if you have nothing but a regular savings account, you can call yourself an investor. You are essentially lending money to the bank, which it will dole out in the form of loans. The return is pitiful, but the risk is also next to nil because of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC).
All of these investments have varying risk, below shows the best investments for this package as well as the risks for all available investments:
Step 3: Knowledge Is Power - Understanding Risks vs. Rewards
You might be familiar with the risk-reward concept, which states that the higher the risk of a particular investment, the higher the possible return. But many investors do not understand how to determine the risk level their individual portfolios should bear.
The main part of this package is to help you get the most out of your investment, and that includes showing the risks vs. the reward of each. This pyramid below shows the risks of each and every investment:
This pyramid can be thought of as an asset allocation tool that investors can use to diversify their portfolio investments according to the risk profile of each security. The pyramid, representing the investor's portfolio, has three distinct tiers:
- Base of the Pyramid – The foundation of the pyramid represents the strongest portion, which supports everything above it. This area should consist of investments that are low in risk and have foreseeable returns. It is the largest area and comprises the bulk of your assets. This is basically what this package is focusing on.
- Middle Portion – This area should be made up of medium-risk investments that offer a stable return while still allowing for capital appreciation. Although more risky than the assets creating the base, these investments should still be relatively safe.
- Summit – Reserved specifically for high-risk investments, this is the smallest area of the pyramid (portfolio) and should consist of money you can lose without any serious repercussions. Furthermore, money in the summit should be fairly disposable so that you don't have to sell prematurely in instances where there are capital losses.
For investment securities, we can create a chart with the different types of securities and their associated risk/reward profiles.
Although this chart is by no means scientific, it provides a guideline that investors can use when picking different investments. Located on the upper portion of this chart are investments that have higher risks but might offer investors a higher potential for above-average returns. On the lower portion are much safer investments, but these investments have a lower potential for high returns.
With so many different types of investments to choose from, how does an investor determine how much risk he or she can handle? Every individual is different, and it's hard to create a steadfast model applicable to everyone, but here are two important things you should consider when deciding how much risk to take:
- Time Horizon
Before you make any investment, you should always determine the amount of time you have to keep your money invested. If you have $20,000 to invest today but need it in one year for a down payment on a new house, investing the money in higher-risk stocks is not the best strategy. The riskier an investment is, the greater its volatility or price fluctuations. So if your time horizon is relatively short, you may be forced to sell your securities at a significant loss.
- Bankroll
Determining the amount of money you can stand to lose is another important factor of figuring out your risk tolerance. This might not be the most optimistic method of investing; however, it is the most realistic. By investing only money that you can afford to lose or afford to have tied up for some period of time, you won't be pressured to sell off any investments because of panic or liquidity issues.
Step 4:Different Types Of Bonds -
Government Bonds
In general, fixed-income securities are classified according to the length of time before maturity. These are the three main categories:
Bills - debt securities maturing in less than one year.
Notes - debt securities maturing in one to 10 years.
Bonds - debt securities maturing in more than 10 years.
Marketable securities from the U.S. government - known collectively as Treasuries - follow this guideline and are issued as Treasury bonds, Treasury notes and Treasury bills (T-bills). Technically speaking, T-bills aren't bonds because of their short maturity. All debt issued by Uncle Sam is regarded as extremely safe, as is the debt of any stable country. The debt of many developing countries, however, does carry substantial risk. Like companies, countries can default on payments.
Municipal Bonds
Municipal bonds, known as "munis", are the next progression in terms of risk. Cities don't go bankrupt that often, but it can happen. The major advantage to munis is that the returns are free from federal tax. Furthermore, local governments will sometimes make their debt non-taxable for residents, thus making some municipal bonds completely tax free. Because of these tax savings, the yield on a muni is usually lower than that of a taxable bond. Depending on your personal situation, a muni can be a great investment on an after-tax basis.
Corporate Bonds
A company can issue bonds just as it can issue stock. Large corporations have a lot of flexibility as to how much debt they can issue: the limit is whatever the market will bear. Generally, a short-term corporate bond is less than five years; intermediate is five to 12 years, and long term is over 12 years.
Corporate bonds are characterized by higher yields because there is a higher risk of a company defaulting than a government. The upside is that they can also be the most rewarding fixed-income investments because of the risk the investor must take on. The company's credit quality is very important: the higher the quality, the lower the interest rate the investor receives.
Other variations on corporate bonds include convertible bonds, which the holder can convert into stock, and callable bonds, which allow the company to redeem an issue prior to maturity.
Zero-Coupon Bonds
This is a type of bond that makes no coupon payments but instead is issued at a considerable discount to par value. For example, let's say a zero-coupon bond with a $1,000 par value and 10 years to maturity is trading at $600; you'd be paying $600 today for a bond that will be worth $1,000 in 10 years.
Junk Bonds
From a technical viewpoint, a junk bond is exactly the same as a regular bond. Junk bonds are an IOU from a corporation or organization that states the amount it will pay you back (principal), the date it will pay you back (maturity date) and the interest (coupon) it will pay you on the borrowed money.
Junk bonds differ because of their issuers' credit quality. All bonds are characterized according to this credit quality and therefore fall into one of two bond categories:
- Investment Grade - These bonds are issued by low- to medium-risk lenders. A bond rating on investment-grade debt usually ranges from AAA to BBB. Investment-grade bonds might not offer huge returns, but the risk of the borrower defaulting on interest payments is much smaller.
- Junk Bonds - These are the bonds that pay high yield to bondholders because the borrowers don't have any other option. Their credit ratings are less than pristine, making it difficult for them to acquire capital at an inexpensive cost. Junk bonds are typically rated 'BB' or lower by Standard & Poor's and 'Ba' or lower by Moody's.
- This is the most risky bond you could invest in!
In this package it is best to go with the least risky of the bonds, which would be:
Savings bonds – These are the safest investment there is, since they're backed by the government, and they're guaranteed not to lose principal. They don't offer exceptional yields, but that isn't the point. If you want to keep your money absolutely safe, savings bonds are the best option. They're easy to buy through TreasuryDirect, and they're tax-free on both the state and local levels. In addition, they may also be tax-free on the federal level is used to pay for education. The one drawback is that they aren't as liquid as some other types of investments – you can't cash them in within the first year of their life, and if you have to cash them in within the first five year you will pay a three-month interest penalty.
Step 5: Treasuries and equities
Treasury Bill:
A short-term debt obligation backed by the U.S. government with a maturity of less than one year. T-bills are sold in denominations of $1,000 up to a maximum purchase of $5 million and commonly have maturities of one month (four weeks), three months (13 weeks) or six months (26 weeks).
T-bills are issued through a competitive bidding process at a discount from par, which means that rather than paying fixed interest payments like conventional bonds, the appreciation of the bond provides the return to the holder.
Treasury Notes:
A marketable U.S. government debt security with a fixed interest rate and a maturity between one and 10 years. Treasury notes can be bought either directly from the U.S. government or through a bank.
When buying Treasury notes from the government, you can either put in a competitive or noncompetitive bid. With a competitive bid, you specify the yield you want; however, this does not mean that your bid will be approved. With a noncompetitive bid, you accept whatever yield is determined at auction.
Different Types Of Equity:
1. A stock or any other security representing an ownership interest.
2. On a company's balance sheet, the amount of the funds contributed by the owners (the stockholders) plus the retained earnings (or losses). Also referred to as "shareholders' equity".
3. In the context of margin trading, the value of securities in a margin account minus what has been borrowed from the brokerage.
4. In the context of real estate, the difference between the current market value of the property and the amount the owner still owes on the mortgage. It is the amount that the owner would receive after selling a property and paying off the mortgage.
5. In terms of investment strategies, equity (stocks) is one of the principal asset classes. The other two are fixed-income (bonds) and cash/cash-equivalents. These are used in asset allocation planning to structure a desired risk and return profile for an investor's portfolio.
Most of these stocks are not risky because you get money back on your share. We highly recommend this because of the low risk and medium reward that you earn from this.
Step 6: Figuring out what CDs are:
CDs stand for Certificates of deposit, and they are one type of low risk investment that this package provides. It is a savings account that has near to no risk to make a CD but you may have to wait a while for the funds to mature but it will be worth it in the long run. Only choose these if you have enough time before you need the money.
Step 7: Finally Planning for 401(k) Plans
A 401(k) is a retirement savings plan sponsored by an employer. It lets workers save and invest a piece of their paycheck before taxes are taken out. Taxes aren't paid until the money is withdrawn from the account.
401(k) plans, named for the section of the tax code that governs them, arose during the 1980s as a supplement to pensions. Most employers used to offer pension funds. Pension funds were managed by the employer and they paid out a steady income over the course of the retirement. (If you have a government job or a strong union, you may might still be eligible for a pension.) But as the cost of running pensions escalated, employers started replacing them with 401(k)s.
This is the end of the low risk package, and it deals with which 401(k) plan is right for you.
What not to do:
- Use 100 minus your age to find bond allocation - You know the rule, right? Subtract 100 from your age and that's how much you invest in equities. The rest goes into bonds. Such cut-and-dry asset allocation no longer has a place in today's low-interest rate environment. "100-minus-your-age as your stock-to-bond ratio is not the rule anymore.
- The Stock Market Is Too Risky! Avoid equities as much as possible - You won't be able to get away with staying totally in the fixed-income world. The returns simply aren't meaty enough on bonds or CDs or any traditionally safe asset. "Investors always thought they could save for 30 or 40 years, and then put it into a very conservative portfolio.
- You absolutely, Positively, need an annuity - An annuity acts as income security. It's guaranteed to pay out long after that final paycheck. You'll pay for that, though—annuities can be expensive, as well as dangerously murky. Tales of grandparents bankrupt by misleading products, or salesmen, abound.
- Skimping On Your 401(k) Makes Sense, Sometimes - There's little greater than the compounding power of your boring, basic 401(k). Keep stuffing it, and it'll help you toward your retirement goals. Sometimes, though, there can be a desire to skimp.
- Lots Of Insurance Could Invite A Lawsuit - Certainly, frivolous lawsuits can hit anytime. In retirement, though, everything is even more at risk, You couldn't possibly replace if you had a lawsuit that wiped way a good portion of your assets.
- Volunteering On A Board Is A Risk-Free Way To Give Back - Any member of the board could be personally held liable. The good-Samaritan rule: You're doing something for the good of the cause, but because the action of the board, you could put your life's work at risk, so you should check out their insurance policy.
- When You're Retired You'll Spend Less And Live Simpler - By retirement, it's probably—well, hopefully—just you and your spouse. Living for two means a simple lifestyle. Maybe a splurge or two, but nothing extravagant. Soon, the trips and the outings and the grand kids all begin to add up. Then you're out of luck in the money department.
- Downsize A Home And Enjoy That Equity Windfall - Wrong. More often than not, research has found that retirees opt anything but a cheap, tiny place. Plus, with the real estate market in its permafrost, the equity from your first home won't be worth as much as it might have been once.
- You Must Be Debt Free - It works as an inflation hedge. With interest rates at ultra-lows, locking in a cheap mortgage gives you access to a sensible stream of cash. Those interest rates are hovering around 2%, meanwhile, it assumes inflation is increasing at 3.25% into the immediate future.
- You Can Always Go Back To Work - If all else fails, then maybe a new gig will help. That's a thought that sits at the back of most people's minds, and can help ease some of the anxiety about such a big change in lifestyle. But this is wrong on so many levels.
When planning for retirement you want to make sure that you start at the right age, because if you start too early you will be missing out on all of the benefits you could of had. This is why you must determine the right age by looking at your income and debts and see what the ideal time would be for you.
Risk: Medium
Reward: High
This is the medium risk package that will give you 10K a month 100% guaranteed! If you follow our simple steps you will be well on your way to your hard earned money in no time.
Step 1: Determining Diversification
Motives for Diversification
- Growth and risk spreading
- Diversification and Shareholder Value
Why Firms Diversify
–To grow
–To more fully utilize existing resources and capabilities.
–To escape from undesirable or unattractive industry environments.
–To make use of surplus cash flows.
Aim of diversification should be to create value or wealth in excess of what firms would enjoy without diversification. This way you can invest more in things that will give you more money for less risk.
Step 2: Choosing What To Invest In -
In this package we will be determining what to invest in that will be at medium risk but will still give us high reward.
Best Investments:
Avoid Corporate And Government Bonds because they have the highest risk of them all. With default, event, and credit risks there is no recovery if a business crashes, you must pay the full amount of expenses that are involved with the crash.
- Municipal Bonds - This gives you a better investment because it has a medium level of risk but also gives you more features included inside a municipal bond. One of these features is a non-taxable bond that is given to investors by the government. This is a very useful investment because it lets you get more money through not paying taxes on the bond. Most bonds are taxable which takes a good chunk of money if you are making considerable amounts of money.
There are two types of stocks, common stocks and preferable stocks. Common stocks are a little more risky than preferred stocks because they don't give a guaranteed rate of pay.
-Preferred Stock - This stock gives you a guaranteed rate of pay with medium risk. This lacks the voting in members of management in the company but this is the wisest decision if you are looking for medium risk and still high reward.
Real Estate:
Since real estate is very risky I would not pick this one in this package. The lowest amount of risk would be to invest in a place where there is not a lot of competition and where you can choose the price that will still profit you and please customers. But I advise you not to go down this path since there are so many inconsistencies and unpredictability of where you will end up.
Step 3: Treasury Bills & CDs -
One of the better ways to invest is through a treasury bill, which essentially is a bidding contest between investors where you purchase them and their maturity rises over time. These are safer than Treasury notes because with a treasury note you are not guaranteed a direct price through your bid. The more you risk the more you will loose if your bid is worse than what you were going to gain.
In this package you should use CDs because they are an easy way to make extra money on the side of your other investments. This way you will get the most interest and have some emergency money tucked away when you need it. But remember this is risky as well because you have to wait until it matures before you can use the money, or pay a fine instead.
Step 4: The Bottom Line - In the end if you choose wisely and research what to invest on then you will get to the top of the money mountain.
DISCLAIMER: We don't guarantee any amount of money that you can gain from this guide. This is just advice to avoid the most risky investments. If you lose all of your money, we are not responsible for any of your stupidity.
What this package offers:
- The best advice we have will be at your disposal to help you avoid investment traps
- We will share the top risky investments and how to make big money off of them.
- Need more advice? Call 1-800-433-HELP for expert advice on every investment.
Step 1: Diversification is a must!
If you are planning to make a lot of money fast then you must diversify. This website will give you the best locations to diversify your investments:
Once you have all the businesses which you want to diversify then you can decide on the high risk investments that you want to have
Step 2: Which high risk investments are right for me?
There are many high risk investments that give a high reward. Here are some to choose from:
Initial Public Offerings:
An initial public offering, or IPO, refers to a company's first sale of its stock to the public.
IPOs attract a lot of attention, but they can be high-risk investments because there's no track record of the company's value as a publicly traded stock.
Some IPOs are like summer blockbuster movies. But many others are small companies that aren't well known to investors and don't have a lot of publicly traded shares.
Being thinly traded means these stocks can have sharp fluctuations in price.
Venture Capital:
Equally or perhaps even more risky is an investment in a company that's not yet publicly traded.
Known as "venture capital," this type of investment usually is made by professionals who know how to research a fledgling company's management, markets and products to assess its long-term prospects. Venture capitalists invest in multiple start ups, lowering their risk through diversification.
Individuals become venture capitalists in their own smaller way when they invest in companies started by friends or family members. These high-risk investments are not for your everyday investor.
Venture capital is risky because there's a lot of uncertainty with new companies. A lot of risk can come with a new idea or new way of doing things. Is (the company) managed well? Does it have a good business plan? You have to do a lot of due diligence with this type of investment.
Penny Stocks:
The term "penny stock" used to refer to stocks that traded for less than $1 per share. More recently, that definition has been updated to mean stocks that trade at less than $5, according to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission.
Penny stocks aren't traded on U.S. exchanges, but might trade on foreign exchanges, or they might not be actively traded anywhere. That can make them difficult to accurately value or sell according to the SEC.
The risk is so great that the SEC warns penny-stock investors that they "should be prepared for the possibility that they may lose their whole investment."
Emerging Markets:
Emerging markets are less developed countries that might have great potential but can also be highly risky places to invest. There's less certainty about their geopolitical stability and markets for goods and services.
If that country's economy doesn't continue to grow, then that company you are investing in, in that emerging market, is likely to not sell as much of its product or service, and so the value of the company decreases.
Examples of emerging markets include places such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, Poland, South Africa, Thailand, Turkey and Venezuela.
Rental Houses:
Some investors buy individual houses to repair and resell at a profit or hold as rental property.Others invest in real estate funds that purchase properties in large quantities with a view toward geographic diversification and economies of scale in property management. Either way, investing in real estate can be quite risky. Investment properties can lose money because they're poorly managed, are in lousy locations or are over-leveraged and must be sold at a loss on the downside of the real estate market.
An option is a bet that a certain stock's share price will increase or decrease by a specified amount before a set target date.
Professional investors use options to hedge, or counterbalance, the risk of stocks they own. But that strategy usually isn't appropriate for individual investors.
A future works much like an option, except the time horizon might be longer and the underlying asset is a commodity rather than a stock.
Examples of commodities include orange juice, wheat, beef, gas, cotton and milk.
You're making an estimate of what you'll be able to buy (of that commodity) for a year or six months from now. The risk is that the product could be worth significantly less than what you bought the future at, and then you've lost a lot of money.
Collectibles such as classic cars, coins, sports cards, art or jewelry can be fun to buy and own as a hobby, but these items can be volatile in price and difficult to sell.
One reason is that the value of collectibles is affected by the economy in a large way.
Purchases of collectibles are "driven by discretionary income" and those same collectibles might be the first things people will sell when the economy is struggling and money is tight.
Precious Metals:
Gold is sometimes touted as being ultra-safe, but it's actually pretty high.
Unlike companies, gold doesn't pay dividends or earn profits. Precious metals are worth whatever the market price on a given day indicates they're worth.
That lack of intrinsic value tends to make the price of gold and other precious metals very volatile. That makes them a high-risk investment.
Foreign Currency Investments:
Investing in fast-growing countries may seem like a slam dunk. But there's another unforeseen risk that can roil returns: foreign currency risk.
These gyrations can quickly wipe out any portfolio gains.
How does this happen? U.S. investors plunking down money overseas make bets on both a stock or bond and a currency. A falling dollar means gains for investors. But when the dollar rises against a currency, returns can rapidly fade.
Step 3: How to conquer these risky investments
Each of these investments have specialized steps to make sure you get the most benefit from them.
Initial Public Offerings
Taking a Company Public: The Benefits of Going Public
- Given the higher valuation of a public company and the greater liquidity in the public markets, there is greater access to capital. In fact, while the first public offering may be costly and time consuming, if there is market demand for the stock a company can always issue more stock -- which can be conducted more quickly and efficiently as a seasoned issuer.
- The increased liquidity can help a company attract top talent by enabling it to grant stock options or restricted stock awards.
- A public offering provides a business with the currency with which to acquire other businesses and a valuation if your business becomes an acquisition target.
- An IPO serves as a way for founders or employees or other share or option holders to get liquid on their investment, to see a financial reward for the hard work that has gone into building the business.
- The act of going public can also serve as a marketing event for a company, to drum up interest in the business and its products or services.
Taking a Company Public: The Downside of Going Public
- The biggest downside to going public is often the loss of control over the company for management and founders/investors. Once a company is public, managers will be under often intense pressure to meet quarterly earnings estimates of research analysts, which can make it much more difficult to manage the business for long-term growth and predictability.
- The SEC requires public companies to reveal sometimes sensitive information when they go public and on an ongoing basis in required filings. Such information may include data about products, customers, customer contracts, or management that a private company would not have to reveal.
- Public companies have additional reporting and procedural obligations since the passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, many of which may be costly for a company to implement, such as the Section 404 requirements relating to internal controls over financial reporting, says Bruce Evans, managing director at Summit Partners, a Boston-based private equity and venture capital firm.
- In a worst-case scenario, a group of dissident investors could potentially obtain majority control and wrangle control of the company away from the board.
- If a stock performs poorly after a company goes public, an IPO can generate negative publicity or "an anti-marketing event" for the company, Evans says.
10 Steps To A Successful IPO:
- Exchange Qualifications - Before you can even consider taking your company public, you must meet certain basic financial requirements, which are set by the exchange where you expect to list.
- Market Considerations - Another factor that is increasingly determining whether companies go public is the economy and, in particular, the public's appetite for IPOs.
- Put the right management team in place - Fast growing companies generally have strong management teams already in place, but the demands of becoming a public company often require additional strengths and capabilities. The senior management team must have considerable financial and accounting experience in complying with increasingly complex financial and accounting requirements.
- Upgrade financial reporting systems - Before proceeding, you need to ensure that you have the proper systems in place to ensure a flow of accurate, timely information. Identifying the right metrics and closely monitoring them can significantly enhance your business results, since it forces everyone in the company to focus on the factors that drive your business.
- Select investment bankers - In the business, this is called the "beauty contest." It's a process through which you typically choose your investment banking partners and assure that they concur that the business is ready to go public, that they have the sales and distribution capabilities you need for successful execution of the IPO, and can provide strong analyst coverage once you go public.
- Craft your "story" and draft the prospectus - This is where the lawyers get involved. The principal offering documents include the IPO prospectus, which is filed with the SEC as part of the IPO registration statement, and the 'road show' slides, which the underwriters and senior management will use, together with the prospectus, to market the offering.
- File the registration statement and begin the review process - Once a draft of the prospectus is completed, the company will file the registration statement with the SEC. While immediately available to the public on the SEC's EDGAR system, the registration statement is subject to review and comment by the SEC through a review process.
- Organize the road show - The road show is launched once the issuer has responded to and resolved the SEC staff's material comments, generally through multiple amendments to the registration statement.
- Price the IPO - When the review process is completed and the underwriters have 'built a book' of prospective IPO investors, the issuer's board of directors -- typically through a pricing committee -- and the underwriters will set a price at which the company and any selling stockholders will agree to sell shares to the underwriters at closing.
- Complete the offering and begin life as a public company - The IPO will typically close on the fourth business day after the pricing. At that time, the issuer and any selling stockholders will release the shares to the underwriters, and the underwriters will purchase the shares, frequently at a 7 percent discount to the price at which they have offered the shares to the public -- that's their fee.
6 Steps To Successful Venture Capital:
- The Person, Not The Firm - Entrepreneurs should identify specific venture partners, rather than target firms as a whole. Partners can differ greatly at the same firm, with respect to operational experiences, proclivities, temperament and capabilities.
- Get Personal & Give Freely - Based on your research from Step 1, you should be able to communicate meaningful and insightful comments related to the partners' online presence. Even the most jaded VC cannot resist authentic flattery. The keyword here is authentic. Thoughtfully done in moderation, consistently over an extended period, these small, supportive gestures will not go unnoticed or unappreciated. Done excessively, you risk being labeled a clueless amateur.
- Meaningful Referral – Fundraising books often instruct entrepreneurs to seek referrals to a VC from accountants and lawyers. While these referrals are not completely worthless, they are far from ideal. Professional service providers are incentive to foster your business, as a portion of the funds you raise will go toward payment of their invoices.
- Reconnaissance Mission, Under Promise – An effective technique for acquiring investment capital is to initially not ask for money. As the saying goes, "Investors want to give you an umbrella when the sun is shining and then they take it away at the first hint of a coming storm." Thus, tell your targeted VCs that you want to preview your venture and seek their advice. It is ingratiating to be asked to share your insights and most VCs immensely enjoy sharing their opinions.
- Gain Traction, Follow-up – This step is iterative. As you accomplish your milestones, send your target VCs a brief email update (think eye-candy graphics and charts, not dense text). These updates will foster trust by demonstrating your ability to execute your stated objectives.
- Full Court Press – Once you identify an appropriate cadre of appropriate investors, gain their attention online, obtain a referral from a trusted source and then exceed the expectations you set, obtaining adequate capital will be relatively easy.
Advantages Of Penny Stocks:
- Lack of information/history. Penny stocks aren't necessarily traded on a stock exchange. Because of this, penny stocks don't have to file with the SEC, meaning they aren't publicly scrutinized. If trading a stock is a bet on how well a company is going to perform, and bets are buoyed by information, penny stocks are bets without a lot of information.
- No minimum standards. Most of the time there are no minimum standards that penny stocks have to fulfill to remain on the Over-the-Counter Bulletin Board (OTCBB) exchange. Having no minimum standards means the added safety cushion isn't there between the sellers and the investors (you).
- Less liquidity. Finding a buyer for penny stocks can be difficult. If you can't find a buyer, you may have to lower your asking price until it's no longer profitable to sell. That's not usually a winning proposition.
11 Steps To Having A Successful Penny Stock:
- Open a brokerage account - In order to invest in any stocks, you will need to have a straightforward way to make transactions. Online brokerage accounts offer easy access to stocks with low commissions and minimal annual fees.
- Look at trade status for penny stocks - Experts point out that penny stocks often have a low share price because of specific situations. Look out for certain warning signs to spot the most risky penny stocks.
- Don't always believe the hype - Penny stocks have been a bastion for fraudsters for some time now. You want to make a little bit of money, but don't let the allure of quick money make you an easy target
- Complete a technical analysis of any penny stocks - Technical analysis is a broad term for all sorts of research on the stock in question. Do as much research as possible to make sure that you are putting your money into the best penny stocks with the most potential for growth.
- Don't short penny stocks. Shorting is a bet that the price of a particular stock is going to fall instead of rise in the future.
- Choose a trading strategy - Without an overall strategy for trades, your investment in penny stocks will not be optimized for success. Think about how you will use buys and sells to gradually accumulate capital
- Opt for high-volume stocks, especially in the beginning - Stocks that trade at least 100,000 shares a day are the only penny stocks liquid enough to be safe to trade. If you find yourself the not-so-proud owner of a low-volume stock, you may find it very difficult to unload your stock when you want to, or when fate forces your hand
- Look for stocks that experience an earnings breakout - Stocks that are riding 52-week highs due to product launches or a surge in market share are fair game if they trade more than 250,000 shares a day
- Don't trade more than 10% of a stock's daily volume - It's more difficult to unload a big bloc of stock, even though the allure of buying big and making a killing is there
- Execute a buy. When you have done all of the above, it's time to test the waters with a purchase bid through your brokerage service. Watch carefully as your brokerage accomplishes this transaction, and see that it keeps records for your use at tax time.
- Never fall in love with a stock - Don't get so attached to a stock that you fail to think rationally about its possible benefits or detriments for you. Stocks are about recording profits; if you're not accomplishing that goal, it's okay to step away from the trading table.
5 Steps To Be Successful In Emerging Markets:
- Get accustomed to scarcity - Two words Americans don't understand are 'debt' and 'scarcities'. Moeller argued that global consumption will be crimped in future as many developed economies try to discharge massive debt burdens.
- Keep up-to-date on communication technology - In the coming economy, the 'I think, therefore I am' adage will be replaced by 'I communicate, therefore I am', with specific reference to the ever-increasing importance of social networks. The world has long known how Barack Obama's presidential election campaign masterfully leveraged social media in 2008.
- Develop new managerial and leadership competencies - To leverage the opportunities of a rebalanced world, leaders need more competence in cross functional leadership; managing transformation and risk. At the individual level, this will require managers to be more communicative and empathetic, as well as adept at networking in order to build and lead teams of increasing diversity.
- Seek a collaborative solution - Businesses increasingly branching out into unfamiliar territories are finding themselves more and more dependent on partnerships both within and outside their organizations to help them adapt. Rather than seeing NGOs and the public sector as potential antagonists, multinationals may need to work more closely with them to manage the considerable risks that arise from attempting to tap opportunities at the base of the pyramid.
- Let go of certainties - Corporations will have to become much more comfortable with uncertainty if they want to gain traction in emerging markets. As these markets rise to prominence, there will be growing pains and fluctuations in growth. Market supremacy over the long-term will belong to companies that are willing to ride out the dips.
2 Steps To Get More Money With Rental Houses:
- Do Your Homework Before Buying Rental Property. Please – please don't skip this step. As soon as you've made your decision that you want to buy rental property, it can be easy to start shopping for homes and picking out the paint colors. However, your first step begins long before ever stepping foot into a house.
Doing your homework ahead of time means researching:
- What kind of investment property you want to buy
- How much you can afford to pay
- What kind of neighborhood you want to invest in
- What the average rent is in your area
- What kind of return on investment you hope to make.
- Make a Plan and Develop Criteria. Once you've done your initial homework, you can begin making a plan and setting your criteria. I highly recommend you write down your plan and goals, and refer back to them often. If you are looking to buy a single family home for between $150,000 and $200,000 – it's easy to get distracted by the home with the beautiful garden for $250,000. By stating your plan and your criteria, you can hold yourself accountable to your goals.
- Arrange Financing is one of the most common mistakes made by home buyers is to start searching before arranging financing. However, this error has caused untold heartache when buyers find they can't afford the dream home they've found.
7 Steps to have successful options:
- Determine a stock that you want to trade, and what direction it's going in, whether that be up, down, or sideways - Many people prefer to use index ETFs (such as SPY or QQQ) since they are less volatile and will be more consistent.
- Draw your support or resistance lines using your charting software - Use indicators (MACD, RSI, Stochastic, etc) to determine stock direction. In this example, the stock is headed lower due to a crossing in stochastics and a double top pattern
- Choose either a bear call spread or a bull put spread - A bear call spread will be placed above resistance. A bull put spread will be placed below support. The goal of the spread is for the stock to stay neutral or bearish when placing a bear call spread (BCS), or for the stock to stay neutral or bullish when placing a bull put spread (BPS).
- Determine what price to set your spread a - This should be above resistance for a BCS or below support for a BPS. In the above example, placing a BCS at $135/136 is perfect.
- Calculate your profit/loss potential by using your brokerage's tools or by hand - As a rule of thumb, your risk is your spread difference ($136-135) multiplied by 100. Then subtract your profit
- Place the spread by selling the option that's closer to the stock price and buying the next closest - For example, for a BCS, sell the $135 call and buy the $136 call. For a BPS, sell a $120 put and buy the $119 put
- Set your stop losses above the resistance or below the support - Follow up with the trade every day to see if the stock is going against you. If it stays still or goes in the desired direction you have to do nothing, just let it expire.
4 Steps To Have Successful Futures:
- To have a successful future you must be educated about futures and how they work.
- After you know what the risks are and how much you can gain from futures, figure out your plan of investment and stick to it.
- In the end make sure that you pick a good investor that you trust, this way if anything happens you can discuss it with them, also you won't get ripped off.
- Make sure to watch as your future's interest grows and act when it goes down, this way you can be sure to get the most out of your futures.
Step 4: Planning for retirement (401(k))
Once you have gained a lot of money from your investments, planning for retirement should be easy.
- To plan for your 401(k) you need to take all of the investments and total them into a grand total.
- Can you reach the max? The maximum amount an individual can save in a 401(k) for 2013 is $17,500 a year, or $23,000 if you're 50 or older. If that's attainable, go for it. If it sounds like a long shot, consider these smaller moves that can help get you to a bigger 401(k) balance.
- Grab your employer match. Many employers suspended 401(k) matches during the great recession, but they are starting to reinstate them. Make sure you contribute at least enough to get the matching contribution.
- Save your annual salary increase. If you get a raise, consider bumping up the amount you save in your 401(k). If you get a bonus, earmark a piece of it to go into your 401(k).
- Reset your contribution rate mid-year. Typically you set the percentage of your pay you want to contribute to your 401(k) when you start a new job or during a special "open enrollment" time. But most employers let you change your contribution amount mid-year.
- Go Roth! If your employer offers a Roth 401(k), consider it, especially if you're on the younger side. The contribution limits are the same for a Roth 401(k) or a regular 401(k), but with a Roth you contribute already-taxed dollars and then withdrawals in retirement are tax free.
- Don't use your 401(k) for loans. Most employers allow employees to take loans from their 401(k)s and lots of employees take them. The problem is that many end up not paying themselves back, basically robbing their retirement kitty. Another danger is if you switch jobs or are laid off, the loan is due immediately, and if you can't pay it off, penalties as well as regular taxes apply.
- Not everything is a hardship. Beyond loans, hardship withdrawals are allowed under special circumstances. If you read the rules wrong, you could be required to repay the amount you took out plus earnings. For example, a hardship withdrawal is allowed if you're in foreclosure proceedings but not just because you're a few months behind on your mortgage payments.
- Get your spouse to save. If you and your spouse both have access to a 401(k) plan, you should both be contributing as much as you can. In some cases, high earners may be told they can't contribute as much as they'd like because of "non-discrimination rules," and that makes it all the more important for a lower-earner spouse to be saving to the max. This way you can get the most out of your 401(k)
- Consolidate accounts. Have one or more old 401(k) accounts? Roll over your old 401(k) account balance into your current employer's plan, assuming it offers decent low-fee investment choices. By having one 401(k) it's easier to stay on top of things.
- Don't go on autopilot. Lots of folks pick investments when they first sign up for a 401(k) and don't get around to revisiting their choices. Check that your asset allocation still makes sense, that you're not in high-fee funds that eat away at your returns, and consider some of the newer investment choices in 401(k)s, including target date funds, international funds and low cost collective trusts. Don't overload your account with company stock just because it's available.
- Don't cash out early. Once you reach 59.5, don't be tempted by the ability to take money out penalty-free while you're still working, or to "cash out" when you retire. Instead leave the funds in your old 401(k) if it's a good plan with decent investment choices and fees, or alternatively roll it into an Individual Retirement Account, which like a 401(k) continues to grow tax-deferred. You'll be thankful when you're older.
Once you have all of these steps finished you are well on your way to have the best 401(k) investment ever!


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In 1914, WW1 broke out. The Central Powers vs The Entente. Blood was splilled and about 9 million died and it left one nation most accused for the bloodshed, Germany. But what if the Germans won, would we bow down to Berlin? Would we speak German instead of english? Who would dominate the world? This timeline explores that in a (hopefully) exciting way.
Please contact me if you would like to help and read the Editorial Guidelines. TGH
Just like in OTL, Franz Ferdinand is shot dead by Serbian Gavirolio Princip in Bosnia causing Austria-Hungary to force and ultimatum to Serbia while Russia supported the Serbians and threatened to declare war. This coincided with Germany offering aid to the incompetent Austria-Hungary. Germany invades Belgium to attack France while Austria-Hungary battles with the Russians and Serbians. The U.K. joins the war and it's officially the Great War.
The war quickly falls into a stalemate and the Battle of Marne starts, Germany finally captures the Marne and continues its advance in 1914 but is eventually stopped and Trench Warfare is used. The Russian Military invades Austria-Hungary and conquer large parts of the north of the Empire. In 1915 the Austrian-Hungarian military captures Belgrade. The British try to fund the Arab revolt and capture a large part of the Middle East. The Gallipoli invasion succeeds and the British March to Instanbul but are forced to retreat when the Ottoman defenses she'll the weakened army.
In 1916, Germany wins the Battle of Verdun and continue their advance. Meanwhile the Irish revolts start and are funded by Germany, weakening the British on both sides.
In 1917 the treaty of Brest-Livoct is signed and Russia exists the war, meanwhile Germany sends the Zimmerline telegraph to Mexico and Mexico joins the war. While capturing most of the areas near the border, the USA armies soon beat the Mexicans at the Battle Of Nevada and the war falls into a stalemate.
Italy, seeing more of a potential with the Central Powers joins the war while Germany launches a massive offensive on France. The U.K. and France finally surrender.


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|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Apr 26, 2005
|Filing date
|Sep 19, 2001
|Priority date
|May 30, 1997
|Fee status
|Also published as
|Publication number
|James E. Carey
|Original Assignee
|Oracle International Corporation
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (34), Non-Patent Citations (3), Referenced by (16), Classifications (6), Legal Events (4)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/866,619 filed May 30, 1997, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,324,623 on Nov. 27, 2001, the entire teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference.
In a large scale computer system, such as a database management system (DBMS), it is important to be able to support a number of different users concurrently. Without such a capability, the system would be little more than a standalone computer. To implement multi-user support, several different processing models have been utilized. One model that has been used is the multi-processing model. In multi-processing, each time a new user requests access to the system, a separate process is started. This process is in essence a separate execution of the software. Once started, the process services all of the requests from the user that spawned it. Under the multi-processing model, each process has its own separate memory space for use in storing and processing data.
Multi-processing is effective for supporting multiple users concurrently; however, it has severe scalability limitations. This is due mainly to two factors. First, spawning and maintaining a process involves a significant amount of overhead. Because of the high cost, only a small number of processes can be maintained at any one time. Second, the same set of data, used by multiple processes, may be stored redundantly; once in each process' memory space. This redundancy can waste a significant amount of system resources.
To overcome some of the limitations of multi-processing, the multi-thread model was developed. According to the multi-thread model, there is only one execution of the software. That is, only one process is spawned. From this one process, multiple threads can be spawned to perform the work necessary to service user requests.
Multi-threading has several advantages over multi-processing. First, because only one process is spawned, overhead is kept to a minimum. It is true that each thread carries with it some overhead cost, but this cost is negligible when compared with the cost of maintaining an entire process. Because multi-threading significantly reduces system overhead, many more users can be supported. Another advantage of multi-threading is that it minimizes the redundant storage of data. Because all of the threads are part of the same process, all of the threads can share the same memory space. This in turn makes it easier to implement a shared cache.
With a shared cache, it is only necessary to store a set of data once. After the data is cached, all of the threads can access it. By reducing redundant storage of data, multi-threading makes more efficient use of system resources.
Implementing a shared cache gives rise to increased efficiencies. However, a shared cache is not without its disadvantages. One of the drawbacks of a shared cache is that it can be difficult to render a set of data in the cache visible to only one user (i.e. to make the entry "private" to the user). As noted above, once an entry is stored in the shared cache, that entry is accessible to all threads. In certain applications, it is important to be able to make a cache entry private to a single user. One application in which this ability is important is in on-line analytical processing (OLAP).
An OLAP system is typically used to provide decision support services, such as forecasting, financial modeling, and what-if analysis. In performing what if analysis, an OLAP system typically performs at least three operations: (1) it retrieves historical data from a databases; (2) it changes the data in accordance with a what-if scenario posed by the user; and (3) based on the changed data, it determines what other data is changed. What-if analysis is a powerful tool because it allows a user to forecast how a change in one area may affect another. For example, a user may use what-if analysis to predict how sales in a region may change if the sales force is increased by ten percent.
As noted above, one of the operations performed in a what-if analysis is to change the retrieved historical data. This change typically is not an actual change but a proposed "what-if" change. Because it is not an actual change to the data in the database, only the user making the change should see it. All other users should still see the original data. In such a situation, there is a need to make the proposed change private to the user making the change. In a typical shared cache, however, the only mechanism for making a cache entry private is to employ locks, which typically require additional overhead and can result in deadlocking between threads competing for the resource. Hence, there exists a need for a mechanism that can support private data without hindering performance.
In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention, a public memory structure is utilized to store data which is sharable between a plurality of users in a multi-threaded computing environment. In contrast to the prior art, a cache memory area on a server is used to store public, sharable data and private, non-sharable data without using locks to negotiate resource ownership. Consequently, there are public and private pages stored in global memory. The private pages are those that are modifiable by a user and the public pages are those that are only readable by one or more users.
One aspect of the invention is to manage memory on a computer. From the memory there are a plurality of cache memory blocks cooperatively shared by processing threads executing on the computer. These processing threads include user sessions and resource managers.
The user threads consume page data stored on the cache memory blocks. Each user thread has a public view of unmodified cached pages and can have modified cached pages in a private view. During on-line analytical processing (OLAP), the user threads process the cached pages. For pages that are only read by the user thread, the public view is used to access the necessary cache memory block, which may be read by multiple users. When an analysis requires modifying data, however, access through a public view is inappropriate. Instead, the cache memory block pointed to by the public view is copied to a new cache memory block. The user thread is then assigned a private pointer to the copied pages, and can modify the data in this private view without affecting data viewed by other threads.
The resource managers ensure that the user threads cooperate to function effectively. In particular, a paging manager interfaces the user threads with the cache memory space to retrieve pages from disk.
In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention, a computer-implemented program manages memory in a computer having a plurality of memory blocks. These memory blocks are preferably a cache memory area. Data is stored in memory blocks, including a first memory block and a second memory block. First and second user sessions or user threads execute in the computer, with the first user session having a global view of the first memory block data and the second user session having a global view of the first memory block data and a private view of the second memory block data. In a particular, the first and second user sessions are threads in a multi-threaded computer system.
The user threads preferably execute resource manager instructions to map data stored in a cache memory block with a location of the cache memory block in the computer. The resource manager also transfers data from a database into a cache memory block and stores generational views of the data. Preferably, the data is retrieved from a multi-dimensional database.
A particular method facilitates simultaneous analysis of data in multiple sessions in a computer. First, data is retrieved from storage into public blocks of a shared memory space. These public blocks store data for global read access by a plurality of user sessions. Second, public blocks of data are selectively copied into private blocks of the shared memory space. Each private block stores data for private read and write access by a single user session. Upon read access to a data item by a user session, the data item is read if present from a private block accessible by the user session. If the data item is not present on a private block accessible by the user session, the data item is read from a public block. Upon write access to a data item by the user session, the data item is written to a private block if present in a private block accessible by the user session. If the private block is not already present, then data is copied from a public to a private block for access by the user session.
Preferably, the user sessions and resource managers are implemented as processing threads in a multi-threaded computing system. In particular, the computing system can include a plurality of processing units for executing the threads. However, aspects of the invention can also be applied to processes in a multi-process architecture. As such, the term data accessor will be understood to encompass any computing mechanism to access or manipulate data, including threads and processes.
The above and other features of the invention, including various novel details of construction and combination of parts, will now be more particularly described with reference to the accompanying drawings and pointed out in the claims. It will be understood that the particular computing system for implementing a shared cache embodying the invention is shown by way of illustration only and not as a limitation of the invention. The principles and features of this invention may be embodied in varied and numerous embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention.
The server 1 includes at least one central processing unit (CPU) 2 1, 2 2, . . . , 2 P. The CPUs 2 execute client or user sessions and system management processes to operate on data stored in memory 10, which includes an OLAP engine 12 and a cache memory 18. The OLAP engine 12 includes a kernel 13, a paging manager 15 and a thread manager 17. The user sessions preferably execute paging manager instructions, including page transfer functions 16, to manage pages in memory.
The user sessions and system management processes preferably include processing threads managed by the thread manager 17 in a multi-threaded OLAP engine 12. That is, user sessions can accomplish tasks by asynchronously executing processing threads. Embodiments of the invention preferably take the form of computer executable instructions embedded in a computer-readable format on a CD-ROM, floppy or hard disk, or another computer-readable distribution medium. These instructions are executed by one or more CPUs 2 1, 2 2, . . . , 2 P to implement the OLAP engine 12. A particular embodiment of the invention is commercially available as Oracle Express Server, version 6.0, from Oracle Corporation.
The paging manager 15 includes a private memory section 40 P and a public memory section 40 G. The private section 40 P can include a plurality of private workspaces 41 1, 41 2, . . . , 41 n. There is one private workspace 41 for each user session. A private workspace 41 includes private pagespace views 50 a, 50 b, . . . , 50 z, which record information about writable pagespaces referenced by the current user session.
The public section 40 G is organized based on open databases. For ease of understanding, the system is illustrated as having one open database. However, it should be understood that there are generally a plurality of open databases being accessed by the client users. For each open database there is a public workspace 45 in the public memory section 40 G having, in general, a plurality of generational pagespace views 60 a, 60 b, . . . , 60 g. Each private pagespace view 50 is associated with a particular generation of the database. For ease of description, preferred embodiments of the invention will be described with reference to a single database having a single generation in memory.
The cache memory 18 includes page buffers 84 1, 84 2, . . . , 84 X each having an associated page control block (PCB) 82 1, 82 2, . . . , 82 X. Each page buffer 84 holds a page of data read from storage 30. In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention, the page buffers 84 each store data in blocks of 4K bytes, defined as a page. It should be understood that the page size can be chosen to be either less than or greater than 4K bytes. The page control blocks 82 include data fields used to control and access associated page buffers 84. The cache memory 18 is shared by the user sessions to store both public and private data.
It is important to note that there is no physical division between public and private data pages. That is, a particular page buffer 84 simply stores a page of data, which can be either public or private data. It is up to the OLAP engine 12 to logically separate public and private data pages. In particular, the OLAP engine 12 relies on the public workspace 45 and the private workspaces 41 1, . . . ,41 n which include indexes to the appropriate page control blocks 82 1, . . . , 82 X.
From the index structures 55, 65, a database record number 56, 66 and a page control block pointer 58, 68 are available if the page is within the respective view. If not null, the database record number 56, 66 identifies the record number in the database which holds the requested page. If the page is stored in the cache 18, the page control block pointer 58, 68 points to the page control block 82 associated with the page buffer 84 in which the referenced record is stored.
A user session uses the above architecture by executing paging manager code. For data to be processed by a session, the data must be retrieved from mass storage 30 and stored in a page buffer 84 in the cache 18. Once the data is retrieved, the page buffer 84 can be publicly accessed by any user session. If the data is to be modified, such as for a what-if analysis, then the data is copied to a private page buffer, leaving the original data in the public page buffer. Details of fetching data into the cache 18 will now be described in detail.
At step 110, the private page control block pointer 58 is tested. If the private pointer 58 is valid (e.g., not null), then the page is stored in a buffer in cache memory and processing jumps to step 180. If the private pointer 58 is invalid (e.g., null), then the page is not in the cache memory 18 and processing continues to step 115.
At step 115, the private record number field 56 is compared against null. If the private record number field 56 is null, then the user does not have access to the page. If the private record number field 56 is not null, then the user session has private access to the page, but it has been written from the cache to the database 32, 34 (or a temporary database 36) on disk 30.
Where the user session does not have private access to the page (steps 107, 115), the operation checks the public view for the pagespace at step 120. At step 122, if a public index structure 65 does not exist for this pagespace, then processing jumps to step 135 to search for the database record. Otherwise, the pagespace is in the public view and processing continues to step 125.
At step 125, the public page control block pointer 68 is tested. If the public pointer 68 is valid (e.g., not null), then the page is in memory and processing jumps to step 180. If the public pointer 68 is invalid (e.g., null), then the record is not currently in cache memory and processing continues to step 130.
At step 130, the public record number field 66 is tested against null. If the public record number field 66 is null, then the page has not been loaded into memory and processing continues to step 135, where the pagespace is converted to a database record using a record map on disk for the particular database. On the other hand, if the public record number 66 is not null, then the database record is known to the paging manager. Processing now continues to step 140.
At step 140, the data is retrieved from disk to a free page buffer taken from a free buffer list (described in detail below). At step 145, the associated page control block fields are set to indicate public ownership. In particular, the owner workspace field 95 is set to null. At step 155, the public index structure 65 is updated to record the public database record number 66 and the public page control block pointer 68 is set to point to the page control block 82. Processing then continues to step 180.
Returning to step 160, because the database record had already been retrieved from storage into a private workspace, it was written to the disk 30. The private database record number field 56 identifies the location of the data on the disk, either in the database 32, 34 or in a temporary database 36. At step 160, the page is retrieved from disk storage and placed into a free page buffer from the free buffer list (described in detail below). At step 170, the page control block fields are set to indicate private ownership by setting the owner field 95 to identify the owner workspace. Processing then continues to step 180.
At step 180, the user session can locate the data in a privately accessible page buffer 82. The data is now available to be read by the user session.
Initially, a fetch for write operation is similar to the fetch for read operation. In a fetch for write operation, however, the read page is copied to another, private, page buffer.
At step 210, the private page control block pointer 58 is checked. If the private pointer 58 is valid (e.g, not null), then the page having the record has already been loaded into the cache memory 18 and is available for write access. In that case, processing jumps to step 285. On the other hand, if the private pointer 58 is invalid (e.g., null), then the page does not currently exist in the private cache memory 18 and processing continues to step 215.
At step 215, the database record number 56 is compared against null. If the record number 56 is null, then the requested page has not been loaded into memory for write access in the private view and processing continues to step 220. If the record number 56 is not null, then the page has previously been read into the cache and temporarily stored in the database 32, 34 or a temporary database 36 on disk. In that case, processing jumps to step 265.
At step 220, the public view is checked for the pagespace. At step 222, if a public index structure 65 does not exist for this pagespace, the processing jumps to step 235 to search for the database record. Otherwise, the pagespace is in the public view and processing continues to step 225.
At step 225, the public page control block pointer 68 is checked. If the public pointer 68 is valid (e.g., not null), then the page currently exists in the cache memory 18 and processing jumps to step 260. If the public pointer 68 is invalid (e.g., null), then the record is not available in the cache 18 for public access and processing continues to step 230.
At step 230, the public database record number 66 is compared against null. If the public record number field 66 is null, then the record has not previously been loaded into the cache memory 18 and processing continues to step 235 where the pagespace is converted to a database record. If the record number 66 is not null, then the data can be accessed using the stored record number and processing jumps to step 240.
At step 240, the page is retrieved from disk into a free page buffer (described in detail below). At step 245, the page control block fields are set to indicate public access. In particular, the owner workspace field 95 is set to null. At step 255, the public index data fields 66, 68 are updated to identify and point to the public page control block.
At step 260, the data from the public page buffer is copied to another free page buffer. At step 275, the page control block fields are set to indicate private ownership as described above. At step 280, the private index fields 56, 58 for the user process is updated to identify and point to this private page control block.
At step 285, the page buffer is available for write access to the user process. The user process can now continue the write operation to the privately accessible cache buffer.
As discussed above, pages retrieved from disk 30 are stored into a free page buffer 84. To facilitate this function, the paging manager maintains a list of all free page buffers 84. For example, a free list pointer can point to a linked list of page control blocks 82 associated with free page buffers 84. When the paging manager needs a free buffer, the first page control block on the free list is popped from the top of the linked list, moving the free list pointer to the next page control block in the linked list.
In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention, the user sessions do not directly maintain the cache memory area. Because of the particular use of pagespaces and pointers to denote page ownership, a user session requiring a new page may deadlock with another user session. In such a situation, each user session can be referencing a page which the other user session has chosen to swap from memory. To avoid such a deadlock, a separate dedicated collector thread is utilized to manage page removal from the cache memory area.
In a multi-threaded environment, user sessions can also be multi-tasked into a plurality of processing threads. In an active system, processing threads can become active in bursts, causing high page fault rates. This situation can be particularly troublesome in an OLAP system where processing threads can operate on a large amount of page data from large multi-dimensional databases. In typical prior art systems, data is either stored locally within a user process space or global page buffers are freed to satisfy the page requests. This process of freeing a global page buffer on demand before data can be retrieved from disk delays the user sessions.
To minimize processing delays which can occur when the free list becomes empty, the paging manager 15 maintains a counter of the number of entries on the free list. Every time a page control block is removed from the free list, the count in compared with a minimum threshold value. If the minimum threshold is met, then the paging manager begins a collecting operation to free up additional page buffers. The minimum threshold value is chosen based on a historical operational profile of the system to maximize the number of page buffers 84 in use while reducing the chances that there are no free page buffers at any time. For example, the minimum threshold value can be initially chosen to be 10% of the total page buffers. The minimum threshold can also be dynamically adjusted by the paging manager over time.
If this is not a startup condition, processing continues to step 310. At step 310, the collector scans the page control blocks for the least-recently-used (LRU) candidate. In particular, the collector reads the MRU time field 91 from each page control block 82 1, 82 2, . . . , 82 X. The page control block having the earliest MRU time, is the LRU candidate. At step 315, the collector locks the LRU candidate, thereby setting the lock field 93 in the page control block 82. At step 320, the collector rereads the MRU time field from the LRU candidate page control block. At step 325, the collector compares the original time value with the reread time value to verify that the page has not been more recently used.
If the compared time values do not match, then processing continues to step 330. At step 330, the collector unlocks the LRU candidate page control block and processing returns to step 310 to try again.
If the time values agree (step 325), then the page is confirmed as the least-recently-used page and processing continues to step 335. At step 335, the owner field 95 of the page control block 82 is checked. If the owner field 95 is set, then the page is private data to the user session identified by the owner field 95 and processing continues to step 340. At step 340, the collector causes the page buffer to be written to disk, such as an extended database 36. In particular, if an extension file needs to be created, the collector sends a message to the owner user session to do the file creation. Once the extension file exists, the collector writes to it itself. Processing then continues to step 350. If the data has not been modified (as indicated by a null (i.e., public) owner field 95), then the data is public data for read-only access. In that case, processing jumps to step 350 without rewriting the data to disk.
At step 350, a check of the owner field 95 is again made to see if the field is not null (i.e., private data). If the page is private, processing continues to step 355, where the page control block pointer is removed from the private index structure 55 by setting the private pointer 58 to null. If the page is public, processing instead continues to step 357 where the page control block pointer is removed from the public index structure 65 by setting the public pointer 68 to null.
At step 360, the version number 93 of the page in the page control block 82 is incremented. At step 365, the page control block is put onto a free list of available page control blocks. At step 370 the page control block is unlocked to make it available for re-use.
At step 375, the collector tests the number of page control blocks on the free list. If this number is above a preset maximum threshold, then processing continues to step 380. If the maximum threshold has not yet been reached, processing returns to step 310 to search for additional page control blocks to add to the free list. The maximum threshold value is preferably chosen to optimize the cache memory 18 based on past performances. For example, the maximum threshold can initially be twice the minimum threshold and can be dynamically adjusted by the paging manager.
At step 380, the collector thread suspends itself. It is awakened again when the number of page control blocks on the free list is reduced to be below the previously-described minimum threshold level. The collector is preferably awakened by a write or read operation from a user session when a page buffer is taken from the free list (
Although the collector has been described as employing an LRU algorithm, other algorithms may be more particularly suitable. For example, in systems having large caches, the computations required to determine the LRU candidate can be very time consuming. It should be recognized, however, that the function of the collector is to maintain a buffer of free page slots, even during heavy page faulting, without blocking user threads. To accomplish this function, it is recognized that the candidate page slot does not have to be storing the LRU page.
In accordance with another preferred embodiment, an "old enough" algorithm is employed to find a reclamation candidate that has not been recently used. Instead of the MRU time field 91, the collector preferably reads an internal counter field in the page control block, which can be faster to retrieve than a time field. By, for example, knowing the oldest counter value, the collector can determine a threshold counter value for those pages that are old enough to be reclaimed. Instead of looping through the entire page pool for the single LRU candidate, the collector can stop the search when finding the first page having a counter which exceeds the threshold; with the realization that this page is likely to be eventually reclaimed under the LRU algorithm anyway. By using such an "old enough" algorithm, the amount of CPU time required by the collector can be reduced to a few percent of that required for the LRU algorithm.
In an OLAP system, most data retrieved from storage is read-only data, which is easier to remove from the cache memory than modified data. Any session, however, can cause data in the cache memory to be privately modified. This data may only be used for a relatively brief period of time, but may tend to stay in the cache memory, using the server's page buffers for a private function. Although that situation is acceptable for short time periods, if left unattended much of the cache memory blocks can be allocated as private memory. In accordance with another aspect of the invention, modified pages are flushed to temporary storage when not in use. According to protocol, a page is guaranteed to be in a page buffer only if locked by a process thread. Any unlocked page is free to be flushed.
At step 405, the flusher scans the page control blocks for a modified buffer as indicated by having a set owner field 95. At step 410, the lock bit 93 of the modified buffer is checked. If the buffer is locked, processing returns to step 405 to find the next modified buffer.
If the buffer is not locked, the buffer is flushed at step 415. At step 420, the flusher checks to see if it has searched the entire cache memory area. If so, the flusher is finished and suspends itself at step 425. If the flushing task has not yet finished, processing returns to step 405.
While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood to those skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. For example, although the invention has been described with reference to particular hardware and software embodiments, it will be understood that various aspects of the invention can be embodied in either hardware, software or firmware.
These and all other equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.
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Owner name: ORACLE INTERNATIONAL CORPORATION, CALIFORNIA
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|Fee payment
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|Sep 26, 2012
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|Oct 13, 2016
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