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Micro finance is defined as providing micro woan to poorest of de poor (basicawwy dose are negwected by banks, microfinance provides dem woan faciwity), and a source of financiaw services for entrepreneurs and smaww businesses wacking access to banking and rewated services. The two main mechanisms for de dewivery of financiaw services to such cwients are: (1) rewationship-based banking for individuaw entrepreneurs and smaww businesses; and (2) group-based modews, where severaw entrepreneurs come togeder to appwy for woans and oder services as a group. In some regions, for exampwe Soudern Africa, microfinance is used to describe de suppwy of financiaw services to wow-income empwoyees, which is cwoser to de retaiw finance modew prevawent in mainstream banking.
For some, microfinance is a movement whose object is "a worwd in which as many poor and near-poor househowds as possibwe have permanent access to an appropriate range of high qwawity financiaw services, incwuding not just credit but awso savings, insurance, and fund transfers."[1] Many of dose who promote microfinance generawwy bewieve dat such access wiww hewp poor peopwe out of poverty, incwuding participants in de Microcredit Summit Campaign. For oders, microfinance is a way to promote economic devewopment, empwoyment and growf drough de support of micro-entrepreneurs and smaww businesses.
Microfinance is a broad category of services, which incwudes microcredit. Microcredit is provision of credit services to poor cwients. Microcredit is one of de aspects of microfinance and de two are often confused. Critics may attack microcredit whiwe referring to it indiscriminatewy as eider 'microcredit' or 'microfinance'. Due to de broad range of microfinance services, it is difficuwt to assess impact, and very few studies have tried to assess its fuww impact.[2] Proponents often cwaim dat microfinance wifts peopwe out of poverty, but de evidence is mixed. What it does do, however, is to enhance financiaw incwusion.
- 1 Background
- 2 Microfinance debates and chawwenges
- 3 History of microfinance
- 4 Microfinance Standards and Principwes
- 5 Scawe of Microfinance Operations
- 6 Microfinance in de United States and Canada
- 7 Micro Finance on de Indian Subcontinent
- 8 Incwusive financiaw systems
- 9 Microcredit and de Web
- 10 Microfinance and Sociaw Interventions
- 11 Impact and Criticism
- 12 See awso
- 13 Notes
- 14 Furder reading
- 15 See awso
- 16 Externaw winks
Microfinance and poverty[edit]
In devewoping economies and particuwarwy in ruraw areas, many activities dat wouwd be cwassified in de devewoped worwd as financiaw are not monetized: dat is, money is not used to carry dem out. This is often de case when peopwe need de services money can provide but do not have dispensabwe funds reqwired for dose services, forcing dem to revert to oder means of acqwiring dem. In deir book The Poor and Their Money, Stuart Ruderford and Sukhwinder Arora cite severaw types of needs:
- Lifecycwe Needs: such as weddings, funeraws, chiwdbirf, education, home buiwding, widowhood and owd age.
- Personaw Emergencies: such as sickness, injury, unempwoyment, deft, harassment or deaf.
- Disasters: such as fires, fwoods, cycwones and man-made events wike war or buwwdozing of dwewwings.
- Investment Opportunities: expanding a business, buying wand or eqwipment, improving housing, securing a job, etc.[3]
Peopwe find creative and often cowwaborative ways to meet dese needs, primariwy drough creating and exchanging different forms of non-cash vawue. Common substitutes for cash vary from country to country but typicawwy incwude wivestock, grains, jewewry and precious metaws. As Marguerite Robinson describes in The Micro finance Revowution, de 1980s demonstrated dat "micro finance couwd provide warge-scawe outreach profitabwy," and in de 1990s, "micro finance began to devewop as an industry" (2001, p. 54). In de 2000s, de micro finance industry's objective is to satisfy de unmet demand on a much warger scawe, and to pway a rowe in reducing poverty. Whiwe much progress has been made in devewoping a viabwe, commerciaw micro finance sector in de wast few decades, severaw issues remain dat need to be addressed before de industry wiww be abwe to satisfy massive worwdwide demand. The obstacwes or chawwenges to buiwding a sound commerciaw micro finance industry incwude:
- Inappropriate donor subsidies
- Poor reguwation and supervision of deposit-taking micro finance institutions (MFIs)
- Few MFIs dat meet de needs for savings, remittances or insurance
- Limited management capacity in MFIs
- Institutionaw inefficiencies
- Need for more dissemination and adoption of ruraw, agricuwturaw micro finance medodowogies
Microfinance is de proper toow to reduce income ineqwawity, awwowing citizens from wower socio-economicaw cwasses to participate in de economy. Moreover, its invowvement has shown to wead to a downward trend in income ineqwawity (Hermes, 2014).[4]
Ways In Which Poor Peopwe Manage Their Money[edit]
Ruderford argues dat de basic probwem dat poor peopwe face as money managers is to gader a 'usefuwwy warge' amount of money. Buiwding a new home may invowve saving and protecting diverse buiwding materiaws for years untiw enough are avaiwabwe to proceed wif construction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Chiwdren's schoowing may be funded by buying chickens and raising dem for sawe as needed for expenses, uniforms, bribes, etc. Because aww de vawue is accumuwated before it is needed, dis money management strategy is referred to as 'saving up'.[citation needed]
Often, peopwe don't have enough money when dey face a need, so dey borrow. A poor famiwy might borrow from rewatives to buy wand, from a moneywender to buy rice, or from a microfinance institution to buy a sewing machine. Since dese woans must be repaid by saving after de cost is incurred, Ruderford cawws dis 'saving down'. Ruderford's point is dat microcredit is addressing onwy hawf de probwem, and arguabwy de wess important hawf: poor peopwe borrow to hewp dem save and accumuwate assets. Microcredit institutions shouwd fund deir woans drough savings accounts dat hewp poor peopwe manage deir myriad risks.[citation needed]
Most needs are met drough a mix of saving and credit. A benchmark impact assessment of Grameen Bank and two oder warge microfinance institutions in Bangwadesh found dat for every $1 dey were wending to cwients to finance ruraw non-farm micro-enterprise, about $2.50 came from oder sources, mostwy deir cwients' savings.[5] This parawwews de experience in de West, in which famiwy businesses are funded mostwy from savings, especiawwy during start-up.
Recent studies have awso shown dat informaw medods of saving are unsafe. For exampwe, a study by Wright and Mutesasira in Uganda concwuded dat "dose wif no option but to save in de informaw sector are awmost bound to wose some money—probabwy around one qwarter of what dey save dere."[6]
The work of Ruderford, Wright and oders has caused practitioners to reconsider a key aspect of de microcredit paradigm: dat poor peopwe get out of poverty by borrowing, buiwding microenterprises and increasing deir income. The new paradigm pwaces more attention on de efforts of poor peopwe to reduce deir many vuwnerabiwities by keeping more of what dey earn and buiwding up deir assets. Whiwe dey need woans, dey may find it as usefuw to borrow for consumption as for microenterprise. A safe, fwexibwe pwace to save money and widdraw it when needed is awso essentiaw for managing househowd and famiwy risk.[citation needed]
The microfinance project of "saving up" is exempwified in de swums of de souf-eastern city of Vijayawada, India. This microfinance project functions as an unofficiaw banking system where Jyodi, a "deposit cowwector", cowwects money from swum dwewwers, mostwy women, in order for dem to accumuwate savings. Jyodi does her rounds droughout de city, cowwecting Rs5 a day from peopwe in de swums for 220 days, however not awways 220 days in a row since dese women do not awways have de funds avaiwabwe to put dem into savings. They uwtimatewy end up wif Rs1000 at de end of de process. However, dere are some issues wif dis microfinance saving program. One of de issues is dat whiwe saving, cwients are actuawwy wosing part of deir savings. Jyodi takes interest from each cwient—about 20 out of every 220 payments, or Rs100 out of 1,100 or 8%. When dese swum dwewwers find someone dey trust, dey are wiwwing to pay up to 30% to someone to safewy cowwect and keep deir savings. There is awso de risk of entrusting deir savings to unwicensed, informaw, peripatetic cowwectors. However, de swum dwewwers are wiwwing to accept dis risk because dey are unabwe to save at home, and unabwe to use de remote and unfriendwy banks in deir country. This microfinance project awso has many benefits, such as empowering women and giving parents de abiwity to save money for deir chiwdren's education, uh-hah-hah-hah. This specific microfinance project is a great exampwe of de benefits and wimitations of de "saving up" project (Ruderford, 2009).
The microfinance project of "saving drough" is shown in Nairobi, Kenya which incwudes a Rotating Savings and Credit Associations or ROSCAs initiative. This is a smaww scawe exampwe, however Ruderford (2009) describes a woman he met in Nairobi and studied her ROSCA. Everyday 15 women wouwd save 100 shiwwings so dere wouwd be a wump sum of 1,500 shiwwings and everyday 1 of de 15 women wouwd receive dat wump sum. This wouwd continue for 15 days and anoder woman widin dis group wouwd receive de wump sum. At de end of de 15 days a new cycwe wouwd start. This ROSCA initiative is different from de "saving up" exampwe above because dere are no interest rates affiwiated wif de ROSCA, additionawwy everyone receives back what dey put forf. This initiative reqwires trust and sociaw capitaw networks in order to work, so often dese ROSCAs incwude peopwe who know each oder and have reciprocity. The ROSCA awwows for marginawized groups to receive a wump sum at one time in order to pay or save for specific needs dey have.
Microfinance debates and chawwenges[edit]
There are severaw key debates at de boundaries of microfinance.
Interest rates[edit]
One of de principaw chawwenges of microfinance is providing smaww woans at an affordabwe cost. The gwobaw average interest and fee rate is estimated at 37%, wif rates reaching as high as 70% in some markets.[7] The reason for de high interest rates is not primariwy cost of capitaw. Indeed, de wocaw microfinance organizations dat receive zero-interest woan capitaw from de onwine microwending pwatform Kiva charge average interest and fee rates of 35.21%.[8] Rader, de main reason for de high cost of microfinance woans is de high transaction cost of traditionaw microfinance operations rewative to woan size.[9]
Microfinance practitioners have wong argued dat such high interest rates are simpwy unavoidabwe, because de cost of making each woan cannot be reduced bewow a certain wevew whiwe stiww awwowing de wender to cover costs such as offices and staff sawaries. For exampwe, in Sub-Saharan Africa credit risk for microfinance institutes is very high, because customers need years to improve deir wivewihood and face many chawwenges during dis time. Financiaw institutes often do not even have a system to check de person's identity. Additionawwy dey are unabwe to design new products and enwarge deir business to reduce de risk.[10] The resuwt is dat de traditionaw approach to microfinance has made onwy wimited progress in resowving de probwem it purports to address: dat de worwd's poorest peopwe pay de worwd's highest cost for smaww business growf capitaw. The high costs of traditionaw microfinance woans wimit deir effectiveness as a poverty-fighting toow. Offering woans at interest and fee rates of 37% mean dat borrowers who do not manage to earn at weast a 37% rate of return may actuawwy end up poorer as a resuwt of accepting de woans.[11]
According to a recent survey of microfinance borrowers in Ghana pubwished by de Center for Financiaw Incwusion, more dan one-dird of borrowers surveyed reported struggwing to repay deir woans. Some resorted to measures such as reducing deir food intake or taking chiwdren out of schoow in order to repay microfinance debts dat had not proven sufficientwy profitabwe.[citation needed]
In recent years, de microfinance industry has shifted its focus from de objective of increasing de vowume of wending capitaw avaiwabwe, to address de chawwenge of providing microfinance woans more affordabwy. Microfinance anawyst David Roodman contends dat, in mature markets, de average interest and fee rates charged by microfinance institutions tend to faww over time.[12][13] However, gwobaw average interest rates for microfinance woans are stiww weww above 30%.
The answer to providing microfinance services at an affordabwe cost may wie in redinking one of de fundamentaw assumptions underwying microfinance: dat microfinance borrowers need extensive monitoring and interaction wif woan officers in order to benefit from and repay deir woans. The P2P microwending service Zidisha is based on dis premise, faciwitating direct interaction between individuaw wenders and borrowers via an internet community rader dan physicaw offices. Zidisha has managed to bring de cost of microwoans to bewow 10% for borrowers, incwuding interest which is paid out to wenders. However, it remains to be seen wheder such radicaw awternative modews can reach de scawe necessary to compete wif traditionaw microfinance programs.[14]
Use of Loans[edit]
Practitioners and donors from de charitabwe side of microfinance freqwentwy argue for restricting microcredit to woans for productive purposes—such as to start or expand a microenterprise. Those from de private-sector side respond dat, because money is fungibwe, such a restriction is impossibwe to enforce, and dat in any case it shouwd not be up to rich peopwe to determine how poor peopwe use deir money[citation needed].
Reach versus Depf of Impact[edit]
There has been a wong-standing debate over de sharpness of de trade-off between 'outreach' (de abiwity of a microfinance institution to reach poorer and more remote peopwe) and its 'sustainabiwity' (its abiwity to cover its operating costs—and possibwy awso its costs of serving new cwients—from its operating revenues). Awdough it is generawwy agreed dat microfinance practitioners shouwd seek to bawance dese goaws to some extent, dere are a wide variety of strategies, ranging from de minimawist profit-orientation of BancoSow in Bowivia to de highwy integrated not-for-profit orientation of BRAC in Bangwadesh. This is true not onwy for individuaw institutions, but awso for governments engaged in devewoping nationaw microfinance systems. BRAC was ranked de number one NGO in de worwd in 2015 and 2016 by de Geneva-based NGO Advisor.[15][16]
Microfinance generawwy agree dat women shouwd be de primary focus of service dewivery. Evidence shows dat dey are wess wikewy to defauwt on deir woans dan men, uh-hah-hah-hah. Industry data from 2006 for 704 MFIs reaching 52 miwwion borrowers incwudes MFIs using de sowidarity wending medodowogy (99.3% femawe cwients) and MFIs using individuaw wending (51% femawe cwients). The dewinqwency rate for sowidarity wending was 0.9% after 30 days (individuaw wending—3.1%), whiwe 0.3% of woans were written off (individuaw wending—0.9%).[17] Because operating margins become tighter de smawwer de woans dewivered, many MFIs consider de risk of wending to men to be too high. This focus on women is qwestioned sometimes, however a recent study of microenterpreneurs from Sri Lanka pubwished by de Worwd Bank found dat de return on capitaw for mawe-owned businesses (hawf of de sampwe) averaged 11%, whereas de return for women-owned businesses was 0% or swightwy negative.[18]
Microfinance's emphasis on femawe-oriented wending is de subject of controversy, as it is cwaimed dat microfinance improves de status of women drough an awweviation of poverty. It is argued dat by providing women wif initiaw capitaw, dey wiww be abwe to support demsewves independent of men, in a manner which wouwd encourage sustainabwe growf of enterprise and eventuaw sewf-sufficiency. This cwaim has yet to be proven in any substantiaw form. Moreover, de attraction of women as a potentiaw investment base is precisewy because dey are constrained by socio-cuwturaw norms regarding such concepts of obedience, famiwiaw duty, househowd maintenance and passivity.[19] The resuwt of dese norms is dat whiwe micro-wending may enabwe women to improve deir daiwy subsistence to a more steady pace, dey wiww not be abwe to engage in market-oriented business practice beyond a wimited scope of wow-skiwwed, wow-earning, informaw work.[20] Part of dis is a wack of permissivity in de society; part a refwection of de added burdens of househowd maintenance dat women shouwder awone as a resuwt of microfinanciaw empowerment; and part a wack of training and education surrounding gendered conceptions of economics. In particuwar, de shift in norms such dat women continue to be responsibwe for aww de domestic private sphere wabour as weww as undertaking pubwic economic support for deir famiwies, independent of mawe aid increases rader dan decreases burdens on awready wimited persons.
If dere were to be an exchange of wabour, or if women's income were suppwementaw rader dan essentiaw to househowd maintenance, dere might be some truf to cwaims of estabwishing wong-term businesses; however when so constrained it is impossibwe for women to do more dan pay off a current woan onwy to take on anoder in a cycwic pattern which is beneficiaw to de financier but hardwy to de borrower. This gender essentiawizing crosses over from institutionawized wenders such as de Grameen Bank into interpersonaw direct wending drough charitabwe crowd-funding operations, such as Kiva. More recentwy, de popuwarity of non-profit gwobaw onwine wending has grown, suggesting dat a redress of gender norms might be instituted drough individuaw sewection fomented by de processes of such programs, but de reawity is as yet uncertain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Studies have noted dat de wikewihood of wending to women, individuawwy or in groups, is 38% higher dan rates of wending to men, uh-hah-hah-hah.[21]
This is awso due to a generaw trend for interpersonaw microfinance rewations to be conducted on grounds of simiwarity and internaw/externaw recognition: wenders want to see someding famiwiar, someding supportabwe in potentiaw borrowers, so an emphasis on famiwy, goaws of education and heawf, and a commitment to community aww achieve positive resuwts from prospective financiers.[22] Unfortunatewy, dese wabews disproportionatewy awign wif women rader dan men, particuwarwy in de devewoping worwd. The resuwt is dat microfinance continues to rewy on restrictive gender norms rader dan seek to subvert dem drough economic redress in terms of foundation change: training, business management and financiaw education are aww ewements which might be incwuded in parameters of femawe-aimed woans and untiw dey are de fundamentaw reawity of women as a disadvantaged section of societies in devewoping states wiww go untested.
Benefits and Limitations[edit]
Microfinancing produces many benefits for poverty stricken, or wow- income househowds. One of de benefits is dat it is very accessibwe. Banks today simpwy won't extend woans to dose wif wittwe to no assets, and generawwy don't engage in smaww size woans typicawwy associated wif microfinancing. Through microfinancing smaww woans are produced and accessibwe. Microfinancing is based on de phiwosophy dat even smaww amounts of credit can hewp end de cycwe of poverty. Anoder benefit produced from de microfinancing initiative is dat it presents opportunities, such as extending education and jobs. Famiwies receiving microfinancing are wess wikewy to puww deir chiwdren out of schoow for economic reasons. As weww, in rewation to empwoyment, peopwe are more wikewy to open smaww businesses dat wiww aid de creation of new jobs. Overaww, de benefits outwine dat de microfinancing initiative is set out to improve de standard of wiving amongst impoverished communities (Ruderford, 2009).
There are awso many chawwenges widin microfinance initiatives which may be sociaw or financiaw. Here, more articuwate and better-off community members may cheat poorer or wess-educated neighbours. This may occur intentionawwy or inadvertentwy drough woosewy run organizations. As a resuwt, many microfinance initiatives reqwire a warge amount of sociaw capitaw or trust in order to work effectivewy. The abiwity of poorer peopwe to save may awso fwuctuate over time as unexpected costs may take priority which couwd resuwt in dem being abwe to save wittwe or noding some weeks. Rates of infwation may cause funds to wose deir vawue, dus financiawwy harming de saver and not benefiting cowwector (Ruderford, 2009).
History of microfinance[edit]
Over de past centuries, practicaw visionaries, from de Franciscan monks who founded de community-oriented pawnshops of de 15f century to de founders of de European credit union movement in de 19f century (such as Friedrich Wiwhewm Raiffeisen) and de founders of de microcredit movement in de 1970s (such as Muhammad Yunus and Aw Whittaker), have tested practices and buiwt institutions designed to bring de kinds of opportunities and risk-management toows dat financiaw services can provide to de doorsteps of poor peopwe.[23] Whiwe de success of de Grameen Bank (which now serves over 7 miwwion poor Bangwadeshi women) has inspired de worwd,[citation needed] it has proved difficuwt to repwicate dis success. In nations wif wower popuwation densities, meeting de operating costs of a retaiw branch by serving nearby customers has proven considerabwy more chawwenging. Hans Dieter Seibew, board member of de European Microfinance Pwatform, is in favour of de group modew. This particuwar modew (used by many Microfinance institutions) makes financiaw sense, he says, because it reduces transaction costs. Microfinance programmes awso need to be based on wocaw funds.[24]
The history of microfinancing can be traced back as far as de middwe of de 1800s, when de deorist Lysander Spooner was writing about de benefits of smaww credits to entrepreneurs and farmers as a way of getting de peopwe out of poverty. Independentwy of Spooner, Friedrich Wiwhewm Raiffeisen founded de first cooperative wending banks to support farmers in ruraw Germany.[25]
The modern use of de expression "microfinancing" has roots in de 1970s when organizations, such as Grameen Bank of Bangwadesh wif de microfinance pioneer Muhammad Yunus, were starting and shaping de modern industry of microfinancing. Anoder pioneer in dis sector is Akhtar Hameed Khan, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Microfinance Standards and Principwes[edit]
Poor peopwe borrow from informaw moneywenders and save wif informaw cowwectors. They receive woans and grants from charities. They buy insurance from state-owned companies. They receive funds transfers drough formaw or informaw remittance networks. It is not easy to distinguish microfinance from simiwar activities. It couwd be cwaimed dat a government dat orders state banks to open deposit accounts for poor consumers, or a moneywender dat engages in usury, or a charity dat runs a heifer poow are engaged in microfinance. Ensuring financiaw services to poor peopwe is best done by expanding de number of financiaw institutions avaiwabwe to dem, as weww as by strengdening de capacity of dose institutions. In recent years dere has awso been increasing emphasis on expanding de diversity of institutions, since different institutions serve different needs.
Some principwes dat summarize a century and a hawf of devewopment practice were encapsuwated in 2004 by CGAP and endorsed by de Group of Eight weaders at de G8 Summit on June 10, 2004:[23]
- Poor peopwe need not just woans but awso savings, insurance and money transfer services.
- Microfinance must be usefuw to poor househowds: hewping dem raise income, buiwd up assets and/or cushion demsewves against externaw shocks.
- "Microfinance can pay for itsewf."[26] Subsidies from donors and government are scarce and uncertain and so, to reach warge numbers of poor peopwe, microfinance must pay for itsewf.
- Microfinance means buiwding permanent wocaw institutions.
- Microfinance awso means integrating de financiaw needs of poor peopwe into a country's mainstream financiaw system.
- "The job of government is to enabwe financiaw services, not to provide dem."[27]
- "Donor funds shouwd compwement private capitaw, not compete wif it."[27]
- "The key bottweneck is de shortage of strong institutions and managers."[27] Donors shouwd focus on capacity buiwding.
- Interest rate ceiwings hurt poor peopwe by preventing microfinance institutions from covering deir costs, which chokes off de suppwy of credit.
- Microfinance institutions shouwd measure and discwose deir performance—bof financiawwy and sociawwy.
Microfinance is considered a toow for socio-economic devewopment, and can be cwearwy distinguished from charity. Famiwies who are destitute, or so poor dey are unwikewy to be abwe to generate de cash fwow reqwired to repay a woan, shouwd be recipients of charity. Oders are best served by financiaw institutions.
Scawe of Microfinance Operations[edit]
No systematic effort to map de distribution of microfinance has yet been undertaken, uh-hah-hah-hah. A benchmark was estabwished by an anawysis of 'awternative financiaw institutions' in de devewoping worwd in 2004.[28] The audors counted approximatewy 665 miwwion cwient accounts at over 3,000 institutions dat are serving peopwe who are poorer dan dose served by de commerciaw banks. Of dese accounts, 120 miwwion were wif institutions normawwy understood to practice microfinance. Refwecting de diverse historicaw roots of de movement, however, dey awso incwuded postaw savings banks (318 miwwion accounts), state agricuwturaw and devewopment banks (172 miwwion accounts), financiaw cooperatives and credit unions (35 miwwion accounts) and speciawized ruraw banks (19 miwwion accounts).
Regionawwy, de highest concentration of dese accounts was in India (188 miwwion accounts representing 18% of de totaw nationaw popuwation). The wowest concentrations were in Latin America and de Caribbean (14 miwwion accounts representing 3% of de totaw popuwation) and Africa (27 miwwion accounts representing 4% of de totaw popuwation, wif de highest rate of penetration in West Africa, and de highest growf rate in Eastern and Soudern Africa [29] ). Considering dat most bank cwients in de devewoped worwd need severaw active accounts to keep deir affairs in order, dese figures indicate dat de task de microfinance movement has set for itsewf is stiww very far from finished.
By type of service, "savings accounts in awternative finance institutions outnumber woans by about four to one. This is a worwdwide pattern dat does not vary much by region, uh-hah-hah-hah."[30]
An important source of detaiwed data on sewected microfinance institutions is de MicroBanking Buwwetin, which is pubwished by Microfinance Information Exchange. At de end of 2009, it was tracking 1,084 MFIs dat were serving 74 miwwion borrowers ($38 biwwion in outstanding woans) and 67 miwwion savers ($23 biwwion in deposits).[31]
Anoder source of information regarding de environment of microfinance is de Gwobaw Microscope on de Microfinance Business Environment,[32] prepared by de Economist Intewwigence Unit (EIU), de Inter-American Devewopment Bank, and oders. The 2011 report contains information on de environment of microfinance in 55 countries among two categories, Reguwatory Framework and de Supporting Institutionaw Framework.[33] This pubwication, awso known as de Microscope, was first devewoped in 2007, focusing onwy on Latin America and de Caribbean, but by 2009, dis report had become a gwobaw study.[34]
As yet dere are no studies dat indicate de scawe or distribution of 'informaw' microfinance organizations wike ROSCA's and informaw associations dat hewp peopwe manage costs wike weddings, funeraws and sickness. Numerous case studies have been pubwished, however, indicating dat dese organizations, which are generawwy designed and managed by poor peopwe demsewves wif wittwe outside hewp, operate in most countries in de devewoping worwd.[35]
Hewp can come in de form of more and better-qwawified staff, dus higher education is needed for microfinance institutions. This has begun in some universities, as Owiver Schmidt describes. Mind de management gap
Microfinance in de United States and Canada[edit]
In Canada and de US, microfinance organizations target marginawized popuwations unabwe to access mainstream bank financing. Cwose to 8% of Americans are unbanked, meaning around 9 miwwion are widout any kind of bank account or formaw financiaw services.[36] Most of dese institutions are structured as nonprofit organizations.[37] Microwoans in de U.S. context is defined as de extension of credit up to $50,000.[38] In Canada, CRA guidewines restrict microfinance woans to a maximum of $25,000.[39] The average microfinance woan size in de US is US$9,732, ten times de size of an average microfinance woan in devewoping countries (US$973).[37]
Whiwe aww microfinance institutions aim at increasing incomes and empwoyment, in devewoping countries de empowerment of women, improved nutrition and improved education of de borrower's chiwdren are freqwentwy aims of microfinance institutions. In de US and Canada, aims of microfinance incwude de graduation of recipients from wewfare programs and an improvement in deir credit rating. In de US, microfinance has created jobs directwy and indirectwy, as 60% of borrowers were abwe to hire oders.[40] According to reports, every domestic microfinance woan creates 2.4 jobs.[41] These entrepreneurs provide wages dat are, on average, 25% higher dan minimum wage.[41] Smaww business woans eventuawwy awwow smaww business owners to make deir businesses deir primary source of income, wif 67% of de borrowers showing a significant increase in deir income as a resuwt of deir participation in certain micro-woan programs.[40] In addition, dese business owners are abwe to improve deir housing situation, 70% indicating deir housing has improved.[40] Uwtimatewy, many of de smaww business owners dat use sociaw funding are abwe to graduate from government funding.[40]
United States[edit]
In de wate 1980s, microfinance institutions devewoped in de United States. They served wow-income and marginawized minority communities. By 2007, dere were 500 microfinance organizations operating in de US wif 200 wending capitaw.[37]
There were dree key factors dat triggered de growf in domestic microfinance:
- Change in sociaw wewfare powicies and focus on economic devewopment and job creation at de macro wevew.
- Encouragement of empwoyment, incwuding sewf-empwoyment, as a strategy for improving de wives of de poor.
- The increase in de proportion of Latin American and Asian immigrants who came from societies where microenterprises are prevawent.
These factors incentivized de pubwic and private supports to have microwending activity in de United States.[37]
Microfinance in Canada took shape drough de devewopment of credit unions. These credit unions provided financiaw services to de Canadians who couwd not get access to traditionaw financiaw means. Two separate branches of credit unions devewoped in Canada to serve de financiawwy marginawized segment of de popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Awphonse Desjardins introduced de estabwishment of savings and credit services in wate 1900 to de Quebecois who did not have financiaw access. Approximatewy 30 years water Fader Moses Coady introduced credit unions to Nova Scotia. These were de modews of de modern institutions stiww present in Canada today.[42]
Efforts to transfer specific microfinance innovations such as sowidarity wending from devewoping countries to Canada have met wif wittwe success.[43]
Sewected microfinance institutions in Canada are:
Founded by Sandra Rotman in 2009, Rise is a Rotman and CAMH initiative dat provides smaww business woans, weases, and wines of credit to entrepreneurs wif mentaw heawf and/or addiction chawwenges.
Formed in 2005 drough de merging of de Civiw Service Savings and Loan Society and de Metro Credit Union, Awterna is a financiaw awternative to Canadians. Their banking powicy is based on cooperative vawues and expert financiaw advising.
- Access Community Capitaw Fund
Based in Toronto, Ontario, ACCESS is a Canadian charity dat hewps entrepreneurs widout cowwateraw or credit history find affordabwe smaww woans.
- Montreaw Community Loan Fund
Created to hewp eradicate poverty, Montreaw Community Loan Fund provides accessibwe credit and technicaw support to entrepreneurs wif wow income or credit for start-ups or expansion of organizations dat cannot access traditionaw forms of credit.
- Momentum
Using de community economic devewopment approach, Momentum offers opportunities to peopwe wiving in poverty in Cawgary. Momentum provides individuaws and famiwies who want to better deir financiaw situation take controw of finances, become computer witerate, secure empwoyment, borrow and repay woans for business, and purchase homes.
Founded in 1946, Vancity is now de wargest Engwish speaking credit union in Canada.
Compwications specific to Canada incwude de need for woans of a substantiaw size in comparison to de ones typicawwy seen in many internationaw microfinance initiatives. Microfinance is awso wimited by de ruwes and wimitations surrounding money-wending. For exampwe, Canada Revenue Agency wimits de woans made in dese sort of transactions to a maximum of $25,000. As a resuwt, many peopwe wook to banks to provide dese woans. Awso, microfinance in Canada is driven by profit which, as a resuwt, faiws to advance de sociaw devewopment of community members. Widin marginawized or impoverished Canadian communities, banks may not be readiwy accessibwe to deposit or take out funds. These banks which wouwd have charged wittwe or no interest on smaww amounts of cash are repwaced by wending companies. Here, dese companies may charge extremewy warge interest rates to marginawized community members dus increasing de cycwe of poverty and profiting off of anoder's woss (Ruderford, 2009).
In Canada, microfinancing competes wif pay-day woans institutions which take advantage of marginawized and wow-income individuaws by charging extremewy high, predatory interest rates. Communities wif wow sociaw capitaw often don't have de networks to impwement and support microfinance initiatives, weading to de prowiferation of pay day woan institutions. Pay day woan companies are unwike traditionaw microfinance in dat dey don't encourage cowwectivism and sociaw capitaw buiwding in wow income communities, however exist sowewy for profit.
Micro Finance on de Indian Subcontinent[edit]
Loans to poor peopwe by banks have many wimitations incwuding wack of security and high operating costs. As a resuwt, microfinance was devewoped as an awternative to provide woans to poor peopwe wif de goaw of creating financiaw incwusion and eqwawity.
Muhammad Yunus, a Nobew Prize winner, introduced de concept of Microfinance in Bangwadesh in de form of de "Grameen Bank". The Nationaw Bank for Agricuwture and Ruraw Devewopment (NABARD) took dis idea and started de concept of microfinance in India. Under dis mechanism, dere exists a wink between SHGs (Sewf-hewp groups), NGOs and banks. SHGs are formed and nurtured by NGOs and onwy after accompwishing a certain wevew of maturity in terms of deir internaw drift and credit operations are dey entitwed to seek credit from de banks. There is an invowvement from de concerned NGO before and even after de SHG-Bank winkage. The SHG-Bank winkage programme, which has been in pwace since 1992 in India, has provided about 22.4 wakh for SHG finance by 2006.[needs update] It invowves commerciaw banks, regionaw ruraw banks (RRBs) and cooperative banks in its operations.
In 2013, Grameen Capitaw India was abwe to woan $144 miwwion to microfinance groups. In addition to Grameen Bank, Eqwitas has been anoder microfinance organization in Tamiw Nadu. The Souf and Western states are de ones attracting de greatest number of microfinance woans.[44]
Microfinance is defined as, financiaw services such as savings accounts, insurance funds and credit provided to poor and wow income cwients so as to hewp dem increase deir income, dereby improving deir standard of wiving.
In dis context de main features of microfinance are:
- Loan given widout security
- Loans to dose peopwe who wive bewow de poverty wine
- Members of SHGs may benefit from micro finance
- Maximum wimit of woan under micro finance Rs.25,000/-
- Terms and conditions offered to poor peopwe are decided by NGOs
- Microfinance is different from Microcredit- under de watter, smaww woans are given to de borrower but under microfinance awongside many oder financiaw services incwuding savings accounts and insurance. Therefore, microfinance has a wider concept dan microcredit.
In June 2014, CRISIL reweased its watest report on de Indian Microfinance Sector titwed "India's 25 Leading MFI's".[45] This wist is de most comprehensive and up to date overview of de microfinance sector in India and de different microfinance institutions operating in de sub-continent.
Many woan officers in India create emotionaw connection wif borrowers before woan reaches maturity by mentioning detaiws about borrowers' personaw wife and famiwy and awso demonstrating affection in many different ways as a strategy to generate pressure during recovery.[46]
Incwusive financiaw systems[edit]
The microcredit era dat began in de 1970s has wost its momentum, to be repwaced by a 'financiaw systems' approach. Whiwe microcredit achieved a great deaw, especiawwy in urban and near-urban areas and wif entrepreneuriaw famiwies, its progress in dewivering financiaw services in wess densewy popuwated ruraw areas has been swow.
The new financiaw systems approach pragmaticawwy acknowwedges de richness of centuries of microfinance history and de immense diversity of institutions serving poor peopwe in devewoping worwd today. It is awso rooted in an increasing awareness of diversity of de financiaw service needs of de worwd's poorest peopwe, and de diverse settings in which dey wive and work.
Brigit Hewms in her book 'Access for Aww: Buiwding Incwusive Financiaw Systems', distinguishes between four generaw categories of microfinance providers, and argues for a pro-active strategy of engagement wif aww of dem to hewp dem achieve de goaws of de microfinance movement.[47]
- Informaw financiaw service providers
- These incwude moneywenders, pawnbrokers, savings cowwectors, money-guards, ROSCAs, ASCAs and input suppwy shops. Because dey know each oder weww and wive in de same community, dey understand each oder's financiaw circumstances and can offer very fwexibwe, convenient and fast services. These services can awso be costwy and de choice of financiaw products wimited and very short-term. Informaw services dat invowve savings are awso risky; many peopwe wose deir money.
- Member-owned organizations
- These incwude sewf-hewp groups, credit unions, and a variety of hybrid organizations wike 'financiaw service associations' and CVECAs. Like deir informaw cousins, dey are generawwy smaww and wocaw, which means dey have access to good knowwedge about each oder's financiaw circumstances and can offer convenience and fwexibiwity. Grameen Bank is a member-owned organization, uh-hah-hah-hah. Since dey are managed by poor peopwe, deir costs of operation are wow. However, dese providers may have wittwe financiaw skiww and can run into troubwe when de economy turns down or deir operations become too compwex. Unwess dey are effectivewy reguwated and supervised, dey can be 'captured' by one or two infwuentiaw weaders, and de members can wose deir money.
- NGOs
- The Microcredit Summit Campaign counted 3,316 of dese MFIs and NGOs wending to about 133 miwwion cwients by de end of 2006.[48] Led by Grameen Bank and BRAC in Bangwadesh, Prodem in Bowivia, Opportunity Internationaw, and FINCA Internationaw, headqwartered in Washington, DC, dese NGOs have spread around de devewoping worwd in de past dree decades; oders, wike de Gamewan Counciw, address warger regions. They have proven very innovative, pioneering banking techniqwes wike sowidarity wending, viwwage banking and mobiwe banking dat have overcome barriers to serving poor popuwations. However, wif boards dat don't necessariwy represent eider deir capitaw or deir customers, deir governance structures can be fragiwe, and dey can become overwy dependent on externaw donors.
- Formaw financiaw institutions
- In addition to commerciaw banks, dese incwude state banks, agricuwturaw devewopment banks, savings banks, ruraw banks and non-bank financiaw institutions. They are reguwated and supervised, offer a wider range of financiaw services, and controw a branch network dat can extend across de country and internationawwy. However, dey have proved rewuctant to adopt sociaw missions, and due to deir high costs of operation, often can't dewiver services to poor or remote popuwations. The increasing use of awternative data in credit scoring, such as trade credit is increasing commerciaw banks' interest in microfinance.[49]
Wif appropriate reguwation and supervision, each of dese institutionaw types can bring weverage to sowving de microfinance probwem. For exampwe, efforts are being made to wink sewf-hewp groups to commerciaw banks, to network member-owned organizations togeder to achieve economies of scawe and scope, and to support efforts by commerciaw banks to 'down-scawe' by integrating mobiwe banking and e-payment technowogies into deir extensive branch networks.
Microcredit and de Web[edit]
Due to de unbawanced emphasis on credit at de expense of microsavings, as weww as a desire to wink Western investors to de sector, peer-to-peer pwatforms have devewoped to expand de avaiwabiwity of microcredit drough individuaw wenders in de devewoped worwd. New pwatforms dat connect wenders to micro-entrepreneurs are emerging on de Web, for exampwe MYC4, Kiva, Zidisha, myELEN, Opportunity Internationaw and de Microwoan Foundation. Anoder Web-based microwender United Prosperity uses a variation on de usuaw microwending modew; wif United Prosperity de micro-wender provides a guarantee to a wocaw bank which den wends back doubwe dat amount to de micro-entrepreneur. In 2009, de US-based nonprofit Zidisha became de first peer-to-peer microwending pwatform to wink wenders and borrowers directwy across internationaw borders widout wocaw intermediaries.[50]
The vowume channewed drough Kiva's peer-to-peer pwatform is about $100 miwwion as of November 2009 (Kiva faciwitates approximatewy $5M in woans each monf). In comparison, de needs for microcredit are estimated about 250 bn USD as of end 2006.[51] Most experts agree dat dese funds must be sourced wocawwy in countries dat are originating microcredit, to reduce transaction costs and exchange rate risks.
There have been probwems wif discwosure on peer-to-peer sites, wif some reporting interest rates of borrowers using de fwat rate medodowogy instead of de famiwiar banking Annuaw Percentage Rate.[52] The use of fwat rates, which has been outwawed among reguwated financiaw institutions in devewoped countries, can confuse individuaw wenders into bewieving deir borrower is paying a wower interest rate dan, in fact, dey are.[citation needed] In de summer of 2017, widin de framework of de joint project of de Bank of Russia and Yandex, a speciaw check mark (a green circwe wif a tick and 'Реестр ЦБ РФ' (State MFO Register) text box) appeared in de search for Yandex system, informing de consumer dat de company's financiaw services are offered on de marked website, which has de status of a microfinance organization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[53]
Microfinance and Sociaw Interventions[edit]
There are currentwy a few sociaw interventions dat have been combined wif micro financing to increase awareness of HIV/AIDS. Such interventions wike de "Intervention wif Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Eqwity" (IMAGE) which incorporates microfinancing wif "The Sisters-for-Life" program a participatory program dat educates on different gender rowes, gender-based viowence, and HIV/AIDS infections to strengden de communication skiwws and weadership of women [54] "The Sisters-for-Life" program has two phases where phase one consists of ten one-hour training programs wif a faciwitator wif phase two consisting of identifying a weader amongst de group, train dem furder, and awwow dem to impwement an Action Pwan to deir respective centres.
Microfinance has awso been combined wif business education and wif oder packages of heawf interventions.[55] A project undertaken in Peru by Innovations for Poverty Action found dat dose borrowers randomwy sewected to receive financiaw training as part of deir borrowing group meetings had higher profits, awdough dere was not a reduction in "de proportion who reported having probwems in deir business".[56] Pro Mujer, a non-governmentaw organisation (NGO) wif operations in five Latin American countries, combines microfinance and heawdcare. This approach shows, dat microfinance can not onwy hewp businesses to prosper; it can awso foster human devewopment and sociaw security. Pro Mujer uses a "one-stop shop" approach, which means in one buiwding, de cwients find financiaw services, business training, empowerment advice and heawdcare services combined.[57]
According to technowogy anawyst David Garrity, Microfinance and Mobiwe Financiaw Services (MFS) have provided marginaw popuwations wif access to basic financiaw services, incwuding savings programs and insurance powicies.[58]
Impact and Criticism[edit]
Most criticisms of microfinance have actuawwy been criticisms of microcredit. Criticism focuses on de impact on poverty, de wevew of interest rates, high profits, overindebtedness and suicides. Oder criticism incwude de rowe of foreign donors and working conditions in companies affiwiated to microfinance institutions, particuwarwy in Bangwadesh.
The impact of microcredit is a subject of much controversy. Proponents state dat it reduces poverty drough higher empwoyment and higher incomes. This is expected to wead to improved nutrition and improved education of de borrowers' chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah. Some argue dat microcredit empowers women, uh-hah-hah-hah. In de US and Canada, it is argued dat microcredit hewps recipients to graduate from wewfare programs.
Critics say dat microcredit has not increased incomes, but has driven poor househowds into a debt trap, in some cases even weading to suicide. They add dat de money from woans is often used for durabwe consumer goods or consumption instead of being used for productive investments, dat it faiws to empower women, and dat it has not improved heawf or education, uh-hah-hah-hah. Moreover, as de access to micro-woans is widespread, borrowers tend to acqwire severaw woans from different companies, making it nearwy impossibwe to pay de debt back.[59] As a resuwt of such tragic events, microfinance institutions in India have agreed on setting an interest rate ceiwing of 15 percent.[60] This is important because microfinance woan recipients have a higher wevew of security in repaying de woans and a wower wevew of risk in faiwing to repay dem.
The avaiwabwe evidence indicates dat in many cases microcredit has faciwitated de creation and de growf of businesses. It has often generated sewf-empwoyment, but it has not necessariwy increased incomes after interest payments. In some cases it has driven borrowers into debt traps.[citation needed] There is no evidence dat microcredit has empowered women, uh-hah-hah-hah. In short, microcredit has achieved much wess dan what its proponents said it wouwd achieve, but its negative impacts have not been as drastic as some critics have argued. Microcredit is just one factor infwuencing de success of smaww businesses, whose success is infwuenced to a much warger extent by how much an economy or a particuwar market grows. For exampwe, wocaw competition in de area of wack of a domestic markets for certain goods can infwuence how successfuw smaww businesses who receive microcredit are.[citation needed]
Mission Drift in Microfinance[edit]
Mission drift refers to de phenomena drough which de MFIs or de micro finance institutions increasingwy try to cater to customers who are better off dan deir originaw customers, primariwy de poor famiwies. Roy Merswand and R. Øystein Strøm in deir research on Mission Drift suggest dat dis sewection bias can come not onwy drough an increase in de average woan size, which awwows for financiawwy stronger individuaws to get de woans, but awso drough MFI's particuwar wending medodowogy, main market of operation, or even de gender bias as furder mission drift measures.[61] And as it may fowwow, dis sewective funding wouwd wead to wower risks and wower costs for de firm.
However, economists Beatriz Armendáriz and Ariane Szafarz suggests dat dis phenomenon is not driven by cost minimization awone. She suggests dat it happens because of de interpway between de company's mission, de cost differentiaw between poor and unbanked weawdier cwients and region specific characteristics pertaining de heterogeneity of deir cwientewe.[62] But in eider way, dis probwem of sewective funding weads to an edicaw tradeoff where on one hand dere is an economic reason for de company to restrict its woans to onwy de individuaws who qwawify de standards, and on de oder hand dere is an edicaw responsibiwity to hewp de poor peopwe get out of poverty drough de provision of capitaw.
Rowe of foreign donors[edit]
The rowe of donors has awso been qwestioned. CGAP recentwy commented dat "a warge proportion of de money dey spend is not effective, eider because it gets hung up in unsuccessfuw and often compwicated funding mechanisms (for exampwe, a government apex faciwity), or it goes to partners dat are not hewd accountabwe for performance. In some cases, poorwy conceived programs have retarded de devewopment of incwusive financiaw systems by distorting markets and dispwacing domestic commerciaw initiatives wif cheap or free money."[63]
Working Conditions in Enterprises Affiwiated to MFIs[edit]
There has awso been criticism of microwenders for not taking more responsibiwity for de working conditions of poor househowds, particuwarwy when borrowers become qwasi-wage wabourers, sewwing crafts or agricuwturaw produce drough an organization controwwed by de MFI. The desire of MFIs to hewp deir borrower diversify and increase deir incomes has sparked dis type of rewationship in severaw countries, most notabwy Bangwadesh, where hundreds of dousands of borrowers effectivewy work as wage wabourers for de marketing subsidiaries of Grameen Bank or BRAC. Critics maintain dat dere are few if any ruwes or standards in dese cases governing working hours, howidays, working conditions, safety or chiwd wabour, and few inspection regimes to correct abuses.[64] Some of dese concerns have been taken up by unions and sociawwy responsibwe investment advocates.
In Nigeria cases of fraud have been reported. Dubious banks promised deir cwients outrageous interest rates. These banks were cwosed shortwy after cwients had deposited money and deir deposits were wost. The officiaws of Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation (NDIC) have warned customers about so-cawwed "wonder banks".[65] One initiative to prevent peopwe from depositing money to wonder banks is de mini-series "e go better" dat warns about de practices of dese wonder banks.[66]
See awso[edit]
- Awternative data
- Chit fund
- Credit union
- Crowd funding
- Market Governance Mechanisms
- Microcredit
- Microcredit for water suppwy and sanitation
- Microfin360 - MIS & AIS for MFI
- Microfinance in Tanzania
- Microfinance organizations
- Microgrant
- Microinsurance
- MifosX - MIS for MFI
- Opportunity finance
- Pawnbroker
- Rotating savings and credit association (ROSCA)
- Savings bank
- Assessment Fund
- Tikkun Owam Microfinance
- ^ Robert Peck Christen, Richard Rosenberg & Veena Jayadeva. Financiaw institutions wif a doubwe-bottom wine: impwications for de future of microfinance. CGAP Occasionaw Paper, Juwy 2004, pp. 2-3.
- ^ Feigenberg, Benjamin; Erica M. Fiewd; Rohan Pande. "Buiwding Sociaw Capitaw Through MicroFinance". NBER Working Paper No. 16018. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
- ^ Ruderford, Stuart; Arora, Sukhwinder (2009). The poor and deir money: micro finance from a twenty-first century consumer's perspective. Warwickshire, UK: Practicaw Action, uh-hah-hah-hah. p. 4. ISBN 9781853396885.
- ^ Hermes, N. (2014). Does microfinance affect income ineqwawity? Appwied Economics, 46(9), 1021-1034. doi:10.1080/00036846.2013.864039
- ^ Khandker, Shahidur R. (1999). Fighting poverty wif microcredit: experience in Bangwadesh. Dhaka, Bangwadesh: The University Press Ltd. p. 78. ISBN 9789840514687.
- ^ Wright, Graham A. N.; Mutesasira, Leonard K. (September 2001). "The rewative risks to de savings of poor peopwe". Smaww Enterprise Devewopment. Practicaw Action Pubwishing. 12 (3): 33–45. doi:10.3362/0957-1329.2001.031.
- ^ MacFarqwhar, Neiw (2010-04-13). "Banks Making Big Profits From Tiny Loans". The New York Times.
- ^ "Kiva Hewp - Interest Rate Comparison". Kiva.org. Retrieved October 10, 2009.
- ^ "About Microfinance". Kiva. Retrieved 2014-06-11.
- ^ Geoffrey Muzigiti; Owiver Schmidt (January 2013). "Moving forward". D+C Devewopment and Cooperation/ dandc.eu.
- ^ "Microfinance: Do de micro-woans contribute to de weww-being of de peopwe or do dey weave dem even poorer due to high interest rates?". Quora. Retrieved 2014-06-11.
- ^ Roodman, David. "Due Diwigence: An Impertinent Inqwiry Into Microfinance." Center for Gwobaw Devewopment, 2011.
- ^ Istazk, Lennon (4 Juwy 2014). "Awwes over een Kwein Bedrag Lenen, uh-hah-hah-hah.". Kwein bedrag wenen. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
- ^ Katic, Gordon (2013-02-20). "Micro-finance, Lending a Hand to de Poor?". Terry.ubc.ca. Retrieved 2014-06-11.
- ^ Bwyden, Sywvia. "BRAC ranked number one NGO in de worwd: Sierra Leone News". news.sw. Retrieved 2017-01-11.
- ^ "Brac ranks worwd's number one NGO | Dhaka Tribune". archive.dhakatribune.com. Retrieved 2017-01-11.
- ^ Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc. (2007-08-01). "MicroBanking Buwwetin Issue #15, Autumn, 2007, pp. 46,49". Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc. Retrieved 2010-01-15.
- ^ McKenzie, David (2008-10-17). "Comments Made at IPA/FAI Microfinance Conference Oct. 17 2008". Phiwandropy Action. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
- ^ Bruton, Chavez & Khavuw, G.D., H. & S. (2011). "Microwending in emerging economies:buiwding a new wine of inqwiry from de ground up". Journaw of Internationaw Business Studies. 42 (5): 718–739.
- ^ Bee, Bef (2011). "Gender, sowidarity and de paradox of microfinance: Refwections from Bowivia". Gender, Pwace & Cuwture. 18 (1): 23–43.
- ^ Ly & Mason, P. & G. (2012). "Individuaw preference over devewopment projects:evidence from microwending on Kiva". Vowuntas: Internationaw Journaw of Vowuntary and Non-Profit Organizations. 23 (4): 1036–1055.
- ^ Awwison, Davis, Short & Webb, T.H., B.C., J.C., & J.W. (2015). "Crowdfunding in a prosociaw microwending environment: examining de rowe of intrinsic versus extrinsic cues". Entrepreneurship. 39 (1): 53–73.
- ^ a b Hewms, Brigit (2006). Access for Aww: Buiwding Incwusive Financiaw Systems. Washington, D.C.: The Worwd Bank. ISBN 0-8213-6360-3.
- ^ [1] Archived December 14, 2011, at de Wayback Machine.
- ^ [2] Archived August 10, 2007, at de Wayback Machine.
- ^ Hewms (2006), p. xi
- ^ a b c Hewms (2006), p. xii
- ^ Robert Peck Christen, Richard Rosenberg & Veena Jayadeva. Financiaw institutions wif a doubwe-bottom wine: impwications for de future of microfinance. CGAP Occasionaw Paper, Juwy 2004.
- ^ MFW4A - Microfinance (2010-11-05). "MFW4A - Microfinance".
- ^ Christen, Rosenberg & Jayadeva. Financiaw institutions wif a doubwe-bottom wine, pp. 5-6
- ^ Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc. (2009-12-01). "MicroBanking Buwwetin Issue #19, December 2009, pp. 49". Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc.
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- ^ "Latin America tops Gwobaw Microscope Index on de microfinance business environment 2011". IDB. Retrieved June 19, 2012.
- ^ "Gwobaw Microscope on de Microfinance Business Environment 2011". IDB. Retrieved June 19, 2012.
- ^ See for exampwe Joachim de Weerdt, Stefan Dercon, Tessa Bowd and Awuwa Pankhurst, Membership-based indigenous insurance associations in Ediopia and Tanzania For oder cases see ROSCA. Archived Juwy 10, 2010, at de Wayback Machine.
- ^ "FDIC: 2011 FDIC Nationaw Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked Househowds". Fdic.gov. 2012-12-26. Retrieved 2014-06-11.
- ^ a b c d Powwinger, J. Jordan; Oudwaite, John; Cordero-Guzmán, Hector (1 January 2007). "The Question of Sustainabiwity for Microfinance Institutions". Journaw of Smaww Business Management. 45 (1): 23–41. doi:10.1111/j.1540-627X.2007.00196.x.
- ^ Hedgespef, Grady. "SBA Information Notice" (PDF). SBA.
- ^ "Registered Charities: Community Economic Devewopment Programs". Archived from de originaw on December 6, 2005.
- ^ a b c d Awterna (2010). "Strengdening our community by empowering individuaws.".
- ^ a b Harman, Gina (2010-11-08). "PM BIO Become a Fan Get Emaiw Awerts Bwoggers' Index How Microfinance Is Fuewing A New Smaww Business Wave". Huffington Post.
- ^ Reynowds, Chantewwe; Christian Novak (May 19, 2011). "Low Income Entrepreneurs and deir Access to Financing in Canada, Especiawwy in de Province of Quebec/City of Montreaw".
- ^ See for exampwe Cheryw Frankiewicz Cawmeadow Metrofund: a Canadian experiment in sustainabwe microfinance, Cawmeadow Foundation, 2001.
- ^ "Road to redemption". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2016-09-13.
- ^ Top Microfinance Institutions in India for 2014 CRISIL Report, June 2014.
- ^ Kar, S. (2013). Recovering debts: Microfinance woan officers and de work of "proxy-creditors" in India. Journaw of de American Ednowogicaw Society, 40(3), 480-493. doi:10.1111/amet.12034
- ^ Brigit Hewms. Access for Aww: Buiwding Incwusive Financiaw Systems. CGAP/Worwd Bank, Washington, 2006, pp. 35-57.
- ^ "''State of de Microcredit Summit Campaign Report 2007'', Microcredit Summit Campaign, Washington, 2007.". Microcreditsummit.org. 2006-12-31. Retrieved 2011-03-25.
- ^ Turner, Michaew, Robin Varghese, et aw. Information Sharing and SMME Financing in Souf Africa, Powiticaw and Economic Research Counciw (PERC), p58. Archived 2008-10-01 at de Wayback Machine.
- ^ "Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 Archived October 8, 2011, at de Wayback Machine.
- ^ Microfinance: An emerging investment opportunity. Deutsche Bank Research. December 19, 2007.
- ^ Waterfiewd, Chuck. Why We Need Transparent Pricing in Microfinance. MicroFinance Transparency. 11 November 2008. Archived March 25, 2009, at de Wayback Machine.
- ^ "Bank of Russia to mark microfinance organisations on de Internet | Банк России". www.cbr.ru. Retrieved 2017-08-18.
- ^ Kim, J.C., Watts, C. H., Hargreaves, J. R., Ndhwovu, L. X., Phetwa, G., Morison, L. A., et aw. (2007). Understanding de impact of a microfinance-based intervention of women's empowerment and de reduction of intimate partner viowence in Souf Africa. American Journaw of Pubwic Heawf.
- ^ Smif, Stephen C. (Apriw 2002). "Viwwage banking and maternaw and chiwd heawf: evidence from Ecuador and Honduras". Worwd Devewopment. Ewsevier. 30 (4): 707–723. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00128-0.
- ^ Karwan, Dean S.; Vawdivia, Martin (May 2011). "Teaching entrepreneurship: Impact of business training on microfinance cwients and institutions". The Review of Economics and Statistics. MIT Press. 93 (2): 510–527. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00074. Pdf.
- ^ Söwwe de Hiwari, Carowine (11 October 2013). "Microinsurance: Heawdy cwients" (Digitaw magazine). D+C Devewopment and Cooperation. Germany: Engagement Gwobaw – Service for Devewopment Initiatives. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
- ^ Garrity, David M. (2015-01-01). Technowogies for Devewopment. Springer, Cham. pp. 45–54. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16247-8_5.
- ^ Biswas, Soutik (December 16, 2010). "India's micro-finance suicide epidemic". [3], BBC News. Retrieved Juwy 15, 2015.
- ^ Sundaresan, S. (2008). Microfinance emerging trends and chawwenges (pp. 15-16). Chewtenham, UK: Edward Ewgar. 978-1847209207
- ^ Merswand, Roy; Strøm, R. Øystein (January 2010). "Microfinance mission drift?". Worwd Devewopment. Ewsevier. 38 (1): 28–36. doi:10.1016/j.worwddev.2009.05.006.
- ^ Armendáriz, Beatriz; Szafarz, Ariane (2011), "On mission drift in microfinance institutions", in Armendáriz, Beatriz; Labie, Marc, The handbook of microfinance, Singapore Hackensack, New Jersey: Worwd Scientific, pp. 341–366, ISBN 9789814295659.
- ^ Brigit Hewms. Access for Aww: Buiwding Incwusive Financiaw Systems. CGAP/Worwd Bank, Washington, 2006, p. 97.
- ^ Chowdhury, Farooqwe (June 24, 2007). "The metamorphosis of de micro-credit debtor". New Age. Dhaka. Archived from de originaw on Apriw 10, 2008.
- ^ "Avoid Wonder Banks, Use Licensed DMBs, NDIC Boss Warns Depositors".
- ^ "Issue 13 Post 2015 - Impwementation - Nigeria: Wonder Banks Debunked - Digitaw Devewopment Debates".
Furder reading[edit]
- Adams, Dawe W.; Graham, Dougwas H.; Von Pischke, J. D. (1984). Undermining ruraw devewopment wif cheap credit. Bouwder, Coworado and London: Westview Press. ISBN 9780865317680.
- Armendáriz, Beatriz; Morduch, Jonadan (2010) [2005]. The economics of microfinance (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262513982.
- Bateman, Miwford (2010). Why doesn't microfinance work? The destructive rise of wocaw neowiberawism. London: Zed Books. ISBN 9781848133327.
- Branch, Brian; Kwaehn, Janette (2002). Striking de bawance in microfinance: a practicaw guide to mobiwizing savings. Washington, DC: Pubwished by Pact Pubwications for Worwd Counciw of Credit Unions. ISBN 9781888753264.
- De Mariz, Frederic; Reiwwe, Xavier; Rozas, Daniew (Juwy 2011). Discovering Limits. Gwobaw Microfinance Vawuation Survey 2011, Washington DC: Consuwtative Group to Assist de Poor (CGAP) Worwd Bank.
- Dichter, Thomas; Harper, Mawcowm (2007). What's wrong wif microfinance. Rugby, Warwickshire, UK: Practicaw Action Pubwishing. ISBN 9781853396670.
- Dowwa, Asif; Barua, Dipaw (2006). The poor awways pay back: de Grameen II story. Bwoomfiewd, Connecticut: Kumarian Press Inc. ISBN 9781565492318.
- Fworo, Sagrario; Yotopouwos, Pan A. (1991). Informaw credit markets and de new institutionaw economics: de case of Phiwippine agricuwture. Bouwder, Coworado: Westview Press. ISBN 9780813381367.
- Gibbons, David S. (1994) [1992]. The Grameen reader. Dhaka, Bangwadesh: Grameen Bank. OCLC 223123405.
- Hirschwand, Madewine (2005). Savings services for de poor: an operationaw guide. Bwoomfiewd, Connecticut: Kumarian Press Inc. ISBN 9781565492097.
- Jafree, Sara Rizvi; Ahmad, Khawiw (December 2013). "Women microfinance users and deir association wif improvement in qwawity of wife: evidence from Pakistan". Asian Women. Research Institute of Asian Women (RIAW). 29 (4): 73–105. doi:10.14431/aw.2013.12.29.4.73.
- Khandker, Shahidur R. (1999). Fighting poverty wif microcredit: experience in Bangwadesh. Dhaka, Bangwadesh: The University Press Ltd. ISBN 9789840514687.
- Krishna, Sridhar (2008). Micro-enterprises: perspectives and experiences. Hyderabad, India: ICFAI University Press. OCLC 294882711.
- Ledgerwood, Joanna; White, Victoria (2006). Transforming microfinance institutions providing fuww financiaw services to de poor. Washington, DC Stockhowm: Worwd Bank MicroFinance Network Sida. ISBN 9780821366158.
- Mas, Ignacio; Kumar, Kabir (Juwy 2008). Banking on mobiwes: why, how, for whom? (Report). Washington, DC: Consuwtative Group to Assist de Poor (CGAP) Worwd Bank. SSRN 1655282 .
CGAP Focus Note, No. 48Pdf.
- O'Donohoe, Nick; De Mariz, Frederic; Littwefiewd, Ewizabef; Reiwwe, Xavier; Kneiding, Christoph (February 2009). Shedding Light on Microfinance Eqwity Vawuation: Past and Present, Washington DC: Consuwtative Group to Assist de Poor (CGAP), Worwd Bank.
- Rai, Achintya; et aw. (2012). Venture: a cowwection of true microfinance stories. Zidisha Microfinance.
(Kindwe E-Book)
- Raiffeisen, Friedrich Wiwhewm (audor); Engewmann, Konrad (transwator) (1970) [1866]. The credit unions (Die Darwehnskassen-Vereine). Neuwied on de Rhine, Germany: The Raiffeisen Printing & Pubwishing Company. OCLC 223123405.
- Robinson, Marguerite S. (2001). The microfinance revowution. Washington, D.C. New York: Worwd Bank Open Society Institute. ISBN 9780821345245.
- Roodman, David (2012). Due diwigence an impertinent inqwiry into microfinance. Washington DC: Center for Gwobaw Devewopment. ISBN 9781933286488.
- Seibew, Hans Dieter; Khadka, Shyam (2002). "SHG banking: a financiaw technowogy for very poor microentrepreneurs". Savings and Devewopment. Giordano Deww-Amore Foundation via JSTOR. 26 (2): 133–150. JSTOR 25830790.
- Sincwair, Hugh (2012). Confessions of a microfinance heretic: how microwending wost its way and betrayed de poor. San Francisco, Cawifornia: Berrett-Koehwer Pubwishers. ISBN 9781609945183.
- Ruderford, Stuart; Arora, Sukhwinder (2009). The poor and deir money: microfinance from a twenty-first century consumer's perspective. Warwickshire, UK: Practicaw Action, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 9781853396885.
- Wowff, Henry W. (1910) [1893]. Peopwe's banks: a record of sociaw and economic success (4f ed.). London: P.S. King & Son, uh-hah-hah-hah. OCLC 504828329.
- Sapovadia, Vrajwaw K. (2006). "Micro finance: de piwwars of a toow to socio-economic devewopment". Devewopment Gateway. Sociaw Science Research Network. SSRN 955062 .
- Sapovadia, Vrajwaw K. (19 March 2007). "Capacity buiwding, piwwar of micro finance". Sociaw Science Research Network. doi:10.2139/ssrn, uh-hah-hah-hah.975088.
- Sapovadia, M. (May 2013). "Microfinance and women's empowerment: a contemporary issues and chawwenges". Internationaw Journaw of Innovative Research & Studies (IJIRS). 2 (5): 590–606. Pdf.
- Maimbo, Samuew Munzewe; Rada, Diwip (2005). Remittances devewopment impact and future prospects. Washington, DC: Worwd Bank. ISBN 9780821357941.
- Wright, Graham A. N. (2000). Microfinance systems: designing qwawity financiaw services for de poor. London New York Dhaka: Zed Books. ISBN 9781856497879.
- United Nations Department of Economic and Sociaw Affairs; United Nations Capitaw Devewopment Fund (2006). Buiwding incwusive financiaw sectors for devewopment. New York, New York: United Nations. ISBN 9789211045611.
- Yunus, Muhammad (2007). Creating a worwd widout poverty: sociaw business and de future of capitawism. New York, New York: PubwicAffairs. ISBN 9781586484934.
- Yunus, Muhammad; Moingeon, Bertrand; Lehmann-Ortega, Laurence (Apriw 2010). "Buiwding sociaw business modews: wessons from de Grameen experience". Long Range Pwanning. Ewsevier. 43 (2–3): 308–325. doi:10.1016/j.wrp.2009.12.005. Pdf.
- Cooper, Logan (2015). "Smaww Loans, Big Promises, Unknown Impact: An Examination of Microfinance". The Apowwonian Revowt. Retrieved 31 Juwy 2015.
See awso[edit]
Externaw winks[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media rewated to Microfinance.


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Is it spring yet? No? Crap.
Living in the Midwest, one gets to deal with lots of, well, winter in the Winter months. Um, I'm done with that. Do you hear me, Mother Nature? D.O.N.E.! I am ready for a break from the cold and below zero temps. Just sayin.
On a cheerier note...it's time for another Action Wobble card! Have I mentioned that I love these wobbles? I have? THAT many times? Yikes. Must be I really love them! lol.
I decided I needed to make a cheer up kind of card this time. Needed to take a break from the Valentine's. So I went to my drawing board and pulled off one of my ideas and turned it into this card:
I used the bird from the 3 Birds on Parade cartridge and cut it at 3". The feathers are from a pack of feathers I had in my stash. And the background paper was created by me using Gelatos.
Now, because the feathers are curved, it doesn't wobble wildly. Just a gentle little shake. And I added a clear piece of acetate to be able to make it wobble. I wanted the tail feathers to be the only part wobbling, so I added a cardstock "bridge" over the Action Wobble so the bird body could be stationary in front.
I printed the sentiment using a label printer and cut the strip into pieces for a free-form style. For the inside of the card, I added a stamped sentiment which fit perfectly with the front.
Hope you enjoyed visiting me today. If you'd like to pick up some of these Action Wobbles for yourself, you can find them at The Scrapbooking Queen's site on Facebook. Want more inspiration? Visit the Action Wobbles Blog and join us for our Wobble Wednesday Challenges! Hope to see you there!
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
Home / Archive for January 2014
FCCB #195: Mix and Match
Happy Monday and welcome to another Monday Challenge with FCCB!
Challenge #95 Mix and Match
Use 3 different patterns of paper
Winner will receive the Funny Valentine stamp set
To qualify for the prize, be sure to use at least 1 Cricut cut on your project and,
if it's not obvious, let us know what cartridge you used.
What fun it was creating with so many patterns!
Here is my project, with a little Valentine's theme:
For my three (well, more like six) patterns, I created a background. I used a variety of patterned washi tapes on a black piece of cardstock, leaving just a small space between each piece.
The heart and key were cut from the Spring Fever Collection. I cut those at 3" on white cardstock.
To create the metallic look, I pressed each piece into a Versamark ink pad and heat embossed with metallic embossing powder.
I attached a metal plate to the cardstock with a couple of black brads and added a hand-written sentiment.
And there you have it. Hope you come play along with us. You can win some fabulous prizes!
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
The Robin's Nest - I'm Wild About You!
Time for another project for The Robin's Nest Design Team! And I have to say...not too sure about this one. The consensus of my family is that they thought it was cool, and they loved it. Me....not feeling it. BUT...I do love the papers I was working with! So that counts for something. Here is a sneaky peeky...
Now if you'd like to see the whole post and the full picture, head on over to The Robin's Nest. Let me know what you think.
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
Now if you'd like to see the whole post and the full picture, head on over to The Robin's Nest. Let me know what you think.
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
Sketch~N~Scrap Sketch Challenge #18
Thinking Spring!
It's time for another card sketch challenge at SNS and I am dreaming of SPRING! I look outside my window and still see oodles of snow and cold (although at least we are above zero these past few days). My mind can't help but wander to warmer times. So let me share a little greenery with you!
Here is the sketch we're playing with:
A short time ago, I purchased some absolutely gorgeous hand-made papers from Art Papers Online. And I am so pleased to finally be using them in some projects! Here is my card:
Isn't that paper lovely? I used some veined leaves and greenery that I also purchased at APO. I love those veined leaves...they are so delicate and shimmery. The vellum tag was adorned with a rub-on and a little ribbon.
For the inside of the card, I added a sentiment from Hot Off The Press and a little more handmade paper.
I would love for you to head over to SNS and see all the amazing cards designed by my teammates. They are sure to inspire you to play along with us! We have some great prizes this month by our sponsor, Skyline Paperie.
Hope I was able to share a little warmth with you today.
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
Be Mine Action Wobble Bug!
Today's post is all about cute and wiggly. Valentine's Day is approaching, so it's not too early to start on those cute little Valentine projects. I have for you today a sweet little card featuring an adorable bug with an Action Wobble. How cute is he?
Want to see him in action? Watch the video below:
This busy little guy was created using the Create A Critter cartridge. I cut the bug at 2-3/4", the heart with wings at 3", and the sentiment at 2.25" (I think). I used the Cricut line of papers. They cut so clean and nice. And what special Valentine would be complete without an Action Wobble?
After layering all my parts, I stamped the cardstock with a Stamps By Judith peg stamp and added some Stickles to the hearts and wings. I love how it turned out, and my granddaughter, Kaileigh (she's 3-1/2) thought it was the coolest thing ever. This one is for her little sister, so I guess I need to make one for her next.
Action Wobbles are so much fun. If you would like more information on purchase, click on the link below. I would love for you to visit the Action Wobbles Blog and see all the great projects the Design Team has to share. New projects are being posted all the time. And join us for the Wednesday Wobble Challenges.
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
Supplies used:
FCCB #193: Winter Fun
Warm Winter Wishes!!!
As I look outside my window and see the two feet of snow that we were blessed with here in the Mitten, I am
freezing inspired to create a wintery birthday card. And when I think of winter, I think of snow. When I think of snow, I think of penguins! This fun little guy from Create A Critter was perfect!
I cut the penguin and igloo at 2.75" and assembled them. The fishing pole and fish were cut at 2.25" and are from the Everyday Paper Dolls cartridge. A torn piece of cardstock for snow and a stamped sentiment complete this fun card.
And a closeup (don't you just adore those jiggle eyes!):
Come play along with FCCB for this weeks challenge! Head over there now to see all the fun projects from the Design Team. You will get lots of inspiration!
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
Carts used:
It's time for another weekly challenge over at the Fantabulous Cricut Challenge Blog.
Challenge #193
Winter Fun
Create a winter inspired project
Create a winter inspired project
Please visit the FCCB blog to see the other DT member projects and join in the challenge.
As I look outside my window and see the two feet of snow that we were blessed with here in the Mitten, I am
I cut the penguin and igloo at 2.75" and assembled them. The fishing pole and fish were cut at 2.25" and are from the Everyday Paper Dolls cartridge. A torn piece of cardstock for snow and a stamped sentiment complete this fun card.
And a closeup (don't you just adore those jiggle eyes!):
Come play along with FCCB for this weeks challenge! Head over there now to see all the fun projects from the Design Team. You will get lots of inspiration!
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
Carts used:
The Robin's Nest
Good Things Come In Three's!
I don't know if that's true or not, but I have three versions of a project to share with you today, and I think they're pretty good!
I am thrilled to be starting my second term with The Robin's Nest and I thank them so much for having me back! I look forward to sharing with you for the next six months, and hopefully you will be inspired to try some of the great projects the Design Team will be showcasing.
Ok, now that's said....here are my projects:
These 5"x6" calendars were so much fun to make. If you'd like to see more photos (including each individual calendar and close-ups of the embellishments) and information on how you can make these yourself, head on over to The Robin's Nest and see the complete post!
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
My First Sketch Challenge as a DT Member with SNS!And I am so geeked! Each month, Sketch~N~Scrap posts layouts on their blog for both scrapbooks and cards. If you are feeling stuck or uninspired, I urge you to check out their blog. You will find inspiration and ideas in abundance. The Design Team is amazing!
The first card sketch of January was designed by Kelly Holifield.
Here is my interpretation:
I chose kraft cardstock in a couple different shades. The floral and sentiment stamps are from Hot Off The Press, and the french script stamp is from Stampin' Up. For the inside of the card, I kept it simple:
I like this card because it can be for a man or a woman.
Now it is your turn! Head over to Sketch~N~Scrap and play along for a chance at this months amazing prize! We have an amazing sponsor to kick off the New Year! January's sponsor is Skyline Paperie! Stephanie Ho is the owner and one of our very own Design Team members! Stephanie opened Skyline Paperie this past December and is offering up a wonderful prize full of crafty goodies to one randomly selected winner!
For more details and inspiration, go visit Sketch~N~Scrap.
And, til next time, keepin' it crafty!
Let It Snow...Let It Snow...Let It Snow!
Happy Winter!Is it cold enough for you? For those of us in the upper Midwest, all I can say is "brrrrrrr!" Here in my neck of the woods (Michigan), we have had about 8" in the past couple of days. I like how clean and white it makes everything look, but BOY is it cold!
In honor of all this blustery-ness (is that a word?), I made a very wintery card for my very first post as a Design Team Member for Action Wobbles. I've been using these wobbles for quite some time now, and they are always just so much darn fun!
I embossed some vellum using an Anna Griffin folder and adhered that to my card base. I tore some white cardstock for the snow and cut the cute little snowman using my Silhouette Cameo. I also used the Silhouette to cut the sentiment. I hand-drew the face and lettering on his sign. The snowdude was then placed on my card using the Action Wobble.
That's what really gives him his character!
He shakes just like I do when I go outside! lol For the inside of the card, I just kept it simple.
If you'd like to see more ideas on how you can use these wonderful wobbles, head over to the Action Wobbles blog and check out all the cute projects.
Want to know where YOU can get some of these for your own? Just visit HERE!
I hope you will join us for the weekly Wednesday Wobble Challenge.
Til next time, keepin' it crafty!
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All videos, photos, text and artwork on this blog are property of Ro Donner and Toodle Noodle Creative, unless otherwise labeled for Design Team projects. They are posted for your enjoyment and inspiration. If you do find inspiration here, and add it to your design, please give credit where credit is due, and post a link back. Please do not sell, reproduce, submit for competition, challenges or for publication without my permission. Thank you!

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Download Haunt the House: Terrortown for android
Additional information:
Developer: SFB Games
Rating: 4.3 stars
Votes: 1,183
Updated: November 12, 2014
Category: Action
Installs: 10,000 - 50,000
Size: 49M
Game Haunt the House: Terrortown for android is one of the most interesting games Action! Download it over 10,000 - 50,000 people, putting rating 4.3 stars. Last update of the game was November 12, 2014, its upgrade to version 1.0.5.
What's New:
General performance optimisation
Do you have 49M of free memory on your phone or tablet? Great! This game requires just 49M of free memory! Requires Android 2.3 and up - do not forget about it! What Are the Age Requirements? Content Rating: Low Maturity!
Video Reviews:
Well, if you have not downloaded the Haunt the House: Terrortown for android, we recommend you to download now for a direct link! What to remember: size 49M, content rating Low Maturity, version 1.0.5, updated November 12, 2014, report SFB Games, Requires Android 2.3 and up and rating of the game 4.3 stars!
Maybe you want to download EPOCH on android? Or how about download Guardians of the Galaxy: TUW on android? Good Luck My Friend!


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Social Circles
Social Circles
During summer we focus on building relationships and connecting with each other socially. As events are being planned you may find links to more information. "CCB Events" are where you can let event organizers know you plan to attend. If there is not specific information for that event listed, email Laura Clark to express your interest to particpate or learn more. Please check back to view updates to this page. You may suggest additional events using this online form.


text: Steven Rogers James Barnes Margaret Carter Chester Phillips John Flynn Daniel Sousa Jack Thompson (Earth-199999) Ray Krzeminski Pages in category "SSR Agents" The following 16 pages are in this category, out of 16 total. B James BarnesC Margaret Carter CorcoranF Fisher John FlynnK Ray Krzeminski L Mike LiM MessnerP Chester PhillipsR Rick Ramirez Reese Steven Rogers S Daniel SousaT Jack Thompson (Earth-199999)W Butch WallaceY Yauch Retrieved from "http://marvel-movies.wikia.com/wiki/Category:SSR_Agents?oldid=100049" Ad blocker interference detected! Wikia is a free-to-use site that makes money from advertising. We have a modified experience for viewers using ad blockers Wikia is not accessible if you've made further modifications. Remove the custom ad blocker rule(s) and the page will load as expected. Categories: Agents Characters by team S.H.I.E.L.D. Agents