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As members of the Embedded Tools Alliance, PEmicro and SOMNIUM share a focus on producing tools of the highest quality that are proven to work together and do exactly what's required, so that the customer can concentrate on their development work. SOMNIUM DRT products are 100% industry compatible, with unique benefits for developers working with ARM® Cortex® devices from Microchip, STMicroelectronics and NXP, with support for others (including Nordic Semiconductor) coming soon. Developers using DRT can reach the market faster, with higher performance, greater energy efficiency and more profitable designs.
PEmicro offers three USB Multilink debug probes, each with different features or device support. In this video, Edison Tam offers a brief overview of our Multilinks to help users decide which Multilink would be best suited to their project.
There comes a time when an embedded application becomes complex enough that it requires an operating system. This may be because of a need for rich driver libraries, or a sophisticated task scheduling engine. In either case, a developer needs an equally sophisticated debugger to provide invaluable context information of their application. To that end, PEmicro introduced OS-aware debugging in its GDB Server for ARM devices. Initial support is available now for FreeRTOS, with further OS modules to be developed. PEmicro's GDB Server for ARM devices is available for download at no cost and works with PEmicro Multilink, Cyclone, and OpenSDA hardware interfaces.
PEmicro's GDB server can be installed directly into an Eclipse based IDE from an update site on PEmicro's website. This adds the ability to debug via PEmicro's Multilink, Cyclone, and OpenSDA hardware interfaces via the standard GDB debugger. Features include flash programming, breakpoints, watchpoints, trim, memory preservation, real-time variables, semi-hosting, and more. PEmicro periodically updates the plugins on its website with new device support, new features, and bug fixes.
PEmicro is pleased to announce that support has been added to its products for files using version 3 and version 4 of the ELF/DWARF format. This is in addition to existing support for ELF/DWARF version 2 and includes both debug and object information handling. Support for 64-bit objects and structures within the ELF/DWARF files has also been added. Support for these additional file formats is available today in PEmicro's debug, flash programming, and test products.
PEmicro has further expanded its ARM® device support by today announcing support for Cypress' PSoC® 4 and Toshiba's TX00/TX03/TX04 processors. Users of PEmicro's Cyclone for ARM devices production programmer will be able to take advantage of this support to work with these Cypress and Toshiba ARM devices.
Cypress' PSoC® 4 are very low-power 32-bit ARM Cortex®-M0 devices that can integrate analog and digital ICs. Toshiba's TX00, TX03, and TX04 represent a selection of ARM® Cortex®-M devices that, collectively, offer high energy efficiency, high-precision analog functions, high code density, fast interrupt response times, and DSP extensions.
Users may visit pemicro.com/arm to check whether their specifc device is supported.
ARM and Cortex are registered trademarks of ARM Limited or its subsidiaries. PSoC is a registered trademark of Cypress Semiconductor Corporation.
P&E continues to expand on its line of all-in-one interfaces with the launch of the high-speed USB Multilink Universal FX. Like P&E's original all-in-one interface, the USB Multilink Universal, the new USB Multilink Universal FX supports a varirety of Freescale MCUs, including: Kinetis, Qorivva 55xx/56xx, ColdFire V1/ColdFire+ V1, ColdFire V2-4, HC(S)12(X), HCS08, RS08, Power Architecture PX Series, and DSC. However the new FX interface can download at speeds up to 10x faster and can provide power to the target processor, among other enhancements.
The new USB Multilink Universal FX is natively supported by recent versions of CodeWarrior®, current P&E software applications, and toolchains from many Freescale partners including Keil and Cosmic.
More information about the USB Multilink Universal FX is available on the product page at P&E's website.
presented its new USB Multilink Universal, an ALL-IN-ONE development interface, at the recent Freescale Momentum conference. The revolutionary ALL-IN-ONE interface concept
was very well received by conference attendees. USB Multilink Universal is a single interface that supports Freescale's HCS08, RS08, HC(S)12(X), Coldfire V1/+V1/V2-V4, Qorivva
MPC55xx/56xx, and Kinetis ARM microcontrollers. Thus, it eliminates the need to
purchase different hardware interfaces to support specific devices that belong to those MCU families.
P&E also previewed two upcoming products: the USB Multilink
Universal FX and Tracelink. The USB Multilink Universal FX is an enhanced, very
high-speed version of the USB Multilink Universal. The Tracelink interface will support
trace capture for 32 bit Freescale device architectures.
New! Follow us on Twitter at twitter.com/pemicro!
P&E has released its groundbreaking new USB Multilink Universal all-in-one interface. The USB Multilink Universal is an economical, reliable USB-to-target interface that uses multiple headers to support Freescale's HCS08, RS08, HC(S)12(X), ColdFire V1/+V1 & V2-4, Qorivva MPC55xx/56xx, and Kinetis ARM microcontrollers. The USB Multilink Universal includes multiple ribbon cables to allow connections to the various supported devices. The USB Multilink Universal's case simply flips open for easy access to the headers.
It is supported by P&E software, in addition to Freescale's Codewarrior and software from other third party vendors. A configuration utility is available on P&E's website which allows configuration of the USB Multilink Universal for use with older software packages.
P&E is also developing the USB Multilink Universal FX, an enhanced, high-speed version of the USB Multilink Universal interface.
This video provides a brief comparison of the features of two popular P&E hardware interfaces, the USB BDM Multilink and the Cyclone PRO. This overview is intended to help users determine which interface is best suited for their project. More information about each interface can be found on the USB-ML-12 and Cyclone PRO product pages.
P&E is pleased to announce that 64-bit Windows support has arrived, including support for Windows 7. P&E software has been upgraded to work under Windows 7 (and other Windows 64-bit operating systems) by using the latest version of our drivers - P&E Hardware Interface Drivers 10. There is no need to worry about P&E software compatibility if you're migrating to a Windows 64-bit OS at home or in the office.
P&E is committed to ensuring a smooth transition to these newer operating sytems for our customers. Customers who have purchased P&E software within the last 12 months can contact us for a free ugprade. Customers who have purchased software between 12 and 24 months ago are eligible to upgrade by purchasing the latest version of the software at a 50% discount from the full price.
Unfortunately, due to OS and hardware driver limitations, P&E legacy products such as USB-ML-12 Rev. A, USB-ML-CF Rev A, the BDM Lightning Card and also parallel port versions of our programmers are not supported under Windows 7 and 64-bit systems. However, we are committed to supporting these products under 32-bit operating systems such as Windows 98/2000/XP/Vista by continuing to offer Version 9 of our P&E Hardware Interface Drivers. These can be downloaded from the Documentation and Downloads section of P&E's website, or directly at the following link:
We're pleased to announce the release of our latest device drivers. This update includes support for Microsoft Windows XP, Vista, and Windows 7 Operating Systems for both 32-bit and 64-bit architectures, as well as some minor bug fixes.To get started using the drivers:
Run the file drivers_10_install.exe. If you have an older version of our drivers installed, the setup will automatically perform the update.
NOTE: The latest drivers no longer include support for Windows 98 and ME, but P&E will continue to make our older drivers available. Support for PCI devices (e.g., BDM Lightning) and Parallel port devices has been removed for Windows Vista and later, as well as all 64-bit operating systems.P&E drivers allow P&E applications to communicate with P&E hardware via the parallel port, PCI bus, Ethernet, Serial, and USB.
Certain test procedures and production environments
require the use of a cable longer than the typical 9-inch flat ribbon cable
typically included with P&E hardware interfaces. Extending the cable length
requires special considerations for signal integrity, crosstalk, and
electromagnetic interference. Simply using a longer cable without understanding
these topics will usually produce a setup that does not work reliably, if at
all. Extending the ribbon cable should be the option only if you determine that you cannot make longer the length of the USB, Ethernet, or Serial cable that connects the P&E hardware interface to your PC. The cables for the communication ports already have some shielding.
If it
is necessary to use a longer ribbon cable, P&E recommends using a shielded jacketed cable . This cable configuration is excellent at
reducing crosstalk as well as minimizing electromagnetic interference from
other devices. Further improvement can be obtained if the wires are also arranged
in twisted pairs.
Shielded USB cables are inexpensive and easy to rework. The
four wires provided can be used to create a cable for the standard 6-pin BDM
header used by many Freescale microprocessors (such as the HCS08, RS08, CFV1, and HCS12). But this option won't work for other devices that require more debug pins.
In general, these guidelines should be followed for all cables between the target microprocessor and the P&E hardware interface:
P&E's UNIT Library Interface Routines for the 68HC16 now support the USB Multilink Interface for the 68HC16 architecture. The UNIT Library comes in the form of a DLL with example interface code for Microsoft Visual Studio as well as Borland Delphi. All the calls in the DLL are documented so that other development environments can also access the calls.
The UNIT library allows a customer to create a Windows application on the PC which directly controls the target 68HC16 processor via one of P&E's hardware interfaces (the CABLE1632 Parallel Port Interface and now additionally the USB Multilink Interface). Using the library, the Windows application can reset the 68HC16 processor, read/write memory, load code, step, run, and much more! The libary is perfect for creating test, update, and diagnostic applications.
Unit libraries are available for most all Freescale architectures. Details can be seen here.
P&E offers a set of In-Circuit Debuggers that are packed with powerful scripting features. Whether you are stepping through a couple of lines of assembly code or debugging a C-level source, P&E's toolset can help you get the job done. P&E's In-Circuit Debuggers are designed with repeatable test and debugging procedures in mind. Therefore, the user can completely automate software tests by creating a macro script and saving the outcome in a log file. As a result, the user can avoid hours of repeatedly setting up software and firmware tests. Here's a small demonstration of how the built in macro commands can be used to create and perform a repeatable firmware test on a 9S08AW60 processor. We'll be working with a simple assembly loop that's designed to toggle Port A every 20 CPU cycles. Please note that while the example below will be based on ICDHCS08 debugger, the same set of macro commands is present in all P&E debuggers. For a complete set of built-in macro features, please refer to the ICD COMMANDS section in the corresponding ICDxx.hlp file.Source under test: RAMSTART equ $70 Org RAMSTART Main: mov #$ff,$01 ; ptadd mov #$ff,$00 ; ptad lda #$ffLoop: mov #$00,$00 ; 4 cycles nop nop nop nop nop nop mov #$ff,$00 ; 4 cycles nop nop jmp loop ; 4 cyclesThe macro outlined below will load our loop_example.s19 and .map files. At the same time it will set the program counter, set the breakpoints, and initialize variables. As the code executes, it will also capture the contents of the desired registers as well as the contents of all on-screen windows. All information will in turn be stored in a log file for later comparison and analysis:
Boston, MA
- P&E Microcomputer Systems announces that it has extended the support
of its PowerPC Nexus tools to include Freescale's new MPC56XX devices.
This set of in-circuit debuggers, FLASH programmers, and hardware debug
interfaces now supports both MPC55xx and MPC56xx devices, offering a
comprehensive solution for Freescale's advanced automotive microprocessors.
Boston, MA
- P&E Microcomputer Systems announces the release of the DEMOJM
development board, available through Freescale. The DEMOJM is a low-cost
development system that supports Freescale MC9S08JM60 and MCF51JM128
64LQFP microcontrollers. It consists of a DEMOJM Base Board, a DC9S08JM60
Daughter Card and a DC51JM128 Daughter Card. P&E's Embedded Multilink
circuitry on the DEMOJM board allows the processor connected to the
DEMOJM to be powered, debugged, and programmed via USB from a PC.
Boston, MA
- P&E Microcomputer Systems announces the release of the DEMOQE128
development board, a low-cost development system designed for demonstrating,
evaluating, and debugging the Freescale MC9S08QE128 and MCF51QE128 microcontrollers.
P&E's Multilink circuitry is embedded onto the DEMOQE128 board
so that it can be powered, programmed, and debugged via USB from the
PC. An optional BDM port is provided to allow use of an external BDM
interface such as P&E's Cyclone PRO automated programmer or USB
Massachusetts - P&E has released a suite of development tools for
Freescale's 68RS08 family of microcontrollers. With this launch,
P&E now offers products to take an RS08 project from development to
production, including the DEVRS08KA2 low-cost development board and
P&E's popular Cyclone PRO.
addition to the DEVRS08KA2 development board, P&E has also launched
the ICDRS08 In-Circuit Debugger, PROG08 Flash/EEPROM Programmer,
WinIDERS08 Development Envirionment, and a package which combines the
USB-ML-12E USB Multilink BDM Interface with the RS08 debugger,
programmer, and IDE. The package also includes an RS08 simulator and
register files.
RS08 family of microcontrollers are reduced-core versions of the S08
architecture, designed with a focus on very small and highly portable
embedded devices.
Boston, Massachusetts - P&E
Microcomputer Systems announces the release of the powerful but
cost-effective $99 ColdFire MCF5213 Development Kit. This kit includes
the DEV5213CF evaluation board, which features an embedded P&E USB
to BDM interface. The embedded interface provides for easy debug and
FLASH programming of the resident ColdFire MCF5213 processor. The
resident MCF5213 device is a 32-bit ColdFire processor which
incorporates 256KB of flash, 32KBytes of ram, ADC, QSPI, PWMs, timers,
a PLL, I2c, QSPI, and more. The processor runs at a system clock speed
of up to 80MHZ, with 76MIPS of performance.
64K Starter Edition of the P&E's PKGCFZPRO software development
package is also incorporated into the MCF5213 kit. This software suite
provides user with the capability to compile, debug, and flash program
up to 64KB of user C code. This software suite includes the P&E
In-Circuit Debugger, Flash Programmer, and WinIDE integrated
environment, with a built-in GCC Compiler. The 64K Starter Edition also
includes a sample template project to give you a jump start on an
interrupt driven firmware design.
Product testing is a critical yet often complex and expensive
process. Taking advantage of embedded processors with on-chip debug
capability has made it easier to complete a simple internal test of a
product. The following explains how you can take advantage of these
capabilities to create your own product test. We'll examine these four
areas to improve your testing process:
Continue reading this Expert's Corner...
Boston, Massachusetts— P&E Microcomputer
Systems announced the availability of two new USB Multilink interface
cables. The first is the USB-ML-PPCNEXUS, a JTAG/BDM interface for
Freescale MPC55xx devices. The second is the USB-ML-16/32, a BDM
interface for Freescale 68HC16/683xx devices. Both new interfaces
connect from the USB port of a Windows-based PC to the target. P&E
offers these new USB Multilink interfaces individually, or packaged
with software (debugger, programmer, IDE) as part of a development kit.
Boston, Massachusetts - P&E
Microcomputer Systems has expanded its offering of 68HC908 development
kits, with the addition of five new kits. Each new kit features a
development board with one of Freescale's 68HC908EY16, -GR8, -GZ60,
-SR12, or -QY4 processors, and a standard MON08 header. The kits also
include a USB-to-target MON08 interface (USB-ML-MON08) and P&E's
PKG08SZ software package.
also announced plans to offer development boards and kits featuring the
-AP64, -GT16, -KX8, -MR8, -QC16 in the near future.
Massachusetts— P&E Microcomputer Systems announces the launch of a
PRO development suite for ColdFire 5xxx devices. With the PRO suite,
P&E looks to expand on the success of its PKGCFZ, a popular,
cost-effective Windows-based development suite for the
Motorola/Freescale MCF5xxx microcontrollers. The PRO version now
represents a comprehensive solution for developing with either the C
language or assembly language. The GCC component of the PKGCFZ_PRO
simplifies development:
PRO ColdFire packages are available in both parallel port and USB versions.
PEmicro. proudly annouces the release of a wide
range of development boards and kits for the M68HC908. PEmicro is now
offering affordably priced development boards for the M68HC908AB32,
-GP32, -GZ16, -JL8, -MR32, and -QY4. These boards are available
individually or as a set of all six. In addition, PEmicro is bundling
the boards with the MON08 Multilink, USB-ML-MON08, or Cyclone PRO
interfaces, providing the user with powerful yet inexpensive
development solutions right out of the box.
The development boards feature:
PEmicro also offers the boards as part of development kits, which include one of the following MON08 interfaces:
Massachusetts— P&E Microcomputer Systems continues to expand its
offering of USB Multilink BDM Interfaces by proudly announcing the
release of two new interfaces for the ColdFire and PowerPC families.
The USB-ML-CF is a USB-port-to-target BDM interface for the ColdFire
MCF52xx/53xx/54xx families of processors. P&E has also released the
USB-ML-PPCBDM, which is a USB-port-to-target BDM interface for the 5xx/8xx families of PowerPC devices. Both new USB Multilink BDM interfaces feature:
interface from PC to Multilink for fast programming and debugging, with
the ease and compatibility of the USB interface. Higher download rate
is over 3x faster than P&E's parallel port cable.
Wide target operating voltage of 1.80v-5.25v.
No separate power supply required - power is drawn from the USB interface (draws less than 1mA from the target)
As always, P&E is offering these powerful new tools at an affordable price. Please see the USB-ML-CF and USB-ML-PPCBDM product
pages on P&E's website for more detail.P&E Microcomputer
Systems, Inc., established in 1980 and located in Boston, MA, is an
industry trendsetter in hardware and software development tools for
Motorola / Freescale microcontrollers.


text:
Center-Authored Papers
Filters: Keyword is Basic Sciences Division and Keyword is February 2013 [Clear All Filters]
Birth, decay, and reconstruction of an ancient TRIMCyp gene fusion in primate genomes.. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110(7):E583-92. Abstract. 2013.
Association of maternal smoking during pregnancy with infant hospitalization and mortality due to infectious diseases.. The Pediatric infectious disease journal. 32(1):e1-7. Abstract. 2013.
Spatial regulation of VEGF receptor endocytosis in angiogenesis.. Nature cell biology. 15(3):249-60. Abstract. 2013.
Dual regulation of Myc by Abl.. Oncogene. 32(45):5261-71. Abstract. 2013.
Synaptic vesicles position complexin to block spontaneous fusion.. Neuron. 77(2):323-34. Abstract. 2013.
Doing Business with Arnold Library
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
"I am concerned about their injuries. They should stay fit and that will be a big plus for them," Kapil told newspersons in Kolkata.
India's pace spearhead Zaheer Khan missed out on two Tests and the entire tri-series in Australia due to a hamstring problem, while seamer Ashish Nehra has been known to be prone to injuries.
"These players are in their twenties. They should take care of their food habits and lifestyle and not get carried away," the former Indian captain said, adding that "twenty is a very dangerous age, at this age people feel they can conquer the world and climb the highest mountains. In doing so they overwork and hurt their fragile bodies."
Asked what could be in store for players in Pakistan, Kapil said "what I have tried to do is to make them aware of certain aspects. Nothing should surprise them, they are expected to play cricket there and they should play it with all their passion and might."
On the pressure factor of playing the high voltage series, Dev said that the players should fully concentrate on the game and enjoy their cricket during the tour to overcome the problem.
"There is no question of pressure, they should go out and enjoy the game. Bowl with your chest out and everything else will be all right, there is no time for anything else if one focuses on cricket. They have to win and that's all that matters," he said.
The cricketing legend also exhorted the Indian players not to adopt a soft approach and curb their natural aggression during their Pakistan trip, which is being held as a 'Goodwill Tour'.
"People who require to be good will be good, players need to win the series for themselves and the country. This is a matter of life and death for these boys," he said.
"It's a question of their career, they should give everything and win it for their country'', Dev added. Asked about the advice that he had given to the leading Indian pacers as also the promising ones, Dev said, "I only want to pep them up and explain what I know. I am trying to build them up psychologically."
Dev said that he had not tried to introduce any big changes, as the duration of the conditioning camp was too short. "There is no chance of bringing about big changes in three days, I just want to give them more confidence and prepare them for the series."
Asked whom he would rate as the most talented pacer in the country, Dev said, "All those who play for the country are talented. There is no one who is bigger or smaller."


text:
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This city hotel was built in 1989, offers comfortable bedrooms, state of the art Health and Fitness Club, fantastic restaurant, great pub, welcoming cafe, Healthworks wellness and beauty, The Hub meeting and conference centre, Village live party nights and a Velocity Fitness Shop. Additionally free WIFI throughout and over 300 free car parking spaces making this the perfect place for business or leisure
Located beside a main road, approx 200 m from M62 J6 and M57 J1. Whiston train station is 4.827 km and Lime Street station is 14.481 km away. Liverpool John Lennon Airport is 12.872 km away.
The en suite rooms are congenially furnished and equipped, include large walk-in shower. Some rooms have bath and shower. All rooms have table, chairs, 27 inch plasma TV with satellite channels, free Wi-Fi, air conditioning, desk lamp, telephone, hairdryer, iron, ironing board, tea and coffee making facilities.
The hotel features an indoor 20 m pool, Village Health and Fitness Club is a full size state of the art health and over seventy pieces of Technogym equipment plus a spinning room, aerobics studio plus personal trainer programmes. Children must be accompanied by an adult in the health and fitness club and children's swimming times apply.
Guests may select dishes from the set menu in Verve grill stylish restaurant, fabulous food and service to match, serving an enticing range of dishes and an unrivalled selection of stunning steaks. Victory pub & kitchen serves delicious pub grub and has a fantastic range of nine delicious burgers to choose from. It's a classic sports bar with luxury furnishings and big screen entertainment.
MasterCard, American Express, JCB and Visa is accepted for guarantee. Maestro debit card is accepted for payment only.
By Car: From the north and south - From the M62, exit at J6. Take the second road on your left which is Fallows Way and the hotel is located on your left hand side.
Early check in and late check out available. Please contact the hotel directly.
Room Facilities:
Direct dial telephone
Satellite cable TV
Internet access
Tea Coffee
Iron and board
Central heating
Wheelchair accessible


text:
The InceptionFavorites [+]
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Running Time: 110 minutes
Released: 06/2006
Studio Name: VCA
Director: Malachi Ecks
Description: Director Malachi Ecks leads us on an extraordinary journey into depravity. From light to dark, pure to wicked, romantic to filthy and back again! Sexual desires and fantasies are played out in twisted sexual vignettes.
5 Scenes from The Inception
The Inception: Scene 1 Free Preview
Sex Acts: Vaginal Sex, Oral Sex
Positions: Doggy Style, Cowgirl, Spoons position, Side Saddle, Laying, Missionary, Standing
Settings: Living Room
The Inception: Scene 2 Free Preview
Starring: Ava Rose ... More Details
Stars: Ava Rose
Sex Acts: Deep Throating, Vaginal Sex, Oral Sex, Throat Fucking
Positions: Cowgirl, Reverse Cowgirl, Standing Doggy Style, Missionary, Doggy Style, Spoons position, Side Saddle, Laying, Standing
Settings: Bedroom
The Inception: Scene 3 Free Preview
Starring: Melissa Lauren ... More Details
Stars: Melissa Lauren
Sex Acts: Breast Play, Vaginal Sex, 3-Way, Oral Sex
Positions: Cowgirl, Reverse Cowgirl, Doggy Style, Spoons position, Kneeling, Side Saddle, Laying
Settings: Generic Room
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Positions: Doggy Style, Cowgirl, Piledriver, Reverse Cowgirl, Sitting, Side Saddle
Settings: Living Room
The Inception: Scene 5 Free Preview
Starring: Annette Schwarz ... More Details
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April 7, 2009 in Seminars and Events (E)
[prMac.com] New York, New York - An Event Apart, the conference for people who make websites, has added Scott Thomas, known online as SimpleScott, to its speaker lineup, with two opportunities to hear his presentation: at An Event Apart Seattle, May 4-5, 2009 and An Event Apart Boston, June 22-23, 2009. Thomas is a former member of the New Media team at Obama for America, a position which ultimately led him to be named Design Director for the Obama Presidential campaign. Scott's session, Change the World (Wide Web)? will focus on using the web as both an accelerated form of communication and a vehicle that allows everyone to have a voice.
Thomas, whose work at Obama for America has forever changed the design of politics, seeks the simplest answers to complex problems, while working to simplify the user experience. He sees the web as an efficient way for our society to communicate, yet also seeks to understand how we will use the web to create a better world in the future. The Obama for America campaign is credited with changing how political campaigns are designed and marketed, based on the Obama campaign's ability to include everyone at every socio-economic level in the country.
Those attending Thomas's presentation will walk away with a new perspective on how to work and how to build websites both more fluidly and more organically. Using the Obama campaign as a case study, Scott will share what his internal team accomplished - both their successes and their failures. Thomas believes it's the designer's role to make the web a more free and liberating place to be, one in which websites stop trapping visitors in their "web," and build happy, personable, non-technical, user-friendly worlds.
"The days of designing, presenting, developing, and then being finished are over," said Thomas. "We've entered an era when continuous design and redesign, continuous development and redevelopment, and continuous repurposing have set the tone for how we need to work - both now and in the future."
"The web offers designers and developers a new opportunity - it's almost a new frontier - to engage their audiences in a continuous conversation, not just with words but also with visual design and user experience," said Eric Meyer, co-founder of An Event Apart. "Scott's work is a fantastic example of just this kind of conversation, and we can't wait to hear his insights into how he made this happen in the context of a historic Presidential campaign."
Experience how designing and developing Obama for America gave Scott Thomas a whole new perspective on the speed of communication and the recipient's interaction and response to that communication. People interested in how to change the web and create a place where everyone can participate will benefit from Thomas's talk.
Join Eric Meyer, Jeffrey Zeldman and special guests like Scott Thomas at An Event Apart, where you will gain a deeper understanding of web standards and best practices, and be inspired by fresh ideas and creative new directions. An Event Apart delivers two days with the greatest minds and hottest talents in web design today. Speakers cover creating the right content and features for your audience, designing pages that are a pleasure to read and use, and beating browsers and web gadgets into submission. Both An Event Apart and its presenters are gung-ho about web design and development. Each speaker has made genuine contributions to the industry and each is a star.
An Event Apart kicks off in Seattle on May 4-5, 2009, followed by Boston, June 22-23, Chicago, October 12-13, and finishing the year in San Francisco, December 7-8, 2009. These two-day events all take place in one room, one track, for a shared and concentrated learning experience multi-track events cannot deliver. To register for the conference, visit the website.
From the makers of A List Apart, An Event Apart is an intensely educational two-day conference for passionate practitioners of standards-based web design. If you care about code as well as content, usability as well as design, An Event Apart is the conference you've been waiting for. Founded by web visionaries Eric Meyer and Jeffrey Zeldman, and dedicated to the proposition that the creators of great web experiences deserve a great learning experience, An Event Apart brings together twelve of the leading minds in web design for two days of non-stop inspiration and enlightenment. An Event Apart receives support from A List Apart and Happy Cog.


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Neuromusculoskeletal Models Provide Insights into the Mechanisms and Rehabilitation of Hamstring Strains
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1 ARTICLE Neuromusculoskeletal Models Provide Insights into the Mechanisms and Rehabilitation of Hamstring Strains Darryl G. Thelen, 1 Elizabeth S. Chumanov, 1 Marc A. Sherry, 2 and Bryan C. Heiderscheit 1 1 University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI; and 2 University of Wisconsin Health Sports Medicine Center, Madison, WI THELEN, D.G., E.S. CHUMANOV, M.A. SHERRY, and B.C. HEIDERSCHEIT. Neuromusculoskeletal models provide insights into the mechanisms and rehabilitation of hamstring strains. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev., Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 135Y141, Neuromusculoskeletal models are used to investigate hamstring mechanics during sprinting. We show that peak hamstring stretch occurs during late swing phase and is invariant with speed, but does depend on tendon compliance and the action of other muscles in the lumbopelvic region. The insights gained are relevant for improving the scientific basis of hamstring strain injury prevention and rehabilitation programs. Key Words: muscle injury, tendon compliance, stretch shortening cycle, forward dynamics, computer simulation, biomechanics, motion analysis, sprinting INTRODUCTION Acute hamstring strains are a common injury in sports involving sprinting. Strain injuries are characterized by observable disruption of the musculotendon junction (7), with postinjury remodeling involving both scar tissue formation and muscle regeneration (6). The injury can cause an athlete to miss a few days to a few weeks of sport. More problematic is the high recurrence rate, with approximately one of three athletes reinjuring within a year of returning to sport (9). These observations highlight the prevalence of hamstring strain injuries and the challenge in preventing the initial injury and subsequent reinjury. The residual effects of a prior hamstring strain may be identifiable, and the associated risk for reinjury reducible using new approaches. For example, Proske et al. (10) identified a shift in the isokinetic knee strength profile in previously injured limbs, an effect that may be amendable via lengthening contraction training. Sherry and Best (11) have shown that a rehabilitation program focused on early movement and Address for correspondence: Darryl G. Thelen, Ph.D., Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1513 University Ave., Madison, WI ( Accepted for publication: April 20, Associate Editor: Chris McGibbon, Ph.D /3403/135 Y 141 Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews Copyright * 2006 by the American College of Sports Medicine neuromuscular control dramatically reduced hamstring reinjury rates compared with a traditional stretching and strengthening approach. Although these are promising observations, the underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. We have used a neuromusculoskeletal model of sprinting to analyze potential hamstring injury mechanisms. The model describes the relationship among muscle excitations, activation dynamics, musculotendon contraction mechanics, and segmental accelerations (13,15). Thus, the model has allowed us to relate mechanics at the muscle level to the movement produced at the whole body level. In this article, we review the use of a neuromusculoskeletal model to investigate the effects of sprinting speed, musculotendon properties, and coordination on hamstring mechanics during sprinting. The insights gained are relevant for improving the scientific basis of injury prevention and rehabilitation programs. HAMSTRING INJURY REHABILITATION Hamstring strain injuries most commonly occur in the biceps femoris long head and exhibit a strong tendency to recur. For example, imaging analysis of 170 recently injured athletes found that approximately 80% of hamstring strain injuries involved the biceps femoris (7). Furthermore, a review of 858 hamstring strains in Australian footballers showed the rate of recurrence was 12.6% during the first week of return to sport and 8.1% for the second week. The cumulative 135
2 risk for reinjury for the 22-wk season was 30.6% (9). The high reinjury rate may be due to the use of inappropriate criteria for determining suitability for return to sport or, alternatively, that traditional rehabilitation methods are insufficient for reducing risk for reinjury. Rehabilitation protocols for acute muscle strains have traditionally emphasized hamstring stretching and strengthening exercises. Sherry and Best (11) prospectively compared such an approach with a progressive agility and trunk stabilization (PATS) rehabilitation program. PATS included exercises that emphasized early movement and coordination of the pelvis and trunk muscles (Fig. 1). In the first 2 wk after returning to sport, none of the 13 athletes participating in the PATS program experienced a reinjury, compared with 6 (54.5%) of 11 athletes that performed isolated hamstring stretching and strengthening exercises. A significant reduction in reinjury rate was still evident in PATS participants even after 1 yr of returning to sport. However, the study was unable to relate reinjury risk to common clinical measures such as strength, flexibility, speed, and vertical jump height. Although Sherry and Best (11) have shown a promising clinical outcome, it remains unclear which neuromuscular factors are responsible for the reduced reinjury risk in the PATS group. One hypothesis is that improved neuromuscular control of the lumbopelvic region allows the hamstrings to function at safe lengths and loads during athletic movement, thereby reducing injury risk (11). An alternative explanation is that the use of early submaximal loading limits the residual adverse effects of scar tissue formed early in the remodeling process. Recent observations by Proske et al. (10) suggest residual effects may indeed be present in a previously injured muscle. They studied isokinetic (60-Is j1 ) knee flexion exercises performed by nine athletes who had experienced multiple unilateral hamstring strains within the past 5 yrs. At the time of testing, all athletes were injury-free for at least 1 month and participating in sport. Interestingly, there were no strength deficits in the previously injured limbs. However, peak isokinetic torque was generated at an average 12- greater knee flexion angle in the previously injured limb compared with the uninjured limb. The authors attributed the difference to a shorter optimal musculotendon length for active tension in the previously injured muscle. Such a shift can be a training effect, for example, repeated performance of concentric strengthening exercises in rehabilitation. Alternatively, the shift can reflect the presence of residual scar tissue at the musculotendon junction (6). Scar tissue is stiffer than the contractile tissue it replaces and, thus, may alter the mechanical environment seen by the muscle fibers. Specifically, a decrease in series compliance would shift peak force development to shorter musculotendon lengths as observed. Proske et al. (10) have also shown, at least in healthy control subjects, that the performance of controlled lengthening contraction exercises can facilitate a shift in peak force development to longer musculotendon lengths. Their initial data suggest that the incorporation of such exercises into training may reduce hamstring injury rates. Although there are promising new approaches for improving the prevention and rehabilitation of hamstring strains, questions remain regarding the underlying mechanisms. Fundamentally, a strain injury is the result of exceeding the local mechanical limits of the muscle tissue. Thus, it is relevant to investigate the mechanical behavior of the hamstrings during potentially injurious tasks. In this article, we review the use of a neuromusculoskeletal model Figure 1. Sherry and Best (11) compared the effectiveness of two rehabilitation programs in reducing reinjury rates in athletes who sustained an acute hamstring strain. A SS group (N = 11) performed static stretching, isolated progressive hamstring strengthening, and graduated return to activity. A PATS group (N = 13) performed agility exercises beginning with movements primarily in the frontal and transverse planes, then progressing to movements in the sagittal plane. Exercises requiring muscle activity to maintain the spine and pelvis in a desired posture (bridges) were also performed. For each rehabilitation program, athletes progressed from phase 1 to phase 2 when they could walk with a normal gait pattern and do a high-knee march in place without pain. Compared with the SS group, there was a statistically significant reduction in injury recurrence in the PATS group at 2 wk and at 1 yr after return to sport. PATS indicates progressive agility and trunk stabilization; SS, stretching and strengthening. 136 Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews
3 to estimate the stretch, loading, and work done by muscles during sprinting. These analyses are used to address the following specific questions: When during the sprinting gait cycle are the hamstrings susceptible to injury? How does speed affect hamstring mechanics and potentially contribute to injury risk? How can changes in musculotendon properties affect injury potential? Can the coordination of individual trunk muscles influence hamstring mechanics? HAMSTRING INJURY MECHANISMS Despite the frequency of hamstring strains during sprinting, it remains uncertain when in the gait cycle the muscle is injured. It has been suggested that injuries may occur during late swing, when the hip is flexed and the knee is extended. However, others have speculated that the potentially large loads associated with ground contact may cause injury. Animal models clearly show that muscle injury is associated with excessive fiber stretch during a lengthening contraction (8). Thus, we have used a model of sprinting to quantify the stretch of the biarticular hamstrings throughout the gait cycle (14). This information, coupled with EMG measurements, was used to assess when the hamstrings were undergoing an active lengthening contraction and why the biceps femoris long head may be more susceptible to injury. A generic model of the pelvis and lower extremity was first created, which included a description of the musculotendon paths of the semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and biceps femoris long head muscles (Fig. 2A). The model incorporated important differences between the individual hamstring moment arms at the hip and knee (14). Wholebody kinematics were collected while subjects (N = 14) sprinted on a high-speed treadmill at speeds ranging from 80% to 100% of maximum. The model was scaled to each subject using subject-specific measures of segment lengths. Joint angles were computed to fit the scaled model to the measured marker kinematics. This process provided quantitative estimates of musculotendon stretch for each of the hamstring muscles throughout the gait cycle (Fig. 2B). We found that peak hamstring stretch occurs during the late swing phase of sprinting before foot contact (14). Electromyography data indicate that the hamstrings are active at this same phase of the gait cycle (13). Thus, the hamstrings are undergoing an active lengthening contraction during late swing, creating the potential conditions for a strain injury to occur. The magnitude of peak stretch was significantly greater for the biceps femoris long head (stretched 9.5% beyond length in an upright posture) than the semimembranosus (7.4%) and semitendinosus (8.1%) muscles. Differences in the knee flexion moment arms between the medial and lateral hamstrings accounted for the intermuscle variations in peak musculotendon stretch. Specifically, because the knee is slightly flexed during late swing, the smaller knee flexion moment arm of the lateral hamstrings (biceps femoris) results in this muscle undergoing greater stretch relative to upright. We concluded that intermuscle differences in hamstring muscle geometry might be a contributing factor to the greater propensity for biceps femoris injury. Although providing interesting information, it is difficult to directly assess when an injury occurs based on the kinematic analysis of injury-free running trials. Through unexpected circumstances, we recently completed an analysis of whole-body kinematics obtained at the time of an acute hamstring strain injury (5). A male athlete injured his right biceps femoris while running at 5.36 mis j1 on an Figure 2. A. Subject-specific models were obtained by scaling segment lengths of a generic musculoskeletal model based on anatomical marker positions recorded of a subject in a standing posture. An inverse kinematics routine was then used to determine the segment joint angles that best align the scaled model with the measured marker kinematics of the subject sprinting on a treadmill. B. Shown are the ensemble-averaged (N = 14 subjects) estimates of musculotendon stretch, normalized to upright musculotendon lengths, for each of the biarticular hamstrings throughout the sprinting gait cycle. Peak stretch is reached during late swing phase when both feet were off the ground. The lateral hamstrings (biceps femoris) are stretched significantly more than the medial hamstrings because of differences in the knee flexion moment arms between muscles (14). Volume 34 c Number 3 c July 2006 Mechanisms of Hamstring Strains 137
4 inclined (15%) treadmill. We used statistical techniques to identify when individual marker trajectories deviated from a periodic pattern, indicating the earliest mechanical response to injury. This information, combined with estimates of neuromuscular latencies and electromechanical delay, was used to identify a 130-ms portion of the late swing phase of the gait cycle when the injury most likely occurred. Maximum stretch of the biceps femoris and peak hip extension and knee flexion moments also occurred within the suspected period of injury. We concluded that the biceps femoris was likely injured as a result of a lengthening contraction during the late swing phase of the running gait cycle. SPEED EFFECTS ON HAMSTRING MECHANICS Hamstring injuries are commonly associated with highspeed sprinting. Therefore, an assessment of how hamstring mechanics vary with speed is relevant to understanding injury mechanisms. We have used a neuromusculoskeletal model to investigate the influence of speed on the stretch, loading, and work done by the hamstrings during the late swing phase of sprinting (13). Musculotendon mechanics were represented by a Hill-type model in which a contractile element is in parallel and series with elastic elements. The series elastic element was assumed to represent the compliance of the tendon and aponeurosis. The input to each muscle was an idealized excitation level that can vary between 0 and 1 (full excitation). The forces developed by the musculotendon actuators acted on the skeleton via the linked-segment equations of motion. Therefore, the neuromusculoskeletal model related the muscle excitations, muscle forces, and the segmental accelerations generated in the system. A computed muscle control algorithm (12) was used to determine the excitation patterns of 26 lower extremity muscles that drove the lower extremity to track measured hip and knee motion of sprinting athletes (Fig. 3A). Validation of the model was assessed by comparing estimated and measured joint angles and muscle activation patterns. Subject-specific joint angles were tracked closely, with less than 2- of average error in hip and knee angles (13). The timing of computed muscle excitations closely matched measured EMG activities (Fig. 3B). The simulations show that the hamstrings undergo a stretch shortening cycle during the latter half of swing phase. Biceps femoris muscle excitations increase rapidly between 70% and 80% of the gait cycle, continuing through the end of swing phase. Maximal hamstring loading is reached slightly before peak musculotendon stretch of the musculotendon unit (Fig. 3B). As a result, the hamstrings are doing a substantial amount of negative work (integral of negative musculotendon power) between 70% and 90% of the sprinting gait cycle. Peak hamstring musculotendon stretch was found to be invariant across the range of speeds (80 Y100% of maximum) considered (Fig. 4). However, the negative musculotendon work done by the hamstrings increased considerably with speed. The hamstrings likely function to absorb and redistributethekineticenergyoftheswinglimbbeforefootcontact. Because kinetic energy increases in proportion to the velocity Figure 3. A. A computed muscle control algorithm was used to determine muscle excitations that, when inputted to the neuromusculoskeletal model, produced simulated kinematics that closely replicated measured kinematics. At each time step of the simulation, the controller determined muscle excitations that would produce the desired accelerations while minimizing a cost function to resolve muscle redundancy (12). With the muscle excitations as input, the set of activation, musculotendon, and musculoskeletal dynamic equations were integrated forward to simulate the kinematics that the muscle actions produce. B. Timing of the simulated biceps femoris excitations are consistent with measured EMG patterns (mean T 1 SD of five subjects). The simulation provides estimates of force, stretch, and power development of the muscle, tendon, and musculotendon components (13). 138 Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews
5 Figure 4. A. Shown is the lower extremity posture at the time of peak hamstring musculotendon stretch. Slightly greater hip and knee flexion occurs at a maximal sprinting speed compared with a submaximal speed. B. However, the additional hamstring stretch due to hip flexion is offset by shortening due to knee flexion, resulting in a peak stretch that is invariant with speed. In contrast to the kinematic quantities, the negative musculotendon work increases substantially with sprinting speed. squared,thenegativeworkdonebythehamstringsincreasesata rate that exceeds the percentage change in speed. These observations demonstrate that maximum muscle stretch may be reached at lower sprinting speeds than the maximum energy absorption capabilities of the muscle. Stretch and negative work requirements may couple together at high speeds to contribute to injury risk. For example, the cumulative negative work done over repeated maximal stretch-shortening contractions may predispose a muscle to injury (2). Alternatively, injury can result from stride-to-stride variability in the peak stretch imposed, with an excessive stretch in a single stride leading to the onset of injury. It should be noted that our analyses of muscle loading and work were limited to the swing phase of sprinting, when the hamstrings are undergoing an active lengthening contraction and seem susceptible to injury. However, similar analysis of stance phase is warranted to characterize the net loading and work done by the hamstrings during sprinting. EFFECT OF TENDON COMPLIANCE ON HAMSTRING MECHANICS It is important to recognize that the motion of the musculotendon unit is not necessarily representative of the behavior of individual muscle fibers where the injury occurs. For example, Griffiths (4) showed that a stretch imposed on a contracting musculotendon is often taken up by the tendon, allowing the muscle fibers to maintain an isometric length or even continue to shorten. Griffiths proposed that tendon compliance acts as a mechanical buffer that reduces the stretch of muscle fibers and protects against injury. Therefore, changes in musculotendon properties can affect fiber stretch and, hence, contribute to injury risk. For example, residual postinjury scar tissue at the musculotendon junction can alter the mechanical environment of the muscle fibers. Also, it has been shown in an animal model that series compliance seems to decrease with repeated maximal stretchyshortening contractions (2). A timedependent decrease in tendon compliance would conceivably alter the stretch and the loading of the fibers during repetitive athletic movement such as sprinting. We used a sensitivity study to investigate how the stretch and negative work seen at the fiber level depends on the compliance of the in-series tendon component during sprinting (13). A nominal muscle-actuated simulation of the swing phase of sprinting was first created (Fig. 3A). We then varied the tendon compliance of the biceps femoris long head and reconducted the simulation with an altered muscle excitation pattern that retained the overall musculotendon behavior, albeit with altered musculotendon mechanics. A decrease in tendon compliance, within a normal physiological range, necessitated a substantial increase in muscle fiber stretch and negative musculotendon work (Fig. 5). This illustrates that with a reduction in tendon compliance, an increased risk for injury can occur unless the running posture adapts to allow the musculotendon complex to operate at shorter lengths. INFLUENCE OF MUSCLE COORDINATION ON HAMSTRING MECHANICS An intriguing aspect of the promising rehabilitation outcomes demonstrated by Sherry and Best (11) involves the potential benefit of trunk stabilization exercises. In particular, the authors suggest that the ability to control the lumbopelvic region during higher-speed skilled movements may prevent hamstring reinjury. Neuromusculoskeletal models provide a tool by which to quantitatively assess how individual muscles influence hamstring mechanics and, hence, injury potential. The approach taken was to first generate a simulation of the double-float phase of sprinting, the last part of the gait cycle when peak hamstring stretch occurs. The simulation generated included 58 force trajectories for individual muscles crossing the lower trunk, hip, knee, and ankle. We then perturbed the muscle force trajectories one at a time by a small amount (1 N) and resimulated the movement for each perturbation. The change in hamstring musculotendon Volume 34 c Number 3 c July 2006 Mechanisms of Hamstring Strains 139
6 Figure 5. A. Force-lengthY velocity properties of muscle and force-strain properties of tendon were used to describe musculotendon contraction dynamics. The tendon forcestrain curve was parameterized by? T 0, defined as the tendon strain resulting from the application of maximum isometric force (F M 0 ). Simulations of the swing phase of sprinting were performed with a range of? T 0 to estimate the effect of tendon compliance on fiber stretch and work. B. A decrease in tendon compliance, within physiologically reported ranges, substantially increases the stretch and negative work attributable to the muscle component of the biceps femoris (13). This illustrates that decreased series compliance because of the performance of repeated stretch-shortening contractions (2) or as a result of postinjury scarring (6) could contribute to increased injury risk. stretch because of each perturbation was ascertained. The change in stretch was then scaled by the average muscle force over double float, resulting in an estimate of the influence of each muscle on hamstring stretch. Our analysis suggests that the contralateral hip flexors (i.e., iliopsoas) have as large an influence on hamstring stretch as the hamstrings themselves (Fig. 6). This occurs because the iliopsoas can directly induce an increase in anterior pelvic tilt, which in turn necessitates greater hamstring stretch. Other proximal muscles acting on the pelvis such as the abdominal obliques and erector spinae also substantially influence hamstring stretch. The more distal muscles acting about the knee and/or ankle had much less influence on hamstring mechanics. This analysis illustrates a mechanism by which neuromuscular control of trunk and pelvis muscles can affect hamstring strain injury risk. FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND RESEARCH The development and use of neuromusculoskeletal models inherently depends on experimental data both to formulate appropriate scientific questions and to validate model-based estimates. Given the high rate of injury recurrence, there is a need for a better description of the structure and function of the remodeled musculotendon complex after injury. In this regard, magnetic resonance imaging may be a useful tool for characterizing the extent of scar tissue in remodeled muscle. Furthermore, new ultrasound approaches for measuring contraction mechanics can be used to characterize mechanical strains near a prior injury site, at least under controlled circumstances in which these in vivo measurements can be performed (3). These data would be important for understanding remodeling factors that might influence reinjury risk. The eventual coupling of imagingbased measurements with controlled intervention studies may provide new understanding of the effects of specific exercises on muscle function and mechanics. There is a complimentary need for further refinement of the neuromusculoskeletal models to characterize localized mechanics around the musculotendon junction where the injury occurs. Hill-type musculotendon models inherently assume a uniform mechanical strain distribution along the muscle fiber, which may not be the case when injury occurs. For example, it has been suggested that strain injury may be preceded by disruption of individual sarcomeres, leading to large local mechanical strains, which propagate to the musculotendon junction (10). The substantial change in stiffness between fibers and tendon can then contribute to the fibers tearing at the junction. The development and incorporation of more refined soft tissue models are needed to Figure 6. A. A nominal simulation of the doublefloat phase of sprinting was generated. Individual muscle force trajectories were then perturbed (by 1 N throughout double float) and the simulation regenerated. Perturbation-induced changes in hamstring stretch were determined and then scaled by the associated average muscle force to quantify the muscle s influence. B. Shown are the muscles that exhibited the greatest influence on biceps femoris musculotendon stretch. A positive influence means the muscle acts to increase stretch. This analysis shows that the contralateral iliopsoas, abdominal obliques, and ipsilateral low back muscles all substantially influence hamstring stretch via their actions on the pelvis and, thus, illustrates a mechanism by which trunk muscles may affect injury risk (11). 140 Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews
7 provide a more detailed description of this injury mechanism and can also provide a means for assessing how remodeling can alter localized strain patterns. The recent development of finite element models of muscle that account for important architecture effects may facilitate such analyses (1). Quantifying the role of neuromuscular coordination in preventing injury or reinjury remains a challenging endeavor. Trunk stabilization exercises are widely cited as providing such benefits for a range of pathologies, although the specific manner in which the benefits are achieved remains tenuous. In this article, we showed that lumbopelvic muscles could indeed influence lower extremity muscle mechanics. However, complimentary experimental approaches are still needed to investigate how training truly facilitates improved coordination of these muscles during athletic movements. An understanding of the changes in coordination can then be coupled with simulations of movement to interpret the mechanical ramifications. CONCLUSIONS Hamstring strains are a common and recurrent injury among sprinting athletes. The effective prevention and rehabilitation of such injuries remains challenging. In this article, we have shown that neuromusculoskeletal models enhance the fundamental understanding of factors that affect both injury and rehabilitation mechanisms. The continued development and use of such models, together with controlled experimental observations, are important for scientifically establishing effective injury prevention and rehabilitation programs. Acknowledgements The authors thank Allison Arnold, Thomas Best, Li Li, Steve Swanson, and Michael Young for their contributions to this research. This study was supported by the Aircast Foundation and National Football League Charities, as well as an National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship to E. Chumanov. References 1. Blemker, S.S., and S.L. Delp. Three-dimensional representation of complex muscle architectures and geometries. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 33: 661Y 673, Butterfield, T.A., and W. Herzog. Quantification of muscle fiber strain during in-vivo repetitive stretch-shortening cycles. J. Appl. Physiol. 99:593Y 602, Fukunaga, T., Y. Kawakami, K. Kubo, and H. Kanehisa. Muscle and tendon interaction during human movements. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 30:106Y 110, Griffiths, R.I. Shortening of muscle fibres during stretch of the active cat medial gastrocnemius muscle: the role of tendon compliance. J. Physiol. 436:219Y 236, Heiderscheit, B.C., D.M. Hoerth, E.S. Chumanov, S.C. Swanson, B.J. Thelen, and D.G. Thelen. Identifying the time of occurrence of a hamstring strain injuring during treadmill running: a case study. Clin. Biomech. (Bristol, Avon) 20:1072Y 1078, Kaariainen, M., T. Jarvinen, M. Jarvinen, J. Rantanen, and H. Kalimo. Relation between myofibers and connective tissue during muscle injury repair. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 10:332Y 337, Koulouris, G., and D. Connell. Evaluation of the hamstring muscle complex following acute injury. Skeletal. Radiol. 32:582Y 589, Lieber, R.L., and J. Friden. Mechanisms of muscle injury gleaned from animal models. Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 81:S70Y S79, Orchard, J., and T.M. Best. The management of muscle strain injuries: an early return versus the risk of recurrence. Clin. J. Sport Med. 12:3Y 5, Proske, U., D.L. Morgan, L. Brockett, and P. Percival. Identifying athletes at risk of hamstring strains and how to protect them. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 31:546Y 550, Sherry, M., and T. Best. A comparison of two rehabilitation programs in the treatment of acute hamstring strains. J. Orthop. Sports Phys. Ther. 34:116Y 125, Thelen, D.G., F.C. Anderson, and S.L. Delp. Generating dynamic simulations of movement using computed muscle control. J. Biomech. 13:321Y 328, Thelen, D.G., E.S. Chumanov, T.M. Best, S.C. Swanson, and B.C. Heiderscheit. Simulation of biceps femoris musculotendon mechanics during the swing phase of sprinting. Med. Sci. Sports 37: 1931 Y1938, Thelen, D.G., E.S. Chumanov, D.M. Hoerth, T.M. Best, S.C. Swanson, L. Li, M. Young, and B.C. Heiderscheit. Hamstring muscle kinematics during treadmill sprinting. Med. Sci. Sports 37:108Y 114, Zajac, F.E., and M. Winters. Modeling musculoskeletal movement systems: joint and body segmental dynamics, musculoskeletal actuation, and neuro-muscular control. In: Multiple Muscle SystemsVBiomechanics and Movement Organization, edited by J.M. Winters and SL.-Y. Woo. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990, pp. 121Y148. Volume 34 c Number 3 c July 2006 Mechanisms of Hamstring Strains 141
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