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My event went very smoothly. Neel and the HIX staff were friendly, upbeat and very helpful every step of the way. My guests commented on what a lovely property it was - clean and recently remodeled. They enjoyed the wifi and breakfast. Would do events here again. Close to all of the San Clemente amenities including the ocean. Thanks!
- Official Description (provided by the hotel):
- Newly renovated Holiday Inn Express San Clemente is nestled in the fabulous beach side community of Southern Orange County midway between Los Angeles and San Diego. Known as the Spanish Village by the Sea, San Clemente boasts having the most pleasant climate in California. With easy access from I-5, short drive from Orange County Airport. Our location makes us ideal for visiting great local attractions such as, Legoland, Sea World, Disneyland, and Del Mar Race Track. You can relax at local beaches, attend surfing competitions, or walk on the San Clemente Pier, shop at the Carlsbad Premium Outlets. For business travelers we are close to Camp Pendleton, SONGS Power Plant, Bechtel, and Quest Diagnostics. Work or relax, our room amenities will assist you in making a day to remember and our bedding will make sure you enjoy a great night sleep. To start the morning right, stop by for the Express Start hot breakfast, served complimentary in our breakfast area and log in to our free WiFi to catch up on world news. A fitness room is available for those wanting some exercise and staying fit. Finish your day by taking a swim in our sparkling heated pool. Our professional staff is courteous, friendly, attentive and committed to making your stay fun, and memorable with first-class quality accommodations and legendary service to exceed your expectations. Stay Smart at Holiday Inn Express San Clemente! ... more less
- Reservation Options:
- TripAdvisor is proud to partner with Expedia, Booking.com, Travelocity, Hotels.com, IHG, Hotwire, TripOnline SA, Cheap Tickets, Cancelon, getaroom.com, Evoline ltd and HotelQuickly so you can book your Holiday Inn Express San Clemente North reservations with confidence. We help millions of travelers each month to find the perfect hotel for both vacation and business trips, always with the best discounts and special offers.
- Also Known As:
- Holiday Inn Express San Clemente North Hotel San Clemente


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Art of the Artists: Slartist@UWA Machinima Challenge - L$350,000 Prize Pool
Sponsored by Slartist & The Writers Centre, Singapore
PREAMBLE: We are absolutely thrilled to be able to run a machinima event again, thanks to the generosity of LaPiscean Liberty & Slartist as well as Singh Albatros and The Writers Centre, Singapore. This is not a continuation of the MachinimUWA series, which ended in Dec 2015, with MachinimUWA VIII: Pursue Impossible, rather this is 'A New Hope,' if you will, that has a life primarily thanks to LaPiscean Liberty, who wants to nourish the dynamic partnership between artists and filmmakers.
DATES: Submissions open through 31st December 2017
Entries will be displayed on the University of Western Australia (UWA) Second Life blog and the Slartist website.
THEME: Create a film with a work of art!
SUBJECT MATTER: Any artworks that sit on the UWA Sims in Second Life, and these include artworks created when the sims themselves were created in 2009 can be selected to feature in your machinima. You may choose individual artworks OR a collection of artworks around which to weave a story. The artwork(s) need to be a relatively significant part of the story, and not merely something glimpsed in passing.
An additional award is being sponsored by The Writers Centre, Singapore for any machinima that includes 'The Merlion' sculpture.
HISTORICAL CHALLENGE ARTWORKS (This Sim Could Disappear Anytime. Many, but not all, of the artworks on UWA Winthrop sim are in the process of being moved to platforms on UWA sim before 31 July.)
THE MERLION - This is a special installation that replicates a large iconic sculpture in Singapore. There is a small copy on UWA's sims that gives information and a landmark to the full size installation on the Monash University sims. There is information there about the Merlion Portal Project concerning cultural, literary and artistic significance of the Merlion.
UWA MAIN GALLERY - This is where our main current art exhibitions are. Our most recent show, "Transformations," is expected to remain up at least through the end of this year.
UWA MAIN SIM - Home of the iconic Winthrop Hall clock tower, Somerville outdoor cinema, the Moreton Bay Figs, and Sunken Garden. Some art works from the closing sims will be moving to platforms above.
NOTE: The artwork may be filmed in its current location, but it is not a must to film it there, so long at the focus of the machinima is centered around the artworks. You may communicate with the artists to film their works in other locations, and work with them on the film. Please contact FreeWee Ling or Jayjay Zifanwe if you need to be able to rez blue screen, etc., as part of your filming process.
*As of today 4 sims form the UWA cluster, namely UWA, University of WA, UWA Winthrop & WASP Land. Only the first 2 sims have a guaranteed lifespan for the next 2 years, the other two could disappear anytime as there is only funding to support 2 of the sims. Filming artwork on the sims that may disappear would be a great service to the art!
Create a machinima that features some (or one) of the artworks sitting on the UWA Sims in SL. You can choose to film as many (or as few) as you like, and you may submit any number of entries. The absolute maximum time limit is 8 minutes (longer films will be accepted but will not be considered for the challenge).
Method of Entry & Other Info:
- Load the Machinima anywhere, preferably YouTube or Vimeo, and provide the link to Jayjay Zifanwe & LaPiscean Liberty.
- Please acknowledge the artworks you feature & please acknowledge and get authorisation for any music you use.
- You own all rights to the films you create, but by entering the challenge you give permission to put it on the UWA Blog and the Slartist Website and to play the film on UWA lands.
- If you need to rez (blue screen etc), contact Jayjay Zifanwe or FreeWee Ling
- If you have questions, want to discuss anything, or add to the prize pool, please contact Jayjay Zifanwe
1st Prize - L$75K,
2nd Prize - L$50K
3rd Prize - L$40K
4th Prize - L$30K,
5th Prize - L$20K
6th - 10th Prizes - L$7K
'The Merlion' Special Prize - L$50K
UWA Special Prize - L$50K

subset: commoncrawl


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Running Time: 73 minutes
Released: 01/2014
Studio Name: JM Productions
Series: American Bukkake
Categories: Cumshot Blondes Masturbation All Sex Bukkake
Description: They say masturbation is the sincerest form of flattery. Watch as 119 guys show there love for these two very special girls. Every female should be so lucky!
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by Staff Writers
Boston MA (SPX) Jul 21, 2014
Big websites usually maintain their own "data centers," banks of tens or even hundreds of thousands of servers, all passing data back and forth to field users' requests. Like any big, decentralized network, data centers are prone to congestion: Packets of data arriving at the same router at the same time are put in a queue, and if the queues get too long, packets can be delayed.
At the annual conference of the ACM Special Interest Group on Data Communication, in August, MIT researchers will present a new network-management system that, in experiments, reduced the average queue length of routers in a Facebook data center by 99.6 percent - virtually doing away with queues. When network traffic was heavy, the average latency - the delay between the request for an item of information and its arrival - shrank nearly as much, from 3.56 microseconds to 0.23 microseconds.
Like the Internet, most data centers use decentralized communication protocols: Each node in the network decides, based on its own limited observations, how rapidly to send data and which adjacent node to send it to. Decentralized protocols have the advantage of an ability to handle communication over large networks with little administrative oversight.
The MIT system, dubbed Fastpass, instead relies on a central server called an "arbiter" to decide which nodes in the network may send data to which others during which periods of time. "It's not obvious that this is a good idea," says Hari Balakrishnan, the Fujitsu Professor in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and one of the paper's coauthors.
With Fastpass, a node that wishes to transmit data first issues a request to the arbiter and receives a routing assignment in return. "If you have to pay these maybe 40 microseconds to go to the arbiter, can you really gain much from the whole scheme?" says Jonathan Perry, a graduate student in electrical engineering and computer science (EECS) and another of the paper's authors. "Surprisingly, you can."
Division of labor
The researchers' experiments indicate that an arbiter with eight cores, or processing units, can keep up with a network transmitting 2.2 terabits of data per second. That's the equivalent of a 2,000-server data center with gigabit-per-second connections transmitting at full bore all the time.
"This paper is not intended to show that you can build this in the world's largest data centers today," Balakrishnan says. "But the question as to whether a more scalable centralized system can be built, we think the answer is yes."
Moreover, "the fact that it's two terabits per second on an eight-core machine is remarkable," Balakrishnan says. "That could have been 200 gigabits per second without the cleverness of the engineering."
The key to Fastpass's efficiency is a technique for splitting up the task of assigning transmission times so that it can be performed in parallel on separate cores. The problem, Balakrishnan says, is one of matching source and destination servers for each time slot.
"If you were asked to parallelize the problem of constructing these matchings," he says, "you would normally try to divide the source-destination pairs into different groups and put this group on one core, this group on another core, and come up with these iterative rounds. This system doesn't do any of that."
Instead, Fastpass assigns each core its own time slot, and the core with the first slot scrolls through the complete list of pending transmission requests. Each time it comes across a pair of servers, neither of which has received an assignment, it schedules them for its slot. All other requests involving either the source or the destination are simply passed on to the next core, which repeats the process with the next time slot. Each core thus receives a slightly attenuated version of the list the previous core analyzed.
Bottom line
Networks are typically evaluated according to two measures: latency, or the time a single packet of data takes to traverse the network, and throughput, or the total amount of data that can pass through the network in a given interval.
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Kids & Parenting
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Supernatural Child Rescue Tactics
by Traci O
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Angelica was a smart kid. Her parents had taught her well. They told her that if she was ever lost to go to an authority figure, like a policewoman or man, and give them her name, address and phone number.
During a crowded festival in a large city, that valuable teaching came in handy. Anjelica or Jelly, age 4, became separated from her parents and immediately found a police officer and gave him the details of who she was. The police took her to the station. A couple of hours later she was reunited with her family.
Many children who have not been taught what to do if lost, go into a panic and began to wander around, in tears not speaking to anyone.
They are very vulnerable at that time for someone who may want to harm them, someone who may lie and tell them that they know where their parents are.
We can also write the name addresses and phone number and tape it to a child�s clothing, especially the very small children.
What to say
If a stranger grabs your child, do they know what to say?
Most kids don�t.
Most kids would just start yelling and saying �No!� Onlookers usually think that a yelling child is being obstinate with their own parent!
The correct thing for a child to say if a stranger grabs them is to say,
�This is not my mother! Help!�
�This is not my father! Call the police!�
�These are not my parents! Help!��
When a child says any of the above most onlookers will take notice and reach out to help quickly.
We can rehearse these scenarios with our children and grandchildren to keep them safe.
Copyright 2007
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God is Not Against You - He Came on an All Out Rescue Mission to Save You
...in Christ God was reconciling the world to himself, not counting their trespasses against them... 2 Cor 5:19
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Cast: Lane Fuller, Lance Gear, Chad Hunt, Logan Krewe, Mason Jarr, Jackson Price, Evan Taylor
Length: 1 hr 30 min
Year: 2001
Studio : All Worlds Video
The yummylicious Lane Fuller is featured in one of his last onscreen fuck flicks before taking a two year break. In other Cockwatch-worthy news, wait until you see unstoppable sexpig Lance Gear take a whack at deep throating Chad Hunt's monster meat.
With solid performances and excellent direction, blue movie empress Chi Chi LaRue has created a splendid vehicle through which your most intense homoerotic urges might be released.
The film opens with a frustrated Price, who can't seem to unravel the mysteries of his VCR. Instead, he decides to take a nap and fantasize about all sorts of dirty things.
His first wet dream is a real humdinger - a passionate tryst between Krewe and Taylor, who both have looks that are outside of the porn mainstream. Krewe gets the balls rolling with his winning oral performance on Taylor's tapered tool.
Next, it's Taylor's turn to fellate, and he also does it with gusto, before moving south to lap vigorously at Krewe's fuzzy man-muff. Krewe ends up with Taylor straddling his face, which the old chap seems to enjoy very much. After some prolonged teasing, Krewe ends up on his back with Taylor's poker in his bum. Taylor pulls out to have Krewe nibble on his 'nads, before diving back in for more. The scene ends when the boys produce a milky substance from their penile tips.
Next up is a locker-room fantasy come to life. The ever-in-rut Gear is here as a coach in his bald, goateed, hirsute splendor, and he's matched with "The Dick That Destroyed Tokyo," the three-legged Hunt. Gear does an admirable job of taking about half of Hunt's awe-inspiring appendage down the hatch. A lengthy rimming follows, with Gear on his hands and knees and Hunt savoring the fleshy delights of Gear's back door. If, twenty years from now, Gear is wondering why he has so many bowel problems, he can probably trace it back to what happens next, when Hunt slams every one of his many inches into Gear's guts with a savage abandon. After a bit of that, the men both tickle their dickles until they come.
The next scene is the weakest, despite the presence of the criminally attractive Jarr. Pretty-boy Lane is his foil, and he takes to sucking Jarr's chumpy with ease. Despite the fact that a man is licking his ass, Jarr shows little in the way of excitement. He does get a bit more worked up when Lane ends up on the end up his pickle. After some doggy-style action, Lane shoots a hefty money shot and they call it a day.
In the final scene, things pick up again. This time it's a threesome between Price, Krewe and Taylor. This scene has all the elements that make gay porn such a delight, plus some double-fellatio and a three-way fuckwich with Taylor as the meat in the middle. The passions run high here, and the comfort level between the three really makes the scene.
|2014-05-05 18:27:50
|1.64 GB (1,758,339,110 bytes)
|Num files
|1 files


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Ones and Twos
Ones and Twos
By Marthe Jocelyn; Nell Jocelyn
Tundra Books (NY), Hardcover, 9781770492202, 24pp.
Publication Date: May 10, 2011
NELL JOCELYN is the daughter of award-winning author and illustrator Marthe Jocelyn, and she is currently a student at the University of the Arts in Philadelphia. She is the recipient of the Visual Arts and the Photography Prizes from Young Arts New York one of only two students in the country to win in two categories. Jocelyn has also worked as an assistant teacher at the Arts Alive summer camp in Stratford, Ontario."
"This delightful concept book brings visual literacy to the forefront, supported by a minimal text…. The simple descriptive verses … are spot-on to reinforce images of numeracy, sorting, paring, common-object recognition, and the daily lives of young children. Each page or spread is illustrated with creative, engaging collages on paper, textured fabrics, and items … extending the opportunity for learning and discussion…. The charming collages are the stars of the show and will inspire curiosity"
—Starred Review, School Library Journal
"… Jocelyn's imaginative collages help create a book rich in playful details, with a storyline told through pictures that provide depth to the concepts explored in the text…. Although the text is very spare, words like 'lone,' 'swoop,' and 'chums' provide verbal interest. The variety of colours and textures add dept and fascination to the collage images…. Sophisticated and yet endearingly simple, Ones and Twos can be enjoyed by both very young children and the adults who read it with them."
—Starred Review, Quill & Quire
"Jocelyn's charming, intricate collages magically turn cloth, buttons, and other materials into lively, colorful, multidimensional scenes. Children will enjoy the pictures and relate to this day in the life of a typical pre-schooler."
– School Library Journal
"…delightfully child-friendly…There are so many things to see and so many different objects…used to make the pictures that numerous readings will be welcomed."
– Booklist
"…As a teaching tool this book is a standout, but it also holds it own as a charming and well-illustrated storybook. Highly recommended."
– Resource Links
"… a book like this is an essential part of the very young child's library."
– Starred Review, Publishers Weekly
"An appealing and eye-catching addition."
– School Library Journal


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Day-journey length and daily diet of solitary male gorillas in lowland and highland habitats
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- Citations
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We compared day-journey length and daily diets of solitary male gorillas in lowland versus highland habitats. Solitary males in tropical forests of Zaire tend to travel longer distances, to visit more types of vegetation, and to consume more kinds of food than a solitary male mountain gorilla in the Virunga Volcanoes did. The number of feeding sites per day is larger and the mean distance between feeding sites is far longer for the former than the latter. These observations may reflect differences in food breadth and availability between highland and lowland habitats. The herbaceous plants that are eaten by mountain gorillas are densely and evenly distributed in the higher montane forest of the Virungas, where gorillas need not cover long distances to search for food. In contrast, herbaceous plants are scarce in primary and ancient secondary forests of lowland habitats, where gorillas travel long distances and eat various fruits and insects. The patchy and unpredictable distribution of foods may extend the distances over which gorillas search for food in the lowland habitat. However, solitary males showed a prominent reduction in day-journey length and changed their choices of food during the nonfruiting season (the long rainy and dry seasons) in the lowland habitats. This strategy may have developed during the Pleistocene and may have enabled them to enlarge their ranges to the higher montane forests, where fruits are sparse throughout the year.


text:
Admission Counselor
Transfer Counselor
Transfer Applicants
High Schools located in: KS & MO
New Jersey Counties: Bergen, Essex, Hudson (excluding Saint Peter's Preparatory School), Hunterdon, Morris, Passaic, Sussex, Union, & Warren
New York Region: New York City (excluding Jesuit High Schools)
Verona, NJ
Verona High School
Bachelor of Business Administration, Marketing, Loyola University Maryland
Coming from a small high school, the transition to Loyola was exactly what I was looking for. The small class sizes allowed my professors to give personal attention to every student and really get to know us. As an alumnus, I'm proud to say that attention continues beyond the college experience. I have kept in touch regularly with professors and community members who have helped advise me on my career path.


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Client support: Phone: (+357) 22314160
FX & CFD trading involves significant risk
The euro rose for a sixth day versus the yen, the longest run since March, as European Central Bank President Mario Draghi said the currency was irreversible and the ECB's decision to start buying bonds helped ease tensions.
The 17-nation currency gained the most in almost three weeks versus the dollar after Draghi said the ECB was ready to start buying government bonds from nations such as Spain as soon as the necessary conditions are met.
The ECB is ready to undertake bond purchases under its plan known as Outright Monetary Transactions "once all the prerequisites are in place," Draghi said at a press conference in Ljubljana, Slovenia. At last month's conference, Draghi unveiled a program of unlimited debt buying to cap borrowing costs for debt-ridden nations.
The ECB left its benchmark rate at a record low of 0.75 percent.
Spain sold a combined 3.99 billion euros ($5.19 billion) of two-, three-and five-year notes today as investors debated whether the nation will ask for an international bailout. Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy this week denied he has any immediate plans to do so.
The greenback stayed lower versus most major peers as claims for U.S. jobless benefits rose less than forecast, encouraging investors to buy higher- returning assets. U.S. Labor Department data showed applications for jobless benefits increased 4,000 to 367,000 in the week ended Sept. 29. A survey forecast 370,000 claims.
The pound strengthened versus the dollar after the Bank of England left its asset-purchase target at 375 billion pounds ($604 billion) at its monthly gathering. The central bank kept its main interest rate at a record-low 0.5 percent.
FOMC Minutes: A greater-than-expected tightening of fiscal policy could hurt economic growth
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text:
- 59 Posts. Joined 8/2012
- Location: sk can
- Points: 10
- Select All Posts By This User
Beef ribs
SmokingMeatForums.com Top Picks
- 20,506 Posts. Joined 10/2012
- Location: Bend Oregon
- Points: 2570
- Select All Posts By This User
Use the search feature and check out this post I did on BSR's and pork ribs. "3-2-1 2-1-1 Blast off" Beef Short Ribs are great. When you buy them ask for untrimmed.
- 297 Posts. Joined 12/2011
- Location: Tampa,FL
- Points: 19
- Select All Posts By This User
I would suggest that you buy them from maybe a butcher as I bought some from the Wally world and they didn't have much meat on them. They looked good but just didn't have much meat.
- 8,190 Posts. Joined 10/2010
- Location: Mountains west of Colorado Springs, CO
- Points: 69
- Select All Posts By This User
I've done huge Dino Ribs (Wally world) and then some Beef Back Ribs and I do them just like pork ribs. If you get some meaty ribs they are awesome.
I just did these 2 racks of Beef Back Ribs a couple days ago in my propane smoker. 275° for 1.5 hrs, foiled for 1 hour with some leftover Au Jus, butter and balsamic vinegar, then sauced and in the smoker for about 30-45 minutes.
- 23,185 Posts. Joined 1/2011
- Location: Whitehouse, TX (East Texas) just South of Tyler
- Points: 3134
- Select All Posts By This User
That is the trouble around here. If you find them they are trimmed down so much there is not much left on them. The last ones I cooked I got from Super 1 (a Brookshire's owned store) looked pretty good in the package I bought 6 when I got home and looked closer I could tell they were not going to have much meat. Cooked up nice, tender, good flavor, but just not enough meat. Maybe I will try asking the Butcher to cut me some if not to expensive. We have several places thae keep and run Pork ribs on sale pretty much all the time. I think everybody is brain washed to pork ribs,
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TOP 12: Top Rated - Last Added - Last Commented - Most Viewed
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Hi Pete, how was the UK tour? It was a really great tour of the UK this February - 6 blinding conce [ ... ]
Formed just last year, how did the band come together? The band was formed, conceptually at least, [ ... ]


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Before You Type A Single Word, Find Out What Types Of Books Sell Best
When you create nonfiction 'How-To' or 'Self-Help' titles, the best way to be successful (that is, sell lots of e-books and earn a fair profit) is to discover what potential readers are looking for, research the solutions, compile the answers, write up the step-by-step plans, and then create/format/illustrate/upload/promote your e-book yourself.
With nonfiction you do not entertain; you offer solutions to problems.
If you were going to invent something, wouldn't you put all your energy and your intelligence and sweat labor into inventing something people actually needed and couldn't wait to purchase?
Well, that's what I do. In my opinion, nonfiction, self-help, "how-to-do-it-yourself" e-books will tend to sell better, longer, and at a higher price point than any other type of digital product.
Before you waste time choosing the wrong e-book to research, write, edit, publish and promote, follow these two simple rules to determine your best options by writing in your notebook answers to these questions and exercises meant to get the creative ideas flowing:
- Ask yourself: "What do I love to do?" The answers will lead you to consider what you're passionate about in life, work, play and relationships. By being passionate about something, you'll find the energy you'll need to follow through on a subject long enough to dig up the information, compile, craft and distribute your work to others who are able and willing to pay for this information.
- Write down five 3-5 word phrases like "work from home" or "natural acne remedies" or "how to stop smoking fast" that relate to the things you love to do. Type them the way you speak them. Some will be winners, some will not. Your key to success is eliminating the keyword phrases that have low demand/high supply (that is, not many people looking for them and/or too many webpages competing for a high ranking on that particular keyword). Another factor in your decision making process will be how valuable your keywords will be. It's nice to rank high in the search engine results for your keyword… but if no one is buying in that category or advertisers are not spending money on ads in those search results, you'll be barking up the wrong tree with you e-book efforts and you'll likely spend a lot of time writing an e-book that few people are needing. If they don't need it they're not going to spend money on it. And charging for your e-book is the only way you'll make steady cash in this business.


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Collecting caffe verde rezultati cobbler abstract gibe flavor. Each critique of the bingo adds or Improves after which some attitude of the chess.
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I wanna cook
Cooking something?
Whatever it is, sell a few portions on Super Marmite! It's a great way to interact with your local community and to get real feedback on your cuisine :)Post a meal


text:
Fine hotel, located just outside Heemstede. The reception on arrival was kind and frienly, but not very welcoming and warm
The room was spacious, neat.clean and complete. The view from room 37 was not really nice. Cluttered shrubs and pruning waste and a worn fence. The building also looks somewhat dated, but okay. The Parking area was spacious but cluttered.
We rented bikes for € 10 p / d. From the hotel you are within 10 min by bicycle in a beautiful large dune area.
The beds were fine, we slept well and the breakfast was delicious and good care.
- Official Description (provided by the hotel):
- The enchanting NH Heemskerk Marquette hotel in Heemskerk is situated on a sprawling 13th century estate. Surrounded by lush greenery, the hotel's stunning structure dates back to 1225, and includes a castle that houses our restaurant and events facilities. ... more less
- Reservation Options:
- TripAdvisor is proud to partner with NHHotels, Expedia, Booking.com, Orbitz, Hotels.com, Priceline, TripOnline SA, Cancelon, Hotwire, HotelQuickly, Travelocity and getaroom.com so you can book your NH Heemskerk Marquette reservations with confidence. We help millions of travelers each month to find the perfect hotel for both vacation and business trips, always with the best discounts and special offers.
- Also Known As:
- Nh Marquette Hotel Heemskerk
- Nh Hotels Noord Holland


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Google is honoring African American civil rights activist Rosa Parks, who 55 years ago today refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white passenger.
Because of the stand she took on December 1, 1955, Parks was arrested, sparking a boycott of the Montgomery, Alabama, bus line that lasted 381 days, according to her official website. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was named the spokesperson for the Bus Boycott, and the protest spread across the country, calling for equal rights for all citizens.
If you surf over to Google's U.S. homepage today, you'll see the above Doodle, which, when clicked on, leads to search results relevant to the activist.
Google has truly been honoring a diverse array of people via its Doodle this past year, including John Lennon, Agatha Christie and even Pac-man (who isn't really a person, but still).
Whom do you think Google should honor next?
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text:
The Early Period:
Johann Fichte was born as a son of a very poor ribbon weaver in the village called
Rammenau in Sachsen (Saxony in Eastern Germany). When he was a small child, he learned how
to weave ribbon and watch geese and helped his family. Johann was a very unusual child and was
able to retell the sermon as he very carefully listened to the preacher 's talk. One day, a wealthy
farmer from the neighboring village was not able to be to attend the church service on time one
Sunday. So someone told him that he should ask that child who attended the geese. As the wealthy
farmer heard that child recite the sermon back to him exactly without any problem to him, he was
so impressed with his potential that he sponsored this child's education.
Having graduated from the Gymnasium, Johann Fichte studied philosophy, classical literature and theology at Jena and Leipzig University. When his sponsor died and Fichte's parents could not provide Johann the financial support to continue his study, Johann Fichte went to Zurich and became a tutor for the children of a wealthy merchant. During his stay in Zurich, Johann Fichte had a chance to get acquainted with an extremely intelligent, strong-charactered young lady called Johanna Rahn and was deeply attracted by her. She later married Johann Fichte and helped him in various ways to further his philosophy throughout his life. Since the parents of the children he tutored were rather vulgar and uninteresting people, Johann Fichte left Zurich and went back to Leipzig in 1790. In order to make his living, he was commissioned to tutor a college student of the well-to-do family in Kant's philosophy, Johann Fichte for the first time himself studied Kant and his philosophy intensively for this purpose. This encounter of Fichte with Kant's publications made a decisive influence on Fichte and came to determine his entire life.
In his letter to his then fiancé and later his wife, Johanna Rahn, Fichte wrote, "I have finally acquired a most noble morality and instead of concerning myself with the external things, I am devoting myself to my own inner self. Thus I have been experiencing the peace of mind which I have never before experienced and am living a very happy life." To one of his friends, Johann Fichte also wrote, "...it is incredulous how profoundly Kant's philosophy, his moral philosophy in particular, has influenced the total system of one man's thinking and how decidedly Kant's philosophy has initiated a revolution in my total philosophical thought. Since I read the Critique of Practical Reason, I am living in a totally different world. The principles that I hitherto believed to be absolutely certain have been totally uprooted and destroyed. What I previously thought to be impossible to explain, for example, absolute Freedom and Moral Obligation are apodeictically demonstrated. An exhaustible joy fills me. It is incredible how great and overwhelming the admiration and the strength to humanity this system gives."
Next year, Fichte became acquainted with Kant in person in Königsberg in East Prussia (today's Karingrad). In the hope that his devotion to Kant's philosophy and his ability in philosophy be recognized by Kant himself, Johann Fichte wrote Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung (A Attempt of the Critique of All Revelations) in 1792, in which Kant's philosophical thought was applied to religious philosophy. Since Kant had not yet published his book on religious philosophy (his Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft appeared in 1798), Kant read Fichte's work and appreciated his philosophical gift, so much so that Kant found a job tutoring in Danzig and helped Fichte's work to be published. In 1792 this opus was published anonymously, i.e., but without the author's name due to some unknown error. Because the position of the book was so close to Kant's philosophy, the academic world thought that the author of Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung was Kant. Once it was revealed that the book was written by Fichte instead, he became instantaneously famous.
Johann Fichte went back to Zurich to marry Johanna and also got acquainted with Pestalozzi, the famous Swiss pedagogist. During his stay in Zurich, Fichte wrote books on the French Revolution and on the freedom of the press. During his early period, Fichte was deeply involved in practical philosophy.
In 1794 Johann Fichte was appointed as the successor to Reinhold, as Reinhold moved to Kiel University. For five years, till 1799, Johann Fichte was at Jena University devoting himself to the development of his own philosophical system and also exercised a profound influence on his students. On first appearance his first opus looks to be a theoretical philosophy:
Über den Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre
Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre in 1794.
Further, Fichte wanted to make his system more complete and more intelligible, thus he
Erste Einleitung in die Wissenschaftslehre
Zweite Einleitung in die Wissenschaftslehre
Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre in 1797.
Fichte also wrote books on practical philosophy:
Grundlage des Naturrechts nach Prinzipien der Wissenschaftslehre in 1796.
Das System der Sittenlehre nach der Prinzipien der Wissenschaftslehre in 1798.
In 1799 the so-called Der Atheismusstreit (the controversy over atheism) took place in Jena
whereby the bureaucrats accused Fichte of being an atheist.
Über den Grund unseres Glaubens an eine göttliche Weltregierung in 1798.
Johann Fichte argues that the moral order in the world is the most certain proof for the
existence of God: The very moral order which is fully active and effective in us is no other than the
proof that God exists. We need God solely as the universal moral order and need nothing else in
our religion. Beyond and above this universal moral order, according to Fichte, there exists no
basis to recognize a Special Being as the (mechanical, efficient) Cause of this universe. Anyone
who tries to acknowledge and ascribe Him a certain "consciousness" and "person" in this special
Being is to make God rather a finite being without being aware of what he is doing. The self that
has consciousness is, according to Fichte, a finite, limited, individual ego.
Against Fichte's moral argument for God as the Ground for the moral order of this universe (which denies Him consciousness and person, too,), the Government of Kursachsen (Kursaxony), whose capital was Dresden, decided to confiscate Fichte's books and placed an official complaint to the Government of Weimar that Atheism was taught at the University in Jena, which was a territory of Weimar Republic. In stead of taking a consoling attitude to this political uproar, Fichte was being extremely outraged and wrote a second article with a more radical tone:
Appellation an ad Publikum in 1799
Gerichtliche Verantwortung gegen die Anklage des Atheismus
The Government of Weimar wanted to settle this diplomatic friction rather quietly without both antagonizing the Government of Kursachsen and firing Fichte from the University. Nevertheless, Fichte's personality did not accept such a procedure (Wasn't he childish? Yes, Indeed he was.) and he wrote a radical complaint to the Government. Everyone concerned in the Government of Weimar got furious with Fichte and naturally fired him.
In Berlin Fichte wrote books and lectured as a private citizen (he could not get a teaching position due to that "scandal"). During the Berlin period, Fichte tended to be more religious and mystical in his philosophical thinking. The officials in Berlin were friendly to Fichte, people were enthusiastic, and Fichte enjoyed close friendships with such Romantic writers as the brothers Schlegel, Thiek and Schleiermacher.
Fichte wrote:
Die Bestimmung des Menschen
Der geschlossene Handelsstaat in 1800
Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre in 1801
Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters
Über das Wesen des Gelehrten
Die Anweisung zum seeligen Leben oder die Religionslehre in 1806
In 1806 and 1807 Prussia fought against Napoleon and lost the war and Berlin was also
occupied by the French army. Fichte gave a series of lectures appealing to Patriotism for the
Reden an die deutsche Nation in 1808
In 1810 a new university was founded in Berlin and Fichte became professor there.
In 1818 the so-called Freiheitskrieg (The War of Liberation) broke out, Paris was occupied in March and Napoleon was sent to St. Helena. Fichte became a victim of this war, for Johanna Fichte was working as a nurse at the military hospital and contracted an infectious disease from soldiers who were patients there. Fichte also became fatally infected.
Die Tatsachen des Bewußtseins
Epistemology and Universal Ontology:
Über den Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre
Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre (1694)
Grundriß der Eigentümlichen der Wissenschaftslehre (1795)
Erste Einleitung in die Wissenschaftslehre
Zweite Einleitung in die Wissenschaftslehre
Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre (1797)
Die Bestimmung des Menschen (1800)
Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre (1801)
Die Tatsachen der Bewußtseins (1810/1817)
Zurückforderung der Denkfreiheit
Über die französische Revolution [1793]
Grundlage des Naturrechts [1796]
System der Sittenlehre [1798]
Der geschlossene Handelsstaat [1800]
Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters
Über das Wesen des Gelehrten [1806]
Reden an die deutsche nation [1808]
Vorlesungen über die Staatslehre [1818/1820]
The Religious Philosophy:
Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung [1792]
Über den Grund unseres Glaubens an eine göttlichen Wetregierung [1798]
Appellation an das Publikum Gerichtliche Verantwortung gegen die Anklage des Atheismus [1799]
Die Anweisung zum seeligen Leben oder die Religionslehre [1807]
1. Die Wissenschaftslehre (The doctrine of Science)
1. The Objectives
Unfisnished Business of Kant
Completion of Idealism
1.-i. The task unfulfilled by Kant's philosophy: Radicalization of Idealism:
According to Fichte, Kant's greatest merit was in his discovery and establishment of
Transcendental Idealism (whereby the emphasis is on Idealism). Fichte contended that what Kant
had accomplished by Transcendental Idealism was to reverse the philosophical "common sense"
orientation such that our thought or understanding (reason) is the source of the universal and
necessary validity of knowledge, and not the knowledge's relatedness to nature (the external
world). In other words, Kant elucidated that the idea determines the object and not that the object
determines the idea (unlike the assumption of the British Empiricism). Our knowledge does not
derive from the external world, but no doubt being related to the external world, our knowledge
possesses the universal and necessary validity (as the criterion of its truth) by means of our reason
(our mind or consciousness).
In other words, Kant "divorced" the pursuit of knowledge (=philosophy) from its immersion in the external world (nature) and brought philosophy back to the inquiry into the Self itself or consciousness. This is in a senses a regression to philosophy of self and consciousness. Nevertheless, Fichte thought that most philosophers misunderstood the spirit of Kant's system and intention and adhered to the surface, namely the uses of the words. They were absolved in the thing in itself or the material elements and oversaw that Kant purported the opposite. Kant's interpreters intended to read their own prejudices into Kant's philosophy so that they took Kant's objections for Kant's thought. In other words, they merely made Kant's philosophy once again a dogmatism, while Kant had attempted to destroy dogmatism. For example, Reinhold's interpretation of Kant is a strange conjecture of a naive dogmatism and a decisive idealism. According to Fichte, however, that is inconceivable for the originator of such a great philosophy. Fichte thought that what Kant intended to accomplish in his philosophy was the unfinished business and Fichte's task was, so he conceived, to radicalize Kant's position and complete his intention by eliminating the dogmatic elements.
I.-ii. A systematic completion of idealism:
Fichte viewed that the biggest problem of Kant's philosophy consists in a "cleft" in his system, i.e., the "logical inconsistency" (according to Fichte) in Kant's philosophy. As Fichte saw it, Kant indeed established the transcendental philosophy to justify the objectivity of our knowledge of nature, and yet he failed to provide the philosophical foundation for Transcendental Idealism itself. What was left by Kant therefore, according to Fichte, was to establish the unity and integration of the system in the transcendental philosophy. The completion of Transcendental Idealism was to Fichte Die Wissenschaftslehre. According to Johann Fichte, in order to accomplish this, he must demonstrate that it is possible to logically deduce the entire system of philosophy from one and the only one principle. This was the subjectivity or "Self." In this sense, despite Fichte's contention, Fichte did not perfect Kant's philosophy as a mere epigonen (imitator and follower), but ended up with developing his own, considerably different philosophy.
2. The Details of Completing Transcendental Idealism:
What was the concrete shape and structure of the completion of Transcendental Idealism?
In the theoretical philosophy, Kant for example takes it for granted that the forms of thought may be applicable to the material elements (objectivity) of knowledge, and yet he did not work out and clarify the ground for its possibility, namely how our understanding which is totally different from its object can be applied to the object so that they would produce an a priori synthetic knowledge. For example, Kant attempted to deduce the category of substance or that of causality from the form of judgment, but according to Fichte, this actually means that the category of substance or the category of causality was not founded on the nature of intelligence, but was obtained from the experience to which Formal Logic applies. In order to authentically understand why reason must think in accordance with the categories, Fichte maintains, those Tathandlungen (the pure activities of the Self or I), i.e., the forms of our thought, must be demonstrated indeed to be the rules of our thinking. In other words, these categories are to be demonstrated as the condition of the possibility of self consciousness. Not only did Kant fail to do this, but he also failed to justify even space and time as forms of sensibility.
Even if Kant might have done this, so argues Fichte, then Kant was not able to provide the ground for and elucidate the origin of the material elements of our knowledge. Unless, before the eye of the philosophizing spirit, objectivity as a whole is "produced," so argues Fichte, dogmatism can not be completely eliminated. We cannot leave the thing in itself as something totally independent of our thought. According to Fichte, the thing in itself is nothing but that which the subjectivity has to justify and "produce!"
Just as the relation between form and matter of our knowledge has been "modified", the opposition and differentiation between understanding and senses are to be abolished and to be reduced to a common principle, namely subjectivity. Sensitivity is to be understood now also by the Spontaneity of subjectivity that the subjectivity determines itself.
In his practical philosophy (ethics), so insists Fichte, Kant left many questions unsolved. For example, according to Fichte, the so-called "categorical imperative" is not the ultimate. Therefore, the categorical imperative also to be philosophically justified. The categorical imperative is in itself the principle, but is to be deducible from the other, more fundamental principle. The authentic principle is the imperative of the absolute independence of reason (absolute Selbstständigkeit der Vernunft).
Furthermore, in order to obtain a substantial moral theory and not just a formal ethics, the relationship between moral consciousness and natural impulses must be well elaborated and elucidated.
Thirdly, the relationship between the theoretical philosophy and the practical philosophy in Kant's thought is untouched by Kant and thus it remained obscure.
What Kant did was that he only distinguished them. This dualism must be overcome.
3. Choice of Philosophical Standpoint (Idealism or Dogmatism?)
Fichte has his own new innovative conception of Idealism apart from Kantian philosophy. According to Fichte, only two logically consistent systems of philosophy are possible, the one is dogmatism or realism and the other is idealism. Namely, the former (dogmatism) attempts to deduce ideas from things, while the former (idealism) endeavors to produce being from thought. Dogmatism is in error regarding its principle (because no one can produce thought from being!). If dogmatism were maintained consistently throughout, then it turns out to be like the system of Spinoza in the sense of materialism.
In this position they cannot escape from causal determinism (and there is no space for freedom of humanity). For everything is of nature or a product of nature and is governed by mechanistic causality. Therefore, dogmatism views spirit as an epiphenomenon of natural process and denies the human spirit the metaphysical and moral autonomy and its immateriality and thus the dogmatism fails to recognize freedom. In reality, thought cannot be produced or deduced from matter, therefore materialism or dogmatism must be erroneous in principle. In other words, being comes from the representation (the idea) while no representation comes from being.
However, Fichte maintains that being can be deduced from the representation, as consciousness (Bewußtsein) is also being (Sein) and yet consciousness is more than being. For consciousness (Bewußtsein) is ein bewußtes Sein (a conscious being). Thus it is obvious, according to Fichte, that consciousness (Bewußtsein) not only contains being but knowledge of being as its moments as well. Idealism can explain dogmatism, but the latter (dogmatism) can not explain the former (idealism). The greatest error of dogmatism is dealing with the empty concepts above and beyond consciousness or self. The concept is empty when it lacks intuitive givenness, but according to Kant, there cannot be intellectual intuition in epistemology (Kant talks about intellectual intuition in Critique of Judgement). Fichte went far beyond Kant's assertion and contended that there is intellectual intuition which Kant failed to recognize in the human mind. The most pregnant sense of intuition is intellectual intuition which is intuition of the existing self to immediately grasp its own self. (Intuition is a way of cognition in which the object (that which is to be known) is known to the subject (the knower) immediately, I.e., without any mediation.)
Philosophy may be able to abstract and must abstract what is given. Thus philosophy must always behold its object at a higher view-point. However, the correct abstraction is to separate those which appear as a synthesis in our experience. It analyses our experiential consciousness because we must re-construct our experiential consciousness out of its essential elements and it produces the experiential consciousness right "in front of our own eyes." In other words, the correct abstraction is no other than the actual history of our experiential consciousness. This abstraction with the aim of genetic observation of the self does not go beyond experience, but penetrates into the depth of experience. This analysis of abstraction of experience in philosophy is, therefore, not transcendent, but transcendental, precisely because of the above. Such an abstraction, maintaining the immediate connection with intuition, provides an actual philosophy (die wirkliche Philosophie) in contrast with various formal philosophical systems. By means of remaining within consciousness, i.e., within the self, the significance and advantage of idealism consists in being capable of the correct abstraction without being involved in those empty concepts. This is the theoretical strength of idealism.
The law of morality asserts, "Thou shall be independent." (Du sollst selbstständig sein!) In other words, independence may be understood as freedom and autonomy of the human-being. Therefore, "You ought to be free and autonomous." As Kant clearly pointed out, if we as humans ought to be independent, we must be capable of being independent. The ought (Sollen) of being independent presupposes its can (Können). However, if we are of matter or deducible from matter, we are not able to be independent. Therefore, idealism, seen from the practical point of view, is the only philosophical point of view which is consistent with the moral concept of "ought." From a different way of looking at this, we may say that one who adheres to realism has not yet elevated himself/herself to being free and autonomous, thus to the domain of morality. For in order to be able to know that you are free, you must first of all liberate yourself. Idealism can demonstrate that the idealist is free, and yet to be an idealist it is necessary to liberate oneself as an autonomous agent, to thereby be able to fulfill the moral obligation. "Those who fulfill the moral obligation, and who are free, are those who choose idealism for the sake of freedom. What kind of philosophical position one chooses depends upon what kind of human-being she/he is."
Was für eine Philosophie man wähle, hängt sonach davon ab, was man für ein
Mensch ist: Denn ein philosophisches System ist nicht ein todter Hausrath, den man
ablegn oder annehmen könnte, wie es uns beliebte, sondern es ist beseelt durch die
Seele des Menschen, der es hat. Die erste Einleitung zirr Wissenschaftslehre
[What kind of philosophy one chooses depends upon what kind of human-being
one is. For a philosophical system is not a "dead" utensil which one could reject or
accept as if it were arbitrary. On the contrary, the philosophical system is enlivened
by the human soul that one possesses.]
On the other hand, according to Fichte, it does not repudiate idealism even if the law of morality demands the reality of the external world and that of other spirits, for idealism does not deny realism, namely the reality of everyday life. Idealism explains realism not as the ultimate point of view, but as the necessary viewpoint for our mundane way of life. Contrary to idealism, dogmatism is an attempt to explain the philosophical viewpoint from the vulgar point of view. Idealism is related to the philosophical explanation while the mundane consciousness is to dogmatic realism.
Fichte contends idealism is the only defensible, satisfactory viewpoint both theoretically and practically. Just like the natural impulse and the moral volition in human action, both realism and idealism are rooted in Reason. Idealism is the ultimate philosophical position because idealism is able to explain realism, while dogmatism cannot explain idealism.
4. What is the Science of Knowledge or die Wissenschaftslehre?
What is the nature and aim of the Fichtean Wissenschaftslehre (the doctrine of science =
Science of Knowledge)? Die Wissenschaftslehre is the authentically radicalized idealism and
elevates Kant's philosophy to the level in which the science of knowledge becomes an evident and
intuitive science as the philosophical basis for the transcendental philosophy. This evident science
(Fichte's philosophy) seeks to eliminate the dualism of intuition and thinking on the one hand and
dualism of knowledge and volition on the other so as to attain absolute monism. In other words,
this evident science demonstrates both these dichotomies as deducible from one and the only one
principle, namely the activity of the sole ego (die Tathandlung des einzigen Ichs).
Why this evident science is called die Wissenschaftslehre is because it adequately and ultimately answers the question,
How is knowledge (Wissen) possible?
How is experience possible?
This is not the science about "fact", but the science about "knowledge" (die Wissenschaft von Wissen). In Kant's terms, it is the transcendental philosophy. This "knowledge" does not include our everyday practical knowledge and common-sense knowledge, but exclusively deals with the knowledge of sciences. To Fichte, this knowledge (Wissen) includes not only common sense but the totality of all the scientific disciplines. Therefore, die Wissenschaftslehre is to intuitively elucidate the structure of our consciousness functioning both in our mundane life and in all the special sciences. Die Wissenschaftslehre deals with the necessary ideas or the necessary actions, while the other special sciences deal with arbitrary (willkürlich) ideas or action (=behavior). For example, we can arbitrarily represent the idea of triangle or circle, while the idea of space for instance is necessary and cannot be arbitrarily abstracted. Die Wissenschaftslehre intends to deal with those necessary ideas (=representations).
Why did intellect come to term with sensitivity?
Why did intellect come to intuitively know space and time?
Why did intellect create such specific categories as substance and causality?
Kant adequately described the activities of the intuitive spirit and the speculative spirit, but
as answers to the above questions, these activities are to be demonstrated as necessary and to be
deducted from the basis of all consciousness, i.e., from the Tathandlung des absoluten Ichs. Die
Tathandlung is contrasted to die Tatsache. Die Tathandlung is also called pure activity. The self is
according to Fichte nothing but this pure activity of the self or ego. Die Wissenschaftslehre
deduces everything systematically from the self as the pure activity (Tathandlung). the highest pure
activity of the self forms three principles.
The Tasks of The Wissenschaftslehre (Science of Knowledge)
(1) the Tasks Kant had left unsolved (viewed from Fichte's viewpoint)
a) Radicalization of idealism
b) Systematization of idealism
both of which is supposed to lead to the completion of idealism
(2) The Details for The Completion of Philosophy of Idealism
Theoretical Philosophy
Form and Matter
The forms of thought (=Categories)
The forms of sensibility (Space and Time)
That which is affected through senses by Thing itself
Understanding and Sensibility
Practical Philosophy
The origin of the affirmative proposition
The relation between the Moral Consciousness and
the Natural Impulse
The Relationship Between theoretical and Practical Philosophy
(3) Choice of Philosophical Stand.
The Theoretical Justification
The Practical Justification
The Choice of either
Realism (Dogmatism)
(4) Nature of Wissenschaftslehre
II. The Three Basic Principles (Die drei Grundsätze)
The highest forms of Tathandlung take three distinct Principles. They are led by the need for self reflection. In the case of thinking, What does the self necessarily do? It is the fact that in case of thinking (being conscious of) anything, the I inevitably thinks (is conscious) of one's own self and that we are not able to abstract this I or self from this activity at all.
That, I think, means either that the I affirms my self or that the I posits my self. Here it becomes obvious that thereby the affirming I and the affirmed I become apart, the positing I and the posited I, the thinking I and the I being thought of, distinguish themselves within the I or ego. This means further that the I or self is the subject and the object at the same time. The nature of self consciousness consists in the very identity of the representing and the represented. Such pure I or self is not a fact (Tatsache), but an activity (Tathandlung). this activity (Tathandlung) takes place unconsciously and it is by intellectual intuition that the self is aware of this unconscious pure activity. This is the meaning of the First principle. The First Principle says,
Das Ich setze ursprünglich schlechthin sein eigenes Sein.Grundlage, p. 98
[The self primarily and directly posits its own being.]
"Against the I the non-I posits itself".
From this Second Principle, the logical Principle of Contradiction is deduced and the
Category of Negation is deducible.
The First Principle and The Second Principle are to be reconciled. Since both the I and the non-I are opposing each other within the (original) I itself, they are to be posited as mutually limiting. In other words, they are to be posited as mutually annulling its own portion, i.e., they are to be posited as being divisible (teilbar).
Thus The Third Principle states:
"Ich setze im Ich dem teilbaren Ich ein teilbares Nicht-Ich entgegen." [p. 110].
From this Third Principle the logical Principle of Reason (der Satz des Grundes), for that
principle contains the reason for the synthesis and unity of the I and the non-I. The Category of
Determination (die Kategorie der Bestimmung) is deducible from this.
Simply, the I (without its opposing non-I) as such and the non-I (without its opposing I) as such alone are indeterminate, infinite. By the Third Principle, they are now determined as the divisible I and the divisible non-I and being posited as opposite, they are now mutually determinant and in consequence determined, definite. This is what Kant called the Category of Limitation.
Those three Categories which are deducible from the three Principles belong to The Categories of Quality (Reality, Negation and Limitation).
The I that is the object of the intellectual intuition is the I which serves as the Ground of all beings, and is by no means an individual I.
It is the I-ness, the Spirituality as such (die Geistigkeit überhaupt), the Eternal Reason itself (die ewige Vernunft).
This I as the Eternal Reason is both common to and the one with every I that is. It appears in every thought and exists in it as its ground. To this absolute I an individual I is merely its accident (die Akzidenz), its means or its particular expression. this absolute I is pure activity and not a Substance. The pure I could not be conceived as an entity existing before this pure activity. Being is the accident and the result of this pure activity. The pure activity of the I is primary, the substance is secondary. In Goethe's Faust in Studienzimmer Szene (1224-1237), Faust opened with the beginning of the Gospel according to St. John in the New Testament, and wondered about the proper translation for the Greek word, "Logos" in the context of "In the beginning was the Word (Am Anfang war das Wort [Luther's translation]). Instead of "the Word", Faust tried, "Meaning" (Sinn), then "Power" (Kraft), then finally he settled on the word "Action" (Tat). According to Fichte, this Tat is no other than his Tathandlung, the pure activity of the absolute I.
The three activities expressed by the above Three Principles are isolated, mutually independent activities of the I. To the contrary, these three positings (Setzungen) are but one and encompassing, total activity. It is the beginning of the total system of the unconscious various activities and the inquiry into these various activities is the task of the Wissenschaftslehre.
In the Wissenschaftslehre the thesis (=the position of the I), the antithesis (=the position of the non-I), and the synthesis (=the position of the I and the non-I in mutual limitation) repeatedly appear to elucidate Fichte's thought and this is the very forerunner of Hegel's dialectic. This may trace back to what Kant called "eine artige Betrachtung", his Categories. If we may go further back, we may find it in Jacob Boehme.
Within The Third Principle, there are two propositions included:
1) Das Ich setzt sich als bestimmt durch das Nicht-Ich.
(The I posits itself as determined by the non-I.)
2) Das Ich setzt sich als bestimmend das Nicht-Ich.
(The I posits itself as determining the non-I.)
1) deals with the cognitive activity of the self, while 2) deals with the practical activity of the self.
III. The theoretical I (the I as cognitive faculty)
One of the two propositions,"the I posits itself as being determined by the non-I" which are
contained in the Third principle purports the cognitive act of the self. Furthermore, this proposition contains two more propositions:
These two propositions are to be reconciled in such a way that a portion of the I is viewed
as determining, while the other portion of the I is viewed as being determined. Needless to say,
this is based on the Third Principle that reveals that the I is divisible(=teilbar). This "being
divisible" means "being capable of quantity." That one portion of the I is viewed as determining,
while the other portion of the I is viewed as being determined is the same as the I posits in itself the
negation in as much as posits in the non-I the reality, i.e., the same reality that is negated in the I is
to be posited in the non-I. from here the Category of Quantity is derived. Quantitatively viewed,
the being acted upon (=leiden) of the I is no other than the decrease of being active of the I. Being
acted upon (=leiden) is a certain quantity of being active, i.e., that of the I. Unless the I is active, it
is acted upon, or unless the I is active, the non-I is active. In short, the non-I is after all a portion
of the I itself. Fichte tried to demonstrate this relationship of the I and the non-I by means of the
analogy between the light (das Licht) and the darkness (das Finsternis), Reality, Negation and
Limitation. Thus from the Limitation as one of the Categories - the Third Category of Quality, the
Categories of Relation are to be derived.
In the propositions, "The I is acted upon by the non-I" and "The I is active", the relationship between the I and the non-I are carefully examined, then the Three Categories of Relation, namely, 1. Mutual Determination, 2. Causality, 3. Substance,
1. The Category of Mutual Determination (Wechselwirkung):
The Reality, once negated in the I, is posited with equal quantity.
3. The Category of Substance:
The being-acted upon (leiden=suffering) of the I is the limitation of the I upon itself.
Since the I's being-acted-upon (suffering=leiden) is viewed as an accident at its very portion, the activity of the I is fundamentally the substance. Thus from this the Category of Substance is derived. So subsist the necessary relationships among the three Categories of Relation which are derivable therefrom.
Furthermore, these categories represent three philosophical positions:
1) In view of Causality,
Dogmatic Realism, e.g., Spinoza's philosophy.
That the I possesses Substantiality, while the non-I possesses Causality, can be viewed
also as these two functions contained the (absolute) I, or this can further construed as the two,
opposite directional powers. This power as a whole is the striving to infinity and it is also said to
be the limitless productive power (Produktionsvermögen).
Compare with Kant's distinction of Imagination;
Die Einbildungskraft
The effect of the productive imagination is the object as such. The totality of the (external) reality is produced by this imagination.
Ohne diese wunderbare Vermögen läßt sich gar nichts im menschlichen Geiste erklären, und auf welches dürfte sich gar leicht der ganze Mechanismus des menschlichen Geistes gründen [Grundlage, p. 208]).
The Deduction of Representations
1) Feeling (Gefühl) or sensation (Empfindung)
IV. The Practical I (Das Praktische Ich)
The deduction of the various representations reveals the various steps of our cognition:
The Sensory Intuition
Reproductive Imagination
The Spiritual Judgment
In the section on theoretical philosophy, Fichte did not explain why the I, hindering itself
from going to the infinity of its own self, goes back to its self. In order that the consciousness or
cognition is formed, it was necessary to "give" or "produce" within itself the first limitation or
hindrance (Anstoß). By so doing, Sensation was produced, and on that basis Understanding
through reflections, the objective world was "built" or produced. Unless, therefore, the I limits its
own infinite activity, there would be no representation, nor objectivity itself.
Why does consciousness, representation, or the world exist at all? "Where did the primordial non-I come from? Where did the hindrance (Anstoß) come from which hinders the I from going to infinity and has it return to the I itself?"
As long as we remain within the domain of the theoretical I, we are not able to answer these questions. For the theoretical I itself was born from encountering that hindrance. This hindrance (der Anstoß) has to be deduced, which is only possible in the domain of the practical I. The Primacy of the Practical Reason that Kant emphasized will be able to do so.
To become the theoretical I by limiting itself is, for the I, to become the practical I. There are the ability of representation and the world of representation in the theoretical world because we, as the practical Is, provide ourselves with the possibility of fulfilling the moral obligation. Why we are Intellect is because we may be able to be Will. We exist and, in consequence, recognize (the world), because we must act, and morally act. (To will and to act, it is necessary to have its object to "act upon.") To act means to give the form to its matter, to "process" and modify objectivity. The objective world is but the means to accomplish our moral end. Thus, "the objective world is the sensory matter for our moral obligation." It is not possible for the practical I to act, unless there is the objective world to act on. In other words, unless there is a hindrance, unless there is the non I, the practical I cannot act. Thus, the hindrance (der Anstoß) is deduced.
Moral obligation is the one and the only one in-itself (das An sich) in the phenomenal world (the moral ought is the form!). That is to say, genuine reality in the phenomenal world is this moral ought. "The so called Being in itself (das An sich) of the thing is precisely that which we produce (as its form) from that very thing. Objectivity exists in order to be gradually abandoned, because objectivity exists to be processed and modified so that the activity of the I may reveal itself.
By means of the same explanation as the necessity of the external world becomes clear, it becomes apparent that the infinite I diverges itself into many empirical Is' or into individuals. By the same token we now understand why the infinite I does not immediately actualize its own plan, but has the finite spirits do so as its means. In his later works, Fichte called this infinite I "the universal Life" (das allgemeine Leben) or "the Godhead" (die Gottheit). The moral act can only be performed by the finite, individual I. Without hindrance, i.e., resistance, there is no act, without war (=moral conflict), there is no morality, according to Fichte. Needless to say, this individuality must be overcome (and made into an infinite I) by the achievement of the moral act, for the very reason of which there must exist the individual.
Morality is to overcome both the inner and outer nature.
Now, what does Fichte mean by "nature?" In the practical I, there are to be clarified the various steps of impulse or drive (Trieb). This Trieb (impulse) is the inner nature. The practical I constitutes the system of necessary impulses just like the theoretical I did. According to Johann Fichte, the I is a infinite strife or endeavor (of activity) = ein unendliches Streben. When the endeavor is posited by the I itself as the inner, subjective one, it is called drive or impulse (der Trieb). When this Trieb arises solely out of the I, then this drive is related to and directed toward the I alone. However, the nature of the I consists in reflection, thus the I's drive is the drive for reflection. The reflection needs its object and its drive is the drive for representation (der Vorstellungstrieb), whose activity does posit the object. That is, therefore, the drive to produce reality (der Produktionstrieb).
This drive for reality is called yearning (das Sehnen), it is thus, further, the drive for satisfaction (der Befriedigungstrieb). This is accomplished when there exists a harmony between the drive and the act. When not matched, dissatisfaction is felt. Sometimes the act to satisfy a particular drive itself a drive. That is the endeavor which discovers satisfaction in its own act itself and not by any consequence. This absolute drive (der absolute Trieb) is der Trieb um des Triebes willen, i.e., das Streben um des Streben willen. Fichte called this den sittlichen Trieb (=the moral drive or impulse). This is in itself the practical I itself. thus various drives are derived. Der kategorische Imperativ means the absolute Law for Law's sake, "Du sollst...!"
unconditional or universal obligation
mediated particular obligation
By starting with the immediate, highest principle, the task of the Science of Knowledge is to overcome the dualism between the intuition and thinking, that between cognition and will. Thus, once it is accomplished, the Science of Knowledge is completed.
2. Morallity (Sittlichkeit) And Jurisprudence
In Fichte's philosophy, the Non-I possesses a negative significance in that it's role is to disturb or hinder the activities of the I. In Fichte's system, in this sense, the Non-I or Nature cannot become a philosophical theme as such.
Therefore, there is no Philosophy of Nature in Fichte's philosophy.
The areas to which the principles of the Science of Knowledge is applicable are such spiritual aspects of reality as Morality, Jurisprudence, History and Religion.
Die Trägheit (laziness) is the volition which does not heighten itself to the clear
consciousness of moral duty and freedom beyond the natural impulse of self preservation. For a
truly moral agent, there is no such a thing as leisure (Trägheit) or rest. An moral action will
incessantly arouse the next. The moral imperative would be:
"Werd' ich beruhigt je mich auf ein Faulbett legen, So sei es gleich um ich getran!"
The above is the formal, universal moral principle.
Do what is one's own moral task, one's own ethical share!
Going beyond the formality and abstractness of Kantian moral imperative, Fichte attempted
to provide a more concrete imperative peculiar to each individual moral person by establishing the
principle of the individual's self independence.
The moral duties
I-i) The universal, conditional moral duty:
The principle of morality demands to govern the sensory impulse by means of the pure impulse, the absolute impulse (=the impulse for the impulse sake, conf. above). Our sensory impulse, being directed to the fulfillment of pleasure and leisure, makes us dependent on the object (= the external world, the outer nature, = the Non-I).
Contrary to this, the pure or absolute moral impulse, being directed to the self and the pure self satisfaction, pursues the industriousness labor and independence (of the outer nature). In our moral pursuit, the pleasure is not allowed to be the object of our behavior. Morality is the activity for the sake of activity. Just as Kant held, Fichte, too, maintained that, should our will or action produce pleasure by chance, such a will or action cannot be called "moral." Our moral will or act must be pursued only for the sake of the moral ought.
Das radikale Böse ist die Trägheit!
Be Independent, behave autonomously and liberate oneself: Make sure that one
ought to make each action in the series of actions such that such a series of action
will ultimately result in the self's becoming autonomous.
Fichte's view of morality is well represented by Goethe's words in Faust,
[If I would soothingly lie on the easy chair, I would have finished!] (Faust I. 1692-1693)
Now, needless to say, each individual moral person is given a task peculiar to oneself by the world order. Each individual person ought to do what only that individual person can and ought to do.
In order for the self of a concrete moral individual person to attain the freedom, there are 4 stages:
In order for a human being to free oneself from the laziness (Trägheit) as the original sinn (das radikale Böse), one needs to have an ideal example of moral action. The ideal form of freedom by a genius individual is necessary to be shown to us.
Such an ideal example may be found among the founders of the great religions (e.g., Christ or Buddha). The moral conviction of a religious founder is widely circulated by the church, but the dogmas of the church are to be viewed rather as symbols and not as the doctrines themselves. Therefore, the church is a kind of convenient and temporal institution for morality and die Notkriche (this temporally necessary church) should be taken over by the Church of Reason (die Vernunftkirche) through our moral philosophy.
Fichte established a system of duties or moral obligations.
The end of the moral principles is Reason as such, whereby the purpose of the moral principles is to have the state or government of Reason appear in the midst of the world of sensibility. The means to fulfill this end is the particular, finite self or the empirical individual person. The realization of this purpose depends upon this means' having the right constitution. Thus, the moral duties must be related both to the end and to the means.
I) conditioned or mediated duties (the means)
I-i) universal moral duties
I-ii) particular moral duties
II) unconditional or immediate duties (the purpose)
II-iii) universal moral duties
II-iv) particular moral duties
This is each individual's moral duty and yet it must be universal.
I-ii) The particular, conditional moral duties:
II-iii) The universal, unconditional moral duty:
Behandele den anderen seiner moralischen Bestimmung gemäß!
II-iv) The particular, unconditional moral duties:
Regarding his philosophy of law, Fichte held the law of nature quite independent of morality (Kant held the same position, although Fichte's Grundlage des Naturrechts (The Foundations of the Natural Law - 1798) appeared before Kant's book on the natural law).
According to Fichte, the jurisprudence cannot be deduced from moral laws. The moral law can sanction a certain concept of jurisprudence and yet it cannot produce it.
A law is valid quite independently of morality. While a law allows to exercise a certain right under any circumstance, morality sometimes forbids it. While the moral law under any circumstances requires good will and would not allow anything else than posited by good will, the law is valid without good will. Jurisprudence is concerned with expression of freedom in the sensible world. That is, such an expression is an external behavior, to which the law is related.
The law can coerce, while morality cannot. The law is concerned about the behavior in the world of senses and is not concerned with "intention" (die Gesinnung) which constitutes the core of morality (and not the consequence or pleasure that the action will bring about).
For philosophical justification, it is necessary to deduce the law as the necessary behavior of the I, namely as the condition for the self-consciousness. According to Fichte, the I must posit itself as a finite Individual, i.e., must posit itself as being related to the finite individuals. By so doing, as a finite individual, I must set itself in legal relation to the other rational, individual beings. In other words, I as finite, particular individuals, a finite I and the other finite Is recognize each other's freedom and accordingly act responsibly.
A finite rational being cannot posit itself, unless it acknowledges its own freedom in the external sensory world. In order to acknowledge one's own free activities, it is necessary to further recognize other finite rational beings and other's free activities as well: That means, a finite rational I is in legal relation to the other rational Is.
Secondly, it means further that a finite I recognizes its material corporeal body to itself and acknowledges itself as being under the influence of the others.
The community of the finite free individual beings is the condition for the individual self consciousness, and yet in order that such a community of the free agents may be possible, the principle of juris.
Die Trägheit (laziness) is the volition which does not heighten itself to the clear consciousness of moral duty and freedom beyond the natural impulse of self preservation. For a truly moral agent, there is no such a thing as leisure (Trägheit) or rest. An moral action will incessantly arouse the next. The moral imperative would be:
"Werd' ich beruhigt je mich auf ein Faulbett legen, So sei es gleich um ich getran!"
The above is the formal, universal moral principle.
Do what is one's own moral task, one's own ethical share!
Going beyond the formality and abstractness of Kantian moral imperative, Fichte attempted
to provide a more concrete imperative peculiar to each individual moral person by establishing the
principle of the individual's self independence.
The moral duties
I-i) The universal, conditional moral duty:


text:
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The Samsung Galaxy S5 Mini will be almost identical to its bigger brother, a leaked photograph and benchmark performance results reveal.
It has the same dimpled plastic rear cover as the regular S5, complete with heart rate monitor below an 8-megapixel camera; there's also a fingerprint reader on the Home button for increased security.
The display measures 4.5 inches, is Super AMOLED, and has a 720p HD resolution. The S5 Mini is powered by a 1.4GHz quad-core Exynos 3 processor with 1.5GB of RAM. There's 16GB of storage and this can be increased thanks to a microSD card slot.
Samsung is hosting a media event in New York on 12 June, where it is thought to be announcing a new range of tablets; the S5 Mini could well be revealed there too.
Source: SamMobile


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By Jay Jay
Apple devices held their own against the massive array of Android products on Black Friday, a tech shopping gala that saw 91% increase in online sales compared to the previous year, says a study conducted by IBM.
This year's Black Friday saw almost 59% of all web traffic in the UK dominated by mobile phones and tablets. While smartphone sales (39%) were twice as high as those of tablets (20%), iOS devices dominated with a contribution of over 35% compared to just 11% of Android devices.
However, in terms of average value per order, both operating systems were almost at par with iOS at £88.95 and Android devices averaging at £88.81 per order. Apple's dominance was not due to, but despite its approach towards Black Friday in the UK that had been quite in contrast with most smartphone and tablet brands operating on Android platforms.
While Android gadgets saw massive price cuts and lucrative offers to churn up volumes, Apple instead chose to donate a portion of sales to RED, a charity fund aimed at AIDS-affected populace in Africa.
Apple's customers in the US received gift cards to make purchases in iTunes, iBooks and the App store, UK saw neither any discounts (unlike in 2013) nor any gift cards on offer. Resellers like Albion, KRCS and Stromfront were the only portals that offered 20% discounts on iTunes credit.
Commenting on the landmark online traffic on Black Friday, James Lovell, the European retail solution leader, said 'It has become clear from their behaviour that consumers are increasingly using technology as part of their shopping experience… Last year's benchmark revealed strong mobile growth, and this year's Black Friday results confirm that mobile has become the dominant channel.'


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A novel by Ian Rankin
The Zephyr program is monitoring the progress of Britain's only spy satellite. When Zephyr goes briefly off the air, Hepton finds himself in danger and the mistrusted Dreyfuss, sole survivor of a shuttle crash, has the only key to the riddle that must be solved if both men are to stay alive.
Used availability for Ian Rankin's Westwind
See all available used copies of this book at Abebooks UK or Abebooks US
Hardback Editions
March 1990 : UK Hardback
|Title: Westwind
Author(s): Ian Rankin
ISBN: 0-7126-3626-9 / 978-0-7126-3626-1 (UK edition)
Publisher: Barrie & Jenkins
Availability: Amazon Amazon UK
September 1991 : UK Hardback
|Title: Westwind
Author(s): Ian Rankin
ISBN: 0-7089-2505-7 / 978-0-7089-2505-8 (UK edition)
Publisher: Ulverscroft Large Print Books Ltd
Availability: Amazon Amazon UK Amazon CA
Paperback Editions
March 1991 : UK Paperback
|Title: Westwind (Coronet Books)
Author(s): Ian Rankin
ISBN: 0-340-54596-8 / 978-0-340-54596-6 (UK edition)
Publisher: Coronet Books
Availability: Amazon Amazon UK Amazon CA
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