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Control of Gene Expression
- Emily Park
- 2 years ago
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1 PER EIG 8 ontrol of Gene Expression n organism s D encodes all of the R and protein molecules that are needed to make its cells. Yet a complete description of the D sequence of an organism be it the few million nucleotides of a bacterium or the few billion nucleotides in each human cell does not enable us to reconstruct the organism any more than a list of all the English words in a dictionary enables us to reconstruct a play by Shakespeare. We need to know how the elements in the D sequence or the words on a list work together to make the masterpiece. In cell biology, the question comes down to gene expression. Even the simplest single-celled bacterium can use its genes selectively for example, switching genes on and off to make the enzymes needed to digest whatever food sources are available. nd, in multicellular plants and animals, gene expression is under even more elaborate control. Over the course of embryonic development, a fertilized egg cell gives rise to many cell types that differ dramatically in both structure and function. he differences between a mammalian neuron and a lymphocyte, for example, are so extreme that it is difficult to imagine that the two cells contain the same D (Figure 8 1). For this reason, and because cells in an adult organism rarely lose their distinctive characteristics, biologists originally suspected that genes might be selectively lost when a cell becomes specialized. We now know, however, that nearly all the cells of a multicellular organism contain the same genome. ell differentiation is instead achieved by changes in gene expression. undreds of different cell types carry out a range of specialized functions that depend upon genes that are only switched on in that cell type: for OVERVIEW OF GEE EXPRESSIO OW RSRIPIOL SWIES WORK E MOLEULR MEISMS REE SPEILIZED ELL YPES POS-RSRIPIOL OROLS
2 270 hapter 8 ontrol of Gene Expression example, the cells of the pancreas make the protein hormone insulin, while the cells of the pancreas make the hormone glucagon; the lymphocytes of the immune system are the only cells in the body to make antibodies, while developing red blood cells are the only cells that make the oxygen-transport protein hemoglobin. he differences between a neuron, a lymphocyte, a liver cell, and a red blood cell depend upon the precise control of gene expression. In each case the cell is using only some of the genes in its total repertoire. In this chapter, we shall discuss the main ways in which gene expression is controlled in bacterial and eucaryotic cells. lthough some mechanisms of control apply to both sorts of cells, eucaryotic cells, through their more complex chromosomal structure, have ways of controlling gene expression that are not available to bacteria. neuron lymphocyte 25 mm Figure 8 1 neuron and a lymphocyte share the same genome. he long branches of this neuron from the retina enable it to receive electrical signals from many cells and carry them to many neighboring cells. he lymphocyte, a white blood cell involved in the immune response to infection (drawn to scale), moves freely through the body. Both of these mammalian cells contain the same genome, but they express different Rs and proteins. (euron from B.B. Boycott in Essays on the ervous System [R. Bellairs and E.G. Gray, eds.]. Oxford, U.K.: larendon Press, Oxford University Press.) OVERVIEW OF GEE EXPRESSIO ow does an individual cell specify which of its many thousands of genes to express? his decision is an especially important problem for multicellular organisms because, as the animal develops, cell types such as muscle, nerve, and blood cells become different from one another, eventually leading to the wide variety of cell types seen in the adult. Such differentiation arises because cells make and accumulate different sets of R and protein molecules: that is, they express different genes. he Different ell ypes of a Multicellular Organism ontain the Same D s discussed above, cells have the ability to change which genes they express without altering the nucleotide sequence of their D. But how do we know this? If D were altered irreversibly during development, the chromosomes of a differentiated cell would be incapable of guiding the development of the whole organism. o test this idea, a nucleus from a skin cell of an adult frog was injected into a frog egg whose own nucleus had been removed. In at least some cases the egg developed normally into a tadpole, indicating that the transplanted skin cell nucleus cannot have lost any critical D sequences (Figure 8 2). Such nuclear transplantation experiments have also been carried out successfully using differentiated cells taken from adult mammals, including sheep, cows, pigs, goats, and mice. nd in plants, individual cells removed from a carrot, for example, can be shown to regenerate an entire adult carrot plant. hese experiments all show that the D in specialized cell types still contains the entire set of instructions needed to form a whole organism. he cells of an organism therefore differ not because they contain different genes, but because they express them differently. Different ell ypes Produce Different Sets of Proteins he extent of the differences in gene expression between different cell types may be roughly gauged by comparing the protein composition of cells in liver, heart, brain, and so on using the technique of two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (see Panel 4 6, p. 167). Experiments of this kind reveal that many proteins are common to all the cells of a multicellular organism. hese housekeeping proteins include the structural proteins of chromosomes, R polymerases, D repair enzymes, ribosomal proteins, enzymes involved in glycolysis and other basic metabolic processes, and many of the proteins that form the cytoskeleton. Each different cell type also produces specialized proteins that are responsible for the cell s distinctive properties. In mammals, for example, hemoglobin is
3 n Overview of Gene Expression 271 () nucleus in pipette skin cells in culture dish adult frog tadpole nucleus injected into egg normal embryo unfertilized egg nucleus destroyed by UV light (B) section of carrot proliferating cell mass separated cells in rich liquid medium single cell organized clone of dividing cells young embryo young plant carrot () cows epithelial cells from oviduct unfertilized egg cell meiotic spindle meiotic spindle and associated chromosomes removed donor cell placed next to egg ELERI PULSE USES DOOR ELL O FUSE WI EULEED EGG ELL made in reticulocytes, the cells that develop into red blood cells, but it cannot be detected in any other cell type. Many proteins in a cell are produced in such small numbers that they cannot be detected by the technique of gel electrophoresis. more sensitive technique, called mass spectrometry (see Figure 4 45) can be used to detect even rare proteins, and can also provide information about whether the proteins are covalently modified (for example by phosphorylation). Gene expression can also be studied by monitoring the mrs that encode proteins, rather than the proteins themselves. Estimates of the number of different mr sequences in human cells suggest that, at any one time, a typical differentiated human cell expresses perhaps ,000 genes from a repertoire of about 25,000. It is the expression of a different collection of genes in each cell type that causes the large variations seen in the size, shape, behavior, and function of differentiated cells. ELL DIVISIO reconstructed zygote embryo embryo placed in foster mother calf Figure 8 2 Differentiated cells contain all the genetic instructions necessary to direct the formation of a complete organism. () he nucleus of a skin cell from an adult frog transplanted into an egg whose nucleus has been removed can give rise to an entire tadpole. he broken arrow indicates that to give the transplanted genome time to adjust to an embryonic environment, a further transfer step is required in which one of the nuclei is taken from the early embryo that begins to develop and is put back into a second enucleated egg. (B) In many types of plants, differentiated cells retain the ability to dedifferentiate, so that a single cell can form a clone of progeny cells that later give rise to an entire plant. () differentiated cell from an adult cow introduced into an enucleated egg from a different cow can give rise to a calf. Different calves produced from the same differentiated cell donor are genetically identical and are therefore clones of one another. (, modified from J.B. Gurdon, Sci. m. 219(6):24 35, With permission from the Estate of Bunji agawa.)
4 272 hapter 8 ontrol of Gene Expression ell an hange the Expression of Its Genes in Response to External Signals Most of the specialized cells in a multicellular organism are capable of altering their patterns of gene expression in response to extracellular cues. For example, if a liver cell is exposed to a glucocorticoid hormone (a type of steroid), the production of several specific proteins is dramatically increased. Released in the body during periods of starvation or intense exercise, glucocorticoids signal the liver to increase the production of glucose from amino acids and other small molecules. he set of proteins whose production is induced by glucocorticoids includes enzymes such as tyrosine aminotransferase, which helps to convert tyrosine to glucose. When the hormone is no longer present, the production of these proteins drops to its normal level. Other cell types respond to glucocorticoids differently. In fat cells, for example, the production of tyrosine aminotransferase is reduced, while some other cell types do not respond to glucocorticoids at all. hese examples illustrate a general feature of cell specialization: different cell types often respond in different ways to the same extracellular signal. Underlying such adjustments are features of the gene expression pattern that do not change and give each cell type its permanently distinctive character. Gene Expression an Be Regulated at Many of the Steps in the Pathway from D to R to Protein If differences among the various cell types of an organism depend on the particular genes that the cells express, at what level is the control of gene expression exercised? s we saw in the last chapter, there are many steps in the pathway leading from D to protein, and all of them can in principle be regulated. hus a cell can control the proteins it makes by (1) controlling when and how often a given gene is transcribed, (2) controlling how an R transcript is spliced or otherwise processed, (3) selecting which mrs are exported from the nucleus to the cytosol, (4) selectively degrading certain mr molecules, (5) selecting which mrs are translated by ribosomes, or (6) selectively activating or inactivating proteins after they have been made (Figure 8 3). Gene expression can be regulated at each of these steps, and throughout this chapter we will describe some of the key control points along their pathway from D to protein. For most genes, however, the control of transcription (step number 1 in Figure 8 3) is paramount. his makes sense because only transcriptional control can ensure that no unnecessary intermediates are synthesized. So it is the regulation of transcription and the D and protein components that determine which genes a cell transcribes into R that we address first. Figure 8 3 Eucaryotic gene expression can be controlled at several different steps. Examples of regulation at each of the steps are known, although for most genes the main site of control is step 1: transcription of a D sequence into R. D 1 transcriptional control ULEUS YOSOL mr degradation control R transcript mr mr 2 R processing control 3 R transport and localization control inactive mr translation control 5 protein activity control 6 protein 4 inactive protein active protein
5 ow ranscriptional Switches Work 273 OW RSRIPIOL SWIES WORK Only 50 years ago the idea that genes could be switched on and off was revolutionary. his concept was a major advance, and it came originally from the study of how E. coli bacteria adapt to changes in the composition of their growth medium. Many of the same principles apply to eucaryotic cells. owever, the enormous complexity of gene regulation in higher organisms, combined with the packaging of their D into chromatin, creates special challenges and some novel opportunities for control as we shall see. We begin with a discussion of the transcription regulators, proteins that control gene expression at the level of transcription. ranscription Is ontrolled by Proteins Binding to Regulatory D Sequences ontrol of transcription is usually exerted at the step at which the process is initiated. In hapter 7, we saw that the promoter region of a gene attracts the enzyme R polymerase and correctly orients the enzyme to begin its task of making an R copy of the gene. he promoters of both bacterial and eucaryotic genes include an initiation site, where transcription actually begins, and a sequence of approximately 50 nucleotides that extends upstream from the initiation site (if one likens the direction of transcription to the flow of a river). his region contains sites that are required for the R polymerase to bind to the promoter. In addition to the promoter, nearly all genes, whether bacterial or eucaryotic, have regulatory D sequences that are used to switch the gene on or off. Some regulatory D sequences are as short as 10 nucleotide pairs and act as simple gene switches that respond to a single signal. Such simple switches predominate in bacteria. Other regulatory D sequences, especially those in eucaryotes, are very long (sometimes more than 10,000 nucleotide pairs) and act as molecular microprocessors, integrating information from a variety of signals into a command that dictates how often transcription is initiated. Regulatory D sequences do not work by themselves. o have any effect, these sequences must be recognized by proteins called transcription regulators,which bind to the D. It is the combination of a D sequence and its associated protein molecules that acts as the switch to control transcription. he simplest bacterium codes for several hundred transcription regulators, each of which recognizes a different D sequence and thereby regulates a distinct set of genes. umans make many more several thousand signifying the importance and complexity of this form of gene regulation in producing a complex organism. Proteins that recognize a specific D sequence do so because the surface of the protein fits tightly against the special surface features of the double helix in that region. hese features will vary depending on the nucleotide sequence, and thus different proteins will recognize different nucleotide sequences. In most cases, the protein inserts into the major groove of the D helix (see Figure 5 7) and makes a series of molecular contacts with the base pairs. he protein forms hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrophobic interactions with the edges of the bases, usually without disrupting the hydrogen bonds that hold the base pairs together (Figure 8 4). lthough each individual contact is weak, the 20 or so contacts that are typically formed at the protein D interface combine to ensure that the interaction is both highly specific and very strong; indeed, protein D interactions are among the tightest and most specific molecular interactions known in biology.
6 274 hapter 8 ontrol of Gene Expression Figure 8 4 transcription regulator binds to the major groove of a D helix. Only a single contact between the protein and one base pair in D is shown. ypically, the protein D interface would consist of such contacts, each involving a different amino acid and each contributing to the strength of the protein D interaction. transcription regulator major groove 3 2 asparagine O O O outer limit of sugar phosphate backbone on outside of double helix minor groove Figure 8 5 ranscription regulators contain a variety of D-binding motifs. ( and B) Front and side views of the homeodomain a structural motif found in many eucaryotic D-binding proteins (Movie 8.1). It consists of three consecutive helices, which are shown as cylinders in this figure. Most of the contacts with the D bases are made by helix 3 (which is seen end-on in B). he asparagine (sn) in this helix contacts an adenine in the manner shown in Figure 8 4. () he zinc finger motif is built from an helix and a sheet (the latter shown as a twisted arrow) held together by a molecule of zinc (indicated by the colored spheres). Zinc fingers are often found in clusters covalently joined together to allow the helix of each finger to contact the D bases in the major groove (Movie 8.2). he illustration here shows a cluster of three zinc fingers. (D) leucine zipper motif. his Dbinding motif is formed by two helices, each contributed by a different protein molecule. Leucine zipper proteins thus bind to D as dimers, gripping the double helix like a clothespin on a clothesline (Movie 8.3). Each of these motifs makes many contacts with D. For simplicity, only the hydrogenbond contacts are shown in (B), and none of the individual protein D contacts are shown in () and (D). lthough each example of protein D recognition is unique in detail, many of the proteins responsible for gene regulation recognize D through one of several structural motifs. hese fit into the major groove of the D double helix and form tight associations with a short stretch of D base pairs. he D-binding motifs shown in Figure 8 5 the homeodomain, the zinc finger, and the leucine zipper are found in transcription regulators that control the expression of thousands of different genes in virtually all eucaryotic organisms. Frequently, D-binding proteins bind in pairs (dimers) to the D helix. Dimerization roughly doubles the area of contact with the D, thereby greatly increasing the strength and specificity of the protein D interaction. Because two different proteins can pair in different combinations, dimerization also makes it possible for many different D sequences to be recognized by a limited number of proteins. () () 3 base pair D 2 1 sugar phosphate backbone 2 OO 2 1 (B) (D) rg Ser rg 3 sn
7 ow ranscriptional Switches Work 275 ranscription Switches llow ells to Respond to hanges in the Environment he simplest and most completely understood examples of gene regulation occur in bacteria and in the viruses that infect them. he genome of the bacterium E. coli consists of a single circular D molecule of about nucleotide pairs. his D encodes approximately 4300 proteins, although only a fraction of these are made at any one time. Bacteria regulate the expression of many of their genes according to the food sources that are available in the environment. For example, in E. coli, five genes code for enzymes that manufacture the amino acid tryptophan. hese genes are arranged in a cluster on the chromosome and are transcribed from a single promoter as one long mr molecule from which the five proteins are translated (Figure 8 6). When tryptophan is present in the surroundings and enters the bacterial cell, these enzymes are no longer needed and their production is shut off. his situation arises, for example, when the bacterium is in the gut of a mammal that has just eaten a meal rich in protein. hese five coordinately expressed genes are part of an operon a set of genes that are transcribed into a single mr. Operons are common in bacteria but are not found in eucaryotes, where genes are transcribed and regulated individually (see Figure 7 36). We now understand in considerable detail how the tryptophan operon functions. Within the promoter is a short D sequence (15 nucleotides in length) that is recognized by a transcription regulator. When this protein binds to this nucleotide sequence, termed the operator, it blocks access of R polymerase to the promoter; this prevents transcription of the operon and production of the tryptophan-producing enzymes. he transcription regulator is known as the tryptophan repressor, and it is controlled in an ingenious way: the repressor can bind to D only if it has also bound several molecules of the amino acid tryptophan (Figure 8 7). he tryptophan repressor is an allosteric protein (see Figure 4 37): the binding of tryptophan causes a subtle change in its three-dimensional structure so that the protein can bind to the operator sequence. When the concentration of free tryptophan in the cell drops, the repressor no longer binds tryptophan and thus no longer binds to D, and the tryptophan operon is transcribed. he repressor is thus a simple device that switches production of a set of biosynthetic enzymes on and off according to the availability of the end product of the pathway that the enzymes catalyze. he bacterium can respond very rapidly to the rise in tryptophan concentration because the tryptophan repressor protein itself is always present in the cell. he gene that encodes it is continuously transcribed at a low level, so that a small amount of the repressor protein is always being made. Such unregulated gene expression is known as constitutive gene expression. promoter operator E D B enzymes for tryptophan biosynthesis E. coli chromosome mr molecule QUESIO 8 1 Bacterial cells can take up the amino acid tryptophan (rp) from their surroundings, or if there is an insufficient external supply they can synthesize tryptophan from other small molecules. he rp repressor is a transcription regulator that shuts off the transcription of genes that code for the enzymes required for the synthesis of tryptophan (see Figure 8 7).. What would happen to the regulation of the tryptophan operon in cells that express a mutant form of the tryptophan repressor that (1) cannot bind to D, (2) cannot bind tryptophan, or (3) binds to D even in the absence of tryptophan? B. What would happen in scenarios (1), (2), and (3) if?the cells, in addition, produced normal tryptophan repressor protein from a second, normal gene? Figure 8 6 cluster of bacterial genes can be transcribed from a single promoter. Each of these five genes encodes a different enzyme; all of the enzymes are needed to synthesize the amino acid tryptophan. he genes are transcribed as a single mr molecule, a feature that allows their expression to be coordinated. lusters of genes transcribed as a single mr molecule are common in bacteria. Each such cluster is called an operon; expression of the tryptophan operon shown here is controlled by a regulatory D sequence called the operator, situated within the promoter.
8 276 hapter 8 ontrol of Gene Expression promoter start of transcription _ 60 _ 35 _ operator inactive repressor R polymerase tryptophan low tryptophan high tryptophan active repressor mr GEES RE O GEES RE OFF Figure 8 7 Genes can be switched on and off with repressor proteins. If the concentration of tryptophan inside the cell is low, R polymerase (blue) binds to the promoter and transcribes the five genes of the tryptophan operon (left). If the concentration of tryptophan is high, however, the repressor protein (dark green) becomes active and binds to the operator (light green), where it blocks the binding of R polymerase to the promoter (right). Whenever the concentration of intracellular tryptophan drops, the repressor releases its tryptophan and falls off the D, allowing the polymerase to again transcribe the operon. he promoter is marked by two key blocks of D sequence information, the 35 and 10 regions, highlighted in yellow (see Figure 7 10). he complete operon is shown in Figure 8 6. Figure 8 8 Gene expression can also be controlled with activator proteins. n activator protein binds to a regulatory sequence on the D and then interacts with the R polymerase to help it initiate transcription. Without the activator, the promoter fails to initiate transcription efficiently. In bacteria, the binding of the activator to D is often controlled by the interaction of a metabolite or other small molecule (red triangle) with the activator protein. For example, the bacterial catabolite activator protein (P) must bind cyclic MP (cmp) before it can bind to D; thus P allows genes to be switched on in response to increases in intracellular cmp concentration. Repressors urn Genes Off, ctivators urn hem On he tryptophan repressor, as its name suggests, is a repressor protein: in its active form, it switches genes off, or represses them. Some bacterial transcription regulators do the opposite: they switch genes on, or activate them. hese activator proteins work on promoters that in contrast to the promoter for the tryptophan operator are, on their own, only marginally able to bind and position R polymerase; they may, for example, be recognized only poorly by the polymerase. owever, these poorly functioning promoters can be made fully functional by activator proteins that bind to a nearby site on the D and contact the R polymerase to help it initiate transcription (Figure 8 8). In some cases, a bacterial transcription regulator can repress transcription at one promoter and activate transcription at another; whether the regulatory protein acts as an activator or repressor depends, in large part, on exactly where the regulatory sequences to which it binds are located with respect to the promoter. Like the tryptophan repressor, activator proteins often have to interact with a second molecule to be able to bind D. For example, the bacterial activator protein P has to bind cyclic MP (cmp) before it can bound activator protein binding site for activator protein R polymerase mr protein
9 ow ranscriptional Switches Work 277 bind to D. Genes activated by P are switched on in response to an increase in intracellular cmp concentration, which signals to the bacterium that glucose, its preferred carbon source, is no longer available; as a result, P drives the production of enzymes capable of degrading other sugars. n ctivator and a Repressor ontrol the Lac Operon In many instances, the activity of a single promoter is controlled by two different transcription regulators. he Lac operon in E. coli, for example, is controlled by both the Lac repressor and the activator protein P. he Lac operon encodes proteins required to import and digest the disaccharide lactose. In the absence of glucose, P switches on genes that allow the cell to utilize alternative sources of carbon including lactose. It would be wasteful, however, for P to induce expression of the Lac operon when lactose is not present. hus the Lac repressor shuts off the operon in the absence of lactose. his arrangement enables the control region of the Lac operon to integrate two different signals, so that the operon is highly expressed only when two conditions are met: lactose must be present and glucose must be absent (Figure 8 9). his genetic circuit thus behaves like a switch that carries out a logic operation in a computer. When lactose is present D glucose is absent, the cell executes the appropriate program: in this case, transcription of the genes that permit the uptake and utilization of lactose. he elegant logic of the Lac operon first attracted the attention of biologists more than 50 years ago. he molecular basis of the switch was uncovered by a combination of genetics and biochemistry, providing the first insight into how gene expression is controlled. In a eucaryotic cell, similar gene regulatory devices are combined to generate increasingly complex circuits. Indeed, the developmental program that takes a fertilized egg to adulthood can be viewed as an exceedingly complex circuit composed of simple components like those that control the Lac and tryptophan operons. QUESIO 8 2 Explain how D-binding proteins can make sequence-specific contacts to a double-stranded D molecule without breaking the hydrogen bonds that hold the bases together. Indicate how, through such contacts, a protein can distinguish a - from a -G pair. Give your answer in a form similar to Figure 8 4, and indicate what sorts of noncovalent bonds hydrogen bonds, electrostatic attractions, or hydrophobic interactions (see Panel 2 7, pp ) would be made. here is no need to specify any particular amino acid on the protein. he structures of all the base pairs in D are given in Figure 5 6.?made. Pbinding site Rpolymerasebinding site (promoter) start site for R synthesis operator LacZ gene + GLUOSE + LOSE + GLUOSE _ LOSE _ GLUOSE _ LOSE _ GLUOSE + LOSE _ 80 _ nucleotide pairs P P R repressor repressor R polymerase OPERO OFF P not bound OPERO OFF Lac repressor bound, P not bound OPERO OFF Lac repressor bound OPERO O Figure 8 9 he Lac operon is controlled by two signals. Glucose and lactose concentrations control the initiation of transcription of the Lac operon through their effects on the Lac repressor protein and P. When lactose is absent, the Lac repressor binds the Lac operator and shuts off expression of the operon. ddition of lactose increases the intracellular concentration of a related compound, allolactose. llolactose binds to the Lac repressor, causing it to undergo a conformational change that releases its grip on the operator D (not shown). When glucose is absent, cyclic MP (red triangle) is produced by the cell and P binds to D. LacZ, the first gene of the operon, encodes the enzyme -galactosidase, which breaks down lactose to galactose and glucose.
10 278 hapter 8 ontrol of Gene Expression Eucaryotic ranscription Regulators ontrol Gene Expression from a Distance Eucaryotes, too, use transcription regulators both activators and repressors to regulate the expression of their genes. he D sites to which eucaryotic gene activators bound were originally termed enhancers, because their presence dramatically enhanced, or increased, the rate of transcription. It was surprising to biologists when, in 1979, it was discovered that these activator proteins could enhance transcription even when they are bound thousands of nucleotide pairs away from a gene s promoter. hey also work when bound either upstream or downstream from the gene. hese observations raised several questions. ow do enhancer sequences and the proteins bound to them function over such long distances? ow do they communicate with the promoter? Many models for this action at a distance have been proposed, but the simplest of these seems to apply in most cases. he D between the enhancer and the promoter loops out to allow eucaryotic activator proteins to directly influence events that take place at the promoter (Figure 8 10). he D thus acts as a tether, causing a protein bound to an enhancer even thousands of nucleotide pairs away to interact with the proteins in the vicinity of the promoter including R polymerase II and the general transcription factors (see Figure 7 12). Often, additional proteins serve to link the distantly bound transcription regulators to these proteins at the promoter; the most important is a large complex of proteins known as Mediator (see Figure 8 10). One of the ways in which eucaryotic activator proteins function is by aiding in the assembly of the general transcription factors and R polymerase at the promoter. Eucaryotic repressor proteins do the opposite: they decrease transcription by preventing or sabotaging the assembly of the same protein complex. In addition to promoting or repressing the assembly of a transcription initiation complex, eucaryotic transcription regulators have an additional mechanism of action: they attract proteins that modulate chromatin structure and thereby affect the accessibility of the promoter to the general transcription factors and R polymerase, as we discuss next. eucaryotic activator protein Figure 8 10 In eucaryotes, gene activation occurs at a distance. n activator protein bound to D attracts R polymerase and general transcription factors (see Figure 7 12) to the promoter. Looping of the D permits contact between the activator protein bound to the enhancer and the transcription complex bound to the promoter. In the case shown here, a large protein complex called Mediator serves as a go-between. he broken stretch of D signifies that the length of D between the enhancer and the start of transcription varies, sometimes reaching tens of thousands of nucleotide pairs in length. enhancer (binding site for activator protein) activator protein Mediator RSRIPIO BEGIS box BIDIG OF GEERL RSRIPIO FORS, MEDIOR, D R POLYMERSE R polymerase II start of transcription
11 ow ranscriptional Switches Work 279 Packing of Promoter D into ucleosomes ffects Initiation of ranscription Initiation of transcription in eucaryotic cells must also take into account the packaging of D into chromosomes. s we saw in hapter 5, the genetic material in eucaryotic cells is packed into nucleosomes, which, in turn, are folded into higher-order structures. ow do transcription regulators, general transcription factors, and R polymerase gain access to such D? ucleosomes can inhibit the initiation of transcription if they are positioned over a promoter, probably because they physically block the assembly of the general transcription factors or R polymerase on the promoter. In fact, such chromatin packaging may have evolved in part to prevent leaky gene expression initiation of transcription in the absence of the proper activator proteins. In eucaryotic cells, activator and repressor proteins exploit chromatin structure to help turn genes on and off. s we saw in hapter 5, chromatin structure can be altered by chromatin-remodeling complexes and by enzymes that covalently modify the histone proteins that form the core of the nucleosome (see Figures 5 27 and 5 28). Many gene activators take advantage of these mechanisms by recruiting these proteins to promoters (Figure 8 11). For example, many transcription activators attract histone acetylases, which attach an acetyl group to selected lysines in the tail of histone proteins. his modification alters chromatin structure, probably allowing greater accessibility to the underlying D; moreover, the acetyl groups themselves are recognized by proteins that promote transcription, including some of the general transcription factors. Likewise, gene repressor proteins can modify chromatin in ways that reduce the efficiency of transcription initiation. For example, many repressors attract histone deacetylases enzymes that remove the acetyl groups from histone tails, thereby reversing the positive effects that acetylation has on transcription initiation. lthough some eucaryotic repressor proteins work on a gene-by-gene basis, others can orchestrate the formation of large swaths of transcriptionally inactive chromatin containing many QUESIO 8 3 Some transcription regulators bind to D and cause the double helix to bend at a sharp angle. Such bending proteins can stimulate the initiation of transcription without contacting either the R polymerase, any of the general transcription factors, or any other transcription regulators. an?you devise a plausible explanation for how these proteins might work to modulate transcription? Draw a diagram that illustrates your explanation. transcription regulator histone-modifying enzyme chromatin-remodeling complex specific pattern of histone modification RSRIPIO IIIIO remodeled nucleosomes general transcription factors, Mediator, and R polymerase Figure 8 11 Eucaryotic gene activator proteins can direct local alterations in chromatin structure. ctivator proteins can recruit histone-modifying enzymes and chromatin-remodeling complexes to the promoter region of a gene. he action of these proteins renders the D packaged in chromatin more accessible to other proteins in the cell, including those required for transcription initiation. In addition, the covalent histone modifications can serve as binding sites for proteins that stimulate transcription initiation.
12 280 hapter 8 ontrol of Gene Expression genes. s discussed in hapter 5, these transcription-resistant regions of D include the heterochromatin found in interphase chromosomes and the entire X chromosome in female mammals. E MOLEULR MEISMS REE SPEILIZED ELL YPES ll cells must be able to switch genes on and off in response to signals in their environments. But the cells of multicellular organisms have evolved this capacity to an extreme degree and in highly specialized ways to form an organized array of differentiated cell types. In particular, once a cell in a multicellular organism becomes committed to differentiate into a specific cell type, the choice of fate is generally maintained through many subsequent cell generations. his means that the changes in gene expression, which are often triggered by a transient signal, must be remembered. his phenomenon of cell memory is a prerequisite for the creation of organized tissues and for the maintenance of stably differentiated cell types. In contrast, the simplest changes in gene expression in both eucaryotes and bacteria are often only transient; the tryptophan repressor, for example, switches off the tryptophan genes in bacteria only in the presence of tryptophan; as soon as the amino acid is removed from the medium, the genes are switched back on, and the descendants of the cell will have no memory that their ancestors had been exposed to tryptophan. In this section, we discuss some of the special features of transcriptional regulation that are found in multicellular organisms. Our focus will be on how these mechanisms create and maintain the specialized cell types that give a worm, a fly, or a human its distinctive characteristics. Eucaryotic Genes re Regulated by ombinations of Proteins Because eucaryotic transcription regulators can control transcription initiation when bound to D many base pairs away from the promoter, the nucleotide sequences that control the expression of a gene can be spread over long stretches of D. In animals and plants it is not unusual to find the regulatory D sequences of a gene dotted over tens of thousands of nucleotide pairs, although much of this D serves as spacer sequence and is not directly recognized by the transcription regulators. So far in this chapter we have treated transcription regulators as though each functions individually to turn a gene on or off. While this idea holds true for many simple bacterial activators and repressors, most eucaryotic transcription regulators work as part of a committee of regulatory proteins, all of which are necessary to express the gene in the right cell, in response to the right conditions, at the right time, and in the required amount. he term combinatorial control refers to the way that groups of regulatory proteins work together to determine the expression of a single gene. We saw a simple example of such regulation by multiple signals when we discussed the bacterial Lac operon (see Figure 8 9). In eucaryotes, the regulatory inputs have been amplified, and a typical gene is controlled by dozens of transcription regulators (Figure 8 12). Often, some of these regulatory proteins are repressors and some are activators; the molecular mechanisms by which the effects of all of these proteins are added up to determine the final level of expression for a gene are only now beginning to be understood. n example of such a complex regulatory system one that participates in the development of a fruit fly from a fertilized egg is described in ow We Know, pp
13 he Molecular Mechanisms hat reate Specialized ell ypes 281 spacer D transcription regulators regulatory D sequences histone-modifying enzymes, chromatin-remodeling complexes, and Mediator general transcription factors R polymerase Figure 8 12 ranscription regulators work together as a committee to control the expression of a eucaryotic gene. Whereas the general transcription factors that assemble at the promoter are the same for all genes transcribed by polymerase II, the transcription regulators and the locations of their binding sites relative to the promoters are different for different genes. he effects of multiple transcription regulators combine to determine the final rate of transcription initiation. It is not yet understood in detail how these multiple inputs are integrated. upstream box start of transcription promoter he Expression of Different Genes an Be oordinated by a Single Protein In addition to being able to switch individual genes on and off, all organisms whether procaryote or eucaryote need to coordinate the expression of different genes. When a eucaryotic cell receives a signal to divide, for example, a number of hitherto unexpressed genes are turned on together to set in motion the events that lead eventually to cell division (discussed in hapter 18). One way in which bacteria coordinate the expression of a set of genes is by having them clustered together in an operon under the control of a single promoter (see Figure 8 6). his is not the case in eucaryotes, in which each gene is transcribed and regulated individually. So how do eucaryotes coordinate gene expression? In particular, given that a eucaryotic cell uses a committee of transcription regulators to control each of its genes, how can it rapidly and decisively switch whole groups of genes on or off? he answer is that even though control of gene expression is combinatorial, the effect of a single transcription regulator can still be decisive in switching any particular gene on or off, simply by completing the combination needed to activate or repress that gene. his is like dialing in the final number of a combination lock: the lock will spring open if the other numbers have been previously entered. Just as the same number can complete the combination for different locks, the same protein can complete the combination for several different genes. s long as different genes contain D sequences recognized by the same transcription regulator, they can be switched on or off together, as a unit. n example of this style of regulation in humans is seen with the glucocorticoid receptor protein. In order to bind to regulatory sites in D this transcription regulator must first form a complex with a molecule of a glucocorticoid hormone (for example, cortisol; see able 16 1, p. 535). In response to glucocorticoids, liver cells increase the expression of many different genes, one of which encodes the enzyme tyrosine aminotransferase, as discussed earlier. hese genes are all regulated by the binding of the glucocorticoid hormone receptor complex to a regulatory sequence in the D of each gene. When the body has recovered and the
14 282 OW WE KOW: GEE REGULIO E SORY OF EVE he ability to regulate gene expression is crucial to the proper development of a multicellular organism from a fertilized egg to a fertile adult. Beginning at the earliest moments in development, a succession of programs controls the differential expression of genes that allows an animal to form a proper body plan helping to distinguish its back from its belly, and its head from its tail. hese cues ultimately direct the correct placement of a wing or a leg, a mouth or an anus, a neuron or a sex cell. central problem in development, then, is understanding how an organism generates these patterns of gene expression, which are laid down within hours of fertilization. large part of the story rests on the action of transcription regulators. By interacting with different regulatory D sequences, these proteins instruct every cell in the embryo to switch on the genes that are appropriate for that cell at each time point during development. ow can a protein binding to a piece of D help direct the development of a complex multicellular organism? o see how we can address that large question, we now review the story of Eve. In the Big Egg Even-skipped Eve, for short is a gene whose expression plays an important role in the development of the Drosophila embryo. If this gene is inactivated by mutation, many parts of the embryo fail to form and the fly larva dies early in development. t the stage of development when Eve is first switched on, the embryo developing within the egg is still a single, giant cell containing multiple nuclei afloat in a common cytoplasm. his embryo, which is some 400 m long and 160 m in diameter, is formed from the fertilized egg through a series of rapid nuclear divisions that occur without cell division. Eventually each nucleus will be enclosed in a plasma membrane and become a cell; however, the events that concern us happen before this cellularization. he cytoplasm of this giant egg is far from uniform: the anterior (head) end of the embryo contains different proteins from those in the posterior (tail) end. he presence of these asymmetries in the fertilized egg and the early embryo was originally demonstrated by experiments in which Drosophila eggs were made to leak. If the front end of an egg is punctured carefully and a small amount of the anterior cytoplasm is allowed to ooze out, the embryo will fail to develop head segments. Further, if cytoplasm taken from the posterior end of another egg is then injected into this somewhat depleted anterior area, the animal will develop a second set of abdominal segments where its head parts should have been (Figure 8 13). anterior (head) posterior (tail) normal fertilized egg prick to allow some anterior cytoplasm to escape inject some posterior cytoplasm from a donor egg into anterior end of host embryo develops to larval stage normal larva double-posterior larva Figure 8 13 Molecules localized at the ends of the Drosophila egg control its anterior posterior polarity. small amount of cytoplasm is allowed to leak out of the anterior end of the egg and is replaced by an injection of posterior cytoplasm. he resulting double-tailed embryo (right) shows a duplication of the last three abdominal segments. normal embryo (left) is shown for comparison. (dapted from. üsslein-volhard,.g. Frohnhöfer, and R. Lehmann, Science 238: , With permission from S.)
15 Gene Regulation he Story of Eve 283 Finding the Proteins his egg-draining experiment shows that the normal head-to-tail pattern of development is controlled by substances located at each end of the embryo. nd researchers were betting that these substances were proteins. o identify them, investigators subjected eggs to a treatment that would inactivate genes at random. hey then searched for embryos whose head-to-tail body plan looked abnormal. In these mutant animals, the genes that were disrupted must encode proteins that are important for establishing proper anterior posterior polarity. Using this approach, researchers discovered many genes required for setting up anterior posterior polarity, including genes encoding four key transcription regulators: Bicoid, unchback, Krüppel, and Giant. (Drosophila genes are often given colorful names that reflect the appearance of flies in which the gene is inactivated by mutation.) Once these proteins had been identified, researchers could prepare antibodies that would recognize each. hese antibodies, coupled to fluorescent markers, were then used to determine where in the early embryo each protein is localized (see Panel 1 1, pp. 8 9). he results of these antibody-staining experiments are striking. he cytoplasm of the early embryo, it turns out, contains a mixture of these transcription regulators, each distributed in a unique pattern along the length of the embryo (Figure 8 14). s a result, the nuclei inside this giant, multinucleate cell begin to express different genes depending on which transcription regulators they are exposed to, which in turn depends on the location of each nucleus along the embryo. uclei near the anterior end of the embryo, for example, encounter a set of transcription regulators that is distinct from the set that bathe nuclei at the posterior end. hus the differing amounts of these proteins provide the many nuclei in the developing embryo with positional information along the anterior posterior axis of the embryo. his is where Eve comes in. he regulatory D sequences of the Eve gene can read the concentrations of the transcription regulators at each position along the length of the embryo. Based on this information, Eve is expressed in seven stripes, each at a precise location along the anterior posterior axis of the embryo. o find out how these regulatory proteins control the expression of Eve with such precision, researchers next set their sights on the regulatory region of the Eve gene. Dissecting the D s we have seen in this chapter, regulatory D sequences control which cells in an organism will express a particular gene, and at what point that gene will be turned on. One way to learn when and where a regulatory D sequence is active is to hook the sequence up to a reporter gene a gene encoding a protein whose activity is easy to monitor experimentally. he regulatory D sequences will now drive the expression of the reporter gene. his artificial D construct is then reintroduced into a cell or an organism, and the activity of the reporter protein is measured. By coupling various portions of the regulatory sequence of Eve to a reporter gene, researchers discovered that the Eve gene contains a series of seven regulatory modules, each of which is responsible for specifying a single stripe of Eve expression along the embryo. So, for example, researchers could remove the regulatory module that specifies stripe 2 from its normal setting upstream of Eve, place it in front of a reporter gene, and reintroduce this engineered D sequence into the Drosophila genome (Figure 8 15). When embryos carrying this genetic construct are examined, the reporter gene is found to be expressed in precisely the position anterior Bicoid unchback Giant posterior Krüppel Figure 8 14 he early Drosophila embryo shows a nonuniform distribution of four transcription regulators.
16 284 Gene Regulation he Story of Eve stripe 3 module stripe 2 module stripe 7 module () Eve gene (B) () stripe 2 module LacZ gene (D) Figure 8 15 reporter gene reveals the modular construction of the Eve gene regulatory region. () he Eve gene contains regulatory sequences that direct the production of Eve protein in stripes along the embryo. (B) Embryos stained with antibodies to the Eve protein show the seven characteristic Eve stripes. () In this experiment, a 480-nucleotide piece of the Eve regulatory region (the stripe 2 module from ) is removed and inserted upstream of the E. coli LacZ gene, which encodes the enzyme -galactosidase (see Figure 8 9). (D) When the engineered D containing a single regulatory region is reintroduced into the genome of a Drosophila embryo, the resulting embryo expresses -galactosidase precisely in the position of the second of the seven Eve stripes. Enzyme activity is assayed by the addition of X-gal, a modified sugar that when cleaved by -galactosidase generates an insoluble blue product. (B and D, courtesy of Stephen Small and Michael Levine.) of stripe 2 (Figure 8 15B). Similar experiments revealed the existence of other regulatory modules, one for each of the other six stripes. he question then becomes: how does each of these modules direct the formation of a single stripe in a specific position? he answer, researchers found, is that each module contains a unique combination of regulatory sequences that bind different combinations of the four transcription regulators that are present in gradients in the early embryo. he stripe 2 unit, for example, contains recognition sequences for all four regulators Bicoid and unchback activate Eve transcription, while Krüppel and Giant repress it (Figure 8 16). he concentrations of these four proteins vary across the embryo (see Figure 8 14), and these patterns determine which of the proteins are bound to the Eve stripe 2 module at each position along the embryo. he combination of bound proteins then tells the appropriate nuclei to express Eve, and stripe 2 is formed. he other stripe regulatory modules are thought to function along similar lines; each module reads positional information provided by some unique combination of transcription regulators and expresses Eve on the basis of this information. he entire gene control region of Eve is strung out over 20,000 nucleotide pairs of D and binds more than 20 transcription regulators, including the four discussed here. large and complex control region is thereby formed from a series of smaller modules, each of which consists of a unique arrangement of short D sequences recognized by specific transcription regulators. In this way, a single gene can respond to an enormous number of combinatorial inputs. Eve itself is a transcription regulator and it in combination with many other regulatory proteins controls key events later in the development of the fly. his organization begins to explain how the development of a complex organism can be orchestrated by repeated applications of a few basic principles. stripe 2 module: 480 nucleotide pairs Krüppel and its binding site Bicoid and its binding site Giant and its binding site unchback and its binding site Figure 8 16 he regulatory module for Eve stripe 2 contains binding sites for four different transcription regulators. ll four regulators are responsible for the proper expression of Eve in stripe 2. Flies that are deficient in the two activators, Bicoid and unchback, fail to form stripe 2 efficiently; in flies deficient in either of the two repressors, Giant or Krüppel, stripe 2 expands and covers an abnormally broad region of the embryo. s indicated in the top diagram, in some cases the binding sites for the transcription regulators overlap and the proteins compete for binding to the D. For example, the binding of Bicoid and Krüppel to the site at the far right is thought to be mutually exclusive.
17 he Molecular Mechanisms hat reate Specialized ell ypes 285 glucocorticoid receptor in absence of glucocorticoid hormone gene 1 gene 2 glucocorticoid hormone gene 1 gene 2 Figure 8 17 single transcription regulator can coordinate the expression of many different genes. he action of the glucocorticoid receptor is illustrated. On the left is shown a series of genes, each of which has various gene activator proteins bound to its regulatory region. owever, these bound proteins are not sufficient on their own to activate transcription efficiently. On the right is shown the effect of adding an additional transcription regulator the glucocorticoid receptor in a complex with glucocorticoid hormone that can bind to the regulatory sequences of each gene. he glucocorticoid receptor completes the combination of transcription regulators required for efficient initiation of transcription, and the genes are now switched on as a set. gene 3 gene 3 GEES EXPRESSED LOW LEVEL GEES EXPRESSED IG LEVEL hormone is no longer present, the expression of all of these genes drops to its normal level. In this way a single transcription regulator can control the expression of many different genes (Figure 8 17). ombinatorial ontrol an reate Different ell ypes he ability to switch many different genes on or off using just one protein is not only useful in the day-to-day regulation of cell function. It is also one of the means by which eucaryotic cells differentiate into particular types of cells during embryonic development. striking example of the effect of a single transcription regulator on differentiation comes from studying the development of muscle cells. mammalian skeletal muscle cell is a highly distinctive cell type. It is typically an extremely large cell that is formed by the fusion of many muscle precursor cells called myoblasts. he mature muscle cell is distinguished from other cells by the production of a large number of characteristic proteins, such as the actin and myosin that make up the contractile apparatus (discussed in hapter 17) as well as the receptor proteins and ion channel proteins in the cell membranes that make the muscle cell sensitive to nerve stimulation. Genes encoding these muscle-specific proteins are all switched on coordinately as the myoblasts begin to fuse. Studies of muscle cells differentiating in culture have identified key transcription regulators, expressed only in potential muscle cells, that coordinate gene expression and thus are crucial for muscle-cell differentiation. hese regulators activate the transcription of the genes that code for the muscle-specific proteins by binding to specific D sequences present in their regulatory regions. hese key transcription regulators can convert nonmuscle cells to myoblasts by activating the changes in gene expression typical of differentiating muscle cells. For example, when one of these regulators, MyoD, is artificially expressed in fibroblasts cultured from skin connective tissue, the fibroblasts start to behave like myoblasts and fuse to form musclelike cells. he dramatic effect of expressing the MyoD gene in fibroblasts is shown in Figure It appears that the fibroblasts, which are derived from the same broad class of embryonic cells as muscle cells,
18 286 hapter 8 ontrol of Gene Expression Figure 8 18 Fibroblasts can be converted to muscle cells by a single transcription regulator. s shown in this immunofluorescence micrograph, fibroblasts from the skin of a chick embryo have been converted to muscle cells by the experimentally induced expression of the MyoD gene. he fibroblasts that expressed the MyoD gene have fused to form elongated multinucleate musclelike cells, which are stained green with an antibody that detects a muscle-specific protein. Fibroblasts that do not express MyoD are barely visible in the background. (ourtesy of Stephen apscott and arold Weintraub.) have already accumulated many of the other necessary transcription regulators required for the combinatorial control of the muscle-specific genes, and that addition of MyoD completes the unique combination that directs the cells to become muscle. Some other cell types fail to be converted to muscle by the addition of MyoD; these cells presumably have not accumulated the other required transcription regulators during their developmental history. () 20 mm ow the accumulation of different transcription regulators can lead to the generation of different cell types is illustrated schematically in Figure his figure also illustrates how, thanks to the possibilities of combinatorial control and shared regulatory D sequences, a limited set of transcription regulators can control the expression of a much larger number of genes. he conversion of one cell type (fibroblast) to another (muscle) by a single transcription regulator emphasizes one of the most important principles discussed in this chapter: the dramatic differences between cell types such as size, shape, and function are produced by differences in gene expression. precursor cell REGULORY PROEI 1 cell division 1 REGULORY PROEI 2 REGULORY PROEI 2 Figure 8 19 ombinations of a few transcription regulators can generate many different cell types during development. In this simple scheme a decision to make a new regulator (shown as a numbered circle) is made after each cell division. Repetition of this simple rule enables eight cell types ( through ) to be created using only three different transcription regulators. Each of these hypothetical cell types would then express different genes, as dictated by the combination of transcription regulators that are present within it REGULORY REGULORY REGULORY REGULORY PROEI 3 PROEI 3 PROEI 3 PROEI cell cell B cell cell D cell E cell F cell G cell
19 he Molecular Mechanisms hat reate Specialized ell ypes 287 Stable Patterns of Gene Expression an Be ransmitted to Daughter ells s discussed earlier in this chapter, once a cell in a multicellular organism has become differentiated into a particular cell type, it will generally remain differentiated, and all its progeny cells will remain that same cell type. Some highly specialized cells never divide again once they have differentiated; for example, skeletal muscle cells and neurons. But many other differentiated cells, such as fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, and liver cells (hepatocytes), will divide many times in the life of an individual. ll of these cell types give rise only to cells like themselves when they divide: smooth muscle does not give rise to liver cells, nor liver cells to fibroblasts. his preservation of cellular identity means that the changes in gene expression that give rise to a differentiated cell must be remembered and passed on to its daughter cells through all subsequent cell divisions. For example, in the cells illustrated in Figure 8 19, the production of each transcription regulator, once begun, has to be perpetuated in the daughter cells of each cell division. ow might this be accomplished? ells have several ways of ensuring that their daughters remember what kind of cells they are supposed to be. One of the simplest is through a positive feedback loop, where a key transcription regulator activates transcription of its own gene in addition to that of other cell-type specific genes (Figure 8 20). he MyoD protein discussed earlier functions in such a positive feedback loop. nother way of maintaining cell type is through the faithful propagation of a condensed chromatin structure from parent to daughter cell. We saw an example of this in Figure 5 30, where the same X chromosome is inactive through many cell generations. third way in which cells can transmit information about gene expression to their progeny is through D methylation. In vertebrate cells, D methylation occurs exclusively on cytosine bases (Figure 8 21). his covalent modification of cytosines generally turns off genes by attracting proteins that block gene expression. D methylation patterns are passed on to progeny cells by the action of an enzyme that copies the methylation pattern on the parent D strand to the daughter D strand immediately after replication (Figure 8 22). Because each of these mechanisms positive feedback loops, certain forms of condensed chromatin, protein is not made because it is normally required for its own transcription RSIE SIGL URS O EXPRESSIO OF PROEI the effect of the transient signal is remembered in all of the cell's descendants Figure 8 20 positive feedback loop can create cell memory. Protein is a transcription regulator that activates its own transcription. ll of the descendants of the original cell will therefore remember that the progenitor cell had experienced a transient signal that initiated the production of the protein.
20 288 hapter 8 ontrol of Gene Expression cytosine methylation O 5-methylcytosine Figure 8 21 Formation of 5-methylcytosine occurs by methylation of a cytosine base in the D double helix. In vertebrates this event is confined to selected cytosine () nucleotides that fall next to a guanine (G). O and D methylation transmits information from parent to daughter cell without altering the actual nucleotide sequence of the D, they are considered forms of epigenetic inheritance (see p. 192). he Formation of an Entire Organ an Be riggered by a Single ranscription Regulator We have seen that even though combinatorial control is the norm for eucaryotic genes, a single transcription regulator can be decisive in switching a whole set of genes on or off, and can convert one cell type into another. dramatic extension of this principle comes from studies of eye development in Drosophila, mice, and humans. ere, a transcription regulator, called Ey in flies and Pax-6 in vertebrates, is crucial for eye development. When expressed in the proper type of cell, Ey can trigger the formation of not just a single cell type but a whole organ the eye composed of different types of cells all properly organized in threedimensional space. he best evidence for the action of Ey comes from experiments in fruit flies in which the Ey gene is artificially expressed early in development in cells that normally go on to form legs. his abnormal gene expression causes eyes to develop in the middle of the legs (Figure 8 23). he Drosophila eye is composed of thousands of cells, and how the Ey protein coordinates the specification of each cell in the eye is an actively studied topic in developmental biology. ere, we shall simply note that Ey directly controls the expression of many genes by binding to D sequences in their regulatory regions. Some of the genes controlled by Ey encode additional transcription regulators that, in turn, control the expression of other genes. Moreover, some of these regulators act back on Ey itself to create a positive feedback loop that ensures the continued production of the Ey protein. So the action of just one transcription regulator can produce a cascade of regulators whose combined actions lead to the formation of an organized group of many different types of cells. One can begin to imagine how, by repeated applications of this principle, a complex organism is built piece by piece. unmethylated cytosine 3 methylated cytosine G G 3 3 MEYLIO OF EWLY G G G SYESIZED SRD G G G G G G G 3 D REPLIIO not recognized by maintenance methyltransferase recognized by maintenance methyltransferase G G MEYLIO OF EWLY SYESIZED SRD G 3 3 G G G G G 3 3 Figure 8 22 D methylation patterns can be faithfully inherited. n enzyme called a maintenance methyltransferase guarantees that once a pattern of D methylation has been established, it is inherited by progeny D. Immediately after replication, each daughter helix will contain one methylated D strand inherited from the parent helix and one unmethylated, newly synthesized strand. he maintenance methyltransferase interacts with these hybrid helices, where it methylates only those G sequences that are base-paired with a G sequence that is already methylated. In vertebrate D, a large portion of the cytosines in G sequences are methylated.
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