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1 3 On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creatidn and Conversion of Light? A. EISTEI THEE exists an essential formal difference between the theoretical pictures physicists have drawn of gases and other ponderable bodies and Maxwell s theory of electromagnetic processes in so-called empty space. Whereas we assume the state of a body to be completely determined by the positions and velocities of an, albeit very large, still finite number of atoms and electrons, we use for the determination of the electromagnetic state in space continuous spatial functions, so that a finite number of variables cannot be considered to be sufficient to fix completely the electromagnetic state in space. According to Maxwell s theory, the energy must be considered to be a continuous function in space for all purely electromagnetic phenomena, thus also for light, while according to the present-day ideas of physicists the energy of a ponderable body can be written as a sum over the atoms and electrons. The energy of a ponderable body cannot be split into arbitrarily many, arbitrarily small parts, while the energy of a light ray, emitted by a point source of light is according to Maxwell s theory (or in general according to any wave theory) of light distributed continuously over an ever increasing volume. The wave theory of light which operates with continuous 6 functions in space has been excellently justified for the representation of purely optical phenomena and it is unlikely ever to be replaced by another theory. One should, however, bear in mind that optical observations refer to time averages and not to?ann. Physik 17, 132 (1905). 91
2 instantaneous values and notwithstanding the complete experimental verification of the theory of diffraction, reflexion, refraction, dispersion, and so on, it is quite conceivable that a theory ai light involving the use of continuous functions in space will lead to contradictions with experience, if it is applied to the phenomena of the creation and conversion of light. In fact, it seems to me that the observations on black-body radiation, photoluminescence, the production of cathode rays by ultraviolet light and other phenomena involving the emission or conversion of light can be better understood on the assumption that the energy of light is distributed discontinuously in space. According to the assumption considered here, when a light ray starting from a point is propagated, the energy is not continuously distributed over an ever increasing volume, but it consists of a finite number of energy quanta, localised in space, which move without being divided and which can be absorbed or emitted only as a whole. In the following, I shall communicate the train of thought and the facts which led me to this conclusion, in the hope that the point of view to be given may turn out to be useful for some research workers in their investigations. l. On a Difficulty in the Theory of Black-body adiatiora To begin with, we take the point of view of Maxwell s theory and electron theory and consider the following case. Let there be in a volume completely surrounded by reflecting walls, a number of gas molecules and electrons moving freely and exerting upon one another conservative forces when they approach each other, that is, colliding with one another as gas molecules according to the kinetic theory of gases.? Let there further be a number of electrons which are bound to points in space, which are far from one This assumption is equivalent to the preposition that the average kinetic energies of gas molecules and electrons are equal to one another in temperature equilibrium. It is well known that Mr. Drude has theoretically derived in this way the relation between the thermal and electrical conductivities of metals. EISTEI: CEATIO AD COVESIO OF LIGHT 93 another, by forces proportional to the distance from those points and in the direction towards those points. These electrons are also assumed to be interacting conservatively with the free molecules and electrons as soon as the latter come close to them. We call the electrons bound to points in space resonators ; they emit and absorb electromagnetic waves with definite periods. According to present-day ideas on the emission of light, the radiation in the volume considered-which can be found for the case of dynamic equilibrium on the basis of the Maxwell theorymust be identical with the black-body radiation -at least provided we assume that resonators are present of all frequencies to be considered. For the time. being, we neglect the radiation emitted and absorbed by the resonators and look for the condition for dynamic equilibrium corresponding to the interaction (collisions) between molecules and electrons. Kinetic gas theory gives for this the condition that the average kinetic energy of a resonator electron must equal the average kinetic energy corresponding to the translational motion of a gas molecule. If we decompose the motion of a resonator electron into three mutually perpendicular directions of oscillation, we find for the average value Ë of the energy of such a linear oscillatory motion E=- where is the gas constant, the number of real molecules in a gramme equivalent and T the absolute temperature. This follows as the energy Ë is equal to 3 of the kinetic energy of a free molecules of a monatomic gas since the time averages of the kinetic and the potential energy of a resonator are equal to one another. If, for some reason-in our case because of radiation effects-one manages to make the time average of a resonator larger or smaller than Ë, collisions with the free electrons and molecules will lead to an energy transfer to or from the gas which has a non-vanishing average. Thus, for the case considered by us,
3 94 THE OLD QUATUM THEOY dynamic equilibrium will be possible only,if each resonator has the average energy E. We can now use a similar argument for the interaction between the resonators and the radiation which is present in space. Mr. Planck has derived for this case the condition for dynamic equilibrium under the assumption that one can consider the radiation as the most random process imaginable.? He found - L3 E, = - 8nv2 where E, is the average energy of a resonator with eigenfrequency V (per oscillating component), L the velocity of light, V the frequency and p,, dv the energy per unit volume of that part of the radiation which has frequencies between V and V + dv. If the radiation energy of frequency V is not to be either decreased or increased steadily, we must have D One can formulate this assumption as follows. We expand the z-component of the electrical force (Z) at a given point in space between the time t = O and t = T (where T indicates a time which is large compared to all oscillation periods considered) in a Fourier series where Av 2 O and O 5 ccv 5 27c. For the same point in space, one considers to have made such an expansion arbitrarily often with arbitrarily chosen initial times. In that case, we have for the frequency of different combinations of values for the quantities Av and ccv (statistical) probabilities dw of the form dw=f(a1,a2,..., a1,q,...)da1da2... dorlda2... adiation is now the most random process imaginable, if f(ai,a2, *.-,El, a2,..j = Fl(AI)F2(A2)... fi( l)f2(=2)..., that is, when the probability for a given value of one of the A or the u is independent of the values of the other A and c. The more closely the condition is satisfied that the separate pairs of quantities Av and ccv depend on the emission and absorption processes of speciae groups of resonators, the more definitely can we thus say in the case treated by us that the radiation can be considered to be the most random imaginable one. EISTEI CEATIO AD COVESIO OF LIGHT 95 8nv2 p, = -- L3 T. This relation, which we found as the condition for dynamic equilibrium does not only lack agreement with experiment, but it also shows that in our picture there can be no question of a definite distribution of energy between aether and matter. The greater we choose the range of frequencies of the resonators, the greater becomes the radiation energy in space and in the limit we get 2. On Planck s Determination of Elementary Quanta I We shall show in the following that determination of elementary quanta given by Mr. Planck is, to a certain extent, independent of the theory of black-body radiation constructed by him. Planck s formula 2 for pv which agrees with all experiments up to the present is av3 PV = where a = 6-10 X ß = x For large values of T/v, that is, for long wavelengths and high radiation densities, this formula has the following limiting form One sees that this formula agrees with the one derived in section 1 from Maxwell theory and electron theory, By equating the Coefficients in the two formulae, we get
4 96 THE OLD QUATUM THEOY EISTEI: CEATIO AD COVESIO OF LIGHT 97 or that is, one hydrogen atom weighs 1/ = 1.62 x g. This is exactly the value found by Mr. Planck, which agrees satisfactorily with values of this quantity found by different means. We thus reach the conclusion : the higher the energy density and the longer the wavelengths of radiation, the more usable is the theoretical basis used by us; for short wavelengths and low radiation densities, however, the basis fails completely. In the following, we shall consider black-body radiation, basing ourselves upon experience without using a picture of the creation and propagation of the radiation. 3. On the Entropy of the adiation The following considerations are contained in a famous paper by Mr. W. Wien and are only mentioned here for the sake of completeness. Consider radiation which takes up a volume v. We assume that the observable properties of this radiation are completely determined if we give the radiation energy p(v) for all frequencies.t As we may assume that radiations of different frequencies can be separated without work or heat, we can write the entropy of the radiation in the form S = VIO* (P, V ) dv, where 4 is a function of the variables p and v. One can reduce cf, to a function of one variable only by formulating the statement that the entropy of radiation between reflecting walls is not changed by an adiabatic compression. We do not want to go into this, but at once investigate how one can obtain the function 4 from the radiation law of a black body.?this is an arbitrary assumption. Of course, one sticks to this simplest, assumption until experiments force us to give it up. In the case of black-body radiation, p is such a function of V that the entropy is a maximum for a given energy, that is, if 6Jo*pdv = O. From this it follows that for any choice of 6p as function of V jow($-a)6pdv = O, where A is independent of v. In the case of black-body radiation, a4/ap is thus independent of v. If the temperature of a black-body radiation in a volume u = 1 increases by dt, we have the equation or, as a4/ap is independent of V: ds =!? de. ap As de is equal to the heat transferred and as the process is reversible, we have also 1 ds = 2 de. T Through comparing, we get ap T* This is the black-body radiation law. One can thus from the function 4 obtain the black-body radiation law and conversely from the latter the function cf, through integration, bearing in mind that vanishes for p = O.
5 98 THE OLD QUATUM THEOY EISTEI: CEATIO AD COVESIO OF LIGHT 99 to the same rules as the entropy of a perfect gas or of a dilute solution. The equation just found will in the following be 4. Limiting Law for the Entropy of Monochromatic interpreted on the basis of the principle, introduced by Mr. adiation for Low adiation Density Boltzmann into physics, according to which the entropy of a 9 From the observatio%made so far on black-body radiation, system is a function of the probability of its state. it is clear that the law = 61v3 p l T put forward originally for black-body radiation by Mr. W. Wien is not exactly valid. However; for large values of vjt, it is in complete agreement with experiment. We shall base our calculations on this formula, though bearing in mind that our results are valid only within certain limits. First of all, we get from this equation 1 1 P - --ln- T ßv av3 and then, if we use the relation found in the preceding section Let there now be radiation of energy E with a frequency between V and v+dv and let the volume of the radiation be v. The entropy of this radiation is If we restrict ourselves to investigating the.dependence of the entropy on the volume occupied by the radiation, and if we denote the entropy of the radiation by So if it occupies a volume vo, we get E u S-so =-ln-. ßV This equation shows that the entropy of a monochromatic radiation of sufficiently small density varies with volume according V0 5. Molecular-Theoretical Investigation of the Volume-dependence of the Entropy of Gases and Dilute Solutions When calculating the entropy in molecular gas theory one often uses the word probability in a sense which is not the same as the definition of probability given in probability theory. Especially, often cases of equal probability are fixed by hypothesis under circumstances where the theoretical model used is sufficiently definite to deduce probabilities rather than fixing them by hypothesis. I shall show in a separate paper that when considering thermal phenomena it is completely sufficient to use the so-called statistical probability, and I hope thus to do away with a logical difficulty which is hampering the consistent application of Boltzmann s principle. At the moment, however, I shall give its general formulation and the application to very special cases. If it makes sense to talk about the probability of a state of a system and if, furthermore, any increase of entropy can be considered as a transition to a more probable state, the entropy S1 of a system will be a function of the probability TVl of its instantaneous state. If, therefore, one has two systems which do not interact with one another, one can write If one considers these two systems as a single system of entropy S and probability W we have S = S1+S2 = 4(W) and W = W1. Wz. This last relation states that the states of the two systems are independent.
6 100 THE OLD QUATUM THEOY From these equations it follows that 4Wl W,) = 4l(W + 42(W,>, and hence finally 4,( W,) = C ln W, + const, 4,( W,) = C ln W, + const, 4(W) = Cln W+const. The quantity C is thus a universal constant; it follows from kinetic gas theory that it has the value I where the constants and have the same meaning as above. If So is the entropy of a certain initial state of the system considered and W the relative probability of a state with entropy S, we have in general S-So =-ln W. We now consider the following special case. Let us consider a number, n, moving points (e.g., molecules) in a volume vo. Apart from those, there may be in this space arbitrarily many other moving points of some kind or other. We do not make any assumptions about the laws according to which the points considered move in space, except that as far as their motion is concerned no part of space-and no direction-is preferred above others. The number of the (first-mentioned) points which we are considering be moreover so small that we can neglect their mutual interaction. There corresponds a certain entropy So to the system under consideration, which may be, for instance, a perfect gas or a dilute solution. Consider now the case where a part V of the volume u. contains all n moving points while otherwise nothing is changed in the system. This state clearly corresponds to a different value, S, of the entropy, and we shall now use Boltzmann s principle to determine the entropy difference. We ask : how large is the probability of this state relative to the original state? Or: how large is the probability that at an arbitrary moment all n points moving independently of one EISTEI : CEATIO AD COVESIO OF LIGHT 101 another in a given volume vo are (accidentally) in the volume V? One gets clearly for this probability, which is a statistical probability : W = (;T; one obtains from this, applying Boltzmann s principle: n v S-So = -ln-. It must be noted that it is unnecessary to make any assumptions about the laws, according to which the molecules move, to derive this equation from which one can easily derive thermodynamically the Boyle-Gay-Lussac law and the same law for the osmotic pressure.? 6. Interpretation of the Expression for the Volume-dependence of the Entropy of Monochromatic adiation according to Boltzmann s Principle In Section 4, we found for the volume-dependence of the entropy of monochromatic radiation the expression E v S-So = -ln-. ßV V0 If we write this equation in the form 1, EIßv S-S, =;ln[(;) and compare it with the general formula which expresses or If E is the energy of the system, we have n du -d(e-ts) =P du = TdS T -- u n PU = ÑT. V0
7 102 THE OLD QUATUM THEOY Boltzmann s principle,. S-So = -ln W, we arrive at the following conclusion : If monochromatic radiation of frequency V and energy E is enclosed (by reflecting walls) in a volume u0, the probability that at an arbitrary time the total radiation energy is in a part Y of the volume u0 will be Efßv W=(;). From this we then conclude : Monochromatic radiation of low density behaves-as long as Wien s radiation formula is valid-in a thermodynamic sense, as if it consisted of mutually independent energy quanta of magnitude ßv/. We now wish to compare the average magnitude of the blackbody energy quanta with the average kinetic energy of the translational motion of a molecule at- the same temperature. The latter is $T/, while we get from Wien s formula for the average magnitude of the energy quantum JOm 1:av3 e -ßvl~ dv av3 ewßvft dv =3-T. If monochromatic radiation-of sufficiently low densitybehaves, as far as the volume-dependence of its entropy is concerned, as a discootinuous medium consisting of energy quanta of magnitude /?v/, it is plausible to investigate whether the laws on creation and transformation of light are also such as if light consisted of such energy quanta. This question will be considered in the following. EISTEI : CEATIO AD COVESIO OF LIGHT On Stokes ule Consider monochromatic light which is changed by photoluminescence to light of a different frequency; in accordance with the result we have just obtained, we assume that both the original and the changed light consist of energy quanta of magnitude (/)ßv, where V is the corresponding frequency. We must then interpret the transformation process as follows. Each initial energy quantum of frequency v1 is absorbed and is-at least when the distribution density of the initial energy quanta is sufficiently low-by itself responsible for the creation of a light quantum of frequency V,; possibly in the absorption of the initial light quantum at the same time also light quanta of frequencies v3, v4,... as well as energy of a different kind (e.g. heat) may be generated. It is immaterial through what intermediate processes the final result is brought about. Unless we can consider the photoluminescing substance as a continuous source of energy, the energy of a final light quantum can, according to the energy conservation law, not be larger than that of an initial light quantum; we must thus have the condition -ßv2 5 -/?V,, or v2 5 v1 This is the well-known Stokes rule. We must emphasise that according to our ideas the intensity of light produced must-other things being equal-be proportional to the incide,nt light intensity for weak illumination, as every initial quantum will cause one elementary process of the kind indicated above, independent of the action of the other incident energy quanta. Especially, there will be no lower limit for the intensity of the incident light below which the light would be unable to produce photoluminescence.. According to the above ideas about the phenomena deviations - from Stokes rule are imaginable in the following cases: 1. When the number of the energy quanta per unit volume
8 104 THE OLD QUATUM THEOY involved in transformations is SO large that an energy quantum of the light produced may obtain its energy from several initial energy quanta. 2. When the initial (or final) light energetically does not have the properties characteristic for black-body radiation according to Wien s law; for instance, when the initial light is produced by a body of so high a temperature that Wien s law no longer holds for the wavelengths considered. This last possibility needs particular attention. According to the ideas developed here, it is not excluded that a non-wienian radiation, even highly-diluted, behaves energetically differently thana black-bodyradiation intheregionwherewien slawisvalid. 8. On the Production of Cathode ays by Illumination of Solids The usual idea that the energy of light is continuously distributed over the space through which it travels meets with especially great difficulties when one tries to explain photo-electric phenomena, as was shown in the pioneering paper by Mr. Lenard. According to the idea that the incident light consists of energy quanta with an energy ßv/, one can picture the production of cathode rays by light as follows. Energy quanta penetrate into a surface layer of the body, and their energy is at least partly transformed into electron kinetic energy. The simplest picture is that a light quantum transfers all of its energy to a single electron; we shall assume that that happens. We must, however, not exclude the possibility that electrons only receive part of the energy from light quanta. An electron obtaining kinetic energy inside the body will have lost part of its kinetic energy when it has reached the surface. Moreover, we must assume that each electron on leaving the body must produce work P, which is characteristic for the body. Electrons which are excited at the surface and at right angles to it will leave the body with the greatest normal velocity. The kinetic energy of such electrons is I EISTEI : CEATIO AD COVESIO OF LIGHT 105 -ßV-P If the body is charged to a positive potential II and surrounded by zero potential conductors, and if Il is just able to prevent the loss of electricity by the body, we must have II& = -PV-P, where E is the electrical mass of the electron, or IIE = PV- P, where E is the charge of a gram equivalent of a single-valued ion and P is the potential of that amount of negative electricity with respect to the body.? If we put E = 9.6 x lo3, IT x lo-* is the potential in Volts which the body assumes when it is irradiated in a vacuum. To see now whether the relation derived here agrees, as to order of magnitude, with experiments, we put P = O, V = 1-03 x lo1 (corresponding to the ultraviolet limit of the solar spectrum) and ß = x 10- l. We obtain II x lo7 = 4.3 Volt, a result which agrees, as to order of magnitude, with Mr. Lenard s results. If the formula derived here is correct, II must be, if drawn in Cartesian coordinates as a function of the frequency of the incident light, a straight line, the slope of which is independent of the nature of the substance studied. As far as I can see, our ideas are not in contradiction to the properties of the photoelectric action observed by Mr. Lenard. If every energy quantum of the incident light transfers its energy to electrons independently of all other quanta, the velocity distribution of the electrons, that is, the quality of the resulting cathode radiation, will be independent of the intensity of the incident light; on the other hand, ceteris paribus, the number of -/-If one assumes that it takes a certain amount of work to free a single electron by light from a neutral molecule, one has no need to change this relation; one only must consider P to be the sum of two terms.
9 106 THE OLD QUATUM THEOY electrons leaving the body should be proportional to the intensity of the incident light.3 As far as the necessary limitations of these rules are concerned, we could make remarks similar to those about the necessary deviations from the Stokes rule. In the preceding, we assumed that the energy of at least part of the energy quanta of the incident light was always transferred completely to a single electron. If one does not make this obvious assumption, one obtains instead of the earlier equation the following one ITE+P For cathode-luminescence, which is the inverse process of the one just considered, we get by a similar argument rie+p 2 PV. For the substances investigated by Mr. Lenard, ITE is always considerably larger than Pv, as the voltage which the cathode rays must traverse to produce even visible light is, in some cases a few hundred, in other cases thousands of volts.3 We must thus assume that the kinetic energy of an electron is used to produce many light energy quanta. 9. On the Ionisation of Gases by Ultraviolet Light We must assume that when a gas is ionised by ultraviolet light, always one absorbed light energy quantum is used to ionise just one gas molecule. From this follows first of all that the ionisation energy (that is, the energy theoretically necessary for the ionisation) of a molecule cannot be larger than the energy of an effective, absorbed light energy quantum. If J denotes the (theoretical) ionisation energy per gram equivalent, we must have ßv 2 J. According to Lenard s measurements, the largest effective wavelength for air is about 1-9 x 18- cm, or - ßv = 6.4 x 1012 erg 2 J. EISTEI: CEATIO AD COVESIO OF LIGHT 107 An upper limit for the ionisation energy can also be obtained from ionisation voltages in dilute gases. According to J. Stark 4 the smallest measured ionisation voltage (for platinum anodes) in air is about 10Volt.t We have thus an upper limit of 9.6 x 10l2 for J which is about equal to the observed- one. There is still another consequence, the verification of which by experiment seems to me to be very important. If each light energy quantum which is absorbed ionises a molecule, the following relation should exist between the absorbed light intensity L and the number j of moles ionised by this light: L j=- ßv This relation should, if our ideas correspond to reality, be valid for any gas which-for the corresponding frequency-does not show an appreciable absorption which is not accompanied by ionisation. In the interior of the gas, the ionisation voltage for negative ions is anyhow +f five times larger. eferences l. M. PLACK, Ann. Physik 1,99 (1900). 2. M. PLACK, Ann. Physik 4, 561 (1901); this paper contains essentially the results of the two papers, reprinted as 1 and 2 in the present volume. 3. P. LEAD, Ann. Physik 8,149 (1902). 4. J. STAK, Die Elektrizität in Gasen, Leipzig, 1902, p. 57.
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As another year of comment moderation draws to a close, it seems a good time to answer a couple of questions and make a few - dare I say - comments.
Here is a recent question from a commenter: "I'm at a loss sometimes to understand how moderation works. Does, for instance, the columnist undertake the moderation, at least for a while, then someone else takes over? Or are there dedicated moderators with more than a working knowledge of the tort of defamation?"
Answer: Rarely does the columnist moderate any comments. That is why I feel uncomfortable when people write things like "Peter (Hartcher)/Ross (Gittins) why don't you have the courage to publish my comments?" I know what the commenter doesn't, Peter and Ross are not rejecting the comments - it is me.
Comments are moderated by dozens of people: moderators and section editors among them. Before I started this job I had legal training, which focused on defamation. I have rejected hundreds of comments over the past three years that defame people. As soon as a person is accused of a crime some people assume guilt. No matter how heinous the crime someone is accused of - and how certain it appears that they must have done it - I have to follow the well-known maxim, "innocent until proven guilty". And when in doubt about whether a comment is defamatory, I reject.
Impartiality is a vital part of our comment moderation. Sometimes commenters say that moderators are showing bias - usually favouring the left of politics or the right. This comment, which I published, is an example: "I also note my previous posting did not get up. Have we got an LNP-voting moderator here?"
If your comment is rejected I'd urge you to resubmit it after removing what you guess may have forced me to reject it. Attacking another commenter is the most common reason for rejection.
Obviously, some commenters are closely watching for signs of moderator bias. That is a good thing. And I publish - and even welcome - comments that claim I am biased. Other commenters can then join the debate and either support or argue against the claim of bias. That is what our online discussion/debate is all about - openly, and with civility, debating points of view. A moderator should be able to accept even more criticism than a reporter. If you think that your rejected comment criticising moderators should have been published, I'd encourage you to complain to Readerlink. I recognise the conflict of interest inherent in a mod moderating comments about mods!
The only bias I allow, I hope, is to give priority to comments submitted to our in memoriam articles. It seems only right to give people every opportunity to promptly pay their respects.
This year I have injected myself into the comment threads a little more than last year. I did this, in part, because of a report about comment moderation (not readily available online), which stated that there were benefits to reporters making comments on their own stories. I thought the same principle may hold for moderators. Judging by the comments submitted to my final "Comments of the week" column it seems that some people agree.
I have also sent emails - sparingly, because the comments never stop - to a few commenters. Once it was to tell someone that I could not publish their comment because he had used his email address as his user name, which is against our comment moderation guidelines. Normally, I would reject such a comment and move on. In this case I did not because it was someone paying his respects to Stella Young. I didn't have the heart to reject it without giving him the chance to resubmit his comment. The result? He resubmitted and I published.
Of course, there are many reasons comments may be rejected besides attacking other commenters. If an article is written by a teenage schoolchild then I will restrict criticism of them in a way I would not if the article had been written by Paul Sheehan or Elizabeth Farrelly. If someone is named in an article - particularly if they are a member of the public - then I am more careful about what comments I'll allow. That's because the comments are about an identifiable individual; they're personal. If I think that a comment is revealing too much personal information about, say, someone's partner I may reject the comment if I think the person could be identified; they may, of course, not want such details disclosed. I could give a dozen similar examples. But I trust you get the idea. The bottom line is that I try to be impartial and fair to everyone.
The sort of comments that facilitate good discussion include:
Ones that support others such as this: "Sorry to hear that. I hope thing get better for you. Good luck."
Those that show open-mindedness and a willingness to debate with civility: "Hi Ross [not Gittins]. Certainly willing to meet you halfway on this one. I think if you look at the Howard years in two parts …"
Those that make plain that they are not accusing another commenter of lying etc: "I have no recollection of our trams ever being sold to the Japanese. I'm not suggesting you are imagining or fabricating the story but will you please document that?"
My final comment is a brief one - after all, a good comment is usually short. Merry Christmas and keep commenting.
I'll leave the final word, as is appropriate, to a commenter. Given that Christmas is a time of good will, I think Howe Synnott's comment is perfectly timed and could reduce the number of comments we need to reject, especially if commenters focus on the final sentence before clicking "Post comment":
"Fellow bloggers - can we hang on for just a moment here? Surely, we would all accept that there are 'good' people on both sides of politics - and people with good ideas. … We would all agree that respect and tolerance of those with a different view is essential; both in the Parliament - and on this blog-site."
Rob Ashton is the chief comment moderator for Fairfax Media

subset: commoncrawl


text: courtesy of the artist Music Articles Noah And The Whale: The Aftermath Begins October 29, 2009 "The First Days of Spring" opens with a drum beat that's part heartbeat, part funeral dirge — which makes sense, given that it kicks off a song cycle about the aftermath of a breakup. What follows, both in the song and on the album that bears its name, is masterful, beautiful, epic, string-swept and ultimately comforting. Even when it exudes misery, it deserves company. 'The First Days of Spring' by Noah and the Whale Toggle more options Embed Embed <iframe src="https://www.npr.org/player/embed/114280845/114278030" width="100%" height="290" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" title="NPR embedded audio player">


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Seth godin
Explorar tópicos relacionados
Do not create for the masses... --My take on Seth Godin's post about writing copy. --
"The cost of being wrong is less than the cost of doing nothing." – Seth Godin
"People do not buy goods and service. They buy relations, stories and magic." - Seth Godin. #pr #publicrelations
Don't find customers for your products, find products for your customers. - Seth Godin #Products #Create #MichiganCreative www.michigancreative.com
Please stop waiting for a map. We reward those who draw maps, not those who follow them. -Seth Godin
you're either remarkable or invisible... #entrepreneurquotes Entrepreneur Quotes
Resultado de imagen para seth godin quotes
You don't need more time in your day. You need to decide. - Seth Godin
People buy relations, stories and magic
"Marketing is no longer about the stuff you make, but about the stories you tell." ~Seth Godin #quote. And visuals are an integral part of storytelling!


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Designed off the back of the successful micromassage garments, the anti-cellulite, Silver Wave Fresh are made with deeper 3D wave furrows for a more invigorating massage action. The garment fits like a second skin, so that the 3D waves on the inside of the fabric can micromassage your skin as you move. This improves micro-circulation on the skins surface to help drain away toxins, and results in smoother skin and effectively improves cellulite*. These micromassaging shorts contain graduated compression to effectively improve blood circulation in the legs, helping to prevent or lessen swelling and improving both leg energy and the therapeutic action of the micromassage. Made with a breathable, fabric woven with bacteriostatic silver ions yarns, your skin will remain clean, dry and healthy at all times. Silver stops bacteria reproduction, and therefore, prevents the onset of odours, allergies and infections, and the silver function never washes out. A breathable, cotton gusset and flat seams give added comfort and hygiene. Due to the nature of the micromassage products, you can not only use them as anti-cellulite shorts, but you can also instantly flatter the figure if you use them as anti-cellulite body shapers under your clothes. The dual action therapeutic effects have also proven popular for those who suffer with Lymphoedema and those who enjoy physical activity, giving energy during workouts and help to shorten recovery times. Silver Wave Fresh are made with thinner fabric than that of other Silver Wave garments, as they are designed for use during warmer months, this also makes them great to wear under clothes at any time of year. Please Note: This is a 'compression' garment designed for therapy to the blood flow, lymphatic system, skin and muscle tissues. Due to the nature of the garment it will also give a certain amount of support to the body areas it covers, but not enough to 'support' problems with the Skeletal Frame such as SPD or fractures. The XL and XXL sizes feature an extra panel in the back to allow for more room, more stretch and better fit. Please see the diagram in the additional images to get a better idea of what this looks like. Body shaper Micromassage cellulite buster Made with silver ions Flat seams Cotton gusset 80% Polyamide 18% Elastane 2% Cotton Because of the nature of these products, the more you move, the more benefits you will receive and the quicker you will see results. So using these items up the gym will increase the speed of results. If used for up to a 6 week period, you may notice visible differences in cellulite*. *In the opinion of the patients, the garments was effective for the treatment of Liposclerosis (Cellulite) in 88% of the cases, and when worn regularly, enhanced well-being and generated a containment effect, as well as an increase of the diuresis in 24% of the cases. (Flebologia: Official Organ of Italian Association of Phlebology - Quarterly Scientific Journal, Volume X, Issue 1, Jan-Mar 1999)
Produkterna levereras av självständiga detaljhandlare belägna runt om i Europa. Leveranstiderna och fraktavgifterna varierar beroende på var återförsäljaren har sitt säte och det valda leveranssättet.
Du kan välja ett av följande leveranssätt:
Vi skickar en leveransbekräftelse till din e-postadress så snart din beställning har gått iväg. Du kan också kontrollera beställningens status på Min profil → Mina beställningar.
Leveranstiden till svåråtkomliga ställen är längre.
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I liked it, keep it up..
This sounds great! I do hope the human participants sign liability waivers in favor of the goats - in case a goat inadvertently, or intentionally, kicks or head butts a yogi while said yogi is in downward dog position or what have you, since the goats are involuntary participants in the endeavor! Namaste!
great article.
So this girl whines about "cultural appropriation" and then doesn't even know enough about what she claims to be her culture to avoid screwing up even entering the place.
Just wow.
This is a fantastic piece: Bryan did a great job of talking to a ton of important voices on the local scene.
Durham Parks & Rec has pickleball as well.
Saturday, June 27 @7pm at Cardinal Gibbons
College Night Facebook Event:
Swag: http://shop.raleigh-flyers.com
Science Friday (NPR) did a great feature this past friday getting deeper into the sport. Check out the video -- http://www.sciencefriday.com/segment/12/26…
Wonderful insight into the world of derby. Thanks for sharing how awesome a sport this truly is. These girls work hard, put on a hell of a show, and do it all for the love of the sport, the league and each other.
And on a side note, the next tryouts are coming up on June 5th.
Read more here http://carolinarollergirls.com/join_us/
I play for the cape fear roller girls in wilmington, nc (btw, we are bouting with the CRG Bootleggers on May 15th) and I have to say this is one of the most well-written, comprehensive and accurate articles that has been written about the the now-decade old revival of women's roller derby. We are not just pretty faces in tight tops. We don't play this sport for the fame and certainly not the money (I don't know of a single team that pays their skaters); we do it for love of the game and love of our teammates AND opponents. Thanks for getting it right, INDY!
-Truck Nutz, captain, CFRG


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|Tad Keelin - I worked closely with Michael at eWork. Michael is smart, r...
About Mr. Michael Sheehan
I am the Technology Evangelist for a San Francisco-based hosting provider (ServePath) where I do corporate blogging, inbound and outbound communications, social networking and other community building activities. I also am an avid technology, gadget, software and hardware guru.
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Weekly Stars by Annie Shaw - 05/03/14
Weekly Stars by Annie Shaw
In any relationship situation please keep a handle on that famous Ram temper as it will cause more problems especially since your boss Mars is going backwards in the partnership area and it will rebound on you if you don't!!!
Your priority should be taking care of you in any area that requires attention. and start with what you know is well overdue .On the upside you can expect a call from a love interest so be ready. Happy Birthday
If you feel you need to make more strides in life in what ever area effects you. You not moving to fast no matter how hard you try until mid June so take everything in life as it comes and be cool.
You are always the sign that holds on to feelings good and bad and also material things also .This is the time to clear out unwanted stuff in both areas and move forward lighter.
Yes this is a time for the inner crank to show itself for some of you who are not participating in life as you know you can. The sun in Taurus the bull will help you slow down and take life a bit slower and discover peace.
Its time for a trip and short or long near or far matters not as you benefit from the change of scenery. Just make sure you have caught up with what ever is unfinished and not everything does!!!!
The planet of Fire Mars has been sitting in your life stationery however he will be stirring things up in for you more than ever by mid next month .So if you have thing you need to be working on get moving now.
Jupiter the luck bringer will be blessing you lots in the coming weeks as he sits in your cousin sign of Cancer .This being your house of good luck financially so let's get ready to receive. A person of interest romantically could turn up.
Just watch that temper if things don't always go the way you planned life is an adventure.
and you need to remember that child like quality which is so unique to you. You may be
Going along slower than you like as your boss Jupiter is swimming in water now.
.This could be the month that it all comes together or goes out the window it is entirely up to you how you make it work oh and listening to your inner voice is the clue.You have the sun in an Earth sign Taurus which will benefit you overall.
You will always get back what you put out and just be careful you don't say to much to another that can really blow your plans .Keep your thoughts or judgments to your self is best. You have many good points that others seem not to notice they will soon.
You are reputed to be the most romantic soul of all the signs so this week proves it if not to another then to your self. Your ruler Neptune can bring up a lot of stuff lain dormant in your life while he is in your life so be ready.


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In our workshop we receive our FINE ORGANIC COTTON FABRICS from our knitter ready to be turned into garments.
We start by carefully layering the fabric onto our cutting table to avoid stretching it.
The patterns pieces for each product are then placed on top of the fabric and using a tailor's chalk our MASTER CUTTER hand trace's around the patterns.
The patterns are removed and the fabric is hand cut using sharp scissors or an electric cutting knife.
Once cut the different pieces are bundled together into ready to be sewn.
Our TAILORS using specialized machines and cotton threads sew the different pieces together crafting a unique garment.
After a final inspection, the products are steamed ironed and packed into our LUXURIOUS COTTON BAG ready to be dispatched.


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Log Into Your Account
You gotta' love the rapid pace at which technology is advancing. Prosumer video cameras today can be even better than some of the professional cameras of only a few years ago, and the line between prosumer and professional keeps blurring more and more each year. Judging by the upcoming Sony HDR-AX2000 prosumer video camera, the accelerated pace of technological advancement shows no sign of slowing.
The HDR-AX2000, expected to sell for around $3500, is a solid state AVCHD camera that crams a whole lot of professional features into a prosumer camera. Able to record at up to 24 Mbps in the AVCHD format, the HDR-AX2000 can capture 1920x1080/60i HD video as well as progressive scan video at 1080/30p and 1080/24p directly to Memory Stick PRO Duo or SDHC cards (the 24p/30p footage is converted to 60i when recorded to the memory stick/SDHC, and 2-3 pull-down is used when converting the 24p to 60i).


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Alabama Tiny Home Builders
Alabama is a state rich with tiny home culture. There are plenty of builders around to help you with the perfect tiny home when you decide you are ready to live simply.
AL Tiny Homes
AL Tiny Homes is a local Mount Olive construction company, designing and building tiny homes for residents in the area and all throughout the Southeast. For over 20 years, our lead professional James Brewer has completed countless construction projects around the area – from ground-up builds to restoration projects.
Mount Olive, AL 35117
Phone: 205-514-0917
Atknson Cottages and Tiny Homes
Atkinson Cottages and Tiny Homes, located in Childersburg, Alabama next to Atkinson Homes on Highway 280, brings you a whole new living experience. All the comfort, convenience and luxury of a traditional house in a small space and with none of the hassle.
Highway 280, Childersburg AL
Phone: 256-378-1201
Harmony Tiny Homes
We love the tiny house movement. We love the flexibility and creativity it gives us as the builder, and freedom it can provide you the home owner.
We love to upcycle and repurpose items into our builds. We can work in a range of sizes and pricing. We build from pre-existing plans or collaborate with you to create a one-of-a-kind tiny home.
Oxford, Alabama
Phone: 256-310-0704
Timbercraft Tiny Homes
Timbercraft Tiny Homes is a local Guntersville tiny home builder specializing in custom tiny home builds. Owned and operated by Doug Schroeder, if they don't have a plan that already suits your needs, Doug can certainly customize one for you!
21351 Hwy 431, Guntersville, AL 35967
Phone: 256-558-8410


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'grandfather' found in these entries
In the English description:
definition | in French | Conjugator | English synonyms | in context | images WR Apps: Android & iPhone Word of the day
'grandfather' found in these entries
In the English description:
In Lists: People in a family, more...
Synonyms: grandpa, granddaddy, grandpappy, grandad, pap, more...
Forum discussions with the word(s) "grandfather" in the title:
Do/Does your father and your grandfather have beards? - grammar
Exploit money from grandfather?
grandfather (verb)
grandfather as a verb
Grandfather Clause
grandfather clause / grandfathered - legal
grandfather clause grandfathered
Grandfather period
grandfather provision
grandfather vacation time
grandfather/grandmother jokes
great (x7) grandfather
Great 4X grandfather (pronunciation) - grammar
great great grandfather, great great uncle
great great great grandfather
great-great grandfather
great-great-great grandfather
I hope your grandfather is feeling better.
I pray for your grandfather.
I'm sorry to hear about your grandfather
If you asked a grandfather...
my grandfather and i
My grandfather died 30 years ago... ¿Qué tiempo verbal usaríais?
My paternal grandfather was....
step grandfather
Thank you for the email... when my grandfather passed away
The sash of my grandfather / The my grandfather's sash
They like to hear fairy tales from their grandfather
Visit the Spanish-English Forum.Help WordReference: Ask in the forums yourself.Discussions about 'grandfather' in the English Only forumSee Google Translate's machine translation of 'grandfather'.
In other languages: French | Italian | Portuguese | German | Swedish | Dutch | Russian | Polish | Romanian | Czech | Greek | Turkish | Chinese | Japanese | Korean | Arabic


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La Seduction
How the French Play the Game of Life
Elaine Sciolino
Times Books/Henry Holt: 340 pp., $27
Strategy is everything for the French. That's what Elaine Sciolino discovers in her book "La Seduction: How the French Play the Game of Life," a look at why the food is so delicious, the perfumes so beguiling, the languid conversation of Paris cafes so intoxicating, the French so, well, French. It's all part of a grand centuries-old game of seduction, a word with a much more expansive definition in French. Rather than a focus on the physical or the erotic, it is akin to what we would describe as allure, charm, persuasion or even style.
It's the...


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Category: Social
How Social Media has Affected Us?
It is hard to figure out the extent of change we have experienced in our life without stopping for a moment and looking at how things were different five or ten years ago. Social media has had a significant impact on our daily lives in the recent past years. Most people at the beginning of […]
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Almost all of us know that Facebook is one of the largest online social networking service. It is a social utility that connects people with friends and others who work, study and live around them. However, it is more than just this. Have you ever looked closely at the word 'FaceBOOK'? Yes, it includes 'book' […]
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As important as it is to have a Twitter account for almost every firm in the world, keeping track of the trends and knowing the reaction to your own posts is also vital. Here are a few Twitter Management Tools that will help you do exactly that. Sprout Social This tool is mainly used to […]
Some Useful Affiliate Programs for Website Owners
You can expect some good page views on your website if the quality of your content is good and SEO friendly. This in turn can lead you to earn some good amount of money using these Useful Affiliate Programs. What you do is that you advertise other Organizations' product on your website. Through this you […]
5 Mistakes You Might Be Making as a Blogger
Time is a scarce resource. We all know that. It always will be. We know that, too. And with information everywhere, it is imperative that you treat your readers' time with respect when they give it to you. What all I mean to say is that since blogging has become so common nowadays, it is […]
10 Ways to stay Motivated as a Web Designer
Like all other professions, working within the Web is most certainly a lifestyle choice, and all this time spent engrossed in our working environment can have adverse effects our passion and motivation for it. But, at the very same moment, it is our passion and motivation only that drives us to spend so much time […]
20+ Android Apps for Better Flight Experience
One of the extremely stressful experiences includes that of travelling, even if you fly very often. Indeed there is a list of things to be done from packing your own luggage to getting your boarding pass printed to checking your flight status to finding your way to the correct gates to even hailing a cab […]
15 Best Domain Registrars
Registering a domain is an essential prerequisite for setting up a website. Irrespective of the fact whether the domain is top level or free, a website is ought to have a unique domain name in order to receive the traffic. There was a time when free domain names like .co.cc etc were given preference to […]
5 Best Social Bookmarking Website for Web Developers
Almost every other blogger in this world publishes content with a mere objective of bringing in an influx of organic or referral visitors. There are many ways by which this objective could be achieved. Some are easy ways, whereas, some are difficult, but within this chasm of easy and difficult ways, there exist some worthwhile […]


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Best Content Writing Services Company
Apps Innovations is the topmost mobile applications development, content writing services and digital marketing company that provide excellent services to its clients. Apps Innovations, brings you impeccable content for your website and marketing needs. What you create has to be unique to you. Our web content writing services will comprise of both General Content written mainly for web page filling as well as optimised Content which is keyword friendly used to enhance your search engine ranking. We work closely with our clients to make sure the end product is exactly what they are looking for.
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Homeopathic Materia Medica is a rich and exhaustive treasure trove lined with thousands
of precious stones (remedies), each one having a unique personality and identity
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The Large Ornate smokeless pipe is a simple and easy way to smoke. The end heats up pulling a little bit of flame from your lighter into the end of the pipe, slowly burning the product inside and not releasing smoke back out the other end.smokeless pipes are one of the best pipes to take to a party or a gig because No oxygen gets in so you're not inhaling any smoke other than what you draw.so as soon as you stop toking on the pipe it goes out and you can put it back in your pocket. So pack it, put it in your pocket to take it out with you and its ready to use when ever you are.
- Pack cone and carry in your pocket
- Great for discreet quick use (because already packed)
- Remove mouth-piece & cone top to create "emergency" stem & cone for bong


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Split Tee, Natural Raw Silk
Jamie + The Jones
This variant is currently sold out.
Jamie + The Jones creates simple, wearable art to live in. They focus on the blend of quality and effortless beauty, packaged into whimsical and wearable silhouettes that can be worn on any occasion. Made in their Nashville, Tennessee studio. The Jamie + The Jones Split Tee side slits and a larger 2" hem. The short sleeves allow this piece to be easily transitioned from a Summer throw on to a perfect base layer for chilly Fall weather. The longer length and side slits were patterned to flatter every body type.
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- Made in Nashville, Tennessee
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text:
News and comment on church closings and on modern Catholic life throughout the world. The practice of Catholic devotions as a remedy and in reparation will also be encouraged. If anyone has any news on any Catholic Church closures anywhere in the world, pictures and suggested links please feel free to e-mail. Also pay a visit to the extensive archives- also click on labels. Visit the Catholic Store to support Cathcon!
Monday, June 22, 2009
Bowling time again- nun at provincial chapter in Austria
at 13:31
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These tasty zucchini muffins would also be delicious with about 1/2 cup of chopped walnuts or pecans, either in addition to the carrots or to replace them. Coconut, raisins, or craisins would be excellent additions as well.
Serve the muffins with flavored butter or a simple cream cheese spread. See the tips, below, for some spread ideas.
What You'll Need
- 2/3 cup vegetable oil
- 2 large eggs
- 2/3 cup granulated sugar
- 1/2 cup light or dark brown sugar, packed
- 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
- 2 cups all-purpose flour
- 1/2 teaspoon baking soda
- 1/2 teaspoon baking powder
- 1/2 teaspoon salt
- 2 teaspoons ground cinnamon
- 1 1/2 cups finely shredded unpeeled zucchini
- 1/2 cup finely shredded carrot
How to Make It
- Grease and flour 12 muffin cups. Heat oven to 375 F.
- In a mixing bowl, beat the oil with eggs, sugars, and vanilla extract.
- Combine the flour, soda, baking powder, salt and cinnamon; add to the wet ingredients; stirring until blended. Fold in the shredded zucchini and carrots.
- Fill muffin cups about 3/4 full; sprinkle with cinnamon sugar or granulated sugar, if desired. Bake for 20 minutes.
Makes 12.
- Pineapple Cream Cheese Spread - Combine 8 ounces of softened cream cheese with 1 can (8 ounces) of drained crushed pineapple.
- Cinnamon Cream Cheese Spread - Combine 4 ounces of softened cream cheese with 2 tablespoons of packed light brown sugar and 1/2 teaspoon of ground cinnamon. Beat until smooth and well blended.
- Add 1/2 cup of flaked sweetened coconut and/or chopped nuts to the batter along with the shredded carrot, or omit the shredded carrot.
More Recipes
Orange-Cranberry Zucchini Bread
Zucchini Bread with Walnuts and Dates


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Can u help me understand why you would advise your client "yes"?
I find that it helps clientst understand the process a little more. Client support.
It is also helpful if the judge has questions or seeks to determine whether or not any objections might be valid. I always ask my clients to be there for these hearings, even though they seldom need to speak much.


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Names beginning with J(34 Posts)
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I never comprehended the concept of death. It was an abstract topic, constantly being shoved around through heated arguments and heavy controversy. And yet, when I found myself standing in front of the tombstone, my eyes ignoring the rain that fell in torrents, I realized what it really was like. My grip on the pistol in my pocket grew tighter.
A flash of lightning.
My eyes grew watery. I could swear one of those tiny pearl droplets of water would have rolled down my cheek, if it wasn't for the heavy rain that had already drenched my lethargic body. I lowered my head and began to walk away. Maybe, it would be better that way.
The crunch of boots on soil sounded. The hair on the back of my neck immediately stood at attention, and I swerved my head back. A figure stood a few feet away, not moving. Watching. Maybe I should have left. Maybe I should have just sprinted off. Maybe I should have drew my pistol and shot the person. But, my curiosity had overwhelmed my sense of fear. I placed one hand on where my pistol was and backed away slowly.
"Who're you?" I hollered with intent, my eyes never leaving the figure. It began to walk towards me. I didn't know what to do. And just then, a flash of lightning sounded in the sky, and for a brief second, I saw a fleeting glance of who I was looking at.
It was a person clothed in a stained jacket and blue jeans. A male. His entire body seemed to be stained with something. And where his head should have been, was replaced with a box, the sort of cardboard parcels you would find in a warehouse. And on the face of the box, a sloppy smiley face was drawn.
My eyes widened, and a breath hitched in my throat. I froze. The figure seemed familiar.
Another flash of lightning. That was when I caught sight of the stains on his body.
They were blood.
I drew my pistol, incredulous at what I was looking at. Maybe it was a prank or whatever, but I wasn't going to take chances. I swiftly backed away, quickly swerving my head around to check how close I was to the gate.
The boxhead didn't seem to notice my pistol. Or care. He continued taking a few steps ahead, lifting one of his hands to reveal a machete he was holding.
I felt sick.
Another flash of lightning. The machete was completely stained in the same red he was splattered with. I desperately pulled the trigger, attempting to deliver a warning shot. Nothing happened.
Another flash of lightning. I quickly turned around and ran as fast as my legs could handle, attempting to get myself, as far as I could, away from whatever that thing was.
Another flash of lightning. I ran to the gate, and tried to open it. It was locked. The first scream of anguish escaped me. I clawed at it, throwing punches at the lock.
Another flash of lightning. I swerved my head around, seeing the figure raise his machete. He was so close to me now. The box on his neck seemed to tilt in gleeful sadism. I clenched my teeth and shut my eyes.
A few seconds passed.
A few more seconds passed.
I opened my eyes. He was gone.
Another flash of lightning. The heavy downpour seemed to have subsided into a slight drizzle.
Another flash of lightning. I looked down at my hands. I was holding the bloody machete. Before I knew it, I had began caressing it. It seemed so ... useful.
Another flash of lightning.
Another flash of lightning.
Another flash of lightning.
Written by PrimalES
Content is available under CC BY-SA