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Architecture and Light: Vincenzo Scamozzi s Statuary Installation in the Chiesetta of the Palazzo Ducale in Venice
- Jewel Rich
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1 Charles Davis Architecture and Light: Vincenzo Scamozzi s Statuary Installation in the Chiesetta of the Palazzo Ducale in Venice 1. Venice, San Salvatore, cupolas with lanterns. In Vincenzo Scamozzi s earliest recorded project in Venice, the young architect undertook to introduce new sources of light into the gloomy interior of the Venetian church of San Salvatore, located a short distance due south of the Ponte di Rialto. Thereby the theme architettura-luce makes its appearance at the beginning of Scamozzi s architectural practice, around 1570, or slightly later, when the canons of San Salvatore called upon Scamozzi to remedy the darkness of their church ( chiesa [...] cieca ed oscu- ra ), which he did, advising opening a lantern in each of the three domes of the nave. Temanza writes that la Chiesa fu arricchita di quella luce che abbisognava. As is often the case with Scamozzi s lanterns the exterior architectural forms are exceedingly simple, with expansive window openings aimed at introducing a maximum of light into the architectural interior 1. In the immense architectural treatise of Scamozzi s maturity, his Idea dell architettura universale, first published in 1615, the architecture of light constitutes a new and not negligible component. Here Scamozzi s detailed theoretical attention to light appears unique, almost unprecedented in Renaissance architectural treatises. He proposes a systematic typology of architectural illumination ( lumi diversi negli edifici ), differentiated into six and more kinds of light within a construction. Il lume naturale è uno solo, writes Scamozzi, mà per vari accidenti egli può esser alterato non poco: e perciò noi lo divideremo in sei specie 2. In order to explicate the declination of architectural light, Scamozzi indicates on a fullpage plate of the Idea the various kinds of light, tracing them on the plan and the elevation of a paradigmatic central-plan edifice, which appears to be further development of the Rocca Pisana. The plate on page 138 of the Prima parte of the Idea illustrates, in fact, the lost Villa Bardellini at Monfumo (Treviso), designed by Scamozzi in In this plate of the Villa Bardellini the six species of light are indicated on the elevation, and the passage of light through the rooms is shown on the plan. The building has at its centre, una Sala rotonda [...], con quattro gran Nicchi negli angoli, la quale si eleva in molta l altezza; dove appare la sua cupola sopra al tetto (I, 39). The first instance of Scamozzi s light typology, lume amplissimo, o celeste, is the light of the open, sun-lit sky, indicated in Scamozzi s elevation diagram by the arc u-x over the cupola. Second in Scamozzi s classification is lume vivo e perpendicolare, open skylight received from the apriture delle Cupole, come della Rotonda di Roma, and, with regard to the elevation, Scamozzi writes, the diagonal, crossed lines, o-p and r-s, indicate the lume vivo, perpendicolare, che dal cielo aperto viene dal- 171
2 2. Villa plan and elevation, with light paths (Vincenzo Scamozzi, L Idea dell architettura universale, Venezia 1615, I, p. 138). l apritura del sommo della Cupola, e si diffonde nel piano della Sala. In a similar manner Scamozzi describes and categorizes the diffusion of light throughout the edifice, distinguishing the several cases and trajectories of light, and differentiating among levels of illumination ( forte, mediocre, debole ), among the directions of light (vertical, horizon- tal, diagonal), and between the diffusion of direct lighting ( diretto, aperto, vivo ) and that of indirect lighting ( lume secondario, tertiario, riflesso o rifratto ). In his Discorsi sopra l antichità di Roma 4, a commentary, prepared by Scamozzi following his return from Rome around 1580, to a series of vedute of the antichità di Roma engraved by 172
3 3. Chorographia omnium partium Thermarum Dioclitiani, 1580, detail (after Vincenzo Scamozzi, Discorsi sopra l antichità di Roma [1582]. Milano 1991, pp. xvi-xvii). Battista Pittoni, it is noteworthy that the author, Scamozzi, dedicates careful and constant attention to the phenomena of architectural illumination (Tav. V: Lumi delle Cappelle, Lumi che venivano nella nave di mezzo ; IX: Portici secondi, che ricevano lume dagli esteriori ; XIIII: Portici interiori, che ricevano lume da primi ; XV: Primi Portici, che ricevano lume dal defuori, Secondi Portici, che ricevano lume da primi, & delle parti di dentro ; XVIII: Aperture, che davano lume vivo alla strada ; XXI: Strada, che girava intorno con alcuni lumi alti ; XXII: Apritura, che dalla strada di mezzo dava lume alle scale di due rami, Strada di mezzo, che girava intorno, con lumi alti ; XXXI: Lume alto, ch entrava per sotto l arco della volta granda ; XXXIIII: Apriture, che davano lumi ; XXXV: Dove entrava lume alto à basso, nella nave di mezzo ; etc.). The impetus for these annotations concerning architectural light comes from Scamozzi, for his observations are superimposed, after the fact, on Pittoni s pre-existing vedute, which reflect no special interest in effects of light. The same detailed attention to architectural lighting can be discerned in Scamozzi s large engraving of the Baths of Diocletian 5. This graphic restitution of the Terme Diocleziane, of 1580, manifests a careful and accurate description of the illumination of the interior chambers, describing the play of light within the internal spaces. The graphic recording of light effects is so insistent that it must be considered premeditated and intentional, and not the chance result of casual observation, as testifies, for instance, a detail such as the exedra formed by a colonnata a giorno that traces a curve, in which the columns are all seen in controluce. Nearby, at the right, is another columnaded exedra, where the columns are illuminated by the light of the interior space. Also indicative is a near reversal of usual graphic conventions: more notable than the windows closer to the viewer, blacked-out following an established graphic convention of architectural drawing, are the open, white windows, in the background behind, more distant from the viewer. In Scamozzi s ideal restitution of the terme, light, that is illumination depicted by graphic means, enters from the left and from a source not identifiable with the position of the spectator, a source that is located distant from the observer, deep in profundity, so that it can filter from afar through the architectural spaces toward the vantage point of the spectator. Thus it is possible to discern a clear connection between Scamozzi s interest in architectural light, evident in his mature treatise, the Idea dell architettura universale, and his interest in the diversity of light as reflected in his youthful studies of perspective and of the scienze antiquarie, of which a first result was seen in his Tavola delle Terme di Diocleziano. Nor would it perhaps be mistaken to seek the origins of this interest in a scientific matrix, on the one hand, an optic-perspectival matrix, and, on the other, an antiquarianarchitectural one. In Scamozzi s treatise the treatment of the topic light is not restricted to the brief chapter on architectural lighting. Scamozzi s commentaries to the plates illustrating his own architectural works are often careful to specify the diffusion of light within Scamozzi s buildings 6. Observations concerning architectural light also 173
4 4. Section of Pantheon, Rome (Sebastiano Serlio, Il terzo libro, Venezia 1540, p. ix). 5. Rome, Pantheon, interior of dome (J.B. Wa rd-perkins, Architettura Romana, Milano 1998). 6. Pantheon, section with light paths, Rome (after Käbler, in E. Steingräber, Meilensteine der europäischen Kunst, München 1965, p. 60). recur in Scamozzi s treatment of the architectural typologies, casa antica, scale, porte, finestre, sale, salotti and others 7. Thus, just as in the Discorsi, in the Architettura universale, the phenomenon light emerges as a recurrent motive in the thought of the architect and author. The extraordinary effects of illumination experienced in the Rocca Pisana are amply illustrated in Franco Barbieri s La Rocca Pisana di Vicenza of Nor did the classic passage on the illumination of the Roman Pantheon, that of Sebastiano Serlio in his third book dedicated to Antichità, escape the notice of Scamozzi 8. To this passage Scamozzi appended, in his 1584 edition of Serlio, the following annotation, the cross indicating it as among the topics più gravi, et importanti : + Lume nella parte superiore della Ritonda si dilata con molta gratia, per tutte le parti, come non impedita di cosa alcuna 9. In his treatise Serlio also notes in the Pantheon the presence of a lume secondo, which filters into the perimetral chapels through the interior windows in the attic wall. More fundamental to Serlio s consideration of the Pantheon is a further observation he makes concerning the rôle of light within the architectural space of the ancient Rotunda. Serlio writes that he who finds himself within the Pantheon, even if of mediocre aspetto e presenza, se gli accresce un non so che di grandezza, e di venustà (an analysis to which a Longinian aesthetic is not extraneous, here in a precocious architectural application), and Serlio continues, affirming that il tutto nasce dal lume celeste, che da cosa alcuna non è impedito. From these considerations Serlio draws a further and more practical lesson with regard to the presentation of sculptural works of art. Lighting from above ( il lume di sopra ), he writes, is best suited for the spaces where statues are housed, as testify the diversi tabernacoli, nicchi, et finestrelle of the Rotunda in Rome. Serlio s statuary light, which explicitly serves to amplify and render more beautiful the illuminated sculptures, is a theme which reappears in Scamozzi s Architettura universale. Here Scamozzi distinguishes very explicitly between what he calls the container ( il continente ) and the contained, that is the object exhibited (the cosa contenuta ), emphasizing the nobility and beauty of the exhibited work of art in terms essentially little different from those employed by present-day architects and exhibition designers 10. Both the Rotunda and the interior illumination of chambers intended for statuary display are themes that can be discovered in Scamozzi s architectural works. As evident both in Giovanni Battista Gleria s reconstruction of the lost church of Santa Maria della Celestia and in the Chatsworth drawing which has been associated with this project, Scamozzi proposes a sort of new Pantheon for Venice, a circular, centralized plan with a dome 11. The theme of illumination alla romana reappears both in Scamozzi s project for the Venetian church of San Nicolò da Tolentino and in that for the church of San Gaetano in Padua, and again in the Chiesetta di San Giorgio at the villa Duodo in Monselice 12. In his restitution of the ancient Roman house, Scamozzi proposes situated on the median axis of the vast complex a large salone under a domed vault, placing at the two sides of this large room, niches of colossal dimensions furnished with statues 13, in a exhibition model clearly derived from the giant niches of the Pantheon portico, a design pattern which Scamozzi adapts to other contexts, for instance, in his the- 174
5 7. Plan of San Gaetano, Padua (Œuvres d architecture de Vincent Scamozzi, ed. S. Du Ry, Leyden 1713). 8. Statuary Gallery, in Aspetto di dentro della casa antica romana (Scamozzi, L Idea, cit., I, p. 234, detail). atre at Sabbioneta 14. Moreover, distributed through Scamozzi s treatise are numerous other indications regarding the disposition of niches, foreseen as containers for statues, groups and statuary complexes 15. In the Chiesetta of the Palazzo Ducale in Venice the task with which Scamozzi was confronted, possibly around 1593, was the following: the exhibition of a large marble statuary group of the Madonna and Child with four Angels. This work was begun by Jacopo Sansovino in 1536, to be completed only very many years later, after the death of the sculptor-architect in At the point in time when Scamozzi entered onto the scene, the group was destined to become the altar statue (simulacro di culto) of the high altar of the Chapel of the Venetian Doge, then Pasquale Cicogna, whose reign extended over the entire decade from 1585 to While the statuary group was clearly intended, in its new systematisation, as an object of Christian veneration and devotion, the unusual magnificence of Scamozzi s framing architectural altar creates a dramatic, almost museum-like, even exhibition-like impression. The liturgical function of the altar is greatly understated: the mensa itself does not project forward, but it is withdrawn into the altar aedicule as a kind of table spread before the Virgin, a plane contained within the concavity of the altar and not a stereometrically projecting cubic mensa. In the Palazzo Ducale the Chiesetta is located on the terzo piano, at the northern extremity of the wing on the Rio di Palazzo, far above the Scala dei Giganti in the northwest corner of the Cortile di Palazzo 18. Opposite Scamozzi s altar, the Chiesetta opens onto the Antichiesetta, and, to the right, onto the Senate. As can be observed from the Cortile, the small chapel of the Chiesetta projects outward considerably from the body of the Doge s Palace, without, however, being a hanging or cantilevered structure, since it rests on the stairwell that leads to the Ducal Apartments at the level immediately below the Chiesetta. In the earlier history of Italian architecture there are few if any precedents for similar architectonic statuary displays which, in their richness, complexity and artifice, approach the level of the solutions realized by Scamozzi in the Chiesetta. Instead of a simple niche in the form of a classical aedicule, Scamozzi composes a much more elaborate spatial structure, accomodating three rows of colums and pilasters and excavating in the centre a niche proper, a niche which begins as a rounded concavity, and then is given a flattened curved profile in its deepest part. Within the columned portico of his altar the architect has also incorporated a scheme to enhance the illumination of Sansovino s statuary group: two narrow windows, set high between paired lateral pilasters, are inserted in the two side walls of the shallow altar-chapel. While these two small windows do not escape the notice of the assiduous observer, their presence and their function has gone unremarked in the slight art historical literature treating Scamozzi s 175
6 9. Pantheon, elevation and section of the pronaos (Andrea Palladio, I quattro libri dell architettura, Venezia 1570, p. 79). 10. Sabbioneta, Theatre, detail. altar. Nevertheless, there enters through these two lateral windows into the cappelletta a secondary light, a lume secondario, laterale and orizzontale, which diffuses through the forest of columns to illuminate the marble altar group, a light which supplements and completes the illumination afforded by the two windows placed high above in the west wall of the Chiesetta at the sides of the altar tabernacle, a luce viva e perpendicolare. On the plan of the Chiesetta are indicated the several sources of light that illuminate the space of the Chiesetta following its transformation by Scamozzi. The lateral windows along the north wall, presumably predating Scamozzi, constitute the principal sources of light. But additional openings also afford illumination: the two large high square windows at the sides of Scamozzi s altar tabernacle, just beneath the level of the pediment, opened, it seems, as an integral part of Scamozzi s project, to judge by the profiles of the window frames. The openings of the two internal doors leading respectively to the Antichiesetta and to the Senate as well as those of the two low windows opened in the interior dividing wall between the Chiesetta and the Antichiesetta all afford lesser intensities of illumination. Taken together, all these light sources create a variable and complex illumination, emanating from several openings, not all created by Scamozzi himself. One may note that the level of illumination that they together create does not perhaps completely satisfy the expectations of the modern eye, blind to the stars and conditioned by a lifetime experience of artificial light, ranging from incandescent, to neon, to halogen, and embracing the further determinative light experiences of cathode monitors, LCDs, flash and strobe. Scamozzi s world of light was, of course, very different, as were his ambitions. He could, however, situate his ideal of optimal statuary illumination somewhere along a scale ranging between gentle candle light and the blazing light of the summer sun, which bleaches the plasticity-defining shadows from sculptural forms 19. In the Chiesetta, Scamozzi s intention appears to be that of introducing additional light from above, to create a statuary light, at once diffuse and temperate, but adequate to illuminate and reveal the plastic form of Sansovino s statuary group. Possibly Scamozzi s ideal of sculptural light was the equivalent of the diffuse, post-winter daylight, cast by an empty clear blue sky. With his two small lateral windows, placed high between the columns of his tabernacle, Scamozzi follows the same aim, illuminating the group from the sides with light that comes from above, and, simultaneously, brightening the shadowed cavity of the niche. At the same time the architect-designer Scamozzi achieves a further luminous effect, just possibly one that did not lie within the realm of his immediate intentions: as sunlight enters from the two small lateral windows, its rays reverberate, constituting an almost tangible stratum of light, and creating a diffuse splendour before and around the Virgin in a 176
7 11. Venice, Palazzo Ducale, Chiesetta: altar. 12. Plan and elevation of altar of the Chiesetta, Palazzo Ducale, Venice (F. Zanotto, Il Palazzo Ducale di Venezia, Venezia 1858, II, p. CI). penumbra of light. In the frontal view of the altar the lateral windows tend to disappear, hidden behind the columns, thus eliciting the impression of a Vergine lucifera, housed in a sacellum resplendent with light light, which is ultimately the most immediate expression of the numinous. This mysterious, fleeting quasicorona of light may simply be a contingent phenomenon. And, while this luminous phenomenon is inconstant in time and determined by momentary conditions of external light, it is nevertheless an observable and recurrent attribute of Scamozzi s altar today. If we look now to the more tangible architectural forms of Scamozzi s statuary altar, a comparison with the plate illustrating the Porta Romana (i.e., the Italic or Composite door) in Scamozzi s treatise shows that the external frame of the altar corresponds completely to a very high doorway in which the frieze of the entablature has been omitted but which is crowned by a tympanum, broken to receive the arms of the Cicogna Doge 20. This tall giant doorway gives the impression of opening like a window onto a vision of a chapel composed by a succession of columns and arches, with the white simulacrum set before a nocturnal background, and, above, crossing through a diaphragm of white cornices, half a blue hemisphere blanketed with a hundred and more stars of gold. The eight points of the stars repeat exactly the octacuspidate stars of the crown of Sansovino s Madonna Regina coeli, as an explicit indication that the altar is conceived as a celestial house, the stellate half-hemisphere as a Dome of Heaven, divine as the volte celeste of the nearby cupolas of the Basilica of San Marco with 177
8 13. Plan of the Chiesetta, Palazzo Ducale, Venice (A. Diedo, G.A. Selva, L. Cicognara, Le fabbriche più cospicue di Venezia, Venezia 1858, I, pl. 21, detail). 14. Jacopo Sansovino, Madonna di San Marco (Venice, Palazzo Ducale, Chiesetta). 15. Venice, Palazzo Ducale, Chiesetta: altar of the Madonna di San Marco. their eight-point stars and Christ in the centre 21. The richness of the architectural forms is brought to completion by the conspicuous colouristic richness of the precious materials employed in the altar. White marble in the place of pietra d Istria constitutes in Venice a note of increased magnificence, and, in addition, there are green serpentine, marbles red and grey, and mischi, black pietra di paragone 22, and, for the capitals and bases of the columns, bronze, following an usage of classical antiquity known to Scamozzi from ancient literary sources and, just possibly, also suggested by the precious fantasy architecture of the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, where we read of the Temple of Venus Physizoa, its columns with capitals of bronze 23. In Scamozzi s Architettura universale he specifically cites the Portico di Gneo Ottavio, which had le Colonne con i Capitelli di Rame; cioè di Bronzo 24. In the altar of the Chiesetta the elements of polychromy and of black-white chiaroscuro are intrinsically colouristic, and hence further components of the design determined by light, as, for instance, is also the soffit or intrados of the larger interior arch, apparently painted in imitation of inlaid pietra dura intarsia. If, as in the analysis of Serlio, statuary lighting aims to enhance and amplify the subjective impression created by sculptures within their architectural enclosures, this same aim appears manifested in the rich architectural articulation of Scamozzi s altar. Within the context of the immense portal that surrounds the columned arch of the altar, the columns appear to be calculated on a smaller scale, in a relation 1 : 3 (i.e., column : portone ). But the scale and, indeed, the objective dimensions of the coloured marble columns, which flank the white marble Madonna, accord more essentially with the dimensions of the statuary group and its socle, which they nearly match. While the dimensions of the seated, enthroned Madonna are objectively large, they appear subjectively small, when measured against the vertical expanse of the giant doorway, which extends around the Madonna as a vertical frame, the height of which is nearly four times greater than that of the seated Madonna. Perche rare volte i Scultori fanno le loro statue proportionate a Nicchi, writes Scamozzi, it is the task of the architect to see that le statue vi comparono molto meglio, better, that is, in the niches that the architect constructs: proportionate and commensurate in size 25. The resolution of such discrepancies of scale lies in establishing a dimensional bridge or link between a large-scale architectural design and the statue-simulacrum, whose dimensions are calculated on a smaller scale. In the Cicogna Altar, Scamozzi accomplishes this transition primarily through two design expedients. The second, more distant arch, that surmounting the niche proper, is effectively much smaller than the forward arch that springs from the foremost columns of the altar, thus accomplishing a reduction in scale as the circle around the statue draws smaller and closer. In turn, the small-scale 178
9 16. Venice, Palazzo Ducale, Chiesetta: lateral window of altar. 17. Plan of the light paths in the Chiesetta, Palazzo Ducale, Venice. columns that surround the Madonna create the impression that she if standing, nearly as tall as the length of a column shaft is larger than she actually is, the eye deceived by a cognitive standard of comparison: the knowledge of the normal dimensional relationship between the (smaller) human body and the (larger) architectural orders. Similarly, an example selected from the stucco decoration of the Villa Madama in Rome, the statue of Venus, in reality small like a bronzetto, is, with artifice, and in a reversal of architectural scale, made to appear as large as a colossus, compared to the diminutive order and statue niches at her two sides. A further example of a similar design strategy is observable in Jacopo Sansovino s Monument to the Doge Francesco Venier in the Venetian church of San Salvatore, where in the two lateral tabernacles the very slender flanking columns, topped by elongated mensoles sustaining pediments, rise only to the shoulder level of the standing statues that they frame, and thus adding magnitude to these figural elements within the complex macchina of the tomb. In the Doge s Palace, within the tabernacle the profiles of the two white repeating cornices that ring the niche above the Virgin amplify the architectural framework, much as the two white concentric arches above concord in conferring a dynamic upward expansion to the altar. To fill his expansive structure, Scamozzi disposes a double file of columns, with their flanking coupled pilasters behind or at the side, and he raises Sansovino s statuary group, already replete with a basis, upon a further high red-stone socle, in which the bevelled, sunken-panelled faces reflect Jacopo Sansovino s design preferences. Despite the extraordinary richness of the ensemble, the architectural tenor of the whole, as well as that of the single forms, is of an unusual, almost classical restraint and purity. This restraint is all the more striking against the backdrop of the heavy, inflated Vittorian ornamentalism still prevailing in Venice at the end of the century. In Scamozzi s design the limpid whiteness of the exterior marble framework also contains, isolates and intensifies the zone of polychromy at the centre. In the entablature of the niche the contrasting deep green of the broken pulvinate frieze lends emphasis to the succession of planes and to the dynamic linear and spatial rhythm of the architrave and cornice, a movement rendered more intense, more charged with tension and more instable by the flattening of the concave profile of the niche itself. Other manifestations of a similar taste can be discovered in other works by Scamozzi, for instance, in the curving contours of the five steps of the cavea in his wellknown project drawing for the Teatro Ducale at Sabbioneta, preserved in an autographed copy at the Uffizi (191 A) 26. It is not far afield to discern in the multiple curved contours of Scamozzi s Palazzo Ducale Altar rounded, but with a reined in trajectory charged with dynamic tension an anticipation of the elegant architectural dynamism of the great mas- 179
10 18. Porta romana (Scamozzi, L Idea, cit., II, p. 113). 19. Venice, Palazzo Ducale, archivolt of the arch of the Chiesetta altar. 20. Rome, Villa Madama, stucco decoration. tribute to the serliana contratta of the large Ionic windows of the upper storey of Sansovino s Library, a design also characterised by paired lateral columns, again disposed not side by side, but in depth, one behind the other. In both cases the Serlian window is inserted into a dimensional context conceived on a larger scale, framed, that is, by a major order. In both designs, the contraction of the triadic Serlian motive acquires a Sansovinesque character, with the smaller columns only slightly detached from the sides, in a sort of double pseudo-serliana, with, as mentioned, paired columns at the sides, arranged in depth. The Sansovinesque invention of the serliana contratta, with the lateral apertures much reduced in width, is found in the very wellknown drawing D.18 of the Museo Civico in Vicenza, recording a project for the façade of the Scuola della Misericordia in Venice, with the serliana contratta occurring in both storeys. But it is the large windows of the upper storey, with their spirally scannellated columns, which allowed Manfredo Tafuri to demonstrate unequivocally the descent of this Sansovino window invention from a single Florentine model: the tabernacle of the Mercanzia by ters of the Roman Baroque: the interior of Pietro da Cortona s Roman church of the Santi Luca e Martina seems only a step away 27. The legacy of Jacopo Sansovino remains, however, a not-to-be-underestimated factor in the art of Vincenzo Scamozzi, and, in his elaborate design for an altar to house Sansovino s marble group, his debts to the sculptor-architect extend far beyond those of the design of the inferior socle. The triadic partition of the black niche wall behind the Virgin is a further reminiscence of the Florentine Tatti, as is also the form given to the archivolt of the forward arch, with alternating octagons and lozenge-shaped ovals in an all antica ceiling coffering pattern much favoured by Sansovino. Very similar patterns also recur in the intrados of the central arch of the Venier Monument, mentioned above, as well as in the archivolts of the Ionic windows of the piano nobile of the Libreria Sansoviniana 28. Further comparisons with Sansovino s Libreria di San Marco permit going beyond a reading of the altar-chapel of the Vergine di San Marco as a Portal (Maria Porta coeli) and suggest understanding it as a great window (finestrone) that opens onto a celestial vision. The window analogy is also suggested by the genesis of Scamozzi s architectural design. In the arch that rises before the statuary niche, supported on four full-round columns and six contropilastri, it is possible to discern a further 180
11 21. Venice, Palazzo Ducale, vault of the Chiesetta altar. 22. Rome, Santi Luca e Martina, apsis, detail. 23. Venice, San Salvatore, Venier Monument: soffit of central arch (photo Ch. Davis). 24. Venice, Libreria Marciana: soffit of Ionic window (photo Ch. Davis). Donatello at Orsanmichele, with the same small spirally-fluted columns 29. In Scamozzi s project for the altar of the Ducal Chapel the paired columns of the Libreria s Ionic windows are separated and distanced from one another in depth, to create an interval to contain the mensa and in which to insert the light-bringing lateral windows, which are halfconcealed within the lateral intercolumniations. Where Sansovino transformed Donatello s statue niche into a window, Scamozzi, in a typological reversal, refashions Sansovino s window into a statuary container: no longer a window, but now a niche enframement. Following this interpretation, the niche proper, with its arc and its two flanking columns, constitutes a second, more distant arch, a minor one inserted into the primary arched organism. In the landings of the staircase that leads to the upper level of Sansovino s Libreria, there recur doorways and blind arches that take the form of the serliana contratta. All these designs echo the forms of the large Ionic windows of the Library s exterior. A walled in serliana contratta occupies the rear wall of the vestibule just behind the entrance to the Libreria between the two colossal caryatids 30. Here, too, the order is Ionic, formulated in a summary form, and the columns are coupled with contropilastri, now replete with capitals and bases, in the place of the pseudo-pilasters of the exterior Ionic windows. Even the diagonally circling veins of the marble appear to mime the pattern of spiral fluting. And higher along the stairway, in the atrium leading to the Sala of the Libreria, the so-called serliana reappears in the form of two large open and paired window-portals, Ionic, and functioning as a diaphragm of light 31. Again the columns are distanced only slightly from the contropilastri, and the archivolts are divided into squares and rectangles, filled with grotesque intaglios. If not previously, certainly soon after 1582, all of these architectural designs of Jacopo Sansovino moved rapidly into Scamozzi s purview, gaining enormously in relevance when he prevailed in the competition for the commission to complete and to continue Sansovino s Library, a commission which would require him to build numerous exact replicas of Sansovino s Ionic Serlian windows, which were also repeated in Scamozzi s continuation of the Libreria s architecture in the Procuratie Nuove 32. In this context Scamozzi had occasion to document these windows in two drawings, now belonging to the collection of the Uffizi (192 A and 193 A) 33. It is, in addition, interesting that on these 181
12 25. Elevation of Ionic window of Libreria Marciana, Venice (based on G. Samonà et al., Piazza San Marco, Padova 1970, p. 106). 26. Plan of Ionic window of Libreria Marciana, Venice (based on G. Samonà et al., Piazza San Marco, Padova 1970, p. 106). two drawings Scamozzi inscribes no less than seven annotations relating to architectural lighting, for instance, Calle dove ricevano lumi queste due Fabriche..., Calle per lumi..., Requia per dare lume à diverse cose, etc. Despite Scamozzi s well-known criticisms of the errors of the fabbriche di Piazza 34, his project to complete and amplify Sansovino s architecture on the Piazza San Marco implies a long and deep acquaintance with Sansovino s Library, and thus an intimate knowledge of the Florentine s Venetian architecture. In any event, Scamozzi s re-use of the Sanso- vino giant Ionic windows as a statuary niche in the Doge s Palace was determined, in part, by the function of the altar, which was destined to receive Sansovino s statuary group as the cosa contenuta. Following a completely natural sense of decorum Scamozzi designs a fitting container for the marble group in a Sansovinesque manner. The motive of the serliana contratta was, on the other hand, one that experienced a not negligible fortuna in Scamozzi s own architecture. It reappears, in 1611, in his project for the Palazzo Comunale di Bergamo, now as a window 35, and it can also be traced in the illustrations of Scamozzi s Architettura universale, as, for instance, in the plate showing the Palazzo Cornaro, projected for the Canal Grande at San Maurizio 36. The most instructive instance of Scamozzi s re-use of this motive is, however, found in the palace of the Magnifici Signori Strozzi in Florence. This is the enormous Florentine palace, better known as the Palazzo Nonfinito, which Roberto Strozzi, then residing in Venice, si risolse di edificare, writes Scamozzi, secondo i nostri Disegni e Modello, a construction erected largely in the absence of the architect 37. At the south side of the Borgo degli Albizi, above the lateral entranceway and high above street level, we discover an unexpected reappearance of the so-called serliana of the Palazzo Ducale Chiesetta Altar, now transformed to fulfil its original function as a window, and, once again, it is furnished with a balustraded balcony, as it appeared originally in Sansovino s Library. Comparing Scamozzi s Palazzo Strozzi window with his altar in Venice, we may discern a number of correspondences and variances: (1) the smaller-scale columns (and pilasters) of the minor order, all furnished with all the attributes of an architectural order, (2) the pulvinate frieze, (3) the Venetian contropilastri now transformed into angle pilasters at the two sides, their function remaining unchanged, (4) the Palazzo Strozzi arch, now somewhat retracted in its vertical extension to make way for the insertion of a large architectural inscription which takes the form of a cartoccio, such large building inscriptions being much to Scamozzi s taste. In the ground plans of the two Scamozzi designs we can, moreover, observe an identical separation of the binate orders: the columns and pilasters are distanced from one another in depth. In both cases the partition of the archivolt follows Sansovinesque formulas, derived from antique ceiling coffering. In a comparison of the elevations of the Ionic windows of Sansovino s Libreria and the Ionic window of Scamozzi s Palazzo Strozzi, Scamozzi s debts become even more apparent, especially as regards the general architectural arrangement. Variations in the inflection of 182
13 27. Venice, Libreria Marciana, blind serliana contratta on the landing of staircase (photo M. Morresi). 28. Venice, Libreria Marciana, blind serliana contratta in vestibule of the scalone (after M. Tafuri, Sansovino, Padova 1969). 29. Venice, Libreria Marciana, double serliana contratta in the Scalone (after G. Samonà et al., Piazza San Marco, Padova 1970, p.163). 183
14 30. Vincenzo Scamozzi, Plan of the Libreria Marciana in Venice (Firenze, Uffizi, Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe, 192 A). 31. Vincenzo Scamozzi, Project for Libreria Marciana and the Procuratie Nuove in Venice (Firenze, Uffizi, Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe, 194 A). 32. Procuratie Nuove in Venice, engraving ( J. Bury et Jourdan del., J. Bury et Ribaut sc., 19 th century). architectural vocabulary aside, it is evident that Scamozzi has derived the idea for the larger binate Ionic order, which frames the serliana contratta, from the corner resolution (cantonale) of Sansovino s Library, which is likewise distinguished by a binate order on both levels 38. In addition are noteworthy the smaller columns of the arch, barely detached from the flanking pilasters, the keystone, which takes the form of a draped female head, the pulvinate frieze, the window balcony with balusters, and the Ionic order, present in two distinct dimensional scales. A few critical modifications, introduced by Scamozzi, can be detected, such as the high bases of the orders (which, however, are, in part, heightened to compensate for the extraordinarily oblique and deforming viewpoint imposed by the very narrow street below, bordering on the south side of the palace). Finally the archivolts of the Strozzi arch reflect closely the archivolts of the ground-level arcade of the Marciana. The rhythmic partition is not identical, but it follows the same logic of squares and rectangles in a rhythmic sequence. 184
15 33. Plan and elevation of Palazzo Nonfinito window-loggia in Florence (F. Ruggieri, Scelta di architetture antiche e moderne di Firenze, Firenze 1755, III, pl. 21). 34. Venice, Libreria Marciana, vestibule ( Statuario pubblico ) (photo Dida Biggi). 35. Statues in the Tempio nel Foro di Traiano (Antonio Labacco, Libro d Antonio Labacco appartenente a l architettura, Roma 1552). Returning to the linked themes of statuary exposition and the architecture of light, it can scarcely come as a surprise that these two topics play a significant rôle in the thought of the compleat architect, Vincenzo Scamozzi, whose pensieroappears based on an intellectual compilation reflecting a vast, classically inspired culture, nor can it surprise that these two topics found expression in Scamozzi s architectural practice. In this context, it is sufficient to recall, among Scamozzi s allestimenti statuari, his well-known sistematisation of the Museo Grimani collection of ancient sculptures in the Antisala of the Libreria Sansoviniana in order to constitute the new Statuario Pubblico, immediately prior to Scamozzi s transformation of the Chiesetta in the Doge s Palace (where in fact Grimani statues had been previously housed) 39. In addition, mention must be made of two teatri of statues: the Palladian Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza, where Scamozzi constructed the splendid proscenium, with its square-headed statuary niches patterned on the statuary tabernacles of the Roman Pantheon 40, and, further, the Teatro Ducale at Sabbioneta, built to Scamozzi s order for Vespasiano Gonzaga, where, inter alia, is noteworthy the dramatic motive of the colossal busts all antica placed on high pedestals and collocated in giant niches set in the intercolumniations of the peristyle, a design motive, as has been mentioned, deriving from the Pantheon portico. The typology of statuary spaces Scamozzi s contenitori di statue includes a variety of types: the chapel-altar (as in the Doge s Palace), the mausoleum, the galleria 41, the tribune 42, the antiquarium (to display a collection of ancient sculpture) 43, and also the abstract typology proposed in Scamozzi s sala rotonda, an ideal model elaborated on the pattern of statuary displays in classical antiquity 44. The theme of statuary display fascinated many Renaissance architects, as, for example, Antonio Labacco and Andrea Palladio, both of whose visions of ancient architecture imagined a universe of statue-inhabited edifices 45. Viewed in broad terms, it is clear that architectural spaces specifically destined to house statuary displays, as well as the exposition of paintings, represent a more than marginal aspect of Renaissance architecture; witness, to 185
16 36. Sant Andrea in via Flaminia in Rome (G. Stern, Piante [ ] degli edifici della villa suburbana di Giulio III, Roma 1784). mention only the most important category, the architecture of churches, with their endless array of chapels and altars. And, despite this fact, within the context of statuary spaces, those illuminated by a true architecture of light are not highly numerous, even though, it must be admitted, the most signal examples comprise within their time a group of exceptionally significant architectural achievements. Among them, the Medici Chapel at San Lorenzo in Florence takes the first place: the space is white, the architecture, bi-colore, black-white, and light enters from above, from the high windows and the lantern of the dome, creating the clear diffuse illumination most suitable to rendering the chapel s statues legible. In turn, the Del Monte Chapel in San Pietro in Montorio in Rome, built under the watchful eye of Michelangelo, is distinguished by its measured, coolly-lit marble whiteness, devoid of intricate decorative marble carvings, which, in the opinion of Buonarroti, would have only obfuscated our view of the marble statues, and thus the planned relief intaglios were omitted, following the precise instructions of the master 46. The Antiquarium of the Venetian Palazzo Grimani near Santa Maria Formosa is a highly individual re-edition of the scheme of the Statuario mediceo in the Sagrestia Nuova of San Lorenzo. The Tribune of Palazzo Grimani, if not white, is in essence bi-colore and of a uniform lightness and clarity, illuminated by the lume vivo which comes from above 47. Similar, too, is the Pellegrini Chapel at San Bernardino in Verona: here the architecture of Sanmicheli is equally white and equally heir to the Cappella Medicea. In Verona the missing statuary apparato is implicit in the Leerstellen of the vacant niches, as, for example, also in the Ricetto of the Libreria Laurenziana. In the Libreria Sansoviniana, the Statuario Pubblico, destined to house a part of Giovanni Grimani s collection of ancient statuary, represents the apex of Scamozzi s ambitions realized in this genre. If we turn now to reconsider more closely the innovative system of illumination devised by Scamozzi for the Altar of the Chiesetta in the Palazzo Ducale, it will be possible to indicate a likely Roman origin for this luministic innovation. Scamozzi s intimate knowledge of the city of Rome cannot be in doubt, even if it has not been completely studied 48. In addition to his very long youthful sojourn there, undertaken explicitly to study the remains of antiquity, Scamozzi visited the city numerous times during the course of his later life 49. An extensive network of personal contacts and patrons also linked him to the eternal city. The fruit of Scamozzi s study of Rome extended beyond his antiquarian learning to include a considerable knowledge of modern Roman architecture. To his interest in modern architecture testify the many references to modern building contained in the Architettura universale 50. In Rome, in the church of Sant Andrea in Via Flaminia, in a diminutive Pantheon destined to 186
17 37. Rome, Santa Bibiana, altar of Santa Bibiana by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (photo Ch. Davis). 38. Pietro da Cortona, Project drawing for the high altar of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini in Rome, 1684 (Windsor Castle). 39. Plan and elevation, after Bernini, of Raimondi Chapel apse, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome (G.G. Rossi, Disegni di vari altari e cappelle delle chiese di Roma, Roma [169?], pl. 8). contain paintings, Giacomo Barozzi il Vignola created an independent source of light specifically to illuminate the main altar: in the shallow apse, Vignola opens two small rectangular windows at the sides of the arch high above the altar with the intention of increasing the illumination of the pala 51. He thereby anticipates not only Scamozzi s altar in the Palazzo Ducale, but also Roman baroque experiments with lighting 52. Scamozzi s interest in Vignola s architectural works has been noted more than once, and Scamozzi s familiarity with Vignola s writings is documented in his own 53. The two architects both pursued a conservative architectural direction, and both were employed by patrons of a Counter-Reform tendency 54. Indeed, in the oval cupolas of the perimetral chapels of Scamozzi s church of San Gaetano in Padua one can recognize a specific debt on the part of Scamozzi to Vignola s small temple of Sant Andrea, with its innovative oval cupola 55. Natural light is a crucial component of architecture, and before the widespread introduction of artificial illumination it was indeed a sine qua non of the architecture of interior spaces. While light has not escaped the attention of scholars, and while the centrality of light in modern and contemporary architecture can scarcely be overestimated, the topic of light in architecture, in many ways as fugitive and fleeting as light itself, has seldom been treated comprehensively and systematically as an historical phenomenon 56. Nevertheless, considering only the Veneto prior to Scamozzi, attention has often been drawn to the luminist sensibility of Mauro Codussi, of Jacopo Sansovino and of Andrea Palladio 57. In attempting to follow the principal line of development that leads to the Roman baroque, 187
18 40. Rome, San Pietro in Montorio, Raimondi Chapel, exterior (I. Lavin, Bernini e l unità delle arti visive, Roma 1980). it is not imperative to review every step that ultimately leads to Gian Lorenzo Bernini s Ecstasy of St. Teresa in the Cappella Cornaro of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome. Instead it is more informative to concentrate on three examples, all Roman and all later than Scamozzi s Palazzo Ducale Altar. Each embodies an innovative and experimental resolution of the need for illumination, with solutions very analogous to Scamozzi s precocious altar design. These three projects are: (1) Bernini s altar to Santa Bibiana in the church of the same name, (2) a project by Pietro da Cortona for the main altar of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, and (3) the Cappella Raimondi in the church of San Pietro in Montorio, again by Bernini 58. In the instance of the Altar of Santa Bibiana, ca. 1625, in addition to the large lunetteshaped window in the vault, one of the compartments of the decoration of the arch above the altar is opened for light to enter, creating a secondary light source to supplement the primary one. This second lateral light source shines upon the upraised face of the saint, adding emphasis and concentration, in an effect not dissimilar to the action of light in Scamozzi s earlier Venetian altar. In both, light has an integrative, focusing function. In Pietro da Cortona s project drawing of 1534 for the high altar of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini (Royal Library, Windsor Castle), here following the instructive analysis of Karl Noehles, we may see that the architect devises an ingenious method to introduce light onto the pala of the altar, a large marble bas-relief of the Baptism of Christ, by creating openings in the zone behind and at the sides of the altar 59. In the plan of the altar, at the bottom of the Windsor drawing, one observes that light shafts are opened in the walls behind the two columns flanking the pala, and that light enters from the back of the apse through two angled passages. Thus the wall behind the pala is recessed, creating a space resembling a shallow stage, on which appear the figures carved in relief, and it is illuminated by light sources hidden in the wings. In Cortona s plan, daylight, attenuated and diffused, filters through the concealed windows to illuminate the altarpiece, its source masked by the columns placed in the outlets of the light shafts. Not only the system of illumination but also the planimetric richness of Cortona s project present parallels to Scamozzi s altar in the Doge s Palace. In the Cicogna Altar in Venice, the screen of columns lit from behind is also comparable, planimetrically and in its effect, to the design of the main altar of Bernini s church of Sant Andrea al Quirinale, where the screen of columns, disposed a transenna (i.e., the double flanking columns of the aedicule that frames the opening onto the semicircular main altar chapel), stands before an illuminated space, lit by natural light streaming down from the windows of the lantern above, conferring a strong luminosity to the main altar in contrast to the dimmer interior of the church and the darker chapels adjoining the altar chapel 60. In the Cappella Raimondi of San Pietro in Montorio ( ), Bernini realizes a solution similar to that embodied in Cortona s project drawing. The pala, a relief carved in marble, is in 188
19 41. Round temple, plan (Sebastiano Serlio, Quinto libro di architettura, Venezia 1559, fol. 2r). 42. Round temple, elevation and section (Serlio, Quinto libro, cit., fol. 2v). 43. Temple (plan) and niches (elevations) (Sebastiano Serlio, I sette libri dell architettura, Venezia 1584, VII, ch. xlviii, p. 113). fact detached from its columnar architectural frame, and it is recessed some distance behind this cornice. In the ensuing interval, between the columns and the bas-relief altarpiece depicting the Ecstasy of St. Francis, Bernini opens in the lateral exterior wall, at the left, a single high narrow window. Thus from a nearly concealed lateral source abundant light unfolds over the marble altarpiece, a light which imparts a more ample illumination and a more focussed, accentuated lighting to the dramatic image of St. Francis in ecstasy. With this provision of a source of luce vivo e naturale, introduced from the exterior, Bernini creates a system of illumination very similar to that of Scamozzi s Venetian altar, where, however, light is brought in from both sides of the altar in order to establish an equilibrium of light sources. Scamozzi s Altar in the Ducal Chapel in the Doge s Palace, in fact, anticipates these solutions of the Roman baroque by more than three decades, but it would perhaps be mistaken to attribute too great a significance to this temporal discrepancy, and to conclude that the Venetian altar is simply a tentative provincial experiment, peripheral, isolated from the main line of development and without subsequent echo. In contrast to such an assessment stands not merely the extraordinary urbanity of the architectural language which Scamozzi speaks in the Chiesetta, but also his apparent reference to Vignola s Sant Andrea in Via Flaminia, and possibly even the close parallels with later Roman experiments in altar lighting. While Scamozzi appears almost completely extraneous to the decorative tendency of late- Cinquecento Venetian architecture, often of a Vittorian stamp, this does not imply that his architecture is provincial, or confined in its implications to the Venetian Lagoon. Indeed, it seems more correct to describe him as cosmopolitan, a formulation which finds justification in Scamozzi s privileged formation, in his personal contacts that extended far beyond Venice and his native Vicenza, in his many and far-flung journeys in Italy and beyond the Alps, all of which render him far more cosmopolitan than many of his contemporaries in the Veneto. The example of the Altar of the Doge s Chapel, beautiful, and rich in its invention, lends itself to underline the urbanity of the universal architecture of Vincenzo Scamozzi 61. At the same time the historical relationship that Scamozzi s own concern with light had with the luminist achievements of the Roman baroque remains, in part, to be clarified. One may suspect the existence of missing links. A future investigation including a more ample, more nearly exhaustive survey of the monuments of Italy outside the Urbs might reveal 189
20 46. Baldassarre Peruzzi, San Domenico, Siena, section (Oxford, Ashmolean Museum; after H. Wurm, Peruzzi Architekturzeichnungen, Tübingen 1984, p. 233). further significant anticipations of baroque light, ones equally important for the history of architectural and sculptural illumination as Scamozzi s Altar in the Doge s Palace. Glancing backward in time, it is possible, in conclusion to suggest one further concrete stimulus for Scamozzi s concern with architectural illumination. This is the Quinto Libro d Architettura di Sebastiano Serlio Bolognese, Nel quale si tratta di diverse forme di Tempij sacri, secondo il costume Christiano, & al modo antico. The interest of Vincenzo Scamozzi and of his father Gian Domenico in Serlio s books is well known, and it is manifest in their copioso indice to these books 62. While considerations concerning light appear in Renaissance architectural treatises as early as Alberti s, and while a similar interest can sometimes be traced in Renaissance architectural drawings 63, and although every window testifies to the rôle of light in architecture, nevertheless both the text and the figures of Serlio s Quinto libro are remarkable for their explication of phenomena of architectural light. In Book V this is particularly evident in the first group of temples, which represent central-plan Christian temples. Serlio s first concern is to assure a sufficient illumination of the interior, but it is clear that he admires fully-lit, bright interiors even more ( ben chiaro ). Serlio is also concerned with the shapes, forms and positioning of apertures and windows to admit light; with their names, their number and their dimensions, particularly in relation to the interior dimensions; with light-admitting lanterns, with their glazing and with their height and diameter in proportion to those of the interior space; with the illumination of secondary spaces. For his second octagonal temple, Serlio proposes, in order to increase the level of illumination, opening an aperture at the top of the vault and covering it with a glass pyramid ( Quanto alla luce di questo Tempio, le finestre potrebbon servire: nondimeno chi vorrà maggior luce potrà fare un aperatura nella sommità della volta, coperta così piramidalmente di vetri, accioche le nevi, et li ghiacci non vi si ritenghino, p. 208r, fig. at p. 209t). Within some of Serlio s central-plan temples may be found altars with windows directly above them (figs. at pp. 204r, 204t, 205r, 207t, 208r, 209t, 211r, etc.). The theme of altar illumination is explicitly raised in the instance of a longitudinal church (p. 219r), where the quadro, that is, the pala, of the altar will be a painting, and it will receive completely adequate light ( Il quadro sopra l altare, sarà per una pittura, et haverà la luce molto accomodata..., p. 219; figs. at pp. 219r, 219t left): this full illumination is accomplished through double light shafts which are opened in the apse of the cappella maggiore, on both sides of the altar. The opening of lateral apertures and windows to introduce lighting from the sides is a characteristic of a number of Serlio s temple designs (see the figures on pp. 203r, 203t, 204t, 205r, 205t, etc.), and such lateral windows, at least on occasion, even require, for the sake of symmetry, the introduction of a blind window ( finestra morta, p. 209r; fig. p. 210r). More observations about architectural illumination can be traced in Serlio s Book VII. Here Serlio returns to the theme of laterally lighted chapels, and, in Chapter XLVIII, he expounds a longitudinal temple plan with four large niches excavated in the lateral walls. The large concave perimetral niches permit opening light shafts through the exterior walls reaching into the six lateral chapels (fig. at p. 113). Dalli lati di fuori di esso tempio saranno quattro nicchi per banda: per li quali le capelle prenderanno la luce. This system of lateral lighting represents in nuce the same system of illumination that Scamozzi instituted in his windows, half-concealed in a labyrinth of columns, at the two sides of the Cicogna Altar of the Madonna di San Marco in the Doge s Palace. Serlio s particular interest in architectural light may have been inspired by Baldassarre Peruzzi, and it is foreshadowed in certain drawings of Francesco di Giorgio, for instance, Uffizi 331 A 64, inscribed luce in the oculus of the cupola, and by other drawings, copies after original drawings by Francesco di Giorgio s, found in the Codex Ashburnham 1828 App. of the Biblioteca Laurenziana: architectural plans, mostly centralized, with the indication lume superficiale signifying light from above, toplighting, in the manner of the Pantheon 65. Serlio s central plan churches in Book V recall drawings by Peruzzi, whose church elevation drawings often reflect a specific interest in the sources of illumination, for instance, Peruzzi s elevation view of the interior of San Domenico in Siena (Ashmolean, Talman 40, 31 [468]), with its brilliantly lit teoria di finestre, including in the centre, lunettes filled by giant, open serliane
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What is JotForm?
JotForm is a free online form builder which helps you create online forms without writing a single line of code. No sign-up required.
At JotForm, we want to make sure that you're getting the online form builder help that you need. Our friendly customer support team is available 24/7.
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subset: commoncrawl


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Nikita came back to our TVs last night with the premiere of "3.0", and, ohhh man, it was exciting!!
There was a lot of scene setting and character reintroduction, but then the new stuff started. Team Nikita was at the start of their first mission under the new regime, which meant that Ryan was still trying to assert his authority, and Nikita was reluctant to take orders-A.K.A a LOT of tension in the room!
"3.0" featured Alcatraz star Jeffrey Pierce as rogue agent Martin, who was using his Division expertise to knock off covert CIA operatives in Hong Kong and collect a hefty paycheck for his efforts. Add in Michael being captured by the cops and the stakes got much higher!
Also, THE ENGAGEMENT RING!!! We were so excited to see Michael propose to Nikita, and it was also something we weren't really expecting! Shane West had a memorable moment when he fought his way through an army of cops, while handcuffed, to retrieve Nikita's engagement ring, and it was kind of sweet!
So what did you think of the season premiere? Be sure to leave your thoughts and comments about what you hated, loved, or found interesting below!!


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The plot in the role-playing games is important, I would even say that sometimes it is very interesting, but even there a lot of honey, as in this case. But let's start with the developers of the game, they called Elex and games have pretty much the most popular among them Happy Farm: Candy Day, in fact, the farm. There are clones and Clash of Clans and much more, but there was no full-fledged role-playing, in fact, there was some sort of isolated product, every game is a copy, clone, analogue ... and where to tie Haunted Empire-Wake of Death I I do not even know. However, the developers are very proud that we were able to combine two beautiful genre - MOBA and RPG, it's pretty safe!
The plot begins with the classical theme about the darkness that descended on the world and demons walk the earth in search of souls, your soul needs them especially, so I have to defend themselves. But beyond that, you will find the standard has washed down a huge number of characters, dialogues and tasks that are difficult to read for a long time because not all of them are clumsy, sometimes have to really get a grasp to understand, especially because of the translation ... is not.
Other features of the game Haunted Empire-Wake of Death:
And now about the shortcomings.
Definitely the game was interesting and rich, and "saturation" is the same word that and pushes her. Too many effects, too much of the plot, in addition to this there Donat, you can play without him, but he is, the game requires a permanent Internet connection and read tons of text in English is not all afford. In addition, many people may confuse the automatic fighting and other echoes of popular genres ... in general we see a lot of attention to detail and appearance, and the overall essence of the game is lost ...
Bottom line: the game is good, but too specific, however, you can download it for free, so if you have some spare time - try, can and enjoy it.
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SHOT Show 2014: Day 1
By Chris A. Choat
Small Arms Review's very own Chris Choat is at SHOT Show 2014 this week in Las Vegas, Nevada! Every day Chris will be updating us all on the interesting products he runs into at the show.
Today's update focuses on Day 1 at the SHOT Show. Vendors range from Fostech Arms, SilencerCo, Kel-Tec, Ohio Ordnance Works, Inc. and more.
Be sure to come back to the site tomorrow for more exciting developments from the show!
Read about SHOT Show's Media Day by clicking here...
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Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the Biological level of analysis
Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis
Explain one study related to localization of function
Explain, using examples, the effects of neurotransmitter on behavior
Explain functions of two hormones on behavior, using one or more examples
Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes
Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behavior. Explain two relevant studies.
Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior
With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behavior
Examine one evolutionary explanation of behavior
Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior
Created by Stan Lee Tan over 3 years ago


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A retired military officer who has been a leading critic of CNN's repudiated broadcast on the use of nerve gas against defectors in the Vietnam War was named yesterday as one of the confidential sources for the broadcast.
The officer, Maj. Gen. John K. Singlaub, who in the late 1960's commanded a special forces unit in Vietnam, was identified as someone who had confirmed the charges contained in the broadcast in a lawsuit filed against him yesterday by April Oliver, the lead producer of the discredited report on a Vietnam mission known as Operation Tailwind.
Ms. Oliver, who was dismissed by CNN, is suing General Singlaub for breach of contract.
General Singlaub is already suing Ms. Oliver; CNN; Peter Arnett, the lead correspondent on the broadcast, and CNN for defamation.
The general, who last summer said he had repeatedly warned Ms. Oliver that she was following a false trail, yesterday denied Ms. Oliver's claim that he had corroborated the use of nerve gas in Operation Tailwind, or that he had ever said the mission was directed against American defectors. Both he and Ms. Oliver agree that he was no longer in command of his special forces unit, the Studies and Operations Group, at the time of the operation.
Yesterday's filing was the second time in recent months that a journalist whose reporting was under attack has revealed the identity of a confidential source, but the two cases vary greatly. In the first case, Mike Gallagher, a reporter for The Cincinnati Enquirer, disclosed that a lawyer for Chiquita Brands International had helped him gain access to the company's voice-mail system. He had promised the lawyer that he would go to jail rather than identify him, according to evidence produced in litigation stemming from The Enquirer's articles.Continue reading the main story
By contrast, after the CNN report was broadcast last June, General Singlaub appeared at a Pentagon news conference and said he had tried to convince Ms. Oliver that the claims about the nerve gas were inaccurate. He had then vociferously denounced the report she and her co-producer, Jack Smith, had prepared.
Journalists often gather information from sources who refuse to be named in the material that is eventually published or broadcast, and it is extremely rare for the journalists to break that pledge of confidentiality. For it to happen twice and in high-profile cases has surprised specialists, who are divided on when, if ever, such a disclosure is appropriate.
The CNN case, ''is possibly one of the most uncommon scenarios I have ever heard of,'' said Sandra Barron, the executive director of the Libel Defense Resource Center. ''It's a very unusual situation where a confidential source sues a reporter for the story for which he was a confidential source. One can argue that it puts the reporter in the same position as the attorney whose client sues him for malpractice -- it frees him from the pledge of confidentiality.''
Ms. Oliver's lawsuit includes several lengthy verbatim passages from notes she took in her six interviews with General Singlaub. In these conversations, she frequently referred to nerve gas by its military shorthand designation -- either CBU-15 or GB. Another designation, CS, was used for tear gas, which Pentagon officials say was used in various operations in the Vietnam War.
Ms. Oliver's notes reflect this closing exchange in her last interview with General Singlaub, a month before the broadcast:
Ms. Oliver: ''Just one last time, your own personal understanding of Tailwind is that it was a mission in which CBU-15, GB, was used at least twice on the village base camp and on extraction, and that the target was a group of American defectors.''
General Singlaub: ''You are not going to use my name on this, are you?''
Ms. Oliver: ''No sir, you are on background as a senior military official.''
General Singlaub: ''Yeah, that's my view.''
On hearing this exchange in a telephone interview, General Singlaub said: ''I deny that I said that. I never once thought this thing had taken place so I can't imagine how she would write things that would put those thoughts down.''
When a reporter read a portion of the notes, which also shows him agreeing to a question posed about the use of ''CBU-15,'' he said. ''Gosh. You know, I may have been mixed up on what CBU-15 was. It was my understanding that we were talking about CS, and that's the only thing I ever agreed was used.''
He added, ''I just don't believe that the total conversation she could have assumed I supported that wild story when in fact it never entered my mind that it was possible.''
Ms. Oliver's counterclaim against General Singlaub accuses him of breach of contract. In an interview, she denied his claim that he repeatedly warned her off the story.
In a statement yesterday, Ms. Oliver said: ''Singlaub shattered our confidentiality contract. First, he told the public he wasn't a source. Then at a Pentagon press conference in July, he told the world he was a source, but had always denied the story. Then he filed suit against me.''
In a companion legal action, Ms. Oliver yesterday sued CNN for wrongful dismissal, breach of contract, and defamation. In an interview, she said she was having difficulty pursuing a career in journalism.
''I had a pretty good career,'' she said. ''I loved what I did.''
A CNN spokesman said yesterday the network would have no comment.Continue reading the main story


text:
Raylan hunts an escaped prisoner who is determined to reunite with his ex-wife...and his stashed fortune.
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