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Execution of the P2PSP protocol in parallel environments
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1 Execution of the P2PSP protocol in parallel environments Cristobal Medina-López 1, J.A.M. Naranjo 1, Juan Pablo García-Ortiz 1, L. G. Casado 1 and Vicente González-Ruiz 1 Resumen P2PSP is an application layer protocol for the real-time streaming of multimedia content over the Internet, i.e., where the users playback the stream in a synchronized way. It can be used to build a variety of live streaming services that ranges from small hangouts to large IPTV systems. Unlike in the traditional CS (Client/Server) and CDN (Content Delivery Network) based video streaming, P2P peers contribute with their upload bandwidth to the system. For this reason, in general, P2P systems are much more scalable than those based on the client/server architecture. This work focuses on actual executions (not simulations) of P2PSP networks. Preliminary results regarding buffering time suggest that the protocol scales well up to several hundreds of peers, mainly due to its simplicity. Palabras clave Peer-to-peer, multimedia streaming, distributed algorithms. I. Introduction P2P video streaming technology has been an intensive research field in the last years with many new proposals appearing. Taking into account the non-commercial ones only, we find Overcast [1], PPLive [2], PPStream [3], CoolStreaming [4], ZIGZAG [5], PRIME [6], AnySee [7], HotStreaming [8], PALS [9], SplitStream [10], AnySee [7], Chainsaw [11], Chunkyspread [12], SPPM [13], DirectedPush [14] and TURINstream [15], including the PPSP IETF proposal [16] and several other approaches without a specific name or acronym. Obviously, P2PSP (Peer to Peer Straightforward Protocol) is another proposal to add to this long list of solutions. However, before describing it we highlight some of the features that make it attractive, specially for the open-source community: 1. P2PSP is not aware of the transmitted content, the bit-rate, the format, etc. Any type of multimedia stream can be transmitted without having to modify the protocol at all. 2. At least one working implementation of the P2PSP can be found in Launchpad, at https://launchpad.net/p2psp. Anyone can use/modify/expand it for free as long as the GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE is observed. 3. P2PSP has a layered architecture. The number of layers used depends on the final requirements of the specific instance. 4. The most basic layer (the broadcasting layer) is simple enough to run the peer process in systems with very low computing resources (for instance, 1 Dpto. de Informática, Univ. Almería, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceia3). Corresponding running several threads or forking processes is not needed). The rest of layers add functionality to the protocol, such as parallel streaming, system integrity and information privacy. Of course, layers can be modified or new ones can be added to fulfill the requirements, always keeping the interface between them. 5. If native IP multicast is available (even locally, as happens in most of the local networks), P2PSP can use it, having the same performance as IP multicast. 6. Under unannounced peer churn, the P2PSP provides methods for error concealment in the received stream Peers can be hosted in private networks, even if they are behind symmetric NATs. 8. P2PSP provides video multiresolution (both, spatially and temporally) and bandwidthadaptive streaming services by using simulcast, scalable video coding and multiple description video coding. 9. Both, P2PSP and CS/CDN models, can be mixed in order to build massive systems. II. The Peer-To-Peer Straightforward Protocol A. Layers P2PSP is organized in four layers, each one incorporating additional functionality. Figure 1 depicts them. 1. Broadcasting Layer (BL): This layer implements the most basic behaviour of the protocol and it has been designed to be efficient in transmitting a data-stream from a source node to the peers of the network. 2. Integrity Layer (IL): In some contexts, the network needs to overcome hostile peers which could produce the poisoning of the stream, a denial of service, etc. Those peers will be identified and rejected from the P2PSP overlay by using a set of rules defined in this layer. 3. Multi-channel Layer (ML): In contexts where there is sufficient bandwidth available, peers can decide to subscribe to more than one stream (channel) in a given time interval. A peer that implements this layer interacts with different, concurrent instances of the Broadcasting Layer. 1 Unannounced/non-scheduled peer churn produces a loss of data in the received stream that is spread along time. Fortunately, error concealment techniques can be used easily.
2 4. Privacy Layer (PL): Finally, there is a collection of rules ensuring that the transmitted stream is played only by authorized peers. This layer can be useful to implement, for example, Pay-Per-View (PPV) streaming systems. 1, 4, S 2, 5, 3, 6, 2, 5, 2, 5, P 1 P 2 P 3 1, 4, 1, 4, 3, 6, 3, 6, 1, 4, G 2, 5, 3, 6, Fig. 1 P2PSP layer diagram. B. The Broadcasting Layer This layer defines the algorithms and communication methods governing the entities of a P2PSP network. In order to describe them, it is convenient to make some preliminary definitions. In the Broadcasting Layer, data can be transmitted in two different states: 1. As a stream, i.e., as an endless sequence of data that transports some kind of information. Streams are always transmitted over the TCP. 2. As a collection of blocks, being a block a piece of stream. All blocks have the same size. Blocks are always transmitted over the UDP. A small block minimizes the average latency of the transmission but also increments the underlying protocols (UDP/IP/data-link) overhead, and vice versa. In any case, the block size should not exceed the MTU (Maximum Transfer Unit) of the transmission links in order to avoid the overload produced by IP fragmentation. We also define the following types of entities and groups of entities: 1. Source (O): It is the producer of the stream which is transmitted over the P2PSP network. Typically, it is a streaming server using the HTTP protocol such as Icecast [17]. 2. Player (L): Players request and consume (decode and play) the stream. Usually, several players can retrieve the stream from the source, in parallel. 3. Splitter (S): This entity receives the stream from the source, splits it into blocks of the same size and sends the blocks to peers. 4. Peer (P ): Receives blocks from the splitter and from other peers, ensembles the stream and Fig. 2 A P2PSP cluster. Arrows and their labels indicate the transmission of blocks. S sends one different block to one different peer which is selected using a Round Robin model. Peers send each block received from S to each other peer in the cluster. sends it to a player. Some blocks are also sent to other peers (see below). Notice also that the player and the peer usually run on the same machine. 5. Gatherer (G): The gatherer is a special peer that sends blocks neither to other peers nor to the splitter. It only receives a sequence of blocks and (optionally) resends them as a stream to a player. Its function is explained below. 6. Repeater (R): Repeaters receive a stream and simply re-transmit it. 7. Cluster (C): A cluster is formed by a splitter, a gatherer and zero or more peers (see Figure 2). 8. Overlay: An overlay is the union of one or more clusters. These clusters can be connected by repeaters. B.1 BL rules 1. Block scheduling: When the cluster is empty, all blocks are transmitted from the splitter to the gatherer. Otherwise, all blocks are transmitted from the splitter to the peer(s), then among peers and finally to the gatherer (see Figure 2). The splitter sends the n-th block to the peer P i if (i + n) mod C = 0, (1) where C is the number of peers in the cluster. Next, P i must forward this block to the rest of peers of the cluster and the gatherer. Blocks received from other peers are not re-transmitted. 2. Content unawareness: The P2PSP does not known the nature of the stream. However, at the beginning of the transmission, a stream header
3 can be transmitted over the TCP in case the player needs it. 3. The list of peers: Every node of the cluster (except for the gatherer) knows the endpoint (IP address and port) of the rest of nodes in the cluster. A list is built with this information, which is used by S to send the blocks to the peers. Peers use this list to forward the received blocks to other peers and the gatherer. 4. IP multicast mode: If native IP multicast is available, the cluster can be configured to use it. In this case, S uses an IP multicast address and port where all peers of the cluster and the gatherer wait to receive blocks. In this mode, the list of peers maintained by every peer is always empty and stream blocks are not forwarded by them. 5. Free-riding control in peers: Each peer assigns a counter to each other peer of the cluster. When a block is sent to a peer, its counter is incremented and when a block is received from it, its counter is reset. If a counter associated to a peer P i reaches a given threshold, P i is deleted from the list and it will not be served any more. Notice that the gatherer does not need this mechanism because it does not forward blocks. 6. Peer arrival: An incoming peer P i must contact with the splitter in order to join the cluster. After that, the following steps are carried out: (a) The splitter appends P i to the end of his list. (b) The splitter sends to P i, using the TCP, his list of peers. P i starts sending to the rest of peers a message (an empty block) in parallel with the reception of the list of peers, in order to introduce P i to the cluster as soon as possible. (c) A peer P j inserts the peer P i in his list as soon it receives a message from P i. 7. Peer departure: Peers are required to send a goodbye message to S when they leave the cluster, so S can stop sending blocks to them in a natural way. If a peer P i leaves without notification no more blocks will be received from it. This should trigger the following succession of events: (a) The free-riding control mechanism will remove P i from the list of peers at P j, i j. (b) P j, i j, will complain to S about blocks that likely S has sent to P i, because they have not been received them (the complaint method is explained below). (c) S will delete P i from his list (see rule 11 below). 8. Buffering: Blocks in transit can suffer different transmission delays due to jitter 2. Moreover, they can arrive out of order. For this reason, S numbers every block (see Figure 3) with a 16- bit incrementing positive index. Peers and the gatherer store the received blocks in a buffer. 2 Variations in network latency Block number (2 bytes) Stream block (1024 bytes) Fig. 3 A BL block. The first field (16 bits) is the block number and the second field, the stream block (in this example is 1024 bytes long). The size in blocks of the buffer b is the same in each peer. 9. Relation between buffer size b and block index upper bound m: Due to practical reasons, there is an upper bound to the block index (preferably a power of two). In order to minimize the probability of receiving two or more blocks with the same number (remember that blocks can be reordered in transit), m must be a multiple of b verifying m > b. 10. Block tracking: S remembers the block index sent to each peer among the last b blocks. This is necessary to identify unsupportive peers (free-riding). On the other hand, peers can guess a lost block s index by counting buffer slots since the closest received block in the buffer. 11. Free-riding control in S: In an ideal scenario, every peer (and also the gatherer) should receive all blocks sent by S. However, in real P2PSP overlays, blocks can be lost due to a number of causes: noise and physical failures in the networking infrastructure, peers leaving the cluster without notification and what it is more likely, peers suffering a temporary reduction of their upload bandwidth 3. In any of those cases, the number of lost blocks should be kept as small as possible. Peers become aware of a block loss at the time of sending it to the player. When a block is missing, peers send to S a message for specifying its index (obviously, G does the same). Using this information, S finds out unsupportive peers. When peer P i accumulates more than ( C )/2 complaints then P i is deleted from the list of peers of S and it is not served any other block. This implies recalculating (1). 12. Blocks re-transmission: As it was explained in the previous rule, blocks sent to unsupportive peers will be most likely lost and a large part of the cluster will complain about that. S will detect this problem because it will receive a large number of messages with the same (lost) block index. Under this situation, if enough bandwidth is available, S may resend to peers, using again the Round-Robing pattern, the missing blocks just as if they were new. Note that, due to the fact that peers may be slightly asynchronized, some peers could receive these lost blocks on time and therefore would not complain. 3 The Internet is a shared medium and therefore the load of the network influences communication capabilities of peers.
4 13. Congestion control: If IP multicast is not available, each peer sends blocks using a constant bit-rate strategy to minimize the congestion of its uploading link. The rate of blocks that arrive to a peer is a good metric for performing this control in networks with a reasonable low packet loss ratio. If multicasting is available, peers do not send blocks to the multicast channel (the splitter does all the work). C. The Integrity Layer The IL (Integrity Layer) is responsible for fighting against possible custom implementations of peers that might be specifically designed to attack a P2PSP network. More specifically, this layer serves as a barrier against Denial of Service attacks. We identify and neutralize two main attacks that might end in a service interruption situation. C.1 DoS by starvation, DoS by report An attacker (or a pool of attackers) might try to induce a denial of service situation if it joins the cluster but does not send any block. If this happened, all nodes of the cluster would complain about the lost blocks after a given period of time, that depends on the buffer size and the bitrate of the stream. Under this situation, the splitter will remove the malicious peer from the cluster and will reject further connections from the same endpoint. Note that, when adopting such a report-based system, a complementary attack might be developed too: a pool of attackers might report a welldeliberated peer in order to expel it from the network. To prevent this, the splitter should only accept to take actions against reported peers if more than a fixed number of peers have complained (i.e. establishing a report-honesty threshold). If this threshold is set to a high value (for example, 75% of peers in the cluster), then an attacker should need to virtually control the cluster in order to expel any given victim (see Section II-B, point 11). With the aim to make these types of attacks more difficult, the splitter allows only one connection from the same IP address. Therefore, an attacker that is behind a NAT will have only one shot (if the NAT does not renegotiate its public IP address). Obviously, this provokes that two or more well-meaning peers that are in the same private network can not connect to the same cluster. An efficient solution to this problem is to create a private cluster for all peers behind a given NAT. C.2 DoS by stream spoiling Another possible attack consists on the injection of fake information into the cluster. This can be caused by a custom peer sending poisoned blocks 4. A way of tackling this problem is by inserting (and removing 4 A poisoned block is a block that seems to be OK, but which the sender has changed in such a way that when played, introduces no information (for example, a block filled with zeroes) or even wrong information Priority (2 bytes) BL block (1026 bytes) Fig. 4 A ML block is a concatenation of a BL block and a 16-bit priority number. after a given period of time) one o more trustedpeers. These peers are authenticated as trusted to the splitter, but not to the rest of peers (the behavior of a trusted-peer is identical to any other peer making impossible for a poisonous peer to know these special peers). The source sends to trusted-peers the hash code of randomly chosen blocks using a reliable transmission protocol (note that the poisonous peer is not aware of which blocks were selected). If a poisonous peer sends an altered block to a trusted-peer, it will detect the change using the hash code and will notify the source, which will eject the poisonous peer from the cluster. D. The Multi-channel Layer P2PSP may broadcast different channels (streams) over distinct (unconnected) clusters. If the user s machine supports multiprocessing then it can run several peers in parallel, having one peer per subscribed channel. To enable this, no extra functionality needs to be added to the BL: the only essential requirement is the network providing sufficient bandwidth. However, this condition may not be always true. If this happens, one or more (multi-channel) peers could be ejected from a cluster because they are identified as unsupportive peers. In order to minimize this drawback, the ML (Multi-channel Layer) introduces a new encapsulation scheme (see Figure 4) and a new type of node, the Multichannel Scheduler (M). Peers that implement the ML must label each BL block. This label is a 16-bit positive integer number that represents a priority, being zero the highest one. ML blocks are sent to M which basically implements a FIFO priority queue of blocks. Each time a new ML block is received by M, it sorts them by priority and next, by block number. Thus, if there is not enough bandwidth to transmit all blocks, the user stops receiving those channels that have been assigned a lower priority. E. The Privacy Layer The top layer deals with privacy-related issues. Many content providers offer pay-per-view channels as part of their services. From a technical point of view, this implies having a Key Server that ciphers the stream with a symmetric encryption key and delivers such key to authorized members only. However, this is not enough: it is crucial that the Key Server renews the encryption key after the expiration of a peer s authorization period so the stream can not be decrypted any more by the peer (this feature is called forward secrecy). In addition, if we want to
5 play on the safe side then the Key Server should renew the encryption key after a peer purchases an authorization period (if the key remained the same then the peer might decrypt previously captured stream packets for a later playback): this feature is called backward secrecy. The associated renewal process is not trivial and is carried out by a secure multicast protocol. In order to alleviate the overhead incurred by avalanches of peers entering and leaving the authorized group (for example, at the beginning of a high interest event such as The Olympics) key renewal can be performed on a batch manner, i.e. renewing the key at a given fixed frequency rather than on a per arrival/exit basis. Finally, key renewal messages should be authenticated by means of a digital signature or other alternative methods [18]. Many secure multicast protocols exist in the literature, for example [19], [20], [21], [22] (see [23] for a survey). Here we suggest the implementation of a protocol by Naranjo et al [24]. In it, every authorized peer receives a large prime number from the Key Server at the beginning of its authorization period (this communication is done under a secure channel, for example SSL/TLS). For every renewal, the Key Server generates a message containing the new key to be used by means of algebraic operations: all the authorized primes are involved in this message generation process, and the key can only be extracted from the message by a peer with a valid prime. This protocol is efficient and suits P2PSP architecture in a natural way: every splitter can act as a Key Server for its own cluster. Hence, the stream would be first transmitted among splitters (possibly encrypted with a different key, shared by the splitters). Within each cluster, its corresponding splitter would control the encryption and key renewal process. III. Experiments We are currently in the process of testing our aforementioned implementation of P2PSP at Launchpad. The first experiments are being done in one Intel Core i5 CPU 3.33GHz 4 with 4 GB RAM. A single cluster is run, including a splitter, a gatherer and a group of peers, each one being a different thread within the same machine. For now, we are testing the average buffering time of a peer under flash crowd conditions (i.e. a large number of peers joining the cluster in a small period of time). By buffering we mean filling half the peer s buffer of stream blocks. Checking this metric for increasing cluster sizes can give an idea of the protocol s scalability. Figure 5 shows the average buffering time for different cluster sizes and different buffer lengths. Buffer lengths are measured in stream blocks, each block being 1024 bytes long. Even though real network latencies do not occur in our experiments, some properties of the protocol can be appreciated. For example, the plot makes clear that peers buffering time is unaffected by flash crowds and growing audiences, therefore suggesting that our protocol scales well. time (secs) 4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 0,500 Jornadas Buffering time 0, cluster size Fig blocks buffer 32 blocks buffer Buffering time for 32 and 256 blocks buffers. Our intention is to measure different properties of the protocol, like buffering time, presence of jitter, and quality of service (QoS) under a variety of circumstances (in stable configurations, in flash crowds, with some churn, while splitting and merging clusters, etc). Larger experiments will be made in our computer clusters at the High Performance Computing - Algorithms research group. IV. Conclusions Here we presented the P2PSP peer-to-peer streaming protocol. It is composed of a set of roles and rules arranged into four layers, each one with its own different purpose. Undoubtedly, the most important one is the Broadcast Layer, since it is at the core of the protocol and defines Página the 1 rules for the most basic type of communication: one-to-many. The other layers allow to establish many-to-many communications, set different kinds of cluster configuration, provide different types of service (e.g. multilayer encoding for scalable quality, video-on-demand, etc.), assure the integrity of the streamed content and, finally, allow to establish access control rules for privacy-aware scenarios or pay-per-view services. We are in the process of testing the protocol, and show preliminary experimental results regarding the average buffering time of peers with different cluster sizes and buffer lengths. These results suggest that the protocol is scalable. Our goal is to extend our experiments to a high-performance multi-core computer in order to verify the protocol s behaviour in larger clusters. Acknowledgements This work has been funded by grants from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (TIN , TIN C03-03, TEC E) and Junta de Andalucía (P10-TIC-6548 and P11-TIC7176), in part financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). Referencias [1] J. Jannotti, D.K. Gifford, K.L. Johnson, M.F. Kaashoek, and Jr.J.W. O Toole, Overcast: Reliable multicasting
6 with an overlay network, in Operating Systems Design and Implementation, 2000, pp [2] PPLive, [3] Ppstream, [4] X. Zhang, J. Liu, B. Li, and Y.-S. P. Yum, Coolstreaming/donet: A data-driven overlay network for peer-topeer live media streaming, Proceedings IEEE INFO- COM th Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies, vol. 3, pp vol. 3, March [5] D.A. Tran, K.A. Hua, and T. Do, Zigzag: An efficient peer-to-peer scheme for media streaming, in IEEE IN- FOCOM, April 2003, vol. 2, pp [6] N. Magharei and R. Rejaie, Prime: Peer-to-peer receiver-driven mesh-based streaming, in INFOCOM, May 2007, pp [7] X. Liao, H. Jin, Y. Liu, L.M. Ni, and D. Deng, Anysee: Peer-to-peer live streaming, in INFOCOM, April 2006, pp [8] J.C. Wu, K.J. Peng, M.T. Lu, C.K. Lin, and Y.H. Cheng, Hotstreaming: Enabling scalable and quality iptv services,. [9] Reza Rejaie and Antonio Ortega, Pals peer-to-peer adaptive layered streaming, in International workshop on Network and operating systems support for digital audio and video, 2003, pp [10] M. Castro, P. Druschel, A-M. Kermarrec, A. Nandi, A. Rowstron, and A. Singh, Splitstream: Highbandwidth content distribution in a cooperative environment, in Peer-to-Peer Systems II, February [11] Vinay Pai, Kapil Kumar, Karthik Tamilmani, Vinay Sambamurthy, and Alexander E. Mohr, Chainsaw: eliminating trees from overlay multicast, in Proceedings of the 4th international conference on Peer-to-Peer Systems, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2005, IPTPS 05, pp , Springer-Verlag. [12] V. Venkataraman, K. Yoshida, and P. Francis, Chunkyspread: Heterogeneous unstructured tree-based peer-to-peer multicast, in Network Protocols, ICNP 06. Proceedings of the th IEEE International Conference on, Nov., pp [13] P. Baccichet, Jeonghun Noh, E. Setton, and B. Girod, Content-aware p2p video streaming with low latency, in Multimedia and Expo, 2007 IEEE International Conference on, July, pp [14] Guanzhong Xu, Yusuo Hu, Yao Shen, and Minyi Guo, Directedpush - a high performance peer-to-peer live streaming system using network coding, in Parallel and Distributed Systems (ICPADS), 2012 IEEE 18th International Conference on, Dec., pp [15] A. Magnetto, R. Gaeta, M. Grangetto, and M. Sereno, Turinstream: A totally push, robust, and efficient p2p video streaming architecture, Multimedia, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 12, no. 8, pp , [16] IETF, Peer to peer streaming protocol (ppsp), [17] The Xiph.org Foundation, Icecast.org, icecast.org. [18] A. Perrig, R. Szewczyk, J. D. Tygar, V. Wen, and David E. Culler, SPINS: security protocols for sensor networks, Wirel. Netw., vol. 8, pp , [19] Lihao Xu and Cheng Huang, Computation-efficient multicast key distribution, IEEE Trans. Parallel Distrib. Syst., vol. 19, no. 5, pp , May [20] J. Lin, K. Huang, F. Lai, and H. Lee, Secure and efficient group key management with shared key derivation, Comput. Stand. Inter., vol. 31, no. 1, pp , [21] Z. Zhou and D. Huang, An optimal key distribution scheme for secure multicast group communication, in INFOCOM 10, 2010, pp [22] Eun-Jun Yoon and Kee-Young Yoo, A secure broadcasting cryptosystem and its application to grid computing, Future Generation Computer Systems, vol. 27, no. 5, pp , [23] J.A.M. Naranjo and L.G. Casado, An updated view on centralized secure group communications, Logic Journal of IGPL, [24] J. A. M. Naranjo, L. G. Casado, and J. A. López-Ramos, Group oriented renewal of secrets and its application to secure multicast, Journal of Information Science and Engineering, vol. 27, no. 4, pp , july 2011.
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text:
What is JotForm?
JotForm is a free online form builder which helps you create online forms without writing a single line of code. No sign-up required.
At JotForm, we want to make sure that you're getting the online form builder help that you need. Our friendly customer support team is available 24/7.
We believe that if one user has a question, there could be more users who may have the same question. This is why many of our support forum threads are public and available to be searched and viewed. If you'd like help immediately, feel free to search for a similar question, or submit your question or concern.
How to set shipping inside of donation payment formAsked by megfenn on December 17, 2015 at 12:39 PM
That is very helpful. Thank you. Only one more question now (I hope), the shipping option seems to have disappeared. When I set up the Paypal payment using the guide you sent, it does not show me the page where I can choose shipping and then set an amount per item. It needs to be £5 per item for each item. Please let me know how I can set the shipping fee. Thank you.
JotForm Support
It is not possible to add shipping inside of donation form. You would need to perform additional calculation inside of your form to calculate shipping.
I have cloned form of my colleague and added "Shipping" field and perform calculation. number of products*5.
Than I added one more field "Final Total 2" to calculate "Shipping" field and "Final Total" field.
And finally I updated payment field to get amount form "Final Total 2" field.
Here is my demo form: https://form.jotform.com/53504871273961?
Feel free to clone it.
Hope this will help. Let us know if you need further assistance.
Hi, thank you that's great. However, tests number 8 and 10 - the tests without the discount are not calculating any shipping cost. Those tests also are £5 shipping per test even though no discount is allowed. If I try to add a condition to them, it will add on the discount which is wrong. Is there a way to add £5 shipping to those two tests without adding them to the discount calculation?
Thank you!
JotForm Support
Perhaps you can try this approach, the "# of products selected" is designed for the discounts, that is why test # 8 and 10 are not calculating. Try the steps below.
1. I will use a form calculation widget to count all the check boxes selected (regardless if it has a discount) then multiply it by 5 (shipping per test).
2. To count the check boxes, we will not use text box again and name them as "True/False", instead, we will use a simple formula. This is how my formula is setup:
(count(check box test 1) + count(check box test 2) + count(check box test 3)... ) * 5 = shipping cost
What does the count() function does? In this case, it counts how many check boxes are selected, and because one test is one check box, when it is selected, it is counted as "1", if not, it is counted as "0". Sum all the counts of all the test check boxes then multiply by 5 (shipping per item).
3. After that, add that shipping cost with the final calculation.
I cloned your form and made those changes in my end, you can check how it works here: https://form.jotform.com/53513079773966?. If it works properly, you can clone it and have it in your own account.
I hope that helps.
Yes, that's amazing! Thank you so much :-) Really appreciate your help on this.
JotForm Support
You are most welcome. I'm glad it worked. Should you need any assistance again, please feel free to open a new thread here in the forum.
Thank you :)

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Entry requirements
Minimum of a lower second class honours degree (2:2) in a related subject area, or equivalent professional qualifications and relevant work experience.
Months of entry
Course content
Designed for those who wish to extend their knowledge, qualifications, skills and expertise in this area of study. The science of exercise and nutrition is a rapidly expanding field; students develop a critical knowledge and understanding of fundamental and contemporary issues in relation to physical activity and health and nutrition in health and disease, as well as applying these principles to sporting populations.
Taught on the Chester campus. Each taught module consists of a 20-hour, three-day intensive course, followed by a period of home-based learning. Taught modules are scheduled monthly and include:
- Exercise and Health
- Sports Nutrition
- Physiology and Physical Performance
- Science of Weight Control
- Nutrition in Health and Disease
- Biochemistry of Metabolism
- Performance Enhancement
- Research Methods and Data Analysis (normally compulsory for MSc students)
On completion graduates will possess many of the competences necessary to join the Sport and Exercise Nutrition register (SENr) or undertake BASES supervised experience to gain BASES accreditation.
Qualification and course duration
Course contact details
- Name
- Postgraduate Admissions
- email@example.com
- Phone
- +44 (0)1244 512456
- Fax
- +44 (0)1244 513 111


text:
Get notified when new sales are live
Subscribe to our notifications so you don't miss out on our new sales!
Baby Animal Fairies & Doll Books
Don't pay more for this tip top children's book!
Seven new bedtime reads!
Seven new fairy friends, each with a special animal friend! Titles include: Mae the Panda Fairy, Kitty the Tiger Fairy, Mara the Meerkat Fairy, Savannah the Zebra Fairy, Kimberley the Koala Fairy, Rosie the Honey Bear Fairy, and Anna the Arctic Fox Fairy.


text:
Hyundai "Velocity" Veloster is a Skunk Works Project With Cosworth Tuning: 2012 SEMA Show
Comfortably overshadowing Hyundai's RE:MIX special edition Veloster production car unveiled today at the SEMA Show in Las Vegas is another Veloster built by Hyundai staff, though with a little help from Cosworth.
A skunk works project built by the design and engineering teams at Hyundai's Irvine, CA office it boasts a wild aero kit with an even wilder rear spoiler. Designed as a track ready machine it features a full roll cage and Sparco racing seats inside while at each corner a Bilstein suspension system lowers the car significantly. Huge 19-inch HRE wheels complete the look, with a Brembo big brake upgrade and some wide 275 series Kumho tires.
As for power, Hyundai outsourced that project to the experts at Cosworth, who tuned the Veloster Turbo's 1.6-liter engine to 400-hp.
Is Hyundai secretly planning a higher-performance Veloster Turbo? One can only hope.
GALLERY: Hyundai "Velocity" Veloster
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text:
Tuesday, May 3, 2011
Gorilla Nation Targets Kids, Tweens, Teens
Los Angeles-based Gorilla Nation Media, the division of Evolve Media which provides advertising representation services to websites, said this morning that it has launched a new kids, tweens, and teens vertical. The firm said the new "Youthology" vertical will help advertisers specifically engage with tweens. Among the first sites in the vertical is Sherman Oaks-based SodaHead, the discussion and polling site co-founded by former MySpace exec Jason Feffer. Other sites in the new vertical include HIT Entertainment, Thomas & Friends, and Barney.


text:
Red Dead Glitch Fixers is a Red Dead Redemption posse.
About the posse
We go around finding bugs in Achivments and problems in the game and try to help people out.
Joining the posse
Any one of reasonable characteristics message "Lt Vic" or join his party.
- Leader 1 Lt Vic
- Leader 2 XoSkeleton67
None Yet
None Yet
Glitches Found
- Buckin' Awesome Achievement Problems,
Some people break the Kentucky Saddler, American standard bred, and the Hungarian Half-Bred. But do not receive this achievement the Kentucky Saddler will be given to you on one of the first missions Wild Horses, Tamed Passions (received from Bonnie) After it runs away from the heard it will sometimes not actually count as breaking it to fix this go to the same area that it is found at near Warthington Ranch, south of McFarlane's Ranch. It can also be caught North-East of Armadillo, near Rattlesnake and break another one you should get the achievement.
- Thieves Landing Post
Running into the post on the bridge in Thieves Landing on the left rear side will get your horse stuck. To get out get off the horse or jump forward into the water dyeing.
- The Deadly Assassin Outfit glitch.
Mo von Barr doesn't always appear, Also killing him will make it so you can not get the outfit.
- Golden Guns Disappear
Once turning into jack if you have used the golden guns code they will disappear, to use them again go to start, weapons, and manually switch to Cattleman revolver and the Repeater Carbine then you will be able to use them again in the LB menu.
- What about hand grenades? Achievement
It is far better to try to get a dead ringer at Ratherskeller fork then it is at Mc.Farlanes ranch because the horse shoe pits are closer together!
- Moweing Them Down Achievement
The best way to get this is in El Predisdo on the cannon facing the main road in free roam private server with a freind watching the back door.
- Quick Save Tip.
Use a horse deed in your back button menu and it will save your game if your realy need to quickly.


text:
Crapo MD Real Estate & Homes for Sale
3 Properties Found
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Courtesy: Select Land & Homes, LLC
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This incredible property is arguably one of the East Coast's premier sportsman's property offering outstanding puddle and diving duck hunting along with trophy sitka and whitetail deer! State of the art modern log lodge can comfortably accomodate 16 guests. Extensive shoreline erosion protection. A turnkey sportsman's dream property! Co-listed with Sassafras River Realty
Courtesy: Long & Foster Real Estate, Inc.
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LIVE, HUNT,RELAX 11 private acres. XLg House (1784 sq ft) lovingly cared for. S/S furnace 2 yr old. Exc hunting w/lease in place. Deer, turkey, rabbit, squirrel, ducks, geese all present. Next to pond owned by Ducks Unlimited. No record of any flooding near house. Mult. outbuildings inc. workshop, 2 sheds, storage bld and 2 car garage. Boat ramp within 1 mile. Rm for home-based bus/LODGE! see P&Z
Courtesy: Homestar Realty, Inc.
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HUNT CLUB EQUITY MEMBERSHIP in 300+ acre farm w/ 3+ miles of shore line on private point next to Blackwater refuge. Incredible water fowl, fishing, crabbing and sitka deer hunting. Multiple duck and deer blinds, impounds, boat launch, club house sleeps 12. We are selling up to 3 memberships at $72,000 ea. Total membership presently capped at 10. CLUB OWNS THE FARM. MEMBER OWNS 10% OF CLUB.
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Welcome to the latest Audiense 'Minute Masterclass': the fifth in a series of videos that's in and out faster than a small child whose father is being interviewed live on the BBC. Read More
What can audience data tell you about Trump's supporters? Why did he resonate with them? What can marketers learn from this?
The 2016 US presidential election was arguably the world's biggest story last year, with the manner in which it was conducted almost as big a story. Hillary Clinton hired a team which grew to over 800 people working specifically on her campaign, and which spent $332M on advertising, dwarfing her victorious rival's spend. Donald Trump's victory came despite only spending $18M on advertising, with a campaign team that consisted of 80 people in August, and didn't grow far past 100. Yet his controversial messages and brash style connected with substantial swathes of the population, to the great surprise of almost all pollsters. Read More
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Product Description
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Additional Information
|MHP - Maximum Human Performance
|Serving Size:
|4 Tablets
|Per Container:
|120 Tablets
|Ingredients (Amount Per Serving)
|• 5,000IU Vitamin A (as Beta-Carotene, Alpha-Carotene, Lutein, Zeaxanthin, Cryptoxanthin, Astaxanthin, Lycopene) (100%)
• 300mg Vitamin C (as Calcium Ascorbate, Potassium Ascorbate, Magnesium Ascorbate, Zinc Ascorbate, Manganese Ascorbate, Copper Ascorbate, Chromium Ascorbate) (500%)
• 200IU Vitamin D (as Cholecalciferol) (50%)
• 150IU Vitamin E (as Mixed Tocopherols Supplying D-Alpha-, Beta-, Gamma-, And Delta Tocopherols) (500%)
• 75mg Thiamin (as Thiamin Mononitrate) (5,000%)
• 75mg Riboflavin (as Riboflavin And Riboflavin 5-Phosphate) (4,412%)
• 75mg Niacin (as Niacin And Niacinamide) (375%)
• 75mg Vitamin B6 (as Pyridoxine HCL And Pyridoxine 5-Phosphate) (3,750%)
• 400mcg Folate (as Biofolin™, 5-Formyl Tetrahydrofolate) (100%)
• 100mcg Vitamin B12 (as Dibencozide) (1,667%)
• 300mcg Biotin (100%)
• 75mg Pantothenic Acid (as D-Calcium Pantothenate) (750%)
• Calcium (as Calcium Amino Acid Chelate, 200mg Calcium Citrate And Calcium Ascorbate) (20%)
• 150mcg Iodine (from Kelp) (100%)
• 100mg Magnesium (as Magnesium Amino Acid Chelate and Magnesium Ascorbate) (25%)
• 15mg Zinc (as Zinc Amino Acid Chelate And Zinc Ascorbate) (100%)
• 200mcg Selenium (as Selenium Amino Acid Chelate) (286%)
• 2mg Copper (as Copper Amino Acid Chelate and Copper Ascorbate) (100%)
• 2mg Manganese (as Manganese Amino Acid Chelate And Manganese Ascorbate) (100%)
• 120mcg Chromium (as Chromium Amino Acid Chelate and Chromium Ascorbate) (100%)
• 75mcg Molybdenum (as Molybdenum Amino Acid Chelate) (100%)
• 99mg Potassium (as Potassium Aspartate and Potassium Ascorbate) (3%)
• 2mg Boron (as Boron Citrate)
• 5mcg Vanadium (as Vanadyl Sulfate)
• 75mg Choline (as Choline Bitartrate)
• 75mg Inositol
• 11mg Silica (as Silicon Dioxide)
470mg Anabolase™- Patented Interactive Food Optimizer:
• Aminogen® - Protein & Amino Acid Enhancing Matrix
• Carbogen® - Carbohydrate And Glycogen Enhancing Matrix
• Lipolase® - Fatty Acid Enhancing Matrix (From Aspergillus Niger, Aspergillus Oryzae and Rhizopus Oryzae Supplying Acid & Semi-Alkaline Protease, Amylase, Cellulase, Hemicellulase, and Lipase
250mg High ORAC Muscle Recovery and Immune Support Antioxidant Blend
• Acai
• Pomegranate Extract (20% Ellagic Acid)
• Red Raspberry Leaf
• Green Tea Leaf Extract (36% Polyphenols)
• Grape Skin Extract (37% Polyphenols)
• Bilberry Fruit Extract (25% Anthocyanosides)
• Kale (Leaf)
• Spinach (Leaf)
• Brussels Sprouts (Leaf)
• Broccoli
• Beet (Root)
• Citrus Bioflavonoid Complex
• Alpha-Lipoic Acid
• N-Acetyl Cysteine
• Co-Enzyme Q10
|Other Ingredients
|Microcrystalline Cellulose, Hypromellose, Stearic Acid, Vegetable Stearin, Magnesium Stearate, Silica, Pharmaceutical Glaze
|Take 4 tablets once daily or 2 tablets twice daily (preferably with your largest meals for best absorption and maximum utilization of proteins, carbohydrates and fats).
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text:
I thought I would share my findings to help others with the same issue.
Two days ago I kept catching glimpses of a card image in the notifications at the top of the screen, but it would only be for a second so I could not see what it was trying to tell me. But had a quick look and sd card seemed fine and all data was present on handset. A couple of hours later it popped up with "SD Card Unexpectedly Removed". I tried ejecting and reinserting,restarting device and turning off and removing battery all to no avail. So I did a quick search which showed this seemed to be quite a common issue, after reading many threads with people saying the sd card is corrupt or network providers saying it was software and to do a restore. I decided before all that hassle I would open the phone and check the circuitboard expecting it to be a dry solder joint. One thing I will point out that was different to some other users is the fact my sd card was not visible with the phone connected to the computer, so this may not solve all related issues.
Turn off phone, remove the battery, SIM card and sd card. Remove all screws except the one by the 3.5mm jack. Gently pull the white plastic trim that surrounds the card holders and battery but the top part with speaker and camera does not need removing. Once removed if you look to the left of the sd card holder you will see the ribbon that connects the sd card to the main circuit board and at the end of the ribbon is the connector. Mine was disconnected and was loose, even if yours is not loose it would be worth gently pulling it off and reconnecting it. Then reassemble in the reverse order.
This was a nice surprise in the sense it was a very simple fix. However when I mounted the sd card even directly in my pc it was not found, I assume that the loose connector floating about had probably shorted its connections and caused an issue with the sd card. After a handfuls of attempts at mounting it in my pc it was finally detected and I backed up all the data and reformatted the sd card, then copied the data back,mounted it in my phone and was happy to find it all working as expected.
I hope this information will help some of you out, as it was a simple fix to a simple issue and results from searching had no solutions, just lots of assumptions.


text:
Disclaimer: I do not own Private Practice or the characters within, they are creations of Shonda Rhimes and I am simply borrowing them for my own entertainment.
Author's Notes: This is what happens when you go through every Violet/Pete scene (and outtakes from scenes) in chronological order. And seeing Pete show up at Violet's door step at the end of 1x07 and then see them show up at the office together in 1x08, well, my imagination took over...
This is definitely not a one-shot, my mind stretches way beyond that, so hold on for an AU alternative to tide you over this summer while we all hold hands and hope Shonda fixes the mess next season. I don't expect to like the upcoming finale...
As always many thanks to my beta, Mediatorsk. And to the rest of you I say enjoy (and review, please).
After Cooper leaves, it takes Violet a while to recover from what in her mind has to be the most humiliating rejection known to man. As if it wasn't awkward enough undressing in front of her best friend, he had to make things worse by turning down her completely naked body. Damnit, she has good parts. And this is Cooper, he jumps into the sack all the time with women he doesn't even know, women who later on rob him blind with him handcuffed to the bed, leaving it to Violet to come to his rescue. And he actually turns her down?
Humiliated and sexually frustrated, Violet steps into the shower, letting the steady stream of hot water wash over her body, willing herself to forget how many months it's been since she last had a man in her bed. It's too humiliating that there hasn't been anyone since Alan, since she was dumped out of the blue after a nearly three year long relationship only to meet him with his new barely-out-of -diapers wife just six months later. She felt pathetic standing next to young, perky and perfectly made up Cami, wearing her casual jeans and hoodie, no make-up, hair thrown up in a messy bun and glasses instead of her usual contacts; a look that only makes it past her front door when she has a quick errand or two. She never felt as undesirable as in that moment, topped only, perhaps, by tonight.
Towel-drying her messy curls and throwing on a simple tee and cargo pants, Violet heads back downstairs. Trying to push the humiliation out of her mind, her new plan for the night involves a cup of spiced tea and Jane Austen. However, halfway up the stairs again there's a knock on her door.
"Cooper, not now," she thinks out loud. That's the last thing she needs, Cooper coming back the same night to make nice. Can't he give her at least one day? One day to regain some dignity before she has to face him and work her way past his rejection?
"I can't," she begins, but stops the minute she realizes it's not Cooper that's on the other side of the door, "Pete?" While he stops by her office all the time, both during and after hours, this is one of a handful times where he's actually shown up at her house.
He smiles and shrugs awkwardly, "Sorry it's so late."
"Well, what's wrong?" At the back of her mind she can recall him mentioning earlier having plans with Addison tonight. She really hopes that isn't why he's here. It's bad enough to tackle the rejection from one guy, but having to hear about another one's love life…
Pete hesitates, "When she died… Anna and I… had been trying…"
Knowing how unwilling Pete is to talk about his late wife most of the time, Violet appreciates the fact that he seeks her out to do it. "To have a baby?" she clarifies.
"Yeah," he nods.
She steps aside and lets him in. He plops down on her couch, like he would in her office; so casual, yet so significant at the same time. For a moment she thinks back to her first session with him, where he deflected her every question and talked around his issues. He's come a long way since.
"So, what made you think about it?" she asks, taking a seat next to him on the couch.
"Susan," he replies, referring to their patient that day, "I used Anna's death as a way of relating to her pain of losing Jason, and she said some things, about burying our pain. And then handing her the baby… I mean, I see babies all the time, but this time it was… different…"
"Because it made you think about what could have been?"
Pete smiles sadly, "Anna and I never had what Susan and Jason did, not even close. I didn't even like her most of the time, but still… sometimes I think about it…"
Violet shrugs, "Well, that's normal, we all have something in our past we would like to change or wonder how could have gone differently."
"What is yours?"
"I thought we were talking about you, tonight," she replies, teasingly.
"Don't we always?" he asks, referring to the way their friendship is based primarily on him seeking her input, "And aren't you tired of focusing on everyone else's problem all the time?"
There are many crossroads in Violet's past, many of which are too painful or too private to discuss. Maybe it's not fair to expect Pete to share his innermost thoughts without giving something in return, but then again she is the therapist out of the two. While it's been many years since Pete was her patient, she assumes the reason he seeks her counsel is rooted in their original dynamic, no matter how reluctant Pete was back then.
She ransacks her mind for something, anything that she can share that won't lead to any heavy or overly personal discussion. She thinks back to her childhood, quickly ignoring anything and everything that has to do with her parents, "Well," she says, "At one point in my life, I seriously considered becoming a teacher, I even majored in it my first year at college… much to my mother's annoyance," she adds, chuckling.
"What made you change your mind?"
Just like that her mind drifts to one fateful night her sophomore year, and the long and hard recovery that followed. It's not something she wants to revisit, ever, "Things happened," she shrugs, hoping it looks casual enough, "My eyes were opened up to the pain that can suddenly befall upon anyone of us, and… I just wanted to do my part…"
She doesn't know if he buys it or if he simply respects her wishes not to talk about it, but he nods in understanding either way. "I think that's probably why anyone of us chose to be who we are."
"Speaking of the practice," she changes the subject, "I thought you had plans tonight…"
"I thought you had plans, too," he counters.
"Yet, here you are…"
"Here I am…"
Violet chuckles and shakes her head at his cryptic response. Pete wouldn't just show up at her doorstep like this, considering his promise of a hot date somewhere else, unless there's something more bothering him than just dredged up memories of Anna. Either the hot date didn't go as planned, or Pete didn't go. Either way she can tell there's something on his mind; something she can tell she will have to pull out of him, "What happened?" she asks in all simplicity, "Why are you here and not with Addison?"
Pete sighs, "Addison is… great, but… she wants commitment and a relationship, and she thinks she can change me… that if she just puts in the time and effort I will come around, and she doesn't realize that that isn't going to happen… If I had gone over there tonight I'd either be fooling her or fooling myself, maybe both…"
"Do you reckon the problem is Addison, and what she wants from you? Or is it you and your failure to commit?"
"A little bit of both?" They both chuckle and Pete shakes his head, "I realize that Addison is a catch, she turns your head when she walks past you and when you get closer you see that there's a whole lot more to her than the way she looks. I know she deserves someone who can commit to her, but something about her still has me revert into a fourteen year old boy. And even though I know I shouldn't I still try to talk her over to my side of things."
"Well, it's in human nature to want everything we can't. It's the whole forbidden fruit concept. The less available something, or someone is, the more we want it. Just look at how I handled the whole Alan debacle… the less available he became to me, the harder I chased him. He moved on and got married and I just… kept stalking him…" Violet shakes her head, "My point is, maybe the problem is that you want each other because you are unavailable to one another, at least in the capacity that you both want. She wants a real relationship, while you don't want any form of attachment."
"…you're good."
Violet chuckles, "At least in something," she shrugs. It's a bit harder accepting a compliment when the rejection from earlier keeps ringing in her head.
Pete looks at her, sees that not everything is alright, "What happened… with you and Cooper?"
Violet groans. The last thing she wants is to recant her evening, but then again it's only fair that she reciprocates. Tit for tat in a manner of speaking, "Well, I wasn't stood up," she quips, hoping to joke away the humility she feels.
"Violet," Pete looks at her and she can see the genuine concern in his eyes. It's still an embarrassing story to tell and she hesitates for more than a few minutes.
"He passed on me," she finally says, "I stood naked in front of him, like a… peeled banana, while he overlooked my best parts… and then he passed on me…"
"I'm sorry," Pete says, and it's genuine, no smirk, no laugh, no nothing. He puts his arm on the backrest behind her, wordlessly offering her somewhere to lean. She takes him up on his offer, rests her head on his shoulder and feels his arm close around her. It's comforting, "Cooper's an idiot for passing on you…"
"Does that mean you're an idiot, too?" she quips.
His upper body shakes slightly as he chuckles, "No, I'm the ass who can't commit…"
"Just because you don't want the same thing that Addison does, it doesn't make you an ass."
"It does when I'm the one standing her up…"
"In the long run you'd probably be worse off if you had gone tonight," she shrugs.
"Maybe it's the same with you and Cooper," Pete suggests.
Violet smiles slightly, "It's not the fact that Cooper turned me down that's bothering me… it's the way he did it. Waiting until I was completely bare, making it seem as though there was something about me and my body that turned him off…"
"…that's crazy," Pete interjects.
"I know," Violet sighs, "I have good parts. I have great parts."
"You do," Pete agrees.
Violet doesn't hear it right away and continues to ramble, "I'm a desirable woman. There's no reason a straight man should ever…" suddenly realizing what Pete just said, she looks up at him, "…I, uh, what..?"
Confused by the compliment, she loses her train of thought and just stares at him, not taking in how close proximity his lips are to hers or how he seems to be getting closer and closer. He cups her face with his available hand and then their lips meet in a brief, but electric kiss.
Not realizing she's doing it, she wets her lips, trying to wrap her mind around what just happened. He leans in for another kiss and this time she instinctively parts her lips, urging him to continue. Her hands cup his face and she feels his fingers running through her still moist hair.
She knows it's probably a bad idea, that this is Pete, sleeps-with-anything Pete. But it's been far too long, and besides, casual sex was what she was looking for in the first place. And she trusts Pete, trusts him to always be upfront and honest with her, trusts him not to make a big issue out of it. His lips move down her jaw line to her neck and she lets out a moan as he hits just the right spot. Damn the man's a good kisser.
His hands slip underneath her shirt, pulling it upwards as they travel up her back. She didn't put on a bra after her shower and realizes the minute that shirt is pulled over her head she will be fully exposed to him. Normally that is not really a problem for her, but with the night's earlier events, it's admittedly a little scarier than usual. He's not in a hurry though and the hemline rests slightly above her navel for a while as his hands explore her soft skin, his lips recapturing hers.
Violet lets go of his face and allows herself to explore his body the same way. She knows he works out, but damn she didn't expect him to be so… toned. He's all muscles, and not in an overdone, bulging way either. He's just right. She tugs his shirt upwards and through the corner of her eye she spots a tattoo. She'll have to ask him about that someday.
They wordlessly agree to pull apart, so they can remove both shirts. She smiles when she notices the appreciative look on his face as he takes in the sight of her. That is exactly what her confidence needs right now. And she can't help but bite her lip when taking in the sight of his well-toned upper body. Damn, she can't get over those muscles…
Their bare chests crash together as their lips meet once again, their hands roaming more freely this time. It's not until his mouth wanders down her neck that she realizes they're still in the middle of her living room. "You know," she says breathlessly, "I do have a bed…"
Violet breathes out in sheer contentment as her body recovers from her orgasm. Is her recent dry spell messing with her head? Because she can't remember sex ever being this… wow. She hears Pete breathing heavily next to her and for the moment allows her brain to take it as a compliment.
"I needed that," she admits, feeling oddly truthful in the moment.
"You want to go again?" he asks, suggestively.
Violet laughs out loud, "Give me a couple of minutes, first, will you?" It's oddly freeing this whole sex without emotional attachment. Maybe it's the orgasm talking, or maybe Pete is onto something. Every relationship she can remember, no matter how exciting at first, only led to pain and heartbreak in the end. This however… well, she doesn't really have any basis for comparison, but it feels right, feels safe and exciting at the same time.
"So, no regrets?" he asks.
She can't help but laugh again; right now she feels positively euphoric, "Are you kidding? I should've done this a long time ago…" Her laughter is infectious. Pete runs his hand through her hair and pulls her in for a languid kiss.
Hands begin to roam and the kisses turn heavier as he pulls her flush against him. She's going to be so sore in the morning…


text:
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text:
Imports-Exports Demand Functions and Balance of Payments Stability in Nigeria: A Co-integration and Error Correction Modeling
Abstract This paper assesses the determinants of import and export demand functions. The object is to empirically measure the relative strengths and weaknesses of the determinants import and export, and to examine, using the Marshall-Lerner hypothesis, the condition under which balance of payments adjustment works in the Nigerian economy. The analytical framework employed is an econometric methodology, which encompasses wide a range of tests for stationarity, cointegration and specification of an error correction model. Using data obtained from the Nigerian economy covering the period of 1970 to 2004, result of over-parameterized error correction model show significant causational relationships in the two models. Specifically, from the values of the coefficient of the current and past (lag) level of exchange rate in the two models, the paper knots balance of payments adjustment to regime of exchange rate stability in Nigeria. The paper, therefore, recommends exchange rate adjustment as potent instrument of achieving balance of payments stability in Nigeria.
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|Date of creation:
|23 Mar 2007
|Date of revision:
|08 Jan 2008
|Contact details of provider:
| Postal: Ludwigstraße 33, D-80539 Munich, Germany
Phone: +49-(0)89-2180-2459
Fax: +49-(0)89-2180-992459
Web page: https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de
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- Ritva Reinikka, 1994. "How to identify trade liberalization episodes: an empirical study on Kenya," CSAE Working Paper Series 1994-10, Centre for the Study of African Economies, University of Oxford.
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