text:
Be sure to see the article for the links to Anderson's essays.One criticism of presuppositional apologetics is that its advocates rarely if ever offer serious arguments for their distinctive claims (e.g., the claim that our ability to reason presupposes the existence of God). The criticism is overstated, but there is a measure of truth to it. I count myself a presuppositionalist, but I've been frustrated in the past by presuppositionalists who seem to imagine that declaring what Van Til's "transcendental argument" purports to demonstrate is tantamount to actually making that demonstration. Simply asserting that "without God you can't prove anything at all" or that "your very ability to reason presupposes the existence of God" does nothing whatsoever to explain why those weighty assertions should be believed. Likewise for the failure of non-Christians to answer questions asking them to account for their ability to reason, to know truths about the world, to make meaningful moral judgments, etc., in terms of their own worldviews. Questions cannot substitute for arguments, no matter how pointed those questions may be.So it's important for presuppositionalists to present arguments in support of their claims, and to ensure their critics are aware of those arguments so that they can be critically evaluated. In that spirit, I thought it would be useful to gather in one place my own presuppositional arguments, as well as my attempts to explain or reconstruct the arguments of other presuppositionalists:
White Rose Review
Loving Truth and Resisting Error
Saturday, April 15, 2017
James Anderson on Presuppositional Apologetics
James Anderson (Associate Professor of Theology and Philosophy at Reformed Theological Seminary) has a blog post entitled A Selection of Presuppositional Arguments. He includes links to a number of his articles on presuppositional arguments. Here is the text of his post:
Sunday, March 19, 2017
The Bespectacled Biologist: The Function of Control Beliefs in Richard Dawkins' The Blind Watchmaker
* This is a paper I wrote in 1991 for a Philosophy of Biology class. A great deal of development has happened over the past 25 years in terms of the Intelligent Design movement and its critics. In that Dawkins' book has been continually reissued and referenced this paper's discussion of a number of early reviews may still be relevant.
The resurgence of creationism as a contender against evolution in the 1970's and '80's has brought forth a whole host of defenders for the standard neo-Darwinian model of evolution. Such titles as Darwinism Defended, Taking Darwin Seriously, and The Blind Watchmaker are put forth as ammunition to decimate the dreaded scourge of "Scientific Creationism." The Blind Watchmaker (hereafter BW) by Richard Dawkins is particularly zealous to defend the sacrosanct position of neo-Darwinism. Dawkins is not merely arguing for the truthfulness of neo-Darwinian evolution as a scientific fact but he is also seeking to convince his readers that the Darwinian worldview is correct. Dawkins states up front that his book "is not a dispassionate scientific treatise" (BW, p. x). Dawkins wants to "persuade" and "inspire" the reader with the grandeur of the Darwinian worldview. He very pointedly states:
More, I want to persuade the reader, not just that the Darwinian world-view happens to be true, but that it is the only known theory that could, in principle, solve the mystery of our existence. (BW, p. x)
So convinced is Dawkins that he feels that those who reject Darwinism do so for three main reasons: 1) Religious reasons, 2) Political or ideological reasons, or 3) They work in the "media" and they "just like seeing applecarts upset, perhaps because it makes good journalistic copy" (BW, pp. 250-251). Of course, for Dawkins there can be no scientific reasons to reject Darwinism because it is the only possible explanation for the "mystery of our existence."
Given that Dawkins' goal is nothing less than a view of neo-Darwinian evolution which is so compelling that all other views are seen as nonsense, a crucial question to ask is, "Does Dawkins succeed in his endeavor?" The answer would appear to depend on the reader's prior worldview with which he approaches BW. Charles Lumsden in his review of BW has written, "The informed will read and have their views reaffirmed by the clear arguments. Skeptics will read and remain unmoved. In part the division is not one of stupidity, but of faith" (Lumsden, p. 500).
It is this issue of "faith"—or what I will call one's control beliefs—that I wish to examine in this paper. I will examine how Dawkins' control belief of naturalistic neo-Darwinism functions to interpret the date—and at times, the lack thereof—that one finds in the world.
I borrow the notion of control beliefs from Nicholas Wolterstorff.[1] Wolterstorff points out that in examining a theory one does not approach the data with an empty mind. "On the contrary, one remains cloaked in belief" (Wolterstorff, p. 66). As R. H. Brady observes, "Scientists are only human after all. They begin their adult lives, like everyone else, armed with all sorts of a priori 'knowledge'" (Brady, p. 94). Part of these beliefs are control beliefs which function in two ways.
Because we hold them we are led to reject certain sorts of theories—some because they are inconsistent with those beliefs; others because, though consistent with our control beliefs, they do not comport well with those beliefs. On the other hand control beliefs also lead to devise theories. We want theories that are consistent with our control beliefs. Or, to put it more stringently, we want theories that comport as well as possible with those beliefs. (Wolterstorff, p. 68)
Dawkins has such control beliefs which cause him to reject certain theories and ideas and which in turn lead him to postulate certain theories about how evolution works and why it is true in spite of gaps in empirical evidence.[2]
What are Dawkins' control beliefs? Reading BW and its reviewers one quickly comes to see that an atheistic naturalism serves as the foundation for Dawkins' noetic structure. One reviewer stated that what Dawkins has written is "chiefly a philosophical advertisement for atheistic naturalism" (Nelson, p. 10). This remark appears justified in view of the way Dawkins speaks of God or a designer (see BW, pp. 92, 93, 141, 316—these references are discussed in the appendix). Dawkins' own stated thesis of BW is set forth in a straight forward manner: "The basic idea of The Blind Watchmaker is that we don't need to postulate a designer in order to understand life, or anything else in the universe" (BW, p. 147). Furthermore, Dawkins tips his atheistic hand in the very beginning of BW when he writes, "that although atheism might have been logically tenable before Darwin, Darwin made it possible to be an intellectually fulfilled atheist" (BW, p. 6). Thus the remark of philosopher David Hull is apropos: "In short it (BW) is an atheistic tract against Paley's argument from design" (Hull, p. 289).
Given that Dawkins' control belief is one of atheistic naturalism, how does this affect the way Dawkins views the empirical data in nature? It is my contention that Dawkins' perception of reality is colored by his control belief of atheism and that his arguments in BW are not empirically grounded but instead driven by his atheistic worldview.[3] To some of Dawkins' arguments we now turn.
Dawkins' argument in BW is not that there is no design—or, to use Dawkins' word choice, "complexity"—in nature. On the contrary, Dawkins desires to "follow Paley in emphasizing the magnitude of the problem that our explanation faces, the sheer hugeness of biological complexity and the beauty and elegance of biological design" (BW, p. 15). Later he writes, "I do not want the reader to underestimate the prodigious works of nature and the problems we face in explaining them" (BW, p. 37). Dawkins' explanation is that of gradualistic neo-Darwinian natural selection.
Dawkins' aim is to show how neo-Darwinian natural selection can account for the complexity of living organisms and their "apparent design." For those who observe features, organs, or organisms and are uncertain about how such examples of complexity could have arisen by step-by-step gradualistic measures, Dawkins retorts that such people are merely using what may be called the "Argument from Personal Incredulity" (BW, p. 38). Dawkins adds, "This is not an argument, it is simply an affirmation of incredulity" (BW, p. 39). Having disposed of the incredulous, what is Dawkins' explanation for the observed complexity around us? Dawkins takes the human eye—William Paley's favorite example to demonstrate design—and asks five questions (BW, pp. 77-79).
1. Could the human eye have arisen directly from no eye at all, in a single step?
2. Could the human eye have arisen directly from something slightly different from itself, something that we may call X?
Dawkins' answer to 1. is a "decisive no." But the answer to 2. for Dawkins is "equally clearly yes." Dawkins defines the X of 2. as "something very like a human eye, sufficiently similar that the human eye could plausibly have arisen by a single alternation in X" (BW, p. 77). He then applies question 2. to X itself, proposing that X could have arisen from something slightly different than itself which, for convenience sake is called X'. X' arises from X'' in the same manner, and so on. "By interposing a large enough series of Xs, we can derive the human eye from something not slightly different from itself but very different from itself" (BW, p. 78).
Dawkins' third question is:
3. Is there a continuous series of Xs connecting the modern human eye to a state with no eye at all?
His answer is "yes, provided only that we allow ourselves a sufficiently large series of Xs" (BW, p. 78).
Questions four and five are as follows:
4. Considering each member of the series of hypothetical Xs connecting the human eye to no eye at all, is it plausible that every one of them was made available by random mutation of its predecessor?
5. Considering each member of the series of Xs connecting the human eye to no eye at all, is it plausible that every one of them worked sufficiently well that it assisted the survival and reproduction of the animals concerned?
In reference to 4. Dawkins' belief is that as long as the difference between X and X' is sufficiently small "the necessary mutations are almost bound to be forthcoming" (BW, p. 79). In answer to 5. Dawkins asserts that five percent of an eye is better than four percent and that as one increases the percentage of the eye this confers reproductive advantage to the organism so that the answer to 5. is "yes."
These five questions and the discussion following them in the rest of the chapter I take to be the central case for Dawkins' book. All else in the book appears to be further additions to these ideas outlined in chapter four of BW so it may be wise to begin the analysis here.
In reference to question 1. Dawkins is undoubtedly correct. No one wishes to claim that the human eye could have arisen by chance directly from no eye at all in a single step. Question 2. is also probably deserving of an affirmative answer as well. It does appear that a human eye could develop from something slightly different as long as the gap between the two is sufficiently small. Although I grant the answer to 2. is "yes," that does not justify what Dawkins does with the answer. He begins a process of extrapolation from human eye to X to X' to X''… all the way back to a state of no eye at all. This move raises the troubling issue of extrapolation. The extrapolation from demonstrable microevolution to large macroevolutionary claims has always been problematic for neo-Darwinism but frequently the problem is passed over, especially by zealous neo-Darwinian apologists. Michael Denton, however, calls attention to this problem and urges caution. He writes:
However attractive the extrapolation, it does not necessarily follow that, because a certain degree of evolution has been shown to occur, therefore any degree of evolution is possible.
Denton latter concludes:
There is no doubt that the success of the Darwinian model in explaining microevolution invites the hope that it might be applicable also to macroevolutionary phenomena. Perhaps in the end this might prove to be the case; but, on the other hand, there is the depressing precedent, as the history of science testifies that over and over again theories which were thought to be generally valid at the time proved eventually to be valid only in a restricted sphere. Newtonian physics, for example, which accounted perfectly for all the empirical data available in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and is still used for calculating the trajectory of a space rocket, is absolutely inapplicable to phenomena at the subatomic and cosmological levels. Theories are seldom infinitely extendible. (Denton, pp. 88, 92)
Dawkins' third question to which he gave an affirmative response—"Is there a continuous series of Xs connecting the modern human eye to a state with no eye at all"—is also mired in the problem of extrapolation. The reasonableness of Dawkins' answer will depend on whether Dawkins can deal with the complexities of extrapolation and provide a reasonable argument for the legitimacy for extrapolation in this case. Dawkins fails to offer any such argument in BW so the reader is left to wonder about the cogency of Dawkins' affirmation of 3.[4]
Since I find question 4. to be beyond my scientific background I do not feel equipped to adequately evaluate Dawkins' answer. I instead move to question 5. which I find much more important to Dawkins' overall argument.[5]
Question 5., it will be remembered, concerned the issue of whether each X in the series of eye to no eye would have worked well enough to assist the survival and reproduction of the animals concerned. Dawkins answered "yes" but had to argue for his answer against those who say "no." There are those who argue that certain organs or systems, like the eye, are too complex to have developed in a gradualistic manner. Dawkins' assessment is that "(t)his is often just another case of the rather pathetic 'Argument from Personal Credulity'" (BW, p. 86). Dawkins takes up one such argument offered by someone critical of neo-Darwinian evolution.
The book (Hitching, p. 82) goes on to quote Stephen Jay Gould, the noted Harvard palaeontologist, as saying:
"We avoid the excellent question, What good is 5 percent of an eye? by arguing that the possessor of such an incipient structure did not use it for sight?
An ancient animal with 5 per cent of an eye might indeed have used it for something other than sight, but it seems to me as least as likely that it used it for 5 per cent vision. And actually I don't think it is an excellent question. Vision that is 5 per cent as good as yours or mine is very much worth having in comparison with no vision at all. So is 1 per cent vision better than total blindness. And 6 per cent is better than 5, 7 per cent than 6, and so on up the gradual, continuous series. (BW, p. 81)
The above is essentially Dawkins' argument for an affirmative answer to question 5. The argument is utterly fallacious and trades upon an equivocation of the eye itself and the process of vision. Phillip Johnson appropriately responds to Dawkins when he writes:
The fallacy in that argument is that "5 per cent of an eye" is not the same thing as "5 per cent of normal vision." For an animal to have any useful vision at all, many complex parts must be working together. Even a complete eye is useless unless it belongs to a creature with the mental and neural capacity to make use of the information by doing something that furthers survival or reproduction. What we have to imagine is a chance mutation that provides this complex capacity all at once, at a level of utility sufficient to give the creature an advantage in producing offspring. (Johnson, pp. 34-35)[6]
Dawkins' confusion on this point renders his argument useless and question 5., including Dawkins' affirmative answer, is therefore devoid of support.
Although failing to recognize the problem of extrapolation and engaging in fallacious reasoning, Dawkins states that:
It is thoroughly believable that every organ or apparatus that we actually see is the product of a smooth trajectory through animal space, a trajectory in which every intermediate stage assisted survival and reproduction. (BW, pp. 90-91)
Dawkins then quotes Charles Darwin from The Origin of Species where Darwin issues the following challenge:
If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. (BW, p. 91)
Dawkins goes on to add his approval:
One hundred and twenty five years on, we know a lot more about animals and plants than Darwin did, and still not a single case is known to me of a complex organ that could not have been formed by numerous successive slight modifications. I do not believe that such a case will ever be found. (BW, p. 91)
But what of those scientists who do not share Dawkins' faith in the power of gradualistic, step-by-step evolution? Michael Denton, for example, in chapter nine of his work Evolution: A Theory in Crisis speaks of the amazing complexity of the flight feather of birds. As he states, "The flight feather of a bird is one of the most beautiful and well known of all biological adaptations" (Denton, p. 202). Another such complexity is the avian lung. The avian lung is distinct from all other vertebrate lungs—"the structure of the lungs in birds and the overall functioning of the respiratory system is quite unique. No lung in any other vertebrate species is known which in any way approaches the avian system" (Denton, p. 211). Denton remarks,
Just how such an utterly different respiratory system could have evolved gradually from the standard vertebrate design is fantastically difficult to envisage, especially bearing in mind that the maintenance of respiratory function is absolutely vital to the life of an organism to the extent that the slightest malfunction leads to death within minutes. (Denton, pp. 211-212)
Denton thus concludes, in direct opposition to Dawkins, that "the avian lung and the feather bring us very close to answering Darwin's challenge" (Denton, p. 213). Denton goes on to list other avian features which "defy plausible explanation in gradualistic terms": the design of the heart and cardiovascular system, the gastrointestinal system, and the unique sounding producing organ, the syrinx (Denton, 213).
Why the divergence of opinion between Dawkins and Denton? Why, after looking at the same evidence—the raw data of birds and other organisms—do these scientists come to such contrary conclusions? It is my contention that Dawkins' control belief of atheistic naturalism will not allow him to find data contrary to his worldview. Gradualistic, step-by-step evolution must have happened for the simple reason that alternatives invoking the supernatural are not acceptable to Dawkins. J. Kerby Anderson and Harold Coffin comment on this concept in relation to paleontology. They write in their book Fossils in Focus:
In the face of this evidence, why is it that a majority of the scientific community has been unwilling to consider the creation model? The answer may lie in the presuppositions of the observers rather than in the facts that are available. Many paleontologists feel that it is scientifically required that they continue to work within the confines of the evolutionary model rather than to consider alternative models. (Anderson and Coffin, pp. 79-80)
Dawkins' faith in the continuous series of Xs leading from a state of no eye to the human eye is not a belief empirically shown to be the case. Rather, it is a story (albeit, perhaps a true one) that allows him to explain complexity in light of his naturalistic assumptions. When Dawkins states,
It is thoroughly believable that every organ or apparatus that we actually see is the product of a smooth trajectory through animal space… I have no trouble at all in accepting that these statements are true of eyes, ears, including bat ears, wings, camouflaged and mimicking insects, snake jaws, stings, cuckoo habits… (BW, pp. 90-91—emphasis added)
he is merely telling the reader that he, Richard Dawkins, believes and has great faith in gradualistic, step-by-step processes. This tells us more about Dawkins' imaginative ability than it does about the actual evidence involved for substantiating his claims. This same device was used by Darwin and Michael Denton takes him to task for it.
In effect, what Darwin is saying, and what many subsequent evolutionists have echoed, is that though we cannot imagine exactly how the gaps were bridged in any particular case this is merely because our imagination is relatively crude alongside the ingenuity of nature. Thus the problem of providing detailed reconstructions of credible sequences of transitional forms is avoided and we are asked instead to wonder at the bountiful creativity of nature. But rather than convince, this strategy only tends to emphasize the fundamental inability of evolutionary theorists to confront the problem of the gaps. Further, this sort of argument smacks of tautology. Of course, if gradual evolution is true then the gaps must have been closed gradually even if we can't imagine how it occurred! (Denton, pp. 227-228)
As one reviewer, turning Dawkins' words against him, argues, this is merely the "Argument from Personal Credulity" (Watson, p. 201). Dawkins has imbibed deeply from the wells of naturalism and obviously feels that strong statements from Oxford scientists will effectively replace empirical data.
This lack of data is most clearly seen in his treatment of bat echolocation in chapter two. He spends a great deal of time explaining the complexity of bat echolocation in order to demonstrate the need for an explanation for complexity. Dawkins feels that "the hypothesis that can explain bat navigation is a good candidate for explaining anything in the world of life (BW, p. 37). Dawkins' hypothesis is, of course, gradualistic natural selection. It is at this point that reviewer Paul Nelson critiques Dawkins:
Now here Dawkins does a rather odd thing. One might expect that while the reader's mind is full of the wonders of bat echolocation, Dawkins would demonstrate what he elsewhere calls the "power" of Darwinism "to explain prodigies of apparent miracle (p. 318), and show how the system of echolocation arose gradually in bats. But he doesn't. Instead he lampoons an easy target, an Anglican bishop, and then presents a surprisingly poor argument based on the breeding of dogs. (Nelson, p. 10)
Dawkins never raises the actual empirical data to confirm or falsify his hypothesis.[7]
Yet another example of Dawkins' lack of using empirical evidence occurs in chapter seven—"Constructive Evolution." It is Dawkins' desire to demonstrate in this chapter that natural selection is a constructive force and not merely destructive.[8] The analogy used is that of an "arms race" between cheetahs and gazelles in which each generation gets progressively faster and faster due to the competition relationship between them. But Dawkins himself repeatedly admits the lack of empirical data to support such a claim.
We are unlikely to witness arms races in dynamic progress, because they are unlikely to be running at any particular 'moment' of geological time, such as our time.
Progressive 'improvement' of the kind suggested by the arms race image does go on… even if its net rate of progress is too slow to be detected within the lifetime of a man, or even the timespan of recorded history.
In the case of a biological arms race, on the other hand, we can usually see only the end-products. (BW, pp. 192, 181, 188)
The arms race story is intriguing but "how much more convincing the theory would be if fossils had ever been found of a slow cheetah or a slow gazelle" (Watson, p. 202). I am inclined to agree that arms races may have occurred but once again justification for the extrapolation from this analogy to the real world is needed. It is one thing to claim that cheetahs and gazelles became progressively faster and quite another to say that the major morphological gaps (i.e., the avian lung from a reptilian ancestor) could be bridged in the same way. Once again, the empirical evidence is not dealt with but, instead, glossed over by the use of an analogy.[9]
This use of analogy in place of evidence has not gone unnoticed even by friendly reviewers. Jon Marks is one such reviewer; he writes of BW:
The prose is extraordinary, especially from a scientist. As in his previous books, Dawkins shows himself to be a master of the seductive metaphor… And consequently, one may need to step back periodically from Dawkins' engaging style to recognize that there is precious little substance to The Blind Watchmaker. The work abounds with wonderfully clever expositions, turn of phrases…, plausible scenarios and captivating analogies. But at the bottom line The Blind Watchmaker discusses at great length what biological evolution is like, not what biological evolution is. While this is a very useful literary and pedagogical device, it is simply that—a device. I venture to say that Dawkins is without peer as an illustrator-by-analogy,… all of which is interesting and appealing, as long as you do not think too hard about it. (Marks, p. 517—emphasis added)
Why this reliance on analogies and stories to the exclusion of empirical evidence? If, as Dawkins claims, "Cumulative selection, by slow and gradual degrees, is the explanation, the only workable explanation that has even been proposed, for the existence of life's complex design" (BW, p. 317). Why doesn't he show the reader the necessary empirical data for such a claim? As stated before, I believe it is because of Dawkins' control belief of atheistic naturalism that causes him to take the case for neo-Darwinian evolution as the sole force in creating all of life as unproblematic. Dawkins appears to feel that all is needed to defend his case are plausible stories and analogies instead of a perusal of the empirical data supporting his claims. Robert Nisbet convincingly writes,
Although science is commonly defined as the search for knowledge by observation and experimentation, it should be noted that evolution for most scientists is usually accepted as a fact not on the basis of data, but rather on the basis of the naturalistic presupposition. (Nisbet, p. 1)
It is in the light of atheistic, naturalistic evolution that Dawkins sees all of reality. Any evidence offered must be construed in light of this fundamental presupposition. Of course, Dawkins will see confirming "evidence" for his beliefs all around him. "Once we have become convinced by our theory, for whatever reason, artifacts of that belief are bound to emerge, for we see the world in the context of our belief" (Brady, p. 91). For Dawkins the Darwinian worldview—including atheism for Dawkins—doesn't just happen to be true but has to be true (BW, p. x). Although not specifically dealing with Dawkins' BW, R. H. Brady's remark is very appropriate:
The theory is unbeatable because it is allowed to interpret our observations while they are being made or being recorded. Once this has been done, it is only logical that the data so collected cannot be used to question the interpretation, being a product of it. (Brady, p. 92)
This can been seen in the way Dawkins deals with empirical data that has the appearance of running counter to his theory. One such instance is the problem in the fossil record during the Cambrian period in which "we find most of the major invertebrate groups. And we find many of them already in an advanced state of evolution, the very first time they appear. It is as though they were just planted there, without any evolutionary history" (BW, p. 229). In an effort to bring this data into conformity with his control belief of neo-Darwinism Dawkins once again resorts to storytelling. But even Dawkins recognizes that, "If you are a creationist you may think that this is special pleading" (BW, p. 230).
Thus, one comes again to the question of whether Dawkins succeeds in his defense of the neo-Darwinian worldview. If success is measured by an appeal to empirical evidence within the framework of a plausible, non-problematic theory then the answer must be a decisive "no." As has been shown over and over again, Dawkins fails to adduce the necessary evidence and, furthermore, fails to deal with such often used but yet problematic notions like extrapolation in the biological realm. One is again reminded of the words of Charles Lumsden cited earlier: "The informed will read and have their views reaffirmed by the clear arguments. Skeptics will read and remain unmoved. In part, the division is not one of stupidity, but of faith" (Lumsden, p. 500—emphasis added). Dawkins' faith is that of atheistic naturalism and it is this faith which he is most zealous to defend. But, as Carl F. H. Henry states, "The plain fact is, however, that naturalism is not a demand of reason but reflects an arbitrary conceptualization of reality" (Henry, p. 148). Dawkins' atheistic naturalism is not demanded by the scientific evidence available in the world. Rather, it is the beginning point for Dawkins from which he launches his neo-Darwinian research program. For those, like this writer, who do not do obeisance at the altar of atheism Dawkins remains unpersuasive. My feeling is captured by the words of Tom Pittman in his review of BW:
I think we can conclude that The Watchmaker is not blind; the biologist looking over His shoulder is blind. (Pittman, p. 11)
Dawkins in BW doesn't have much to say about God as Creator except to argue that natural selection rules out the need for such a Being. There are, however, a few remarks that deserve special attention. On page 92, after discussing what he feels is one "telling imperfection" that lends support to evolution, Dawkins states:
The whole skull of a bony flatfish retains the twisted and distorted evidence of its origins. Its very imperfection is powerful testimony of its ancient history, a history of step-by-step change rather than of deliberate design. No sensible designer would have conceived such a monstrosity if given a free hand to create a flatfish on a clean drawing board. (Emphasis added)
Dawkins also points to "imperfections" in the eye as evidence against a designer and writes, "it is the principle of the thing that would offend any tidy-minded engineer!" (BW, p. 93)
It appears that Dawkins' argument essentially reduces down to the following: "Since that is not the way I would have designed a bony flatfish or eye there must therefore be no God who is a creative designer." As an argument this lacks any cogency nor it is even intuitively appealing. Perhaps, just perhaps, it is the case that the designer has reasons unknown to Dawkins as to why the bony flatfish and the eye are the way they appear in nature. If a designer exists must he let Dawkins in on every move he makes? When Dawkins considers problems for his theory he comments, "Even if the foremost authority in the world can't explain some remarkable biological phenomena, this doesn't mean that it is inexplicable" (BW, 39). Well, if such a "saving" ploy is allowable for Dawkins then the believer in a creative designer is just as justified in using the same argument within the confines of his worldview. Just because one doesn't know why a given phenomenon is the way it is, it does not therefore follow that there is no answer to the "why" question. Of course, within a theistic framework the answer may only be known by the Creator himself but this would not necessitate the end of rational, scientific inquiry. The main point is that Dawkins' argument can be answered utilizing principles he is willing to accept when he confronts problems for his position. It would therefore be hypocritical of him to disallow the theist to use the same principles within the confines of his worldview. Perhaps Dawkins should spend less time contemplating the mind of God in the name of science. Phillip Johnson's words urge a corrective to Dawkins' ways:
The task of science is not to speculate about why God might have done things this way, but to see if a material cause can be established by empirical investigation. If evolutionary biology is to be a science rather than a branch of philosophy, its theorists have to be willing to ask the scientific question: How can Darwin's hypothesis of descent with modification be confirmed or falsified? (Johnson, p. 71)
Does Dawkins have an answer as to why the bony flatfish and the eye are the way they are? He bluntly states: "I don't know the exact explanation for this strange state of affairs" (BW, p. 93). It would appear that both Dawkins and the one who postulates a designer are in the same boat. Thus, it is not the empirical evidence that of necessity militates against a designer but Dawkins' faith in naturalism.
Dawkins feels confident in disposing of God and the concept of creation by the use of a philosophical argument. Dawkins refers to those who "smuggle God in the back door: they allow him some sort of supervisory role over the course that evolution has taken" (BW, p. 316). Earlier Dawkins referred to this concept as a "transparently feeble argument, indeed it is obviously self-defeating" (BW, p. 141). Dawkins argues as follows:
But of course any God capable of intelligently designing something as complex as the DNA/protein replicating machine must have been at least as complex and organized as that machine itself… To explain the origin of the DNA/protein machine by invoking a supernatural Designer is to explain precisely nothing, for it leaves unexplained the origin of the Designer. You have to say something like 'God was always there,' and if you allow yourself that kind of lazy way out, you might as well just say 'DNA was always there,' or 'Life was always there,' and be done with it. (BW, p. 141)
In the last chapter of BW Dawkins thus concludes that creationists "assume the existence of the main thing we want to explain, namely organized complexity" (BW, p. 316).
Paul Nelson, in his review of BW, masterfully answers Dawkins at this point and deserves to be quoted in full.
This is an interesting argument. However, it trades on an equivocation, and hence is fallacious.
Let me illustrate the fallacy. Suppose a biologist and some students are walking through a field, and they come upon a stream dammed by branches and debris. The students ask the biologist to tell who, or what, made the dam. A number of possible explanations exist: the branches which form the dam might have accumulated randomly by the action of water; humans might have assembled the dam; or, perhaps, some beavers did the work. After studying the dam and its surroundings, the biologist concludes on the basis of the available evidence that it was built by beavers.
But on hearing his explanation, the students laugh. "That's silly," they object, "you've just explained one organized complexity—the dam there—by postulating another organized complexity—some beavers. If you're going to take that lazy way out, you might as well say the dam has always been there!"
The problem should be obvious. "Organized complexity" is not of a kind. The dam is an instance of organized complexity, as are the beavers, but they're hardly the same thing. In charging creationists with circularity, Dawkins trades on this equivocation of "organized complexity." To be sure, a Designer is in some sense "organized complexity." However, when offering an explanation for the origin of life, creationists are not obligated to explain the origin of the Designer. That wasn't the question. (Nelson, p. 16)
Dawkins also claims that to posit a designer is "superfluous" since natural selection can go it alone. Two points can be raised in response to this objection: 1. It could only be superfluous if the case for natural selection as the mechanism for major morphological change can be sustained. As the body of this paper argued, Dawkins fails to do this in BW. 2. Even if natural selection is the all-powerful process Dawkins claims it is, a designer is still not necessarily superfluous. One may have a worldview in which factors other than scientific ones (i.e., historical, philosophical, revelational) constrain one to posit a God who is the Designer and Creator. Science, as a limited methodology, cannot rule out the existence of God. But, as Howard J. Van Till points, "the temptation to make metaphysical assertions as if they were the logical deductions from scientific discoveries is a strong temptation that is not easily avoided" (Van Till, et al, p. 139).
Part and parcel of Dawkins' atheistic worldview is the corollary control belief of scientism—the belief that science and science alone is the sole consideration in the formulation of a worldview. Only if scientism is true can Dawkins' "superfluous" objection carry any weight. But scientism is a metaphysical belief system, just as much as theism, and is not proven to be true by scientific evidence. It is a faith commitment with which one approaches the scientific data. Why should one think that scientism is true? Philosopher J. P. Moreland speaks of the proper nature of worldview assessment and science's place in such a process when he writes:
The rationality of a worldview is a multifaceted affair, involving scientific, historical, and philosophical considerations. It is difficult to see why science should be singled out for the role of dictator in world view assessment, since world views are broad paradigms which must take into account all the facets of life… Science is an important part of world view assessment, but it is only one part. The rationality of accepting any scientific hypothesis involves bringing rationally justified external conceptual problems to bear on that hypothesis, even if those problems do not come from science. (Moreland, p. 204)
I reject scientism and atheism—for what, I believe, are cogent and rational reasons—and therefore find Dawkins' arguments for the superfluity of God horribly unconvincing. Perhaps Dawkins is willing to argue for his faith in scientism and atheism but to do so is to engage in matters philosophical. If Dawkins desires to argue in such a manner he must give up the pretense of speaking from a scientifically empirical minded position and earn his keep like all others who engage in the philosophical discipline by justifying his control beliefs.[10]
· Thanks to Andy, Gary, Nathan, Paul, and Sean for their questions and comments on a draft of this paper presented 11/21/91 at the University of Arizona philosophy club.
Anderson, J. Kerby and Harold G. Coffin. Fossils in Focus. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1977.
Brady, R. H. "Dogma and Doubt" Biological Journal of the Linnean Society (17) 1982.
Cairns-Smith, A. G. Seven Clues to the Origin of Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
Dawkins, Richard. The Blind Watchmaker. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1986.
Denton, Michael. Evolution: A Theory in Crisis. Maryland: Adler and Adler, 1985.
Dose, Klause. "Review of Clay Minerals and the Origin of Life" Bio Systems vol. 22, no. 1,
Frame, John. The Doctrine of the Knowledge of the God. Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and
Reformed, 1987.
Henry, Carl F. H. God, Revelation, and Authority—vol one. Dallas: Word, 1976.
Hitching, Francis. The Neck of the Giraffe: Darwin, Evolution, and the New Biology. New York:
Mentor, 1982.
Hull, David. "Review of The Blind Watchmaker" The Quarterly Review of Biology vol. 62,
September 1987.
Johnson, Phillip. Darwin on Trial. Washington D. C.: Regnery Gateway, 1991.
Joyce, Gerald F. "RNA Evolution and the Origin of Life" Nature vol. 338, March 1989.
Lester, Lane P. and Raymond Bohlin. The Natural Limits to Biological Change. Dallas: Word,
Lumsden, Charles. "Ye Olde (Neo-) Darwinism, Once Again: a review of The Blind
Watchmaker" Biology and Philosophy (4) 1989.
Marks, Jon. "Review of The Blind Watchmaker" Journal of Human Evolution vol. 15, no. 6,
Moreland, J. P. Scaling the Secular City. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.
Nelson, Paul. "The Hopeless Watchmaker: A Skeptical Look at Dawkins and Darwinism"
Origins Research vol. 11, no. 2, 1988.
Nisbet, Robert A. "A Presuppositional Approach to the Four View Model of Biological
Origins" Origins Research vol. 11, no. 2, 1988.
Pitman, Michael. Adam and Evolution: A Scientific Critique of Neo-Darwinism. Grand
Rapids: Baker, 1984.
Pittman, Tom. "Another Look at The Blind Watchmaker" Origins Research vol. 12, no. 1,
Ratzsch, Del. Philosophy of Science: The Natural Sciences in Christian Perspective. Downers
Grove: Intervarsity Press, 1986.
Van Till, Howard J., Davis A. Young, and Clarence Menninga. Science Held Hostage: What's
Wrong with Creation Science AND Evolutionism. Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 1988.
Watson, David, C. C. "Review of The Blind Watchmaker" Creation Research Society Quarterly
vol. 24, March 1988.
Wolterstorff, Nicholas. Reason Within the Bounds of Religion—2nd ed. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1984.
Yockey, Hubert P. "Self Organization Origin of Life Scenarios and Information Theory"
Journal of Theoretical Biology vol. 91, 1981.
[1] Closely akin to control beliefs is the concept of "presuppositions" as defined by John Frame: "A presupposition is a belief that takes precedence over another and therefore serves as a criterion for another. An ultimate presupposition is a belief over which no other takes precedence" (Frame, p. 45). It is in the sense of "ultimate presupposition" that I use the phrase "control beliefs" in this paper.
[2] The issue of whether empirical data can overthrow one's control beliefs is important and should be briefly commented upon. The way I am using control beliefs, namely as ultimate presuppositions, necessitates that empirical data cannot overthrow one's control beliefs. The reason for this is that one's ultimate presupposition is not merely an arbitrarily chosen paradigm but, rather, one's primal orientation in life. All of reality—including empirical data—is thus viewed in terms of these fundamental presuppositions. The ultimate presupposition, therefore, has primacy over the evidential data. Although I cannot argue for it here, my position is that of Reformed Christian theism wherein there are but two fundamental, ultimate presuppositions—either commitment to or revolt against the living God who is revealed in the Bible. Whether one is a "friend" or "enemy" of God will affect all of one's subsequent noetic activities. See Frame, pp. 40-164 for more details.
[3] I do not wish to commit the genetic fallacy of faulting Dawkins' arguments simply because they have their genesis in a worldview I find untenable. Rather the argument of this paper is that Dawkins doesn't supply the reader with empirical evidence but, rather, that he relies on analogies and stories to argue for his position. Furthermore, the analogies and stories only convince those already committed to Dawkins' view of neo-Darwinian evolution.
[4] If Dawkins' question 3. is taken to mean, "Do we observe in the evidence available a continuous series from no eye to human eye?" then the answer is, of course, no. I am well aware that neo-Darwinians point to "living intermediates" such as single celled organisms with a light sensitive spot and certain worms with the light sensitive spot in a cup (see BW, p. 85 and Hitching, pp. 77-79) but the problem with this argument is that "(n)one of these different types of eyes are thought to have evolved from any of the others, however, because they involve different types of structures rather than a series of similar structures growing in complexity" (Johnson, p. 35). This leads Michael Pitman to comment that "a list of eyes from various animals, not necessarily related, no more demonstrates evolution than a carefully ordered range of lamps" (Pitman, p. 216).
[5] As an aside it should be noted that there are mechanisms of stasis which might have great bearing on Dawkins' answer to question 4. as well as Dawkins' whole general argument. See Michael Thomas, "Stasis Considered" Origins Research vol. 12, no. 2, 1989.
[6] Some neo-Darwinians would argue that Johnson's assertion is false if we construe "vision" as including being light sensitive such as found in some single celled organisms. There is, perhaps, some truth to their objection. If "vision" is construed as being light sensitive then "many complex parts" may not have to be working together. There is, of course, the difficulty of defining with precision "many complex parts" and "working together." Be that as it may, Johnson still pointedly demonstrates a grave flaw in Dawkins' reasoning, namely that there is not a one-to-one correspondence between "5 per cent of an eye" and "5 per cent normal vision." This point, in and of itself, serves to dismantle Dawkins' argument.
My guess is that when Johnson wrote, "For an animal to have any useful vision at all, many complex parts must be working together" he had in mind "higher" animals such as humans. This seems reasonable in view of the fact that he is responding to Dawkins' argument and Dawkins' example was that of the human eye. For the human eye, Johnson's remark is most certainly correct.
The remarks of biologists Lane Lester and Raymond Bohlin are also important to note in this context:
It certainly seems unreasonable to propose that the eye developed slowly by chance mistakes to its present complexity of nerves, cones, rods, lens, pupil, retina, etc. If the eye is not capable of providing a picture that successfully aids in survival, of what good is it? If all the parts are not in sufficient working order, it is of no use to the organism. The more we learn of the eye, the more we appreciate Darwin's fear. Darwin's only suggestion, which remains today, is to observe the many types of eyes found in lower creatures, from light sensitive structures on some single-celled organisms to the compound eye of insects, to the focusing, color-receiving human eye. This is satisfactory to most Neo-Darwinians, but does it actually solve the problem? All that this technically demonstrates is that there are various organisms that possess light sensitivity in nature. Each contains its own complexities and unique properties. No true historical series has ever been proposed for the evolution of the human eye. Darwin's solution may only add new examples to the list of complex adaptations waiting to be explained. (Lester and Bohlin, pp. 97-98)
[7] Two pieces of information, although, are curiously left out by Dawkins:
(1) The oldest bat-fossil skeleton is exactly the same as a modern bat's, bone for bone; (2) All bats have their pelvis twisted 180o from that of ground mammals, and no fossil every discovered shows any sign of a 900 or any other degree of twist. What happened to all the intermediates? The question is not even raised. (Watson, p. 202)
[8] Cf. "The Paradox of Natural Selection" by Arthur LaGrange Batson III in Origins Research vol. 9, no. 2, 1986 and subsequent discussion in Origins Research vol. 10, no. 2, 1987.
[9] Quick mention should be made of chapter six of BW—"Origins and Miracles"—where Dawkins utilizes the theory of A. G. Cairns-Smith in Seven Clues to the Origin of Life as a possible answer to the mystery of the origin of life. This chapter appeared to me to be one long "story" devoid of any real empirical data. Cairns-Smith's theory, although provocative, is, as of yet, still lacking in experimental evidence. Klause Dose, in a review of Cairns-Smith's theory, stated the following:
Cairns-Smith's thesis of 'genetic takeover and the mineral origins of life' is as yet without experimental basis… This thesis is beyond comprehension of all biochemists who are daily confronted with the experimental facts of life. (Dose, p. 89)
Gerald Joyce also cautions that "enthusiasm has to be tempered until there is experimental evidence" (Joyce, p. 217). The words of Hubert Yockey are perhaps the wisest concerning origin of life scenarios:
Since science has not the vaguest idea how life originated on earth… it would be honest to admit this to students, the agencies funding research, and the public. Leaders in science, speaking ex cathedra, should stop polarizing the minds of students for which faith is the only evidence. Research on the origin of life is legitimate and it would be much better off if the effort absorbed by defending scenarios which cannot meet the most elementary criteria for a scientific contribution were directed in a search for new knowledge. It is new knowledge not another clever scenario that is needed to achieve an understanding of the origin of life. (Yockey, p. 29)
Thursday, March 16, 2017
Is the Qur'an Sufficient?
I've been reading Nabeel Qureshi's book No God But One: A Former Muslim Investigates the Evidence for Islam and Christianity (Zondervan, 2016). The book is very good on a number of topics. Scattered throughout the work are comments on how Muslims approach the Qur'an. This is instructive since it is easy to fall prey to the idea that since Muslim's have a holy book therefore they treat it the same as Christians do their holy Scriptures. Evangelical Christians have spoken of various attributes of the Bible as Scripture. For example, Wayne Grudem in his Systematic Theology (Zondervan, 1994) speaks of four characteristics of Scripture:
1. Necessity: The necessity of Scripture means that the Bible is necessary for knowing the gospel, for maintaining spiritual life, and for knowing God's will, but it is not necessary for knowing that God exists or for knowing something about God's character and moral law. (p. 116)
2. Authority: The authority of Scripture means that all the words in Scripture are God's words in such a way that to disbelieve or disobey any word of Scripture is to disbelieve or disobey God. (p. 73)
3. Sufficiency: The sufficiency of Scripture means that Scripture contained all the words of God he intended his people to have at each stage of redemptive history, and that it now contains all the words of God we need for salvation, for trusting him perfectly, and for obeying him perfectly. (p. 127)
4. Perspicuity/Clarity: The clarity of Scripture means that the Bible is written in such a way that its teachings are able to be understood by all who will read it seeking God's help and being willing to follow it. (p. 108)[1]
In contradistinction to these concepts within evangelical Christianity, Quereshi brings out the difference within Islam. Within Islamic teaching regarding the Qur'an there is the doctrine of abrogation. Qureshi writes:
"Grasping the orality of the Quran helps with understanding the controversial phenomenon of abrogation. While Muhammad was still alive, he would give recitations that cancelled previous ones. In other words, he would tell his followers that certain portions of the Quran he had relayed before were no longer to be recited as part of the Quran. This was met with resistance, as people asked him how the Word of God could be cancelled. The response is recorded in 2.106 of the Quran, which asserts that Allah can substitute verses in his divine scripture because 'he has power over all things.'
Qureshi goes on to note how this doctrine of abrogation comes to negate the sufficiency of the Quran:
"Not all abrogated verses were left out of the text of the Quran, though Muslim scholars have classically taught that there are multiple types of abrogation, including abrogation of text-not-law and abrogation of law-not-text. In other words, they teach that Allah intended certain verses to be recited but not practiced, and other verses to be practiced but not recited. For these reasons, Muslim scholars turn to the records of Muhammad's life, the hadith, for clarification. In addition, as we have already seen, more Islamic practices actually come from hadith and not from the Quran.
"This is why Muslims do not believe the Quran is sufficient for Islamic practice, but it requires authoritative hadith. Very few Muslims believe in the sufficiency of the Quran, and these 'Quran only' Muslims are often deemed heretical by mainstream Muslims." (pp. 109-110—bold-face added)
In a later discussion of the issue of putting apostates to death Qureshi returns to these concepts:
"Some Muslims point out that the Quran does not command the killing of the apostates, and arguably they are correct. But Islam is not a sola scriptura faith; it has always used hadith to supplement the Quran. Anyone who prays the five daily prayers would have to admit this, because not only are the words for the prayers not given in the Quran, even the number of daily prayers is not mentioned. The Quran mentions only three daily prayers, and it does not delineate the words or postures for any of them. Although there are legitimate 'Quran-only' Muslims, they have always been an extreme minority in Islam. Most Muslims who argue against the law of apostasy using a Quran-only approach are using reasoning that would radically alter their Islamic practice if applied consistently.
"Alone similar lines, some peaceful Muslims argue against the law of apostasy based on Quranic verses such as 2.256, which says, 'There is no compulsion in religion.' In order to say this, though, they are also disavowing Muhammad's example. Muhammad did not interpret that verse in that manner, as his actions in hadith repeatedly show. That is why, classically, Muslim theologians have listed 2.256 among the abrogated verses we discussed in the previous chapter. Ibn Kathir, for example, says 2.256 was abrogated by 9.29, which tells Muslims to fight Jews and Christians. Popular Muslim scholars have vociferously defended these traditional interpretations throughout the twentieth century." (p. 136—bold-face added)
In light of Qureshi's discussion it does appear that the traditional Islamic view of the Quran does not include a notion of sufficiency. Morevover, the vast amount of material from hadith literature that needs to be considered for a right interpretation of the Quran it appears that the concept of perspicuity is also severely compromised.[2]
[1] Grudem uses the language of "clarity" in his Systematic Theology but I like the older term "perspicuity." Grudem himself uses the older term in a 2009 presentation "The Perspicuity of Scripture." Available online: http://www.waynegrudem.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Perspicuity-of-Scripture-for-Themelios-Word-97-3.pdf.
[2] The words of James White are appropriate as well: "A careful and fair comparison of the literature of biblical exegesis produced by believing Christian scholarship with that of believing Islamic scholarship is striking. The intricate, complex studies found among Muslims in the hadith sciences is the closest parallel to the in-depth, original-language-based exegesis of the New Testament among Christians. The Muslim battleground of debate on these issues is focused upon Islamic tradition, while for believing Christians it is focused upon the text of Scripture itself." What Every Christian Needs to Know About the Qur'an (Bethany House, 2013), 163.
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Libra Ox
The Ox is renowned for his strong will, determination and endurance and placid and patient nature. In Chinese Astrology these steady character traits are believed to be transferred to those individuals born in the Year of the Ox. These personality characteristics do not seem to have much effect in the case of the Libra from Western Astrology. Their immense fairness and flexibility appears to stamp out the majority of the Ox's rigidness. The Libran Ox personality still retains this animal's calm, mild patience and it sits nicely with their fair and balanced emotions.
Libra Ox Traits
A Libra Ox is usually very affable and quite understanding of the feelings of others, they can get along with most people. Their friendliness, reliability and consideration makes them great friends to have. These Libran's will be extremely loyal to friends and will always act in their defense if they are being criticized. The Libran Ox likes standing up for others but is not so keen on protesting on their own behalf. They are sometimes a little too tolerant for their own good and may take on more than they can comfortably handle. These personalities seem to need more sleep than others and can be sometimes caught cat napping.
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Once a Libran Ox commits to a partner they will not have done it lightly and will take it very seriously. They tend to shy away from responsibility in their youth and avoid commitments of any kind. However when they connect with their ideal mate their perceptive instincts will wake them up a bit from their dreaminess. The Libra Ox usually believes in some sort of destiny for the meeting of partners and will let their intuition guide them. If something feels right they will relax and let it happen. These personalities tend to use their intuitive emotions rather as lot and especially within long standing relationships.
As the Libra Ox is so amiable and approachable that this can be a weakness as well as an asset to their personality. Their natural niceness is sometimes taken advantage of by others as the Libran Ox finds it hard to say No. In fact they hardly ever answer in a negative manner. This weakness of not standing up for themselves is quite often a little difficult to override. These Libran's will be inclined to benefit from a few lessons in asserting themselves better and learning to offer negative responses more frequently.
Libra Ox Compatibility (Love & Friendship)
Though Libra Ox are not the most outgoing people, they are genuine and trustworthy friends who are always there for those who need them. They earn respect from other people by being honest and sincere, thoughtful and warm-hearted. Because they hold themselves to high standards, they can be highly judgmental of others. Too often they fail to see the reasons why other people do what they do and don't respect the choices of those who choose to take the easy way out. Libra Ox have a short list of people who they truly, deeply love and respect, and to them love and respect are not separate concepts, but one in the same.
Love will play a major role in the lives of Libra Ox. As hard core romantics, members of this sign are very idealistic about love and can be overly cautious or hold unrealistic expectations with relationships. Romance is important, and this sign often gives of themselves deeply and freely in love with the expectation that this generosity and passion will be returned. This aspect of their personality speaks to the importance of fairness and balance in their relationships, but it can also get a bit out of control. Libra Ox can grow to become codependent on partnerships, using romantic partners as a sort of "mirror" to give their love out and accept it back. A major life lesson for Libra Ox is to learn that all they need comes from inside their very capable and loving selves.
Libra Ox Business (Career & Goals)
Since most members of this sign won't end up winning the lottery, they must find some way to earn a living. Libran Ox may be hard workers, but they are also romantic dreamers who want to play a unique role in the world. Ideally this would include helping others better their lives, though the need for personal security can stymie this idealism before it has a chance to grow.
Libra Ox don't mind hard work. How they will express this work depends highly on other aspects in each individual's birth chart, but there are some general themes that exist within anyone born under this sign. Libra Ox are good at business and can play almost any operational role as long as they don't have to be in charge. While they are capable and even inspiring leaders, most Libra Ox would rather have a specialized role than work in general management. Careers have to fit their strengths and are often based on pure intellect or their advanced sense of personal style and taste.
Unsurprisingly, Libra Ox make excellent interior designers, which one look at their own homes will prove. They also make good critics this way, whether they are reviewing food, movies, designs, or even talent competitions. Libra Ox are smart and fair and, for better or worse, are skillful at judging others. Though they prefer a bit of creativity in their work, Libra Ox make very good lawyers and judges. They also make good social workers, police officers, real estate agents, scientists, politicians, gardeners, and financial planners.


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Barge beaches off Manatee for second straight day
(TBO.com) - For the second straight day, a barge that came free from a tugboat in high winds has grounded off Manatee County, the Coast Guard said.
The 140-foot barge drifted in the Gulf of Mexico and ran aground Wednesday morning on Longboat Key, the Coast Guard said.
Personnel from Coast Guard Sector St. Petersburg are overseeing the operation. No pollution has been reported.
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10 Computing tricks and repairs every student should know
Take a look at our list of computer tricks, fixes and shortcuts to rescue the student whose own device is on its last legs.
Take a look at our list of computer tricks, fixes and shortcuts to rescue the student whose own device is on its last legs.
It is the vault within which your precious work is stored, safeguarding the hours of labour spent behind its screen. Sadly, computers are but machines: they can be slow and they can break down, and threaten to take your academic aspirations with them when they do. But there are ways you can minimize this risk. Here are ten handy computer tricks that might just save your academic life.
If something goes wrong the first port of call should be the most obvious: restart the system. When you restart your computer, all the temporary files in the RAM are wiped and the operating system starts anew. If you have a PC and you'd rather not wait for the reboot, click 'Start' then 'Run,' and type '%temp%' into the command line. If the problem persists then perform a system restore to a day or two earlier, when things were working fine.
Computer crashed? No problem: cloud software such as Dropbox or Google Drive stores your data externally so you can access it from any computer or device, anywhere, provided it is connected to the web. Now your only issue is forking out the cash for a new machine.
Working without a mouse needn't be optional. Using keyboard shortcuts helps streamline productivity and reduces need to make that pesky clicking sound. Lists of codes vary from MAC to PC, and can be found readily via a simple Google search.
If your computer is taking too long to start up, don't panic: you probably have too many startup programs running. To turn some of these off, click the 'Windows' key + R on a PC, then type 'misconfig' into the text bar. Select the 'Startup' tab on the window that will appear, and you'll be able to disable the startup programs putting a dent in your time. Make sure you check what you're turning off though: some programs might be needed by other processes essential to your PC's function.
It can be frustrating for MAC users to discover that their software is incompatible with PC systems used in class. You can still run Windows 7 or 8 on a MAC thanks to virtualisation apps such as VMware Fusuion, Parallels Desktop or VirtualBox.
Windows has a hidden folder called 'God mode' that works as a control panel for all of your OS settings. From here you can tweak and manage everything from your desktop background picture to managing your network connections. To find this folder, create a new folder with this name: God Mode.{ED7BA470-8E54-465E-825C-99712043E01C}. The folder icon will change before your very eyes and you'll be awarded complete power over your machine. Note: trying this on Windows Vista 64-bit will cause a reboot loop.
After a hard day of researching, all you can imagine doing is curling up and watching a film. The last thing you need is lagging audio and subtitle tracks. Using media player VLC, press J or K to push audio forwards or backwards. Pressing H or G will sync the subtitles.
For when your MAC simply and inexplicably refuses to complete a perfectly routine function. Open up 'Disk Utility' from the 'Utilities' folder and click 'Repair Disk Permissions.'
This tool automatically records all of your mouse clicks and takes screenshots of your browsing history. On a PC press the 'Windows' key +R, and type 'psr' into the search bar. You can then work to compile relevant information on your browsing history that might help you identify a problem or recover lost trails of thought. If there's a serious problem with your computer then this is the most telling information you can bring to a computing specialist.
Sometimes a PC can be infected without you knowing it. As a result, some programs will refuse to run if they have an '.exe' extension. Changing the name of the file or changing the extension to '.com' can remedy this.
Useful links:
Did you know these tips already? Have you considered studying Computing?
Browse Computing courses abroad
Browse Computing courses in the UK
Monica Karpinski received her BA (Media and Communications) and Diploma in Modern Languages (French) from the University of Melbourne, Australia. An art and culture aficionado, in her spare time Monica enjoys film, reading and writing about art.


text:
WAEC CBT: You Will Soon be Writing WAEC Exam on Computer CBT
Information reaching us suggests that You Will Soon be Writing WAEC Exam on Computer CBT . The registrar of the West African Examination Council (WAEC), Dr Iyi Uwadiae has revealed that the examination body is perfecting plans to adopt the CBT mode in its examinations.
He however stated that the council is not in a hurry as it is considering all variables as not to mess the whole idea up.
"We have looked at the issue of CBT and found that this is not a selection test, where one can deal with paper and pencil.
"With that, you can easily migrate to CBT, but for an achievement test where you train people to become engineers, medical doctors and others, there will be need for practical experience.
"So, they do not just train them practically in the class, they equally need to be tested on theory.
"Against this background, therefore, we are collaborating with other examination bodies and experts outside Nigeria to ensure that when we start, we will not mess up the entire process.
"And what is expected of the candidates can still be achieved", he stressed.
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text:
|Message view
|« Date » · « Thread »
|« Date » · « Thread »
|"Antonio Gallardo" <agalla...@agssa.net>
|Re: Importing libraries from ibiblio
|Fri, 14 Jan 2005 15:38:51 GMT
Hi Sylvain: I had really bad experiences with this repositories. They are often outdated with current releases. ie: few days ago, in the repositories i was not able to find log4j version 1.2.9. I am not sure if now the 1.2.9 is there. I bet is still missing.... Until some charitative soul will take care of that. Is supposed that Apache jars are automatically in the repos, but this is not true currently. The situation is worse with non-apache libraries. An example of the extra works and what means to work with the nice repositores: For util.concurrent 1.3.4, I needed to create a maven bundle and publish it in the web, then create an issue in maven jira. Then subscribe on the maven mail-list and push on the mail list to include it. Mein God! http://firstname.lastname@example.com/msg14465.html All this was done because I wanted to compile and test apache jcs with this util.concurrent version before we released cocoon 2.1.5! (jcs use maven). Currently our update procedure is a lot easier. I am not against having repositories, but this will add extra work if we want to have up to date all our libraries. As we have now. :-D Another problem is with what version are compiled the jars. We need to make sure that for 2.1.x branch they need to run in java 1.3 and 1.4 for 2.2.0 branch. And this is not the case with some jars you find in the repositories. I am not against repositories, I am just let know the pitfalls that I met using them. Best Regards, Antonio Gallardo. On Vie, 14 de Enero de 2005, 4:06, Sylvain Wallez dijo: > Hi all, > > I just found (via TSS) Ivy [1], a BSD-licensed Ant task to download > dependencies from artifact repositories, including the Maven repo at > ibiblio. > > I've already seen a number of Ant extensions that aim to provide this > feature, but that one looked particuarily interesting to me as this is > the first one where dependencies are not describes in the Ant file itself. > > What that means is that we can create the list of jars to download from > our jars.xml or the gump descriptor, and have them automatically > downloaded from the ibiblio repo. Very few modifications on the current > build are needed. > > That could allow to really reduce the size of both our distro and our > SVN repository. > > WDYT? > > Sylvain > > [1] http://www.jayasoft.fr/org/modules/ivy/ > > -- > Sylvain Wallez Anyware Technologies > http://www.apache.org/~sylvain http://www.anyware-tech.com > { XML, Java, Cocoon, OpenSource }*{ Training, Consulting, Projects } >
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text:
News & Events
Released : 01/31/2017
Net Income Increases 39% to $153 Million, Return on Equity of 13.3%
GREENWICH, Conn.--(BUSINESS WIRE)--
W. R. Berkley Corporation (NYSE:WRB) today reported net income
for the fourth quarter of 2016 of $153 million, or $1.20 per share.
Summary Financial Data
(Amounts in thousands, except per share data)
(1) Operating income is a non-GAAP financial measure defined by the
Company as net income excluding after-tax net investment gains and
related expenses.
(2) Return on equity represents net income expressed on an annualized
basis as a percentage of beginning of year stockholders' equity.
Fourth quarter highlights included:
Full year highlights included:
The Company commented:
We were pleased with our fourth quarter and full year returns. Although
our underwriting results were impacted by above-average catastrophe
activity, including Hurricane Matthew and the Tennessee wildfires,
related losses were within our expectation for such events. Our
underlying loss ratio remained stable and investment results were
strong. We continued to find opportunities to form new businesses and to
grow in many areas of the market that deliver attractive combined ratios.
Realized gains were substantial in 2016, including $68 million in the
fourth quarter from another sale in our private equity portfolio. Our
total return strategy is expected to continue to generate significant
yet variable gains that make a meaningful contribution to our long-term
return and shareholder value creation.
The relatively short duration of our high-quality bond portfolio
tempered the impact of rising interest rates, and we reported strong
growth in book value, even after returning a significant amount of
capital to shareholders.
In these challenging and volatile times we continue to work on our goal
of optimizing our risk-adjusted return. Our financial flexibility and
ability to adjust to the underwriting cycle, combined with potential
tailwinds from rising interest rates, regulatory reform and tax changes,
give us confidence that we can deliver outstanding returns in 2017 and
Webcast Conference Call
The Company will hold its quarterly conference call with analysts and
investors to discuss its earnings and other information on January 31,
2017, at 5:00 p.m. eastern time. The conference call will be webcast
live on the Company's website at http://www.wrberkley.com/investor-relations/events-and-presentations.aspx.
Please log on at least ten minutes early to register and download and
install any necessary software. A replay of the webcast will be
available on the Company's website approximately two hours after the end
of the conference call.
About W. R. Berkley Corporation
Founded in 1967, W. R. Berkley Corporation is an insurance holding
company that is among the largest commercial lines writers in the United
States and operates worldwide in two segments of the property casualty
business: Insurance and Reinsurance.
Forward Looking Information
This is a "Safe Harbor" Statement under the Private Securities
Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Any forward-looking statements contained
herein, including statements related to our outlook for the industry and
for our performance for the year 2017 and beyond, are based upon the
Company's historical performance and on current plans, estimates and
expectations. The inclusion of this forward-looking information should
not be regarded as a representation by us or any other person that the
future plans, estimates or expectations contemplated by us will be
achieved. They are subject to various risks and uncertainties, including
but not limited to: the cyclical nature of the property casualty
industry; the impact of significant competition, including new
alternative entrants to the industry; the long-tail and potentially
volatile nature of the insurance and reinsurance business; product
demand and pricing; claims development and the process of estimating
reserves; investment risks, including those of our portfolio of fixed
maturity securities and investments in equity securities, including
investments in financial institutions, municipal bonds, mortgage-backed
securities, loans receivable, investment funds, including real estate,
merger arbitrage, energy related and private equity investments; the
effects of emerging claim and coverage issues; the uncertain nature of
damage theories and loss amounts; natural and man-made catastrophic
losses, including as a result of terrorist activities; general economic
and market activities, including inflation, interest rates, and
volatility in the credit and capital markets; the impact of the
conditions in the financial markets and the global economy, and the
potential effect of legislative, regulatory, accounting or other
initiatives taken in response, on our results and financial condition;
foreign currency and political risks (including those associated with
the United Kingdom's expected withdrawal from the European Union, or
"Brexit") relating to our international operations; our ability to
attract and retain key personnel and qualified employees; continued
availability of capital and financing; the success of our new ventures
or acquisitions and the availability of other opportunities; the
availability of reinsurance; our retention under the Terrorism Risk
Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2015; the ability of our
reinsurers to pay reinsurance recoverables owed to us; other legislative
and regulatory developments, including those related to business
practices in the insurance industry; credit risk related to our
policyholders, independent agents and brokers; changes in the ratings
assigned to us or our insurance company subsidiaries by rating agencies;
the availability of dividends from our insurance company subsidiaries;
potential difficulties with technology and/or data security; the
effectiveness of our controls to ensure compliance with guidelines,
policies and legal and regulatory standards; and other risks detailed
from time to time in the Company's filings with the Securities and
Exchange Commission. These risks and uncertainties could cause our
actual results for the year 2017 and beyond to differ materially from
those expressed in any forward-looking statement we make. Any
projections of growth in our revenues would not necessarily result in
commensurate levels of earnings. Forward-looking statements speak only
as of the date on which they are made, and the Company undertakes no
obligation to update publicly or revise any forward-looking statement,
whether as a result of new information, future developments or otherwise.
Consolidated Financial Summary
Business Segment Operating Results
(Amounts in thousands, except ratios) (1) (2)
(1) Loss ratio is losses and loss expenses incurred expressed as a
percentage of premiums earned. Expense ratio is underwriting expenses
expressed as a percentage of premiums earned. GAAP combined ratio is the
sum of the loss ratio and the expense ratio.
(2) Commencing with the first quarter of 2016, the Company reports its
operating results in two segments - Insurance (formerly,
Insurance-Domestic and Insurance-International) and Reinsurance.
Reclassifications have been made to the Company's 2015 financial
information to conform with this presentation.
Supplemental Information
(Amounts in thousands)
(1) Short-tail lines include commercial multi-peril (non-liability),
inland marine, accident and health, fidelity and surety, boiler and
machinery and other lines.
(2) Core portfolio includes fixed maturity securities, equity
securities, cash and cash equivalents, real estate and loans receivable.
(3) Operating income is a non-GAAP financial measure defined by the
Company as net income excluding after-tax net investment gains.
Beginning with the third quarter of 2016, investment gains are computed
net of related expenses, including performance-based compensatory costs
associated with such investment gains. Prior periods have been adjusted
to reflect this presentation. Management believes this measurement
provides a useful indicator of trends in the Company's underlying
Selected Balance Sheet Information
(1) Net invested assets include investments, cash and cash equivalents,
trading accounts receivable from brokers and clearing organizations,
trading account securities sold but not yet purchased and unsettled
purchases, net of related liabilities.
(2) After-tax unrealized investment gains were $427 million and $181
million as of December 31, 2016 and December 31, 2015, respectively.
Unrealized currency translation losses were $372 million and $247
million as of December 31, 2016 and December 31, 2015, respectively.
(3) During the three months ended December 31, 2016, the Company
repurchased 574,552 shares of its common stock for $32.5 million. During
the full year 2016, the Company repurchased 2,395,892 shares of its
common stock for $132.4 million.
(4) Book value per share is total common stockholders' equity divided by
the number of common shares outstanding. Tangible book value per share
is total common stockholders' equity excluding the after-tax value of
goodwill and other intangible assets divided by the number of common
shares outstanding.
Investment Portfolio
December 31, 2016
of Total
(1) Total fixed maturity securities had an average rating of AA- and an
average duration of 3.1 years, including cash and cash equivalents.
(2) Cash and cash equivalents includes trading accounts receivable from
brokers and clearing organizations, trading account securities sold but
not yet purchased and unsettled purchases.
(3) Investment funds are net of related liabilities of $2.1 million.
Foreign Government Fixed Maturity Securities
(1) Supranational represents investments in the North American
Development Bank, European Investment Bank and International Bank for
Reconstruction & Development.
View source version on businesswire.com: http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170131006334/en/
W. R. Berkley CorporationKaren A. HorvathVice
President - ExternalFinancial Communications203- 629-3000
Source: W. R. Berkley Corporation
© Copyright 2007-2017 W. R. Berkley Corporation. All Rights Reserved


text:
Let us know when your receive great advice so we can thank our lawyers and point others with similar questions in the right direction.Got it!
I was pulled over on Dulles toll road for doing 80 in a 55. The cop charged me for 79/55 to save me from reckless driving. Since it is my first offense I am thinking of going to court.
I am thinking of pleading guilty but how do I defend myself after pleading guilty since I was following the flow of the traffic but just was the unlucky one to have gotten pulled over. I really don't want to rack up a lot of points or fines for that matter; I have an impeccable driving record an this is just a one-off situation.
Also, I hold a license in MD if that makes any difference. Court hearing is in Fairfax, VA.
Well first you must determine whether or not it was actually a reckless driving. Reckless driving is either over 80 mph or 20 miles above the speed limit. Here, you were doing 24 miles over the speed limit. However, if he only charged it as "speeding" and not reckless, then you should be good.
As far as points, both speeding and RD are 6 point offenses in Virginia. Note, however, I do not know how those transfer over to MD or if they will even find out. However, If you want less points, you would be in the best position by getting an attorney. Without one, you will not have access to the prosecutor in Fairfax.
James S. Abrenio
This answer does not create a attorney/client relationship, but is intended solely in the court of discussion. It is always my recommendation to retain an attorney whenever a court appearance is necessary. This recommendation is highlighted when it relates to an individual's criminal record.Ask a similar question
Great thanks. It shows as an infraction which I can prepay. I spoke to a few attorneys and their fees are expensive; what do you recommend I do when I go to court? Also, one of the attorneys' assistant was asking real personal questions like my occupation, immigration status etc. I don't mind answering them if it's a requirement but do courts want that information?
I am not licensed in VA as is my colleague, but having appeared in municipal court for speeding matters, if it is a first offense, one can usually negotiate a downgrade with the prosecutor to avoid having six points. In NJ that would result in a surcharge on your automobile insurance. I, like my colleague, highly recommend you retain an attorney to accompany you to court. It should be a flat, rather than an hourly fee, and will be worth the investment.
While it may take awhile, there is an interstate agreement in place. If you get a violation in one state, it will be passed on to any other state you have a driver's license in, besides, in every state I am aware of, when you have to renew, there is always a question as to whether your driving privilege has been suspended in another jurisdiction. (I do not do enough of this to comment on whether points or infractions are also asked about.) A false answer to the question ca result in not only a fine, but more severe consequences. You can call the law offices of Joel Katz in Annapolis, MD to get a more precise answer. 1-410-913-3190.
The foregoing is not intended to be legal advice upon which you may rely as I have not been retained for this purpose.Ask a similar question
Have your car speedomter calibrated to ensure it's reliability. If the calibartion is off, this should work in your favor. Obtain your driving record to ensure accuracy and share if a good record. You should consult and consider hiring local counsel as there are some offenses available that would not have any points if transferred to your Maryland MVA record.Ask a similar question
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text:
Can you 'ear me mother? No longer will we all have to repeat 1930s comedian, Sandy Powell's catchphrase when strolling merrily down the high street shouting at the top of our voice to be heard in a satisfactory manner, or for the youngsters out there wot don't have culture, to do a Dom Jolly in a restaurant. Oh no. For Orange (which has recently launched its App Shop and photo sharing on Twitter) has announced HD Voice – a high quality voice service that utilises the WB-AMR (Wideband Adaptive Multi-Rate) speech codec that has a wide speech bandwidth (50-7000 Hz), capable of providing enhanced sound quality without using extra network resources.
Tom Alexander was pretty pleased about the whole thing. Orange's cheerful CEO (witness the man trying to suppress a grin, below) declared that: 'HD Voice really does inject a level of innovation into mobile phone calls, making it sound as if callers are actually in the same room. Once people have tried it, they won't want to go back.'
Expect to see HD Voice capable handsets soon, along with the new service later in the year.
Click for more information


text:
Your face is the ultra-logical Vulcan of your body, and not just because it goes mad with lust and tries to kill William Shatner every seven years. Today's deal gets you your choice of an Elite Microdermabrasion Facial or an Elite Eminence Organic Facial at Facelogic Spa for $49. Though service prices are lower for current spa members, today's Groupon is still worth more than double its price for those already initiated into the society of logical faces. This Groupon is only good for the spa's South Barrington location, open Sunday through Saturday. You may put the value of your Groupon toward upgraded services and pay the difference during your visit.
Facelogic logisticians use scare tactics such as science and numbers to counteract the stress and lack of complexion clarity that can impede your ability to steer vehicles with your face. The friendly aestheticians at Facelogic Spa will gaze upon your visage to analyze your skin type and customize your facial treatment to meet your skin's individual needs. These Facelogic Elite Facials awaken slumbering skin through 60 minutes of deep cleansing, exfoliation, steaming and hydrating to help your mug relax. They will bring a glow to even the most Gollumy skin and undo years of playing the MMORPG known as Real Life.
Your face is often the first thing about you people notice, unless you've cleverly diverted their attention by refusing to wear pants. Give the front of your head the care it needs with today's Groupon, or gift the deal to a friend's deserving countenance.
You must make your appointment at least seven days in advance.
Four Yelpers give Facelogic's South Barrington location an average of four stars, and eight reviewers on SpaFinder give it an average rating of 4.25 stars:
- I was very pleased with the way my skin looked when I got home, my mom even noticed that it looked better. – Nirali S., Yelp
- The treatment helped rejuvenate my otherwise tired, wintery looking skin into a vibrant, soft and supple feel and appearance. The service quality was excellent as was the staff: knowledgeable, helpful, without pushing products or services to the customer; they offered advice and made some suggestions but their demeanor and overall service was impressive. – Theo, SpaFinder
- I reccomend [sic] Facelogic to anyone that doesn't want to spend too much, but would like to pamper themselves and their face every month. – TeriO, SpaFinder


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text:
I got few virtual machines in our data center, and I would like to implement a better backup strategy.
Currently I snap shot the V Machine then I use NT back up to make full back up once a week.
It is a very time consuming exercise not to mention I have to power down (or suspend) the V-Machines while I do this (recommended by VMWare)
So I was wondering if anyone out there has had to come up with a backup policy that worked with VMware and NT Back up (as we will not implement any third party software for other reasons).
Thank you.
5 Replies
Apr 16, 2010 at 5:24 UTC
Are you using VMWare server or ESX
Apr 18, 2010 at 5:27 UTC
Using VMWare.
Apr 19, 2010 at 6:05 UTC
Sorry I can't help, no experience of VMWare server.
Apr 19, 2010 at 8:53 UTC
Not even sure this will work for you, but it's something I've been mulling over in the back of my mind, and I'm kind of thinking out loud here. It is possible to set things up so you snapshot goes to a different datastore. If that datastore happened to be an NFS drive, on Windows server, that would tend to make things a little quicker. I'm assuming here that you're hitting the snapshots using a Samba share.
Sorry, might be way off base, like I said, I'm just thinking out loud but it might be a way to speed things up a bit.
Apr 19, 2010 at 11:57 UTC
Because of the way snapshots work you will still be copying data from the original image.
This discussion has been inactive for over a year.
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