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United States Citizenship in Puerto Rico, A Short History
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1 Report Updated August 7, 2010 UnitedStatesCitizenshipinPuertoRico,AShortHistory Preparedby: CharlesR.Venator Santiago AssistantProfessor UniversityofConnecticut InstituteforPuertoRicanandLatinoStudiesand DepartmentofPoliticalScience PreparedfortheLatinoandPuertoRicanAffairsCommission(LPRAC) BeachHallRoom413,354MansfieldRoadUnit2137 Storrs,CT,USA, Phone:(860) UniversityofConnecticut,InstituteforPuertoRican&LatinoStudies
2 P.R.Citizenship ExecutiveSummary The Puerto Rican legislature enacted Law 191 in December 2009 to authorize theissuanceofanewbirthcertificatetoallpersonsbornintheislandofpuerto Rico.Law191willinvalidateallbirthcertificatesissuedtopersonsborninthe island.onjuly1,2010theofficeofdemographicregistryforthepuertorican Health Department will begin issuing new birth certificates to persons born in the island. The new birth certificates incorporate new technologies that are designed to combat fraud and protect the identity of all United States citizens bornintheislandofpuertorico TodaytheUnitedStates(U.S.)recognizesfourtypesofcitizenship.Congresscan createlawsthatauthorizethenaturalizationofindividualimmigrantsorgroups ofpeople.congresscanalsoenactlegislationthatrecognizesthejussanguinisor derivativeparentalrightofachildtoacquireu.s.citizenshipifbornoutsideof theunitedstates.anypersonbornintheunitedstatesisentitledtotherightto acquirecitizenshipatbirth.andcongresscancreatespecialstatutoryformsof citizenshiptogovernparticularpopulationsindiscriminatoryways. SincetheUnitedStatesacquiredPuertoRicoin1898,Congresshasextendedat leastthreeformsofcitizenshiptopersonsborninpuertorico: APuertoRicancitizenshipunderthetermsofSection7oftheForakerAct of1900.thisformofcitizenshipwassubsequentlydeemedtohavebeen tantamountorequaltoaformofu.s.nationality. A derivative or parental form of jus sanguinis (bloodright) citizenship underthetermsofsection5ofthejonesact. i TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August6,2010
3 P.R.Citizenship A birthright or jus soli form of citizenship under the terms of the Nationality Act of 1940 available to persons born in Puerto Rico after BecauseCongresshasneverenactedlegislationtoincorporatePuertoRicoasa territoryoftheunitedstates,questionsremainwhethertheformofbirthrightor jussolicitizenshipthatextendstopersonsborninpuertoricoisconstitutional orstatutoryinnature. ii TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August6,2010
4 P.R.Citizenship AboutthisReport ThisreportprovidesashorthistoryoftheextensionofUnitedStatescitizenship to Puerto Rico and persons born in the island. The report documents relevant legislationandlegalopinions. AbouttheAuthor Charles R. Venator Santiago is an assistant professor at the University of Connecticut where he holds a joint teaching appointment in the Institute for PuertoRicanandLatinoStudiesandtheDepartmentofPoliticalScience,College of Arts & Sciences. Professor Venator Santiago can be reached at RecommendedCitation Charles R. Venator Santiago, United States Citizenship in Puerto Rico, A Short History.UniversityofConnecticut:PRLS,2010. Acknowledgements FundingforthisresearchwasprovidedbyaLargeGrantfromtheUniversityof Connecticut sresearchfoundation.iamgratefulforthesupportofthestaffat thelibraryoftheunitedstatesdepartmentoftheinterior. iii TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August6,2010
5 P.R.Citizenship TableofContents ExecutiveSummary i AboutthisReport iii AbouttheAuthor iii RecommendedCitation iii Acknowledgements iii Introduction 2 CitizenshipandtheUnitedStatesConstitution 3 UnitedStatesCitizenshipandPuertoRico 5 RecommendedReferences 15 AppendixA:StatusofPersonsBorninPuertoRicoSince TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
6 P.R.Citizenship Introduction The Puerto Rican legislature enacted Law 191 in December 2009 to authorizetheissuanceofanewbirthcertificatetoallpersonsbornintheislandof PuertoRico.Law191willinvalidateallbirthcertificatesissuedtopersonsbornin theisland.onjuly1,2010theofficeofdemographicregistryforthepuertorican HealthDepartmentwillbeginissuingnewbirthcertificatestopersonsborninthe island.thenewbirthcertificatesincorporatenewtechnologiesthataredesignedto combatfraudandprotecttheidentityofallunitedstatescitizensbornintheisland ofpuertorico. 1 The state of Connecticut s Latino and Puerto Rican Affairs Commission (LPRAC)hasinitiatedaninformationcampaigndesignedtoassistPuertoRicansin theprocessofacquiringnewbirthcertificates.thisinformationcampaignaimsto provide clear and forthright information to the public that can facilitate a better understandingofthisprocess. Thisshortreportprovidesanintroductiontothehistoryoftheextensionof UnitedStatescitizenshiptoPuertoRicoandpersonsbornintheisland.AsPuerto Ricans and others contemplate the importance of acquiring a new birth certificate thatguaranteestherighttobirthrightorjussolicitizenshiptopersonsborninthe island of Puerto Rico, it may be of interest to further understand the historical nature of this form of citizenship. The report begins with an outline of the major forms of citizenship that have been used in the United States. This outline is followed by a short description of the various forms of nationality and citizenship that the Federal government has extended to Puerto Rico and its residents since 1898,theyearthattheUnitedStatesacquiredtheisland.Thereportconcludeswith 1 For more information visit the website for the Puerto Rican Department of Health at: English.aspx, or the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration at: Alternatively, more information can be obtained by calling the Latino and Puerto Rican Affairs Commissionat(860) TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies 2 August7,2010
7 P.R.Citizenship 3 abriefcommentsuggestingpossiblequestionsofinterestthatareconnectedtothe extensionofunitedstatescitizenshiptopuertorico. CitizenshipandtheUnitedStatesConstitution Theconceptofcitizenshiphastraditionallyservedtodefinethemembership orrelationshipbetweenpersonsandtheirpoliticalcommunities.differentpolitical communities have often developed different types of citizenship to recognize variousdifferencesand/orsimilaritiesamongtheirmembers.broadlyspeaking,the United States has used at least five types of citizenship to classify its members. Thesetypesofcitizenshipincludetwoconstitutionalformsofcitizenship,twotypes ofstatutoryorlegislativecitizenshipandastate basedformofcitizenship. ArticleI,Section8,Clause4andthefirstsentenceofthe14 th Amendmentof theconstitutionauthorizecongressto establishanuniformruleofnaturalization. ThismeansthatCongresshasthepowertoenactlegislationthatcanprovideforthe naturalizationortheextensionofcitizenshiptopersonsbornoutsideoftheunited States. In some cases Congress has enacted legislation that authorized individual immigrants to become citizens, and in other cases it has collectively naturalized groupsofpeople. Congress has also developed a legislative form of derivative or parental citizenshipmodeledaftertheromantraditionofjussanguinisorbloodright.early jus sanguinis citizenship was enacted to extend rights and responsibilities to the children of members or the armed forces and embassy staff serving overseas or outsideoftheunitedstates.formostofitshistory,thisformofparentalcitizenship requiredthatchildrenthechildrenofcitizensbornoutsideoftheunitedstateshad toresideforaportionoftheirlifeinastateorterritorywithintheunioninorderto acquireunitedstatescitizenshiprights.althoughtheconstitutiondoesnotcontain anylanguageauthorizingtheextensionofparentalorjussanguiniscitizenship,the TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
8 P.R.Citizenship 4 SupremeCourthasconsistentlyaffirmedthepoweroftheCongresstodevelopthe necessarylegislationtoextendthisformofcitizenship. Throughouthistory,theUnitedStateshasrecognizedtwoformsofbirthright citizenship, namely a state based and a national form of citizenship. Prior to the enactmentofthe14 th Amendmentin1868,thechildrenofcitizens,orinsomecases thechildrenofpersonsentitledtocitizenship,bornintheindividualstatesacquired a form of state citizenship that was equivalent to a national citizenship. Although each state enacted different citizenship laws, with some notable exceptions states generally extended citizenship rights to White males born in their state. Before Congressenactedthe14 th AmendmenttheSupremeCourtgenerallyrecognizedthis formofstate basedcitizenshipasaformofunitedstatescitizenship. Following the Civil War Congress enacted the 14 th Amendment to extend citizenshiprightstoliberatedslaves.thisamendmentessentiallyservedtocreatea national citizenship based on the principles established in the Civil Rights Act of 1866 [14 Stat. 27 (1866)]. The first sentence of Section 1 established that all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof,arecitizensofthestatewhereintheyreside. Thisnewamendmentsought toreplacethestate basedformofcitizenshipandcreatedanationalcitizenshipthat wasbasedontheprincipleofbirthrightintheunitedstates.the14 th Amendment extendedtotheindividualstates,territories,anddistrictsthatcomprisedtheunited States.In1898,theSupremeCourtruledinUnitedStatesv.WongKimArk(169U.S. 649)thatanypersonbornintheUnitedStates,regardlessofthecitizenshiporlegal status of their parents, was entitled to birthright citizenship rights under the 14 th Amendment.Today,anypersonbornintheUnitedStatesisentitledtothisformof birthrightorjussolicitizenship. Congress has also created a series of statutory or legislative citizenships that have been applicable to particular groups of people residing in the United States.Theseformsofcitizenshiphavebeendesignedtogovernparticulargroups ofpeopleinstrategicanddiscriminatoryways.statutoryformsofcitizenshiphave TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
9 P.R.Citizenship 5 beenusedtoextendorwithholddifferenttypesofconstitutionalrightstogroupsof people living under the sovereignty of the United States. Most notably the United StatesgovernmenthasusedthistypeofcitizenshiptogovernNativeAmericansand the U.S. citizens residing in unincorporated or outlying territories such as Guam, American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and most wouldarguepuertorico.thesupremecourthashistoricallyaffirmedthepowerof Congresstocreatethesetypesofstatutorycitizenship. Today the United States recognizes four types of citizenship. Congress can createlawsthatauthorizethenaturalizationofindividualimmigrantsorgroupsof people. Congress can also enact legislation that recognizes the jus sanguinis or derivativeparentalrightofachildtoacquireu.s.citizenshipifbornoutsideofthe UnitedStates.AnypersonbornintheUnitedStatesisentitledtotherighttoacquire citizenshipatbirth.andcongresscancreatespecialstatutoryformsofcitizenship togovernparticularpopulationsindiscriminatoryways. UnitedStatesCitizenshipandPuertoRico TheUnitedStateshasextendedatleastthreetypesofcitizenshipstoPuerto Ricans living in the island since The Federal government has recognized a United States nationality (after April 11, 1899); a Puerto Rican citizenship (1900 present);aparentalorderivativeformofjussanguiniscitizenship( );and a birthright or jus soli citizenship (1941 present). These forms of citizenship, however, have been contingent or dependent on the unincorporated territorial statusofpuertorico,aconstitutionalstatusthathasnotchangedsincethesupreme CourtinventedthisnewconstitutionalstatusintheInsularCasesof1901. GeneralNelsonA.MilestookcontroloftheislandofPuertoRicoonJuly25, 1898amidsttheSpanish AmericanWar.AtthetimePuertoRicowasconsideredto be a Spanish province or colonia de Ultramar. The residents of the island were recognizedasspanishcitizensandsubjectsofthespanishcrown.duringtheearly TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
10 P.R.Citizenship 6 occupationanduntiltheratificationofthe1898treatyofpeaceonapril11,1899 [30Stat.1754(1899)],theUnitedStatesgovernmenttreatedinhabitantsofPuerto RicoasSpanishsubjectsandforeignnationalsundermilitaryoccupation. The Treaty of Paris of 1898 ceded Guam, the Ladrones Islands, Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States. The Treaty of Paris recognized two possiblenationalitiesinpuertorico,namelythatofthespanishnationals,whowere born in the Spanish peninsula, and the Puerto Rican nationals, or those who were born on the island. Spanish nationals were given the opportunity to either retain their Spanish nationality or adopt the newly created Puerto Rican nationality. ArticleIXoftheTreatyofParisfurtherstipulatedthat: Incasetheyremainintheterritorytheymaypreservetheirallegiancetothe Crown of Spain by making, before a court of record, within a year from the date of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty, a declaration of their decision to preserve such allegiance; in default of which declaration they shallbeheldtohaverenounceditandtohaveadoptedthenationalityofthe territoryinwhichtheymayreside. Unlikeprevioustreatiesofterritorialacquisitionthateithernaturalizedorpromised tonaturalizetheinhabitantsoftheacquiredterritories,thetreatyofpariscreateda new form of nationality that was neither Spanish nor Anglo American. Puerto RicansceasedtobeSpanishsubjectsbutdidnotbecomeUnitedStatescitizens. ThisarticlefurtherempoweredCongresstodeterminethecivilandpolitical rightsofisland sresidents.thefederalgovernmentsubsequentlyarguedthatthe latterprovisionofarticleixgavecongressanalmostabsoluteorplenaryauthority totreatpuertoricoandtheotherformerspanishcoloniesdifferentlythanallother territories acquired prior to the Spanish American War of The Federal governmentarguedthatthetreatyofparisgavecongressapowertogovernpuerto Rico differently than other territories that was not limited by the Constitution, a powertogovernthatwasbasedonarticleixofthetreaty. TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
11 P.R.Citizenship 7 Following the Spanish American War and the cessation of hostilities, the Presidentappointedasuccessionofmilitarygovernorstoruletheislanduntil1900 when Congress enacted a civilian government under the terms of the Foraker Act [31 Stat. 77 (1900)]. The military governors were tasked with preparing Puerto RicotoeitherbecomeaterritoryoftheUnitedStatesortobecomeanindependent nation.duringthisperiod,betweentheratificationofthetreatyofparisonapril 11,1899andApril30,1900whentheForakerActtookeffect,PuertoRicanswere treatedasu.s.nationals. Unlike prior organic or territorial acts that treated acquired territories as future states in the making, the Foraker Act treated Puerto Rico as an occupied territorythatwasnotaforeigncountryorapartoftheunitedstates.theforaker Act contained a provision that extended a special tax on commercial goods or productsthatwereimportedfromtheislandintotheunitedstates.althoughthis provision had been designed as a temporary measure to generate revenue for the governance of the island, it became a central point of contention because it neglectedtotreatpuertoricoasanintegralpartoftheunitedstatesforcommercial purposes.theforakeracttariffstreatedpuertoricoasaforeignportinadomestic sense. CongressalsorefusedtoextendU.S.citizenshiptoPuertoRicoandcreateda legislativeorstatutoryformofcitizenshipspecificallydesignedfortheresidentsof theisland.theinventionofthisnewcitizenship,acitizenshipthatdidnotexistin the Constitution, represented a complete departure from prior precedents. Historically the United States had either naturalized the inhabitants of organized territoriesorpromisedtodosoeventually.evenwhentheunitedstatesacquired otherspanish(e.g.eastandwestflorida)andlatermexican(e.g.texas,california, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and Nevada) territories, Congress naturalized the inhabitantsofthecolonizedterritories.section7oftheforakeractestablishedthat allspanishsubjectsandtheirchildrenbornafterapril11,1899wouldnowbecome the PeopleofPuertoRico. ThePuertoRicancitizenshipwasformallyadoptedon TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
12 P.R.Citizenship 8 May1,1900andasAntonioFernóshasnoted,ithasneverbeenabolished.Infact, the United States Code continues to list Section 7 of the Foraker Act as a Puerto Ricancitizenship[48U.S.C733(a)].PersonsbornafterApril11,1899anduntilthe enactmentofthejonesactin1917becamepuertoricancitizens. ThePuertoRicancitizenshipcreatedanadditionalproblemfortheresidents of the island. Under existing immigration laws a person seeking to become a U.S. citizen had to renounce his allegiance to his nationality or citizenship in order to acquire a U.S. citizenship. Because Puerto Ricans could not renounce a foreign citizenshipornationalitytheybecameincapableofacquiringau.s.citizenship.yet, foreigners residing in Puerto Rico could apply for U.S. citizenship and begin the processofnaturalizationwhileresidingintheisland. TheSupremeCourtaddressedtheconstitutionalityoftheForakerActtariffs in 1901 with a series of opinions known as the Insular Cases. The Insular Cases establishedtheconstitutionalstatusofpuertoricothathasdefinedtherelationship betweentheunitedstatesandtheislandformorethanacentury.centraltothese cases was the constitutional status of the island for the purposes of collecting federal taxes on products imported from Puerto Rico into the United States. The original purpose of the temporary tax was to generate revenues to subsidize the expenses relating to the occupation of the island. Puerto Ricans argued that the imposition of taxes on commercial goods violated a well established principle of uniform commercial trade among the states and territories that comprised the United States. The reigning interpretation established that no state or territory couldlevyatariffoncommercialproductsthatweretransportedfromotherstates orterritorieswithintheunitedstates.puertoricansarguedthattheimpositionof tariffs and taxes on products shipped from the island was discriminatory. In a complicated, and contradictory, series of opinions the Supreme Court established that Puerto Rico had become a territory of the United States during the military occupation and thus the tariffs collected during this period were unconstitutional. However, the Supreme Court argued in Downes v. Bidwell [182 U.S. 244 (1901)], TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
13 P.R.Citizenship 9 Congress had changed the legal status of Puerto Rico with the Foraker Act. According to a majority of the judges Puerto Rico became an unincorporated territory, or a territorial possession that was not ready to be placed on a path to statehood. Unlike territories that were placed on a path to become states unincorporated territories occupied a status somewhere in between a foreign countryandaterritory,theycouldbetreatedasforeignplacesinadomesticsense. Until Congress enacted legislation to incorporate Puerto Rico, something that Congress has not done in more than a century, the island could be subject to the discriminatory application of the law. This means that although some basic or fundamental constitutional extended to the island, Congress could select which constitutional provisions to extend and which to withhold. For example, neither CongressnortheSupremeCourthaseverextendedthe14 th AmendmenttoPuerto Rico.TheoriginallogicadoptedbytheSupremeCourtandthemajorityofmembers ofthecongress established thatpuertoricanswereaninferiorraceandthusnot capable of assuming the responsibilities that came with an Anglo American constitutional system of government. Puerto Ricans, the justices concurred, were unprepared exercise the responsibilities of territorial self government. The Court adoptedthedoctrineof separateandunequal togovernpuertorico. Insummary,theInsularCasesestablishedthatPuertoRicocouldbetreated as an unincorporated territory because the population of the island was racially inferior and unfit to share in the rights and responsibilities of the United States. More importantly, majority opinion written by Justice Henry Billings Brown, the same judge who wrote the infamous decision Plessy v. Ferguson [153 U.S. 537 (1896)], also argued that the United States was only comprised of states and that territories,incorporatedorotherwise,werelocatedoutsideoftheunitedstatesfor constitutionalpurposes.althoughitistruethatjudgebrownstoodaloneinmaking thisinterpretation,theu.s.governmentsubsequentlyacceptedthisargument.one of the key implications of this latter argument is that persons born in Puerto Rico TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
14 P.R.Citizenship 10 are not necessarily born in the United States for the purposes of the 14 th Amendmentbecausetheyareborninaterritorythatisforeigninadomesticsense. In 1904 the Supreme Court addressed the question of the constitutional status of the Puerto Rican citizenship in Gonzales v. Williams [192 U.S. 1 (1904)]. ThiscasearosefromanhabeascorpusappealbyIsabellaGonzales,an unmarried PuertoRicanwomanwhohadbeendetainedinthePortofNewYorkin1902bythe ImmigrationCommissionerwhileattemptingtoentertheUnitedStatesasan alien immigrant who,accordingtoimmigrationofficials, waslikelytobecomeapublic charge. TheCourt,however,concludedthatthePuertoRicancitizenshipcreatedby the Foraker Act was tantamount or equal to a U.S. nationality(not to be confused withaunitedstatescitizenship)andthereforepuertoricansshouldnotbetreated asaliens. Two years later, in 1906, Congress established an exception for Puerto Ricans in the new immigration law that created the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization[34Stat.596(1906)].Section30ofthenewimmigrationlawstated includedamodificationthatextendedtoallpersonsowingallegiancetotheu.s.who werenotcitizensatthetime: The applicant shall not be required to renounce allegiance to an foreign sovereignty;heshallmakehisdeclarationofintentiontobecomeacitizenof the United States at least two years prior to his admission; and residence withinthejurisdictionoftheunitedstates,owingsuchpermanenceallegiance, shallberegardedasresidencewithintheunitedstateswithinthemeaningof thefiveyear sclauseoftheexistinglaw. Theproblemwiththisexception,ReeceBothwellnoted,wasthatresidencewithin the jurisdiction of the United States did not include Puerto Rico. Although Puerto Ricans were no longer required to renounce a nationality in order to apply to becomecitizensoftheunitedstates,theywerestillrequiredtoresideinastateor territory in order to complete the naturalization process. Bothwell further TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
15 P.R.Citizenship 11 documents that this provision did not apply to foreigners residing in Puerto Rico whocouldobtainu.s.citizenshipwhileresidingintheisland. Formorethanadecadeaftertheenactmentofthelatterimmigrationlaw,the FederalgovernmentclassifiedallpersonsbornintheislandasPuertoRicancitizens or U.S. nationals. Despite repeated efforts by some congressional leaders to collectivelynaturalizetheinhabitantsoftheislandthemajorityoflegislatorswere opposedtoextendingcitizenshiptopuertoricansbecauseoftheir inferior racial heritage. Nearly two decades after the United States acquired Puerto Rico, Congress enactedasecondorganicorterritorialactgenerallyknownasthejonesactof1917 [39 Stat. 951 (1917)]. Section 5 of this organic act collectively naturalized all persons born in Puerto Rico and extended a derivative form of parental or jus sanguiniscitizenshiptotheresidentsoftheisland.thejonesactalsoincludedtwo additional exceptions. Puerto Ricans and aliens alike could chose to hold on to their citizenship. According to most estimates just under 300 residents chose to retain their Puerto Rican citizenship. In addition, the Jones Act provided that the native bornchildrenofalienparentswhowerepermanentlyresidinginpuertorico could declare their intention to become citizens within one year of reaching a majority of age. For many reasons, thousands of Puerto Ricans failed to declare their intention to become citizens and became undocumented residents of the island. SoonafterboththeUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheislandandthePuerto RicanSupremeCourtaddressedthequestionofwhethertheextensionofcitizenship topuertoricansunderthetermsofthejonesacthadincorporatedthepuertorican territory.inthefirstinstancethedistrictcourtarguedthatacitizenchargedwith committing a homicide after the passage of the Jones Act could not be brought to trial without a grand jury indictment as required by the Fifth Amendment. In the latter case, the defendant had committed a murder prior to the enactment of the organicact,buthisprosecutionbeganafterenactmentofthejonesact.inthiscase, TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
16 P.R.Citizenship 12 thepuertoricansupremecourtheldthatanindictmentwasnotrequiredafterthe passageofthejonesact.inpeopleofportoricov.tapiatheunitedstatessupreme CourtreversedtheU.S.DistrictCourtandinPeoplev.Muratti[245U.S.639(1918)] the Court affirmed the Puerto Rican Supreme Court without providing any substantivecomments.thesupremecourt srulingrejectedtheideathatextending citizenshiptopuertoricanshadbothextendedthebillofrightstothepuertorico andhadchangedtheisland sterritorialstatus. FouryearslatertheSupremeCourtagainaddressedthequestionofwhether thenaturalizationofpuertoricanshadchangedtheterritorialstatusofpuertorico inbalzacv.peopleofportorico[258u.s.298(1922)].onapril16and23of1918, JesúsM.Balzac,theeditorofalocalPuertoRicannewspaperElBaluarte,published twoarticlesimpugningtheviolencecommittedbythelocalterritorialgovernment onpuertoricans.mr.balzacwaschargedwithseveralcountsofcriminallibeland waspromptlyprosecuted.duringhistrials,mr.balzacclaimedthathispublications werefaircommentsagainstapublicofficialandtheseshouldbeprotectedunderthe freespeechprovisionsthefirstamendment.mr.balzacalsoarguedthatsincehe wasfacingfeloniouscharges,heshouldbeentitledtoacitizen srighttotrialbyjury. The Supreme Court rejected the argument that Mr. Balzac was entitled to either a SixofSeventhAmendmentrighttotrialbyjury. In this important ruling, Chief Justice William H. Taft argued that the extensionofcitizenshiptopuertoricodidnotmeanthatcongresshadincorporated the island as a territory. It followed that the United States did not have to treat Puerto Rico as a part of the United States for constitutional purposes. The Chief Justice offered several important explanations that continue to inform the present debatesovertheconstitutionalstatusofpuertoricoandpersonsbornintheisland. Onthequestionoftheterritorialstatus,theChiefjusticearguedthatthe JonesAct did not contain a provision that expressly and unequivocally incorporated the PuertoRicanterritory.Intheabsenceofacongressionalactexpresslyincorporating the Puerto Rican territory, citizens residing in the island were only entitled to TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
17 P.R.Citizenship 13 fundamental rights or constitutional rights extended to the island by acts of Congress.TheSupremeCourtreasonedthatthestatusoftheisland(locality)would determinewhatrightswereapplicabletopuertoricoandtheu.s.citizensresiding in the island. In addition, the Court noted that Puerto Ricans were also culturally unable to understand the responsibilities of the jury system because they were predominantly educated in a Spanish legal system. Congress has never passed legislationtoincorporatepuertoricoandu.s.citizensresidingintheislandarenot constitutionallyentitledtoasixorseventhamendmentrighttotrialbyjury. Even though the Jones Act collectively naturalized Puerto Ricans, the citizenship that this act extended to the island required that the native born childrenof alien parentsdeclaretheirintentiontobecomecitizenswithinoneyear ofreachingtheageofmajority.fornumerousreasons,thousandsofpuertoricans neglectedtoregisterwithintheallottedperiodoftimeandbecameundocumented. In an effort to fix this problem Congress amendment Section 5 of the Jones Act at leastthreetimes,in1927(section5a)[64stat.319],in1934(section5b)[48stat. 1245], and in 1938 (Section 5c) [52 Stat. 377(1938)]. In each of these instances Congress attempted to correct this problem by creating opportunities for Puerto Ricans that could demonstrate their native birth to become naturalized citizens of theunitedstates. Bythelate1930sthenumberofundocumentedPuertoRicanswasestimated tohavereachedupwardsof6,000.finallyin1940congressenactednewcorrective legislation that sought to resolve the continuing growth of this undocumented populationinpuertoricowiththeenactmentofthenationalityactof1940[54stat (1940)]. This legislation included specific provisions that retroactively naturalized all persons born in Puerto Rico after April 11, 1899 and extended birthrightorjussolicitizenshiptoallpersonsbornintheislandafter1941.forthe purposes of this act, Puerto Rico was distinguished from other outlying or unincorporated territories and became a geographical part of the United States (Section101d).Inaddition,Section202extendedbirthrightorjussolicitizenshipto TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
18 P.R.Citizenship 14 allpersonsbornintheislandwithoutanyrestrictions.thislawwassubsequently codifiedin1952[8u.s.c. 1402,66Stat.236(1952)]andremainsthemainsource ofu.s.citizenshipforallpersonsborninpuertorico. Persons born in Puerto Rico after 1941 are presently entitled to acquire a form of birthright or jus soli citizenship. The question however is whether the extension of birthright citizenship without explicitly changing the unincorporated territorial status of the island guarantees that persons born in Puerto Rico can be entitledtoaconstitutional(14 th Amendment)formofbirthrightcitizenship,aform of jus soli citizenship that extends to the children of citizens or undocumented migrantsalikethatarebornintheunitedstates.mostpolicymakersandacademics suggestthatcongressmerelyextendedastatutoryorlegislativeformofbirthright citizenship to the island because Congress has never explicitly recognized the extensionofthe14 th AmendmenttoPuertoRico.Alternatively,othersarguethatin ordertoextendjussolicitizenshiptotheislandthefederalgovernmenthadtotreat PuertoRicoasanincorporatedterritoryoftheUnitedStates.Thislatterargument suggests that Congress can selectively incorporate Puerto Ricans for citizenship purposeswithouthavingtochangetheisland spoliticalstatus.sufficeittosaythat thisisanopenquestionthathasbeenlingeringformorethanhalfacentury. TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
19 P.R.Citizenship 15 RecommendedCitations OnCitizenship: ÁlvarezGonzález,JoséJulián. TheEmpireStrikesOut:CongressionalRuminationson the Citizenship Status of Puerto Ricans, 27 Harvard Journal on Legislation 309(1990). Bea, Keith and R. Sam Garrett. Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress. RL32933.CRSReportforCongress(May29,2008). Bothwell, Reece B. LA CIUDADANÍA EN PUERTO RICO. Rio Piedras: Editorial Universitaria,1980. Burnett,ChristinaD. TheysayIamnotanAmerican :TheNoncitizenNationaland the Law of American Empire 48 Virginia Journal of International Law 659 (2008). Cabranes, José A. Citizenship and the American Empire, Notes on the Legislative History of the United States Citizenship of Puerto Rico. New Haven: Yale UniversityPress,1979. Fernós, Antonio. LA CIUDADANÍA NACIONAL DE LOS PUERTORRIQUEÑOS. San Juan:EdicionesSitum,1996. García Martínez, Alfonso L. LA CIUDADANÍA PUERTORRIQUEÑA CONCEPTO DEL HABITANTENATURAL 39RevistadelColegiodeAbogadosdePuertoRico241 (1978). MykyungLee,Margaret.U.S.CitizenshipofPersonsBornintheUnitedStatestoAlien Parents.RL33079.CRSReportforCongress(September13,2005). Pérez,LisaM. CitizenshipDenied:TheInsularCasesandtheFourteenthAmendment 98VirginiaLawReview1029(2008). Roman,Ediberto.CitizenshipandItsExclusions:Classical,Constitutional,andCritical RacePerspectives.NewYorkUniversityPress,2010. Smith, Rogers M. Civic Ideals, Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History. New Haven:YaleUniversityPress,1997. TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
20 P.R.Citizenship 16 OntheConstitutionalStatusofPuertoRico: Álvarez González, José Julián. DERECHO CONSTITUCIONAL DE PUERTO RICO Y RELACIONES CONSTITUCIONALES CON LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS, CASOS Y MATERIALES.Bogotá:EditorialTemis,S.A Bothwell, Reece B. TRASFONDO CONSTITUCIONAL DE PUERTO RICO, PRIMERA PARTE: RioPiedras:EditorialUniversitaria,1971. Duffy Burnett, Christina and Burke Marshall. Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico American Expansion and the Constitution. Durham: Duke University Press,2001. Rivera Ramos, Efrén. American Colonialism in Puerto Rico, The Judicial and Social Legacy.Princeton:MarkusWienerPublishers,2007. Román, Ediberto. The Other American Colonies: A Constitutional And International Law Examination Of United States Nineteenth And Twentieth Century Island Conquests.CarolinaAcademicPress,2006. Sparrow,BartholomewH.TheInsularCasesandtheEmergenceofAmericanEmpire. Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2006. Trías Monge, José. Puerto Rico, The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World. New Haven:YaleUniversityPress,1997. U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice.U.S.InsularAreas:ApplicabilityofRelevantProvisions oftheu.s.constitution,gao/hrd91 18.Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government PrintingOffice,1991. U.S. General Accounting Office. U.S. Insular Areas: Application of the Constitution, GAO/OGC 98 5.Washington,D.C.:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1997. TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies August7,2010
University of Connecticut Department of Political Science Institute for Puerto Rican & Latino Studies
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text: ITS NITRO TIME - Unregistered April 16, 2011 3:03 PM never mind checa its all about NORIIIIIIIIIIII im so pumped for tomorrow, nothing like a determined Haga. But seriously checa ? the guy is starting to make a mockery of things, i hope nori keeps him honest tomorrow, Lol @ footage of Camier critizing Biaggi for getting in peoples way all the time ! 16 agree 1 disagree

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Investigate the consequences of over-harvesting and climate change on biodiversity. Examine, compare, and classify a rich variety of real specimens in the hands-on lab. This lesson takes place in the ROM's Schad, Hands-On Biodiversity, and Birds galleries. Explore the diversity of life on Earth through the ROM's incredible collections, close observation, questioning, and discussion.
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Grade 11: SBI3U, SBI3C – Diversity of Living Things
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Speed Reducer, Indirect Drive, , 20:1
BOSTON GEAR| Zoro #: G0515347| Mfr #: 710-20-G
Zoro #: G0515347Mfr. Part #: 710-20-G
$654.95 /ea
This item ships free. DetailsStandard ground shipping
Technical Specifications
|Zoro #: G0515347 Mfr #: 710-20-G
|Output Torque @ 1/40 HP: 3600 in.-lb.
|Single/Double Output/Universal: Single Output
|Gear Material: Hardened and Ground Steel
|Pinion Material: Hardened Steel
|Shaft Orientation: Right Angle
|Duty: Standard
|Housing Material: Cast iron
|Lubrication: Klubersynth UH1 6-460
|Finish: Powdered Epoxy Paint
|Item: Speed Reducer
|Solid/Hollow Output Shaft: Solid
|Speed Reducer Type: Indirect Drive
|Gear Type: Worm
|Input RPM: 1750
|Rotation: Forward/Reversible
|Bearings: Tapered Roller
|Number of Stages: 1
|Worm Gear Material: Bronze
|Seal Type: Double Lip
|Standards: AGMA
|Worm Center Distance: 1.00"
|Max. Input HP: 0.25
|Output Torque @ 1/4 HP: 98 in.-lb.
|Reducer Model No.: 710-20-G
|Output Torque @ 1/3 HP: 130 in.-lb.
|Nominal Ratio: 20:1
|Base: Optional
|Dimension U: 1/2"
|Max. Output Torque: 138.00 in.-lb.
|Nominal Output RPM: 88
|Output Shaft Height: 1-5/16"
|Output Shaft Dia.: 1/2"
|Overhung Load: 150 lb.
|Country of Origin (subject to change): United States
Product Description
Speed Reducer, Indirect Drive, Right Angle Shaft Orientation, Standard Duty, 1750 Input RPM, 88 Nominal Output RPM, Worm Center Distance 1.00 In., Overhung Load 150 lb., 20:1 Nominal Ratio, Max. Input HP 0.25, Max. Output Torque 138.00 in.-lb., Number of Stages 1, Forward/Reversible Rotation, Optional Base, Tapered Roller Bearings, Hardened Steel Pinion Material, Worm Gear Type, Cast Iron Housing Material, Single Output, Output Shaft Dia. 1/2 In., Output Shaft Height 1-5/16 In.
Restrictions and Compliance
- *1 : California Proposition 65 : This product contains a chemical known to the State of California to cause birth defects or other reproductive harm.
- *2 : California Proposition 65 : This product contains a chemical known to the State of California to cause cancer.


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The Haradin are a sophisticated and cultured humanoid mammalian species that hailed from the planet Harad. They have tall tapering heads, which housed large binary brains, enabling them to focus on many things at the same time. Aside from this unique feature, Haradins are physically similar to humans, although they possessed an extra heart, which supplied extra blood circulation to support their brains.
Haradin males aged more quickly than the females, who had similar lifespans to Humans. Thus, there were fewer males than females. Polygamous marriage was a necessity in order for the species to survive. Each male usually had one primary "bond-wife", and between four and ten "honor-wives".
Their enlarged skulls, extending up to twenty centimeters above their foreheads, house complex binary brains, provided with sufficient blood by an extra heart in their heads. The binary structure of Haradin thinking helped them to ponder two sides of an issue at once[1]. It also enables them to process information and solve problems rapidly. Because of their thoughtful nature, they tended to be calm, rational, and analytical, preferring peaceful philosophies and a lifestyle which worked in harmony with nature. Though the quick-thinking Haradins had equally quick reflexes, they were commonly not as well coordinated as Humans. Because of the weight of their enlarged skulls, Haradins often had back problems.


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Quietly, without fanfare, Microsoft Office Publisher keeps getting better. If you run a small business, volunteer for a nonprofit, or have a freelance career, Publisher 2007 can create the marketing materials you need -- and this book will show you how, step by step.
Its easy, visual, numbered steps walk you through just about everything Publisher can do now -- newsletters, brochures, fliers, cards, calendars, even web sites. Publisher 2007 comes with a rich library of templates: You'll learn how to use those -- or to work from the ground up, when that makes more sense. Want to customize your postcards to individual recipients? The authors make Publisher's mail merge stunningly painless. Want to build a whole set of matching materials? Prepare your materials for a professional printer? Generate PDFs for electronic delivery? It's all here, complete with practice files, so you can be as hands-on as you like. Bill Camarda, from the September 2007 Read Only


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Criminal Law
Criminal Law Questions? Ask a Criminal Lawyer.
Good afternoon Jason, I'm Doug, and I'm very sorry to hear of your situation. My goal is to provide you with excellent service today. I'm afraid that you must have misunderstood what you learned earlier. While many states will not extradite for a misdemeanor, or a non-violent felony---simply because of the cost and the hassle involved---no state has, or ever has had, a policy of non-extradition. All states will extradite when they want to. In fact extradition is in most part a federal law, not a state law. The U.S. Constitution and federal law govern interstate extradition processes. Article IV, § 2, Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution is codified under 18 U.S.C. 3182. Perhaps what you were thinking of was states who have not adopted the Uniform Criminal Extradition Act (UCEA). Those states are Missouri and South Carolina, but they still have extradition provisions within their own legal systems. You may reply back to me again, using the Reply to Expert link, if you have additional questions. I wish you the best in your future, Doug
what is the time frame for statutes of limitation for possession felony drug conviction in washington state?
the drug they were charged with and convicted of was hydrocodone,possession only of which they were to TSI. They did not do so and were sentenced to 18 months prison.
As you may not be aware, the Rules of JustAnswer specify that each customer ask one question in each question thread. For new questions, the customer is asked to open a new question thread. I am required to ask that you place these new questions in a new thread, as is required by JustAnswer. I do sincerely XXXXX XXXXX any inconvenience this might cause you.
thank you Doug,have a good weekend as well!


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inside a lava tube
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My son inside a lava tube. This is not a very good photo, but you can explore some of the lava tubes. It is good to bring a flashlight with you.
Also, I remember being very cold during our visit to the part, It is much higher (nearly 4000 feet) and a lot cooler.
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text: Definition Edit File slack is " the space between the logical end of the file and the end of the last allocation unit for that file.[1] " References Edit ↑ NIST Special Publication 800-72, Glossary, at 58. Retrieved from "http://itlaw.wikia.com/wiki/File_slack?oldid=184199" Ad blocker interference detected! Wikia is a free-to-use site that makes money from advertising. We have a modified experience for viewers using ad blockers Wikia is not accessible if you've made further modifications. Remove the custom ad blocker rule(s) and the page will load as expected. Categories: Data Definition Add category Cancel Save


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This navigation feedback survey will open in a new browser tab.
Start Feedback Survey
Are you having challenges moving forward with plans to redevelop your flood-affected property? We understand that you may still be considering your options.
Whether you have decided to demolish your home or take steps to rebuild or restore, there are some permit requirements that you must consider. As you move forward with your decision there are also some important deadlines to keep in mind:
If you haven't yet determined what to do with your property, in the meantime, please:
For further information please review our frequently asked questions.
If you or someone you know still needs additional support related to the flood, you can call 211 to access community, health and social services 24 hours / 7 days a week. Calls are free of charge and information is available in over 150 languages. Information & Referral Specialists at 211 can connect you to available services in your community such as:
The City and 211 have compiled a list offrequently requested services and contact information that can be downloaded for easy access.
Alberta Health Services has resources and information available to assist residents.
Additional resources are available by visiting www.albertahealthservices.ca and searching "disaster."
Calgarians still struggling to meet basic needs due to the 2013 flood can contact the Canadian Red Cross at 1-866-696-648.
We're here to help. Please contact 311 if you have any additional questions.


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Jimmie McCaskillChicago, Illinois, US
My regular voice sounds like a teenagers voice mostliy but I can also provide a kids voice and a gruff voice as well. I can do alot of mimicry as well.
English, English (North American), English (British), English (Australian), English (New Zealand)
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Hire Jimmie as a voice actor. Payment is made through Voices.com SurePay, an escrow service that guarantees your work is done to your satisfaction. Send payment securely by Visa, Mastercard or PayPal through Voices.com then download your files from the website.
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text: Posted October 14, 2012 I've had one pretty serious concussion. It was raining and I was running from outside into my garage. I was wearing cheap flops and when I hit the concrete floor I slid and fell backwards. The back of my head slammed on the concrete floor. When I came to everything was in slow motion. I had a semi paralysis thing going on where I couldn't gain control of my body. Similar you when you are very drunk while trying to get up off the ground. I remember just laying there with my arms and legs randomly moving in all the wrong directions. It affected my speech, thinking and reasoning. I would think one thing but when I would try to say it, it would come out all wrong. Sometimes I would forget where I was going or how I got there. It took a good 6 months to recover from it. Share this post Link to post Share on other sites


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Family Math NightCTA Independence will hold our fourth annual Family Math Night on January 23, 2014! Students, parents, siblings, and other relatives are invited to attend a fun-filled evening of mathematical pleasure. The intent of Family Math Night is to participate in math standards in action as we strengthen the mathematical application, problem solving, and communication skills of students through the power of family interaction.Following are some games we play, as well as an internet website hand-out with web pages you can use to review math concepts. Enjoy!
Last Modified on December 19, 2013


text: Aleksnadr Valverde was one of the locals on Bernice Summerfield's expedition to Badblood. He was the boyfriend of Becka Jiao. He was hoping to get a post school academic post, Baddblood's equivalent of going to university. He diappeared when the Vampires attacked the dig. He was latter discovered to have been turned into a vampire and killed Marsha Jiminez when she let them about the floating settlement. (PROSE: The Badblood Diaries)


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632 pages, B/w photos, tabs
This magisterial survey of the historical geography of the West Indies is at bottom concerned with the causes and consequences of three complex and inter-related phenomena: the rapid and total removal of a large aboriginal population; the development of plantation agriculture and the arrival of enforced labour, in the form of many thousands of African slaves; and the environmental, ecological and cultural changes that resulted. Dr Watts shows how the initial European vision of a land of plenty has been replaced by an awareness of the geographic and ecological fragiliaty of the area, and explains how the exploitative agricultural systems of the colonial and recent West Indies have not adjusted to the demands of the environment. An enormous array of historical, biological and literary sources are marshalled in support of Dr Watts' analysis, which is likely to remain the standard work on the subject for many years to come.
A well-known British biographer has collected from original fieldwork and intensive library research a wide range of detailed historical and environmental material about the Caribbean islands, from their earliest occupation to the present. Inevitably, the principal theme is sugar and how it influenced not only the islands but the policies of the colonial powers for more than 300 years. Just as important are the consequences for each pristine island environment of introducing successions of foreign plants and animals. A nearly flawless text...is supplemented by a large number of well-constructed maps, tables, and model diagrams. Choice "...[Watts] takes as his subject a region where the impact of Europeans on nature was particularly marked, both because they encountered a fragile ecology, and because at first they focused their rapaciousness on just a few islands. The resulting book, The West Indies, demonstrates impressively the potential of environmental history." Times Literary Supplement "David Watts has managed to capture both the complexity and the simplicity of Caribbean development and weave them together in a remarkable study that covers the region as a whole over the entire span of its modern history." Dale W. Tomich, Forest & Conservation History
List of illustrations; Preface; Notes and abbreviations; 1. The environment; 2. Aboriginal peoples: settlement and culture; 3. Spanish intrusion and colonisation; 4. Early northwest European plantations; 5. Northwest European sugar estates: the formative period, 1645 to 1665; 6. The extension of the West Indian sugar estate economy, 1665 to 1833: I General development and trade; 7. The extension of the West Indian sugar estate economy, 1665 to 1833: II Sugar production, regional population growth, and the slave-white ratios; 8. The extension of the West Indian sugar estate economy, 1665 to 1833: III Population: social characteristics, migration and the growth of towns; 9. The extension of the West Indian sugar estate economy, 1665 to 1833: IV Agricultural innovation and environmental change; 10. Post-1833 adjustments: the period to 1900; 11. Twentieth-century trends, and conclusions; Notes; References.
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BEIRUT � Nine Lebanese pilgrims abducted in Syria and two Turkish pilots held hostage in Lebanon returned home Saturday night, part of an ambitious three-way deal cutting across the Syrian civil war.
Thousands of well-wishers greeted the Shiite pilgrims in Beirut, with one man being carried out of the airport on the shoulders of a crowd. Meanwhile, a plane carrying the two freed Turkish Airlines pilots landed in Istanbul, where Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and other officials greeted them.
Their planes departed just minutes apart, crisscrossing in the skies as part of the carefully calibrated plan. The hostage release ends an ordeal that began a year and a half ago when Syrian rebels kidnapped the pilgrims, triggering tit-for-tat kidnappings that included the two Turkish pilots.
The deal, negotiated by Qatar and Palestinian officials, also was meant to include freeing dozens of women held in Syrian government jails to satisfy the rebels who abducted the pilgrims. However, it wasn't immediately clear Saturday night whether any of the women had been freed.
The nine Shiite pilgrims were kidnapped in May 2012 while on their way from Iran to Lebanon via Turkey and Syria. Turkish Airlines pilots Murat Akpinar and Murat Agca had been held since their kidnapping in August in Beirut.
Their abductions show how the chaos from the Syrian civil war, now in its third year, has spilled across the greater Middle East. The men also described facing similar despair and hardships while in captivity.
''For the first 15 days, we were kept in a room and didn't see the light of day," Akpinar said in a hastily organized news conference after landing in Istanbul. He said he and his colleague were guarded by dozens of gunmen. ''It was impossible for us to escape," he said.
One pilgrim accused his kidnappers of not offering the hostages medical care.
"We wished that any of them had any kind of values,'' said the pilgrim, who did not give his name in the chaos. ''We were with people who couldn't tell a female camel from a male camel," he said, referring to an Arabic proverb to describe an ignorant person.
Other pilgrims said they were kept in dark, humid rooms for most of their confinement. They could hear heavy fighting nearby.
"It was difficult, without a doubt," said Maj. Gen. Abbas Ibrahim, head of Lebanon's general security apparatus. ''I didn't want anything from this deal, except to see this sight," he said, gesturing at the waiting crowds.
The Lebanese pilgrims gained their freedom first, crossing into Turkey late Friday. The Turkish pilots were released Saturday.
The pilgrims were held by Syrian rebels who initially demanded that the Lebanese Shiite group Hezbollah end its involvement in the Syria's civil war. They later softened their demands, instead asking for the release of imprisoned women held by security forces loyal to Assad.
Assad has drawn support from Syria's ethnic and religious minorities, including Christians and members of his Alawite sect.
The rebels are dominated by Syria's Sunni Muslim majority. Hezbollah has played a critical role in recent battlefield victories for forces loyal to Assad. Hard-line Sunni fighters have backed the rebels.
The Syrian civil war, which has killed at least 100,000 people, has sent millions of refugees pouring into neighboring nations. It also has divided the Middle East.
The conservative Sunni monarchy Saudi Arabia supports rebels. Syria's neighbors, majority-Sunni Jordan and Turkey, also have supported some rebel groups. Shiite-majority Iran supports Syria.
Lebanon is divided into a patchwork of sects, including Sunnis, Shiites and Christians. Lebanese Sunnis mostly support their Syrian brethren; Lebanese Shiites have staked their future with the Syrian regime.
The kidnapping of the Shiite Lebanese pilgrims unleashed a wave of kidnappings by Shiite clansmen inside Lebanon, including the two Turkish pilots. The gunmen hoped to pressure Turkey to help release the pilgrims.
Meanwhile, the Syrian civil war went on. Rebels assaulted a checkpoint in a pro-government suburb of Damascus on Saturday, setting off a suicide car bomb that killed 16 soldiers, activists said.
Rebels led by the al-Qaida-linked Jabhat al-Nusra or Nusra Front set off the bomb while assaulting a checkpoint near the town of Mleiha.


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text: He was 75. Shah had directed the 1978 film 'Shalimar' starring Dharmendra and Zeenat Aman. His other projects included 'Hard Rock Zombies' and 'Rivals' in Hollywood besides the animation film 'Tugo Sako'. He was working on a script based on the life of Indira Gandhi and was in talks with Bruce Beresford to direct the film.


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Michael FarrellPhotographer Male Lincoln, Nebraska, US
My Website: michaelfarrell.com
Mayhem # 9770
About Me
I am a fine art photographer located in Lincoln, Nebraska. My work has been shown in museums and galleries in the region.
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My work was recently selected to be shown in the 2014 and 2015 Annual Kinsey Institute's Juried Erotic Art Exhibitions.
Have you worked with Michael Farrell? Add Credits for Michael Farrell! >>
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Worked together 1 times; Most recent: January 2017
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Worked together 1 times; Most recent: August 2015
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