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Air Jordan 9 Motorboat Jones ,Air Jordan 6 Varsity Red Air Jordan Spizike Easter Air Jordan 13 He Got Game 2013 Air Jordan 13 Birmingham Barons Air Jordan 3 Infrared 23 Air Jordan 9 Johnny Kilroy Air Jordan 5 Fear Air Jordan 13 Birmingham Barons Air Jordan 4 Columbia 2015 Did it create World Peace? Obviously, no. But it proves the greater point that politicians and religious leaders are more the cause of war (as opposed to any actual "differences" between the sides) when it comes to two cultures that wouldn't otherwise really know each other. For decades, Americans were conditioned to hate Iran (and its people) through the media and political proclamations this had been heavily reinforced for many years, trust me (and sadly still is in some ways, but to a lesser degree). And yet, we have that moment in the picture. People are better, and have more in common with one another, than most of our "leaders" would like us to realize. Therefore, significant occurrences of unity, like the one above, serve as important remiders of just that. That sense of "global unity" is brought out, in many ways, at every Olympic gathering. The Olympics appeal to our better selves in terms of interacting with one another just ask the athletes. Are The Games flawed in many ways behind the scenes? Definitely. But, once again, I feel they serve as an important reminder of just how much we have in common with one another and how much we, as people, actually do like to interact with other cultures in a peaceful and respectful manner. I dont see what the USA vs Iran football match achieved. If americans really did hate Iranian people and think they were evil or something, then they are even more stupid than they are portrayed because i know that possibly a majoirity of Iranians, even though they are constantly bombarded with Anti western propaganda themselves, are very sympathetic to the US, and this has nothing to do with the football match. And i dont buy the olympic spirit "it unites cultures" line. I dont think it does. In fact i remember the last olympics being held in a dictatorship and lots of protests regarding human rights abuses, and some boycotts and many locals forced to leave their homes to make way for developments for the olympics. I recall in the last winter olympics Canada "owning the podium", not allowing foreign athletes to practise on the ski hills. They defended themselves by saying that they are not proud of their record of never having won an olympic gold on home soil, despite hosting 2 olympics. Many pointed out at the time that presumably they must then be proud of the fact that they are acting like a spoilt child in the way they are treating their guests. Its really come to something when the number of olympic golds won is more important than being fair to your guests. Call me a cynic but i really dont buy into anything the media does or says. I see every big company taking advantage of olympics and world cup always, just to make more money. Where is the money to RSA's poor or Chinas poor? Olympics have been boycotted en masse in the past and will again. People face eachother for victory. And people are at the end of the day divided into groups based on what piece of land they were born on. Not united but divided. and yes you do get your Mandela presents the world cup, moments, or your equitorial guinea swimmer who cant swim doing a lap, and the video being circulated as quickly as possible around the world for maximum effect, but at the end of the day what do they achieve? EG is still one of the most closed and brutal states in the world, and the video was forgoten about a few weeks later, as was the swimmer. And no portrayal of South Africa can claim that a black south african presenting the world cup to a white south african provided anything more than a kodak moment, as South Africas problems and divisions continue as they always have. They are after all routed in reality, in brutality, in wrongs, in imperialism, in racism, in economics and sport will never be able to adress these issues. Never. Jamais. Nunca. Nie. Mai. Nigdy. Anyway, which violence have the celebrations of the WC won by Spain caused??? (since you are talking about sport and violence). Why it does disturb you so much that people get happy some days?? I can tell you that normal people do recognize current national problems at different levels, but at the same time can enjoy a sporting victory. What I am saying is so obvious and normal that I am surprised that you insist in this point again and again in this thread. That is just my opinion as a Spaniard who enjoyed the victory in the WC, stands again doping, and is deeply worried about the socio economic outcomes of the crisis and our politicians. These are different things, why messing them up all the time in this thread? Your point is probably that politicians and cooperative newspapers do mess up those 3 things, I assume. Agreed. Politicians are one thing, Spaniards other. Firstly my responce to Francois had nothing to do with Spain, so you clearly misread it. I never said Sport always causes violence. I said it causes way more harm than it solves, and i backed it up with tons of examples where sport has killed people, created geopolitical problems and even started wars. I also pointed out that wars are not stopped or prevented by football because sport can not touch the reasons behind why wars are started. Maybe you could give me a rebuttal, rather than claim that i have lost. Second of all I see once again the cheap personal attack that so many seem to resort to on these forums saying that i cant stand people having different opinions/ being happy. How can you tell. You are just trolling by saying that. You can have no idea what the emotions behind my wrods are based on a few sentences on a board. You certainatly dont have the evidence to go around making claims that i am opposed to the happyness of the masses. And its not me but the Spanish media which is mixing economics with football. I didnt call 2010 the year of July 11th, El pais did, so dont blame the messenger. Theres also the Spanish advert, cant remember if it was this thread or another where it was discussed, where nike calls sport the light in our lives, during these bad economic times for Spain. So if you dont like these discussions, blame not me but nike and el pais. To improve Canada chances in skiing, the downhill course at Whistler was built each of the last two springs and surrounded with safety fencing, at a cost of more than $100,000. Finally beating the "arch enemy" in football is but one of those occasions. Simply hosting mayor sport events is often seen by those that feel marginalised as recognition of their worth. You can argue all you want about the things that the World Cup in SA didn't address, it was experienced as an "arrival of sorts" by many South Africans (and "wider" Africans), a recognition that they felt they were long due. It might not be as substantial as I'd like it to be, but we are emotional creatures, and if "they" experience it that way, it can only help with their confidence and self image. Which again feeds other areas. Apart from that, that Mandela moment does cement a change in South Africa that has taken place, and will be proudly remembered as such. There are many "underdogs" that look back proudly at their first global recognition of their arrival, or the first time they got their own back on their arch rival. And often, it is sports that enables this type of "popular" experience. And the sports arena gives a stage to aspiring Davids who go straight to Goliath's front door and knock it down. Images generated by individuals that have become symbols that are recognized the world over. The gesture of a few black US athletes on the Olympic stage. The two fingers up that Jesse Owens gave the Nazi hosts during the Berlin Olympics, simply by beating their finest. Sport, almost like no other popular pastime, has the capacity to generate emotions and images that transcend their "actual" worth for large sways of the population, simply because of its popular appeal. You are very good at finding the occurrences where it is used for evil. You keep saying things like "it didn't solve Aids", "Chinese still booted folk out of their house to make way for a stadium", and "stan and India aren't the best of friends". Anecdotes, however, do not make a blanket rule. There are counter examples a plenty too. Again, given the overwhelming amount of sport there is on planet earth, what you raise are still very much the exceptions. And what you raise only proves that sport cannot fix all problems that are already there. Air Jordan 9 Motorboat Jones,Anime has been known since the early of 20th century, but not until the 1980s that it attains conventional credit from the world. It is the Japan that makes anime popular. Even though some countries in Asian also draw anime nowadays, when you hear the word anime it is mostly attributed to the Japanese anime. The history of this art is quite long, starting from Japanimation to anime. During the earlier decades of introduction, Japanese artists and others in the industry tried to develop new animation techniques to perform like those in western countries, and the concept was known as Japanimation. They make it great and anime is really popular now. Part of the draw that anime possesses is the fact that they can target wide ranges of viewers. This is due to the fact that animes are not confined to one category, but run the entire gamut of genres, including action, sci fi, drama, romance, horror, and yes, even erotica. And since it is animation, anime creators are free to express whatever they have in mind. Unlike in real life movies, they just need creativity and talent to pass their ideas into drawings. They do not need background setting, stunt player, and make up artist, for example, to create an anime that will draw viewers' attention. It is not all about drawing the anime yourself, in fact. New features in CGI animators have made ideas to screen transmit easier and more efficient. Even the wildest mind can be made real on the screen. A picture can say a lot, but anime can do even better. Better storylines and characters are two distinctive advantages. When reading anime, you can expect to understand and involve in the all inclusive stories better. Anime also has character flashbacks so that you can know the history or background of each character. If you enjoy drama movies, try drama animes. They usually also comprise humor, meaningful learning, as well as other worthy attributes in a package, so forget about the boring drama. Needless to say, not all animes are just cartoons for kids. In fact, the majority of animes feature violence, sexual innuendos, and language that may not be suitable for children. This is likely a major reason why anime's popularity has exploded across the world. Overall, animes are enjoyable by all groups of age. 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German and Anglo-Saxon Approaches on Services and Services Marketing: Taking Stock Looking Ahead
- Merilyn Harmon
- 2 years ago
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1 Arbeitspapier Nr. 4 German and Anglo-Saxon Approaches on Services and Services Marketing: Taking Stock Looking Ahead von PD Dr. Michaela Haase, Dipl.-Kfm. Stefan Chatrath und Dr. Samy Saab Juni 2008 Herausgegeben vom Marketing-Department der Freien Universität Berlin Prof. Dr. Martin Eisend, Prof. Dr. Michael Kleinaltenkamp, Prof. Dr. Alfred Kuß, Prof. Dr. Christina Sichtmann
2 Authors: 1 PD Dr. Michaela Haase Freie Universität Berlin, Marketing-Department, Otto-von-Simson- Str. 19, D Berlin / International Franz Oppenheimer College (in the stage of formation), Friedrichstr. 189, D Berlin, Germany, Tel.: ++49 (0) , Fax: ++49 (0) , Dipl.-Kfm. Stefan Chatrath, MSc Int. Economics Freie Universität Berlin, Marketing-Department, Otto-von-Simson- Str. 19, D Berlin, Germany, Tel.: ++49(0) , Fax: ++49(0) , Dr. Samy Saab Freie Universität Berlin, Marketing-Department, Otto-von-Simson- Str. 19, D Berlin, Germany, Tel.: ++49(0) , Fax: ++49(0) , Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über abrufbar. ISBN: (ISBN-10) (ISBN-13) 1 II All authors contributed equally to this manuscript.
3 Content 1 Introduction: paradigm lost new paradigm found? Three approaches to services marketing The service-dominant logic by Vargo and Lusch The rental-access paradigm by Lovelock and Gummesson The resources-processes-outcomes approach a German contribution to services marketing The transaction cost theory as the main pillar of the resources-processes-outcomes approach The property rights theory as the main pillar of the resources-processes-outcomes approach Bundles of goods, services and the rights assigned to them The integrative value-creation chain Three dimensions of a transaction The Anglo-Saxon approaches grounding in economics Cooperation of market participants and co-creation of value: some reflections on the service-dominant logic Characteristics of non-ownership transactions: property rights theory and its contribution to the rental-access approach Discussion of the two Anglo-Saxon approaches and the German approach Conclusion References...31 III
4 List of figures Figure 1: The integrative value-creation chain IV
5 1 Introduction: paradigm lost new paradigm found? Despite the excessive use of the term paradigm after the publication of Kuhn s The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (first edition in 1962), many philosophers of science but social scientists, too, have doubted that scientific revolutions have actually taken place in the social sciences. One reason for these doubts is that a social scientific revolution requires that there is a social science available (and not only a pool of loosely coupled approaches) that can be the basis for a revolution. The social sciences are not seen to be in a paradigmatic development phase where schools and theories have evolved which could be put into question and overthrown by subsequent generations of scholars. As is well-known, Kuhn has been criticized because of his unspecified concept of paradigm (Masterman 1970). 2 It is however not the aim of this paper to delve into this matter. Nevertheless, we expect to gain some insights in the paradigmatic status of some developments in Anglo-Saxon services marketing which have been described in Kuhnian terms like paradigm and revolution by Lovelock/Gummesson (2004). Vargo/Lusch (2004, p. 1) point to the appearance of a crisis in services marketing theory. From the perspective of philosophy of science we will take the idea that empirical evidence as well as theoretical shortcomings which are the source of anomalies may cast some doubt on a theory, even on a wellestablished one. The theory 3 in question is the Anglo-Saxon mainstream approach on services which characterizes services as consisting of four specific characteristics (Araujo/Spring 2006, p. 798; Furrer/Sollberger 2007, p. 95; Lovelock/Gummesson 2004 p. 23): intangibility, 2 According to Kuhn s early version, a paradigm is the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on, shared by the members of a given community (Kuhn 1970, p. 175). In reaction to the criticism on this early version s concept of paradigm, Kuhn modified the concept of paradigm to that of a disciplinary matrix (Kuhn 1974). A disciplinary matrix is characterized by definitions and laws (symbolic generalizations), the metaphysical beliefs of those scholars who dispose of the theory in particular entities (like atoms but also services or goods), values and attitudes of these scholars as well as solved puzzles. 1
6 heterogeneity, inseparability, and perishability (IHIP). Interestingly, and in accordance with comparable developments in the natural sciences, marketing scholars critical of the IHIP-characteristics have directed their efforts at the development of a new approach (or paradigm) which can supersede its predecessor. We mainly discuss two alternative Anglo- Saxon approaches which are getting ready to succeed the mainstream, IHIP-based, approach: First, we refer to Vargo and Lusch s new dominant logic for marketing. Second, we discuss Lovelock and Gummesson s rental-access approach (RAP). Whereas both approaches have been developed in order to renew the theory and practice of services marketing, the former turns out to be more broadly designed than the latter: What in the meantime is called service dominant logic (SDL) is much more difficult to comprehend in terms of one theory or one paradigm than the comparatively more focused RAP: The SDL refers to many aspects which are discussed in economics, social theory, and ethics, to mention just a few connections which can be established. Compared to that, the RAP mainly concentrates on the further development of services marketing based on ownership or non-ownership, respectively. Both SDL and RAP base their criticism on the received wisdom of services marketing (Lovelock/Gummesson 2004, p. 20); however, they (as admitted by Lovelock/Gummesson 2004, p. 20) have barely taken into account the work of scholars in Europe. In in response to this disregard but, of course, also because of its theoretical content, the paper discusses one European approach in services marketing, namely the German resources-processes-outcomes (RPO) approach or leistungs 4 -approach that emerged within the same parameters as both the SDL and the RAP. We argue that the RPO approach provides some answers to questions which are also addressed by the SDL and the RAP and that a comparison 3 Throughout this paper, we use the term theory in a rather loosely manner. In other words, we do not figure out if the approach in question can be reconstructed in terms of one of the theory conceptions within philosophy of science. 4 Cp. Kleinaltenkamp/Jacob (2002). There is no unequivocal translation for the German term Leistung. With reference to Araujo/Spring (2006), it can be characterized by its emphasis on preparation, performance and the results of the performance (output or value). We present a sketch of the resources-processes-outcomes approach or leistungs-approach, respectively, in section
7 or appraisal, respectively, of the contributions of all three approaches will provide additional insights into their merits as well as shortcomings. 2 Three approaches to services marketing 2.1 The service-dominant logic by Vargo and Lusch With their award-winning article Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing, Vargo and Lusch have heavily impacted marketing research in Their ideas quickly began to elicit positive as well as critical feedback from the scientific community (Lusch/Vargo 2006b). Vargo and Lusch (2004) vote for a paradigm shift from a goods-centered dominant logic (GDL) towards a service-dominant logic (SDL). SDL is expected to be able to better serve as an integrative framework for the highly fragmented fields of marketing research than GDL. SDL aims at simultaneously understanding buyer and seller behavior, institutional mechanisms, and the role of marketing in society (Lusch/Vargo 2006b, p. xviii). However, SDL is not a theory; it is rather a perspective or a philosophy and claims to provide a (new) mental model of exchange (Lusch/Vargo/Malter 2006, p. 267). In the service-centered perspective, service is always exchanged for service. Being the ultimate unit of exchange, service is defined as the application of specialized competences (knowledge and skills) through deeds, processes, and performances for the benefit of another entity or the entity itself (Vargo/Lusch 2004, p. 2). This definition clearly places the process in front of the output of an exchange situation (Lusch/Vargo 2006b, p. xvii). Central to their notion of service is the differentiation between operand resources and operant resources (Constantin/Lusch 1996, p. 143). Vargo and Lusch use this differentiation in order to contrast the goods dominant logic (GDL), wherein operand resources play the leading role, with the evolving service-dominant logic (SDL), wherein operant resources are the key factors of competitive advantage (Vargo/Lusch 2004, p. 2). Operand resources are primarily physical resources on which an operation or act is performed to produce an effect 3
8 (Vargo/Lusch 2004, p. 2). In contrast, operant resources are primarily intangible resources such as knowledge and competences. Operant resources are employed to act on other resources; they produce effects (Vargo/Lusch 2004, p. 2). SDL highlights the continuance of the value-creation process by focusing on the value-in-use instead of focusing on the value-in-exchange, which is, according to Vargo and Lusch, the main concept of value in the GDL. From an SDL point of view providers and customers collaborate in two ways: First, the customer (consumer) always determines or co-creates value within the consumption process (value-in-use). Second, the customer (consumer) additionally may act as a co-producer by participating in the creation of the offering itself, e.g., through co-design, shared inventiveness or shared production (Lusch/Vargo/O Brian 2007, p. 11). Because the customer (consumer) is always regarded as a coproducer and/or co-creator of value, the service-centered view is inherently customer oriented and relational (Vargo/Lusch 2004). SDL s marketing conception includes insofar consequentially the utilization of the exchange object by the customer, too. As regards its ambitious and far-reaching agenda, the SDL has faced severe criticism (e.g. by Achrol/Kotler 2006; Schembri 2006; Stauss 2005): In SDL, as outlined above, every exchange is an exchange of services, and each customer-contact is relational. This broadening of the serviceconcept has been criticized as a Pyrrhic victory for the field of services marketing (Stauss 2005). Both the language of services marketing and the everyday language have identified though not coherently fundamental differences between service and a non-service which seem to be underestimated by SDL. Empirical evidence indicates that there are different kinds of output; this should be reflected in analysis or theory even if the differences are theoretically not maintainable. Kalaignanam/Varadarajan (2006, p. 172) for example maintain that service-based solutions entail customers paying for temporary access, whereas goodsbased solutions entail customers paying for ownership. This is a nontrivial 4
9 difference from the standpoint of both the firm and the customer. We will further elaborate on this issue below. 5 Empirical evidence indicates also that there are not only differences in output but also in the processes and activities which bring it about. So is the production of what is called in everyday language a service characterized to a higher degree by the need for cooperation by the customer than the production of goods. As regards the customer s competences which enable him or her to cooperate, the provider has to cope with uncertainty, and vice versa. These uncertainties can affect both the efficiency and the effectiveness of the processes of production (Fließ/Kleinaltenkamp 2004). Our argument here parallels that from the paragraph above: Service providers cannot ignore particularities which manufactured goods sellers usually have not to take into account to the same degree. Again, our argument is not that, because there is a difference in empirical evidence, there has to be also one in theory. The question is, of course, if the differences are theoretically relevant and how they are accounted for in the theory. The SDL advocates a normative approach with respect to marketing ethics. 6 The authors provide several normative guidelines for managers, which should be followed (Lusch/Vargo 2006a, p. 415f.). The central proposition of SDL can be described as the more a firm follows the SDL, the more it will be able to achieve a competitive advantage (cp., e.g., Lusch/Vargo/O Brian 2007). These guidelines serve not only as a means to achieve competitive advantages for firms; they also serve as a moral compass that shall guide managers behavior. 5 Kalaignanam/Varadarajan s hypothesis indeed has been backed up by empirical research recently published: Söderlund/Öhman (2005) find that in a service setting there is a relatively weak correlation between actual customer behavior and the behavior planned before entering the service encounter. They explain their result as follows: [ ] compared to a good, that one owns and thus controls, the consumption of services will be subject to more external restrictions and these restrictions will make it more difficult for intentions to materialize in the form of behavior (Söderlund/Öhman 2005, p. 179).The customer participates as a co-producer in the service production process. Co-production involves a flow of interactions between him and service personnel or other customers, so that he is not completely free to use the service as he would like, for example as he has to follow the rules and regulations compiled by the service provider. 5
10 2.2 The rental-access paradigm by Lovelock and Gummesson Compared to SDL, the diffusion of the rental-access paradigm (RAP) into scientific community has not been as successful. However, it has already found its way into leading textbooks such as Kotler/Keller (2006, p. 402), Grönroos (2007, p. 55) and, of course, Lovelock/Wirtz (2007, p. 12). Contrary to SDL s statement that every result of a firm s performance is a service, the RAP states that services can be distinguished from goods: According to the RAP, services are transactions that do not include a transfer of ownership from seller to buyer. Compared to ownership (of goods), services offer benefits to customers through temporary access or usage, with payments taking the form of rentals or access fees. Five types of services are identified (Lovelock/Gummesson 2004, p. 34): rentedgoods services, place or space rentals, labor or expertise rentals, physical facility access or usage, network access or usage. The implications of the RAP for a firm s services marketing are the following (ibid., pp. 35): A wide array of tangible goods, such as automobiles, computers, industrial machinery and equipment, can be rented to customers in return for a periodic payment. Rented goods can form a base for services because customer needs may be better met thereby. Choice criteria, thus, will differ between rentals and purchases. Service often means selling parts of a larger space: Customers gain the right to exclusive but temporary use of a portion [of a resource] that they can legitimately describe as my seat, my room, [ ] (ibid., p. 35). It is beneficial to share this larger space with other users. On some occasions, this may be regarded as a trade-off against more expensive alternatives, for example, when using a public transport system; on others, the interaction between 6 As a potential theory of the firm, S-D logic is highly prescriptive regarding ethical issues (Lusch/Vargo 2006a: 415). 6
11 customers is perceived as positive as, for example, in a football stadium. 7 In a service setting, the provider has to control how customers make use of the provider s equipment and facilities, co-produce with its personnel, and interface with systems and networks (Lovelock/Wirtz 2007, p. 14). This is not the case when a customer acquires ownership of a good: As long as he or she abides by the law, he or she can do with the good whatever he or she likes to do. After the transaction is finished, he or she is neither accountable to the seller nor to anyone else. Access to or use of services is temporally limited. Time and its perception by customers plays therefore an important role in services marketing. Especially time-based pricing is seen as a main task a service provider has to pay attention to. [In a world in which many resources are believed to be finite (Lovelock/Gummesson 2004, p. 36), services allow sustainable resource exploitation in two ways: First, labor and expertise are renewable resources in services. Second, services offer opportunities for sharing resources such as goods, physical facilities, systems, expertise etc. Although RAP is meanwhile mentioned in textbooks, among marketing scholars there has been almost no discussion about the RAP and its implications for services marketing so far. This is not surprising as the RAP is neither based on empirical research, nor deduced from prior theories (Edvardsson et al. 2005, p. 113). It is therefore hard, if not even virtually impossible, to evaluate systematically the RAP s propositions against this background. If the RAP turned out to be an alternative to the dominant IHIP approach in services marketing, it would have to provide more clarity concerning its basic assumptions and behavioral model. 7 In both cases, the consumption by one customer does not curb the consumption of the same match by another, or in other words: group consumption is perceived as nonrivalrous (Cornes/Sandler 1996: 8). In economics, to this type of services is referred as club good (Buchanan 1965). 7
12 Lovelock/Gummesson (2004) and Lovelock/Wirtz (2007) do not address these points that are, however, crucial for the discussion about RAP and its contributions to services marketing. At the present time, the RAP can rather be interpreted as a substantial contribution to the discussion on the character of services and their differences to goods than a new approach in services marketing. In this regard, within services marketing, it may pave the way to interesting insights on the role of property rights and the particular contract forms to which they will give rise (even though it does not explicitly draw on property rights). Nonetheless, as the RAP has till now not worked out clearly what is so specific about services, it seems that it exhibits some shortcomings even in face of the requirements of this limited domain. Its above-mentioned distinctions between between five types of services draw rather on everyday language than on theory. A good starting point to address this issue might be to clarify the concepts of ownership and, especially, non-ownership: According to the RAP, service transactions do not involve a transfer of ownership. At least two questions arise from this: First, what else is then being transferred? In other words, which are the main characteristics of a service transaction? Second, is it possible to identify different types of non-ownership transactions? Otherwise RAP could not provide an interface to the conviction, widespread in the field of services marketing, that there are different kinds of services (Araujo/Spring 2006, p. 797). Lovelock/Gummesson (2004) and Lovelock/Wirtz (2007) provide no answer to these questions. They neither define non-ownership nor illuminate their understanding of this term; in addition, they do not generate their five types of services from this understanding. In the face of these omissions, the types as well as the marketing implications based on them seem rather to be randomly chosen. It is at least not clear how the authors have hit on them. To sum up: A clarification of the basic concepts of the RAP is still missing. Insofar we agree with Stauss (2005, p. 227) that the RAP is a very promising approach that still awaits for its working out. We believe that the 8
13 property rights approach will provide a sound basis for such an endeavor. In section 3.2, we sketch this out in more detail. 2.3 The resources-processes-outcomes approach a German contribution to services marketing The resources-processes-outcomes approach or leistungs approach (RPO approach) in Germany s services marketing has been developed by German researchers in the 1990s. In the meantime, despite the variety of approaches in Germany s services marketing, it has found widespread attention in the German marketing community (Saab 2007). Although RPO approach s exponents published their ideas several times in Anglophone journals (Fließ/Kleinaltenkamp 2004; Frauendorf et al. 2007; Kleinaltenkamp/Jacob 2002), the approach is still relatively unknown in the international marketing community. For this reason, we sketch its main characteristics below. Compared to the SDL and the RAP, the RPO approach has the advantage of a double grounding first in the German business economic theory of the firm, namely the Gutenberg school, and second in the new institutional economics (NIE). From the first, it has inherited a point of view on activities, tasks, and processes, which take place within a firm that can be called production theoretical. Compared to its origin, however, this production theoretical view has been extended in a twofold manner: first, a broad concept of production has replaced the narrow one that only includes the production of industrial goods; second, the recording of all activities inside of the firm into categories like procurement, production, and sales has been transcended in favor of a cross-sectional view. From the institutional economics, the RPO approach took over the concept of transaction (Commons 1931; Williamson 1985) as the main category for the analysis of economic organization both of market and organizational activities. The transaction is also the starting point for the RPO approach s linkage to the property rights theory. 9
14 2.3.1 The transaction cost theory as the main pillar of the resourcesprocesses-outcomes approach Coase s work on transaction costs and property rights (Coase 1937; Coase 1960) has attracted more attention than Commons mainly historicdescriptive work on the developments of property rights in the US (Ward 1966, p. 187). Commons however provided substantial contributions to the understanding of the transaction as the unit of economic analysis: He made the transaction the ultimate unit of economic investigation, a unit of transfer of legal control. This unit enabled me to classify all economic decisions of the courts and arbitration tribunals under the variable economic factors involved in transactions as they actually are made (Commons 1959, p. 4). The transaction can be named the smallest unit of economic organization (Williamson 1985). It is the unit of analysis where advisements about the ends and means of activities, the interests of the involved parties, the condition and composition of the involved resources as well as the property rights assigned to them, the legal order of the economy, ethical considerations, a. s. o., are brought together. As a unit of analysis, a transaction is characterized by the institutional arrangements, the organizational and technical arrangements related to factor combinations, and by the communications between those economic actors involved in this procedure, designated throughout this paper as provider (supplier) or customer (buyer). According to Commons and quite contrary to the understanding of the term transaction elsewhere in services marketing (Vargo/Lusch 2004, p. 12), transactions are really trans-actions instead of either individual behaviour or the exchange of commodities (Commons 1931, p. 652). 8 The actors involved in transactions interact with each other in order to accomplish their ends. These interactions are executed by individuals who 8 As Furubotn/Pejovich (1972: 1139) point out, property rights do not refer to relations between men and things but, rather, to the sanctioned behavioral relations among men that arise from the existence of things and pertain to their use (italics in the original). 10
15 act according to their interests, which are not totally harmonious with each other and which are directed at the configuration and accomplishment of action opportunities. Conflicts emerge throughout the course of a transaction and are to be regulated or solved by the transactions parties joint efforts. Commons (1931) characterization of the transaction by means of the terms conflict, order, and mutuality applies The property rights theory as the main pillar of the resourcesprocesses-outcomes approach From the perspective of the PRT, a transaction is understood as a form of social interaction between economic actors (individuals as well as organizations) in markets (bargaining transactions) and within organizations (managerial transactions) that results in an exchange of property rights. Property rights are defined as rights of action over resources (Demsetz 1988, p. 36). The specific assignment of property rights determines the actual set of options (opportunity set) that is attainable by the buyer. The property rights theory draws on the distinction between four types of property rights to a resource (Demsetz 1998, p. 144; Eggertsson 2005, p. 34; Furubotn/Pejovich 1972, pp. 1139): (1) the right to use it (ius usus), (2) the right to appropriate the returns arising from exploiting it (ius fructus), (3) the right to change the form, substance and place of it (ius abusus), (4) the right to transfer all or some of the abovementioned rights to that commodity to others (ius successionis). The PRT is one main pillar for the RPO approach s characterization of the transaction. The transaction as a unit of analysis is characterized by the arrangement of property rights on which the actors have negotiated, by the economic organization of the processes of labor required for the achievement of those ends which are intended to become accomplished by means of the transaction, by the internal and external factors of production which have to be combined in order to bring about the intended outcome, by the communications related to this complex process that bonds (but not necessarily harmonizes) the interests and endeavors of the 11
16 parties involved, and by the dispositions of all these components and activities. In the PRT, the narrow goods-centered view has been transcended in favor of a view that emphasizes the action opportunities based on a particular arrangement of property rights. In the NIE, thus, the importance of scarcity as a motivation for economic activities has come under pressure. One can say that the concept of scarcity related to goods or their attributes has been enhanced by the perspective of action opportunities to which the goods as well as particular activities are a means. The consideration of action opportunities paves the way for the analysis of institutions which, on the one hand, enable actions, and, on the other, limit them. Such rights-based action opportunities are the economic foundation of user processes which are put in foreground by the SDL in the context of its interpretation of value-in-use: The utility that goods render (mostly in connection with activities) arises from the achievement of those ends to which they contribute; utility is determined by the property-rights structure assigned to bundles of goods and services. Referring to this, the negotiation of economic property rights (Barzel 1997: 4) is an important subject matter of the actors activities directed at the achievement of their economic ends Bundles of goods, services and the rights assigned to them In contrast to the SDL, the RPO approach has not gotten rid of the use of everyday language in order to describe the problems in its domain: It assumes that the outcome sold to the customer is always a bundle composed of goods and services (Engelhardt et al. 1993). Thereby, it refers to a finding long established in marketing literature (Lovelock/Gummesson 2004, p. 26), namely that there is an interdependence between goods and services or different kinds of output. Shostack (1977, p. 75), as an example, has remarked that most offerings are combinations of discrete elements which are linked together in 12
17 molecule-like wholes. Elements can be either tangible or intangible. All activities in everyday language subsumed under the term service at least require goods to support and facilitate the delivery system (Jacob et al. 2008). Some are even goods-centered as, for example, the above mentioned services based on rented goods. For this reason, the RPO approach has abandoned the view that firms have to market either goods or services; instead of this, it advocates the idea that customers purchase bundles of goods and services which together provide them with a value and a leistung respectively. With it, of course, the possibility that there will be one day an adequate definition of the concept of service is not excluded; in addition, the use of the terms good and service in everyday language is not affected (at least not in the short run). However, it is remarkable that to date theories in the field of services marketing have not been able to derive the concept of service from their conceptual frameworks (Haase 2005) The integrative value-creation chain From its production theoretical heritage, the RPO approach has adopted the view that the customer has to contribute to the process of value creation that gives rise to a co-production of the outcome by the provider and the customer (Fließ/Kleinaltenkamp 2004, pp. 393). The customer s contributions are conceptualized as external recources which are in need of combination throughout the process of value creation or production. 9 External recources delivered by the customer are categorized as human resources, physical objects, rights, nominal goods, and information (Kleinaltenkamp 2005, p. 71). External and internal recources are combined into an integrative value-creation chain (see Fig. 1); integrative production thus results in the above mentioned outcome or goods-services bundles (Fließ/Kleinaltenkamp 2004, p. 394; Frauendorf et al. 2007, p. 30; Kleinaltenkamp/Jacob 2002, pp. 153). Compared to external recources, 9 Throughout the paper, we use the terms value creation and production as synonymous. 13
18 internal recources are the provider s recources such as assets (human resources, buildings, computers, software, etc.), commodity factors (paper, pencils, energy etc.), semi-finished and finished goods (Gutenberg 1983, pp. 2) that also enter the collective process of production. Supplier Internal Recources Process Outcome Assets Commodity factors Customer Pre - combination Assets Commodity factors Semi-finished goods Finished goods Individuals Objects Rights Nominal goods Information Product/service bundle External Recources Figure 1: The integrative value-creation chain (Fließ/Kleinaltenkamp 2004, p. 394). In the RPO approach, there is an additional way in which the customer s contribution is conceptualized. It relates to both the manner and degree in which the customer gains influence on the joint activities required according to the process of outcome production. On the one hand, the customer s influence can be limited to the provision of external recources. In this case, the customer does not take influence on the design and management of the factor combination processes, that is, these tasks are executed by the provider or owner of the internal recources. On the other hand, for several reasons it may be required that the customer gains influences on the decision on which combinations of recources have to be executed and how this shall take place. This case is characterized by a 14
19 particular need for integration, or by a particular interest of the customer in his or her involvement in the design and management of the process of integrative production Three dimensions of a transaction According to the RPO approach, a transaction is characterized by three areas of activities singled out by reference to recources, property rights and information and communication respectively. They also provide the starting point for the marketing management of a firm (Kleinaltenkamp 2005, pp. 67): Combination of recources: Integrative production means that value is jointly produced by a combination of external and internal recources. Because the utility functions of provider and customer are interdependent (Grossman/Hart 1986), it is the firm s marketing management task to provide the conceptual design and organization for the provider-customer interactions. The value that can be jointly produced is expected to increase if both provider and customer invest specifically in the joint process of production (Jap 1999, Kleinaltenkamp/Ehret 2006, Rokkan et al. 2003). But this also increases the probability of conflicts which are caused by the appropriation of the jointly created value (Furubotn/Richter 2000, p. 131). The returns from specific investments are endangered if one party tries opportunistically to take advantage of the dependency of the other. Given the opportunity, it is expected that some decision makers will unscrupulously seek to serve their self-interest. As it is difficult to know a priori who is trustworthy and who is not (Williamson 1985, p. 85), the economic actors always have to take measures against this possibility. Property rights assignment: Based on the concrete design of transaction arrangements, property rights are temporarily transferred during the period of joint production: on the one hand, 15
20 the supplier who holds ius usus or ius abusus or ius usus fructus to his or her recources allows the customer to take over one or a combination of these rights from him or her. On the other hand, as the production of the output is based on them, ius usus or ius abusus related to external recources are required for the achievement of integration of the external recources. The RPO approach so highlights the fact that integrative production is characterized by what is called attenuation of property rights (Furubotn/Pejovich 1972, p. 1140) to resources which affects both parties of the transaction. As will be discussed below in section 3.2, the attenuation of property rights can give rise to negative external effects. Marketing management cannot ignore this constellation; therefore, it has to develop solutions that minimize uncertainties arising out of this (Fließ/Kleinaltenkamp 2004, p. 401). Stream of information: The management of information processes is central to the RPO approach as it combines the area of property rights assignment with the area of combination of recources. For the RPO approach, exploring and outlining the flow of knowledge within and between markets and organizations is one of the main marketing-management challenges (Haase/Kleinaltenkamp 2004, p. 89). The RPO approach regards information, which is gathered in the course of a single transaction as an important source of knowledge creation for both the provider and the customer. In this vein, information is an important element of the system of production factors. For both parties, integrative production is a source of learning processes which can address the execution of activities related to the combination of recources as well as the respective other parties skills, competences, knowledge, or willingness to cooperate. In the RPO approach, information inflow that follows from providercustomer interactions in the course of a single transaction (processbased information) results from communication between supplier and customer; for this reason (and others) it is differentiated from 16
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First Tutors: Music helps you to find a harpsichord teacher in Isle Of Man and across the UK. First Tutors: Music profiles Isle Of Man harpsichord tutors and others offering popular instruments like piano, violin and guitar. Grade and diploma harpsichord lessons are all catered for across Isle Of Man as well as harpsichord lessons just for fun. Please use our service to search for harpsichord teachers near you and select which harpsichord teachers best suit your needs.
This is the best place to search for the most suitable harpsichord tutor for your needs in Isle Of Man, whether you want harpsichord tuition to learn a new instrument, develop a hobby or train as a serious musician.
Our search will list harpsichord tutors throughout Isle Of Man according to their charges and proximity to you. Offered instruments include piano, violin and guitar for graded music exams or just for fun.
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Towns: Castletown, Douglas, Ramsey


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5 Reviews
- Tapered hook-and-loop closure tabs on either side of the neoprene waist allow you to get a snug, water-tight fit
- Deck section made of 4mm-thick neoprene for extra durability and better insulation
- Tunnel made of 2mm-thick neoprene to provide enhanced mobility while still offering insulation
- Pull tab at front for quick, low-effort ejections
- Item #STS0148
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- Reviews
What do you think about this product?
Have questions about this product?
Not the best, but does what it needs to.
- Familiarity: I've put it through the wringer
This is a great skirt for the price. But the adjustability feature still allows a good amount of water to come in compared to my friends other skirts.
Extra comfort
- Familiarity: I've put it through the wringer
Originally purchased for: 1 month kayak circumnavigation of Crete, Greece
I was extremely pleased using this skirt while kayaking in the Med. Going from cool mornings to hot mid days, we could loosen the waist when the sea was cooperating and cool down. It was extremely convenient to be able to custom adjust the fit in mid paddle if things got a little feisty. After a month of extended daily use, there were no signs of wear other than some of the decals peeling slightly. I expect many more journeys to come!
Durable, comfortable, and functional
- Familiarity: I've put it through the wringer
I just spent 30 days back to back paddling in this skirt and I couldn't be more pleased with it's performance. The sizing chart is spot on, so make sure you measure your boat properly when you buy.
The adjustable tunnel is great! You can leave it loose when it's hot out and the water isn't too rowdy, then easily crank it down tight if you want to go rock gardening. The velcro material is very high quality and hasn't shown any signs of wearing down or losing it's hold.
I also love the grippy material on the underside, right around the bungee. It helps keep the skirt in place when you're getting it over the cockpit, and when you take a big breaker to the face.
It's always a pleasure to find a piece of gear that is this well designed.
Great skirt
Great, comfortable skirt. Does its job. Fits snug around my boat and is comfortable around me. Really like the adjustable waist.
review flagged as unfair, no spray skirt will keep you dry. Click here to view.
How does this seal to the cockpit, is it...
How does this seal to the cockpit, is it a rand or bungee?
Hey David,
This skirt has a bungee for sealing the cockpit enclosure. (Sorry we didn't have that information readily available-- obviously it's an important detail!)
I'd be stoked to chat if you have any other paddling questions! 800.409.4502 ext 4456 or firstname.lastname@example.com.
Will this fit well on my Sea Eagle? It's...
Will this fit well on my Sea Eagle? It's cockpit is 16"x35" the medium seems like it might work but would be too wide and want to make sure that it would stay snug.
how does this skirt perform in class III...
how does this skirt perform in class III whitewater
Hi Keith,
This neoprene skirt will definitely perform well in class III whitewater conditions, just make sure you get the right fit for your kayak.
Let me know if you have any other questions: 800.409.4502 ext 4726 or email@example.com. Cheers!


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Simple Experiments (A Child's First Library of Learning)
What can we say other than most children that go on to science and medicine have early and fun experiences with science. This book can help foster their curiosity.
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- One 14-ounce can unsweetened coconut milk
- 2 tablespoons Asian fish sauce
- 2 tablespoons soy sauce
- 2 tablespoons sugar
- 1 1/2 teaspoons curry powder
- 1 teaspoon kosher salt
- 1 teaspoon freshly ground white pepper
- 1/3 cup sweetened condensed milk
- 2 pounds boneless pork shoulder, sliced 1/4 inch thick and cut into 4-inch strips
- 6-inch wooden skewers, soaked in water for 30 minutes
- Cucumber sticks and lime wedges, for serving
In a saucepan, combine the coconut milk with the fish sauce, soy sauce, sugar, curry powder, salt and white pepper and whisk over moderate heat until the sugar is dissolved, 5 minutes. Pour the marinade into a large bowl and let cool completely.
Whisk the condensed milk into the marinade. Mix in the pork. Cover with plastic wrap and refrigerate for 1 hour.
Light a grill. Skewer the pork and brush lightly with the marinade; discard any remaining marinade. Grill the skewers over moderately high heat, turning, until the pork is lightly charred and just cooked through, about 6 minutes. Transfer the skewers to a platter and serve with sliced cucumber and lime wedges.


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Style: 39823158 Color Code:
Super soft and cozy brushed scarf featured in an oversized silhouette with fringe trim. Use as a wrap or traditional scarf, this style has endless ways to wear.
Tossed this in my cart as an after thought bc i needed a scarf and it was on sale - might be my favorite FP purchase ever. Seriously. It's HUGE but not heavy, perfect for wearing as a shawl or scarf, and it's super soft. I was worried about lint all over my black clothes after wearing it, but surprisingly doesn't seem to be an issue. I don't want to wear anything else around the house or going out anymore...it's the perfect weight and is a pretty alternative to a sweater. Love this charcoal color and the long fringe makes it fun. Cuddled up in bed wrapped up in it right now. Seriously. Amazing scarf.
Versatile !
My favorite thing about this scarf is its versatility. Great for snuggling up as a blanket, over the shoulder with a belt, or really wrapping up for the cold. This scarf was my favorite purchase of the fall. I bought the green and it is still a great go to neutral for all outfits. I love pairing it with a patch jean jacket .
Love this scarf!
Bought it in the army color and it is a stunning color in person! I don't feel like this scarf is too oversized! And it is perfect for anyone living in cold climates like Minnesota! Thinking about buying it in other colors! Have had no problems with snags or anything like that!
Bought one of these for myself and two for gifts!!! These are absolutely amazing. Very very soft, warm and very long and oversized. The colors are a bit more muted than they appear online, but still insanely beautiful. I got myself the mustard color and it's definitely a muted mustard - the kind that doesn't wash you out! I adore it. The ocean color looks kind of like a blue-gray and the tan is just as it appears. Can't wait to give them as gifts and see what they think! Highly recommend. I'm probably gonna get myself another color!
Not perfect but nice
This wrap is oversized as expected and beautiful. I only wish it were machine washable given the fabrics used, and it's a teeny bit scratchy. Unexpected given the fabrics. It doesn't shed, though, but is fuzzy, and the camel color is beautiful.
Perfect Scarf
I fell in love with this scarf in the soft pink color and when it arrived it was even better than I had expected! It's soft, cozy, and definitely oversized. For the price I was beyond pleased with it and hope to purchase more colors. Don't hesitate to buy this scarf, you won't regret it!
Whoever designed this scarf is amazing! It's super comfy and just the perfect size. I keep bringing it to work and using it as a shawl because it's always cold there. I might just end up buying a second and leaving it there. I've gotten lots of compliments from my coworkers. LOVE. THIS. SCARF.
I loved the look of this shawl on line. I looked at it several times. There were, however, no dimensions given. Finally, I decided to purchase it.I carefully studied the photos, and it looked like it was big enough to serve as a wrap not just a scarf. I was extremely disappointed when it arrived. It was a generous scarf but definitely NOT a shawl. Also, the material felt like the type that would quickly become pilly. Had to return it.
This is super soft. I purchased in Deep Ocean which is a great, sort of unexpected fall color that I've fallen in love with. I often have to fight with the resident felines over this super soft and lovely scarf if it gets set down. Easily large enough to be a shawl, or even a small blanket. Very versatile and will get lots of use.
Best Blanket Scarf Out There
I purchased the grey and it's such a beautiful scarf. It's huge and warm and perfect for cold Boston winters. I love it so much I'm considering buying it in the brick red, gold, and ocean blue colors. In love with it. Hoping free people has a sale on these scarfs some time soon though :D. I'll be spending most of my post-election stress retail therapy $ on these.


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We would love to meet you!
Antique Edwardian engagement ring made in platinum and 18K yellow gold set with an EGL certified one carat J-K color VS2 clarity old European cut diamond and accented with two old European cut diamonds and fourteen rose cut diamonds. Circa 1910.
Unique mixed metal setting featuring an elegant low profile.
Diamond and gold mining has caused devastation in areas such as Africa, wreaking havoc on delicate ecosystems and communities. Choosing to go vintage, you are eliminating the need for more mining and lessening the demand for new diamonds.
Free shipping & returns in the U.S.


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|有線私人影院 Cine p. 有線私人影院 Cine p. 新增了一段影片:《爆房有情人》(A Job at Love Hotel) 讚好 · 回應 · 分享 你收到這封電郵,是因為你開啟了有線私人影院 Cine p. 的通知。 請瀏覽有線私人影院 Cine p. 的個人檔案以關閉通知。
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IRCON International Limited has released the Final Result for the Works Engineer/ Civil post on its official web page . All the candidates that had appeared in the Interview Process for the above mentioned post can visit the official web portal of the authority. The Interview Process was held on 16.10.2015 , those candidates that had been called for the interview appeared in the recruitment drive . After a long wait of time finally candidates that had been optimistic about the Result can check the Final Result made available on the IRCON website.
IRCON International Limited Result for Works Engineer – Declared Civil Posts Final List 2015 Result
Name of Organization– IRCON International Limited
Name of Post – Works Engineer/Civil Post
Job Type- Contractual Basis
Interview Date– Held on 16.10.2015
Ircon International Limited is a central owned Public Sector government company . IRCON was established in order to Provide developing nations to build their own railway projects through the Vast Experience of Indian Railways in construction and development of various projects all over India.
As per the official records IRCON International Limited has completed near around 300 projects in India and some around 100 projects globally from countries in African, European and Asian continents.
One of the Premier Construction Projects have been done by the IRCON International Limited in India, Its name is famous for developing projects all around the country in various vast locations.
Those candidates that had been waiting for the Final Result declaration can now log in to the official web page for checking their respective scores
IRCON International Limited is one of the best suited company for hard working candidates all around the country , Many candidates that are in the sector of Civil engineering apply for the various jobs in IRCON organization. Due to the name of IRCON associated , the competition for the exam gets higher and those candidates attaining maximum marks in the exams as well as the Interviews as selected to Join
Candidates shortlisted through this exam will be posted at IRCON Metro Rail Project Kochi,
How to check IRCON International Limited Result for Works Engineer – Declared Civil Posts Final List 2015 Result
- all the candidates must visit the official web page which is www.ircon.org
- candidates now click on the vacancy options displayed on the right top corner of the main page
- which will lead the candidates to new page where Result Option will be displayed
- candidates need to visit the result page and click on the Civil Post/Works Engineer final result link
- Download and Save the file