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Energy- and Eco-Efficiency of Data Centres
- Holly Thomas
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1 Energy- and Eco-Efficiency of Data Centres A study commissioned by DIAE 1 / ScanE 2 of the Canton of Geneva Worked out by: Dr. Bernard Aebischer, CEPE, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich Dr. Rolf Frischknecht, ESU-services, Uster Christophe Genoud, Idheap, Université de Lausanne, Chavannes-près- Renens Alois Huser, Encontrol, Niederrohrdorf Prof. Frédéric Varone, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve Genève, January 5, Département de l intérieur, de l agriculture et de l environnement Service cantonal de l énergie
3 Contents i Contents Summary Context and 0bjective Context Approach and methodology Energy analysis Policy analysis Data Centres Description and function of Data Centres Energy use in Data Centres Consumption patterns Energy consumption in large computer centres in Switzerland Energy consumption in existing and planned Data Centres in the Canton of Geneva Energy efficiency in Data Centres Definition of energy efficiency potentials (Jochem, 2000) Measuring energy efficiency The CEE-concept Arguments to use CEE as an indicator of rational use of energy in Data Centres Measuring concept of C1 in Data Centres Measuring c2 in Data Centres Energy consumption pattern and energy efficiency potentials of ICT equipment (c2) Servers: the typical ICT equipment in Data Centres Chip technology Reduction of energy-losses in power transformation, heat evacuation and measures for a reliable power supply Energy efficiency in groups of ICT equipment in Data Centres Energy efficiency potentials by optimising the layout and the operating of the infrastructure (C1) Cooling equipment Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) Power distribution unit (PDU) and other auxiliary equipment Summary: design parameters influencing C Integration of C1 in the permission procedure Eco-efficiency in Data Centres Refrigerants used in cooling equipments Results of life cycle assessment (LCA) Current regulation for the handling of HFCs Recommendations Green electricity The naturemade star certification scheme Trade-off between energy efficiency and green electricity supply Emissions from emergency power generators...48
4 ii Contents 6 Policies to foster energy efficiency in Data Centres What is the problem with data centres? Illogical distribution of competence Procedure became politicised Lack of legal and/or administrative framework Lack of controlling mechanisms Voluntary approaches in Zürich (Energiemodell Zürich) and in the framework of EnergieSchweiz (Energiemodell Schweiz) The "Energiemodell Zürich" The "Energiemodell Schweiz" Data Centres within an "Energiemodell" The CEE concept and the "Energiemodell" Conclusions Scenarios for the future Three scenarios Criteria for evaluating scenarios and the need for new conditions The need for new conditions Conclusions, recommendations, outlook Conclusions Technical feasibility of the CEE-concept Suitability of voluntary policies Fulfilment of the equity-criteria Recommendations Transfer of the accord into an institutionalised legal and regulatory framework Energy-efficiency policies for all large energy consumers Preconditions, pre-requisites Operational design of voluntary energy policies Outlook...65 Literature, References...66 Appendices...71
5 Summary 1 Summary In this study we investigate strategies and technical approaches to fostering more energyefficient and environmentally sound planning, building and operating of data centres. We then also formulate recommendations on how to integrate the findings in the legal and regulatory framework in order to handle construction permits for large energy consumers and promote energy efficiency in the economic sectors. 1 Context and objective The starting point of the study is the accord negotiated between the Canton of Geneva, operators of data centres and representatives of environmental organisations concerning the energy and environmental aspects to be considered in the new data centres. The government intends to integrate the results of this negotiation process in the regular procedure set up to handle construction permits for large energy consumers and to promote energy efficiency in the economic sectors. The authors had participated in the process leading to the accord and were asked to support the follow-up process by investigating different aspects of the accord: Is it feasible and does it make sense to measure energy efficiency in data centres by the Coefficient of Energy Efficiency (CEE)? Are voluntary policies approaches adequate in the socio-political situation in Geneva and adapted for data centres and similar activities? Can the required equal treatment of all companies with activities similar to data centres and of large energy consumers in all other economic sectors be fulfilled? 2 Approach and methodology Energy-economic and policy aspects of these three issues were studied. The energy analysis was focused on data centres and similar activities in the ICT-sector, but the outcomes relative to the central infrastructure of the buildings are valid for all kinds of high electric load buildings. The policy analysis took a more general approach and the findings can be applied to all large energy consumers. 3 Data Centres: description/function and energy use A data centre is a building or a fraction of a building (a hall or a room) accommodating servers and other ICT equipment. Until the mid-nineties the large majority of all data centres were corporate data centres computer centres owned and operated by a company and mainly used for company-internal tasks. Over time, some of these corporate data centres began to be outsourced to hosting facilities, which contributed significantly to the observed electricity savings in office buildings (Weber, 2002). Liberalisation of the telecom-market, mobile telecommunication and the emerging e-economy were other drivers for the fast growth of hosting facilities. Collocation and managed data centres are two types of hosting facilities. About half (50% ± 20%) of the electricity consumption of a computer centre is used by the central infrastructure and the other half by the ICT-equipment. 50% of the electricity delivered to the ICT-equipment is lost in the power supply. A detailed questionnaire about energy consumption sent to existing and planned data centres in Geneva got a rather low response and the information was sparse and of doubtful quality.
6 2 Summary 4 Energy efficiency in data centres In this chapter we discuss the technical potential including some economic considerations. However, the economic dimension is difficult to integrate especially in the fast evolving market of data centres and ICT. Policy aspects are considered in chapter 6. In the absence of an adequate indicator for the service delivered by data centres, we chose to measure the energy efficiency by the coefficient of energy efficiency (CEE), a two-step measure of the fraction of the useful energy: CEE = C1 * c2 = ( U / T ) * (u / U), with T = total electricity consumption of data centre U = total el. consumption of ICT-equipment u = useful el. consumption of ICT-equipment A measurement concept for C1 - the measure of the energy efficiency of the central infrastructure - is proposed. It can be easily implemented with few additional costs in new data centres. Technical problems and relatively high costs cannot be excluded for some existing buildings. The energy efficiency potentials in ICT-equipment are discussed on the level of the individual equipments and for groups of equipment. Specific energy consumption of processors and other electronic components is decreasing extremely quickly but the increase in ICT-services is even faster. Large unexploited energy savings are possible in the operation of the equipment (particularly by a reduction of standby-losses), in the optimisation of the power supply system (optimised workload of the power supply) and by switching to larger servers (which needs a shift in business philosophy away from collocated to dedicated data centres). The two most important measures to reduce power loads and electricity consumption of the central infrastructure are using free cooling techniques, and optimising the cold-water circuit temperature. Operating the HVAC system with maximum free-cooling capacity, elevated room air temperature (26 C instead of 20 C) and the cold water circuit at elevated temperatures (13/19 C instead of 6/12 C) allows for a reduction in electricity consumption of the HVAC-system on the order of more than 50%. The share of electricity consumption for computers (C1) in optimised data centres may reach more than 70%, whereas it is less than 50% in centres that are equipped with an inadequate (oversized) or inefficient infrastructure. 5 Eco-efficiency in data centres The most important questions are related to refrigerants used in cooling equipment, green electricity and emissions from emergency power generators. The phase-out of partly halogenated hydrocarbons (HCFCs) is discussed in Europe. They may be replaced with partly fluorinated hydrocarbons (HFCs) and so-called natural refrigerants. Because of their considerable global warming potential and their indirect ozone-depleting effect, a careful treatment during filling, maintenance and end of life treatment of HFC chillers is of utmost importance. We therefore recomme nd making the same high demands on the handling of HFC as on the handling of CFCs and HCFCs. The value of the commitment of the operators of data centres to buy electricity from hydropower is discussed and a strengthened commitment that contributes to fost ering new renewable energy sources is proposed. This scheme, known as naturemade -labelled electricity, is marketed in Geneva by SIG as SIG Vitale Vert.
7 Summary 3 The emissions of NO X, CO, hydrocarbons and particulates expected from emergency power generators are orders of magnitude below the emissions from road traffic. But, during emergencies, they could - locally and for a limited time be rather important. A detailed assessment is recommended. 6 Policies to foster energy efficiency in data centres The Energiemodell Zürich and the Energiemodell Schweiz can readily serve as bases for a similar approach in Geneva. In these two models, the data centres are in fact able to negotiate target values, whether as an individual company, a group of data centres, or a group with large consumers from other sectors of the economy. The CEE concept is compatible with the general criteria applied in the Zurich and Swiss models. The data centres speed of technical and business cycles nevertheless definitely presents a problem, as it makes it more difficult to get the data centres commitment to target values negotiated for the medium and long term. This approach, voluntary agreement on target values, is compared to the actual situation in Geneva that concentrates more on the procedure to be followed. It is also compared to two other scenarios characterised by a higher degree of intervention by the state, that is, by the room for manoeuvring granted to economic and environmental actors in the course of the procedure. In order to facilitate the discussion about advantages/disadvantages of the different scenarios, we compare them systematically by using a set of criteria. Finally, we identify several conditions that need to be changed should the canton of Geneva want to institute one of the scenarios that go beyond the energy concepts and procedures currently being formalized (e.g. adoption of the "Règlement modifiant le règlement d'application de la loi sur l'énergie", L ). 7 Conclusions, recommendations, outlook The detailed analysis of the technical-economic feasibility showed that C1, the first component of CEE, is a good choice to describe the energy efficiency of a data centres central infrastructure. It can be used in the construction-permission process and in the follow-up monitoring process. The second component of CEE, C2 measuring inefficiencies in the ICT equipment, can be used to monitor the inefficiencies in the ICT equipment. But the uncertainties are still too important to use C2 as an indicator leading to a target value or even a constraining standard. Voluntary policy is the essence of scenario S2 3. It fits well in the actual policy environment in Switzerland (cf. voluntary agreements for CO 2 reduction) and in the initiated legislative reforms in Geneva, and can be implemented immediately. More constraining policies (S3, S4) are investigated regarding the central infrastructure. A comparison shows an obvious advantage of S3 and S4 regarding effectiveness, but the political obstacles and the time needed to prepare and implement these policies are probably rather important. Furthermore, additional administrative resources as well as a cultural change within the ScanE are pre -conditions for more constraining policies. The conclusions of the policy analysis are not restricted to ICT companies. The different scenarios can be applied to all important energy consumers in all economic sectors provided that adequate indicators for energy efficiency can be defined and determined. Seventeen recommendations grouped in four topics are derived from these conclusions and from more general insights. These topics are: Transfer of the accord into an institutionalised legal and regulatory framework 3 Today it is partially realised in the new regulation of the Canton of Geneva (appendix 6)
8 4 Summary Energy-efficiency policies for all large energy consumers Preconditions, pre-requisites Operational design of voluntary energy policies In the final outlook we recall that the future electricity demand of data centres is uncertain, but it will grow substantially for ICT in general. Nevertheless, electricity for ICT will remain in the coming years a small fraction of total energy and electricity consumption in Geneva. In order to reach the goals set by the energy policy in Geneva, it is most important to involve all economic activities and all energy-consuming processes and equipment in a process aimed at a more energy-efficient economy.
9 Context and Objective 5 1 Context and 0bjective 1.1 Context In spring 2001 after five months of investigation and deliberation an accord (Appendix 1) was signed between the government of Geneva, a group of NGOs and the promoters of four data centres planned to be built and operated in 2001/2002. The negotiation process was the government s answer to the appeal of the NGOs against a factual constructing-permit for large data centres. Environmentalists were mainly concerned about the electric power demand of several tens of MW, corresponding to the mean electric power load of several tens of thousands of households. The main points of the accord are: The promoters of data centres reduce their demand of electric power substantially, At least 70% of the electricity purchased will be produced from renewable energyresources, particularly hydro-power The promoters take measures to encourage customers to optimise their energy consumption The promoters measure energy and power consumption of their site in order to set up an indicator of energy efficiency The promoters annually deliver their measurements to the Canton of Geneva, including a description of measures realised and planned in order to improve the indicator of energy efficiency The Canton of Geneva treats in a similar way all companies active in the same business The Canton of Geneva will carefully watch that the obligations are fulfilled by the promoters The main results were presented by DIAE, representing the government of the Canton of Geneva, at a press conference on March 6, 2001 (appendix 1). The accord is limited in time to December 31, But the government has the intention to integrate the results of this negotiation process in the regular procedure to handle construction permits for large energy consumers and promote energy efficiency in the economic sectors. Changes in the legal and regulatory framework and in the formal procedure were adopted very recently (cf. appendix 6). The authors had accompanied the process leading to the accord and were asked to support the follow-up process by investigating different aspects of the accord: Feasibility of the CEE-concept (CEE = Coefficient of Energy Efficiency, see section 4.2.1) from the technical-economic point of view 4 : measurement, efficiency potentials, target values and/or standards. Its use in a permit-delivery process or for monitoring purposes 4 The CEE-concept was used without empirical or detailed theoretical evidence that it could be applied in real situations.
10 6 Context and Objective should be investigated and alternatively other measurement procedure should be investigated. Suitability of voluntary policies, e.g. Grossverbrauchermodell Zürich or Energiemodell Schweiz 5. Are these approaches adequate for Geneva? Is this approach still possible regarding the very short business cycles of the ICT companies (ICT = Information- and Communication-Technologies)? Fulfilment of the equity-criteria: equal treatment of all companies with similar activities, but also large energy consumers in all other economic sectors. The authorities of the Canton of Geneva are concerned with energy and environmental issues of important energy consumers, not just in the ICT sector but also in all other economic sectors. In order to maximise the potential impact and to treat all economic actors on an equal basis, the envisaged new energy- and environment-policy approach should be applicable to all important energy consumers. 5 Regarding the institutional implementation, a voluntary agreement approachsimilar to the one used in the Grossverbrauchermodell in Zurich or the Energiemodell Schweiz in the Program SwissEnergy, was considered to be most appropriate in the negotiation process.
11 Approach and methodology 7 2 Approach and methodology The question of the feasibility of the CEE-concept is divided in two topics: C1 related to energy efficient layout and monitoring of the infrastructure and c2 looking at the efficiency of the ICT equipment. Technical, legal and political aspects are considered. Two applications of CEE are considered: authorisation of construction monitoring of energy efficiency in operation over time Only Data Centres are considered. Whether a similar coefficient can/should be defined for other economic activities, and whether it is applicable to any of these two domains, is not the topic of this report. The integration of voluntary agreements in a legal structure is exemplified by the Grossverbrauchermodell in Zürich and the Energiemodell Schweiz, and is further discussed on the basis of a descriptive exposition of several possible alternative concepts (scenarios). The equity-aspect was looked at from the point of view of whether the CEE-concept and the formal process could be adapted to other large energy consumers. The investigations regarding policy aspects are not restricted to data centres. The proposed scenarios are applicable to all economic activities and the general conclusions are valid for all sectors. But the analysis was not conducted on the level of the individual sectors and thus sector specific questions are not treated. Furthermore, the policy analysis was concluded before the adoption of the new "Règlement modifiant le règlement d'application de la loi sur l'énergie" (L ). Thus, this final report does not take into account this latest policy development, which already integrates some of our previous policy recommendations. Table 2-1: Domains of investigation authorisation of construction monitoring-process data centres technical and political feasibility technical and political feasibility all economic activities political feasibility political feasibility 2.1 Energy analysis The energy analysis is conducted in a two-step process. First we investigate what energy is used for in a data centre. As no reliable data was available from the data centres planned or operated in Geneva, we used information from large computer centres in Switzerland (3.2.2) and published data (3.2.1) in national and international literature. In a second step the energy use and energy efficiency potentials are evaluated at the level of the ICT equipment (section 4.3) and infrastructure (section 4.4). For the latter, results of detailed simulations by Altenburger (2001) for different technological solutions and different operation modes could be used.
12 8 Approach and methodology 2.2 Policy analysis First, we briefly restate the problem created by the power demand of data centres, which was the starting point for this research. We show the main lessons to be learned from this conflict, its origins and the contractual solution that was found in the end. (section 6.1) We then analyse and discuss energy policy models used in Zurich and in the framework of the federal program EnergieSchweiz. Taking the current development of laws and regulations into account (scenario S1), we critically discuss the solution that is envisaged now. We make several recommendations for the regulatory texts that have been edited (appendix 6). We then outline three other possible scenarios for formulating and implementing a new procedure for energy authorization and monitoring of data centres and other large consumers in the canton of Geneva. (Scenarios S2 to S4 call for target or mandatory values and effective energy monitoring.). (section 6.3.1) Last, we point out some conditions that are necessary to move the procedure currently being reformed towards one of the three other scenarios S2 to S4. Since these are of a more interventionist type, they require a larger involvement of the public sector, especially of ScanE. In order to help with the discussion of which scenario to choose, we compare the scenarios systematically with the help of criteria formulated in the framework of this project.
13 Data Centres 9 3 Data Centres 3.1 Description and function of Data Centres A Data Centre taken in a wide sense - is a building or parts of a building (a hall or a room) accommodating servers and other ICT equipment (Figure 3-1). The function of the equipment hosted in a data centre is manifold. It may be an element of an intranet, part of the public infrastructure of the Internet and the telecommunication-system or a mixture of these two functions (Figure 3-2). Other classifications of data centres are more suggestive regarding the function of a data centre: computer centre, server farm, point of presence, telecom main switch, Figure 3-1: The internals of a data centre (Hartkamp, 2002) There are many ways to classify data centres, e.g. regarding the service provided: ISP = internet service provider, ASP = application service provider, FSP = full service provider, or with respect to the ownership of the data centre and of the ICT equipment: corporate data centres collocation data centres managed data centres
14 10 Data Centres Internet Intranet (Anfrage) Internet (public) Intranet (Quelle) DNS-System Firewall Firewall i i Web-Server Routing-System Figure 3-2: Intranet and Internet (DNS = Domain Name System) Data Centres Firewall Corporate Data Centre - File-Server - Datenbank-Server - -Server ISP (Internet Service Provider) - DNS-Server - Web-Server - -Server - Datenbank-Server Corporate / Collocation / Managed Data Centre ASP (Application Service Provider) - File-Server - Anwendungs-Server - Datenbank-Server Internet Figure 3-3: Data Centres classified with respect to ownership of equipment (or businessmodel) and main types of servers hosted in these data centres Until the mid-nineties the large majority of all data centres were corporate data centres. Typical examples are the computer centres owned and operated by large banks and insurance
15 Data Centres 11 companies in Switzerland, discussed in section Over time, some of these corporate data centres began mainly for economic and possibly for security reasons - to be outsourced to hosting facilities, which contributed in a significant way to the observed electricity savings in office buildings (Weber, 2002). Liberalisation of the telecom-market, mobile telecommunication and the emerging e-economy were other drivers for the fast growth of hosting facilities. Collocation and managed data centres are two types of hosting facilities. In collocation centres, the operator owns the building and the central infrastructure, and outside companies rent space and bring in their own computer equipment. Regarding managed data centres, Mitchell- Jackson says: In managed data centres, the owner of the data centre owns not only the racks but also the computer equipment within the facility. These data centres also provide other services such as software management. From an energy standpoint, the important distinction is that the floor plan and layout for a managed hosting facility can be planned ahead of time while the equipment and actual power demands of a co-location facility are up to the customers that rent the space. The division, of course, is not as clear-cut as it may seem. The exact power needs of a managed hosting facility are not always known in advance since the rate of technological change in this industry is rapid. However, there are more unknown variables in a co-location facility. (Mitchell-Jackson, 2001, p 6). Towards the end of the 20 th century many dotcom-companies experienced a very fast growth (in terms of stock-exchange indices) and the future of the e-economy was generally considered to be bright. Much of the money earned in that period was invested in the infrastructure needed and generated by this new economy: transmission and processing capacity for the huge information-flow expected to be needed and generated. Several systems of fibre-connections between continents, countries and major cities were built, (Figures 3.4 and 3.5) and at the interconnection-points of international, national and local networks data centres were planned to handle, redirect and store these flows. The transmission capacity of the fibre networks is extremely high and a fast increase in the demand of data handling capacity was expected, even if the real demand of the economy was unknown. Figure 3-4: Examples of data highways interconnecting European countries and Europe and the USA. (Source: )
16 12 Data Centres Figure 3-5: Examples of data highways interconnecting European cities (Source: ) In order to be ready to satisfy any demand, internationally and globally active investors acquired huge areas for data handling facilities, and in all industrialised countries one or several cities experienced a demand of huge additional power loads. In Switzerland Zürich and Geneva were the most promising regions, Zurich mainly because of the important financialand emerging ICT economy and Geneva, in addition to these two economic activities, as an important location of international organisation. It is not clear whether the location of CERN was of some importance, but the expected increase of data-flow from future activities at CERN is impressive and will need similar facilities (Courrier, 2002) Today, after the financial crash of many dotcom-companies and the general financial crises of the ICT industry, the situation looks rather different than expected two/three years ago. Some of the operators of data centres experienced bankruptcy, others did not realise their planned data centre, yet others are in stand-by, waiting for better times. Only a few of them are slowly filling-up their area with clients. The future is uncertain. Most of the analysts agree that e-economy will play an important role in the future, but most certainly as an integral part of the economy as a whole. Data flow and data processing is increasing fast and will do so in the future. On the other hand, it is uncertain if the full capacity of data centres will ever be needed. This depends not only of the future of the e-economy, but also on technological solutions and the predominant business-model (section 4.3.1). The future electricity demand of data centres is discussed in detail in (Cremer et al., 2003).
17 Data Centres Energy use in Data Centres Consumption patterns An overview of energy use in a large computer centre (4 MW) is given by Aebischer (1993): Only 25% of the electricity is used for information processing, information transmitting and information storing; the other 75% are used by the infrastructure needed to operate the computers or are lost in the manifold transformation and transmission-steps of the electric current. 100 % Strombezug des Rechenzentrums aus dem öffentlichen Netz 2% Transformations- 2% verluste Leitungsverluste The split of the electricity consumption can be determined in a first order approximation by a measurement of the power-flow (see figure): 17% Kältemaschinen 25% central processor unit (Z), storage devices (S) and communication (T) 9% 10% 6% Z S K Z: Zentraleinheit S: Speicher K: Kommunikation 30% 6% Lüftung, Pumpen, Licht, Diverses; 28% für Bedarf Grossrechner, 2% für Bürobedarf Verluste unterbrechungsfreie Stromversorgung 7% Umformungsverluste } 11% Netzteil- verluste 25% energy-losses in transformation, transmission and other processes, including UPS 50% central infrastructure, mainly chillers (Kältemaschinen), ventilation-systems and pumps The order of magnitude of this distribution of power needs should be rather representative of computers. In three smaller systems (between 3 and 9 kw) the fraction used in the HVAV-system is of the order of 30%. In an other computer-room with a mean power load of 30 kw HVAC-applications are responsible for slightly more than 50% of total power. And even when using a single PC between 40% (only lighting) and 70% (lighting and air-conditioning) of the electricity is used for the infrastructure. Hartkamp (2002) summarises energy consumption of a data centre with an electric peak power of 16.2 MWe in a power flow diagram (figure 3-6). In that example, about 30% of the power is used for cooling purposes (20-25% chillers, 5-10% fans, pumps etc.), 5% for UPS (uninterruptible power supply) and 65% for computers and other ICT equipment.
18 14 Data Centres Figure 3-6: Power flow diagram of a data centre (Source: (Hartkamp, 2002) ) Mitchell-Jackson (2001) characterises data centres by the electric power load or energy consumption per unit floor area (W/m2 or kwh/m2). In order to get meaningful figures she defines in detail the different functions of the total area. In a data centre in the USA the following allocation of the gross floor area was found (Mitchell-Jackson, 2001): % computer room floor area where: % was for equipment 6 cabinets (equipment rack) - 50 % was for traffic surface (aisle space or service cleaning area - 20 % was for infrastructure (support equipment) % for infrastructure, offices and others The measured power loads (Figure 3-8) are much below the values used for planning purposes, typically 1000 W/m 2 (= 100 W/ft 2 ). On the other hand some experts believe that computer power density will increase substantially in the future (Burkart, 2001). In the rack-room (50 m 2 ) of a data centre in London, a power density of 1218 W/ m 2 was measured; the power density per rack was 1791 W/rack (Zurita, 2001). 6 The composition of the equipment in the computer rooms was found to be: 60% servers, 18% switches, 9% disks and 8% routers.
19 Data Centres 15 Figure 3-8: Power densities in a data centre in the USA shown in (Mitchell-Jackson, 2001, Table 10). (1 W/ft 2 = 10 W/m 2 ) Energy consumption in large computer centres in Switzerland For several years, large Swiss banking institutes, insurances and an air line have formed a group which shares experience on operation of their computer centres. In order to compare energy consumption in the different computer centres, they introduced an indicator K, defined as the ratio of the electricity required by the computers divided by the electricity purchased from the utility. K is measured twice a year (on a Wednesday in February and in August) for one hour. Some of the group members take measurements for 24 hours in order to avoid special operation modes like ice storage discharges (with chillers out of operation). If the chillers are not included in the measuring system (i.e., only the amount of purchased cold is measured and known) a (artificial) factor of two is applied to determine the amount of electricity needed to produce the cold. The values of K vary: from one computer centre to another (figure 3-9): Every computer centre has its own characteristics in terms of power density (power load of equipment per m 2 computer room floor space), infrastructure technology (modularity of chillers, uninterruptible power supply, etc., free cooling possibilities), included additional activities (e.g., back office working places, gold safe), and measurement possibilities (inclusion of chillers located in other buildings, exclusion of additional activities located in the same building/ on the same floor). over time: Due to the fast development in information technology and in the banking sector in general, the equipment in computer centres and its surrounding conditions are highly variable. Furthermore, weather conditions during the (very short) measurement period may vary considerably. The infrastructure equipment may therefore work at full or optimal load at one period in time, but one year later, it may work only at (inefficient) partial load.
20 16 Data Centres Figure 3-9: Value of K (indicator similar to C1) in 1994 and 1995 in 14 computer centres in Switzerland (source: Bänninger (1996) in Aebischer (1996)) It was not possible to receive detailed measurement data and related information for all of the computer centres, which would be necessary to understand both the variance between different computer centres and between measurement time series of a single computer centre. In particular no information was available on the meteorological situation during the measureme nts the operation mode during the measurements (e.g., cooling via ice storage facilities or free cooling, number of UPS in operation etc.) For a few data centres single measurement results, or even time series for K and its components were available (although confidential). Due to the many influencing parameters (unknown for the particular measurement periods) no particular conclusions can be drawn. However, some tendencies could be observed: Between 45 and 65% of total electricity purchased by a computer centre is used by the computer equipment itself. Cold production is the dominant consumer of the infrastructure using a share of 20 to 30% of total electricity purchased. Electricity consumption for ventilation is highly variable with a range between less than 5 and more than 15% of total electricity purchased. One computer centre with high electricity consumption for ventilation runs a free cooling system operated with air only (in addition to the conventional chillers). Electricity transformation and UPS systems require about 10% of the total electricity purchased. Lighting and miscellaneous consumers/losses contribute only little to the total electricity consumption (a few percents). In general, K is higher for the measurements made in February. However, for some computer centres no such seasonal variation can be observed. This is partly due to the fact that some computer centres purchase cold from an external facility and therefore they apply the artificial constant factor mentioned above to convert this energy into electricity consumption. In order to generate meaningful and reproducible figures for K, the following suggestions are made (partly based on the measurement concept developed by Huser in section 4.2.3):
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text:
The address of Glenoak Community Church is revealed: 2521 Hunter Avenue.
It is finally revealed in this episode - on the wedding invitations - that Rose's last name is Taylor.
Rose: Annie, I'd hate me too if I were you. I would be terrified of me marrying your son if I were you. I'm...I'm not the person I want to be. I'm not even close. I apologize. I'm sorry. I haven't been very nice. I've been completely self-centered and condescending, and really in your face, like I've won some victory over you in getting your son to marry me. I don't offer this as an excuse, but I do want to explain a little of where this is coming from, or where I think it's coming from. I think I started getting like this after my parents divorced. I blamed myself, and the more I blamed myself, the worse I felt, and the less I thought of myself. And to hide that, I started acting superior to everyone, so no one would know that I feel like nothing.
Annie: Oh, Rose.
Rose: This is hard for me. Please let me just get this out. I wanted to be that child that the parents stayed together for, or I wanted to be that child that the parents fought over, argued about. You hear these stories where couples battle it out for custody. Not my parents. Neither of them wanted me. They fought about who should get stuck with having to raise me - whose idea it was to have me in the first place. I practically lived by myself after they got divorced. They would constantly scream at each other about whose turn it was to take me. Too busy. They were both too busy with their work and their relationships, and they still are. Look, they're nice people - just really not such great parents. I mean, they've taken care of me financially, and I'm grateful for that. They paid my way through school, and they really do provide me all the material things I need. I know that they're doing the best they can for who they are, but I know that I'm not. I'm not doing the best that I can for who I am. I'm gonna be a better person. I'm gonna be a good wife. I'm gonna be a good daughter-in-law. I promise I mean that.
Annie: (tears in her eyes) Oh, Rose, I don't know what to say. I feel so badly that we haven't been nicer to you.
Rose: Why would you? I've been horrible. But I'm hoping that realizing that I've been horrible helps somehow. I realize now that pretending to be better than everybody else really isn't going to work for me. I want to just be the nice person that I think I really am, but I may need some help. I may need a lot of help.
Annie: Oh, Rose, look, I've been a horrible person too, and I so apologize. I'll do anything I can to help you.
Rose: Apology and offer of help accepted. Just please, please give me a chance to start over with you and the rest of the family.
Annie: Oh, of course. Of course. Look, it took a lot of guts for you to do this, and I really respect your doing this. You should be so proud of yourself.
Rose: But not too proud. (they laugh)
Sam: ... Here's the mail
Eric: (sorts through it) You can have the junk mail, just don't bring back anymore invitations.
Annie: I've got some good news and some bad news. The good news is I really, really like Rose - love her, even. Oh, she's not such an awful person after all.
Eric: Well, you're on your cell phone, so I won't ask you to explain that, but quickly, what's the bad news?
Annie: The bad news is, I'm not so sure she's gonna end up with Simon.
Sarah Danielle Madison reprises her role as, Sarah, her last appearence was in the Season 9 episode; Thanksgiving.
No results found.
No results found.
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Rat is a character in the comic strip, Pearls Before Swine by Stephan Pastis.
Rat is a megalomaniacal rat, who is frequently critical of the strip's style and artwork, as well as the other characters in the strip and all living things. He believes himself to be more intelligent than he actually is, and thinks more or less anybody else is stupid. He tends to aggravate people, particularly his intelligent friend Goat, and is easily aggravated by his naïve, dim-witted housemate Pig.
Rat is also a con artist, as he is often taking up professions he knows almost nothing about and charging people a lot of money, often insulting or confusing his customers in the process. At times, other companies make the mistake of hiring him, in which case Rat is usually rude to his customers and employers.
In the comic's history, Rat has hosted several jobs for varying lengths of time. Some of them include a Marriage Counselor, a Book Store Information Guide, a Feng Shui Expert, and an Oil Company CEO, among others.
Rat's current employment is a server at Joe's Roastery, a cafe that allows Rat the opportunity to be constantly rude to the "coffee crowd." The management discussed firing Rat, but it was decided that due to his "minority status" that it was too dangerous to do so - Rat promptly started to exploit this decision.
He has also made various forays into the world of literature, and Sunday strips often depict him typing novels. These novels usually are about a character called Angry Bob, who, in every book, finds true happiness, followed by an untimely death. Rat also has a comic strip, Dickie the Cockroach, about a cockroach who ties people up and slaps duct tape over the mouths of people who say stupid things (though originally he pulled people's heads off and put them in his closet). Recently he has begun writing children's books, starring the character Danny Donkey (Rat even made a doll of Danny who mysteriously came alive). He has made references to poetry many times too, although he has almost never written a poem himself.
While Rat is often coldhearted or mean to his housemate Pig, he has been shown to be kind at times, saying nice things to him (although quickly covering it up with his usual attitude). He sometimes lies to Pig to spare his feelings, although not very often. It has also been revealed that Rat has a soft spot for Pig's sister, Farina, a germaphobe who lives in an air-filtered bubble. She, however, had on-and-off feelings about Rat, often breaking Rat's heart and dating other characters.
Stephan Pastis, the strip's author and formerly a lawyer, started drawing Rat in law school, often killing him off for the sake of humor. In later attempts to get syndicated, Pastis teamed Rat up with Poe, a being that didn't resemble anything. The strip, titled Rat, was too depressing for the syndicates, and was turned down.
After some rejection, Pastis eventually wrote Pearls Before Swine, which was an attempt to revive Rat with a less depressing tone. Poe was replaced by Pig, and was syndicated by United Media on December 31, 2001.


text:
Question about 2000 Buick LeSabre
When my wifes 2000 LeSabre Custom gets up to about 40, or is crusing around 35 - 45 ( I can't say that it only does this at these speeds, it just seems more common at them), it will sometimes do this hard stutter thing. It just does it one time and may drive fine for a mile and do it again. It's like the engine dies for a split second, it just stops pulling for a split second and then starts back to pulling. Not sure if it's a transmition slip or the engine cutting out. Engine doesn't start to rev up for that split second. If it was a spark plug or a wire, I wouldn't think it would feel like the whole engine shut down. We have no problem starting the car and it never turns off. The check engine light has come on and off some and the auto parts store checked the code and said that the mass air flow sensor was on of the things listed under the code they got. One of the theorys was that the passing gear was slipping, the other was the sensor. Can you ohm out the sensors to see if they are good? I think my wife has said the the car has lurched forward while sitting at a stoplight when this first started but she hasn't said it again.
Posted by rbalser on
SOURCE: I have freestanding Series 8 dishwasher. Lately during the filling cycle water hammer is occurring. How can this be resolved
a 6ya expert can help you resolve that issue over the phone in a minute or two.
best thing about this new service is that you are never placed on hold and get to talk to real repairmen in the US.
the service is completely free and covers almost anything you can think of (from cars to computers, handyman, and even drones).
click here to download the app (for users in the US for now) and get all the help you need.
Posted on Jan 02, 2017
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text: Samsung has a new super-sized smartphone heading our way - and it isn't the Galaxy Note III.It is the Samsung Galaxy Fonblet. I know, interesting name, but not a completely new concept. According to SamMobile, this is a new version of the previously-launched Samsung Galaxy Player 5.8, owing the name to its 5.8-inch display. And yes, the Fonblet will be going super-sized too.Details are still thin on the ground, but the original source claims it will have dual-SIM support and will be in pure white, running Android Jelly Bean from launch. If it is a take on the media player with phone capabilities, we could theoretically expect a 5.8-inch TFT screen with qHD resolution display, a 3-megapixel camera and Bluetooth 4.0 in the mix, but we suspect Samsung isn't going to launch a new smartphone with a 3-megapixel camera in 2013, so take all of that with a large pinch of salt.We'll probably have to wait for the launch to get confirmation of just what it will offer. But with a European launch already being talked about, the wait is unlikely to be long. MWC in February would be a good bet.Source: SamMobile


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Data from: Parmotrema internexum (Lecanorales: Parmeliaceae): an overlooked macrolichen in southeastern North America highlights the value of basic biodiversity research
Date Published: May 15, 2015
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5061/dryad.4kg4c
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