text:
Fish Processing During the Early Holocene: A Taphonomic Case Study from Coastal Israel
- April Norris
- 2 years ago
- Views:
1 Journal of Archaeological Science (2001) 28, doi: /jasc , available online at on Fish Processing During the Early Holocene: A Taphonomic ase Study from oastal Israel I. Zohar* and T. Dayan Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel E. Galili Marine Archaeology Branch, Israel Antiquity Authorities, P..B. 180, Atlit 30350, Israel E. Spanier Department of Maritime ivilizations and The Leon Recanati enter for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Mount armel, Haifa 31905, Israel (Received 21 March 2000, revised manuscript accepted 16 September 2000) Study of fish bones recovered from coastal archaeological sites requires careful taphonomic analysis in order to determine whether the fish bone assemblage is naturally or culturally derived, and how fish may have been processed by humans. We analysed a grey triggerfish (Balistes carolinensis) assemblage from Atlit-Yam, a submerged Pre-Pottery Neolithic site ( BP) off the Mediterranean coast of Israel, using multiple taphonomic criteria and quantitative analyses. The clumped distribution of remains, the high bone scatter frequency, the presence of a few burnt bones, the bones state of fragmentation, the absence of a correlation between bone density and bone frequency, the low species diversity and wide range of body sizes represented, all point to a culturally derived assemblage. The high percentage of identifiable elements, the occurrence of most skeletal elements, and the virtual absence of branchial region bones, are compatible with fish gutted for immediate or later consumption, and incompatible with the expected of refuse. ranial bones and first dorsal spines of large individuals were missing, apparently a result of size-dependent butchering methods. The emergent picture is of a pile of fish gutted and processed in a size-dependent manner, and then stored for future consumption or trade. This scenario suggests that technology for fish storage was already available, and that the Atlit-Yam inhabitants could enjoy the economic stability resulting from food storage and trade with mainland sites Academic Press Keywords: BALISTES ARLINENSIS, FISH PRESSING, FISH STRAGE, FISH TRADE, NELITHI, TAPHNMY, TRIGGERFISH Introduction Reconstructing the environmental and cultural circumstances under which animal bones are deposited is the major goal of zooarchaeology. To this end zooarchaeologists must gain insight into the taphonomic processes involved in the history of a faunal assemblage. While there is a growing literature on mammal bone modifications (e.g., Andrews, 1995; Binford, 1981; Blumenschine, Marean & apaldo, 1999; Bonnichsen, 1989; Bonnichsen & Sorg, 1989; oard & Dennell, 1995; Gifford, 1981; Lyman, 1994; *orrespondence address: Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel. Fax: ; Tel: ; Noe-Nygaard, 1977, 1989; Rabinovitch, Bar-Yosef & Tchernov, 1996), fewer studies have dealt with fish bone taphonomy (e.g., Butler, 1993, 1996; Lubinski, 1996; Nicholson, 1996b; Stewart, 1994; Van Neer & Morales, 1992). onsidering the importance of fish to the diet of many prehistoric and historic communities, study of fish bone taphonomy is of major significance. We carried out a detailed taphonomic study of grey triggerfish (Balistes carolinensis) skeletal remains recovered from a submerged Pre-Pottery Neolithic site (c BP, uncalibrated). We used multiple criteria as well as quantitative analyses in order to identify the nature of fish use and consumption strategies. The site, Atlit-Yam, is located 10 km south of Haifa Bay (Figure 1), about m west of the /01/ $35.00/ Academic Press
2 1042 I. Zohar et al. N Mediterranean Sea 0 30 km Shikmona Atlit-Yam HAIFA Netiv-Hagdud Hatula JERUSALEM Gilgal present shoreline, at a depth of 8 12 m (Galili et al., 1993; Zohar et al., 1994). During the early Holocene (c. 10,000 years ago) the Mediterranean Sea level was about 30 m lower than today (van Andel & Lianos, 1983) and the eastern coastline was more than 1 km offshore from the present. oastal sites of that period, such as Atlit-Yam, are currently submerged (Galili, 1987; Galili, Kaufman & Weinstein-Evron, 1988). Atlit-Yam is the largest and best preserved submerged prehistoric settlement uncovered along the Mediterranean coast (Galili, Kaufman & Weinstein- Evron, 1988). It provides insight into the food procurement and processing capabilities of human populations that were adapting to coastal habitats at a time of increasing regional social complexity (Hershkovitz & Edelson, 1991; Hershkovitz & Galili, 1990). Fish assemblages in coastal sites may represent natural or cultural accumulations. Several studies have attempted to discern between the two types of assemblages and have suggested some tentative criteria (Butler, 1987, 1990, 1993, 1996; Stewart, 1991, 1994; Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales, 1994; see Table 1). These include taxonomic diversity; skeletal element proportion (similar to complete fish skeleton in natural assemblages); degree of representation of robust skeletal elements (found to be over-represented in The Dead Sea River Jordan Sea of Galilee Figure 1. Location map of Atlit-Yam and other Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites in Israel. natural assemblages); bone density (bones with low density tend to be lost in natural assemblages); body size range (no individuals under 350 mm have been found in natural assemblages in Lake Turkana (Stewart, 1991), but Van Neer (1993), found mainly small individuals among the fish remains from a small season pool); bone scatter frequency (low in natural assemblages); bones bearing signs of human activity (cut marks and burning found in cultural assemblages). The complexity of taphonomic processes, the high variability in fish processing methods, and the paucity of evidence suggest the need for using multiple criteria for characterizing fish bone assemblages. Nevertheless, the majority of fish remains studies, so far, draw conclusions from a limited number of criteria, and tend to ignore quantitative evidence altogether. In cultural assemblages, questions arise regarding the way fish have been used. Do the fish assemblages represent refuse (remains of meals or inedible or economically unimportant fish, or parts removed during fish processing), or do they represent fish stored for future consumption? Little zooarchaeological research has focused specifically on fish refuse. Van Neer & Pieters (1997) found a large number of bones, almost all belonging to one species (Plaice, Pleuronectes platessa), that were almost all tail, head, and gill elements, some bearing cut marks, which they reconstructed as remains of processed plaice. Several ethnographic studies addressed this issue. Belcher (1998) carried out ethnographic research in Pakistan, and demonstrated that fish refuse is dominated by postcranial bones of small fish and by some cranial bones of large fish, discarded outside the house. Most of the cranial bones demonstrate chop-marks and intense trauma (Belcher, 1998: ). A similar pattern of smashed skull bones of large fish was observed in the surrounding landscape of the western side of Lake Turkana (Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales, 1994). A refuse midden of the Inupiat Eskimo, Alaska, which included fish debris disposed after a cleaning episode, was described briefly but with no taphonomic detail (hang, 1991). The relationship between fish processing methods and bone survival through time, has received more attention but is still poorly understood (Barrett, Nicholson & erón-arrasco, 1999; Bullock, 1994; olley, 1984, 1986, 1990; utting, 1955; Nicholson, 1996a, Stewart, 1989; Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales, 1994; Van Neer & Ervynck, 1996; Van Neer & Pieters, 1997). Nicholson (1996a, 1996b) points out that the majority of fish bones are totally destroyed by broiling. Fish processing techniques for immediate consumption and/or long-term preservation vary from region to region and sometimes even within regions (Barrett, 1997; Barrett, Nicholson & erón-arrasco, 1999; Belcher, 1994, 1998; Burt, 1988; Gifford-Gonzales, Stewart & Rybczynski, 1999; Hoffman, zederpiltz & Partlow, 2000; Poulter, 1988; Stewart, 1982; Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales, 1994). For example, in Lake
3 Fish Processing During the Early Holocene 1043 Table 1. haracteristic of natural versus cultural fish remains (compiled from: Butler, 1987, 1990, 1993; Landon, 1992; Stewart, 1989, 1991; Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales, 1994; Van Neer, 1993) riteria Natural assemblage ultural assemblage Taxonomic diversity (Brillouin s Index) May represent the natural fauna of the littoral, or be low due to catastrophic dath of a single species Bone Scatter Frequency (BSF) Low in breaker zone (Stewart, 1989, 1991) and can be high for tidal pools (Van Neer, 1993) May be low or high, depending on fishing method and fishing areas Morisita Index of dispersion Random or repulsed distribution lumped distribution Body size Individuals smaller than 350 mm may be absent (Stewart, 1989, 1991) but see Van Neer, 1993 for tidal (seasonal) pools Various sizes dependent on fishing methods Size distribution calculated from cranial and postcranial bones No difference Different results due to size-dependent methods of fish processing Bone density versus frequency orrelated No correlation Skeletal element presentation (SI=observed Relatively complete skeletons with cranial Incomplete skeletons (obs exp) versus expected) and postcranial bones (obs=exp) Fragmentation Index (VMI of fragmentation) Low High in refuse Low in stored fish MNI versus WMI orrelation between WMI of fragmentation and MNI from different bones High No correlation between WMI of fragmentation and MNI from different bones Burning signs None High frequency in refuse Low frequency on stored fish ut marks None May be formed Victoria, in Pakistan, and in Panama fishermen treat fish according to their size. Several processing methods are applied, leaving different and recognizable modifications on the bone assemblages (Belcher, 1994, 1998; Stewart, 1991; Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales, 1994; Zohar & ooke, 1997). Processing techniques can be elucidated if fish bones are recovered in their original storage area. Facilities for storing fish vary tremendously; fish can be stacked upon the ground, or piled upon drying racks, and may also be packed in perishable materials such as palm leaves (Burt, 1988; Stewart, 1982). However, remains of fish stored for future consumption are expected to show some common traits: they are expected to exhibit a clumped distribution, to include all skeletal elements excepting those removed during processing, and the bones may bear cut marks (although those are only infrequently encountered) (Barrett, 1997; Barrett, Nicholson & erón-arrasco, 1999; Belcher, 1998; Bullock, 1994; erón-arrasco, 1994; Gifford- Gonzales, Stewart & Rybczynski, 1999; Stewart, 1991). For example, in Balakot, the Indus valley ( B), a large number of fish remains, representing mainly one species, were recovered in two room complexes. These remains suggest that the site may have been used for drying and storing fish for inland trade (Belcher, 1998). Drying fish in the sun or over smoking fires is considered the universal technique practised since early time, although the time of its beginning is not yet known (utting, 1955; van Elsbergen, 1997). lear evidence for fish drying and salting, however, is available only from a fairly late period (Barrett, 1997; Barrett Nicholson & éron-arrasco, 1999; Brewer & Friedman, 1989; utting, 1955; van Elsbergen, 1997). Fish storage for the short- or long-term offers economic stability and the potential for trade with inland populations. For example, the appearance of Mediterranean Sea fish in Neolithic inland sites (Bar-Yosef & Heller, 1987; Bar-Yosef et al., 1991; Davis, 1985; Lernau & Lernau, 1994) may testify to trade relations with coastal populations. We carried out a detailed quantitative taphonomic study of grey triggerfish remains from Atlit-Yam, in an attempt to develop a framework for identifying fish processing methods, based on fish bones remains in archaeological contexts. ur specific goals were the following: (a) To determine whether triggerfish were part of the economy of Atlit-Yam inhabitants. Because Atlit- Yam is a submerged site, an alternative is that the fish remains represent a natural accumulation in this marine environment. (b) If the fish remains represent a culturally derived assemblage, we asked (1) whether the remains represent refuse or do they reflect fish storage for the short- or long-term; and (2) what were the processing techniques practised by Atlit-Yam inhabitants? We asked a series of research questions to determine the depositional history of the Atlit-Yam triggerfish assemblage, and answered them using species diversity index, dispersion indices, skeletal part frequency analyses, bone density, survival index, fragmentation index, and population body-size structure. These research
4 1044 I. Zohar et al. A1 A3 1 3 A1 A2 B1 B2 N = 556 A4 B3 N = D1 3 4 D3 D4 Figure 2. Frequency distribution of 3255 triggerfish remains recovered at locus 10A (divided to four squares: A, B,, D, and 16 subsquares of 1 sq m each). >500 bones; >250 >150 >25; <10; no bones. BSF=203 bones per sqm. questions were designed to provide insight into the fishing economy of Atlit-Yam inhabitants during the 6th millennium B. The Faunal Assemblage ver 6500 fish remains were recovered at a single locus of 4 sqm (Locus 10A; Figure 2) in Atlit-Yam, of which 3777 were identified (Galili et al., 1993). Locus 10A didn t have well defined borders. Some archaeological finds, such as flint flakes, were recovered in the clay at this locus. The fish remains were collected by sieving in fresh water through a 1 mm mesh. The fish remains represent 10 species belonging to six families of acanthopterygian teleosts (Balistidae 1 species, arangidae 1 species, Mugilidae 1 species, Serranidae 3 species, Sciaenidae 1 species, and Sparidae 3 species) (Galili et al., 1993). The vast majority of the fish remains (c. 97%) were identified as Balistes carolinensis (Grey triggerfish) (Galili et al., 1993; Zohar et al., 1994). The triggerfish remains include 2089 bones representing 44 different skeletal elements, 153 teeth, 515 scales, and 498 fin rays (Table 2). The minimum number of individuals (MNI=76) was calculated based on the most common bone in the assemblage, the basal pterygiophore. Are the fish remains a naturally or culturally derived assemblage? The location of Atlit-Yam, under 10 m of water, and the lack of structural features at locus 10A, suggest B2 B4 D2 D4 that fish remains recovered at that locus may be a natural accumulation rather than the result of cultural activity. To answer this question we used parameters that have been derived from several taphonomic studies carried out in different parts of the world. Each covered a specific depositional scenario which may be site-, taxon-, or region-specific. Therefore, we see great significance in using a wide variety of parameters to characterize our fish bone assemblage. Future research that will add to these studies will enable us to fine-tune our understanding of depositional scenarios. Here we used the following parameters: taxonomic diversity, bone scatter frequency, index of dispersion, burn marks, body size range, and relationship between density and survival. Taxonomic diversity: taxonomic breadth can help distinguish between natural and cultural activity (Butler, 1987; Morales & Van Neer, 1994; Stewart, 1991). We calculated species diversity by using Brillouin Index (and not Shannon-Wiener function) since our sample is not random and the total number of species is unknown (Krebs, 1989). Moreover, Brillouin index is most sensitive to the abundances of the rare species in the sample, and is nearly identical to the Shannon-Wiener function (Krebs, 1989). Brillouin Index of diversity was calculated according to the following formula (Krebs, 1989: ): where H is Brillouin s index, N is the toal number of individuals in the entire collection, n 1 is the number of individuals (NISP) belong to species 1, and n 2 is the number of individuals (NISP) belong to species 2, etc. We assume that in a natural accumulation of fishes, we might find the taxonomic diversity representative of the fish occupying the nearshore habitats. When human fishing activity is involved, diversification of fishing strategies may enlarge or reduce taxonomic diversity (Morales & Van Neer, 1994; Stewart, 1991; Van Neer, 1993). In order to examine this assumption we compared the species diversity index calculated at locus 10A with recent data (gerek, 1999) on a recent fish community from a littoral rocky reef habitat in Shikmona-Haifa bay (Figure 1). This area has similar conditions to the ones at the littoral rocky area of Atlit-Yam, 8000 years ago. In the Shikmona-reef 35 species, belonging to 18 different families, were collected (gorek, 1999). The most common families were the Blenniidae and the Gobiidae (gorek, 1999). The Brillouin s diversity index calculated for the fish recovered at locus 10A is of 1 18 species (H=0 1724), and of species (H=2 608), for the fish from Shikmona-reef. It is clear that the species diversity index is higher for the natural collection than at Atlit-Yam (13 58 versus 1 18 species). Moreover
5 Fish Processing During the Early Holocene 1045 Table 2. Frequency distribution of triggerfish skeletal element structures recovered at Atlit-Yam (Locus 10A), compared to a full triggerfish skeleton and to the expected values Skeletal region bserved bones in Atlit-Yam bserved bones in fresh triggerfish Expected value for Atlit-Yam Regional contribution N % N % N % χ 2 P df Neurocranium < romandibular region < Hyoid region < Branchial region (gill arch) < percular apparatus ns 1 Total cranial Appendicular skeleton < First dorsal spine region < Vertebral column < Total post cranial Total < Neurocranium Expected Value: 22/ =295. Balistes carolinensis that accounts for the overwhelming majority of fish at Atlit-Yam (c. 97%) is not represented at Shikmona. Also arangidae that are pelagic species appear only at Atlit-Yam. Natural deaths of fish in the coastal waters of Israel are rare and have been shown to involve small numbers of fish of a wide range of species (Goren pers. com). Although there can be cases of natural deaths of a single fish species, such a scenario involving triggerfish is unknown in Israel, where triggerfish comprise less than 1% of the annual catch (Golani, pers. com.). Therefore, the overwhelming dominance of triggerfish in the Atlit-Yam assemblage is congruent with the expected in a culturally derived rather than naturally derived fish assemblage. Bone scatter frequency (BSF): calculated as the average number of bones per sqm, (N bones/m 2 ) reflects depositional processes (Stewart, 1989, 1991, 1994). It is expected to be higher for culturally derived than naturally derived assemblages (Stewart, 1989, 1991, 1994). Also, culturally derived bone assemblages are expected to be clumped, contrasting with naturally derived fish assemblages that are expected to have random or uniform distributions (unless under very specific topographic or limnological conditions, such as a seasonal pool [Van Neer, 1993]). The dispersion (random, uniform or clumped) of the triggerfish remains in locus 10A at Atlit-Yam was calculated by dividing the locus into 16 quadrates of 1 m 2, and by using the Morisita Index of dispersion according to the formula (Krebs, 1989, Box 4 5 p. 152: see further calculation for standardization): where I d is Morisita index of dispersion, n is the sample size; x i is the sum of the bone counts in each Table 3. Burning signs on triggerfish skeletal elements recovered at Atlit-Yam Skeletal element stucture Total no. Burned bones No. % Neurocranium romandibular region Hyoid region percular apparatus Appendicular skeleton Pelvic complex First dorsal spine region Branchial arch Vertebrae Total quadrats (x 1 +x 2 +x 3 ), and; x 2 is the sum of bone counts in each quadrats squared (x 2 1+x 2 2+x 2 3+). Bone distribution in locus 10A at Atlit-Yam (Figure 2) was clumped (I p =0 58, P<0 01; Krebs, 1989), conforming with that expected of a culturally derived accumulation. Bone scatter frequency value (BSF=203 bones per sqm) was higher by several orders of magnitude than that found in a naturally derived assemblage at modern Lake Turkana and rater Lake (i.e., ) (Stewart, 1989, 1991, 1994). Burn marks: the occurrence of burn marks is taken to indicate human activity (Nicholson, 1993; Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales, 1994). A small percentage of the bones at locus 10A (7.5%), mainly those of the first dorsal spine region, bear burning signs (Table 3). These also suggest human activity. Size range: Stewart (1989, 1991) studied a naturally derived fish assemblage which did not include fish smaller than 350 mm in length. While little is known of the effects of predator activity or of wave action on
6 1046 I. Zohar et al. the dispersal of either small or large fish elements post-mortem, she suggested that there is little chance that isolated elements of small fish would survive abrasive shore deposition (Stewart, 1991). n the other hand, Van Neer (1993) found mainly small fish represented in a small pool seasonally connected with a larger body of water, and suggested that this pool served as a nursery for younger fish individuals, which were subsequently trapped in the pool when it dried up. Reconstruction of the lengths of Atlit-Yam triggerfish (Zohar et al., 1994; Zohar, Dayan & Spanier, 1997; see also discussion ahead) demonstrates that the majority of fish were shorter than 350 mm. The natural conditions at Atlit-Yam at the sea shore more closely resemble those at the shore of large lake rather than a temporary pool, in terms of wave action. Moreover, triggerfish do not use temporary or tidal pools as nurseries. Therefore, the size distribution of triggerfish is more compatible with an assemblage that was not accumulated under natural activity of wave action. The relationship between bone density and survival: in natural bone assemblages that suffer severe postdepositional processes we expect to find a relationship between bone density and survival (Butler, 1994; Lyman, 1984; Lyman, Houghton & hambers, 1992). Such a relationship may also arise as a result of human activity (Binford, 1981; Lyman, 1984; Lyman, Houghton & hambers, 1992). However, a lack of relationship between bone density and bone survival suggests that bone breakage and bone loss patterns reflect human activities related to butchering and processing methods (Butler, 1994; Nicholson, 1992). Bone density was measured for three recent triggerfish as in Falabella, Vargas & Melendez (1994). Bones were weighed and then soaked in varnish and dried. The dried bones were placed individually in a special water container and their volume was measured by rising water levels. Triggerfish bone densities were obtained by dividing bone weight by volume. We calculated the correlation between bone density of each bone and bone frequency at locus 10A (Table 4). No correlation was found between the frequency of the bones in Atlit-Yam and their density value (Spearman rank correlation: r=0 105, tied z=0 453, tied P>0 650). These results conform with other studies (Falabella, Vargas & Melendez, 1994; Nicholson, 1992), which suggest no relationship between fish bone density and bone survival, in culturally derived assemblages. The absence of a relationship between bone density and survival suggests that triggerfish bone loss and bone damage in locus 10A reflect human activity. In sum, the taphonomic evidence from Atlit-Yam clearly shows that the triggerfish assemblage is a culturally derived fish assemblage. Table 4. Fresh triggerfish bone density and frequency at Atlit-Yam (locus 10A) Bone Triggerfish density Frequency* (%) Articular Atlas Axis leithrum Dentary Ethmoid Frontal Hyomandibular Maxilla percular Pelvis Postcleithrum Prefrontal Premaxilla Preopercular Quadrate Supracleithrum Tail vertebrae Urohyal Vomer *The frequency was calculated from the total sample of 3255 triggerfish remains recovered at locus 10A. What type of human activity do the triggerfish remains reflect? Having established that the Atlit-Yam triggerfish assemblage reflects human activity, the next question is what type of human activity it indicates. Are the fish remains human refuse, or are they stored food? A clumped distribution is compatible with fish storage, but may also reflect a refuse pile (Van Neer & Pieters, 1997). The triggerfish remains were recovered close to wall foundations (c. 3 4 m), but their deposition gives no clue regarding their role in the inhabitants economy. It is therefore necessary to use other criteria in order to distinguish between storage and refuse (parts removed during fish processing for immediate or long term consumption, or remains of meals), Van Neer and Pieters (1997) suggested that during processing the gill region is discarded and tossed into the refuse. This suggests that we may be expected to encounter a high proportion of bones of this region in refuse. Ethnographic studies demonstrated that in Pakistan, butchery waste of fresh fish is represented by the branchial arch and the pectoral girdle (Belcher, 1998). In Panama, butchery waste of fish prepared for drying and salting is represented by the branchial arch and few cranial bones (Zohar & ooke, 1997). Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales (1994) examined fish waste sites that consisted primarily of epaxial spines discarded on capture of fish. The fish processing site consisted mainly cranial elements and vertebrae were poorly represented. When we deal with remains of a meal, Landon (1992) suggested that poor preservation will
7 Fish Processing During the Early Holocene 1047 characterized the animal remains, resulting in a low percentage of identifiable bones. Belcher (1998) demonstrated that in Pakistan small fish skulls are chewed and swallowed, while the vertebrae are removed and discarded. Larger fish (>250 mm) are chopped into pieces of 5 cm 2, and then cooked. As a result little will be left of the cranial remains of small fish, while refuse of large fish (>250 mm), will be represented mainly by cranial bones, some of which exhibit cut marks. Belcher also noted that remains from the meal are discarded in the house courtyard. Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales (1994) studied fish remains from base camps and demonstrated that over 50% of the skulls were apparently smashed for brain extraction. Burning signs were found on 11% of the bones, as a result of roasting, which was found to be more destructive than broiling (Stewart & Gifford- Gonzales, 1994). Nicholson s (1996a) experiments on the effect of cooking on fish bones showed that boiling clearly accelerated diagenesis, while other forms of cooking did not appear to have this effect. The triggerfish remains recovered at locus 10A do not resemble refuse since most of the skeletal elements were identified (Table 2), including cranial and postcranial bones with low percentages of burning signs (Zohar et al., 1994). We also found that the gill region was heavily under-represented in Atlit-Yam (see section ahead), suggesting that fish were gutted elsewhere and accumulated in locus 10A area. The nature of the remains suggests that triggerfish were processed for immediate or delayed consumption. In case of accumulation for immediate consumption, only a catastrophic event would have created such an assemblage, and no signs for such a catastrophe are found in the site. Moreover, ethnographic evidence from Ghana, where triggerfish are used in large quantities, demonstrates that they are consumed after salting and drying and only in rare occasions they are consumed fresh (Essuman & Diakite, 1990; Nerquaye- Tetteh, 1986). Thus, the mode of preservation of the Atlit-Yam triggerfish is compatible with fish storage for long-term consumption rather than refuse. What were the processing techniques practised in Atlit-Yam? Encountering a large pile of stored fish is an excellent opportunity for studying fish processing techniques. Fish processing can be reconstructed based on the bones lost in this process and based on bone fragmentation patterns (Zohar & ooke, 1997). Body part representation: the relative distribution of different skeletal elements may be used to investigate fish processing methods and to separate between culturally and naturally derived assemblages (Barrett, 1997; Butler, 1996; Hoffman, zederpiltz & Partlow, 2000; Stewart, 1991). In Atlit-Yam, triggerfish bone Anatomical regions Dorsal spine region * Vertebral column * Neurocranium Appendicular skeleton romandibular region percular apparatus Hyoid region ** Branchial region ** Survival index (%) 500 * = ver represented, statistically significant χ 2 (P < 0.05) ** = Under represented, statistically significant χ 2 (P < 0.05) Figure 3. The survival index (SI) of Atlit-Yam triggerfish bones grouped into eight anatomical regions. frequency distribution was calculated for 44 different skeletal elements from eight anatomical regions (following the terminology of Wheeler & Jones, 1989; Table 2): neurocranium, oromandibular region, hyoid region, branchial region (includes the gillraker), and opercular apparatus (of the cranium), as well as the first dorsal spine region, appendicular skeleton, and vertebral column (of the post-cranium, posterior to the first trunk vertebra). The bone frequency distribution was also calculated for fresh triggerfish for comparison with the data obtained from locus 10A. In order to test for differences in representation of the skeletal elements due to fish processing, we calculated a survival index. The survival index (SI) was expressed as the ratio between number of observed bones (NISP) to number of expected bones (per skeletal element) [SI=(no. of observed bones/no. of expected bones) 100]. The expected frequencies were calculated based on the relative frequency of each skeletal element in a fresh triggerfish skeleton, multiplied by the total number of observed triggerfish bones in Atlit-Yam [Expected Value=(no. of bones in a fresh triggerfish/total no. of bones in a fresh triggerfish) (total no. of observed triggerfish bones in Atlit-Yam)]. The triggerfish remains survival index (SI) is high for the vertebrae and dorsal spine region (overrepresentation, Figure 3), and low for the branchial arch, hyoid region and pelvic girdle (under-representation, Figure 3). The under-represented regions may reflect their low survivorship in the sediment due to environmental factors. Alternatively, they may reflect human activity such as fish gutting and butchering (Van Neer & Pieters, 1997; Zohar & ooke, 1997). The composition of the triggerfish bone assemblage in Atlit-Yam indicates that most of the skeletal elements were present (Table 2). nly bones from the branchial arch region are almost entirely absent
8 1048 I. Zohar et al. (χ 2 = ; df=1, Table 2 and Figure 3). Absence of branchial arch region is compatible with fish gutting for immediate or delayed consumption (Van Neer & Pieters, 1997; Zohar & ooke, 1997). Vertebrae are over-represented in our bone assemblage with a frequency of 27 3% (versus 11 5% expected value χ 2 =449 13; df=1, Table 2 and Figure 3). Vertebral over-representation is a well-known bias in culturally deposited fish assemblages, contrary to naturally deposited assemblages, where vertebrae are represented in similar proportions to those of a complete fish (Stewart, 1991). Thus, body part representation of Atlit-Yam triggerfish is compatible with human activity of fish gutting for immediate or delayed consumption. Bone fragmentation patterns: a high frequency of skeletal part representation, as reflected in NISP per bone, may reflect a high occurrence of a body region, but may also reflect high bone breakages. Bones that are highly fragmented may be counted several times, and consequently may appear over-represented. A fragmentation index was used to evaluate the preservation status of triggerfish bones. For terrestrial mammalian bone assemblages this index is used as an indicator for marrow extraction. For the triggerfish bone assemblage from Atlit-Yam, it may reflect the butchering methods practised and resistance to postdepositional deterioration (Bullock, 1994; Zohar & ooke, 1997). Fragmentation status was determined for each bone, according to the amount of the remaining bone, as follows (Figure 4): complete (approximately % of bone remaining); slightly fragmented (71 90% of bone remaining); partially fragmented (51 70% of bone remaining); highly fragmented (30 50% of bone remaining), and small fragments (approximately 25% or less of bone remaining). In order to standardize the degree of fragmentation for 44 groups of bones from eight anatomic regions, their weighted mean index (WMI) of fragmentation was calculated (Table 5). The WMI expresses the mean degree of fragmentation calculated from the relative frequency (Xi) of each bone in the five fragmentation categories (i.e., fragments size of: 100%; 80%; 60%; 40%; 25%) [WMI= Σ(Wi*Xi)/100]. We then correlated the survival index (SI) and the WMI of fragmentation for each anatomic region. We found a negative correlation between the value obtained for the bones by each index (SI and WMI) (Figure 5: Spearman rank correlation, r= 0 458; P<0 004). Since fragmentation may be the cause for this negative correlation, we compared between WMI of fragmentation and MNI values for the most common bones (Table 6). Some of the bones with high value of MNI such as the basal pterygiophore, dorsal spines, cleithrum, etc., are highly fragmented (WMI of fragmentation <50%) while bones with low value of MNI (e.g. premaxilla, dentary, supracleithrum) are < 25% 30 50% % of bone remaining 51 70% 71 90% Figure 4. lasses of bone fragmentation, according to the amount of the remaining bone. lasses of bone fragmentation: omplete: approximately: % of bone remaining; Slightly fragmented: 71 90% of bone remaining; Partially fragmented: 51 70% of bone remaining; Highly fragmented: 30 50% of bone remaining; Small fragments: approximately 25% or less of bone remaining. hardly fragmented (WMI>70%). This demonstrates that fragmentation did not influence the high survival values of the bones. If fragmentation affected bones present at Atlit- Yam, it can have done so only to the neurocranium. In Atlit-Yam, the triggerfish neurocranium bones survival index (Figure 3) demonstrates higher presentation values than expected (18 6% versus 14 1%, χ 2 =29 953; df=1, Table 2). Moreover, when the ratio between vertebral and cranial bones is calculated, a ratio of 0.55 was obtained for Atlit-Yam compared to 0 2 in a fresh triggerfish. This result is opposite to those of other studies demonstrating that the neurocranium bones were the least well preserved bones in archaeological sites (Butler, 1993; oard & Dennell, 1995; Lubinski, 1996; Nicholson, 1996a; Wheeler & Jones, 1989). The high representation of fragmented neurocranial bones in Atlit-Yam suggests that the skulls were damaged during fish processing. In sum, the overall pattern of triggerfish skeletal element abundance at locus 10A was not driven by bone fragmentation. Rather, it reflects fish processing techniques. Body size distribution: analysing size distributions of fish on the basis of different skeletal elements allows us to discern patterns in fish exploitation, and to determine whether the deposits are culturally or naturally derived (Butler, 1993, 1996; Stewart, 1989). If all bone elements have an equal chance of survival then
9 Fish Processing During the Early Holocene 1049 Table 5. Frequency (%) of triggerfish skeletal elements by structure, according to the five fragmentation categories and their weighted mean index (WMI), in Atlit-Yam Frequency of bones (%) in each one of the five fragmentation categories Skeletal element structure 100% 80% 60% 40% 25% WMI Neurocranium romandibular region percular region Hyoid region Branchial region First dorsal spine region Appendicular skeleton Vertebral column Neurocranium WMI=[( )+(6 7 80)+( )+( )+( )]/100=46 2%. Survival index Spearman rank correlation, r = 0.458; P < A P P P 300 A A H V P 200 P A A 100 P H H B Weighted mean index of fragmentation Figure 5. Balistes carolinensis survival index versus weighted mean index (WMI) of fragmentation. The WMI of fragmentation is calculated using five classes of bone fragmentation. A=Appendicular skeleton; B=branchial arch; =Neurocranium and dorsal spine; =romandibular region; P=post crania; V=Vertebral column. reconstructing body size frequencies from different bones should result in similar body size frequencies (Wheeler & Locker, 1985). If, on the other hand, fish are processed according to size, with small fish processed in a different way than large fish are (Stewart, 1991; Zohar & ooke, 1997), then reconstructing fish size frequencies using different skeletal elements will result in different body size patterns. Size distributions (standard length and body mass) of the triggerfish population were calculated using bones of different anatomic regions (cranial and postcranial) by applying the linear regression (natural logarithms) method (Zohar, Dayaan & Spanier, 1997). We selected three of the most abundant bones from different anatomic regions, which were easy to identify and to measure: the dorsal postcleithrum, ethmoid, and first dorsal spine. The reconstructed standard length frequencies of the fossil population presents a wide spectrum of lengths ranging from c. 100 mm to 400 mm SL (Figure 6). This result suggests the use of non-selective fishing methods by Atlit-Yam inhabitants. However, a comparison of the body size distributions obtained from each bone reveals clear differences. Based on the dorsal postcleithrum (N=82), mean body mass of the triggerfish at Atlit-Yam is g (range: g) and mean standard length is mm (N=75, range of mm; Figure 6). n the other hand, when estimation is based on the ethmoid (N=36) and the first dorsal spine (N=69), the means for both body length and body mass are significantly lower (one way ANVA; F=10 55, df=2,184, P<0 0001, F=10 37, df=2,168, P< respectively for body mass and standard length). Based on the ethmoid, mean body mass at g (range of g) and mean standard length at mm (range of mm). Similar values were obtained by using the first dorsal spine (BM: x = g; range: g; SL: x = mm; range: mm) (Scheffe contrasts; P=0 999 for body mass and standard length). The significantly different size distributions obtained using different skeletal elements suggest that dorsal spines and some neurocranial bones of large individual triggerfish at Atlit Yam are missing. This differential loss suggests the use of size-dependent methods for processing triggerfish at Atlit-Yam. In Panama, for example, fish butchering is size-dependent and in large marine catfish the first dorsal spine is removed and later a ventral cut is performed through the skull (Zohar & ooke, 1997). In this procedure the first dorsal spine and its base will be lost and some neurocranial bones are damaged (ethmoid, vomer). A similar procedure may have been used by the inhabitants of Atlit-Yam while butchering larger triggerfish, resulting in the loss of the larger first dorsal spines and cranial bones. Discussion The analysis of fish remains from coastal or submerged sites is a challenging task. The first step is to
10 1050 I. Zohar et al. Table 6. Minimum number of individuals (MNI) and weighted mean index (WMI) of fragmentation calculated from different bones of grey triggerfish recovered at Atlit-Yam Bones ount MNI WMI 1st dorsal spine nd dorsal spine rd dorsal spine Angular Articular Basal pterygiophore Basioccipital Branchial arch eratohyal leithrum Dentary Ectopterygoid Epiotic Ethmoid Exoccipital Frontal Hyoid apparatus Hyomandibular Maxilla Metapterygoid percular Palatine Parasphenoid Pelvis Postcleithrum Prefrontal Premaxilla Preopercular Prootic Pterosphenoid Pterotic Quadrate Scapula Supracleithrum Supraneural Supraoccipital Urohyal Vomer discern between human and natural agents of fish accumulation. We are primarily concerned with human-derived assemblages, and for those we attempt to reconstruct the activities involved fishing, processing, and storing. The wide diversity of fishing methods and the complexity of natural accumulation processes, the diverse methods for processing fish, and the different storage types, all require that a wide set of criteria be employed for the analysis of fish bone remains from archaeological sites (Table 1). In our analysis of grey triggerfish (Balistes carolinensis) remains from the submerged site of Atlit-Yam, we used a wide array of tests to elucidate the nature of this fish bone accumulation. The clumped distribution of the bone remains and the high bone scatter frequency in locus 10A (4 sqm), together with the occurrence of burnt bones, suggest human activity. Moreover, the absence of a correlation between bone density and bone frequency suggests that bone loss was predepositional and reflects human activity. Species diversity, Body mass (g) Standard length (mm) Dorsal postcleithrum (mean = g) st dorsal spine (mean = g) Ethmoid (mean = g) Frequency (%) Dorsal postcleithrum (mean = mm) st dorsal spine (mean = mm) Ethmoid (mean = mm) Frequency (%) Figure 6. Triggerfish body size (body mass and standard length) estimated from the ethmoid, the first dorsal spine, and the dorsal postcleithrum. with one highly dominant species and low taxonomic diversity further supports this hypothesis. Most of the skeletal elements are present, but bones of the branchial region are strongly under-represented. The virtual absence of branchial region bones is compatible with fish gutted for immediate or later consumption, and incompatible with the expected of a naturally derived assemblage. ur analysis ruled out the possible bias of bone fragmentation generating apparent overrepresentation. Triggerfish body size reconstruction estimated from different cranial and postcranial bones points to a large range of body sizes, including small ones which would not be expected under conditions of natural accumulation. However cranial bones and first dorsal spines of large individuals were missing, apparently a result of size-dependent butchering methods. The emerging picture is of a pile of fish stored at a specific location. The fish were trapped irrespective of size, but after gutting were processed in a sizedependent manner. It appears that fish smaller than 250 g were preserved in their entirety, while the heads of larger fish (>250 g) were removed or damaged 30
11 Fish Processing During the Early Holocene 1051 during butchering. Differential treatment based on body size and morphology has been observed in several fishing communities around the world (Belcher, 1994; Burt, 1988; Stewart, 1982; Stewart, 1989; Zohar & ooke, 1997). In Panama small fish (<325 mm) are butchered entirely with their skull intact while large fish (>325 mm) are butchered by a longitudinal dorsal cut, starting at the base of the caudal fin and extending to the anterior part of the skull. The first dorsal spine and predorsal plate of large marine catfish (Ariidae sp.) are removed and discarded before the fish are cut (Zohar & ooke, 1997). Similar processing could explain the absence of dorsal spines of large triggerfish in Atlit-Yam. In Kenya (Lake Turkana), fish smaller than 250 mm in length are processed entirely while larger onces (>250 mm) are decapitated (Stewart, 1989; Stewart & Gifford-Gonzales, 1994). Ethnographic comparisons with recent-day populations, and the occurrence of scales in the Atlit-Yam assemblage, suggest that triggerfish were gutted and then processed for long-term consumption with their skin, as is the practice in present-day populations in different parts of the world (Essuman & Diakite, 1990; Zohar & ooke, 1997). In Ghana, dried and salted triggerfish contribute significantly to the local food supplies and to the daily meals. Triggerfish, primarily those with a body mass of 75 g and over and a length of 150 mm and over are processed for long-term consumption by salting and sun-drying (averiviere, 1987; Essuman & Diakite, 1990; Koranteng & Quaatey, 1990; Nerquaye-Tetteh, 1986). The salted and dried triggerfish are packed tightly for storage in round, traditional mud ovens and covered with polythene sheets. Because of the salt level, tough skin and low fat, a well processed triggerfish will keep for months (Nerquaye-Tetteh, 1986). In sum, Atlit-Yam is the earliest prehistoric community in the eastern Mediterranean that exhibits evidence for intensive fishing, fish processing, and fish storage. Fish storage allows long-term preservation and trade with inland populations, economically significant activites. ur results explain the occurrence of marine fish bones in inland sites (such as Hatula near Jerusalem, Gilgal and Netiv Hagdud in the Jordan Valley) 8000 years ago (Bar-Yosef & Heller, 1987; Bar-Yosef et al., 1991; Davis, 1985; Lernau & Lernau, 1994), a result of trade with coastal communities. Acknowledgements This research was funded by the Irene Levi Sala ARE Foundation, the Morris M. Polver Scholarship Funds of Israel, The National enter for ollaboration between Natural Sciences and Archaeology at the Weizmann Institute of Science, Aharon Katzir enter of the Weizmann Institute of Science, Na amat rganization for Working Women, The Israeli Diving Federation, MAFAF Foundation, Maria Rossi Ascoli Foundation, and the University of Haifa. The Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Tel Aviv University, generously permitted us to use their research facilities. We thank Knud Rosenlund and Inge Enghoff from the Zoological Museum, openhagen, for their generous assistance and hospitality, Israel Hershkovitz and Eli Geffen for their tremendous help and encouragement, and John Speth for his comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript. This manuscript benefited also from numerous thoughtful and constructive comments made by three anonymous referees. Anna Bachar drew Figure 1; Asher Pinhasov took the photograph in Figure 4. We also thank the Israel Antiquity Authorities for their help in the excavations. References Andrews, P. (1995). Experiments in taphonomy. Journal of Archaeological Science 22, Bar-Yosef, D. E. & Heller, J. (1987). Mollusca from Yiftah el, Lower Galilee, Israel. Paléorient 13, Bar-Yosef,., Gopher, A., Tchernov, E. & Kislev, M. (1991). Netiv Hagdud: An early Neolithic village site in the Jordan valley. Journal of Field Archaeology 18, Barrett, J. H. (1997). Fish trade in North rkney and aithness: a zooarchaeological approach. Antiquity 71, Barrett, J. H., Nicholson, R. A. & erón-arrasco, R. (1999). Archaeo-Ichtyological evidence for long-term socioeconomic trends in northern Scotland: 3500 B to AD Journal of Archaeological Science 26, Belcher, W. R. (1994). Butchery practices and the ethnoarchaeology of South Asian fisherfolk. In (W. Van-Neer, Ed.) Fish Exploitation in the The Past: Proceedings of the 7th meeting of the IAZ Fish Remains Working Group. Tervuren: Annales du Musee Royal de l Afrique entrale, Sciences Zoologiques no 274, pp Belcher, W. R. (1998). Fish exploitation of the Baluchistan and Indus valley traditions: An ethnoarchaeological approach to the study of fish remains. PhD, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Binford, L. R. (1981). Bones, Ancient Man and Modern Myths. New York: Academic Press. Blumenschine, R. J., Marean,. W. & apaldo, S. D. (1999). Blind tests of inter-analyst correspondence and accuracy in the identification of cut marks, percussion marks, and carnivore tooth marks on bone surfaces. Journal of Archaeological Science 23, Bonnichsen, R. (1989). onstruction of taphonomic models: Theory, assumptions, and procedures. In (R. Bonnichsen & H. M. Sorg, Eds) Bone Modification. rono, Maine: enter for The Study of The First Americans, Institute for Quaternary Studies, University of Maine, pp Bonnichsen, R. & Sorg, H. M. (Eds) (1989). Bone Modification. rono, Maine: enter for The Study of The First Americans, Institute for Quaternary Studies, University of Maine. Brewer, D. J. & Friedman, R. F. (1989). Fish and Fishing in Ancient Egypt. airo press: The American University in airo. Bullock, A. E. (1994). Evidence for fish exploitation from Tudor deposits excavated at little pickle, Surrey England, in ffa 51, Burt, J. R. (1988). Dried and smoked fishery products: Preparation and consumption. In (J. R. Burt, Ed.) Fish Smoking and Drying. London: Elsevier Applied Science, pp Butler, V. L. (1987). Distinguishing natural from cultural salmonid deposits in the Pacific Northwest of North America. In (D. T. Nash & M. D. Petraglia, Eds) Natural Formation Process and the Archaeological Record. xford: B.A.R. 352, pp
12 1052 I. Zohar et al. Butler, V. L. (1990). Distinguishing natural from cultural Salmonid deposits in the Pacific Northwest of North America. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington. Butler, V. L. (1993). Natural versus cultural Salmonid remains: origin of the Dalles Roadcut bones, olumbia River, regon, USA. Journal of Archaeological Science 20, Butler, V. L. (1994). The role of bone density in structuring prehistoric Salmon bone assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, Butler, V. L. (1996). Tui hub taphonomy and the importance of marsh resources in the western great basin of North America. American Antiquity 61, averiviere, A. (1987). L explotation demographique du Baliste (Balistes carolinensis) en Afrique de l uest et son evolution en relation avec le tendances climatiques. In (P. urry &. Roy, Eds) Pecheries ouest Africans. France: l RSTM, pp erón-arrasco, R. (1994). The investigation of fish remains from an rkney farm mound. In (W. Van Neer, Ed.) Fish Exploitation in The Past: Proceedings of the 7th meeting of the IAZ Fish Remains Working Group. Tervuren: Annales du Musee Royal de l Afrique entrale, Sciences Zoologiques no 274, pp hang,. (1991). Refuse disposal at an Inupiat fish camp: Ethnoarchaeological implications of site formation processes. In (E. Staski & D. S. Livingston, Eds) The Ethnoarchaeology of Refuse Disposal. Arizona: Arizona State University, pp oard, R. & Dennell, R. W. (1995). Taphonomy of some articulated skeletal remains: Transport potential in an artificial environment. Journal of Archaeological Science 22, olley, S. M. (1984). Some methodological problems in the interpretation of fish remains from archaeological sites in rkney. In (N. Desse-Berset, Ed.) 2nd Fish steoarchaeology Meeting. Notes et Monographies Techniques. NRS, pp olley, S. M. (1986). Site formation and archaeological fish remains. An ethnohistorical example from the northern Isles, Scotland. In (D.. Brinkhuizen & A. T. lason, Eds) Fish and Archaeology. xford, England: BAR International Series, 294, pp olley, S. M. (1990). The analysis and interpretation of Archaeological fish remains. In (M. B. Schiffer, Ed.) Archaeological Method and Theory 2. Tuscon, pp utting,. L. (1955). Fish Saving: A History of Fish Processing from Ancient to Modern Times. London: Leonard Hill Limited. Davis, S. J. M. (1985). A preliminary report of fauna from Hatula: a Natufian-Khiamian (PPNA) site near Latroun, Israel. In (M. Lechevallier & A. Ronen, Eds) Le site Natufian-Khiamien de Hatoula, pres de Latroun, Israel. Jerusalem: entré de Recherché Français de Jerusalem, pp Essuman, K. & Diakite, B. (1990). L utilisation du balistes (Balistes carolinensis) au Ghana et au Sendal. FAD Fisheries ircular 828, Falabella, F., Vargas, L. M. & Melendez, R. (1994). Differential preservation and recovery of fish remains in entral hile. In (W. Van-Neer, Ed.) Fish Exploitation in The Past: Proceedings of the 7th meeting of the IAZ Fish Remains Working Group. Tervuren: Proceedings of the 7th meeting of IAZ Fish Remains Working Group. Annales du Musee Royal de l Afrique entrale, Sciences Zoologiques no. 274, pp Galili, E. (1987). A late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B on the sea floor at Atlit. Mitekufat Haeven, Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 20, Galili, E., Kaufman, D. & Weinstein-Evron, M. (1988) Years under the sea. Archaeology 41, Galili, E., Weinstein-Evron, M., Hershkovitz, I., Gopher, A., Kislev, M., Lernau,., Horwitz, L. K. & Lernau, H. (1993). Atlit-Yam: A Prehistoric site on the sea floor off the Israeli coast. Journal of Field Archaeology 20, Gifford, D. (1981). Taphonomy and paleoecology: archaeology s sister disciplines. In (M. B. Schiffer, Ed.) Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 4. New York: Academic Press, pp Gifford-Gonzales, D., Stewart, K. M. & Rybczynski, N. (1999). Human activities and site formation at modern lake margin foraging camp in Kenya. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 18, Hershkovitz, I. & Edelson, G. (1991). The first identified case of thalasemia? Human Evolution 6, Hershkovitz, I. & Galili, E. (1990) year old human remains on the sea floor near Atlit, Israel. Human Evolution 5, Hoffman, B. W., zederpiltz, J. M.. & Partlow, M. A. (2000). Heads or tails: The zooarchaeology of Aleut Salmon storage of Unimak island, Alaska. Journal of Archaeological Science 27, Koranteng, K. A. & Quaatey, S. N. K. (1990). Biostatistical data on the Ghanian demersal fisher, Tema, Ghana: Fishery Research Unit. Krebs,. J. (1989). Ecological Methodology. University of British olumbia: Harperollins Publishers. Landon, D. B. (1992). Taphonomic evidence for site formation processes at Fort hristanna. International Journal of steoarchaeology 2, Lernau, H. & Lernau,. (1994). The Fish Remains. In (M. Lechevallier & A. Ronen, Eds) Le Gisement de Hatoula en Judee occidentale, Israel. Paris: Association Plaéorient, Memoires et Travaux du entré de Recherché Français de Jerusalem, pp Lubinski, P. M. (1996). Fish heads, fish heads: An experiment on differential bone preservation in a Salmonid fish. Journal of Archaeological Science 23, Lyman, R. L. (1984). Bone density and differential survivorship of fossil classes. Journal of Anthropological Society 3, Lyman, R. L. (1994). Vertebrate Taphonomy. ambridge: ambridge University Press. Lyman, R. L., Houghton, L. E. & hambers, A. L. (1992). The effect of structural density on marmot skeletal part representation in archaeological sites. Journal of Archaeological Science 19, Morales, A. & Van Neer, W. (1994). Species abundance models as potential discriminators of natural and anthropogenic paleo-ichthyocenoses with a case example from African sites. ffa 51, Nerquaye-Tetteh, G. A. (1985). Trigger Fish (Balistes spp.) Processing Industry at Elmina (a fishing village in central region of Ghana). Rome: Food Research Institute, Ghana. Nicholson, R. A. (1992). An assessment of the value of bone density measurements to archaeoichthyological studies. International Journal of steoarchaeology 2, Nicholson, R. A. (1993). A morphological investigation of burnt animal bone and an evaluation of its utility in archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science 20, Nicholson, R. A. (1996a). Bone degradation, burial medium and species representation: debunking the myths, an experiment-based approach. Journal of Archaeological Science 23, Nicholson, R. A. (1996b). Fish bone diagenesis in different soils. Archaeofauna 5, Noe-Nygaard, N. (1977). Butchering and marrow fracturing as a taphonomic factor in archaeological deposits. Palaeobiology 3, Noe-Nygaard, N. (1989). Man-made trace fossils on bones. Human Evolution 4, gorek, R. (1999). Ecological aspects of the fish community in the Shikmona Reef. MSc Thesis, Tel-Aviv University, Israel. Poulter, R. G. (1988). Processing and storage of traditional dried and smoked fish products. In (J. R. Burt, Ed.) Fish Smoking and Drying. London: Elsevier Applied Science, pp Rabinovitch, R., Bar-Yosef,. & Tchernov, E. (1996). How many ways to skin a gazelle Butchery patterns from an Upper Palaeolithic site, Hayonim cave, Israel. Archaeozoologia VIII, Stewart, H. (1982). Indian Fishing: Early Methods on the Northwest oast. Vancouver: University of Washington Press.
13 Fish Processing During the Early Holocene 1053 Stewart, K. M. (1989). Fishing Sites of North and East Africa in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. xford: B.A.R Stewart, K. M. (1991). Modern fish bone assemblages at Lake Turkana, Kenya: A methodology to aid in recognition of Hominid fish utilization. Journal of Archaeological Science 18, Stewart, K. M. (1994). Early hominid utilisation of fish resources and implications for seasonality and behaviour. Journal of Human Evolution 27, Stewart, K. M. & Gifford-Gonzales, D. (1994). An ethnoarchaeological contribution to identifying hominid fish processing sites. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, van Andel, T. H. & Lianos, N. (1983). Prehistoric and historic shoreline of the southern Argolid Peninsula: A subbottom profiler study. Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration 23, van Elsbergen, M. J. (1997). Fischeri im Alten Agypten: Untersuchungen zu den Fischfangdarstellungen in den Grabern der 4 bis 6 Dynastie. Berlin: Achet Verlag. Van Neer, W. (1993). Fish remains from the last Interglacial at Bir Tarfawi (Eastern Sahara, Egypt). In (F. Wendorf, R. Schild & A. E. lose, Eds) Egypt During the Last Interglacial. New York: Plenum Press, pp Van Neer, W. & Ervynck, A. (1996). Food rules and status: Patterns of fish consumption in a monastic community (Ename, Belgium). Archaeofauna 5, Van Neer, W. & Morales, A. M. (1992). Fish Middens : Anthropogenic accumulations of fish remains and their bearing on archaeoichthyological analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 19, Van Neer, W. & Pieters, M. (1997). Evidence for processing of flatfish at Raverside, a late Medeival coastal site in Belgium. Anthropozoologica 25, Wheeler, A. & Jones, A. K. G. (1989). Fishes. ambridge: ambridge University Press. Wheeler, A. & Locker, B. (1985). The estimation of size in sardines (Sardina pilchardus) from Amphora in a wreck at Randello, Sicily. Journal of Archaeological Science 12, Zohar, I. & ooke, R. (1997). The impact of salting and drying on fish bones: Preliminary observations on four marine species from Parita Bay, Panama. Archaeofauna 6, Zohar, I., Dayan, T. & Spanier, E. (1997). Predicting Gray triggerfish body size from bones. International Journal of steoarchaeology 7, Zohar, I., Dayan, T., Spanier, E., Galili, E. & Lernau,. (1994). Exploitation of gray triggerfish (Balistes carolinensis) by the prehistoric inhabitants of Atlit-Yam, Israel: a preliminary report. In (W. Van Neer, Ed.) Fish Exploitation in The Past: Proceedings of the 7th meeting of the IAZ Fish Remains Working Group. Tervuren: Annales du Musee Royal de l Afrique entrale, Sciences Zoologiques no 274, pp
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CURRICULUM 1. G ENERAL ASSESSMENT OF SCENE. LAB AND MORTUARY INVESTIGATIONS Candidates for examinations at FAI and II are expected to have knowledge and practical experience of workingMore information
Vertebral anatomy study guide. Human Structure Summer 2015. Prepared by Daniel Schmitt, Angel Zeininger, and Karyne Rabey.
Vertebral anatomy study guide. Human Structure Summer 2015 Prepared by Daniel Schmitt, Angel Zeininger, and Karyne Rabey. 1. Plan of Action: In this guide you will learn to identify these structures: CervicalMore information
Scene Detection and Processing
Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH) Scene Detection and Processing Issue Date: 01/23/2013 Revision: 0 Scene Detection and Processing 1.0 Principle, Spirit, and Intent A scene isMore information
21st International Conference of The Coastal Society
21st International Conference of The Coastal Society MARINE STEWARDSHIP AREA OFFERS A MODEL FOR INTEGRATING SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, STEWARDSHIP AND ECOSYSTEM THINKING IN THE CONSERVATION OF COASTAL RESOURCESMore information
Final Project Report
CURTIN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Department of Applied Geology Western Australia School of Mines Applied Sedimentology, Coastal and Marine Geoscience Group GERALDTON EMBAYMENTS COASTAL SEDIMENT BUDGET STUDYMore information
Bony Fish Anatomy Worksheet
Educational Material Bony Fish Anatomy Worksheet Teacher Information This activity is designed to be team-taught by the classroom and art teacher. Use this guide in conjunction with fish-related art toMore information
ANTH 310 Human Origins LABORATORY #5 EARLY AND LATE ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS AND ANATOMICALLY MODERN HOMO SAPIENS Traditionally, the hominins after the middle Pleistocene (middle Homo) belong to Homo sapiens.More information
An Archaeological Settlement Analysis of Goshono Site
An Archaeological Settlement Analysis of Goshono Site TAKADA Kazunori YAMADA Masahisa 1. The Planar Distribution of Remains Goshono is a late-middle Jomon settlement site in Iwate Prefecture, Ninohe County,More information
Avian Skeletal Morphology
Avian Skeletal Morphology To Know Skull/Face Trunk and Limbs Cranium Vertebral ribs Occipital Sternal ribs Parietal Uncinate processes Frontal Sternum and keel Squamosal Pectoral Girdle Jugal (zygomaticMore information
Diver Impacts on coral reefs at Kealakekua Bay, Hawai i
Diver Impacts on coral reefs at Kealakekua Bay, Hawai i by Brian N. Tissot, Ph.D. Program in Environmental Science and Regional Planning Washington State University Vancouver, WA 98686 & Leon E. Hallacher,More information
RESTORATION & REVITALIZATION Legal preservation has not proved to be sufficient to preserve natural communities. Restoration activities are diverse and includes revitalization of natural communities whichMore information
Appendix Template for Submission of Scientific Information to Describe Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas Note: Please DO NOT embed tables, graphs, figures, photos, or other artworkMore information
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY NOTES Forensic Anthropology = the examinations of human skeletal remains for law enforcement agencies to determine the identity of unidentified bones. Questions asked: 1. Are theMore information
Activity: Is There Evidence of Trauma in the Skeleton?
Activity: Is There Evidence of Trauma in the Skeleton? Injuries to bone can occur in life (antemortem), at or near the time of death (perimortem), or after death (postmortem) when all that remains of theMore information
Chairs: Thomas B Larsson, Department of History, Philosophy and Religion, Umeå University thomas.larsson[at]arke.umu.se
Archaeological Perspectives on Climate Change This session focuses on archaeological perspectives on climate change. In which ways can the archaeological record, together with other types of data, be usedMore information
9.3.7 Advice December 2014
9.3.7 Advice December 2014 ECOREGION STOCK Widely distributed and migratory stocks European eel Advice for 2015 The status of eel remains critical and ICES advises that all anthropogenic mortality (e.g.More information
Forensic Anthropology
Grade Level: Middle and High School Purpose: The purpose of this lesson is to give students the opportunity to explore the field of forensic anthropology, the science used to investigate the Lassen/ClapperMore information
The First Female Homo erectus Pelvis, from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia
PRESS RELEASE The First Female Homo erectus Pelvis, from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia To be published in the Journal Science 14 November, 2008 Prepared by the Gona Palaeoanthropological Research Project StoneMore information
Comment Invited on Proposal to Protect the Bristol Bay Watershed
Region 10 Comment Invited on Proposal to Protect the Bristol Bay Watershed July 2014 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region 10 requests comment on a proposal to protect one of the world s most valuableMore information
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN CORAL REHABILITATION AT PHI PHI ISLANDS, KRABI Mid-water coral nursery as a source of coral seedlings to rehabilitate degraded coral reefs Site: Phi Phi Lae Island, in 2006 MarineMore information
LEARN ABOUT DRIMOLEN FIELD SCHOOL SOUTH AFRICA 24 th JUNE 15 th JULY ARCHAEOLOGY GEOARCHAEOLOGY PALAEOANTHROPOLOGY STUDENT INFORMATION
2016 DRIMOLEN FIELD SCHOOL SOUTH AFRICA 24 th JUNE 15 th JULY The Drimolen Field School provides students with a unique opportunity to work at a UNESCO World Heritage fossil site in the Cradle of Humankind,More information
Fish: One-of-a-kind Animals (30 minute activity)
FISH HEALTH/Activity Fish: One-of-a-kind Animals (30 minute activity) Objectives Materials Background I have known you in your streams and rivers where your fish flashed and danced in the sun, where theMore information
Hanover Point (Isle of Wight) fossils
Home Fossil hunts Locations Resources Links Updates Contact Est. 2002 You are here: Home Locations Isle of Wight Hanover Point Meet the team Discovering Fossils is a non-commercial public resource dedicatedMore information
Investigating the Accuracy of Predicted A Level Grades as part of 2009 UCAS Admission Process
RESEARCH PAPER NUMBER 37 Investigating the Accuracy of Predicted A Level Grades as part of 2009 UCAS Admission Process JUNE 2011 Authors: Nick Everett and Joanna Papageorgiou, UCAS The views expressedMore information
1) Summary of work performed and progress made during preceding month
Mapping and Characterization of Recurring Spring Leads and Landfast Ice in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, Coastal Marine Institute Project (NOFA MMS09HQPA0004T) Monthly progress report, June 2010 1) SummaryMore information
Evidence for evolution factsheet
The theory of evolution by natural selection is supported by a great deal of evidence. Fossils Fossils are formed when organisms become buried in sediments, causing little decomposition of the organism.More information
Human Anatomy & Physiology General
Human Anatomy & Physiology General Biology is the study of life but, what exactly is life? how are living things different from nonliving things eg. a human from a rock eg. a a human from a robot eg. aMore information
Skeletal System: Axial and Appendicular Skeleton (Chapter 7 & 8)
Skeletal System: Axial and Appendicular Skeleton (Chapter 7 & 8) Lecture Materials for Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. Suffolk County Community College Eastern Campus Primary Sources for figures and content:More information
Title: Lapita and later archaeology of the Malolo and Mamanuca Islands, Fiji
1 Title: Lapita and later archaeology of the Malolo and Mamanuca Islands, Fiji Authors: Ethan E. Cochrane 1, Sepeti Matararaba 2, Elia Nakoro 2 Affiliations: 1 University College London, Institute of Archaeology,More information
Chapter 11. What are the functions of the skeletal system? More detail on bone
Skeletal System Chapter 11 11.1 Overview of the skeletal system What are the functions of the skeletal system? 1. Supports the body 2. Protects the soft body parts 3. Produces blood cells 4. Stores mineralsMore information
Chapter 3 Communities, Biomes, and Ecosystems
Communities, Biomes, and Ecosystems Section 1: Community Ecology Section 2: Terrestrial Biomes Section 3: Aquatic Ecosystems Click on a lesson name to select. 3.1 Community Ecology Communities A biologicalMore information
WEB OF LIFE Kelp keystone species ecosystem extinction decimated predator invertebrates proliferated inhabit herbivorous biodiversity prey profound
WEB OF LIFE Sea otters live in the shallow waters of the Pacific and in various types of habitats that include rocky shores, tidal estuaries, and kelp forests. Kelp forests are a key habitat often associatedMore information
SCTB17 Working Paper FTWG INF 4 A HANDBOOK FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF YELLOWFIN AND BIGEYE TUNAS IN BRINE FROZEN CONDITION David G. Itano Pelagic Fisheries Research Program JIMAR, University of Hawaii USAMore information
Patterns of settlement discard
Patterns of settlement discard Final Bronze Age settlement site at Roztoky Martin Kuna Archaeological Institute Prague, Czech Republic email@example.com The story of settlement refuse. GIS intra-site analysisMore information
Offshore Renewable Energy in Virginia
Offshore Renewable Energy in Virginia Presented to the Renewable Natural Resources Foundation December, 8 2009 Neil Rondorf Vice President, Maritime Operations Science Applications International CorporationMore information
Chapter 11: The Origins and Evolution of Early Homo
Chapter 11: The Origins and Evolution of Early Homo 1. Homo habilis: The First Species of the Genus Homo a. The Path to Humanness: Bigger Brains, Tool Use, and Adaptive Flexibility i. First discoveredMore information
You have 24 vertebrae in your spinal column. Two are special enough to be individually named.
You have 24 vertebrae in your spinal column. Two are special enough to be individually named. Your atlas (C01) and axis (C02) are very important vertebrae. Without them, head and neck movement would beMore information
PLAN AND PROCEDURES FOR THE UNANTICIPATED DISCOVERY OF CULTURAL RESOURCES AND HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS PROJECT, COUNTY WASHINGTON 1. INTRODUCTION The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT)More information
Emergency Safeguarding. of the World Heritage. Site of Byblos
Emergency Safeguarding of the World Heritage Site of Byblos Emergency Safeguarding of the World Heritage Site of Byblos Introduction Located on the Eastern Mediterranean, 40 km north of Beirut (Lebanon),More information
2.0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND PHASE III DATA RECOVERY METHODOLOGY DelDOT requested that Skelly and Loy, Inc., prepare a research design and Phase III data recovery plan (Espenshade 2003) as a means to mitigateMore information
Several aspects of the natural history of the rocky intertidal barnacle can explain
Chapter 1 General introduction Several aspects of the natural history of the rocky intertidal barnacle can explain why it has long been exploited as an example of marine animal recruitment. The adult barnacleMore information
STATUS REPORT FOR THE SUBMERGED REEF BALL TM ARTIFICIAL REEF SUBMERGED BREAKWATER BEACH STABILIZATION PROJECT FOR THE GRAND CAYMAN MARRIOTT HOTEL performed by Lee E. Harris, Ph.D., P.E. Consulting CoastalMore information
Divisions of the Skeletal System
OpenStax-CNX module: m46344 1 Divisions of the Skeletal System OpenStax College This work is produced by OpenStax-CNX and licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0 By the end of thisMore information
Anthropology 209: Forensic Anthropology Fall 2012
Anthropology 209: Forensic Anthropology Fall 2012 Instructor: Adam Van Arsdale Lecture: PNW 117, Tu/Fr 9:50-11:00 Lab: SC 314, W 10:00-12:00 (1 hour) Office: PNE 348 Office Hours: Tuesday: 11-12, Friday:More information
B2 6 Old and New Species
B2 6 Old and New Species 62 minutes 62 marks Page of 22 Q. Fossils give us evidence for the theory of evolution. The diagrams show how a fish became a fossil. (a) In the sentences below, cross out theMore information
WILLOCHRA BASIN GROUNDWATER STATUS REPORT 2009-10 SUMMARY 2009-10 The Willochra Basin is situated in the southern Flinders Ranges in the Mid-North of South Australia, approximately 50 km east of Port AugustaMore information
There is a concerted effort in the regionto understand the sources, fate, transport and
There is a concerted effort in the regionto understand the sources, fate, transport and impacts of toxic to the Salish Sea with the intent of determining best management options to reduce toxic threats.More information
Developing Ocean Energy in Ireland. Belmullet Wave Energy Test Site
Developing Ocean Energy in Ireland Belmullet Wave Energy Test Site Where does our energy come from? Most of the energy we use in Ireland comes from fossil fuels such as oil, coal, peat and gas. We burnMore information
The application of forensic archaeology, anthropology and ecology to crime scene investigation
Accredited by The application of forensic archaeology, anthropology and ecology to crime scene investigation SPECIALIST TRAINING COURSES IDENTIFICATION INTERPRETATION INNOVATION Introduction Cellmark ForensicMore information
The Making of the Fittest: ADVANCED WORKSHEET TEACHER MATERIALS THE VIRTUAL EVOLUTION STICKLEBACK LAB
Natural The Making The Making Selection of the of the and Fittest: Fittest: Adaptation Natural Evolving Selection Switches, and Evolving Adaptation Bodies OVERVIEW THE VIRTUAL EVOLUTION STICKLEBACK LABMore information
Evolution (18%) 11 Items Sample Test Prep Questions
Evolution (18%) 11 Items Sample Test Prep Questions Grade 7 (Evolution) 3.a Students know both genetic variation and environmental factors are causes of evolution and diversity of organisms. (pg. 109 ScienceMore information
Right Whale. The Kids Times: Volume II, Issue 6. NOAA s National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Protected Resources
NOAA s National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Protected Resources The Kids Times: Volume II, Issue 6 Right Whale Right whales have no dorsal fin on their backs. How did the right whale get its name?More information
Proceedings of the International Conference on Reducing Climate Change Challenges through Forestry and Other Land Use Practices
Integrating conservation and livelihood activities towards community adaptation to climate change challenges along Wami-Ruvu mangrove ecosystem, Bagamoyo, Tanzania. Abstract 1 Mahenge, J. and 2 Tegule,More information
Hopewell Archeology: The Newsletter of Hopewell Archeology in the Ohio River Valley Volume 6, Number 1, September 2004
Hopewell Archeology: The Newsletter of Hopewell Archeology in the Ohio River Valley Volume 6, Number 1, September 2004 5. New Discoveries Right in Our Own Front Yard: Preliminary Results of Recent ResearchMore information
Appendix B: Cost Estimates
Appendix B: Estimates This appendix presents the estimated costs of the monitoring and supplemental research components presented in Section 3 of this document. A 20% quality assurance and quality controlMore information
Evaluation of biological remains from excavations at Bishop Wilton, North Yorkshire (site code: KINCM 2000.108)
Reports from the Environmental Archaeology Unit, York 2000/43, 5 pp. Evaluation of biological remains from excavations at Bishop Wilton, North Yorkshire (site code: KINCM 2000.108) by Deborah Jaques, JohnMore information
Great Lakes Wind Energy Center Final Feasibility Study Fact Sheet Technical, Environmental and Economic Key Findings
Great Lakes Wind Energy Center Final Feasibility Study Fact Sheet Technical, Environmental and Economic Key Findings Background Cuyahoga County is striving to build the world s first offshore wind turbineMore information
Post Hurricane Ivan Damage Assessment of Seagrass Resources of Coastal Alabama
Post Hurricane Ivan Damage Assessment of Seagrass Resources of Coastal Alabama Table of Contents: K.L. Heck, Jr. and D. Byron Dauphin Island Sea Lab 101 Bienville Boulevard Dauphin Island, AL 36528 (251/861-2141;More information
Classification of bones Any bone may be classified into one of the following groups:
Skeletal system This system is made up of hard tissues like bone and cartilages. This system gives form and shape to animal body The skeleton of a living animal is made up living structures of bones. TheMore information
ASX ANNOUNCEMENT 17 JUNE 2014 Sunbird-1 oil zone verified offshore Kenya Historic first-ever oil column discovered offshore East Africa Sunbird-1 well, completed in March in area L10A, intersected a grossMore information
RECALLING Paragraph b of Article 13 of the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, 1974 (Helsinki Convention),
CONVENTION ON THE PROTECTION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT OF THE BALTIC SEA AREA HELSINKI COMMISSION - Baltic Marine HELCOM 19/98 Environment Protection Commission 15/1 Annex 3 19th Meeting Helsinki, 23-27More information
NRDA PROCEDURES AND TERMS (Paraphrased from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Guidance Documents for Natural Resource Damage Assessment Under the Oil Pollution Action of 1990) INTRODUCTIONMore information
A Functional Classification System for Marine Protected Areas in the United States
A Functional Classification System for Marine Protected Areas in the United States The U.S. Classification System: An Objective Approach for Understanding the Purpose and Effects of MPAs as an EcosystemMore information
Environmental Compliance Questionnaire for National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Federal Financial Assistance Applicants
OMB Approval No.: 0648-0538 Environmental Compliance Questionnaire for National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Federal Financial Assistance Applicants Instructions The National Environmental PolicyMore information
Recent ostracods from the Azores archipelago
Joannea Geol. Paläont. 11: 132-136 (2011) Recent ostracods from the Azores archipelago Ricardo P. MEIRELES, Antonio FRIAS MARTINS & Sérgio ÁVILA The Azores is an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean betweenMore information
Human Impacts on the World Ocean
This website would like to remind you: Your browser (Safari 7) is out of date. Update your browser for more security, comfort and the best experience on this site. lesson Human Impacts on the World OceanMore information
Curriculum proposal for a Master in Environmental Archaeology
Curriculum proposal for a Master in Environmental Archaeology according to the Credit Hour System prepared in collaboration between Faculty of Archaeology Cairo University Faculty of Science Cologne UniversityMore information
Global Water Resources
Global Water Resources Highlights from assessment activities over the past two decades, which are used to establish present and future water trends, reveal that: 1. Freshwater resources are unevenly distributed,More information
Biodiversity Conservation in Egypt (Achievements of a Decade and Future Priorities)
Biodiversity Conservation in Egypt (Achievements of a Decade and Future Priorities) Prof. Moustafa M. Fouda Director, Nature Conservation Sector Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency Since ancient timesMore information
Tennessee Curriculum Standards for High School World History Correlations to Wright Group/McGraw-Hill s World History
Tennessee Curriculum Standards for High School World History Correlations to Wright Group/McGraw-Hill s World History Course Description: In World History High School, students study the history of humankindMore information
What other body parts do sharks have that help them swim?
Galleria: Sharks Look out for the sharks swimming overhead! Most sharks are great swimmers and their bodies are built for speed. What body shape do these sharks have in order to help them be such fastMore information
Evaluating the Condition of Seawalls/Bulkheads
Volume 2 Evaluating the Condition of Seawalls/Bulkheads By: Coastal Systems International, Inc. Typical bulkhead under construction Seawalls and bulkheads (walls) provide shoreline stabilization for manyMore information
NISP, Bone Fragmentation, and the Measurement of Taxonomic Abundance
NISP, Bone Fragmentation, and the Measurement of Taxonomic Abundance Michael D. Cannon 1 1 SWCA Environmental Consultants 257 E. 200 S., Suite 200 Salt Lake City, UT 84111 Phone: (801) 322-4307 Fax: (801)More information
Competitive Advantage of Libyan Business Environment
Economics World, ISSN 23287144 May 2014, Vol. 2, No. 5, 325332 D DAVID PUBLISHING Competitive Advantage of Libyan Business Environment Salem Abdulla Azzaytuna University, Tripoli, Libya The economic developmentMore information
SEISMIC DAMAGE ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR WATER SUPPLY PIPELINES Ryoji ISOYAMA 1, Eisuke ISHIDA 2, Kiyoji YUNE 3 And Toru SHIROZU 4 SUMMARY This paper presents a practical procedure for estimating damageMore information
GREAT BARRIER REEF. Climate Change Action Plan
GREAT BARRIER REEF Climate Change Action Plan 2007 2011 Climate change is now recognised as the greatest long-term threat to the Great Barrier Reef. The Great Barrier Reef is internationally renowned asMore information
Memorandum. GGNRA Dog Management Work Group. Draft Progress Report from Work Group Meetings
Memorandum To: From: Subject: GGNRA Dog Management Work Group Facilitation Team Draft Progress Report from Work Group Meetings Date: October 25, 2007 Based on discussions during three Work Group meetings,More information
Appendix A. The Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA)
Appendix A. The Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA) THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA DO ENACT AS FOLLOWS: SECTION 1. Chapter 10.5 (commencing with Section 2850) is added to Division 3 of the Fish andMore information
NATURAL RESOURCE RESTORATION LESSON PLAN Fix It!
NATURAL RESOURCE RESTORATION LESSON PLAN Fix It! Theme Repairing Damaged Resources Links to Overview Essays and Resources Needed for Student Research http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/corals http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/topics/coasts/restoration/More information
SITE INVESTIGATIONS OF THE BEACH EROSION PROBLEM AT MAHO BEACH, ST. MAARTEN Performed February 2003 Performed by: Dr. Lee E. Harris, Ph.D., P.E. Associate Professor of Ocean Engineering & OceanographyMore information
Chapter 7 Earthquake Hazards Practice Exam and Study Guide
Chapter 7 Earthquake Hazards Practice Exam and Study Guide 1. Select from the following list, all of the factors that affect the intensity of ground shaking. a. The magnitude of the earthquake b. RatherMore information
G3-Giornate Giovani GNRAC Quartiere Fieristico di Ferrara, 21 Settembre 2012
3 SALONE SULLA TUTELA DELLA COSTA COAST PROTECTION EXHIBITION 2 ND EDITION G3-Giornate Giovani GNRAC Quartiere Fieristico di Coastal vulnerability assessment to climate change. CVI Index application toMore information
Experience from the first large scale tidal turbine EIA in Europe. How do we work towards effective and proportionate EIA?
Independent, integrated thinking Experience from the first large scale tidal turbine EIA in Europe How do we work towards effective and proportionate EIA? Liz Foubister IEMA Webinar 30 th July 2014 WhatMore information
Climate Change and Coral Bleaching in Puerto Rico: Efforts and Challenges
Climate Change and Coral Bleaching in Puerto Rico: Efforts and Challenges June 18-20, 2003 Oahu, Hawaii 1 2 Aileen T. Velazco-Domínguez, MS Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental ResourcesMore information
Instrumentation for Monitoring around Marine Renewable Energy Devices
Instrumentation for Monitoring around Marine Renewable Energy Devices 1 Introduction As marine renewable energy has developed, a set of consistent challenges has emerged following attempts to understandMore information
2016 Outlook and Management -Pre-season outlook / expectations and early indications - General overview of in-season management approach
Salmon Briefing 2016 Outlook and Management -Pre-season outlook / expectations and early indications - General overview of in-season management approach Pacific Salmon Species Size and age at return variesMore information
MPAs: Now and Then Section A) Kapus in Hawaii: Environmental Protection in the Ocean Before MPAs
s: Now and Then Section A) Kapus in Hawaii: Environmental Protection in the Ocean Before s Defining Environment When we talk about protecting the environment, what do we mean? What exactly is our environment?More information
Dwejra A Coastal Nature Park
Dwejra A Coastal Nature Park Introduction Dwejra is an important and very popular site in the Maltese Islands found on the North West coast of the island of Gozo. The site is famous for it natural beautyMore information
WHAT TO DO IN THE EVENT OF AN ESCAPE OF FISH FROM A FISH FARM Guidance on reporting an escape or suspected escape under Part 4A of the Aquatic Animal Health (Scotland) Regulations 2009 GUIDANCE SeptemberMore information
Lab 5 Overview of the Skeleton: Classification and Structure of Bones and Cartilages Exercise 9 The Axial Skeleton Exercise 10
Lab 5 Overview of the Skeleton: Classification and Structure of Bones and Cartilages Exercise 9 The Axial Skeleton Exercise 10 Overview of the Skeleton Locate the important cartilages in the human skeletonMore information
A. GULF OF MAINE HADDOCK ASSESSMENT SUMMARY FOR 2014 State of Stock: The Gulf of Maine haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) stock is not overfished and overfishing is not occurring in 2013 (Figure A1). SpawningMore information
Applying GIS to Archaeological Site Prediction on Camp Pendleton, Southern California
Applying GIS to Archaeological Site Prediction on Camp Pendleton, Southern California Seetha Reddy and Alice Brewster Abstract Recent archaeological investigations on Camp Pendleton have applied geographicMore information
Courtesy of José Aguilar-Manjarrez
Fish ponds for culture of Nile tilapia, African catfish and African bonytongue, Cameroon There is considerable potential to expand inland aquaculture in Africa to improve food security. To aid aquacultureMore information
Introduction to protection goals, ecosystem services and roles of risk management and risk assessment. Lorraine Maltby
Introduction to protection goals, ecosystem services and roles of risk management and risk assessment. Lorraine Maltby Problem formulation Risk assessment Risk management Robust and efficient environmentalMore information
Chapter 9: Earth s Past
Chapter 9: Earth s Past Vocabulary 1. Geologic column 2. Era 3. Period 4. Epoch 5. Evolution 6. Precambrian time 7. Paleozoic era 8. Shield 9. Stromatolite 10. Invertebrate 11. Trilobite 12. Index fossilMore information
Great Crested Newt Habitat Suitability Index
Great Crested Newt Habitat Suitability Index Background The Habitat Suitability Index (H) for the great crested newt was developed by Oldham et al. (2000). H scoring systems were originally developed byMore information
Data Quality Working Group
Data Quality Working Group In order to get an overview of the issues that have been discussed so far, I have summarized them a little and added some links and references. The interesting discussion isMore information
SEA OTTER HISTORY peninsula abundant coerced extinct remnant International Fur Seal Treaty CALIFORNIA threatened Endangered Species Act degradation
SEA OTTER HISTORY Sea otters once ranged from northern Japan to the Alaskan peninsula and along the west coast of North America to Baja California in Mexico. Until the 1700s, sea otters were abundant throughoutMore information
AQUACULTURE: PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT March 10, 2014 April 3, 2014
MASHAV - Israel's Agency for International Development Cooperation The Hebrew University of Jerusalem The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food & Environment, Division for International StudiesMore information
Self Calibration of Cluster Counts: Observable-Mass Distribution. Wayne Hu Kona, March 2005
Self Calibration of Cluster Counts: Observable-Mass Distribution Wayne Hu Kona, March 2005 Self Calibration of Cluster Counts: Observable-Mass Distribution Wayne Hu Kona, August 2004 Scattered ForecastsMore information


text:
2 Days In New York
January 27, 2012 by staff
2 Days In New York, "2 Days in Paris" harbored no doubts about how French Julie Delpy's 2007 film was. Delpy is Paris born. All the action between her character Marion and American boyfriend Jack, played by Adam Goldberg, takes place in the City of Lights.
So,with the location tables turned, but with another American actor in the form of Chris Rock playing Marion's second boyfriend, how French is Delpy's new Sundance film "2 Days in New York?"
Based on separate interviews during the film's Monday red carpet Delpy and co-star Alexia Landeau, who plays Marion's sister Rose in both films, disagree on just how Gallic the new film is.
"It's a little French, maybe 30 percent," Delpy said, pausing to laugh. "And 70 percent American."
Landeau, also Paris born, goes further down the Francophile road in her assessment.
"The French are a huge part of it," Landeau said. "There's a very 'unPC' French side to it. The French say whatever they want to, whatever they think. They don't edit themselves."
After seeing the film it's hard not to side with Landeau, if only because the French characters-Delpy's real-life father Albert Deply among them-outgun the stateside American characters by a ratio of four-to-one. Scene after scene showcases a flustered and confused Chris Rock up against three French in-laws with marginal or nonexistent English skills. Rock said at the film's Q&A after its world premiere screening that he fueled the awkwardness just as well: He knows no French.
Please feel free to send if you have any questions regarding this post , you can contact on
Disclaimer: The views expressed on this site are that of the authors and not necessarily that of U.S.S.POST.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Tricky TranssexualsFavorites [+]
Pay-Per-Minute Viewing
You can now enjoy this movie on your iPhone®, iPad®, or compatible Smart TV & Android devices.
Purchase Options
Pay-Per-MinutePurchase Minutes
Streaming Rentals
Available MP4 sizes:SD 480p (1.67 GB)
DRM-free downloads offer content that is not limited by standard Digital Rights Management (DRM) access technologies. These technologies allow hardware manufacturers, publishers, copyright holders and individuals to limit the usage of digital content.
When you purchase DRM-free downloadable content, that content is available for you to download on any computer and save to a disk whenever you like. You can also download to multiple computers. There is no timeframe associated with your purchase and the content will not expire.
Running Time: 108 minutes
Released: 06/2009
Studio Name: Ultimate T-Girl Productions
Series: Tricky Transsexuals
5 Scenes from Tricky Transsexuals
Tricky Transsexuals: Scene 1 Free Preview
Sex Acts: Anal Sex, Rim Job, Handjob, Masturbation, Oral Sex
Positions: Standing Doggy Style, Crouching/Squatting, Standing, Missionary, Reverse Cowgirl
Tricky Transsexuals: Scene 2 Free Preview
Positions: Standing, Standing Missionary, Reverse Cowgirl, Standing Doggy Style
Tricky Transsexuals: Scene 3 Free Preview
Sex Acts: Anal Sex, Rim Job, Throat Fucking, Masturbation, Oral Sex, Blowjob
Positions: Standing Doggy Style, Crouching/Squatting, Standing, Sitting, Reverse Cowgirl, Missionary
Tricky Transsexuals: Scene 4 Free Preview
Positions: Standing, Sitting, Missionary, Standing Doggy Style, Doggy Style
Settings: Living Room
Tricky Transsexuals: Scene 5 Free Preview
Sex Acts: Anal Sex, Masturbation, Oral Sex
Positions: Standing, Spoons position, Sitting, Reverse Cowgirl, Standing Doggy Style
Settings: Living Room
Recommended Movies
AEBN Cams


text:
Rifle Finishes Second at GARC Championships
Feb. 26, 2012
OXFORD, MISS. -- The Kentucky rifle team used great air rifle performances from Ethan Settlemires, Heather Greathouse and Stacy Wheatley to post a 2362 team total on the second and final day of the Great American Rifle Conference Championships with a second-place 4675 total team score, hosted by Ole Miss at the Patricia C. Lamar United State Army National Guard Readiness Center on Sunday.
Kentucky (11-1, 6-0 GARC) completed the final day of the GARC Championships with a solid air rifle score to finish second to West Virginia overall, after UK placed third in smallbore on Saturday. UK, the regular-season conference champions and the defending NCAA Champions, fell just six points shy of the Mountaineers.
"It was a really hard-fought effort," Mullins said. "We had a similar finish last year in that we won the regular-season championship, finished second in the GARC Championships and won the national championship. Hopefully we can build on this weekend and get in a good position going to the NCAA's."
UK was led on Sunday by a strong air rifle performance, as Settlemires paced the team with a 595. Greathouse fired a 592, while Wheatley finished with a 590. Henri Junghanel totaled a 585 and Katie Fretts fired a 579 to round out the starting lineup.
"We had some really good individual accomplishments," Mullins said. "Wheatley struggled early and dropped some points but fought back to shoot a 590. Ethan dropped a few points early and shot a 595. Heather really rallied to beat out Ethan for second place and Henri and Heather had good days in smallbore on Saturday."
Also individually in air rifle, UK had several shooters compete, including Cody Manning (576), John Sutton (565), Ethan Marne (576), Ed Ryznar (582), Jonathan Pinkel (579), Elijah Ellis (587) and James Jasis (578).
"We broke 2360 in air rifle and WVU just shot a little bit better," Mullins said. "We just have to keep working hard so we can get the numbers we want. We can't bow our heads and feel sorry for ourselves. The team worked hard today, things just didn't work out in the final score. Every team leaves a competition feeling like they left points on the board. We made some mistakes but the good part is we worked hard throughout. Sometimes you can overwork things and this will be a good learning experience. We will get right back at it at training and get ready for the NCAA Championships."
UK will return to action on March 9-10 in its NCAA Title defense quest at the NCAA Championships.