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Early Ottoman Diplomacy: Ad Hoc Period
- Dorthy Goodwin
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1 Early Ottoman Diplomacy 37 ) Z-r Early Ottoman Diplomacy: Ad Hoc Period Bitlent Arr Throughout many centuries, until the period of overall reform by Selim III, the Ottoman sultans carried out their relations with foreign rulers in the fofm of ad hoc diplomacy. Although that was the-general practice of the Middle Ages, as early as 1454 the Ottoman court had become acquainted with a residential ambassador in Constantinople. The Venetran bailo permanently resided in Istanbul to carry out relations with the Ottoman Empire as well as secure the interests of Venetian merchants. Nevertheless, successive Ottoman sultans preferred ad hoc diplomacy, and Sent out representatives of various ranks as necessity required. In this study, the reasons for such a preference - Ottoman approach to diplomacy, Islamic influences, Ottoman diplomatic protocol and conduct of diplomacy - will be illuminated by the archives, with selected examples from contemporary sources and chronicles. Early background Just as the rules of diplomacy in Europe were framed in accord with the ethical principles of Christianity, r eariy Ottoman diplomacy was mostly shaped by the general principles of Islam. The pillars of Ottoman diplomacy were based on Islamic law, as the Ottomans were becoming a world power throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. From the eighteenth century onwards, however, the relative strength of the Ottoman State greatly decreased vis-i-vis the European powers. As a result, western standards of dipiomacy were widely imposed on the Ottomans. By the nineteenth century, the conduct of diplomacy was totally shaped by the maior states of Europe. As a result of the Paris Conference in 1856, the Ottomans were considered fit to benefit from the European Public Law of Nations- There was no more unique 'Ottoman' diplomacy. The Concert of Europe had its own diplomatic tradition which was to be accepted by the Ottomans In addition to the requirements of 'power relations', the ottoman state of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries based its relationships with other nations on the general rules of Muslim international law, the basic principles of which are known as Dar al-harb, Dar ai-isiam, Ddr al-sulh, amkn (safe conduct) and dhimme (status given to non-muslims in a Muslim state). In the period that we are dealing with, Ottoman peace agreements with other nations were considered by the Ottomans to be truces rather than bilateral treaties. Since a continuous status of peace with infidels is not permissible according to classical Islamic principles, it was the usual practice for the Ottomans to conclude a temporary truce of ten, twenty and even thirty years. It has been assumed that the ottoman Empire was only concerned with waging iihad and conquest, and consequently the importance of Ottoman diplomacy in the arena of international relations has been underestimated. The lack of Ottoman residential ambassadors at the major European capitals until the late eighteenth century has been cited as proof of ottoman negligence in the realm of diplomacy. However, it is more accurate to characterize Ottoman practice as a synthesis of abstract Islamic principles with Ottoman Realpolitik. In other words, the Ottomans created their own method of diplomacy while respecting the pillars of Islam. The ottomans were the only medieval Muslim nation to have had close contacts with the European powers, both peaceful and belligerent. Since their foundation of a small principality, the ottomans were surrounded by Muslim and non-muslim rivals, Beginning with the early conquests in the Balkans, they were confronted with Crusader attacks. Prevention of Christian alliances led by the Pope was a constant concern for the ottoman statesmen. For this reason they could not ignore the power-balance system, and diplomacy was an essential instrument in carrying out its relations with European nations. Even at the zenith of ottoman military power during Suleiman the Magnificent's reign, the Sublime Porte did not only rely on sheer force, but also looked for allies among the Christian world and played one country off against another. The ottomans played an important role in the European balance of power throughout the sixteenth century by virtue of their military strength, which they employed in order to control the Mediterranean trade. The only way f.or European powers to facilitate their merchants' activities in ottoman territories was through obtaining an ahdnilme,2 that is capitulations, from the Sultan. The Porte deliberately granted 36
2 38 Biilent An ahdndmes to establish friendly relations with countries which were deemed politically and strategically advantageous. In order to,prevent economic dependence on the Venetians, Mehmed II encoruaged their rivals, Florence and Dubrovnik, to undertake commerc0 ip Ottoman territories. Likewise, capitulations were granted to France on the eve of the Ottoman attempt to seize the island of Cyprus in 1569, to Britain in 1580 and to the Dutch in 1612 after the Lepanto disaster of 1571 when the Venetian-Spanish-Papal coalition endangered vital Ottoman interests in the Mediterranean. The Protestant northerners were not chosen by chance. Engagement with them was an important strategic decision. British and Dutch naval supremacy was an important factor in this preference. Venetian galleys in the Mediterranean were easy targets for the English bretonis, which were heavily armed with bronze and iron guns.3 The magnitude of the English ambassador Edward Barton's ship amazed the contemporaries in Istanbul.4 The Venetian bailo in Istanbul, Giovanni Francesco Moresini, wrotes to the Doge and Senate in,march 1584 and expressed his discontent about the arrival of English ships to the Levant: 'The Englishman had more guns than goods, which proved that her real object was to go pirating on her way home.' According to the dispatch6 of Antoino Foscarini, the Venetian bailo in England: 'There is not either in England or in Holland a berton so small that she could not out-fight the biggest Venetian.' Through relationships with England and the Dutch Republic, the Ottomans were able to break up the embargo, imposed by the Pope, on the strategic war materials of lead, tin, cannon balls and gunpowder. The extent of Ottoman involvement in European politics can be illustrated by the fact that the Italian city-states would threaten to call on the Ottomans against their enemies when in dire straits. In 1525 the French followed the same strategy when Frangois I was defeated and imprisoned in Spain by Charles V. His mother could apply to no sovereign at that time other than Suleiman the Magnificent to rescue his son. The Ottomans took this opportunity to conquer Hungary in Only after the military pressure of the Ottoman armies was FranEois I able to return his throne.s The support of Protestants such as the Calvinists in the same period was one of the fundamental principles of Ottoman policy in Europe.e In this way the Ottomans greatly influenced the balance of power in Europe which in turn affected the rise of the nation-states in the west. The Ottoman state played a crucial role in the shaping of the European political map in the sixteenth, and partially in the seventeenth, century. Without Ottoman influence, the European rn?p, undoubtedly, would be different. Early Ottoman DiPlomacY 39 Nevertheless, it was not so easy to make contact with the Ottoman goverrment in those times. Let alone dn alliance, even diplomatic correspondence with the Sultan was not acceptable within the Christian,world. In the early sixteenth century Papal fanaticism was so influential that Frangois I could not send a written letter with his envoy to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. The French envoy could only transmit oral information from his king to the Sultan in The Ottoman diplomatic efforts at breaking Catholic fanaticism were always fruitful. For instance, the Venetians foined the Spanish-Papal coalitions against the Turks only when their own imperial territories and trade privileges were under direct attack, and whenever the Turks showed willingness,to renew peaceable relations, the Venetians were eager - treacherously eager from a crusading Christian point of view - to rnake peace and reopen trade with the Levant.tl Observing the quick recovery of the Ottoman navy after the significant damage inflicted upon the Ottomans at Lepanto in 1571, Venice had dropped out of the Holy League, ar.rd concluded a truce with the Ottomans in The conditions of the peace treaty were so favourable that contemporaries said, as Charridre noted, 'it would seem that the Turks had won the battle of Lepanto'.12 The disagreement between Venice and the Pope on felations with the Ottoman state was clearly indicated by the report of the Venetian bailo, dated 27 December, to Ottavio Bon in Constantinople. He explains to Lieutenant Grand Vizier 'the reason for the quarrel between Venice and the Pope is the determination of the Republic not to break with the Grand Turk'-13 After the conquest of Constantinople, when Ottoman supremacy began to be felt in Europe, they were proud of accepting western residential ambassadors. But at the same time the OttomanS declined to folfow the same path. The Venettanbailo Bartelemi Marcello in L454 was followed by the residential ambassador of France Jean de la For t (1535), of England William Harborne (15S3) and of the Netherlands Comelis Haga (1612) at the Porte. However, there was severe competition among the first residential ambassadors in Istanbul to prevent newcomers. When the first capitulations wele granted to England and William Harborne was recognized as the residential representative of English merchahts in the Ottoman territories, the Venetian bailo and the French ambassador in Istanbul allied to prevent his accreditation by the Sultan. The Venetian Senate instructed the baito in Istanbul on May 1583 to cooperate with the French ambassador on this case: As regards the arrival of that English ship, and the operation of the French ambassador to disturb the negotiations; in view of the
3 40 Biilent An damage to trs which English trade in those parts would produce, we charge you,,as we charged your predecessor, to co-operate with:the French ambassador in, upsetting the negotiations.ia Cornelis Haga was facecl with the same. fate in 7612.The trio of ambassadors from Venice, France and England obstructed the first Dutch ambassador then in Istanbul. They went even further and did not hesitate to resort to bribery. According to the dispatch of Christoforo Valier, the Venetian bailo in Istanbul: The [Dutch] Ambassador encountered the greatest opposition from the French envoy, who went the length of offering ten thousand sequins to upset the.negotiations and although the English Ambassador was displeased at seeing the successful issue of the aff.aft, at first he took no steps; however, when it, far advanced he endeavoured to join with France, and on his side also offered to spend a similar sum for that same purpose.'s Despite these early examples, the Ottoman state waited until 1,793 to send its first residential diplomatic mission to a foreign country. The Istamic basis of Ottoman diplomacy The basis of international relations with non-muslims, the conditions of war, peace and truce, is clearly set out in the Holy Qur'an: If ye gain the maste(y over them in war, disperse, with them, those who follow them, that they may remember. If thou fearest treachery from any group, throw back (their covenant) to them, (so as to be) on equal terms: for God loveth not the treacherous.l6 But if the enemy inclines towards peace, do thou (aiso) intline towards peace, and trust in God: for He is the One that heareth and knoweth (all things).17 But if they violate thbir oaths after their covenant, and taunt you for your Faith, fight ye the chiefs of unfaith: for their oaths are nothing to them: that thus they may be restrained.ls Ottoman diplomatic and administrative practice also observed the following Islamic territorial classifications:. DAr al-islam - Islamic territories where the Shari'ais enforced and the residing non-muslims, dhimmis, were required to pay jizya, that is the poll tax, annually; t" I fl I I I h [':,r; f. t,,, F f.! li, [i; Fi li! fri, hi TI td, r:i 6i,. Ft h* t: v:: Ii, Ii.r l'l l,: $,i [: l,) ii t: it, ft Early Ottoman DiPIomacY 4I DArral,harb - territori s ruled by nonrmuslims, open to iihad and conquest; Dhr al-sulh * Ottoman vassal principalities and other tribute-paying administrations. Beside these territorial divisions, amiln was :also'granted to certain nations in the form of capitulations, that is ahdnilme, so that merchants of a capitulatory nation could move freely within"the Ottoman dominions with the status of musto'min f.ot a term of one year without paying jizya.in practice, freedom'of commercial activity in Ottoman lands was extended to the merchants of. non-capitulatory nations as long as they sailed under a capitulatory nation's flag and paid cottimo (elgilik ve konsolosluk hakkr),the consulate fee, to the relevant consul' The ad hoc nature of diplomacy Capitulations Although most of the Ottoman capitulations became permanent in practice, until the mid-eighteenth century they were technically and legally temporary instruments unilaterally granted by the existing Sultan and needed to be renewed by each incoming Sultan. A noteworthy Ottb'man practice regarding the early capitulations was the treatment of residerit ambassadoi, u.raionsuls ur tfre representatives of the merchants within the Ottoman dominions father than as representatives'of th'e country itself. Indeed, the English ambassadors in this early period were paid by the.levant Company.le The consuls aild the dragomans could cqriy outtheir activities with a diploma, berat, issued by the Sultan. Th '$raht of a berat was a prerequisitb for all positions in the Ottoman bureaucracy that descriue ihe urrtt orify and responsibilities. The issuance of. a-berat meant the Sultan accredited him. Furtherriiore, the Porte never allowed any'rnember of the capitulatory nations to establiih fortified cities or,.gion, such as the Genoese fortresses of Caffa and Pera which wele permitted during Byzantine times. Together with the granting of immediate capitulations after the falt of Con.stantinople, V9h1ed II had the walls surrounding'the Genoese colony of Pera demolished. The conquest of 'Constantinople usheied in'a new conception of the Ottoman state. Mehmed II declared himself heir to the East Roman Empire and undertook the institutionalization of the State in all respects. The continuous rise of Ottoman powef inevitably affected diplomatic relations with other nations. Until the late seventeenth century, the Ottomans did not recognize the European rulers as their equals.
4 42 Biilent Art For a long time European rulers were treated only as equivalent to the Ottoman Grand Vizier. Not until the peace treaty of Zsitva-T6rok in 1606 was the ruler of Austria recognized by the Porte as having the status of emperor (Nemge Chdsdrr). Likewise, the Russian tsars were not recognized as emperors until All of these truces were unilateral documents, issued by the Sultan, and included his oath before God. Thus the Ottoman sultans considered themselves responsible only to God for the keeping of their oaths. The practice of unilateral agreements came to an end with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 when, for the first time, the Ottoman Sultan acknowledged a multiiateral document to sustain a peace treaty.20 A diplomacy characterized by the recruitment of career diplomats, an emphasis on the acquisition of local language and an elaborate hierarchy became, by the end of the eighteenth century, an inseparable part of European foreign policy. In the Ottoman Empire, relations with other nations were still governed by Islamic principles. As mentioned above, rather than being trapped by inflexibility, the Ottomans foilowed Muslim jurists who elaborated a series of interpretations which allowed for temporary truces and a system of safe conduct to facilitate relations with Europe.tt The modern practice of intemational rights and immunities was clearly observed by the Ottomans. All kinds of safe conduct were provided to merchants travelling by both sea and land. Since the danger of corsair activities was so great in the Mediterranean, merchant ships, their crews and the merchants of any capitulatory country were protected fiom piracy and slavery. Full safe conduct was also given in the Ottoman territories to such an extent that foreign merchants were allowed to wear Muslim clothes and even to carry arms (which was prohibited for Ottoman subiects under normal circumstances) during their travels through the countryside to protect them from banditry.22 The Ottoman Sultan, in return, expected similar respect for the Ottoman merchants. When the Ottoman merchants were detained in Venice during the siege of Cyprus and battle of Lepanto in 157I, Venetian merchants, in reciprocity, were not allowed to leave Istanbul. An imperial firman was sent to tlre Venetian bailo in Istanbul to inform him that the Venetian merchants would be unable to leave the citv unless the Ottoman merchants were released.23 The Ottoman government acknowledged the legal superiority of the capitulations, and in case of conflict, ft.rmans were sent by the Sultan to the local authorities. The resident ambassadors in Istanbul, the consuls and the dragomans were equipped with diplomatic and commercial EarIY Ottoman DiPIomacY 43 immunities in the modern sense except the state of war' The Venetian bailos in Istanbul were held under custody many times in the Seven Towers when the Ottoman Empire was at war with Venice'z4 As soon as ^ the long war of 1463'79 erupted, Venetian bailo Paolo Barbarigo was put intoprison, but was released ealliel in the year through the mediation of Mahmud Pasha.2s In another case, in 1730 an Iranian diplomatic delegation was in Istanbul for peace talks. They stayed for about Seven months. Meanwhile it was learned that Iranian ftoops had captured Erivan (Yerevan). The Ottoman authorities wele convinced that the Iranian delegation had distracted the Ottoman government' They wele soon imprisoned at the castle of Mardin. Since Ahmed III was dethroned as a result of the Patrona Halii rebellion and Mahmud I had ascended the Ottoman throne, the Iranian Shah conveyed another envoy named Veli Kulu to congratulate the new Sultan- He was also imprisoned at Bozcaadawithout passing through Istanbul.26 Consuls and dragomans were exempt from customs duties. Howevet, the foreign leplesentatives abused the status of dragomans and issued certificate s (berats) to irrelevant people in return for money' The Sultan, in the end, issue d a firman in 1787 to regulate their status and limited the number of dragomans.zt An inspection in Aleppo revealed 1500,dragomans' employed in the city.zg The sultans also issued firmans ptohibiting the appointment of consuls from among Ottoman subiects who were tryi.tg to gscape taxes by acquiring this status.2e Likewise, extiaterritorial rights were granted in lawsuits between the members of a capitulatory nation unless an Ottoman subiect was involved' Cases exceeding the amount of four thousand akgas wele to be heard in the Imperial Chancery at the capital to prevent local abuse' Gui'rantees were also given that the legacy of a dead merchant should be returned either to his company or to his embassy. In conclusion, principles of international general and private law were mentioned in the capitulations in detail. The Ottoman approach to diplomacy Ottoman conduct of international relations in the absence of a fixed diplomacy was generally attributed to its negligence of diplomatic means, its principtes and its universally accepted rules. Moreover, many authors are inclined to describe the system of ad hoc diplomacy as a natural aspect of Islamic beliefs which prohibited peaceful relations with non- Muslims. Although the Ottoman state system observed basic Islamic principles in many respects, it also combined them with pre-islamic
5 44 Billent An Turkish traditions and often followed a practical path without adhering strictly to religious law. Being an expansive empire, accommodating both three religions and many nations within her vast territories, it is hardly to be expected that the ottoman state would run the state machinery along strict lines. It is true that the Sultans always sought the approval of the Shaikh ai-isiam prior to the ratification of any international document, but at the same time the Sultans never hesitated to recruit Ottoman subjects of Christian and Jewish origin. It is also true that as late as 1798 Ottoman religious scholars were involved in diplomatic affairs. When Napoleon occupied Egypt - then an Ottoman territory - and the dispute was to be discussed with the Russian embassy in Istanbul, Sultan Selim III required to be accompanied by a scholar in the discussions for consultation.30 When the recognition of the status of Napoleon as an emperor and the attitude of the European powers towards his policies were under discussion with the Russian ambassador, the subject of a declaration of war came to the table. The Ottoman foreign minister, Reisiilktittab, apprised the Russian ambassador that a declaration of war strictly.necessitated a fetva, the approval of Seyh[ilislam. This would only be possible, he went od, on the conditions that religious law, that \s Sharia, had been violated, the state threatened and the dispute could not be settled by peaceful means.3' The establishment of continuous diplomatic representation in Istanbul by the maritime states of the French, English and Dutch was basically prompted by commercial ambitions in the Ottoman market. The ottomans approached these three powers because of their potential naval superiority against the Spanish and Venetian armadas. As indicated by Hurewitz,3z when the ottoman state was at its zenith, the Sultans were under no pressure to abandon a system that produced results, As an acknowledgement of her superiority, the Ottoman govemment conducted a unilateral system of diplomacy with the European states. Sending an ambassador to a foreign country, particularly to the enemy, was considered a sign of inferiority. Until the long-lasting Austrian wars of , no Ottoman ambassador was sent to Vienna, since the status of the Austrian Emperor was not equal to that of the ottoman Sultan.33 Indeed, diplomatic non-ieciprocity constituted a source of strength not weakness. Negotiations were conducted strictly on Ottoman terms. The Sultan's plenipotentiaries could take immediate decisions while their European counterparts were obliged to await instructions from their sovereigns. Besides, the dragomans of the Sublime Porte and of the European diplomatic missions came from the Greek Phanariote families, who were also EarlY Ottoman DiPIomacY 45 subiects of the Sultan and thus could not fulty represent the interests of the European governments which employed them. strangely enough, the Ottoman govetnment itself suffered much from the treason of those Greek interpreters in the early nineteenth century, which resulted in the execuflon of three dragomans of Greek origin and the establishment of a Chamber of Interpretation at the Porte in 1821'34 Collection of information The utilization of ad hoc diplomacy by the sultans did not mean that the Ottoman coult was unaware of European political developments' From the very beginning, potential crusader attacks always kept the ottoman army on the alert. The sultans established a well-run espionage system that provided a continuous flow of information from all over Europe. Hans Derschwam, the secretary of Austrian envoy Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq to Sultan Suleiman in 1555, is clearly complaining about this sifuation in his memoirs: 'The Jews have information whatever happens in the Christian world. They travei all the countries and pick secret information. Because of this, they are the traitors and spies that the Turks use against Christianity."t Mehmed the Conquelor also paid great attention to intelligence. According to a diplomatic dispatch: 'Mahomet Bey told the Venetians that the Sultan [Mehmet II] maintained two spies in venice, whom he paid 4,000 ducats each, annually, and informed him of all the secrets of the city. According to Mahomet Bey, "the venetians could not even clean their teeth without the spies informing immediately the Sultanu.t36. The princes of wallachia, Moldavia and Dubrovnik regularly conveyed information about military and political developments in Europe' which they obtained through merchants, who travelled all around the continent." Fro- the documents available in the Ottoman alchives, we learn that any kind of military preparations by the enemy was reported to the Ottoman coult. Sometimes the commandeis of the frontier fortresses sent their own spies to pick up information about the enemy'38 The interpreters of the Imperial Chancery also transferred valuable information to the sultans which they had obtained from foreign missions at the Porte.3e Through the reports from Ragusa, the Ottomans monitored Venetian and spanish shipping in the Mediterranean.a0 The crimea was also a source of information about Russia. Clearly, the Ottoman government had established a network of information to compensate for the lack of residential ambassadors at the major European capitals' It can be observed from the existing documents available in Ottoman archives
6 46 BilIent An that there was a continuous flow of information fiom the abovementioned sources. To obtain information about the exact military capacity of the enemy, Ottoman authorities sometimes resorted to diplomatic tricks. During the 16-year long Ottoman-Venetian wars ( ), one of the diplomatic practices employed by Grand Vizier Mahmud Pasha was to sound out the enemy's peace proposals, without actually having any intention of concluding peace but with the sole purpose of finding out whether the Venetians were willing to fight and their readiness for concessions.al Diplomatic protocol in the Ottoman court The Ottoman court gave utmost priority to the ceremonial magnificence attending both Ottoman diplomatic delegations sent abroad, and the reception of foreign delegations by the Sultans. The Ottoman govemment paid all the expenditures of foreign envoys in the Ottoman territories. For this purpose a special fund of one million akgas was allocated in the budget.az The audience for foreign envoys coincided with payment day (ulitfe giinil) of the ianissaries at the Topkapi Palace. Envoys were welcomed at the outer gate of the Topkapi Palace by the master of horses, mirahur, together with dozens of gold and silver equipped horses. The envoy was first met by the Grand Vizier at the Imperial Chancery after the colourful ceremony of the quarteriy payment to the janissaries, who numbered over ten thousand. He was then received by the Sultan in person with a splendid cerernony and exchange of expressions of goodwill.43 The rank of the envoy was considered to reflect the importance given both to his mission and to the Sultan. During the Ottoman-Iranian wars, the Iranian Shah had sent H:zr Beg to request a truce vis-i-vis the Ottoman military advance in Since he was of a lower rank, Sultan Murad IV did not hold the envoy in esteem and declined to write an imperial letter to the Shah of lran. The Ottoman Grand Vizier only wrote a letter to the Iranian Yizier Rustem.aa The envoy then presented a royal letter of friendship and gifts to the Sultan. Envoys without a royal letter were not accepted by the Sultan at court. The importance of the letter of goodwill and promise of friendship was also clearly emphasized in the introductory part of all granted and renewed capitulations. The Ottoman Sultans expected the expression of an intention to sustain friendly relations from their counterparts.as The foreign representatives might never privately see the Sultan again. In short, the first steps of the Ottoman government to establish a peaceful EarIY Ottoman DiPIomacY 47 relationship with a non-muslim country conformed completely to the Islamic principle of. aman. Other than ad hoc envoys, there wele resident representatives of certain countries. Venice, Genoa and France were the earliest states to establish diplomatic missions at the Porte. Despite the fact that these residents wele Send by their own Sovereigns, for a long time the Sublime Porte considered them as the representatives of their merchants in the Ottoman territories. Dependent principalities such as the Crimean khan, the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia as well as major Ottoman viceroys had a special man, called kap kethildatst, at the Porte to carry out their bureaucratic affairs. The most favoured nation clause was somewhat obscure in Ottoman practice. The most favoured nation at the Porte could only be tacitly understood. The rank of the ambassadors before the Ottoman government changed from time to time as the influential'viziers inclined from one state to another. In this respect, the personality of the ambassadors also played a great role. A general capitulation was glanted to England in 1583, while the French ambassador had lost his previous prestige. The same attitude can be observed when the Dutch ambassador Cornelis Haga gained prestige through the favour of Admiral Halil Pasha in'l.6lz.a6 However, diplomatic protocol always caused friction among t}:re corps diptomatique in Istanbul.aT One such instance was the claim of precedence between the French and English. The French ambassador De Germiny had to leave Istanbul in 1584 because of his disfavour at the Porte. The English ambassador sent his secretary to welcome the new French ambassador De Lancome. When the secretary began 'My master the ambassadoi...', De Lancome said: 'Your master is a merchant. I know only One ambassador at the Porte, and that is myself.'48 De Lancome went so far as to officially request the expulsion of the English ambassador at his audience with the Grand Vizier. In 1612, as soon as the Dutch ambassador had arrived, a new conflict arose in Istanbul for precedence. English ambassador Paul Pindar criticized the attitude of Haga for his immediate claim on his place at the protocol: The Fleming standes in defence of his and challengeth place before the Venice bailo; verrie ignorantly in my opynion, because the state of Venice hath kingdoms in domynion, butt the states of the Low countreyes have nott yet found out the qualitie of their tenure... ae According to historian Selaniki Mustafa Effendi, representatives of Wallachia, Moldavia, Dubrovnik and Venice were not given a banquet
7 48 Biilent Arr at the court, since they were considered to be of a lower rank at the Porte. With the truce signed in 1573 after the battle of Lepanto, the bailo of Venice was given the privilege of having a banquet on the condition that he would contribute a thousand gold pieces for the expenses.so Ottoman envoys The economic and commercial structure of the Ottoman Empire did not necessitate the establishment of residential diplomatic missions at the major capitals of Europe. Furthermore, as mentioned above, the lack of such rnissions did not deprive the Ottoman court of information about military and political developments in Europe. For these reasons, the sultans conveyed temporary envoys, extraordinary and plenipotentiary, only for the purposes of:. informing or greeting accessions to the throne;. delivering ratified peace agreements (ratiflcatio); o conveying Sultans' letters (credential);. peace talks and discussion of truces;. frontierdemarcations;. reciprocating a foreign envoy;. the establishment or continuance of peaceful and friendly relations. Envoys sent on routine missions involving the transfer of imperial letters were called nameres.sl When an Ottoman diplomat was assigned for frontier demarcations after a peace freaty, a scholar, called hudud mollasr, also accompanied him to register the bilateral agreement on exact frontier line.sz The Ottoman court placed great importance on diplomatic protocol. Because of this, the envoys were expected to reflect the superiority and magnificence of the Ottoman state in all respects. There was no special class of professional diplomat during the ad hoc period. Envoys were generally chosen from among the prominent members of the Ottoman Chancery of noble background. Personality was also an important factor in the selection of the envoys.s3 The sultans distinguished envoys according to destination, the nature of the mission and the importance of the receiving country. Knowledge of a foreign language was a determinant factor in selection and the sultans did not hesitate to send even their non-muslim subiects.sa When the backgrounds of the envoys with a specific mission during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are examined, it is clear that EarlY Ottoman DiPlomary 49 almost all of them had occupied important positions in the Ottoman bureaucrary. They usually wele either a senior official or an experienced member of the Imperial Chancery- Many of them had occupied lower positions in previous Ottoman delegations.ss Naturally, during their long years of service, competence in the iob and loyalty to the Sultan were confirmed in the bureaucratic hierarchy. Preparations for an envoy The court was sensitive even about the smallest details of an Ottoman foreign mission. Preparations were made long before an envoy departed from the capital. He was first granted a title of a senior position in conformity with the importance of his mission' Generally, the titles of Defrerdar (Exchequer) or Nlsftand wele given to the envoys and Beglubegi (Governor General) to ambassadors.s6 When the rank of the Austrian representative was learned to be rnerely that of an envoy, the rank of the Ottoman ambassador, Ebubekir Ratib Effendi, was also reduced to the same level and the gifts he was carrying were returned from Adrianople rn 1797.s7 The Iranian ambassador to Istanbul in 1737, Abdtilbaki Han, on the other hand, insisted on the Ottoman counter-envoy being that of the rank of a vizier. After long discussions, although contrary to the Ottoman practice, his wish was granted.ss The typical Ottoman delegation consisted of hundreds of individuals, and preparations often took months. Ibrahim Pasha, who went to Vienna after the Treaty of Passarowitz in 17lB, was accompanied by 763 people, while cdnibi Ali Pasha who went after the treaty of Belgrade in 1739 was accompa.nied by 922 people.se Iranian delegations were no smaller' The envoy oi Snaft Abbas, Zulfikar Khan, came to Istanbul in 1597 with a company of a thousand people.60 An envoy was supplied with alt kinds of logistical support before hi: departule. The Porte provided the envoy with the necessary funds tc pay for equipping the delegation and covering the costs of trans' portation: the horses, the rental of ships and so on.6r Firmans, that ir decrees from the Sultan, were conveyed to the local authorities withir: the Ottoman territories to provide for the envoy's needs both in cash and in kind, which were met through local tax funds. It was usua Ottoman practice that the taxes of certain localities were ordered to bt paid on site.62 The wages of the envoy and of the delegation, the costs o the horses and the rental of vessels were all provided from the relevan' Sources. Despite all the detailed needs that were taken into consider ation, it appears that envoys sometimes covered additional expenditure: from their own pockets. For example, it was reported that an envoy t(
8 50 Blilent Arr Russia, Abdulkerim Pasha, went into debt of five thousand gurut on official business and petitioned the Sultan to be refunded for this amount.63 Much of the equipment was temporarily entrusted to the envoy with the expectation that it be returned to the Porte intact.6a Certain provisions such as ceremonial iewelled weapons, ceremonial robes and other trappings of protocol were carefully recorded and with the return of the delegation they were stored away until needed again. According to Faik Reqit Unat, around the mid-eighteenth century a special treasury for diplomatic missions, called elgi hazinesi, was formed which was separate from the main treasury.6s The gifts to be presented by the Ottoman envoy were also carefully chosen. Clothes embroidered with precious metals, valuable dishes, horse equipment, decorative household items, weapons, furs, jewellery and even elephants,66 all worth considerable sums, were conveyed by the envoys.ut The Ottoman sultans themselves expected to be presented with valuable gifts by foreign envoys. Traditionally, the foreign envoys should bring considerable souvenirs to the senior authorities as well. Viziers, the grand admiral and the chief of the janissary corps should especially not be forgotten. Up to the beginning of the long-lasting Ottoman- Austrian War ( ), the Austrian Emperor was to deliver thirty thousand ducats of gold annually through his envoy. He should also send presents consisting of silver goods and clocks. On the way from Vienna to Istanbul, the envoy was to give presents to the Viceroy, the Accountant and the Commander of the Janissary Corps of Budha. in Istanbul, the Grand Vizier was also at the first rank that should be given a present.6s Envoys from Iran and other Muslim countries used to bring iewellery, silk carpets, ernbroidered tents, vaiuable cloths, swords and daggers inlaid with jewels. The favourite presents of European ambassadors were woollen fabrics, clocks and luxurious utilities made of gold and silver. Among the long list of presents from States General to the Sultan, conveyed by the first Dutch ambassador at the Porte, Cornelis Haga, in 1672, there were also strategic naval maps, which were very valuable for Ottoman navigation.6e The estimated amount of the delegation's travel expenses was first reported to the Sultan and, after his approval, the sum was handed over to the envoy.7o The allowances of Ahmed Resmi Effendi, Ottoman erlvoy to Prussia in 1763, were reported by the government to be equal to those paid to Hatti Mustafa Effendi, who was sent to Austria in When all preparations were complete, the envoy was received by the Sultan in person. The Sultan would present the envoy with instructions, a robe of honour and the imperial letter to be conveyed to the foreign EarIY Ottoman DiPIomacY 51 ruler. Soon the envoy would start his mission by summoning his entourage and arranging a ceremonial departure. The route followed by Ottoman envoys to each country was, with Some exceptions, almost traditional. Journeys to destinations other than to France were generally made over land. When another state sent a countet-envoy' both he and the Ottoman envoy met at a common fiontier. Sometimes disagreement over the route to be taken by envoys and the location of exchange caused diplomatic crises. An example of such a case was the mission of the Ottoman envoy to Russia, Mehmed Emni Pasha. When he set out to meet the Russian envoy, he passed directly into Russian territories through the city of Bendet, crossing the Dnieper, whereas the Russian envoy insisted on taking the route via Kiev, passing through Polish lands. Since both ambassadols had set off on theil iourneys without agreement, a Complomise could only be reached after a long series of intensive communications causing considerable delay.72 The meeting of the envoys at the frontier constituted a maior diplomatic event accompanied by magnificent Celemony. The exchange Ceremony between the Ottoman ambassador Ibrahim Pasha and the Austrian ambassador Graf Virmondt in 1719 was realized with the participation of fifteen thousand tloops from each side.73 Each party assigned an officer for the exchange.t4 At the border, an Ottoman officer was responsible for obtaining a document from the other side citing that the envoy had been delivered, signed by the countel-authorities-7s The document was returned when the Ottoman envoy was back from his mission' An Ottoman court official, called mihmandar, accompanied the counterenvoy along the road to Istanbul. When the ceremony of exchange was conducted on land, three stones were erected on the borderline and the ambassadors wele brought by their entourages between these stones. Traditionally, the moment of border crossing was celebrated by the shooting of guns by the troops. When a river constituted the frontier, the meetings were mole elaborate. The welcome Celemony was held on a raft, located in the middle of the river. Since the Dniepel was the borderline between Russia and the ottoman Empire, the.ambassadors would board the raft, which was located in the middle of the river, near the city of Bender- Following the ceremony on the raft, the two ambassadors would proceed on their separate iourneys. The welcoming ceremony in Vienna in for the Ottoman envoy,{hmed Resmi Effendi was cartied out with difficulty, since the Sava River had frozen in the dead of winter. The ice had to be broken before the ceremonial raft could be floated on the river.76
9 52 Biilent An Ottoman envoys at the foreign courts Once over the border, according to the records of the ambassadors $ef1retnilme), impressive ceremonies were held at each city through which the Ottoman diplomatic delegation passed on the way to the capital. When Yirmisekiz Qelebi Mehmed Effendi, the Ottoman ambassador to Paris, sailed for Toulon in 172O, tl;,.e celebrations and the greetings of the nobles in each French city that he passed through greatly surprised him.77 Thousands of people gathered along the canal to watch the Ottoman delegation during their trip towards Paris. The commander of Bordeaux, who had never seen an Ottoman until then, pressed the ambassador to visit his castle.78 According to the ambassador, thousands of people gathered from all around in order to view his delegation. The celebrations at the capital, of course, were the most magnificent. The Ottoman delegation could hardly make its way to the palace due to the large numbers of people and the thirty thousand soldiers who filled the streets of Paris. The Parisians showed an extraordinary interest in their Oriental guestste and their insatiable curiosity over the appearance and habits of the Ottoman delegation caused quite a furore in the capital. The wives and the young women of the nobility insisted on viewing the Ottomans as they were dining. The Parisian women came in groups to the Ottoman delegation's residence merely to obsewe their eating manners, just as if they were at the theatre.bo Mehmed Effendi had the opportunity to meet the twelve-year-old French king Louis XIII. Strangely enough, the king's tutor proudly pointed out that the hair on the young king's head was real, not a wig. He even had the king run around in the salon in front of Mehmed Effendi. The ambassador caressed the king's hair and admired his youthful beauty. He also attended a royal hunting party with the king, and an opera which was held at the palace. According to protocol, at the Paris opera, the Ottoman arhbassador preceded all other foreign representatives in Paris. This highly ceremonial visit of the Ottoman delegation to France, for the sole purpose of transmitting an imperial letter fiom the Sultan to the French king, lasted a whole year. The second siege of Vienna in 1683 and other Ottoman defeats at the hands of the Austrian armies caused Ottoman diplomats to confront unusual situations. Ziilfikar Pasha was sent to Vienna to notify Emperor Leopold of the accession of Suleiman II to the throne, and to carry out peace talks as the Ottoman plenipotentiary and extraordinary. The Austrian authorities requested Ztilfikar Pasha to bow three times and kiss the emperor's hand at the presentation of the imperial letter. Ztilfikar Pasha replied to this suggestion mildly, but behaved as usual before the Early Ottoman DiPIomacY 53 emperor at the court. During the discussions, he said that although the Ottoman armies had been victorious for over four centuries, the Ottoman sultans had never acted with conceit. The Austrians should not, therefore, show excessive pride at a few recent battlefield successes and must behave in accordance with the grandeur and power of the Ottoman State.8l Actually, the envoys were not dispatched from Istanbul to Vienna for a long time since the Austrian emperor was not considered an equal to the Ottoman sultans. The Viceroy of Budha used to send one of his officers to Vienna to demand the annual tribute. The ceremonies of exchange could be the cause of major conflicts. During their era of military superiority, the Ottomans imposed their own ceremonies on foreign delegations.sz The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 constituted the turning point in this respect. Besides their territorial losses, the Ottomans began to lose prestige on the diplomatic front as well. When the plenipotentiaries of all participant belligerents claimed equality, an interesting solution was reached to prevent diplomatic conflict in protocol: a round building was constructed in Karlowitz, with many doors allowing each plenipotentiary to enter at the same time.83 The Ottoman-Russian War of and the Treaty of Kr.ichtik Kainarja was a turning point in Ottoman-Russian relations. Following the loss of Ottoman military supremacy over the Russians in the late eighteenth century, the Ottomans became subject to Russian diplomatic caprices and humiliations. In accordance with the Ktichuk Kainaria Peace Treaty of 1.774, the Ottomans and the Russians sent ratifications through their ambassadors. In 7775, at the point of exchange, the Russian ambassador, Repnin, requested his chair on the raft to be covered with gold embroi-. dered fabric and to rit on the right-hand side. The discussions cjn the matter lasted ten days before a settlement was reached.8a In 1793, the Russian ambassador, General Kutuzov, reiected the exchange raft and the colours of the chairs on the raft, which once more caused long discussions.ss Yet, despite continuous defeats on the battlefield, up to the late eighteenth century the Ottoman state was strong enough to sustain diplomatic equality in Europe The ceremonies at the Russian court for the Ottoman delegations were more troublesome. The rise of Russia's military strength was gradually reflected in its treatment of Ottoman diplomary. Russian caprice reached a point in 17BZ at which the Tsarist authorities requested a repetition of the procession for their ambassador in Adrianople of 174O.The Russian request was inspected by the Ottoman government 42 years later.86 Ottoman diplomats were faced with a string of Russian humiliations throughout the eighteenth century. The gradual change in Russian
10 54 Bi.ilent An attitudes towards Ottoman envoys and ambassadors can be easily understood by thorough examination of the sef1retndmes. These show that envoys were sent to Russia fiom the early sixteenth century on but, unfortunately, only the sefaretnhmes of the eighteenth-century envoys remain available. However, these records also provide us with valuable information about contemporary Russia. The first significant seflretuime regarding Russia was written by the Ottoman envoy Kaprcrbashr Mehmed Agha.87 He was sent to Peter the Great by Sultan Ahmed III in TZZ to explore the, possibility of an alliance against Iran, and to express dissatisfaction about Russian military movements in Caucasia: Along the way he,received a warrn and respectful welcome at every stop. In Moscow, he expected to receive high dignity in every detail and obiected to even minor counter suggestions,'claiming that it would mean humiliation to the imperial letter he was carrying. The Russians accepted without resistance all of Mehmed Agha's insistences on diplomatic precedence. During his stay in Moscow, Peter the Great showed the utmost respect to him on many occasions. The Tsar personally came to discuss with the Ottoman envoy the Russian troops' activities,in the Caucasus, even demonstrating their movements on a map, and guaranteeing him that they were present only for border security and were not a threat to Ottoman territories. In contrast to Mehmed Agha's experience, ambassador Mehmed Emni Pasha, who went on a mission to Russia in 1740, was faced with endless difficulties.bs First a conflict arose over where the exchange of ambassadors should take place, and it took six months before this issue was resolved and he could step into Russian soil. The subsequent succession of a new tsar further delayed his mission. The Russians expected the dispatch of a new imperial letter from the Ottoman Sultan to the new tsat, Ivan Antonovich. After Mehmed Emni Pasha finally entered St Petersburg, with a magnificent ceremony in which four thousand soldiers participated, he delivered the ratiftcatio of the Treaty of Belgrade. With this treaty, the title of 'emperor' was acknowledged for the tsars. Unbeknown to the ambassador, however, the newly enthroned Tsar Ivan Antonovich had been removed by a sudden c7up d' tat and the new Tsarina, Elizabeth Petrovna, received him instead. It,took fwo years to complete his mission. Shehdi Osman Effendi, who was sent to notify the Russian Tsarina of the accession of Osman III to the Ottoman throne, completed one of the most exciting diplomatic missions in 17578e and secured the release of Ottoman prisoners of war. In St Petersburg, he was shocked by the unusual suggestions of the Russian authorities regarding protocol. For example, he was ordered to kneel before the prime minister. Shehdi Early Ottoman Diplomacy 55 Osman Effendi considered this an insult to the honour and dignity of the Ottoman stdte and refused to do so.-as a result, he was not able to secure the release of the Ottoman prisoners of war, but in the meantime three of them obtained refuge with the Ottoman delegation. This enraged the Russian authorities, and the envoy was thleatened with punishment if he did not release the 'slaves'. Replying that'return of the Ottoman prisoners of war was one of the conditions of the treaty existing between them, Shehdi Osman Effendi nevertheless refused to surrender the prisoners. Another conflict arose before Osman Effendi was received by the tsarina. The Russian royal dragoman, Constantin, requested amendments in his address to the court, but kept the content of the amendments to himself. Osman Effendi was informed that the text of the requested speech would be delivered to him only if he accepted the Russian changes. Shehdi Osman Effendi rejected this proposal, and consequently the reception by the tsarina was postponed. In the meantime additional conditions were brought to him:. the envoy must wait for the Russians to accompany him across the river,. no Ottomans could get on the royal coach but Russian soldiers would stand on both sides; at the entrance to the Tsarina's saloon the envoy was expected to make many exaggerated bowings; at the reception he would be held by both arms and forced to kiss the ground. When all of these suggestions had been reiected by Shehdi Osman Effendi on the ground that they were not customary, and when he had reminded them of the practice in 17 4l of the reception of Mehmed Emni Pasha, the authorities indicated that Russia was now more powerful than ever, and the usual practices were no longer appropriate. His request to send a man to Istanbul for instructions under those circumstances was kindly obstructed on various grounds. In the end, the Russians gave up their demands and a moderate solution was found. Osman Effendi was to be accepted by the tsarina, almost three months later, following his arrival in St Petersburg. The adventures of Osman Effendi continued on his way back to Istanbul. The Russians insistently demanded the return of the Ottoman slaves held by the delegation, and at one stop about a hundred and fifty soldiers attacked the Ottoman delegation to recapture them. Eight
11 56 Biilent Arr Ottomans beat all the Russians after a deadly fight. The Russian officer in charge was shamed by this result and Shehdi Osman Effendi safely passed into Ottoman territory. As mentioned above, similar difficulties were encountered by ambassadors Abdulkerim Pasha in 1775 and Mustafa Rasih Pasha in 7793 regarding precedence at the points of exchange on the border. While Abdtilkerim Pasha was not faced with unacceptable demands in the capital, Rasih Pasha could not rescue any Ottoman slaves in Russia.eo Indeed his continuous requests for release were met with insults and humiliations. In contrast, the Russian ambassador General Kutuzov received a warm welcome in Istanbul.el The gradual change in Russian diplomatic attitudes determined the end of the Ottoman period of influence. Russian victories on the battlefront were more heavily felt in the diplomatic sphere towards the end of the eighteenth century. However, according to the seflretnames, the Ottoman ambassadors still received warm weicomes in the other European capitals and the Russian style of insults and diplomatic humiliations remained exceptional. Intensive diplomacy Another noteworthy Ottoman ad hoc diplomatic experience occurred during the early years of the reign of Sultan Bayezid IL The death of Mehmed II the Conqueror in 148L gave rise to a struggle between his sons, Bayezid and Djem. After his final defeat at Ankara in 74BZ,Jem took refuge in Rhodes, relying on the promise of the Knights Hospitallers that he would be transferred to Rumelia to continue the fight against his brother. But he was first kept as a prisoner by the Grand Master, Pierre d'aubusson, and then by Charles VIII in Ftance, and finally by the Pope, Innocent VIII. The position of Jem as an hostage in the hands of European states gave rise to new developments in relations between western governments and the Ottomans. Throughout his 13 years in Europe, Jem was the object of unceasing intrigues and negotiations among the Christian rulers. The aim of Ottoman diplomatic efforts was to prevent a crusade and to keep Jem from ioining forces with the Christians. To this end, the peace treaty with Venice was confirmed in l4b2 in order to achieve the neutralization of the Republic. The Venetian authorities kept the Sultan informed of Jem's movements in Italy and France, and of the progress of the maior powersl intentions and plans.ez During this period Bayezid II sought particularly active diplomatic relations with all Christian governments suspected of aiding Early Ottoman DiPlomacY 57 Jem and the proposed crusade. He also created a spy network to keep himself informed of political developments"in various western countries.e3 The transfer of Jem from France to Rome in 1489 caused alarm in Istanbul as signalling the beginning of a crusade. Indeed, a congress was convened by the Pope in Rome in 1490 with the participation of delegates from all European Christian states. All Ottoman tactics during the Jem crisis were to neutralize the West by activist diplomacy, on the one hand sending envoys with lavish promises, presents ind fnoney, and on the other discouraging Christian attack by showing strength.ea The Porte made persistent efforts, both by diplomatic approaches to the European powers and by the dispatch of secret agents, to discoverjem's whereabouts, to recover his person and even to arrange his assassination.es For these purposes, Bayezid II sent a number of envoys to Europe. One of them, Ismail Beg, who was sent to Lorenzo de' Medici of Florence experienced a long and dangerous trip. His real mission was to detect Jem's location. But he was imprisoned by the Knights of St John for nearly two years and taken fiom one city to another. From the island of Rhodes he managed to send a letter through an Ottoman envoy and was released by the special request of the Sultan. The ill-fated mission of Ismail Beg lasted for four and a half years.e6 Another Ottoman diplomat involved in the Jem case is Htiseyin Beg, who signed an agreement with the Grand Master d'abusson in Rhodes providing that forty thousand gold ducats would be'paid annually by the Sultan in return for keepins Jem in custody.et Learning that Jem Was in Ftance, Htiseyin Beg went to the French king, Louis XI, in the summer of Bu!; he was unable to rrleetjem. Following the sudden death of Louis, he was sent to the new French king, Charles VIII, ifl Huseyin Beg engaged in a kind of 'shuttle diplomacy' in Europe and most probably he personally received the reply of Jem to the Sultan, requesting his immediate return to the homeland In accordance with the agreement between Pope Irinocent VIII and Charles VIII of Ftance, Jem was taken by the papal nuncios to be brought to ltaly, based on the argument that Rhodes and Italy were under serious threat of Ottoman invasion and that only the presence of Jem in Rome could deter Bayezid II. Aware of the Pope's intentions, the Sultan sent his envoy, Greek-born Antonios Ciritho, to the French court with the following offers to persuade the king to continue holding Jem under custodv in France:. Bayezid was ready to sign a peace treaty with the king of France, and with the entire Christian world;
12 58 Biilert An. the king would provide military support against Bayezid's enemies;. a considerable sum of money Would be paid to France;. the city of Jerusalem would be delivered to the French after its capture from the Mamluks. Despite the fact that the king's council was impressed by the Sultan's offers, and orders were sent out to stop Jem on his way to Rome, the nuncios were able to put Jem in a boat and set out for Rome in early 1489.e8 This time the Ottoman Sultan chose Kaprjrbashr Mustafa Agha to ensure Jem was guarded by the Pope. Mustafa Agha reached Rome in November 1490 with the Sultan's letter, precious gifts and 120,000 gold ducats, three years' pension for Jem's expenditures. However, the real mission of the envoy Mustafa Beg was said to be to assassinate Jem.The letter said that the Sultan would be pleased if Jem was kept at the Vatican on the same terms as the Grand Master had previously undertaken. If his conditions were accepted and the idea of using Jem in a crusade was relinquished, the Sultan would keep peace with Christendorn.ee The policy of Bayezid II to appease Innocent VIII with generous gifts was successful in preventing a crusade against the Ottomans. Although no written document exists between the Pope and the Sultan, the request of forty thousand gold ducats by the Pope through his envoy in Istanbul seems to confirm the existence of a secret agreement between Bayezid II and the Pope. When Charles VIII invaded Italy in 1494, the new Pope Alexander VI demanded the payment of the annual pension in advance, relying on the excuse that he needed money immediately to resist the French invasion. But the money (40,000 ducats), carried by Kasrm Chavush, with the company of papal envoy Bocciardi, was captured near Anconaby French partisans. The ltalian alliance could not stop Charles VIII and he took Jem from the Pope in February However, on the way to Naples, Jem caught a deadly illness and died on 25 February 7495, though there were rumours that he was poisoned before his departure from Rome.loo The intensive diplomatic activity carried out for thirteen years during the Jem crisis constituted a considerabie page in both the Ottoman and European histories of the time. Until the Ottoman Empire established residential ambassadors in the major European capitals, the Porte preferred a pragmatic method, while observing the established rules of protocol and precedence. Conclusion Early Ottoman DiplomacY 59 The ad hoc period of Ottoman diplomacy up to the establishment of residential ambassadors displays a unique character. Particularly in paraliel with the adoption of the philosophy of 'world power' after the conquest of Istanbul in 1453 by Mehrned the Conqueror, great importance was given to diplomatic protocol by the Ottoman court. The victories of Suleiman the Magnificent reinforced the Ottoman perception of world supremacy. Special colourful ceremonies were organized at the Topkapi Palace when a foreign envoy came. If the suitans were out of the capital on expedition, similar protocol was observed at military camps. During such expeditions envoys were sometimes deliberately invited to march with the army to observe the military strength of the Ottoman forces personally. It was considered to be part of the diplomacy. The Ottoman ambassadors accorded the utmost importance to being received with the highest protocol in the foreign capitals. They considered any negligence on this matter a humiliation of the Ottoman Sultan and the state they represented. Until the early seventeenth century Ottoman sultans considered themselves the most powerful sovereigns on earth.the Ottoman sultans used the titles of tac bahs-r husrevan, padisah-t hlem-penah, padisah-r cihan-mutt', meaning 'the Sultan who crowns the kings, the Sultan is the only one from whom help is asked, the Sultan to whom everyone in the world is obedient', respectively. These principles and the pillars of Islam guided Ottoman diplomacy for a long time. Many principalities were either tributary or dependent on the Ottoman Empir. Even the Austrian emperor was not considered equal to the Ottoman suitan until The Ottoman state was able to sustain its unique diplomatic character up to the late eighteenth century. Although there was no formal education for the diplomats or any diplomatic institution, an informal diplomatic protocol and a tradition developed throughout this period. When their armies were victorious on the battlefields, the Ottomans could insist on their own impositions. From the mid-eighteenth century on, Russia began to rise as a powerful rival to the north. Military defeats by Russia after the mid-eighteenth century caused continuous disputes on diplomatic precedence. Diplomacy became a vital instrument to balance Russian power. Western involvement was urgently required to contain Russian imperialism. Hence the Ottoman rulers began to adopt permanent diplomacy and other western methods in their relationships with the European powers of the time.
13 60 Biile.nt Arr Notes 1. l. C. I{urewitz,'Ottoman Diplomacy and the European State System', Middle Enst foumal, vol. 15, no. Z (L961), 141. Z. Capitulations are documents unilaterally granted by the Sultan to the subjects of a non-muslim country that provide permission to trade in the Ottoman territories and regulate their legal status during their stay. 3. Halil lnalcrk, An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), Edward Barton's ship is described in Tarih-i Selkniki in an astonished manner: 'Viliyet-i cezire-i Ingiltere elgisi piq-keg ve hediyesi geliib gekildi. Gemisi gibi turfa-num0ne gemi Istanbul limanrna gelmemigdi. UEbin yediytiz mil deryadan sefer eder ve seksentig pare heman top kullanrr. SAir yarakdan $ayn ateq-efg6n heyet-i hariciyyesi pekl-i hrnzrr idi. Uc0be-i devran idi ki tahrir olundu.' Seldniki Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selhniki, ed. Mehmet lpgirli, Vol. I (lstanbul: I. U. EOeUiyat Fakriltesi, 1989), Calendar of State Papers nnd Manuscripts, Venice, Vol. VllI (London, 7894), December 1611, to the Doge and Senate, Calendarof StatePapers, Vol. XII, H. Inalcrk, 'The Turkish Impact on the Development of Modern Europe', in Kemal Karpat (ed.), TIrc Ottoman State and lts Place in World History (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974), 51.. B. H. Inalcrk, 'Turkey and Europe: A Historical Perspective', Perceptions (Ankara), vol. II, no. I (1997), 82; and 'Ttirkiye ve Avrupa: Dtin Bugtin' ('Turkey and Europe: Past and Present'), Dofit Bafi (Ankara), no. 2 (1998), H. Inalcrk, 'The Turkish Impact...', H. inalcrk, 'Avrupa Devletler Sistemi, Fransa ve Osmanh: Avrupa'da Geleneksel Dostumuz Fransa Tarihine Ait Bir Olay' ('European States'System, France and the Ottomans'), Do\tt Bah, no. t4 QA07), William H. McNeill, Venice, the Hinge of Europe (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1974), Kenneth Setton, The Papacy and the Levant, Vol. IV (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1984), Calendar of State Papers,Vol. X, Calendar of State Papers, Vol. VIII, Calendar of State Palters, Vol. XII, The HoIy Qoran, Sura Anfal, 56, 57, Sura Anfal, 61. 1B. Sura Taube, Calendar of State Papers, Vol. XII, Mecmu'a-i Muaheddt, Vol.3 (lstanbul, 1298), 9Z Virginia Aksan, An Ottotnan Statesman in War and Peace, Ahmed Resmi Efendi (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995), BaSbakanhk Osmanh Argivi (Prime Ministry Ottoman fuchive; hereafter BOA), Dilvel-i Ecnebiye Defruleri, Felemenk Ahdnhme Deftei, 2211, dostment 88: '... esni-yr tarik egkrya havfrndan kendtiyti korumak igtin Mtiselman libasr giyub ve Alf,t-i harb getrirdtifrin bir ferd rencide ve remide eylemeyiib...' 23. 'Venedik Balyosuna htikm-i gerif yazrla ki,....imdi efer adavet zamanrnda ve e$er itaatiniz eyyamrnda taife-i triccara zulm ti taaddi olunduiuna asla Early Ottoman DiPlomacY 6I nza-yrgerifim olmamrgtrr. Amma adavet zamanrndan mukaddem ol canibde olan taife-i triccara hilaf-i ahd taarruz"olunub esbab ti emvali girift olunma$la, Memalik-i mahrusede bulunan tacirlerinize memleketlerine gitmefe ruhsat verilmemigdi.... ol canibde ahkonulan tticcar sahvertilub esbab ii emvaliyle gehib vasrl olmalannr mutazammrn olursan tacirlerinize ruhsat ihsan olunub,...emin ve salim geltib yollarda dahl olunub mallarrna ve canlarrna zarar eriigdrinile, oznin makbul olmayub senden sual olunur, ana gore tedartik eyleyestin.'boa, Miihimme Defteri, 12, Nos. 530 and Selahattin Tansel, Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in Siyasi ve Askeri Faaliyeti (Political and Military Policies of Mehmed I/) (Ankara: TTK, 7999), Theoharis Stavrides, The Sultan of Vezirs (Leiden: E. J. Brill, ZOOI), $anizade Frndrkhh Suleyman Efendi, Miir'i't-Tevarih, Yol. I (istanbul: L U. Edebiyat Faktiltesi Yayrnlan, 197 6), 2l BOA, Felemenk Ahdndme Defteri, Document Thomas Naff, 'Reform and the Conduct of Ottoman Diplomacy in the Reign of Selim III, ', [ournal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 83, no. 3 (1983), ln a document dated c. Cevdet Haiciye, No. 422) the appointment of Dimitri Gaspari as the French consul of Athens and his refusal to pay tax was the subject of petition and complaint by the residents of Athens, since his share was charged on the others. He was reminded of the ftrman and was ordered to give up the consulate. 30. 'Boyle vakitlerde asrldan ulemadan bir kimesne mtikalemelere refik olurdu. Yine ihtara sebebdir. Zira umur-i azimedendir.' E. Z. Kanl, Selim III'iln Hatt-r Hilmayunlan (Firmans of Selim I1I) (Ankara: TTK, 1999), 'Devlet-i Aliyye'nin harbe karar vermesi $eriat-i mutahharaya bina krlunarak istiftdya merh0n olmaila bu dahi iki Erkka muhtasardrr: biri geriabmtza mufiayrr bir teklif vaki olur ve biri mazarrat-i miilkiyye zuhur eder ise,.... Ve ol dahi ewel-emirde hrisn-i mtidafaa ile ber-taraf krhnmafa sa'y olunub.... Bi'l-istifta herkesin malumu olarak i'ldn-r muharebe olaca$r zahirdir'' BOA, Hatt-r Hilmayun, No Hurewitz, 'Ottoman Diplomacy and the European State System', 146: 33. 'Ve Beg'e Asitaneden varmak voki olmamrgdtr. Ancak Budin Beflerbefisi tarafrndan ya Budin gavuqlanndan biri varub hazine taleb ederdi.' Hezarfen Htiseyin Efendi, Telhisii'I-Beyan Fi Kavhnin-i AI-i Osman, ed. Sevim llgurel (Ankara: TTK, 1998), Ahmed Cevdet Pap, Tarih-i Cevdet, Vol. IX (lstanbul: Matbaa-i Osminiye, ),145. Hans Derschwam, Istanbul ve Anadolu'ya Seyahat Gfinlii!il (Diary of a loumey to Istanbul and Anatolia) (Ankara: Ki.iltur Bakanhfr, l99z),752. Stavrides, The Sultan of Vqirs, 233. Examples to such reports are: BOA, Cevdet Hariciye, Doc. Nos. 6416, 8036' 8055, 8335, 8836, 8821,8372,9230 and See BOA; Cevdet Haiciye, Doc. Nos. 6040,8158. See BOA; Cevdet Hariciye, Doc. Nos. 8300, 8602,9290. The letters of Siileiman I and Selim II to Dubrovnik on the flow of information from Ragusa were published by N. H. Biegman under the title'ragusan Spying for the Ottoman Empire', Belleten, no.27 (1963), ' Stavrides, The Sultan of Vezirs, 234.
14 62 Biilent An 42. 'Efiaf.-i mtilffk-i memdlikden Rikab-i Htimayuna gelen elgiler mtihimmdtrna senede on ytk akga Hazine-i Amire'den veriltir.' Hezarfen Hriseyin Efendi, Telhtsil'I-Beyan Fi Kavdnin-i AI-i Osman, 'Tevki'i Abdurrahman Paga Kanunnimesi', MiIIi Tetebbu'lar Mecmuast, Vol. 1, 'gah Hrzrr Be['i g6ndertib sulh taleb eflemefin, saidethi padigahrmrz dahi, Hrzrr Be[ krigiik elgi olmafla soztine gokluk itimad ve itibar eylemeytib Htinkirrmrz tarafindan $ah'a name yazrlmadr. Ancak vezir-i azam tarafindan Riistem Han'a bir mektub yazulub,..' IV, Murad'in Revan ve Tebriz Seferi Ruznhmesi, ed. Yunus Zeyrek (Ankara: Ktilttrr Bakanh$ Yaytnlan, 1999), An example of such phrases is provided by.the first.british capitulations, dated 15BO (BOA, Ingiltere Nigan Defteri, 35/1): 'Vilhelmug Harborne nam Ademiniz ile mektublar g6ndertib, 2demleri sdbrka isitdne-i sa'ddet-dgiyantmrza geliib izh r-i 'ub0diyet..., eyleytib ol tarafdan 6demleri ticaret igiin memalik-i mahrosemize geltib gitmek bibrnda.isticize eylem Ein,... m0ddm ki mtiqartinileyhd tarafindan ger6it-i ahd i.i peymana riayet ve kavdid-i sulh u am6n kemdyenbagi srydnet oluna...' 46. The behaviour and character of Cornelis Haga was praised both by the Sultan and the Ottoman statesmen, and this situation was mentioned in the letter of Deputy Grand Vizier Hadrm Mehmed Pasha to the States'General: 'Elgintiz rikdb-l hiimdyuna ytiz stirdtikde ddab ve hay0 tizre hareket etmekle saadetlti padigahrmrz ktilli hazz u safa eylemiglerdtir. Hrdmet ise ancak olur. Tamam mertebe elgili$e layrk idemdir.' Den Haagr Algemeen Riiksarchief, Stateh Generaal, 1,01.08, K. Heeringa (ed.),levantschenhandel, Vol. 1 ('s Gravenhage: 19L0),258' 48. Calendar of State Papers, Vol. VIII, XL. The English ambassador was paid by the Levant Company. 49. Pubtic Record Office, State Papers, Foreign, Turkey, T; Heeringa, Levantschen Handel,25B. 50. Selaniki Mustafa [fendi, Tarih-i Selanikt, Yol. 2 (lstanbul: I.U. goeb. fat. 1989), The missions of such envoys were to notify accessions to the throne,-victories and to demand payment of delayed tribute. However, annual tribute had to be delivered in Istanbul by the envoy of the vassal state together with precious gifts. For the list of Ottoman Envoys of the ad hoc period, see Faik Regit Unat, Osmanh Sefirleri ve Sefaretnameleri (Ottoman Ambassadors and their Sefaret' ndmes), ed. Bekir Srtkr Baykal, 3rd edn (Ankara: TlK, 1992), 221' Ebu Sehl Numan Efendi, Tedbirdt-r Pesendtde, ed. Ali lbrahim Savag (Ankara: TTK, 1999). 53. Unat, Osmanh Sefirleri ve Sefaretnameleri,23' 54. Sultan Bayezid II sent his special envoy Antonios Ciritho to the French court in 1489 to ask the French king not to surrender his brotherjem to the enemies of the Ottomans. Jem was defeated by Bayezid and imprisoned after his ftight with the help of knights of Rhodes. See: Halil Inalcrk, 'A Case Study in Renaissance Diplomacy: the Agreement,Between Innocent VIII and Bayezid II on Diem Sultan', loumal of Turkish Studiesl vol' 3 (1979), Yirmisekiz Qelebi Mehmed Efendi was present at the Passarowitz Peace Agreement of 1718 in the Ottoman delegation. His son, Mehmed Said Efendi (Ottoman envoy to Sweden ), had accompanied his father in Early Ottoman Diplomacy 63 1,722 to Paris. Mustafa,Nazifi Efendi, Ottoman envoy to lran in 17 46, accompanied the previous envoys twice in 1729 and in 1,741. The envoy to Iran in 7747, Hacr Ahmed Pasha, had been appointed to talk to Nadir Shah of Iran previously. Dervish Mehmed Efendi was appointed to'russia as an envoy in 1755 and Ahmed Resmi Efendi was sent to Austria in ^1.7 57, to Prussia in 1764 and was the chief of the Ottoman delegation at the peace talks. Mehmed Agha was envoy to Warsaw in 1757, and Shehdi Osman Efendi, envoy to St Petersburg, had accompanied the Ottoman envoy to Russia, Mehmed Emni Pasha, in Abdulkerim Pasha, envoy to Russia in 1775, was previously appointed for the peace talks in 1772 to end'the war with Russia. 56. According to a document (BOA, Cevdet Hariciye, No. 9275), Yirmisekiz Qelebi Mehmed Efendi requested the grant of the title First Exchequer, indicating that he was appointed as envoy to Paris in Topkapr Argivi No 'Elgi Han "tayin olunacak elgi elbette tig tuslu olsun" dedikde, "bu devletde kaide daima elgi beflerbefi olmakdr" deyu beyan olunduiu miifid olmaytcak na-gar BUytrk Mir-ahur Kara Mehmed Pagazade Mehmed Bey'e tig tui vertiltib elei nasb olundu.' Miir'i't-Tevarih, Yol.I, 62. Ali ibrahim Savas, Tedbirdt-i Pesend?de (Ankara: TfK, 1999), 72. Selaniki Mustafa Efendi, Tarih-i Selanikt,Yol.2, 634. BOA, Cevdet Hariciye, Nos. 361, 8925,8911, 9070,6800, 6780, 6799',5954, 611,4, 6724, 6127, 6532, 6617, 7094, 7239, 7380, 7727, 7782, 78L6. Since the transport of cash was dangerous because of banditry, the cheque system was preferred for payments both in cash and ln kind. Iri a case in 7744, the money, belongings and weapons of an ehvoy were seized bf bandits in Bosnia (BOA, Cevdet Hariciye, No. 8049). According to the firman (Baqbakanlrk tu;ivi, CevdetHaiciye, No: 8333) dated 18 Dhu al-hiiia , the costs of Ahmed Resmi Efendi as far,as the Polish frontier were to be paid and discounted from their annual jizya; The costs of the envoys between the stops were shared a-mong the localities. For another example see BOA, Cevdet Hariciye, Nos. 9070, BOA, CevdetHariciye, No BOA, Cevdet Hariciye, Nos. 6801, 6534, 9092,8410, 8981, 8911, 361. Other than ihese examples, there are also various such documents in the Ottoman archives. 65. Unat, Osmanh Sefirleri ve Sefaretnameleri, An elephant was sent to the king of Sicily in to reinforce the friendly relations between the two countries (BOA, Cevdet Haticiye, No. 7814). 67. For a full list of the gifts, with their values, to the French king in 7740, and to the Russian tsar in 1793, see BOA, Cevdet Hariciye, Nos. 9275, Hezarfen Htiseyin Efendi, Telhtsil'I-Beyan, Bulent An, The Conflicts Between the Dutch Merchants and the Ottoman Local Authoities According to Felemenk Ahdname Defreri, unpublished MA thesis (Ankara: Bilkent University, 1.996), 77. For the full list of Haga's presents see: Heeringa, Levantschen Handel, Vol. I, For a detailed list of would be payments en route to the Ottoman envoy to Austria, AIi Pasha, in 1,740, see BOA, Cevdet Hariciye, Nos and 7B BOA, CevdetHariciye, No
15 64 Biilettt Arr Early Ottoman DiqlomacY See Mehmed Emnt PaSa'nm Rusya Sefdreti, by Mtinir Aktepe (Ankara: TTK, 7974), tz Ibrahim Pasha, Viyana Sefaretndmesi, TOEM, Vlll40, For the assignment of Mehmed Pasha, to exchange Abdiilkerim Pasha with tlre Russian ambassadorinltt5, see BOA, CevdetHariciye, No F. R. Unat, 'Kaprcrbagr Niqli Mehmed Afa'nrn Moskova Sefiretnamesi', Tarih Vesikalarr, vol.2 (1943), Ahmed Resmi Efendi, Viyana SefAretndmesl, Vastf Tarihi, Vol. L, Sefaretnkme-i Mehmed Efendi (Istanbul: Matbaa-i ilmiye-i OsmAniye, 1283), Sefaretninte-i Mehmed Efendi, Sefaretn1me-i Mehmed Efendi, 2B-9. BO. SefaretnAme-i Mehmed Efendi, Silalrdar Tarihi, vol. Z, Even when Ottoman glory was greatly depreciated by the Passarowitz Peace Treaty of 1718, and ambassadors were exchanged between the Ottomans and the Austrians in 7719 to convey theratrfcatio, the Ottoman plenipotentiary Abdullah Pasha insisted on a demonstration of Ottoman superiority on the frontier. See lbrahim Pasha, Viyana Sefhretndmesi, Mehmed Hilmi, Hukfik-i Umfimiye-i Beyn al-dilvel,yol.3 (lstanbul: 1.328), For the detailed description of this exchange and the long discussions between the Ottoman and the Russian delegations, see Sefhretndme-i Abdtilkeim Paga (lstanbul, 1316), H. inalcrk, 'Yap Muahedesinden Sonra Osmanh-Rus Miinasebetleri', A.U. DTCF Dergisi,lV (1946), BOA, Cet,det Hariciye, No 'KaprcrbaEr Mehmed A$a'nrn Moskova SefAretndmesil, Tarih Vesikalarr, Nos (1943). 88. Meluned Ernni PaSa'run Rusya Sefareti ve SefAretndmesi (Ankara: TTK, 197 4). 89. '$ehdi Osman Efendi SefAretnamesi', Tarih Vesikalan Dergisi, Nos The exchange of slaves, who refused religious conversion, was also mentioned in the second article of the 1774 Ktichik Kainarja Peace Treaty. It seems that the Ottoman government had taken it seriously, and firmans were sent to local k1dis to return the Russian slaves, who were insistent in Christianity. For instance, the kkdi of Kayseri sent 14 Russian slaves to Istanbul in 1775 (BOA, Cevdet Hariciye, No. 8472). On the contrary, the Russian authorities were negligent on the issue, indicating that all Ottoman slaves had chosen the Christian religion 91. lnalcrk, 'Ya$ Muahedesinden Sonra Osmanh-Rus Mtinasebetleri', According to BOA Cevdet Hariciye classification registers, the Ottoman government has conveyed orders to every province for the slaves of Russian origin to be returned to Russia via Istanbul, in accordance with the Yassy and Belgrade Treaties. 92. Ll.lnalclk, 'The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades 7451-I5ZZ', in Kenneth Setton (ed.), A History of the Crusades, Vol. VI (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, ), 332* inalcrk, 'The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades ', Inalcrk, 'The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades ', V. L. Menage, 'The Mission of a Secret Agent in France in 1486', loumal of the Royal Asiatic Society (October 7965),I Ismail Hakkr Uzungargrh, 'Cem Sultan'a Dair Beg Oriiinal Vesika', Belleten, vol. XXIV (1960), The report of HtiLseyin Beg from Rhodes, which is registered in Topkapr Sarayr Argivi, No. 3286, is published in UzunEargrh, 'Cem Sultan'a Dair BeE Orijinal Vesika', lnalok, 'A Case Study in Renaissance Diplomacy',2L Inalcrk, 'The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades 145I-7522', lnalcrk, 'The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades ',346.
16 l,',,,, :;.1,:',il Coritents vl1 I. 1..: I lx ' '..: 1 rt! 5,,,';,, :l l ii:ri36 6XS and t.,' tt. 66 i.,, t,',89,,,,f : :i,:.:,i Lt4 A catalogue recqrd :,i r I l,i' '1r31 ;lli;ii;i. "ili;.:rlr; r'lq,r"r $j.i,,13, 12 ' :r;...t'',] lllt, l : 'l.l '.'. ' 1.,.$ t;.i;:r,:{,,, J,',,, 'l::' :l l. Yurdusev, A. Nuri. 81' Studying OttomanrDiplomacY: '., lp5ini: Yyrdus,ev '' : ':, ' " : 1 :' " Index' r67 t94
17 Jan Melissen (editor) INNOVATION IN DIPLOMATIC PRACTICE Peter Neville APPEASING HITLER The Diplomacy of Sir Nevile Henderson, M.J. Peterson RECOGNITION OF GOVERNMENTS Legal Doctrine and State Practice, Gary D. Rawnsley RADIO DIPLOMACY AND PROPAGANDA The BBC and VOA in International Politics, TAIWAN'S INFORMAL DIPLOMACY AND PROPAGANDA A. Nuri Yurdusev (editor) OTTOMAN DIPLOMACY Conventional or Unconventional? Ottoman Diplomacy Conventional or Unconventional? Edited by A. Nuri Yurdusev Ass ociate Profes sor of Intemational Rel ations D ep artment of lntemational ReI ations Middle East Technical UniversitY Ankara, Turkey Studies in Diplomacy Series Standing Order ISBN (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England pelst*hh
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