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Income Sources Diversification: Empirical Evidence from Edo State, Nigeria
- Judith Shepherd
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1 IWIM - Institut für Weltwirtschaft und Internationales Management IWIM - Institute for World Economics and International Management Income Sources Diversification: Empirical Evidence from Edo State, Nigeria Reuben Adeolu Alabi Berichte aus dem Weltwirtschaftlichen Colloquium der Universität Bremen Nr. 109 Hrsg. von Andreas Knorr, Alfons Lemper, Axel Sell, Karl Wohlmuth Universität Bremen
3 Income Sources Diversification: Empirical Evidence from Edo State, Nigeria Reuben Adeolu Alabi 1 Andreas Knorr, Alfons Lemper, Axel Sell, Karl Wohlmuth (Hrsg.): Berichte aus dem Weltwirtschaftlichen Colloquium der Universität Bremen, Nr. 109, Mai 2008 ISSN Bezug: IWIM - Institut für Weltwirtschaft und Internationales Management Universität Bremen Fachbereich Wirtschaftswissenschaft Postfach D Bremen Telefon: / Telefax: / Dr. Reuben Adeolu Alabi is post doctoral researcher at IWIM. The Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship granted him to be at IWIM is highly appreciated. Suggestions by Prof. Dr. Karl Wohlmuth, Prof. Dr. Axel Sell, Tino Urban and other members of IWIM are greatly commendable. Esoimeme, Abosede of Ambrose Alli University, Nigeria provided the technical support.
4 Zusammenfassung Die vorliegende Studie untersucht Strategien der Diversifizierung von Einkommensquellen in Entwicklungsländern und deren Auswirkungen auf Armut mit einer empirischen Prüfung des Edo State, Nigeria. Die Studie zeigt, dass 43% aller Gesamteinkommen in Entwicklungsländern in Afrika und Lateinamerika und 51% in Asien nicht von der Landwirtschaft stammen. Die Untersuchung im Edo State ergab, dass 46% der Einkommen diversifiziert sind. Haupteinkommensquellen der Bevölkerung des Edo State sind Löhne und Gehälter (33%), Mieteinnahmen (33%), Verkaufseinnahmen von Agrarprodukten (14%) sowie der Handel (7%). Es zeigt sich zudem, das Einkommen durch höhere Bildungsgrade steigen, beginnend mit der Mittelstufe (junior secondary) bis zum Universitätsabschluss (first degree) als höchstmöglichen. Diese Studie zeigt zudem deutlich, dass sich Haushaltseinkommen mit Zunahme der Einkommensquellen erhöhen und dass fünf unterschiedliche Einkommensquellen je Haushalt das Optimum mit dem höchsten Durchschnittseinkommen darstellen. Die Regressionsanalyse belegt ferner, dass die Anzahl der Einkommensquellen, der Bildungsgrad sowie der Wohnort die Höhe der Haushaltseinkommen positiv und signifikant beeinflussen. Die Geschlechter der untersuchten zeigen keinen signifikanten Einfluss auf die Haushaltseinkommen im Edo State. Daraus erschließt sich, dass die Haushaltseinkommen im Edo State durch höheren Zugang zur Einkommensquellendiversifikation steigen. Möglichkeiten zur Diversifikation von Einkommensquellen im Edo State werden in dieser Studie ausführlich diskutiert.
5 Abstract This study reviews the cases of income sources diversification in developing countries and concluded with empirical evidence from Edo state, Nigeria. It shows that non farm income as share of total income in Africa and Latin America was 43%, while it was 51% for Asia. The empirical evidence from Edo state in Nigeria indicates that 46% of the people have a well diversified portfolio. The evidence from Edo state shows that the major sources of income in Edo state are wages and salary (33%), rent from assets (33%), sales of farm produce (14%) and trading (7%). It also indicates that income increases with level of education, with Junior Secondary school education being the lowest and First degree being the highest. The empirical evidence also indicates generally that income increases with increase in number of income sources and five income sources being the optimum that gives the highest mean income. The regression analysis shows that income sources diversification, education and location are positive and significant determinants of income, while gender has non-significant relationship with income in Edo state. These findings suggest that the increase in opportunity for people to diversify their income base will increase their household income. Those opportunities were recommended in this paper. Keywords: Income Sources, Diversification, Edo State, Nigeria Stichwörter: Haushaltseinkommen, Diversifikation, Edo State, Nigeria JEL-Classification: QO, I3, N5, R2
6 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS II II 1 Introduction 1 2 Review of Theory of Household Income Sources Diversification 2 3 Determinants of Income Sources Diversification 5 4 Income Diversification, Inequality and Poverty 20 5 Income Sources Diversification and Household Welfare 22 6 Empirical Evidence of Income Sources Diversification in Developing Countries 7 Empirical Evidence of Income Sources Diversification in Edo State Conclusion and Recommendations 45 References 47 I
7 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table 1: Contribution of Non-farm Income in Developing Countries 30 Table 2: Summary of Socio-Economic Information on Edo State and Nigeria 36 Table 3: Distribution of Respondents according to Income Sources 40 Table 4: Distribution of Income of Respondents According to Educational Level 41 Table 5: Income and Income Sources Diversification in Edo State, Nigeria 43 Table 6: Effect of Income Sources, Education, Gender and Location on Household Income in Edo State 45 Figure 1: Map of Edo State, Nigeria 39 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AIDS ANOVA CBO CFA CLUSA CPD DAC FAO HIV IFPRI MFI NBS NF NGO NISH ODI OLS POVNET RNF RNFE RNFI UK Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Analysis of Variance Community Based Organisation Currency for French African Countries Cooperative League of United State of America Centre for Policy Dialogue Development Assistance Committee Food and Agriculture Organisation Human Immunodeficiency Virus International Food Policy Research Institute Micro Finance Institution National Bureau of Statistics Non Farm Non Governmental Organisation National Integrated Survey of Households Overseas Development Institute Ordinary Least Square Poverty Network Rural Non Farm Rural Non Farm Employment Rural Non Farm Income United Kingdom II
8 1 Introduction Diversification has been demonstrated to be maintenance and continuous adaptation of a highly diverse portfolio of activities in order to secure survival that is a distinguishing feature of rural livelihood strategies in contemporary developing countries (Sahn, 1994). The household level of income diversification has implication for rural poverty reduction policies, since it means that conventional approaches aimed at increasing employment, incomes and productivity in single occupation, like farming may be missing their target (Ellis, 1998). Very few people in developing countries collect all their income from any one source, hold their wealth in the form of any single asset or use their assets in just one activity (Reardon, 1997). Participation in multiple activities by farm families is of course, not new, nor only confined to the rural sector of developing countries. In the industrial countries diversification in literature has been referred to as pluractivity (Evans and Ilbery, 1993). There is recognition of the likelihood of its increased prevalence as agricultural income support are gradually being removed (Hearn et al, 1996); it also as much characterizes the livelihoods of the urban poor as the rural poor in developing countries. Past studies show that between 30-50% of household income in Sub-Saharan Africa is derived from non-farm sources (Reardon, 1997). In the African continent, non-farm sources may already account for as much as 40-45% of average household income and seen to be growing in importance (Little et al, 2001). As elsewhere, the Rural Non Farm Employment (RNFE) has been growing rapidly. All these emphasise that people in developing countries got their income from different sources. Since these sources do not have the same potential contribution to their income, it is important to investigate these different sources and their contribution to income of the people in the developing countries. This study attempts that, using empirical case of Edo state, Nigeria. The Study specifically examines income sources diversification and its effect on income in Edo state. It also reviews the empirical cases of income diversification in developing countries. The rest of the paper is divided into eight sections. Section two reviews the theory of income source diversification, section three presents 1
9 determinants of income source diversification, section four deals with relationship with income sources diversification, inequality and poverty, section five relates income diversification with household welfare, section six is on cases of income source diversification in developing countries, section seven examines the empirical case of Edo State and section eight concludes the paper. 2 Review of Theory of Household Income Sources Diversification The rural household or individual s decision to supply labour to the rural non-farm sector can be conceptualized as a specific application of the class of behavioural models of factor supply in general, and labour in particular (see Sadoulet and de Janvry, 1995, for the economic theory of general factor demand and supply models; and Rosenzweig, 1989, for labour market models). Economists model the labour supply as well as capital investment (for own-enterprise start-up or upgrading) function (of say household i) to activity j is a function of incentives and capacity variables. The household is assumed to want to maximize earnings subject to constraints imposed by its limited resources and in trade-off with its desire to minimize risk. First we examine the determined choice, and then the determinants. The determined variables, the labour supply and capital investment decisions, for our present purposes is diversification into non-farm activity. Then, according to Reardon et al (2006), the diversification choice can be decomposed into five interdependent and simultaneous choices. They are (1) Non-farm participation: choice of farm sector activity (as producer or wage-labour supplier) versus non-farm activity; (2) Level of non-farm activity; (3) Sectoral choice within RNFE: manufacturing vs. services; (4) Location: whether to undertake it locally (RNFE) or elsewhere via migration; (5) Form: whether to undertake self-employment or wage-employment (the functional choice). On the other hand, the determinants variables of the above five choices are (a) the set of incentive levels facing the household, including rela- 2
10 tive prices of outputs from and inputs to activity j versus activities k, (b) instability of incentives: the set of incentive variation facing the household, including relative risks (climatic, market, and other risks) of activity j versus activities k, and (c) the set of capacity variables (capital assets including human, social, financial, organizational, physical that enable the undertaking of activities), specific to j and to k and non-specific. Diversification is widely understood as a form of self-insurance in which people exchange some foregone expected earnings for reduced income variability achieved by selecting a portfolio of assets and activities that have low or negative correlation of incomes (Alderman and Paxson, 1992). The notion of self-insurance is an ex ante concept of risk mitigation. Coupling weakly covariate pursuits diversified across sectors (e.g. crop production and seasonal metal-working) or space (e.g. migration) can reduce household income variability. If, as is widely believed, risk aversion is decreasing in income and wealth, then the poor will exhibit greater demand for diversification for the purpose of ex ante risk mitigation than do the wealthy. The fact that diversification rises with wealth or income in both absolute and proportional terms in rural Africa (Barrett et al., 2001) underscores that risk mitigation cannot satisfactorily explain observed patterns of non farm activity on the African continent. Multiple motives prompt households and individuals to diversify assets, incomes, and activities. The first set of motives comprise what are traditionally termed push factors : risk reduction, response to diminishing factor returns in any given use, such as family labour supply in the presence of land constraints driven by population pressure and fragmented landholdings, reaction to crisis or liquidity constraints, high transactions costs that induce households to self-provision in several goods and services, etc. The second set of motives comprise pull factors : realization of strategic complementarities between activities, such as crop-livestock integration or milling and hog production, specialization according to comparative advantage accorded by superior technologies, skills or endowments, etc. These micro level determinants of diversification are mirrored at more aggregate levels. From the push factor perspective, diversification is driven by limited risk-bearing capacity in the presence of incomplete or 3
11 weak financial systems that create strong incentives to select a portfolio of activities in order to stabilize income flows and consumption, by constraints in labour and land markets, and by climatic uncertainty. From the pull factor perspective, local engines of growth such as commercial agriculture or proximity to an urban area create opportunities for income diversification in production- and expenditure-linkage activities. The consequence of the ubiquitous presence of the above factors in rural Africa is widespread diversification. Barrett et al (2001) identify four distinct rural livelihoods strategies offering markedly different returns distributions. Some rural African households depend exclusively on their own agricultural (animal or crop) production for income, what is termed the full time farmer strategy. Others combine own production on-farm with wage labour on others farm, which is referred to as the farmer and farm worker strategy. The other two strategies combine farm and non-farm earnings. Within this population, Barrett et al (2001) drew a distinction between those who undertake unskilled labour whether in the farm or non-farm sectors and those who do not. The farm and skilled non-farm strategy does not include unskilled labour and tends to be associated with higher income households with relatively better-educated or skilled adult members. The fourth mixed strategy combines all three basic elements discussed so far: onfarm agricultural production, unskilled on-farm or off-farm wage employment, and non-farm earnings from trades, commerce and skilled (often salaried) employment. This classification scheme underscores the importance of labour market dualism in poor, rural regions; returns to labour vary substantially. These four household livelihood diversification strategies do not offer similar returns. In comparative work across different African agro-ecologies, Barrett et al (2001) found that strategies including non-farm income stochastically dominate those based entirely on agriculture, while the farm and skilled non-farm and full time farmer strategies generally offer superior returns to the mixed and, especially, the farmer and farm worker strategies, respectively. These differences arise due to variation in the degree to which each strategy involves barriers to entry. Pursuit of the full time farmer strategy requires either sufficient ex ante 4
12 land endowments or the financial or political means to secure access to additional land. On-farm production may include food crops, cash crops or livestock, and output may be sold to market, retained for home consumption, or both. 3 Determinants of Income Sources Diversification The factors that affect income sources diversification are discussed below: Education: The existence of a positive link between access to, and level of, education on one hand and involvement in the more remunerative non-farm activities on the other is virtually undisputed in the literature (Lanjouw, 1999). According to Gordon and Catherine (2001), there are several processes that reinforce the effect of education on incomes. Education increases skill levels, which are required for some rural non-farm (RNF) activities, or contribute to increased productivity, or may be an employment rationing device. Education can set in train processes that increase confidence, establish useful networks or contribute to productive investment (exposure outside the home village, migration, using improved earnings to educate other family members or invest in rural enterprise). Education tends to be closely correlated with other variables that also improve access to higher income employment (preexisting wealth, useful social networks and confidence). Non-educated family members may benefit from advice given by more educated relatives. Reardon (1997) cites a number of authors who have addressed the importance of education and skills as determinants of business startups and wages earned off-farm in Africa. Better-educated members of rural populations have improved access to any non-farm employment on offer, and are also more likely to establish their own non-farm businesses. Educational attainment proves to be one of the most important determinants of non-farm earnings, especially in more remunerative salaried and skilled employment. Better educated individuals are more likely to migrate to take up employment opportunities in other areas, as they have greater chances of success than their less-educated or uneducated coun- 5
13 terparts. Reardon (1997) infers a self-perpetuating effect of education in the long term: earnings from migration may be invested in the education of individuals within the migrant s household, which gives new generations a continuing advantage in the non-farm sector. Over time, this appears to lead to a dominance of the non-farm sector by a subset of local families. It seems that a tradition of involvement in the non-farm sector develops, and members of a household build up confidence in their ability to succeed in that sector. Reardon et al (1998) indicate that education is one of the first major investments of farmers in cash-cropping zones, illustrating the point with evidence from cotton-growing areas in Mali following the 1994 devaluation of the CFA franc. Indeed there is ample evidence from rural poverty surveys that underline the importance that the poor attach to the education of their children. Islam (1997) argues that primary education enhances the productivity of the workforce, whilst secondary education stimulates entrepreneurial activity. In addition, being educated by themselves, entrepreneurs are better equipped to train employees on-the-job. Islam (1997: 21) also cites interesting work in Ghana that explores the wider family impacts of one person s education. He stated that A recent survey... concludes that not only do the years of schooling of entrepreneurs and family workers employed in the enterprise have an impact on incomes of such enterprises but also the education of other family members who are not directly employed in the business (Vijverberg, 1995)... those who are not directly employed in the enterprise... contribute indirectly through discussion and suggestions. The crossover effects are significant when entrepreneurs are not educated.... Vocational Training: Small business development projects often offer a range of services including education in business skills. Vocational training in traditional trades (baking, brick-making, building skills, handicrafts, workshop repairs and so on) may also be offered at specialized colleges, or sometimes as part of school curricula. Some organizations run short courses targeted to local needs. 6
14 Although several authors indicate the importance of specialist skills (e.g. Reardon et al. 1998; Lanjouw, 1999; Bryceson, 1999), and projects and beneficiaries alike stress this dimension to business development, there seems to have been relatively little systematic study of the impact of alternative approaches to vocational training in African countries. Certainly, there are many ways in which such services can be provided (e.g. government-run specialized training centres, private training institutes, NGO or project-run courses delivering training in formal or informal ways, vocational training as part of school curricula, or as part of the services offered by agricultural extension teams). As a consequence the evidence is rather piecemeal. Islam (1997) argues that small business development programmes need to take care that the services they offer are tailored to the requirements of the individual enterprise. Jeans (1998) observes that organizations that provide skills and training for enterprise development are increasingly charging for these services. Cost-recovery (even if partial) facilitates wider coverage and, more significantly, it has been found that charging a fee increases the proportion of trainees who actually make effective use of their training. However, it is not clear whether this arises from an enhanced degree of motivation, or whether ability to pay for training also implies access to the necessary financial base or stability from which to launch a new business. Tovo (1991) studied women receiving small business training in Tanzania in Her findings suggest a positive impact from training and extension services. These were offered by the Government of Tanzania in a variety of fields including co-operatives, home economics, community development, small-scale industry development and agriculture. She found that extension services have been particularly helpful, as is evident in the success rate achieved by those who received training or extension. She suggests that those putting themselves forward for such services may be more dynamic and entrepreneurial individuals, the implication being that they would in any case show a greater degree of success in their enterprise, with or without assistance. She also suggests that during their training courses, the women may have made contacts that contributed to the success of their businesses. In their research on women s enterprise in Mo- 7
15 zambique, Horn et al (2000) found that respondents recognized their need for training in the management of money as a prerequisite for success in business. This is likely to be applicable to all farm and non-farm business since micro-entrepreneurs tend not to keep detailed records of income and expenditure and, therefore, find accurate financial planning and cash flow forecasting difficult, if not impossible. Work by the Co-operative League of the USA (CLUSA), also in Mozambique, stresses financial skills, as well as business and marketing planning, in their training of farmers groups (Kindness and Gordon, 2001). Health: There is no doubt that the health status of household members has a significant bearing on their participation in income-generating activities. While this general rule applies to health in its broadest sense, at the present time in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa concerns about health tend inevitably to focus on HIV/AIDS. White and Robinson (2000) outline the considerable extent to which HIV/AIDS has impacted on household livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa. Many of their conclusions might be equally applicable to health problems other than AIDS. HIV/AIDS is particularly relevant to this discussion as it often results in the loss of household members who are at the peak of their productivity, and potentially have most to contribute to the livelihood of the household. Productive time and material resources are further lost in caring for those afflicted with the disease, and households may have the additional burden of having to take in orphans or other dependants of the person in question. Coping strategies to tackle this situation mirror to some extent the strategies used by rural households for coping with other shocks, for example, diversifying income sources or migrating to seek work (however, migration has also been found to be a significant factor in the spread of AIDS). Some of the coping strategies adopted by AIDSafflicted or AIDS-affected households may have negative long-term effects on livelihoods, for example, withdrawing children from school to assist with household tasks and to save money. White and Robinson (2000) argue that the full impact of the epidemic will only be known in the future, when these wider effects of reduced investment in human capital become evident. White and Robinson (2000) found that as a result of 8
16 the impact of HIV/ AIDS on household livelihoods, there appears to be growing reliance on non-farm income-generating activities. Households already involved in a fairly large number of such activities, as well as agriculture, were better able to buffer themselves against the impact of HIV/AIDS. They further suggest that the commercial sector offers employment opportunities to, for example, AIDS orphans who have no access to land and require an income to support themselves. Islam (1997) discusses the importance of investment in health more broadly, which results in reduction in morbidity and improved nutrition, and thereby increases labour productivity, in both farm and non-farm sectors. Families, who have limited access to health facilities, whether for reasons of location or affordability, inevitably suffer the consequences in loss of potentially productive time. In their research in Uganda, Smith et al. (2001) note that the RNF activities of the poor are often more demanding physically. Respondents recognized that good health was important to their ability to earn RNF income. Personal Vision: Very little has been written about personal vision as a possible determinant of participation in the non farm sector. It is nonetheless interesting to consider a finding of Horn et al. (2000) that the potential of the women interviewed in Mozambique was severely constrained by their inability to see themselves in situations very different from those in which they currently live. This may be a result of years of war and poverty, and may not apply very widely, but may equally be relevant in particularly isolated areas, where limited contact with others results in narrow perceptions of what is possible. Improvements in communication and travel may reduce the significance of this factor. Limitations of personal vision may also relate to the issue of confidence touched on briefly above. Those individuals or households with little or no experience of the non-farm sector may not trust their ability to participate successfully, and may decide to settle for lower returns from agricultural activities, in which they feel more confident. The women interviewed by Horn et al. (2000) were risk-averse, fearing living their lives differently, although there was evidence that with age, women were willing to adopt new activities. 9
17 Age: Several authors address the significance of household members age in relation to their participation in the non-farm sector. It is a dimension of human capital and although it may not be amenable to change (except in the aggregate), it is important to understand how it affects participation in the non-farm sector. Smith (2000) notes that it is generally the younger household members who migrate in search of non-farm, income-earning opportunities, and he points out that age is a factor synonymous with moving into the non-farm sector more broadly. Bryceson (1999) considers that both gender barriers and barriers to youth involvement in the nonfarm sector are declining. She points out that through the expansion of the service economy; youth have been afforded cash-earning opportunities that were previously lacking. Horn et al. (2000), in their research on women s enterprise in Mozambique, note that as women mature they are more likely to take up business opportunities. This finding relates to a particular cultural context, in which traditionally women were in stable, long-term family situations, depending on their husbands for the household s cash needs. However, with more break-up of marriages and a greater number of shorter duration, non-married situations, more women realize that they have only themselves on whom to depend and, therefore, enter the non-farm sector later than they might otherwise. Women with childcare responsibilities are also somewhat confined to home-based activities, until their children can be left with others in the home. This means that women in their late twenties and older were found to be more active in non-farm activities which involved periods away from their homes. Social Capital: Social capital comprises the social resources (e.g. networks, membership of groups, relationships of trust, access to wider institutions of society) upon which people draw in pursuit of livelihoods. There is ample anecdotal evidence of the influence of social capital on access to different types of employment, and an increasing amount of empirical research that supports this also (Lanjouw, 1999). Gender: There is general consensus in the literature that gender is a significant factor determining access to RNF opportunities. As Griffith et al. (1999) remind us, the majority of the poor in Sub-Saharan Africa are 10
18 women. They have, therefore, greater need than most for the income that can be secured through involvement in the non-farm sector. Women have long been constrained in the activities in which they are permitted or able to participate, by tradition, religion, or other social mores. Both Ellis (1998) and Newman and Canagarajah (1999) point out the activities in which women are involved are more circumscribed than those for men. As far as non-farm income is concerned, women participate to a greater degree in wholesale or retail trade or in manufacturing, than in other sectors. Haggblade et al. (1987) provide data from five African countries (Benin, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and Zambia) where women s share in non-farm employment ranged from 25% to 54%. It may be significant, however, that this group includes three West African countries where women traditionally play an important role in trade, and Zambia where male migration to work in the mines has left a high proportion of female-headed households in rural areas. For reasons of differential access to education, childcare responsibilities and social expectations, women are more involved in the informal sector than the formal sector. Figures quoted by Haggblade et al. (1987) for Ghana and Kenya show women s share in formal employment as 10% and 14%, respectively, compared with 54% and 25% in informal, small enterprises. Women also tend to engage in businesses that require lower start-up capital than those in which men become involved. Women s involvement in incomeearning opportunities has greater significance than simply increasing their own or household income. Islam (1997) argues that it strengthens their decision-making power within the household; and it helps to limit family size, and improves child nutrition and education. Bryceson (1999), using evidence from seven country studies in Africa, goes further than most, in concluding that gender barriers are declining rapidly. In worsening economic circumstances, men have had to accept that their wives and daughters can and should work outside the home to earn money. However, this has not been balanced by a lessening of women s household duties; they remain responsible for raising children and caring for the family. Contrary to other writers, Bryceson finds a breakdown in patterns of work ascribed strictly to men, or alternatively to women, and she notes the broad 11
19 nature and range of activities currently pursued by women. Tovo (1991) found Tanzanian women having to provide both food and cash for their families, as a result of the erosion of the subsistence base in rural areas and the decline in real wages. In some cases, women were left solely in charge of the home, farm and family as a result of men migrating to urban areas, though this is often within the context of the extended family. Horn et al. (2000) similarly found Mozambican women having to seek means of supporting themselves and their families, as traditional family structures have weakened and stable long-term relationships are no longer the norm. White and Robinson (2000) discuss the increase in female-headed households which has resulted from the incidence of HIV/ AIDS. The disease may also lead to the loss of women s assets, such as land, following the deaths of husbands, thereby increasing distress-push into the non-farm sector. Newman and Canagarajah (1999) found in both Ghana and Uganda that female participation in non-farm work is increasing. During the periods studied, their findings were that poverty rates in both countries fell most rapidly among female household heads engaged in non-farm work. Their research considered sub-groups within the overall group of women, including female heads of households, female spouses and other females. Interesting differences were found in the extent of involvement of those sub-groups in non-farm activities. Working females with the greatest responsibility for family welfare, i.e. heads of household and spouses, were more active in non-farm activities than other women. Women in both Uganda and Ghana work primarily in agriculture, but among secondary activities, women were more likely to be involved in non-farm work than men. Newman and Canagarajah (1999) also found that women in Ghana and Uganda earned substantially less than men. In relation to the gender profile of migrant labour, Smith (2000) suggests that although historically the majority of migrants were men, this varies within and between regions, and over time, depending on the types of employment available for women and men in rural and urban economies. Women s household responsibilities are more likely to prevent them from spending extended periods away from the home. White and Robinson (2000), point out that female-headed households have long 12
20 been identified as being especially vulnerable to poverty. In their work on the impact of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, they note the increase in female-headed and youth-headed households as a result of the spread of the disease. The implication is that female heads of household in particular will be an increasingly important target group for initiatives aimed at increasing the contribution of the non-farm economy to rural livelihoods. Religion: Several authors note the influence of religious factors on participation in the non-farm sector, always in relation to women s involvement. Haggblade et al. (1987) observe that social and religious norms may tightly shape the economic options available to women. They use the example of a Muslim country, Chad, to illustrate the lower participation of women. In their work in Mozambique, Horn et al. (2000) report that home-based activities were most common among Muslim women. A different aspect of the influence of religion is highlighted by Tovo (1991), who reports that in Tanzania, Christian women are more risktaking than Muslim women. Networks: Individuals and households with better social networks have greater opportunities in the non-farm sector. Once again, this discriminates against the poorest, who suffer a lack of (useful) social networks and are, therefore, unable to capitalize on informal opportunities and remain excluded from formal support systems (Smith, 2000). Gordon et al. (2000b) are reporting that the ability to migrate and the choice of destination for migration are influenced by social networks. Typically, men will migrate to areas where they already have relatives or friends, on whom they can rely for initial support and information. They might also learn of employment or business opportunities through friends or family who are already involved in the non-farm sector. Tovo (1991) found that the women she interviewed in Tanzania had made some important contacts through training or extension in which they were involved. These contacts helped them to obtain scarce inputs for their businesses and to find customers. Fafchamps and Minten (1998) attempted to quantify social capital amongst agricultural traders and their clients in Madagascar using a questionnaire based sample survey for data collection and econometric techniques for analysis of data. They defined 13
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If you are considering purchasing a reptile of any variety, you should first make sure you are somewhat knowledgeable about the different things that reptiles require. Whether a leopard gecko, green anole, ball python, corn snake, or green iguana, taking care of a reptile (or any other pet) requires a real commitment. Not only will you need to spend plenty of time and energy caring for him, but reptile ownership can also be quite expensive. After you purchase your new pet, you will need to purchase a home for him to live in, food for him to eat, and a variety of other things to help him live a long and happy life.
The articles in the reptile section will help you determine if you're ready to own a reptile and allow you to begin to narrow down your choices. The following article will help you get started:
Wild vs. Captive Bred
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SLTF Consulting
Technology with Business Sense
Scott Rosenthal
July, 1994
Often during system development, times arise when you'd really like to dive into
hardware and quickly try something with an I/O device. One option is to plug in that
trusty emulator or logic analyzer. Another technique I frequently use-albeit a decidedly
less glitzy approach-is to use something called a monitor program. It's a low-cost design
tool you can either buy or build and have available in your toolkit for all types of
hardware and processor problems. Although monitors are valuable aids, just like any other
tool, they have limitations. Regardless of how powerful, a monitor program can't replace a
good emulator or logic analyzer. But for those with limited funds, a monitor might just be
your tool for squashing that last hidden hardware bug.
Although the exact origin of the name "monitor" is lost in some dusty recess
of computer history, ever since I started working with microprocessors I've used or
written monitor programs. Despite variations in form and capability, they have several
aspects in common in that they, at the very least, can display and modify memory or I/O.
Monitors communicate with the programmer over a dumb terminal, an easy connection to make
because nearly all embedded designs have a serial port. The transmission rate isn't
important; early monitor programs I used communicated with a Model 33 Teletype at 110
baud-perfectly acceptable for all tasks except long memory dumps.
Matching the austerity of the operator interface, the monitor program's commands are
also simple. In fact, you might already be familiar with them because the DOS DEBUG
program is a well-known monitor. Just like DOS itself, DEBUG came from the CP/M world and
thus reflects its hobbyist roots.
In general, the program's commands fall into three categories: memory, I/O and other.
Basic memory commands allow you to display an area of memory, fill it with a value and
edit any single location. However, many sophisticated monitors add commands such as
searching through memory, copying memory or performing memory tests. I personally like
simple solutions and uncomplicated programs, so I consider these extra commands as frills
and not necessary to the basic monitor's operation.
Similar in function, I/O commands allow you either to set an I/O port to a value or to
read its contents. If you ever choose to write a monitor program you might add
capabilities such as read and write block I/O commands or continuously read the I/O port
until the program reads a certain value. However, as you've already guessed, these
additions violate my simplicity rule.
The remaining commands I lump under the heading "other." These operators
might include a help command to list the structure of all commands or any other operators
that make life easier. Such specialized functions could send a long sequence of commands
to a UART or read the system real-time clock. Remember, the monitor is a tool, and just as
other craftsmen occasionally modify tools for particular purposes, this one's here to
customize to your way of doing things.
Regardless of what type of function any command is performing, they all have the same
basic structure and start with a letter. The chosen letter should remind you of the
function. For example, when creating a monitor I use the following commands: D for
displaying memory, F for filling memory and S for substituting or changing memory. I/O
commands can be equally simple. The command I inputs or reads data from a port, while O
outputs or writes to a port. Finally, what could be more obvious than to use ? or H for
invoking online help? Following the letter come one or more numbers that indicate the
memory or I/O locations to use and perhaps the information to go into those locations. One
thing I'm very particular about is that the monitors assume all numbers are in hex without
any special prefixes or suffixes to specify the number base-in other words, no decimal,
octal, binary or whatever else.
It takes more than a simple command structure for an application to be useful. You also
need to know a tool's limitations in order to avoid trying it on applications for which it
isn't suited. For instance, emulators are such great tools that everyone should have one.
However, most development organizations can't afford to buy a new emulator each time a
processor hits the market. Further, I've found that sometimes you just can't get an
emulator into the target design, especially in a production instrument. Consider one of my
customers who spent a fortune on their instrument's case design. It's pretty to look at,
but nobody thought ahead about how to get an emulator pod into the instrument. To install
a pod in this system takes me more than an hour to disassemble it plus another hour to
button it back up. By contrast, I can install a monitor program in under 5 sec through a
memory-card slot. As long as I don't need an emulator's unique features, my monitor
program provides all the capability I need to debug hardware problems.
Notice that I said hardware problems. A monitor program, as described above, doesn't
allow you to debug real software problems. Sure, it's possible to add commands to start a
program operating from a certain location, set breakpoints, dump registers, display stack
frames or whatever else. However, running these functions on the same processor that's
executing the target code imposes a significantly new computing load, potentially
invalidating the very data you're collecting. Also, adding this type of functionality runs
contrary to the spirit of what a monitor is used for.
In addition, a monitor requires that a certain amount of hardware be up and running in
the application before it's of any use. If the embedded processor's not running, get out
your emulator, logic analyzer or scope because a monitor is useless. However, if you face
a task such as trying to set up a flat-panel VGA-emulation chip with VGA extension
registers, a monitor program is ideal.
Recently, I encountered a great example of a monitor's usefulness. I incorporated a
PCMCIA Type 1 memory slot for loading new programs into a medical instrument's flash
memory. This feature seemed to work for more than six months. Then, just before I went to
deliver the instrument, I found that the memory-card driver would work with some cards but
not with others. I quickly loaded my monitor program onto a PCMCIA memory card (for some
reason it worked on all the memory cards) and started running it on the instrument. With
the program, I interrogated the memory card and tried exercising the I/O ports relating to
it. The program easily allowed me to determine the problem. I wasn't correctly setting the
configuration-register selection line and that, unbeknownst to me, some cards had
configuration memory and some didn't.
An emulator could've found this problem, but because I didn't own one for the processor
in this instrument, the monitor was the fastest way to solve the problem.
With this preamble out of the way, next time I'll get into how to create your own
monitor and the reasons for doing so. PE&IN
Adapted from an article that appeared in Personal Engineering & Instrumentation
Return to the article index.


text:
IT software solutions sales Healthcare Account Manager to £40k base
IT software and solutions Account Manager for leading technology group within the UK healthcare sector. Circa £35,000 to £40,000 basic plus £20,000 to £25,000 comm. car, pension etc. Home, office and field based. Looking after London area clients (many within Central London)) The company A rapidly expanding healthcare technology group providing software applications and solutions to over 10,000 clients throughout the UK across general practice, hospitals and private consultancy. The business has gone through huge expansion over the last 6 years, through a mix of organic growth and acquisition of strategically placed companies. The role This mixed Business Development / Account Management role will see you joining one of the group companies which specialises in medical data software solutions for private consultants, private hospitals and private clinics. Their latest cloud based software provides clients with anytime/anywhere patient record access, work streams, security and a range of enhanced functionality. Target clients will be private consultants across all disciplines - from oncology to cosmetic surgery. Working closely with the marketing department you will help pinpoint potential clients and put together marketing strategies for engaging with them. It's a knowledge based, consultancy orientated and relationship based sales process which will involve client visits and demonstrations of the software to individuals and groups. You will arrange clients group get togethers, user groups and referral schemes and attend trade events, exhibitions and industry conferences. In a nutshell you will put together and deliver customised strategies for the sector which put you at its core. You: Experienced in business development or account management within IT software / solutions sales or within the healthcare software – but specific sector experience is NOT essential. With a professional, friendly, knowledgeable consultative approach and a passion for technology you will enthuse and engage users of all levels. Naturally great with clients and completely comfortable demonstrating software to individuals or groups of all levels of seniority. For you: A starting salary of around £40,000, a realistic initial OTE of £60,000 to £65,000, a company car, pension and good benefits package. You'll work autonomously without being micro-managed, working between the company's office, home and client site. This job was originally posted as www.totaljobs.com/job/66777588


text:
Join our email club and get special offers, VIP event invites, and the latest news from Spooky Nook Sports.
Thanks for signing up to receive the latest news from Spooky Nook Sports. Check your inbox for your first issue, arriving soon!
2913 Spooky Nook Rd.
Manheim PA 17545
Add Amplify to Your Membership!
Amplify Adult Training memberships give a regular fitness membership a boost with structured classes and more challenging workouts. Amplify members get all the perks of a regular fitness membership plus access to classes that are guaranteed to build muscle, tone, burn fat, increase speed, and take your physical fitness to a new level. By adding Amplify you will:
Add Amplify: +$49/month for an Adult, +$79/month for a Family (2 adults)
Drop-In Class Rate: $15 per class or 5 for $60
Click here to view the July schedule.
Three rounds, ten exercises, thirty minutes of high intensity circuit training. This class uses a combination of weight training and cardio set to an up-beat playlist to kick start your mornings. Each session is a new combination of exercises designed to work your whole body while keeping your heart rate up, making you stronger, and burning calories to get you fit. This class is open to all experience and fitness levels, with an expert coach to instruct proper technique, help make adjustments, and provide motivation.
Sign Up Instructions
Only a few will earn the right to call themselves a Wicked Warrior. Take the challenge and prove you have what it takes. This class meets once per week and includes:
• HIIT (High Intensity Training)
• Strength Training
• Muscle Endurance Training
• Core Strength
• Cardio Conditioning
• High Calorie Burn
• SAQ Drills (Speed, Agility, Quickness)
Saturdays, 9:00am – 10:20am
Ever wonder what it would be like to train like a boxer? TKO Fit will help you do just that. This no-contact class teaches proper boxing technique and all the ways to train like a fighter. Experience intense calorie burn, improved muscular endurance and strength, superior core conditioning and a way to reduce stress. Jab, bob, weave, punch, and uppercut your way to finding the champion in YOU! Boxing gloves and wraps are not provided.
Purchase Punch Pass
A punch pass is good for 8 TKO Fit classes. The pass is $95 for non-members. Buy your pass at the Fitness Desk or Guest Services. Questions? Contact [email protected]
Sign Up for a Class Time
Personal Training-X is designed to help you to make the most of your work break. This class has an open start time, so you can push yourself to see how many rounds of the constantly evolving circuit you can complete in the time you have. PTX promotes an increase in strength, enhanced fat loss, and improved cardio fitness. Each session will involve a new mix of battle ropes, kettle bells, slam ball, sled pushes, and more!
CycleCross combines indoor cycling and cross training for an interval-based class on and off the bike. All fitness levels welcome. Sneakers are required.
Insanity is a total body workout that requires no equipment. You exercise using your own body weight for resistance. The program is based on a fitness method called "max interval training." In traditional interval training, you exercise at a very intense pace for a short period of time, and then rest for longer periods in between. The idea is to increase your aerobic fitness level while burning fat.
Ready to add some fun to your workout? Join in on Game Night. This class takes some of the classic family games you've played as a kid and adds a fitness twist. Get in great shape, have fun, and make friends while you play The Nooks versions of "Go Fish" or "Blackjack" and many more. Everyone wins!
Fusing TRX with yoga is one of the hottest new fitness trends! The TRX suspension training system both supports and challenges many yoga poses, helping you deepen the strength while working out your entire body!
Open Training is available to Sports Performance Members only. Train how you would like and use the equipment. This is a great opportunity to focus on some specific lifts and exercises on your own.


text:
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Released: 08/2010
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text:
|900 sq. ft.
|Property type
|Minimum Stay
|7 nights
Enjoy mountain breezes and spectacular sunsets on the patio of this new guest cabin overlooking clean, beautiful Lake George. Your vistas span 20 miles. . . all the way to Roger's Slide . . and across to the high peaks of the Adirondack Mountains. This secluded, private cabin is perfect for a couple or small family who want to 'get away from it all', but admire the beauty of the region. The cabin has a fully - equipped kitchen( the owner likes to cook ), a cozy fireplace for those starry nights and air conditioning for those who need it!!! You only have to walk or drive a short distance to the beautiful hamlet of Huletts Landing which has a sandy public beach, boat launch, 9 hole golf course, tennis, ice cream parlor, restaurant/bar, and MORE!! Do you need to train for a marathon? tri-athalon??? This is the place!!! Walk out your door and smell the 'clean air'. . . and acres and acres of forever wild Adirondack wilderness. Take a short day trip to the Saratoga racetrack, the Adirondack Mountains, Lake Placid, Historic Fort Ticonderoga, the Adirondack Museum, a 2 hour drive to Montreal, or any of the top-ranked golf courses. You can have it all in the Adirondacks. . . come see for yourself!
Keywords: Lake George Guest Cabin with a Million Dollar View of Lake George
The owner was born in Huletts Landing. His career took him to all corners of the world, but he decided that Huletts Landing on Lake George was one of the most beautiful places in the world. Thus he and his wife retired in Huletts Landing. . . and love to share it!!
The owner has hunted all over the world. . . and proudly displays many of his "trophies" in the cabin.
Susan K Young,Licensed Associate Broker at Real Estate Innovations purchased this cabin in 2008
This newer cabin is situated on 10 private acres overlooking Lake George. . . privacy for a 'get away', yet near many amenities.
The owners are 'native' to the area. . love it and want to share it!!
Very clean and wonderfully appreciated cabin-like layout. Cozy and comfortable setting. We loved it. Our second year here. Very good experience.
I enjoyed a one-week stay at Bruce and Susan's picturesque property. They have their own "Walton's Mountain" in a way. Hulett's Landing is off the main track and offers a quiet, friendly, upper-scale ambiance. Residents seem connected through history and traditions--yet are valuers and respecters of privacy. The property is atop a mountain road that passes by a few homes and ambles through tree-laden area before reaching the Young's private driveway. An unpaved road winds up to their oasis overlook.
The cabin home has solid craftsmanship and charm. The layout is a large open-room style. Mounted hunting trophies offer a truly striking decor. It's not just decoration--it's testimony to Bruce's exotic life of world-wide hunting, a museum in kind. The trophies are tastefully displayed and well-lighted at rafter height (not looking you in the eye). Cool and special. Comfortable bed, wonderful quiet, and a mountain vista view. I found the kitchen island convenient to work with and the back patio a pleasant setting. Small details say a lot, and finding comfortable towels, scented cachet packets in the wardrobe drawers, and dual coffee makers (regular or Kuerig) was appreciated. I'd advise future guests of two things: 1. The cabin sets close to the Young's home. 2. The cabin is an open-room style that has designated sections, but not walled off separations. The advertised pictures are very accurate, and calling it a "cabin" somewhat does an injustice. It's a distinctive cabin-like lodge that feels "new" and is well-maintained. Ticonderoga and Schroon Lake made for nice side trips, and the Vermont border is a 20-minute drive.
Bruce and Susan are accommodating hosts (with fascinating backgrounds) who appreciate meeting you. They grant professionalism and privacy. I sincerely appreciated their warm and genuine hospitality.
--D. Beck
We had a wonderful stay at the Haven at Huletts Landing. The spacious cabin was perfect for our family - myself, my husband and our infant daughter. There was room to set up a portable crib, and being together on one level was convenient. The kitchen had a full complement of cooking utensils and was good for making meals, and there was plenty of seating for when family staying nearby joined us for lunch one day. The property is peaceful, perfect for unwinding and getting away from it all. The cabin itself was very clean, much more than other places we have stayed. There is a lot of attention to detail here as far as amenities and maintenance, which is very much appreciated. The view of the lake was beautiful. Be prepared to drive while you're there - the property is at the top of a hill. We took day trips (in the car) to see family staying on the lake and to the nearby beach and golf course. I would also recommend grocery shopping before you go. We went on the way and were glad we did. We would definitely recommend this property to friends looking for a quiet retreat on Lake George.
The cabin is absolutely gorgeous (extremely clean, comfortable and well equipped) and my husband and I truly enjoyed staying there. We had family staying nearby on the lake, so the place was convenient for us. We have been coming to Lake George for many years and this place was the best yet even with all the stuffed animal heads on the walls (an adjustment for city dwellers like us). Susan, the owner, was very nice and helpful without being intrusive. She described the area well so we knew that we had to bring what we planned to eat for the week with us. She told us there really was no place to eat out and honestly, it helped us save a lot of money. In previous years we found eating out in Lake George Village expensive. The FREE county beach is only a mile away and very nice. It is a very steep hill to the cabin that takes some getting used to but that's minor. We so want to go back.
Susan and Bruce,
We loved staying at your cabin (aka "Love Shack")! The views are absolutely gorgeous. The cabin is large even though it is a studio and it is beautiful. It really did have everything we needed to make our stay perfect! We appreciate how very kind and accommodating you were during our stay as well . Breathtaking property!
Thank you for everything!
This is a wonderful place for a couple. Very well appointed and comfortable. (The open floor plan makes it less suitable for a family.) The home is situated on the quiet east side of Lake George where the view is spectacular and the setting is away from the hubbub of Lake George Village. The nearby beach is lovely and the Par 3 golf course is a bargain and fun for the amateur golfer. We enjoyed area hiking and kayaking. The owners, Bruce and Susan, are very friendly and have decorated the cabin in a very memorable way. We definitely recommend this location for those seeking a quiet getaway.
Hiking, swimming, jogging, golfing, history all around, biking, boating, fishing
|Rate Period
|Weekend Night
My Standard Rate
7 night minimum stay
|Refundable damage deposit
There is a 3 night minimum stay and based upon owner's discretion. Preferred rentals run from Saturday to Saturday. Contracts and security deposits must always be provided regardless of the length of stay.


text:
Our Management Council
Members of the French Section Management Council 2016-17 (representing FS parents):
President: Stéphanie Froissart
Treasurer: Gilles Morizon
Secretary: Nada Baitieh
FS representative on the TESBOG: Henri-Jean Fontaine
FS representative on the School Council: Mei-Ling Viaud
FS representative on the Scholarship Board: Christian Laudet
Member: Daniel Mastio
Member: Frédéric Vereecke
The following are also members of the French Section Management Council:
- TES French Section Head of School, Mr Jean-Yves Vesseau
- Cultural Attache at the French Office in Taipei, representing the AEFE, Mrs Anne-Laure Vincent
- TES French Section staff representatives, Mr Julien Ducheine and Mr Florian Testut
- TES French Section Administration and Finance Manager, Mr Nicolas Blanc is invited to attend the meetings
The Management Council fulfills four main functions:
- Strategic thinking about the French Section's future, in collaboration with all authorised persons and institutions (Head, TESBOG, AEFE, French Office in Taipei, etc.).
- Representing the French Section's interests within the European School, in coordination with the Head.
- Administrative support and financial management to provide French Section students and staff with the best possible study and working conditions (preparation of, and voting on, the budget, determination of tuition fees and so on).
- Representation of parents' interests within the French Section.
TES is a non-profit foundation under Taiwanese law.
The TES Board of Directors (TESBOD) is the management body of TES. The Chair of the TESBOD is Dr. C.V. Chen.
The TESBOD delegates its governing and leadership powers to the TES Board of Governors (TESBOG), which is composed of eight TES parents. Each Section sends one member of its Management Council to represent it on the TESBOG. That position is occupied by the President of the French Section Management Council. The remaining four places are elected by the TES parents.
The day-to-day management of TES is the responsibility of the Executive Leadership Team (ELT) led by the CEO of TES, Dr Allan Weston.
The ELT is also responsible for developing strategic plans to meet Taipei European School's objectives.
The Heads of the French and German Section are members of the ELT, however they are independent from the CEO – they answer to their respective national ministers and to their Management Councils.
- Annual General Meeting 2017(1.17 MB)(16/05/2017)
- Annual General Meeting 2016(872 KB)(16/05/2016)


text:
Some Reflections on the Relationships Between Universities and Industry as They Influence the Evolution of the Medical-Industrial Complex
Bondurant, Stuart
Bibliographic Citation
North Carolina Medical Journal 1984 April; 45(4): 235-236
Permanent LinkFind in a Library
MetadataShow full item record
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Showing items related by title, author, creator and subject.
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Morality for the Medical-Industrial Complex: A Code of Ethics for the Mass Marketing of Health Care Engelhardt, H. Tristram; Rie, Michael A. (1988-10-20)A code of ethics for the mass marketing of health care is presented, based upon an examination of what the authors perceive to be the crucial role of the profit motive in medicine. Problems of for-profit health ...


text:
Grow Snow Classroom Be Amazing Polymer Insta-snow Kit
Item Is On Sale!
Be Amazing Toys
$ 67.99
$ 79.99
Grow Snow Classroom Science Activity Kit
By Be Amazing
By Be Amazing
Packed into a small amount of the dry powder is an amazing reaction! Instant-Snow is a compact, super absorbent polymer that quickly grabs huge quantities of water molecules and expands very rapidly to 100 times it's original size as it does so. The more it expands, the greater the number of places on the polymer that are available to grab more water. Of course, there's a limit and if it's reached, the polymer can't hold anymore more water and becomes slushy instead of fluffy. If hydrated Instant-Snow is left undisturbed and uncovered for several days, the water evaporates and eventually, all that remains is dry powder. Then it's ready to soak up another flood of water and amaze you and the kids all over again!
Kit contains:
24 7g tubes Instant-Snow for students, 1 40g bag Instant-Snow for teacher, 24 6x6 zip-seal plastic bags, 12 small plastic cups, 12 small Petri dishes, 1-liter bottle, large plastic cup, student discovery page master, teacher activity guide.
Grade Levels K-6
Ages 6 and up. Adult supervision.


text:
Oneex Foxdale is a Colonel Silver (O-3) of 2142 Armed Forces.
He spends most of his time on Base, be it afking, chatting, or fighting.
He is probably the most lenient of the 3 active officers in 2142, rule-wise.
His roles in 2142 include:
Support Sub-Division Leader, Trainer, Trainer Trainer (lol), Application Reader, Unofficial Secretary, Armored Division Major, Senior Pilot, and Mech Infantry member.
Outside of Base, the Oneex is an elusive creature, mainly hanging around with close friends. In public he will probably not speak unless spoken to first, and usually only on the matter at which he is spoken of, thus befitting his usual title of "The Silent."


text:
MIAMI (AP) — Johan Santana has completed his latest bullpen session pleased about his recovery from shoulder surgery.
The New York Mets ace threw 45 pitches Sunday before their game against the Florida Marlins and said his left shoulder is improving every day. Barring a setback, he's expected to begin a minor-league rehabilitation assignment in the next few days.
Santana underwent surgery last September. There's no timetable for his return to the majors, but the two-time Cy Young Award winner hopes to pitch for the Mets before the end of the season.


text: Alpha hypnosis was a form of hypnosis practised by Federation doctors to remove memory blocks. In 2274, Dr. McCoy attempted to use alpha hypnosis to Admiral James T. Kirk, Lieutenant Commander Nyota Uhura, and Lieutenant Pavel Chekov, when they experienced a memory block, but had no success. (TOS novel: The Prometheus Design)


text:
Home / beauty / women's fragrances / bath & body products / body lotions & creams /
Body Lotions & Creams
Victoria's Secret
Victoria's Secret Mango Temptation Body Lotion
0 Based on 0 reviews
reviews (0)
shipping & returns
additional info
Product information
Same fragrance, new better-than-ever formula—this fast-absorbing lotion offers 24 hours of rich hydration, nourishing skin with a light mix of mango nectar and hibiscus.
- Fragrance type: Fruity
- Style: Tropical and exotic
- Notes: Mango nectar and hibiscus
- Part of the Victoria's Secret Fantasies Fragrance Studio
- 236 ml/8 fl. oz.


text:
I want to buy a Makarov.
I have a Tokarev. I have a Nagant. I need a Makarov.
I don't want a Polish look-a-like. I want a Makarov. I don't care how much better the Polish look-a-like/CZs are.
Bulgarian is preferred.
Russian if the price is right.
Any other if it's a reasonable price.
In case I wasn't clear, I want a Makarov not something that looks like a Makarov or something else that fires the 9mm Mak round.
That also means I don't want a fucking .380 Makarov. I want a 9x18 Makarov.