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1 ALGORITHM THEORETICAL BASIS DOCUMENT (ATBD) FOR THE THIRD ACTIVE CAVITY RADIOMETER IRRADIANCE MONITOR EXPERIMENT (ACRIM III) ONE OF THE 24 OBSERVATIONAL COMPONENTS OF THE EARTH OBSERVATION SYSTEM (EOS) PRIMARY SCIENCE OBJECTIVE: EXTENSION OF TOTAL SOLAR IRRADIANCE TIME SERIES AND ANALYSIS OF ITS VARIANCE FOR CLIMATOLOGICAL AND SOLAR PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE ORIGINAL VERSION: 11/15/96, REVISED 12/15/99 PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: DR. RICHARD C. WILLSON CENTER FOR CLIMATE SYSTEMS RESEARCH, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 1001 B AVE., #200, CORONADO, CA, PHONE: FAX: CO-INVESTIGATORS: DR. JAMES HANSEN DIRECTOR, NASA GODDARD INSTITUTE FOR SPACE STUDIES 2880 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, NY, PHONE: E_MAIL: DR. ALEXANDER MORDVINOV INSTITUTE OF SOLAR-TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS, RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES P.O. BOX 4026 IRKUTSK, , RUSSIA E_Mail: DR. HUGH H. HUDSON SOLAR PHYSICS RESEARCH CORPORATION C/O Y. OGAWARA, ISAS, YOSHINODAI SAGAMIHARA, KANAGAWA, JAPAN Page 1
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3 Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Overview and Background Information 2.1 Experiment Objectives 2.2 Historical Perspective Background Development of solar irradiance monitoring experiments Early space-based solar observations Sounding rocket experiments Nimbus7/ERB experiment SMM/ACRIM I experiment Solar monitoring by the ERBS experiment UARS/ACRIM II experiment Spacelab, ATLAS and EURECA experiments SOHO/VIRGO experiment 2.3 Instrument Characteristics 3.0 Algorithm theoretical discussion 3.1 TSI variability - observational evidence and physical interpretation Variability on solar cycle time scales Level of significance of the long term TSI Variability on solar active region time scales (days to months) The sunspot deficit effect Facular excess effect Energy balance in active regions Short term variability - solar global oscillations 3.2 Empirical models of TSI variability Active region time scales Solar cycle time scales Shortcomings of linear regression models Multivariate spectral analysis Page 3
4 3.3 Constructing the long term Climate TSI database Total solar irradiance monitoring strategy Relating SMM/ACRIM I and UARS/ACRIM II results 3.4 EOS/ACRIM instrument description Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) sensors Active Cavity Radiometer operation EOS/ACRIM sensor technology considerations Development of smaller ACRIM instruments - two approaches Selection of the ACR VI instrument design for EOS/ACRIM 3.5 Theory of Active Cavity Radiometer measurements Basic properties of the Active Cavity Radiometer Derivation of the quasi-equilibrium equation Discussion of the quasi-equilibrium equation Form of the quasi-equilibrium equation terms Cavity heating power term Cavity heat capacity term Radiation from the cavity to its surround Radiation to the cavity from surround Conductance to the heatsink from the cavity Conductance to heatsink through leads 3.6 Uncertainty of ACRIM TSI measurements General considerations Root-mean-square uncertainty Effects of temperature drifts 3.7 Data plan summary Introduction EOS/ACRIM data flow ECS-ACRIM III SIPS functional interface Network topology ACRIM data types and volumes Standing order descriptions Baselined products according to SPSO database ACRIM III SIPS for delivered to LaRC DAAC Delivered algorithm package Browse data Page 4
5 Other data and information transfers Test data 3.8 Data processing specifications Level 0 data Level 1data Level 2 data Data volumes and rates 3.9 Data production schedule 4.0 Algorithm descriptions 4.1 Algorithm design heritage 4.2 Algorithm mathematical basis Level 1A data - conversion to S.I. Units Level 1B data - corrections for observational perturbations Level 1C data - the time ordered series of in-situ TSI Level 2 data - correction to 1 Astronomical Unit Correction for the Earth - Sun distance Correction for ACRIMSAT - Earth distance Determination of ACRIMSAT - Sun distance Relativistic effect of ACRIMSAT - Sun relative velocity Level 3 data - TSI time series Level 4 results - Correlations and time series analyses 4.3 Calibration Overview Analysis of the primary data Correlations Time series analyses Special analyses Solar secular variation Metrology of the ACR measurements Theoretical analysis of ACR calibration In-flight calibrations Comparison of multiple ACRIMSATs Page 5
6 4.4 Validation Validation of Level 0 data Validation of Level 1 data Validation of Level 2 data 4.5 Quality control 5.0 Response to recommendations and comments from 1 st review. 6.0 References 1.0 Introduction This Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (ATBD) is for the primary experimental objective of the EOS/ACRIM experiment whose basic scientific objectives and approach were defined in a proposal entitled "Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor for the Earth Observation System program. This proposal was submitted to NASA Headquarters in July 1988 by Dr. Richard C. Willson, then with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in response to NASA Announcement of Opportunity OSSA The ACRIM investigation was selected for the EOS program with Dr. Richard C. Willson as the Principal Investigator (PI) and Dr. Hugh S. Hudson as a Co-Investigator (Co-I). The Principal Investigator has since moved to Columbia University and will conduct the Scientific Investigation under the auspices of that institution. The approach is set forth in a proposal submitted to NASA by Columbia University titled: A Proposal for the continuing conduct of the scientific investigation of the EOS/ACRIM experiment and in the Statement of Work executed between the EOS Project Office and Columbia University. The flight hardware aspects of the ACRIM experiment will continue to be the responsibility of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, as per a NASA approved Memorandum of Understanding executed between Columbia University and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The EOS/ACRIM experiment is a science and cost effective approach for providing the continuation of the precision total solar irradiance (TSI) database and conducting relevant climatological and solar physics scientific investigations during the EOS Mission. The observational objective of the (ACRIM) experiment is the production of a TSI database with state-of-the-art precision during the three five year segments of the EOS mission, as required by NASA AO OSSA Page 6
7 2.0 Overview and Background Information 2.1 Experiment Objectives Sustained changes in the total solar irradiance smaller than 0.25 % may have been the prime causal factor for significant climate change in the past on time scales of centuries. (Eddy 1976, Lean et. al., 1992, SIGC 1994) The long-range objective of TSI monitoring is to provide a precision database for comparison with the climate record that will be capable of resolving systematic variability of a tenth of one percent on time scales of a century. The continuation of the climate TSI database during solar cycle 23, establishment of its precise relationship to previous and successive components of the database, and analysis of TSI variability on all time scales with respect to the climatological and solar physics significance comprise the primary objective of the ACRIM experiment. The science objectives of the EOS/ACRIM experiment fall into the two general categories of climatology and solar physics. The synergy between these disciplines was found to provide a productive research environment for the investigators analyzing data from similar previous solar monitoring experiments. A primary objective of the experiment is observational: to monitor the variability of total solar irradiance, extending the NASA high precision solar total irradiance variability database into solar cycles 23 and 24. This database has been compiled as part of their earth radiation budget 'principal thrust' responsibility in the National Climate Program. ACRIM flight experiments have provided the precision database from the peak of solar cycle 21 (1980) to the present, except for a two year gap between the end of the SMM/ACRIM I (1989) and beginning of the UARS/ACRIM II (1991). A second objective is the analysis of relationships between TSI and other variable aspects of the solar magnetic cycle. Significant new discoveries in both climatology and solar physics were derived from correlations between solar active region phenomena and the solar total flux variability monitored by the ACRIM I experiment. Analysis of such correlations would be made on time scales ranging from days to centuries using wavelet analysis of the TSI time series. A third objective is the investigation of solar global oscillation phenomena. Helioseismology, the detection and analysis of solar oscillation modes, can provide physical information about solar processes deep within the sun that are inaccessible by other means. Solar global oscillations were detected in the ACRIM I total irradiance data, including pressure modes and possible gravity modes. A similar helioseismological analysis of the EOS/ACRIM TSI results will be conducted. Page 7
8 2.2 Historical Perspective Detection of variability in the total solar irradiance, the energy supplied to the earth by the sun, has been a goal of mankind or more than a century. The stimulus has been the joint realizations that TSI is the primary determining factor of the earth's climate, and that the climate has varied significantly in the past. At any time in the earth's history the total solar irradiance, atmospheric chemical composition and the distribution of oceans and land masses have acted in combination to determine the earth's radiative balance, and hence the climate, of the biosphere. In recent years the science of paleoclimatology has made great advances in understanding past climate changes and their causal mechanisms. On the time scale of billions of years, solar luminosity is thought to have increased about 30 % during the evolutionary cycle of the sun. About a billion years before present (BP) the increase in total solar irradiance combined with changes in the composition of the earth's atmosphere to provide a climate that could support life. The largest climate changes during the existence of life on earth were most likely of non-solar origin. Some were caused by volcanism: sea floor spreading that moved the continental landmasses and changed the topology of the ocean basins. The resulting alterations of ocean circulation - the primary heat exchange mechanism for the earth s climate - resulted in major climate changes. Others may have been caused by the impact of extra-terrestrial objects such as asteroids or large meteorites. The most recent large-scale climate change began about 65 million years ago and continues into the present. On thousand year time scales periodic variations in the earth s orbit, the so-called Milankovich effects have induced an effective variation of the total solar irradiance of the earth. The record of resulting climate variations has been detected in the deposition of the calcareous remains of benthic formanifera and the ratio of oxygen isotopes found in cores of sea floor sediment. (Hays et al. 1976) While this isn t an example of intrinsic solar variability, it is a dramatic demonstration of the climatic impact of subtle solar irradiance variations. The magnetic 'activity' cycle of the sun is known to have varied in periodicity and magnitude. Variations over the last several millennia are chronicled by the varying abundances of 'cosmogenic' isotopes, notably 14 C in living and fossil organic materials and 10 Be in Greenland ice cores, and by historical records of aurorae sightings. (Beer et al. 1991, Damon & Sonnet 1991) During the past several millennia, variations of climate and solar activity are correlated with periodicities near 11, 22, 88, 208 and 2300 years (See Table 2.2.1). While TSI variations were suspected as the cause of these changes, observations linking TSI and solar activity variations were not available until recently. Table Known climate variations related to solar variability. Page 8
9 CLIMATE PERIODICITY (YEARS) RELATED PERIODICITY TSI OBSERVED OR MODELED SOLAR PHENOMENA 11 Sunspot cycle Solar active regions 22 Solar magnetic cycle Active region polarity 88 Solar magnetic cycles Aurorae 208 Solar activity minima Cosmogenic isotopes 2300 Solar activity minima Cosmogenic isotopes 20, 40 & 100 x 10 3 Milankovich cycles Cosmogenic isotopes 10 9 Stellar evolution Stellar model Background As science uncovered evidence that the earth's climate has varied in the past, the possibility that variations in total solar irradiance might be a cause of climate change stimulated research aimed at detecting solar variability. Experiments from ground based observatories, most notably those of the Smithsonian Astrophysical ( ), and from aircraft, balloons, sounding rockets and satellites during the 1960 s and 70 s, were unable to detect total irradiance variations that were unambiguously solar in origin. (See Table ) These early efforts were frustrated by two principal limitations: uncertainties due to (1) instrument calibration and (2) atmospheric attenuation who s combined effects were larger than intrinsic solar variability over the time scales of the observations Development of solar irradiance monitoring experiments A new generation of total irradiance measurement instrumentation was developed during the 1960's and 70's. (Hayley 1964; Plamondon & Kendall 1965; Willson 1967, 1971, 1973, 1979; Kendall (1968), Kendall & Berdahl 1970, Geist 1973; Brusa & Frohlich 1972) These new electrically self-calibrating cavity (ESCC) solar pyrheliometers had higher precision and accuracy than their predecessors and could be operated automatically in space flight environments. The prototype ESSC pyrheliometer with many of the essential features in use today was developed by Charles Abbot of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in the first decade of the 20th century. (Abbot, 1908) The instrumentation advances that have facilitated spaced-based solar monitoring observations with useful accuracy and precision today are the result of implementing these SAO instrumentation concepts with modern technology, plus the introduction of two operational features: the so-called 'active cavity' operational mode and the differential measurement approach. (Willson, 1973) Page 9
10 The 'active cavity' operational mode is one in which the same thermodynamic state is maintained for the cavity sensor in both the solar observation (shutter open) and reference (shutter closed) phases of a measurement. The differential measurement approach utilizes only the differences between solar observation and reference values, eliminating measurement dependence on the International Practical Temperature Scale. The 'active cavity' operation is achieved by using an electronic servosystem to provide electrical heating power for the cavity detector during both shutter open and closed phases of measurement. The power is controlled at the amount required to sustain constant relative, internal instrument temperatures in the two measurement phases. The measurement then reduces to relating the cavity heating power in the shutter open and closed phases and several other key sensor parameters to the International System of units (SI). Operation does not depend on the International Practical Temperature Scale and the observational uncertainties are reduced to differences between small terms in the two measurement phases. The combination of these techniques greatly decreases the overall measurement uncertainty Early space-based solar observations The availability of space-based observation platforms did not produce immediate success in detecting intrinsic solar TSI, as can be seen in Table which includes two space-based total solar irradiance experiments. The first was the Nimbus 6 Earth Radiation Budget (ERB) experiment launched in (Hickey et al 1978) There were several reasons for its failure including the fact that its sensor was not an ESCC device but a less accurate flat plate sensor that relied on a pre-flight ground-based calibration. The most significant factor was the large, uncalibratable sensor degradation. Since the sensor was not a cavity device there was no amelioration of the effect of the deterioration of its solar absorbing surface on the measurement. The second early experiment was the Thermal Control Flux Monitor (TCFM) flown on the Mariner 6 and 7 spacecraft s to Mars in (Plamondon 1969) The TCFM represented a substantial contribution in being the first space flight utilization of an ESCC sensor (although this capability was utilized only at the end of its mission). Limited resolution in the digital data stream and sensor drift during its space flight to Mars appear to have prevented the detection of true solar variability Sounding rocket experiments The first full implementation of ESCC solar pyrheliometry in a space flight environment occurred as part of a series of sounding rocket flights ( Page 10
11 1986). In 1976 an Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) on the maiden flight of NASA's solar irradiance sounding rocket program made the first such solar observations. (Willson & Hickey 1977) Both the ACR and other cavity pyrheliometers have since been flown in the series with full or partial ESCC implementation (See Table 2.2.3). The rocket program's principal purpose was to provide independent calibrations of satellite solar irradiance sensors over the 1976 to 1986 period. (Willson 1984) The series was terminated when a new NASA program to accomplish the same objective was initiated using the space shuttle. Page 11
12 Table Early solar total irradiance (TSI) monitoring experiments. None were able to detect intrinsic solar variability due to instrument calibration or atmospheric transmittance uncertainties. The results shown (except for the Smithsonian) have been corrected to the World Radiometric Reference and are reconciled to the mean Earth-Sun distance. YEAR EXPERIMENT OR EXPERIMENTE R INSTRUMENT & SENSOR TYPE CALIBRATION BASIS TSI APPROACH ** RESULT (W/M2) Smithsonian Water Flow ESCC Ground Kondratyev Yanishevsky (1) RS Balloon Murcray Eppley (1) RS Balloon Drummond Eppley (1) RS Aircraft McNutt GSFC Cone (2) ESCC Aircraft Kendall PACRAD (2) ESCC Aircraft Willson ACR II (2) ESCC Balloon Plamondon TCFM (2) ESCC-P Space-craft Willson ACRIII (2) ESCC Balloon Hickey Nimbus6/ERB ( 1) RS Space-craft Willson ACR IV (2) ESCC Rocket 1368 * Sensor Type: (1) - cavity, (2) - flat surface. ** Calibration Approach (in order of decreasing accuracy): ESCC - Electrically self-calibrating cavity ESCC-P - Partial implementation of electrically selfcalibrated cavity RS - Relative Sensor no cavity no self-calibration relies on preflight calibration The Nimbus7/ERB experiment The first long-term space flight solar monitoring experiment utilizing a cavity sensor capable of electrical self-calibration was the Earth Radiation Budget (ERB) experiment on the Nimbus 7 spacecraft. The valuable TSI database from this experiment, beginning in late 1978 and continuing to early 1993, is the longest currently available. (Hickey 1980, 1982, Hoyt 1990, Kyle et al. 1993) The Hickey-Freidan (HF) solar sensor was added to the ERB experiment to provide solar total irradiance insolation observations for the Earth Radiation Budget experiment with an accuracy better than +/- 0.5 %. This and more was certainly achieved, yet the full potential of ESCC sensors cannot be realized on this type of 'nadir-staring', polar orbiting platform without an independent solar pointing subsystem. Page 12
13 Figure The record of TSI variability observations from spacecraft monitoring. Page 13
14 Table Results from the NASA sounding rocket total solar irradiance rocket flight experiments INVESTIGATOR INSTRUMENT (NOTE 1) 1976 W/M W/M W/M W/M W/M2 Willson ACR402 (1) Kendall PACRAD (2) Hickey ESP (2) Hickey ERB (3) Hickey HF (2) 1376 Frohlich PMOD (1) Note 1: Instruments: ACR = Active Cavity Radiometer, PACRAD = Passive Absolute Cavity Radiometer and Detector, ESP = Eclectic Solar Pyrheliometer, ERB = engineering model of Nimbus6 Earth Radiation Budget solar sensor, HF = Hickey - Freidan radiometer, PMOD = Physical Meteorological Observatory of Davos (Switzerland) radiometer. Sensor operational modes: (1) ESCC, (2) ESCC-P, RS. The absence of an independent solar pointing for the ERB was one of its principal sources of uncertainty. It severely limited solar observation time to a few minutes per orbit near the terminator while the sun swept through its field-ofview. Additional measurement uncertainty accrued due to off-axis irradiation of the cavity that perturbs its thermal balance and causes departures from theoretical performance. Measurement uncertainty also derived from temperature dependent calibration errors - the result of infrequent operation in the ESCC mode (once every two weeks). The combination of the above factors sustained a noise level in the Nimbus 7/ERB TSI database that inhibited recognition of intrinsic solar variability features until detected by another solar monitoring experiment in 1980 (see next section). Once discovered, however, clear evidence of solar variability on active region and solar cycle time scales were found in the ERB results. The corroborative function of the ERB data has been of great significance in verifying solar variability on solar cycle time scales. These results are available from the National Space Science Data Center Archives. The Nimbus 7/ERB results are shown in Figure The SMM/ACRIM I experiment The Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor (ACRIM I) experiment launched on the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) in early 1980 was specifically designed to provide the start of a long term, high precision solar total irradiance climate database. (Willson et al. 1981) The first in a series of satellite Page 14
15 experiments in the NASA solar monitoring program, the ACRIM I experiment produced a high precision database throughout the 9.75 years of the Solar Maximum Mission. This included a period between late 1980 and early 1984 affected by solar pointing limitations during which time the number of daily observations decreased and their uncertainty increased. Observations ceased in October 1989 when the SMM satellite re-entered the earth's atmosphere. The results of the ACRIM I experiment are included in Figure These results are available from the National Space Science Data Center Archives. The smaller measurement uncertainty of the ACRIM I results, relative to those of the Nimbus7/ERB, are attributable to its continuous 'active cavity' ESCC mode of operation, its degradation self-calibration capability and the SMM's full time solar pointing. Its shutters opened or closed every 65 seconds, providing electrical self-calibration before and after each solar observation. It employed three independent ACR sensors with different duty cycles to provide internal calibration of cavity optical degradation (See figure 2.2.2). Precision references calibrated its electrical measurement system continuously. The solar pointing of the SMM provided acquisition of large numbers of daily observations (10 4 during normal operations, 10 2 during the 'spin mode' of solar pointing), providing small statistical uncertainties of average daily values. The ACRIM I results of early 1980 provided the first unequivocal evidence of intrinsic solar variability. (Willson 1980) Solar variations have since been detected on every observable time scale, from the experiment's second sampling interval, to the duration of the Mission. (Willson et al 1981; Willson 1982, 1984; Hudson et al. 1982; Hudson & Willson 1982; Willson & Hudson 1981, 1988, 1991) The ERBS experiment A new generation Earth Radiation Budget experiment (ERBE) was launched as the NASA Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) in (Barkstrom et al. 1990, Lee et al. 1995) Most of the operational constraints of the Nimbus7/ERB experiment affect the ERBS TSI measurements as well. While they use sensors nearly identical to those on the ACRIM I experiment, and in a fully implemented ESCC mode during solar observations, the quality of data is fundamentally limited by minimal solar viewing opportunities, on the order of minutes during a single orbit during one day every second week as the sun sweeps through their (large) field of view. They acquire observations that meet the requirements of the earth radiation budget modeling objectives but have marginal precision, observational frequency and persistence for the climate TSI monitoring database. As can be seen in figure 2.2.3, the ERBS results show much larger scatter and uncertainty than those of the ERB, ACRIM I and ACRIM II, a direct consequence of the paucity of observations and the constraints imposed by the 'nadir-staring' platforms on which it resides without independent solar pointing. Page 15
16 2.2.8 The ACRIM II experiment on the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite The ACRIM II experiment was launched in September 1991, nearly two years after the end of the Solar Maximum Mission. The results are shown as figure The launch was delayed several years by the Challenger accident and prevented the planned direct on-orbit comparisons between ACRIM I and II. The importance of relating their results through in-flight comparisons cannot be overstated. The absolute uncertainty of flight TSI sensors is about 0.1 % in the laboratory and up to several times larger in space flight experiments - inadequate to sustain a useful long term TSI database. Evidence for this is clearly seen in Fig : the spread of results from the ERB, ACRIM I & II and ERBS experiments covers about +/- 0.3 % about their mean, which is three times the solar cycle 21 peak-to-peak TSI variation. Fortunately for the TSI database, the two ACRIM experiments were overlapped by the Nimbus7/ERB and ERBS observations and it has been possible to relate ACRIM I and II with these comparisons as described in section Spacelab 1/ACRIM, ATLAS/ACRIM and EURECA TSI Experiments Several shorter-term TSI experiments have been conducted in space flight experiments. The first were the ACRIM and CROM experiments on the Spacelab 1 Mission in Sequels to these experiments were conducted on the space shuttle in the ATLAS 1, 2 and 3 Missions in 1992, 1993 and Two ESA TSI experiments, the PMOD (Brusa & Frohlich 1972) and CROM (Crommelynck 1981) were on the European Recoverable (EURECA) platform, which was launched by the shuttle in 1992 and retrieved in The principal purpose of the shuttle based ACRIM and CROM experiments flown on the Spacelab and ATLAS Missions was to make comparisons with satellite TSI monitoring experiments as part of the overlap strategy. The results are shown in Table The Spacelab 1/ACRIM data was acquired during the SMM/ACRIM I mission. The ATLAS/ACRIM results were acquired during the UARS/ACRIM II experiment. In the interest of understanding the reliability of the shuttle ACRIM results, the ACRIM II observations are scaled to ACRIM I as discussed in section 3.3.2, to facilitate comparison of Spacelab 1 and ATLAS measurements. Sensor ACR502 was included in the ACRIM instrument on all three shuttle flights, the ACR504 on two. The weighted means are dominated by the ATLAS results because of their smaller uncertainties. This is caused by the far smaller number of observations acquired during the Spacelab 1 Mission when near total failure of the shuttle command-and-data system (RAU) occurred. Page 16
17 The spread of the observations from the flights (+/- 242 ppm for ACR502 and +/- 152 ppm for ACR504) exceeds their statistical uncertainties by a large margin, indicating the clear intervention of sources of systematic error. It has been observed that the cavities of the ACRIM sensors are contaminated when turned for re-calibration after each flight, which is believed to be the principal cause of the variation of results from flight-to-flight. The largest spread is between the ACR502 result of ATLAS1 and the other two, indicating that its 2 nd flight result could be anomalously high. This may be resolved by the ATLAS3/ACRIM experiment. It was hoped that the shuttle ACRIM series would be able to provide mission-tomission precision better than 100 ppm instead of the approximately 200 ppm observed from the results to date. While larger than expected, it is an order of magnitude superior to the absolute uncertainty of the current generation of sensors that operate at ambient temperature, and comparable to the absolute uncertainty of cryogenic TSI sensors currently under development. The ESA URECA platform was launched from the shuttle in mid 1992 and retrieved bout nine months later. Two TSI monitors resided on the platform: the PMOD developed by Frohlich and the CROM developed by Crommelynck. (Frohlich 1993, Crommelynck 1993) Comparisons of preliminary daily mean results obtained simultaneously by the EURECA/PMOD and the UARS/ACRIM II experiments demonstrated that they depict essentially the same principal TSI variations, including the sunspot deficit effects of large sunspot groups in the early and late part of the period The SOHO/VIRGO experiment The Solar and Heliospheric Observer (SOHO) spacecraft was launched in December 1995 toward its parking orbit at the L1 Lagrangian point between the earth and the sun. One of the experimental packages on board SOHO is the Variability of solar Irradiance and Gravity Oscillations (VIRGO) experiment. VIRGO measures the TSI with active cavity radiometers (PM06-V and the Dual IRradiance Absolute Radiometer, DIARAD), the spectral irradiance by a three channel Sunphotometer (SPM) and the radiance for global oscillation studies with a 12-resolution element Luminosity Oscillations Imager (LOI). Preliminary results and findings have been reported as successful, although the primary TSI instrument on-board, the PM06-V, operates in a degraded mode without a functional shuttering system. Several gaps in the VIRGO TSI database have occurred due to problems with the SOHO spacecraft. The relationship of pre and post gap TSI results from VIRGO has been deduced through comparisons with the UARS/ACRIM II experiment a further testament to the importance of redundancy in TSI monitoring. Significant degradation in the form Page 17
18 of altered sensor behavior was detected after a lengthy (~ 6 month) gap in 1998 during which instrument temperatures became extremely cold. Page 18
19 Table Results from the space shuttle ACRIM experiment on the Spacelab 1, ATLAS 1 & 2 Missions. MISSION DATE SENSOR UNCER- TAINTY SENSOR UNCER- TAINTY ACR502 Std.Err. ( σ ) ACR504 Std.Err. ( σ ) (% Var.) (% Var.) (% Var.) (% Var.) Spacelab 1 12/ ATLAS 1 3/ Na Na ATLAS 2 4/ Weighted Mean (All Flights) Weighted Mean (ATLAS Flights) Weighted Mean (SL1 & ATLAS 1) Instrument Characteristics Table below summarizes the instrumentation and observational requirements for the EOS/ACRIM experiment. The sensor technology selected for the first ACRIM instrument is the ACR type IV. The size of the round primary apertures is to remain the same as previous ACRIM instrumentation: 0.5 cm 2. Apertures should be made of aluminum, as precisely round as possible, with knife-edges and polished surfaces. Aperture area must be measured with the maximum possible state of the art accuracy, traceable to NIST. The field of view is to be the same as for the SMM/ACRIM I and UARS/ACRIM II sensors: 2.5 deg. half angle defined from the center of the primary aperture along the center of the viewing axis through the view limiting aperture. The shading angle is defined as the maximum tolerance for off-sun pointing and is defined as the angle of off-sun pointing that causes the geometrical shadow of the view limiting aperture s edge to fall on the edge of the primary aperture. This angle is to be 1.0 degree. The tolerance in flight for solar pointing is to be 0.5 degree, to prevent approaching near enough to the shading angle to require significant correction for diffraction. Page 19
20 The ACR IV cavities will be mounted in individual sensor modules like those employed in the UARS/ACRIM II instrumentation. These modules provide the thermal mass and isolation necessary to minimize their susceptibility to thermal drift of the external parts of the instrument. The modules will, in turn, be isolated from the external thermal environment. The temperature rate of change of the ACR IV sensors copper mounting flanges must be kept below 0.01 K per shutter cycle during solar observations. The view limiter baffling is to be accomplished using a single baffle as in the UARS/ACRIM II design. The baffle s function is to prevent the sensor from viewing the walls of the view limiting assembly above the baffle and prevent extreme rays entering the view-limiting aperture from falling on the walls below the baffle. Each sensor is to have an independently operable shutter. The side of the shutters facing the sun are to have UV-stable, high solar reflectance, high IR emmitance surfaces to minimize solar heating. The side of the shutters facing the primary apertures is to have high IR reflectance and low IR emmitance surfaces to minimize the contribution of IR emmitance to the measurement. The shutter cycle will continue to be symmetrical, as in previous ACRIM s, with a shutter operation every seconds. The shutters of all cavities must be commandable via uplink to provide all possible combinations of cavities for solar observations in both automatic and manual modes. The servosystem for the sensors must produce final measurement values of cavity heater current and voltage settled to within the A/D conversion least significant bit of final value within less than 30 seconds of shutter operation. Resolution of the A/D converter will be 16 bits or greater. The sensor must be able to respond to a TSI range of approximately 2000 W/M 2 to accommodate the irradiance near perihelion. The nomenclature for the instrument is to be the Active Cavity Radiometer type VI (ACR VI). Each flight instrument launched in the EOS/ACRIM program will be referred to as a numbered ACRIM beginning with III. The preferred orbit is geosynchronous because it provides nearly 99 % annual solar exposure. Second preference is for high inclination polar near earth orbits (~ 90 degrees) to provide maximum solar exposure. Polar orbits must have nominal altitudes greater than 600 KM to provide five year mission lifetimes in the absence of additional boosting, and less than 1000 KM to avoid excessive radiation environments. In all orbits, annual average solar observation time per orbit must be > 55 minutes. Page 20
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It almost seemed like forever, although it really was just a day. After the horrific attack, the team went straight to the nearest hospital. It was a rather bitter-sweet moment for Team Avatar and the Air Nomad children. They were waiting in the hospital waiting room, a bit anxious as to the results of those wounded. This place indeed wasn't too friendly, others sick or injured are here. As the team was waiting, It wasn't until an hour after arriving that Tenzin, his wife Pema, and Lin Beifong arrived.
"Tenzin. Hello."
"Korra, what happened? We heard there was an attack at the arena," Tenzin said, urgency in his voice.
"Yes there was. A group of demons suddenly appeared and tried to kill everyone. If it wasn't for Carra, things would have gotten way worse," Korra said, sad in remembering Carra's fighting in the arena against the demons.
Before Korra can continue, one of the doctors of the hospital came over to them, a clipboard in his hand.
"Avatar Korra. You're free to see them now," he said. Tenzin though got over to him first.
"Them? Who?" he asked, again urgent. The doctor was confused until Jinora, whom was sitting nearby with Ikki, adds in "This is our father."
"Oh. Then it's best you come with me then. I think you'll find out soon enough," They all followed the doctor past many of the hallways. It indeed was a sad place to be stuck in, especially knowing one of your close friends are stuck in here too. It took a bit but they did eventually find them.
In the case of Team Avatar, two were now in there trying to recover. The first was Carra, still sleeping from her sudden pass out back in the arena. Tanin had arrived alongside her and was already at her side by the time the others showed up. The second, more scary victim of this was Meelo! Unlike the others, a demon had dug its claws in his back and being as young as he is, it has done much more damage than a simple cut. His whole torso was wrapped up as he too was sleeping by the window. Pema got over to Meelo first, whom didn't react very much with his family there.
"Oh Meelo," she gasped, almost immediately tears covering her eyes at the sight of her child in a hospital bed. Pema began to sob sadly as Tenzin turned to the doctor.
"Will he pull through doctor?" The doctor looked to Meelo rather grimly, glancing at his clipboard. Tenzin already knew there's probably some bad news so he prepares for the worst.
"Well the attacked resulted in 4 broken ribs, and his ribcage is out of line. We're lucky he made it this far. We've already done his surgery to repair his ribcage...now all we have to do is wait and hopefully he'll improve. For now though, it's just a matter of time..." Tenzin was only slightly relived it wasn't just a flat out no, but it was still a bit worrying that there's still a good chance of it. Then the doctor turned to Tanin, whom asked, "What about Carra? Will she make it?"
"Carra is a different story. After some examination, it turns out she had suffered a severe heart attack. Most likely due to the extremely stressful situation after the arena incident. We looked back at her medical history and we found out that she has a weak heart, and has suffered this beforehand." The last information shocked them, especially Bolin and Honsho. Bolin, after hearing this, walked out of the room to wait in the hallway. Honsho fallowed him just to find him leaning on the wall, tears in his eyes.
"It's all my fault." Honsho stopped. He didn't exactly know what to say, other than "it's not your fault, Bolin."
"Yes it is! If I didn't make you guys stay for the championship, none of this would have happened! If I only knew she had a weak heart..." he began to trail off as his sadness was taking over him again. Honsho placed a hand on his shoulder.
"Bolin. We understand that you wanted us to stay, but it wasn't you who made her fight in the battle. You didn't call in those demons either. The Fire Ferrets probably wouldn't be here if it wasn't for her, she wanted to help us."
"Probably...that reminds me. You can quit the Fire Ferrets if you want to. Part of the deal right?" Honsho honestly forgot the deal, ironically. He didn't care about that now though, he just wanted to make sure Carra can go through this. He can tell Bolin needed some alone time right now.
"I'll give you a minute," Honsho simply said. As he turned back to see Carra, Bolin ran off in sorrow. Honsho didn't bother to stop him, understanding a bit for his misery.
Back in the room, while his family were looking at him with sorrow, Meelo was beginning to slightly come to, moaning a little. Pema quickly caught this as Meelo slowly woke up.
"Meelo. My poor baby. How are you feeling?" Pema asked, gently rubbing Meelo's head. Meelo tried sitting up and did managed but not without some stinging in his back. When he got up, they can see the three claw marks under the bandages, only slightly red but still evident regardless.
"Ouch. My back hurts," Meelo complained. He wanted to feel, but the soreness made him completely stiff, making it impossible right now. Meelo began to look around at the others in the room, beginning with his sisters. The doctor ushered his parents out, needing to talk to them for a bit. Lin Beifong went over to him.
"Can you describe what it is that attacked you?" She asked. She needed details on it, and someone like Meelo can be a good case in point, despite everyone else aside from her being there too. Meelo looked down to his bed, unsure exactly how to say it. After some silence, Ikki got an idea. With permission from the doctor, she borrowed some paper and gave it to Meelo.
"Maybe you can draw it out?" she suggested.
"Okay" was Meelo's only main reply. With a small pencil given to him, he begins to draw it out. It oddly took a long time for Meelo to draw out what got him and after 10 minutes showed Lin Beifong what it was. The thing he drew looked almost like a stickman, extremely thin in shape. the face was distorted, the mouth stretched down its neck as the eyes was just white of pure soulless. The body colour was a simple red but since he didn't have any colours, Meelo just made him grey instead. Meelo put in some other demons too, each one different from each other. one was a simple eyeball with bat wings, one was a legless blob with sharp teeth, and then came the black red-eyed figure that summoned them in the first place. Lin Beifong took it and examined it for a bit as Jinora and Ikki kept an eye on him.
"We're so sorry Meelo. I shouldn't have made you come," Korra said, not looking at him. It was her idea to bring the 3 anyway, and Meelo would be just fine if he stayed on the island.
"I don't blame you Korra. I wanted to come," Meelo said. The odd thing is that he was sincere in his voice, which is strangely out of character for someone as happy-go-lucky as Meelo. This worried his sisters a bit more. Their attention turned back to Carra when she began to slowly come back as well, not as much as Meelo though. Jinora and Ikki stayed with Meelo as the others turned to Carra.
"Carra. You feeling okay?" Tanin asked. Carra looked over to him, at first expressionless. But then a smile went on her face, weak but nice. She gently reached out and rubbed his blue hair and seemed to mutter something like "thank you" to him, but it was barely audible, to them anyway. Tanin's butterfly spirit fluttered over to her and landed on her chest, where her weak heart is.
"I never knew she had a weak heart," Asami said.
"Me neither. And she went so well in the fighting arena too," added Honsho. The doctor came back in after a bit, without Tenzin and Pema this time.
"Okay. You should give them some rest. They'll need it," he said. They all looked to both Carra and Meelo. Tanin's butterfly fluttered off as light as a feather after a bit as Tanin got up.
"Get well soon. Both of you." After that was said, they all left. Jinora and Ikki however needed some persuasion and explaining first before they too left. Ikki though had a little something for Meelo, a last-minute get well soon present. Ikki gave it to Meelo.
"Get well soon okay?" Ikki asked before leaving the room. Meelo smiled happily as he held the little gift...a blue flower...
Later on that night, Carra laid there awake. Her heart pressure had kept her that way as she stared at the ceiling. All she was doing was counting out the tiles. Meelo too was awake, unable to sleep due to the pain on his back. He was just looking out the window at the lights. They are pretty high upward, about a good 10 floors up. He can see the lights in the city, an occasional flying spirit flying by, the bright blue moon in the sky, he can even see the glimpse of his home across the bay. Carra eventually saw him after counting the 50th tile and slightly turned to him.
"You can't sleep either Meelo?" Carra asked. Meelo turned to her after a bit.
"Yeah. It hurts," Meelo groaned.
"You're not alone. It's not easy seeping with heart trouble," Carra sighed, a hand over her heart. Carra looked to the window and asked, "How's the view?"
"It's great. I can see everything. My house looks like an ant can fit from here," Meelo said, pretending hold the tower with his two fingers.
"That's cute...But we really need to sleep. At least try," Carra insisted.
"But it hurts when I lay down."
"We have to try just a little bit. We can't stay up all night." Meelo realized she was right. Without any argument, Carra and Meelo laid back down. While Carra closed her eyes right away, Meelo had some trouble since it was very sore on his cuts. He laid awake as Carra was sleeping but eventually Meelo's pain left and he managed to sleep...
He woke up sometime later, oddly feeling just fine. His eyes beamed as he found out where he was. Instead of in a hospital bed, he found he was laying on soft, green grass, a nice gentle breeze blowing in the wind. The beauty seeing a great and colourful plain just made him beam with complete joy. He stood up as brightly colourful birds flew by, all rainbow colours. As he was looking around, something suddenly appeared behind him, and nuzzled his back. Meelo turned around and saw a very big animal. It was the dragon bird spirit, still lovely gold and as magnificent as ever.
"Hello," Meelo said. It gave Meelo a happy coo as it nuzzled him again. Meelo smiled and rubbing the bird's head. After that, Meelo happily and eagerly climbed up onto the bird's back. As soon as he was situated, the bird flew off in one flap of its wings. Meelo was scared at first but immediately he felt very happy. His dragon bird was joined in flight by the rainbow birds from earlier. The view alone was incredible! In just a minute they were already above the clouds. The dragon bird went into a nose dive for 20 seconds, going through the clouds before veering back up again, but Meelo loved it! Meelo decided, for some reason, to lay down on the bird's back. The feather's felt absolutely amazing, like he's laying on a cloud. He stared off at the blue sky above before he closed his eyes...that was it.
Meelo opened his eyes again and he was back in the hospital room. It was morning now, the sun glowing in his room. Carra was still asleep right now so she didn't notice Meelo up. The strangest thing though was his back. He felt...great! he didn't feel hurt at all, or sore for that matter. He was very happy, but curious if it left any mark on him. He made sure that no one is watching him and, single handedly took off his bandages! It took only a minute before the bandages were off. He couldn't tell exactly from where he was, but his twisting didn't sting so he was sure that his wounds were healed. He just wanted to know if some sort a scar was there still or not. He didn't realized it, but Carra already woke up, in surprise that Meelo is doing this!
"Meelo!" Meelo nearly jumped hearing Carra's voice.
"Morning. I'm all better now!" He beamed, happy as ever. Carra was confused until she saw his back. Turns out, his scars not only healed. No. Healed is an understatement, they're gone! It's like he wasn't even attacked at all! Carra told him that too and Meelo wanted to jump for joy right then and there.
"Yay! I'm not hurt anymore!" He beamed. Carra smiled, Meelo made her feel better for some reason...then she realized something too. She placed her hand on her heart, yesterday it was beating very slowly, but now it's pumping strong. She's been healed too! Her smile grew the biggest it had ever been in a long time. After a bit though, they both were taken by surprise when their doctor came back in. The doctor just looked at them, seeing Meelo and Carra so happy.
"How are you two doing?" The doctor asked.
"Excellent! We're both happy and healed!" Meelo beamed. He showed the doctor his scarless back to prove it to him. The doctor simply was stunned.
For the morning, the team went down to see Meelo and Carra again, not getting much reply from the hospital.
"Meelo...please be okay..." Tenzin thought. He was the most worried, aside from Pema of course. They all were worried as they walked over to the entrance, expecting either no improvement or worse improvement on it. A nurse found them right when they got in.
"Excuse me. We came to see Meelo and Carra. Are they available?" Korra asked.
"Oh. You're with them. Well they wanted to see you actually."
"Okay then. Well just head for their room then."
"That won't be necessary. They're going to be released today." This came as quite a shock, and even more so when, just in the hall next to them, was Meelo and Carra walking over to see them. Meelo waved hello in his usual happy tone. Jinora and Ikki were the happiest.
"Meelo!" they both beamed and raced to him. They weren't sure on a hug but Meelo hugged them both first so it was fine.
"Incredible. But how?" Tenzin wondered.
"Not sure, but something must have happened to heal us," Carra explained, smiling to see Meelo with his siblings. Things are looking back up for them. Carra and Meelo are somehow all better...but someone wasn't too happy about that.
Just outside, on a rooftop, the demon master had been keeping an eye on the place and had seen the "healing" Carra and Meelo went through.
"Darn it. And here I thought it'll be easy...oh well. There's more than one way to snap them," he thought. After that, it turned and flew off...the trouble isn't over. Not even close.
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THEY may have had a love-hate relationship while working together at Gloucester, but Warriors fly-half Ryan Lamb insists he is happy to be playing under Dean Ryan's guidance once again.
As an up-and-coming number 10 at Kingsholm, Lamb was director of rugby Ryan's golden boy, but the relationship was seen to sour after a number of high-profile errors by the callow stand-off.
Lamb's mercurial style helped lead the Cherry and Whites to two top-of-the-table finishes, but they were pipped to the title by Leicester both times, ultimately seeing the former England number eight dropping his youthful play-maker.
This in turn led to a parting of the ways and the beginning of a nomadic spell in Lamb's career that included stops at London Irish, Northampton and then Leicester.
However, the 27-year-old insists he has matured over the years and is keen to lay down roots at Sixways, a suggestion evidenced by him signing a three-year deal.
"Everyone forgets that Dean and I had a very good time together at Gloucester – we came top of the league a few times and got into some semi-finals, as well as winning the European Challenge Cup," Lamb explained. "We had some success but, at the end of it, we went our separate ways and it wasn't as bad as everyone made it out to be.
"Dean has some of the best knowledge of the game of any coach I have worked under, as well as vast experience.
"With the vision he has, he is definitely the right man to take the club forward and it will be great to be a part of that. If it comes to fruition, as I'm sure it will, then the future's very bright."
Lamb added: "When I sat down with Dean, it was clear he wanted people in for the long haul, which is why I signed for three years.
"He's not looking to get people in as a quick fix, which is perhaps what the club has done in the past. That's not just for playing now, but also for bringing on all the young lads here.
"Dean was very good at doing that at Gloucester and I'm sure he'll be successful doing it here as we have a very good bunch of young lads coming through and they could do well with a bit of game-time under their belts.
"I've had a few clubs now, but once you've been in the Premiership for a while you know everyone from playing against them week in, week out.
"The facilities at Worcester are fantastic and it is based in the right area, so they can have a massive pull in the future. I don't really know why they haven't kicked on already, but I'm sure, knowing Dean from my time at Gloucester, he is the right man for the job.
"The people they have brought in are very exciting and if we can gel these players together, then we will be a force and it will be an exciting time."
Warriors' precarious league position wasn't a problem for Lamb when the chance to come to Worcester arose.
He said: "Where I am in my career, I don't think I'm on the England radar anymore, so in terms of a lifestyle choice and being nearer Cheltenham where my home is, as well as my family and just having had a baby daughter, it was a good choice.
"However, I don't look too far into the situation Worcester are in at the moment, obviously we will fight tooth and nail to beat relegation but, if the worst did happen, it might not be a bad thing for the club.
"That said, we really want to stay in the Premiership, it is one of the best competitions in Europe and it would be fantastic to stay up.
"With the players we have coming in next year and the squad Dean is building, it will be an exciting place to be. Coming here wasn't a difficult decision for me to make and the current situation wasn't a worry."


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Eduardo Santo Guerrero
- 28 years old
- Date of birth: Apr 1, 1981
- Date of passing: Nov 1, 2009
|Let the memory of Eduardo be with us forever
This memorial website was created in memory of our loved one, Eduardo Guerrero, 28, born on April 1, 1981 and passed away on November 1, 2009. We will remember him forever.
Memorial Tributes
"Happy Birthday, Ed."
"My dear son I miss you so much I miss our talks ,I sure could use one right now. Give dad a hug and tell Jeff hi for me we love and miss you more everyday.."
"Thinking of you always"
"I miss you so much son,I hope you are with dad and grandma."
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Product Spotlight
Featured Research
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Retailers Hold Lion's Share of U.S. Loyalty Program Memberships
The U.S. retail sector, headed by specialty retailers, grocers, mass merchants and department stores, now accounts for the largest collective market for U.S. loyalty reward program memberships, outpacing Travel-Hospitality and Financial Services aggregate memberships, according to the 2009 COLLOQUY Loyalty Census shows.
The U.S. retail sector, headed by specialty retailers, grocers, mass merchants and department stores, now accounts for the largest collective market for U.S. loyalty reward program memberships, outpacing Travel-Hospitality and Financial Services aggregate memberships, according to the 2009 COLLOQUY Loyalty Census shows.
COLLOQUY's most census research found that across-the-board retail loyalty program memberships now number 701 million, making up 39 percent of the U.S. loyalty market. By comparison, there are 556 million in travel-hospitality, including airline, hotel, gaming, car rental and cruise programs, representing 31 percent of the market, and financial services credit card programs number 422 million, accounting for 23 percent of the market. The Loyalty Census measured the scope of U.S. loyalty marketing in 2007 and 2008 across 13 industry sectors. According to the research, total membership in U.S. loyalty reward programs is 1.8 billion.
Based on the Loyalty Census, retail sector reward program membership numbers included specialty retail at 191.3 million, grocery at 153.3 million; mass merchants at 124.8 million; department stores at 92.8 million; and drug stores 73.9 million;
"In our 2007 Loyalty Census white paper, we predicted the next loyalty battleground would be in retail, and we were right," noted COLLOQUY partner Kelly Hlavinka, who co-authored the white paper with COLLOQUY editorial director Rick Ferguson. "With the travel category in maturity and the financial services category likely to contract, we expect retailers to be at the forefront of innovative loyalty marketing for years to come."
"The current economic climate may spell short-term doom for many venerable specialty retail brands, but in terms of loyalty marketing, specialty retail had a great couple of years since our last census predicted double-digit growth," said Ferguson. "Using multi-tender vehicles, private label or co-branded credit cards, specialty retailers are fighting back against Wal-Mart and other mass merchant discounters by using loyalty offerings to build emotional bonds with their best customers."
Other key retail sector findings included:
--Grocery's 153.3 million-strong membership represents a 23 percent increase since the 2007 Loyalty Census, as the shift away from two-tiered pricing and toward promotional currency continues. Wal-Mart is still the top U.S. grocer, though grocers big and small are fighting back with a renewed emphasis on shopper data and customer centricity. COLLOQUY forecasts a spike in loyalty program activity.
--While most retailers have seen double-digit sales declines, retail pharmacy sales grew 1.5 percent last year. Drug store operators have consolidated and now realize that the loyalty program is the best method of tracking individual behavior.
Cincinnati-based COLLOQUY, which comprises a collection of publishing, education and research resources devoted to the global loyalty-marketing industry, provides a full report on its 2009 census-taking in a white paper titled, "The Big Sort: The 2009 COLLOQUY Loyalty Census." The paper is available free of charge at www.colloquy.com/whitepapers. The research will also be presented in a webinar co-sponsored by The Direct Marketing Association on June 25. Registration and information are available at www.the-dma.org/seminars/loyaltyweb/20090625.shtml.


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April 21, 2010
Scanned from the current issue of Hip Hop Weekly where they discussed the top 10 hip-hop cities and Miami came in at #3. Everything is decent in my opinion, except that they put the wrong picture for DJ Laz. They put a picture of Big Will instead by mistake. But overall there's only so much space in their pages so a lot of stuff is missing. Good list nonetheless.
CategoriesMedia Watch


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