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Both the past and the present affect risk-sensitive decisions of foraging rufous hummingbirds
- Randolph Sherman
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1 Behavioral Ecology doi: /beheco/arq031 Advance Access publication 22 March 2010 Both the past and the present affect risk-sensitive decisions of foraging rufous hummingbirds Ida E. Bacon, a T. Andrew Hurly, b and Susan Healy c a Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Kings Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK, b Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, Alberta, T1K 3M4, Canada, and c School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, Saint Andrews, Fife KY16 9JP, UK There is substantial evidence that an animal s current energy budget affects its preference for food patches that provide a constant reward relative to patches that provide a variable reward, when both patches have the same mean reward. Animals currently on a positive energy budget are expected to choose the constant option, whereas animals on a negative budget are expected to use the variable option. There is increasing evidence that prior experience can affect an animal s current decisions. We investigated choices made by rufous hummingbirds when they were tested with strong or weak sucrose solutions after several days of foraging on those strong or weak solutions. Foraging from weak concentrations prior to and during testing led to a higher preference for the variable option, whereas foraging from strong concentrations led to an increased preference for the constant option. We suggest that the energetic conditions experienced by animals prior to testing had a significant impact on the animals risk-sensitive decisions, and their memories of those prior conditions may have played an additional role. This implies that the conditions animals are maintained under prior to testing may significantly affect the outcome of risk-sensitivity experiments. Key words: decisions, foraging, hummingbirds, past, risk-sensitive. [Behav Ecol 21: (2010)] Given 2 food options where reward quality and mean reward amount over time are equal for both options but where the variability in reward amount differs, animals often prefer one option over the other (Logan 1965; Young 1981; Real et al. 1982; Kacelnik and Bateson 1996; Drezner-Levy and Shafir 2007; Schuck-Paim and Kacelnik 2007; Heilbronner et al. 2008). For example, blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata) given the option of foraging in a variable patch that provided either 2- or 4-half mealworms (a mean of 3 halves) or a constant patch that provided 3-half mealworms preferred to feed from the constant patch (ca. 70% of feeds, Clements 1990). This sensitivity to variation in reward can be explained by the energy-budget rule (Stephens 1981), which stipulates that when an animal is on a positive energy budget and is not in danger of starvation, it should choose the constant option in order to minimize the chance that it will encounter numerous small rewards and risk starvation. However, an animal in danger of starvation should choose the variable option as it increases the chance that the animal will encounter sufficiently large rewards to avoid starvation. The energy-budget rule does not fully explain risk-sensitive choice as it predicts exclusive preference for either the constant or variable option, whereas partial preferences are observed in the vast majority of cases (Kacelnik and Bateson 1996; Hurly 2003). One possible explanation for partial preferences is that animals continue sampling all options in order to enable resource tracking (Krebs et al. 1978; Schuck-Paim and Kacelnik 2007). Another possible reason for partial preferences is that animals forage Address correspondence to I.E. Bacon. Received 30 July 2009; revised 18 February 2010; accepted 20 February Ó The Author Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Society for Behavioral Ecology. All rights reserved. For permissions, please among rewards in proportion to how rewarding they find them rather than entirely avoiding less preferred options (Shapiro 2000; Schuck-Paim and Kacelnik 2007). Manipulations of energy budgets either before or during choice trials show that an animal s sensitivity to reward variability is, indeed, state-dependant (Kacelnik and Bateson 1996). For example, dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis) preferred the constant reward when on a positive energy budget, were indifferent when on a balanced energy budget, and preferred the variable reward when on a negative energy budget (Caraco 1981). Likewise, yellow-eyed juncos (Junco phaeonotus) preferred the variable option under conditions of low ambient temperature and the constant option under warmer, less energetically demanding, conditions (Caraco et al. 1990). Typically, in this kind of experiment, manipulations are designed so that animals experience a particular energy budget, which is then expected to be the main influence on their risk sensitivity. However, the duration of the energy-budget manipulations, which varies considerably among experiments, may play a significant role in the outcome of the experiments as previous foraging experiences often affect current foraging decisions. For example, young canaries fed for 8 weeks on a single seed type (hemp, niger, millet, or linseed) and then on a mixed seed diet for 15 weeks, preferred the seed type on which they were reared. Birds reared on a mix of all 4 seeds, on the other hand, preferred hemp seed (Doherty and Cowie 1994). If the context animals experienced weeks ago (such as the canaries previous diet) can affect current preferences, then it seems likely that previous experiences may also affect an animal s sensitivity to variability. Prior knowledge of patch types and their frequency in the environment can be used by animals along side current sampling information to form an estimate/expectation of patch quality and inform, for example, patch-leaving decisions (e.g., McNamara 1982). This is
2 Bacon et al. Past experience affects hummingbirds risk sensitivity 627 referred to as Bayesian or Bayesian-like decision making and has been described in many species including: the Arizona pocket mouse, Perognathus amplus; Merriam s kangaroo rat, Dipodomys merriami; and the round-tail ground squirrel, Spermophilus tereticaudus (Valone and Brown 1989); Inca doves, Columbina inca (Valone 1991); Black-chinned hummingbirds, Archilochus alexandri (Valone 1992), and Bumblebees, Bombus impatiens Cresson (Biernaskie et al. 2009). Expectations can be affected by experiences from throughout the animal s life (Simitzis, Bizelis, et al. 2008; Simitzis, Deligeorgis, et al. 2008). Effects of expectations about the quality of specific foraging locations on foraging behavior have been demonstrated both in vertebrates and invertebrates (Lima 1983; Schilman and Roces 2003; Gil et al. 2007): animals return more often to and invest more effort in investigating locations or food types associated with higher rewards, but if those reward values are decreased, animals continue to show more interest in those resources than their current value would predict. Thus, past experience is clearly often used in foraging decisions and to aid the assessment of current conditions. In addition, current conditions may also be assessed in terms of contrast: change relative to past conditions. Marsh and Kacelnik (2002) demonstrated that starlings foraging in a risk-sensitive task selected options according to whether the current conditions were perceived as better or worse than past conditions. In this instance, the past affected current decisions as if a change in energy budget/ resource value had occurred when in fact it had not. When changes in resource value are real such contrast effects may also be at work but as they change behavior in the same way as actual changes in resource quality, they would be hard to detect. Here, we tested whether the foraging context preceding test conditions and the foraging context during test conditions affected rufous hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus) preference for high or low variability rewards. We manipulated food concentration in the feeder (low vs. high) before testing and during testing (low vs. high) in a factorial design. As far as we are aware, this is the first time that the effects of both past and current foraging conditions on risk-sensitive foraging have been tested simultaneously. Hummingbirds are useful subjects for studies involving energy manipulations as their high metabolic rate means they must feed frequently throughout the day and balance their energy budget daily or even hourly. Their natural food (flower nectar) varies considerably in the concentration and volume within and between plants (Ornelas et al. 2007), and in experimental manipulations of reward variability hummingbirds are, indeed, sensitive to reward variability, usually avoiding flowers providing the highest variability in reward volume (Hurly and Oseen 1999; Biernaskie et al. 2002). Our hypothesis was that both past and current context would affect birds sensitivity to variability. Assuming that higher energy budgets lead generally to risk aversion, birds should choose the constant option more often when they experienced the higher sucrose concentration both prior to and during testing. They should choose the constant option least often when they experienced the lower concentration prior to and during testing. The factorial design allowed us to determine whether the pretesting and testing influences are additive or whether they interact in a more complex fashion. There were no clear predictions as to the effects of expectations that may be carried over from the pretesting to the testing period nor with regard to the effects of contrast between the periods (e.g., the perception of the foraging situation improving from low-concentration food during the pretesting period to high-concentration food during testing or vice versa). Unlike most experiments investigating risk sensitivity, we were not concerned with significant departures from risk neutrality but rather with how the conditions prior to and during testing influenced the relative preferences for constant and variable options. MATERIALS AND METHODS Subjects were 8 male rufous hummingbirds which had been defending territories for several weeks in the Westcastle River valley, Alberta, Canada (lat #56.41$, long #35.08$). Each male s territory contained a 14% sucrose ad libitum feeder that he defended and from which he obtained almost all of his nectar. To allow individual identification, birds were marked with waterproof, colored, nontoxic ink on the upper breast. Subjects were trained to feed from arrays of 20 wells and to associate the color of wells with a particular sucrose concentration and volume variability reward type. The wells (10 mm deep mm diameter) drilled in to a rectangular Plexiglas plate ( cm) were arranged in a hexagonal pattern such that neighboring wells were 5.2 cm apart. The plate was attached to a stake that held it approximately 60 cm from the ground. Surrounding each well was a paper reinforcement colored pink, purple, blue, or orange, each representing a different reward type. Two of the reward types, 14% constant and 25% constant, always contained 20 ll sucrose solution, of 14% and 25% sucrose, respectively. The different concentrations were indicated by the color of paper reinforcement surrounding the wells. The other 2 reward types were 14% variable and 25% variable represented by 2 colors that differed from those used for the constant wells. Wells in the variable reward types contained either 10 or 30 ll sucrose solution in equal number giving a mean reward of 20 ll sucrose solution. The color of the reinforcement did not indicate the volume of sucrose in the variable wells. No 2 birds had the same well-color/well-type combinations. Training consisted of presenting the bird with a board on which all 20 wells were marked with a single color, that is, all 20 wells were of the same reward type. The bird was allowed to visit and feed from the array 5 times before being presented with a board on which all the wells were of one of the other reward types. Once all 4 reward types had each been presented on 5 occasions, birds were presented with all 4 types again but with 3 successive visits for each type. The last 4 sessions of training consisted of birds visiting a board of a different reward type just once before another reward type was presented. The sequence of presentation of well types was different for each bird. Training was completed in a single day. Feeders were removed both during training and testing. Preferences do not mean exclusive use of sucrose from the feeders. However, birds obtained virtually all of their daily energy requirements from either the feeder or test arrays and were seen to visit natural flowers only on 1 or 2 occasions. Additionally, it seems likely that the birds gain at least some significant proportion of their protein from feeding on insects. The training day was followed by 2 3 days (mean days) in which the bird s feeder contained either 14% or 25% sucrose. On the morning after the days of feeder access, the bird was presented with a choice test. Each choice test was followed by 2 3 days during which the birds were provided with only their feeders (mean days). Each bird experienced all 4 treatments, and the order of treatments differed across the 8 birds: Treatment 1: (25j25): 2 days feeding from 25% sucrose in the feeder was followed by a variable/constant choice test using 25% sucrose. Treatment 2: (25j14): 2 days feeding from 25% sucrose in the feeder was followed by a variable/constant choice test using 14% sucrose.
3 628 Behavioral Ecology Treatment 3: (14j25): 2 days feeding from 14% sucrose in the feeder was followed by a variable/constant choice test using 25% sucrose. Treatment 4: (14j14): 2 days feeding from 14% sucrose in the feeder followed by a variable/constant choice test using 14% sucrose. During choice tests all wells on the board contained sucrose of the same concentration but half of the wells were designated variable flowers (i.e., 5 contained 10 ll and 5 contained 30 ll), whereas the other half of the flowers were designated constant wells (i.e., 10 flowers containing 20 ll). Each well type was marked with the appropriate color from the training period. So that the birds did not learn the position of the wells containing 30 ll, the location of 10 ll and 30 ll wells was changed every 5 feeding bouts (visits to the board). Additionally, the board was moved at least 15 cm and rotated 90 degrees between every feeding bout. The sequence of each well visited and the volume consumed from each was recorded for each feeding bout. The volume of sucrose consumed from each well was measured by collecting and measuring the volume of any residue using a microcapillary tube and then subtracting that volume from the initial volume in the well. We recorded feeding bouts in total for each of the 8 individuals (feeding rates were determined by the free-living birds). We used mean values for each treatment for each bird. Data were tested for normality using a Shapiro Wilk test. The Mauchly criterion test was used to test for sphericity. If variances were nonhomogeneous, data were square-root transformed so that residuals were normally distributed. RESULTS Choice of constant or variable flowers number of each type visited Birds visited 1 16 wells per bout (mean ¼ wells) and on average, revisited only % of wells within a bout. We calculated the proportion of all wells visited that were the constant option for each bird for each treatment. We used one-sample t-tests to determine birds preferences in each treatment (the proportion of constant wells chosen compared with an expected 50% if choices were random). Birds preferred the constant option in the 25j25 treatment (t 7 ¼ 3.72, P, 0.01) but had no statistically significant preference in all other treatments (t 7 ¼ , P ¼ ). The within-subject design of the experiment permits us to examine patterns of choices across the 2 treatments (feeder concentration and test concentration). In the following analyses, choices to the constant option were compared across treatments using a maximum-likelihood mixed-model in R. Model simplification based on Akaike information criterion (AIC) was used to determine the significant factors and interactions. We are aware of concerns about using model simplification but feel it was justified in these circumstances and that the P values are meaningful due to both the very limited number of comparisons made and only slight differences between the P values of factors in the full and reduced models (Mundry and Nunn 2009). The full model included: test concentration, feeder concentration, an interaction term between the 2, and bird as a random factor. The interaction term was not significant and was removed from the model (F 1,21, 0.01, P ¼ 0.95). Both in the full model and model with the interaction removed, the sucrose concentration used in the choice tests had a significant effect on the birds choices: birds chose the constant option more often when the test concentration was 25% than when it was 14% (full model: F 1,21 ¼ 5.49, P ¼ 0.03; reduced model: F 1,22 ¼ 5.69, P ¼ 0.03, Figure 1). Feeder concentration also played Figure 1 The proportion of the total number of wells visited that were the constant option for high and low feeder and test concentrations. Data are means and standard errors. a role. Although preference for the constant option did not quite change significantly with feeder concentration (full model: F 1,21 ¼ 3.44, P ¼ 0.08; reduced model: F 1,22 ¼ 3.56, P ¼ 0.07), removal of feeder concentration from the model increased AIC, and the resulting model explained the variation significantly more poorly than did the model including feeder concentration (analysis of variance comparison of the model including feeder concentration with the model excluding feeder concentration: Lratio 2,4 ¼ 3.70, P ¼ 0.05). We conclude, therefore, that the concentration of sucrose in birds feeders for the 2 days preceding tests did have a significant effect on the choices they made during tests about which wells to visit. Specifically, when birds had fed for 2 days from a feeder containing 25% sucrose, they were more likely to choose the constant option in the choice tests (Figure 1). Choice of constant or variable flowers volume of sucrose consumed An alternative way to quantify preference is to measure the volume of sucrose consumed from each flower type because birds did not necessarily consume all the nectar from each flower they visited. We used one-sample t-tests to determine the birds preferences in each treatment (the proportion of sucrose drunk per feeding bout from constant wells compared with an expected 50% if choices were random). Birds drank more from the constant option in the 25j25 treatment (t 7 ¼ 3.61, P, 0.01) but showed no preference in all other treatments (t 7 ¼ , P ¼ ). The influence of treatments (feeder and test concentrations) on how much birds chose to drink from each flower type was then modeled (as above for total number of wells). Data were means of the total proportion of sucrose consumed from constant wells within feeding bouts, for each bird/treatment (N ¼ 8). The full model included: test concentration, feeder concentration, an interaction term between the 2, and bird as a random factor. The interaction was not significant (F 1,21, 0.01, P ¼ 0.99) and was removed from the model. Both in the full model and model with the interaction removed, the sucrose concentration used in the choice tests had a significant effect on the birds choices: birds drank more from constant wells than from variable wells when the test concentration was 25% (full model: F 1,21 ¼ 6.14, P ¼ 0.02; reduced model: F 1,22 ¼ 6.36, P ¼ 0.02). Feeder concentration also had a significant effect (full model: F 1,21 ¼ 4.13, P ¼ 0.06; reduced model: F 1,22 ¼ 4.27, P ¼ 0.05) such that when birds had fed for 2 days
4 Bacon et al. Past experience affects hummingbirds risk sensitivity 629 from a feeder containing 25% sucrose they drank more from constant wells during the subsequent choice tests. Choices of the variable option To ensure that the constant/variable tests were not biased by birds learning which specific variable wells held 30 ll of sucrose, we calculated the total number of 10 ll and 30 ll wells visited by each bird in the variable option. Birds did not visit more of either sort of well, indicating they did not learn the position of the 30 ll wells (paired t-test: t 7 ¼ 1.06, P ¼ 0.32). Role of increasing experience within and among bouts We assessed the role of experience on decision-making during the test trials in 3 ways. First, we compared preferences for the constant option within feeding bouts. We calculated the percentage of first well choices that were to the constant option for each visit to the board and compared this value with the average value across all subsequent wells visited within the feeding bout. Choices made to the first wells visited during feeding bouts and the mean choice across all later wells in feeding bouts did not differ (F 1,50 ¼ 2.16, P ¼ 0.15), indicating that birds preferences at the beginning of a feeding bout did not change. The main effects of test concentration (F 1,50 ¼15.65, P, 0.01) and of feeder concentration (F 1,50 ¼ 7.47, P, 0.01) remained. There were no significant interactions (F 1,50 ¼ 0.53 to 0.03, P ¼ 0.87 to 0.47). Second, we compared choices to the constant option in the first feeding bout with choices in all subsequent feeding bouts. Choices made during the first bout were similar to those made during later bouts (F 1,50 ¼ 0.06, P ¼ 0.80), indicating that birds preferences did not change systematically between the first bout and later bouts. Again, the main effects of test concentration (F 1,50 ¼ 5.33, P ¼ 0.03) and of feeder concentration (F 1,50 ¼ 3.65, P ¼ 0.06) remained. There were no significant interactions between the feeder concentration or test concentration and bouts (F 1,50 ¼ 0.80 and 0.789, P ¼ 0.36 and 0.38, respectively). The interaction between feeder and test concentration was nearly but not quite significant (F 1,50 ¼ 3.79, P ¼ 0.06). Third, we tested whether preferences changed progressively across the course of each treatment. We split the data into 3 blocks of 5 feeding bouts within each treatment (bouts 1 5, 9 14, and 18 22). For each block, we calculated the mean proportion of wells visited that were to the constant option (Figure 2). There was no effect of feeding block (F 2,46 ¼ 0.79, P ¼ 0.46). Birds did not systematically change their preferences with increasing experience within test days. Amount of sucrose consumed per well We calculated the mean reward volume consumed from variable and constant wells for each bird for each treatment. Birds drank a mean of ll (mean 6 standard error) from each constant well and ll from each variable well, taking more ( ll) from constants well than from variable wells (F 1,50 ¼ 4.84, P ¼ 0.03). There was no effect of feeder concentration (F 1,50 ¼ 1.74, P ¼ 0.19) or of test concentration (F 1,50 ¼ 0.78, P ¼ 0.38). There was a significant interaction between the feeder concentration and test concentration such that birds drank more ( ll) per well in the 25j25 treatment than they took in the other treatments (F 1,50 ¼ 4.56, P ¼ 0.04). There were no significant interactions between well type (constant or variable) and either feeder concentration (F 1,50 ¼ 0.27, P ¼ 0.60) or test concentration (F 1,50 ¼ 1.07, P ¼ 0.31). The amount of sucrose the birds left behind in the wells was dependent on the initial volume of sucrose in the wells (F 2,79 ¼ , P, 0.01). This was unaffected by either the test concentration (F 1,79 ¼ 0.903, P ¼ 0.34) or the feeder concentration (F 1,79 ¼ 0.29, P ¼ 0.59). Birds left significantly more sucrose in 30 llthanin20ll wells ( ll vs ll; post hoc paired t-test: t 7 ¼ 5.92, P, 0.01) and significantly more in 20 ll wells than in 10 ll wells ( ll vs ll; t 7 ¼ 8.21, P, 0.01). The volume left was not an equal proportion of the 3 well volumes ( % of 10 ll wells, % of 20 ll wells, and % of 30 llwells:f 1.22,8.57 ¼ 23.96, P, 0.01; degrees of freedom corrected for violation of sphericity). Energy availability per minute We calculated the mean energy available to the birds per minute from what they consumed from our experimental apparatus: Joules=per minute ¼ðmean meal sizeðlitersþ=mean interbout intervalðminþþ 3 ðmols sucrose=litreð14% sucrose ¼ 0:431mol=l and 25% sucrose ¼ 0:806mol=lÞÞ 3 mass of 1 mol of sucrose ¼ 342 g 3 joules=g sucrose ¼ J Birds consumed more energy when the test concentration was 25% than when the test concentration was 14% (mean energy available per minute; 25% ¼ J, 14% ¼ J: F 1,16 ¼ 40.57, P, 0.01), but there was no effect of feeder concentration (F 1,16 ¼ 1.77, P ¼ 0.20) and Figure 2 The proportion of the total number of wells visited that were the constant flower type for 3 equally spaced blocks of 5 feeding bouts (bouts 1 5, 9 14, and 18 22) throughout the day of each treatment. Data are means and standard errors.
5 630 Behavioral Ecology no interaction between the feeder and test concentrations (F 1,16, 0.01, P ¼ 0.97). DISCUSSION The concentration of sucrose used for testing and that in birds feeders prior to testing had a significant effect on the degree to which they were risk sensitive. The birds preference for the constant option over the variable option was relatively lower when faced with 14% sucrose in the test than it was when they were presented with 25% sucrose in the test. Their preference for the constant option was also relatively lower when their feeder had contained 14% sucrose rather than 25% sucrose prior to testing, irrespective of the concentration used during testing. This effect was seen both in the number of each well type from which the bird chose to drink during testing as well as in the total volume they drank from each well type. The effects of test concentration and the context of prior feeder contents on choices were not due to birds drinking different amounts of sucrose from one or other well type nor because risk sensitivity changed systematically within the day (they did not). The effects of feeder concentration and test concentration were consistent with each other and seemed to operate independently and additively. This implies that the risk-sensitive choices exhibited in past experiments may have been influenced not just by the energy-budget manipulations but also by the difference between the pretest and test conditions. For example, all the birds tested in the Caraco (1981) experiment were not deprived of food for the first hour and a half of each day of testing. Based on our results, we contend that the food available early in the day may have caused these birds to be more risk averse than if the energy-manipulation period had been maintained consistently throughout the day. Similarly, our results suggest that hummingbirds in previous studies provided with 14% sucrose and tested with 20% were more risk averse than they would have been if they had been tested with 14% sucrose (Hurly and Oseen 1999; Biernaskie et al. 2002). It is possible that past experiments in which no effect of energy-budget manipulation was seen may have been affected by energy-budget conditions during the pretesting period (e.g., Clements 1990; Wu and Giraldeau 2004; de Jonge et al. 2008). The probability of the past affecting the experimental data is reduced in laboratory studies of risk sensitivity in which the experimental energy-budget manipulation is extended for several weeks prior to testing (e.g., Caraco et al. 1990) or when testing occurs regularly within a prolonged energy-budget manipulation (e.g., Hamm and Shettleworth 1987; Ha et al. 1990; e Abreu and Kacelnik 1999). In the present study, birds had been using 14% sucrose feeders since their arrival on the feeding grounds several weeks prior to testing and only rarely visited wildflowers, preferring to use the feeders. Thus, their energy budgets were likely to have been positive and stable for a prolonged period prior to our manipulations. Here, we are interested in situations in which animals are tested under conditions different from those on which they were maintained. In addition to effects of past energy budgets, animals expectations/estimates of the present conditions formed using past experiences are violated when a resource changes, creating a contrast between the expectation and actual conditions. This contrast can affect behavior even in the absence of a change in resource quality. For example, starlings trained for days to expect either 1 or 7 food pellets after pecking reward keys were then tested for risk sensitivity using a constant reward of 4 pellets and a variable reward of 2 or 6 pellets. If expectations were based on a contrast effect, starlings trained to expect 7 pellets might view the mean reward of 4 pellets as a loss, whereas starlings trained with a single pellet might regard 4 pellets as a gain, even though energy obtained over time was kept equal for both groups. Indeed, significantly more starlings were risk prone in the loss treatment than in the gain treatment (Marsh and Kacelnik 2002). Behavioral responses to perceived changes in resource value (contrast) may have been favored by selection so as to allow animals to anticipate energy-budget changes and to adjust behavior appropriately in a timely fashion. Thus, perception of changes in resource value may be a mechanism by which behavior is adjusted although the energy-budget rule may be the ultimate reason why different behaviors are more appropriate under different conditions. If expectations about the quality of a known patch carry over from the past based on a certain memory window (Shettleworth and Plowright 1992), then hummingbirds responses to new conditions (14j25 or 25j14) and current sampling information may be mediated by this carryover. For example, conditions that currently provide a poor reward but recently provided a high reward may appear better than when both past and present conditions were poor. Bumblebees foraging in a Bayesian-like way (using prior knowledge of food distributions alongside current information) continue to use prior information about resource distributions to inform patch-leaving decisions even when tested in an environment with a very different resource distribution (Biernaskie et al. 2009). Bees used to relatively poor patches leave high-quality patches after finding fewer rewards than do bees with prior experience of high-quality patches. It is not yet clear how long such cognitive effects commonly persist, but there is evidence that some types of effect can be very long lived (Simitzis, Bizelis, et al. 2008; Simitzis, Deligeorgis, et al. 2008). In some cases, using a period of acclimatization with the aim of allowing restabilization of an animal s energy balance prior to an experiment may not sufficiently reduce the influence of past experience on the experimental data. Alternatively, the contrast effect may be a short-lived cognitive rule of thumb that allows animals to adjust their behavior to changes in reward quality before sufficient postingestive feedback is available for them to assess more accurately how the change has affected their energy budget. Although we present convincing evidence that both past and current conditions influence risk-sensitive choices in hummingbirds, the design of our experiment cannot easily provide insight into the influence of contrast versus carryover effects. When test and feeder concentrations differ, the same response is predicted both by the energy-budget rule and the contrast effect. In both cases, birds should be less risk averse if they think conditions have got worse, or if they really have got worse, and vice versa. Thus, on top of the energy-budget rule, the contrast effect would cause the lines in Figure 1 to be steeper, whereas the carryover effect would cause the lines to be shallower. Distinguishing between these different expectation effects would require multiple manipulations of exposure time and food quality. Our birds choices are consistent with predictions from the energy-budget rule: Birds were more risk averse when they were or had been foraging on 25% sucrose than when they were or had been foraging on 14%. Our data are also consistent with predictions that come from a contrast expectation model. That is, animals perceiving a decrease in sucrose concentration would be expected to be more risk prone, even if their energy budget was unaffected (Kahneman and Tversky 1984; Kuhberger 1998; Marsh and Kacelnik 2002). Territorial hummingbirds mass gain during the day is limited to 1 2% to reduce flight costs (as opposed to 35 40% increase mass in 20 min before dark), intake rate tends to be fairly constant across the day even following periods of fast and compensatory feeding is limited
6 Bacon et al. Past experience affects hummingbirds risk sensitivity 631 (Tooze and Gass 1985; Calder 1991). Major adjustments of energy budgets occur via manipulations of metabolic costs during the night (Tooze and Gass 1985). As birds fed from their feeders for several hours in the morning before testing, birds feeding from a 25% feeder would have accumulated more energy than when feeding from a 14% feeder by the time the testing began, even if they started the day on fairly equal energy budgets. If they were then tested using 14% sucrose, their highest energy budget during recording should have been during the first few test feeding bouts. Therefore, if the birds decisions were entirely governed by an energy-budget rule, we would have expected that birds that had had a feeder containing 14% sucrose would have been least risk averse during the first few test feeding bouts when tested with 25% sucrose. Conversely, we would have expected that birds that had had a feeder containing 25% sucrose would have been most risk averse during the first few test feeding bouts when tested with 14% sucrose, unless any difference in intake rate between 14% and 25% sucrose were compensated for by changes in behavior, for example, reducing flying time. We found no evidence, however, that the birds changed their preferences across a test day. We cannot, therefore, rule out that at least in the 14j25 and 25j14 treatments, contrast expectation may have played a role in the birds decision making. One unexpected result was that when birds did not empty wells, they neither left the same amount per well nor did they leave an amount proportionate to the well s contents. If birds were trying to maximize foraging efficiency, then they would be expected to empty 30 ll wells, but they did not. A plausible explanation for this result is that the birds were constantly updating their estimate of the number and location of the different well types, as they took the same total volume and were not volume limited, in all the test conditions. As wells were not completely emptied, it seems unlikely that birds were attempting to get a better estimate of the actual well volume. The situations in which animals continue to sample a patch that is consistently poorer than another is known as contrafreeloading (Damato 1974; Osborne 1977). Information gathering of this kind appears to occur only when the resource or patch contents cannot readily be assessed visually (Bean et al. 1999), as is the case for the sucrose-containing wells we presented to our hummingbirds. In summary, we show that prior experience can significantly impact current preference for variability although we were not able to distinguish between the effects due to the animal s energy budget and the animal s expectations. As prior experience is gathered throughout an animal s life, we predict that, in addition to effects due to differences in animals energy budgets, prior experience and expectations may well have a more substantial effect on risk-sensitive preferences than is often considered. FUNDING Natural Environment Research Council (UK); Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We thank Anjie Harris and Arild Husby for statistical advice, Christine Michell, Sandeep Mishra, and 2 anonymous reviewers for providing comments on an earlier version of the manuscript, and Sandra Goded and Emma Rosenfeld for their assistance in collecting data. REFERENCES e Abreu FB, Kacelnik A Energy budgets and risk-sensitive foraging in starlings. Behav Ecol. 10: Bean D, Mason GJ, Bateson M Contrafreeloading in starlings: testing the information hypothesis. 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text:
The Seven Secrets of Successful Globalization
A fashionable consensus among MBA students, managers and luminaries such as Colin Powell, George Soros and Tom Friedman, to name but a few, has been building around the notion that the world is globalized—that borders don't matter at all.
But fashion is no substitute for the facts—so consider some data about globalization.
Despite the perception that people, money, trade and information are more mobile than ever before, the reality is somewhat different.
Instead of viewing the world as a collection of standalone countries neatly divided by clearly marked borders (a worldview that I refer to as World 1.0) or as completely integrated and borderless (World 2.0), we need to think of the world in terms of countries that are embedded in space, at varying distances from each other (World 3.0). In World 3.0, linkages between countries can be substantial (unlike World 1.0), but the countries themselves remain distinct and the world diverse (unlike World 2.0).
Focusing on such distances or differences and how to deal with them is to unlock what, to use an acronym, seem to be the seven "secrets" of successful globalization.
1. Sensitivity to differences.
Overlooking international differences is a recipe for one-size-fits-all strategies. Thus, when former Wal-Mart CEO Lee Scott was asked in 2003 why he thought the retailer could succeed internationally, he responded that: "People said we would struggle when we left Arkansas and got to places like Alabama."
With this attitude, Wal-Mart profited only in markets close to home—Canada, Mexico and the U.K.—and made losses elsewhere.

subset: commoncrawl


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Let us know when your receive great advice so we can thank our lawyers and point others with similar questions in the right direction.Got it!
I live in fayette county and was in the Red River Gorge when pulled over at a checkpoint and asked if I had anything illegal in the car. At first I said no, then the officers said they would get their dog out of their car if they had to (I believe there was no dog in their vehicle). I voluntarily gave up a very small amount of marijuana and a glass pipe with marijuana residue on the pipe. I'm due to go to court in Wolfe County. This is a first offense and nothing has happened like this before. I work at a hospital as well. How do I go about court? Am I in risk of jail time? Will it stay on my record forever?
Whether you live in that county is irrelevant to getting the charges off your record. However,relatively new legislation involving drug possession could help. In addition, it sounds as though you probably have a good suppression issue (a pretrial motion to exclude evidence at trial - hence, the case would have to be dismissed). For this reason, you should find competent counsel to litigate that issue.Ask a similar question
Any individual facing a marijuana offense should retain an experienced attorney, or seek appointment of the public defender, if unable to retain an attorney. Without an attorney, many defendants simply plead guilty to misdemeanor marijuana offenses, which in most cases will indeed lead to a permanent criminal record. Such convictions can cause loss of employment opportunities, lead to denial of federal student aid, and have other consequences. An attorney can confidentially review the facts of an individual case, and depending on the facts, may be able to successfully fight the case and prevent a conviction. An attorney can also pursue settlement options to avoid a conviction. Settlement options vary by state and jurisdiction, but it is often possible to avoid a permanent conviction, especially for a first-time marijuana offender. Any individual facing a criminal case should retain an attorney, and this advice is no different for a marijuana offense.
The author provides answers on this site based on hypothetical questions and fact patterns. The answers provided are for general educational and informational purposes only, and they do not constitute legal advice, which would require a personal consultation and representation agreement. Questions and answers on this site do not create an attorney-client relationship, and the communications are not privileged. Any citizen with a legal issue should consult personally with an attorney and should rely only on legal advice provided in a formal attorney-client relationship.Ask a similar question
You need to retain an experienced criminal defense lawyer immediately. Since you have no record he possibly can get you into a diversion program. If you are admitted into a diversion program the case can be dismissed on completion and expunged 60 days later. Different counties have different lengths of time to complete their programs. If you do not get into a diversion program and instead plead guilty to the charges you will be eligible to have your record expunged if you meet the criteria 5years after completion of any probation which in this case may be 2 years.Ask a similar question
Hire a criminal defense attorney to represent you. www.kacdl.net
I am trying to give you a general answer to your question. We do not have an attorney-client relationship by this response on the avvo website. I have not been retained to represent you. I am licensed to practice law in Kentucky and in federal court in this state and the Southern District of Indiana. You need to seek legal advice from an attorney licensed to practice in your area..Ask a similar question
In general, a class A misdemeanor like paraphernalia have possible consequences of up to a $500 fine and up to 12 months in jail. Possession charge usually are class B misdemeanors with maximum penalties of up to $250 fine and up to 90 days in jail. In Kentucky diversion programs are usually available in order to get an expungement of a person's record later. It is best to contact a criminal defense attorney as soon as possible in this situation.Ask a similar question
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Dining out
HAM DINNER, 4 to 6 p.m. March 16, St. Barnabas Episcopal Church, 13 W. Bates Ave., Villas. Adults $10, children 6 to 12, $4. Call 609-886-2625.
LEARN HOW TO PLAY BRIDGE 1 p.m. Mondays, Sea Isle Branch Library, 4800 Central Ave., Sea Isle City. Call 609-263-7301.
BEACH WRITERS' SPRING RETREAT - "Pitching & Publishing," March 23, Natali Vineyard, Cape May Court House, schedule, details, registration form at northwildwoodbeachwritersconference.com
NEW JERSEY BOATING SAFETY COURSES 8:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. March 30, April 20, May 18, June 22, July 20 and Aug. 10, Coast Guard Training Center, Cape May. Cost: $55. Lunch provided. Call 609-898-0442 for further information.
COAST GUARD BOATING SAFETY CLASSES: 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. April 6, Island Marine Center, 2602 Shore Road, Ocean View, call 609-624-1117; 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. April 13, Minmar Marina, 14 Old Sea Isle Blvd., Sea Isle City, call 609-263-2201; 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. May 11, Cape May County Library, 30 W. Mechanic St., Cape May Court House, call 609-463-6350; 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. June 8, Avalon Yacht Club, Seventh and Bay Street, Avalon, call 609-263-6272; 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. June 22 and July 13, Pier 47 Marina, Route 47, 3001 Wildwood Blvd., Wildwood, call 609-886-6243. Cost $45. To register or for more information, call Allen Nordt at 609-463-9692 or email firstname.lastname@example.com.
WETLANDS INSTITUTE PROGRAMS: Aquarium Feedings, 2:15 p.m. Saturdays; Salt Marsh Safari, 11 a.m. or 1 p.m. Saturdays. Free with admission. 1075 Stone Harbor Blvd. Call 609-368-1211.
QIGONG AND TAI CHI FOR YOUR HEALTH CLASSES, 10 and 11:30 a.m. Wednesdays, Lower Cape Branch Library, 2600 Bayshore Road, Villas. Call 609-886-8999.
HEAD START/EARLY HEAD START early childhood development program by Atlantic Human Resources Inc., recruiting preschoolers for 2011-12. No cost to families who qualify. Head Start has centers throughout Atlantic and Cape May counties. Call 609-348-4166 (Atlantic County) or 609-861-2804 (Cape May County).
RIP VAN WINKLE 7 p.m. March 13, West Cape May Elementary School, 301 Moore St., West Cape May. Call 609-884-5898, email email@example.com.
OCEAN CITY EASTER EVENTS: The Woofin' Paws Pet Fashion Show, 11 a.m. March 30, Sixth Street off Boardwalk; Great Egg Hunt, 2:30 p.m. March 30, 11th to 14th Streets on beach; Sunrise Service, 6:30 a.m. March 31, Music Pier; Easter Fashion Promenade, 1 p.m. March 31. For more information, call 609-525-9300.
PLAYERS WANTED FOR THE 2013 10U SOUTH JERSEY SAND SHARKS BASEBALL TEAM, email coach Jim for more information at firstname.lastname@example.com.
CAPE SHORE CHORUS OF SWEET ADELINES looking for new members. Women who love to sing can visit a rehearsal from 7:15 to 10 p.m. Thursdays at the Abundant Life Church, Route 50, Seaville. Call Cheryl at 609-463-0134.
DANCING GRANNIES, tap for mature adults, beginner sessions on Thursdays, Cape May Dance Co., 3305 Breakwater Plaza, North Cape May. Information call 609-889-1856.
For fun
WETLANDS INSTITUTE Science Feature conservation demonstrations at 2:15 p.m. Fridays; Aquarium Feedings with Wetlands Institute staff, or just watch turtles chase minnows and the horseshoe crab gobble shrimp, noon Saturdays. Also on Saturday: Kids Crafts and Creature Features. Seashell Discovery and Creature Feature animal demonstrations on Sundays. Activities are included with general admission. Call for weekly topics 609-368-1211. 1075 Stone Harbor Blvd., Middle Township.
EMLEN PHYSICK ESTATE FREE TOURS to benefit Cape May Community Food Closet, 11:45 a.m. March 8 and 15, 1048 Washington St., Cape May. Bring nonperishable food item for donation for the free tour. Call 609-884-5404.
CONFERENCE, CAREER AND TRAINING EXPO JOB FAIR, 9 a.m. to noon March 16, Wildwoods Convention Center. Seeking employers to showcase their business, no fee to participate. Call 609-463-6695.
CARD PARTY AND LUNCHEON 11:30 a.m. March 19, Beth Judah Temple, Spencer and Pacific Avenues, Wildwood. Tickets are $20. Call the office at 609-522-7541 for more information.
BOOK SALE 8:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. Mondays and Wednesdays, 10 a.m. to 7 p.m. Thursdays and 8:30 a.m. to 5 p.m. Fridays, CitiFinancial, 20 Court House-South Dennis Road, Cape May Court House. Paperback books $2 each or three for $5; hardback books $4 each or three for $10. Call 609-463-3535.
GAME NIGHT, ages 13 to 26, 4:30 to 6:30 p.m. Thursdays, Cape May County Library, Main Branch, 30 Mechanic St., Cape May Court House. Call teen librarian at 609-463-6350.
For youths
MUA'S CREATIVE RECYCLING CONTEST, ages 4 to 13, 3 to 4:30 p.m. March 8 and 15, Lower Cape Library, 2600 Bayshore Road, Villas. Children invited to create a recyling craft for the MUA Recycling Contest. Call 609-886-8999.
TEEN DANCES seventh through 12th grades, 7 to 9:30 p.m. March 22 and April 12, Cape May Convention Hall, Beach Drive, Cape May. Admission $5. Tickets can be purchased at the Cape May Convention Hall beginning at 6:30 pm on nights of the dance.
EASTER PROGRAM Easter bunny visit, Easter egg hunt, educational displays and more, 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. March 23, Cape May County Park and Zoo, Cape May Court House. Egg hunt, 10 a.m. Call 609-465-5271.
YOUTH OPERA OF SOUTH JERSEY AUDITIONS for Brigadoone, ages 8 to 18, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. March 15, Seaville United Methodist Church, 3100 South Shore Road, Seaville. Come prepared to sing 24 bars of a song from the show or a traditional song. Call Mrs. Brennan at 609-425-8080 or email her at email@example.com or Helen Friedlander at firstname.lastname@example.com.
LEGO CLUB AT THE CAPE MAY COUNTY LIBRARY, ages 5 to 12: 11 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. first Saturdays, Main Branch, 30 Mechanic St., Cape May Court House. No registration required. Call the Children's Room at 609-463-6354.
CHILDREN'S ENTERTAINMENT AT GILLIAN'S FUNLAND, 6 to 6:45 p.m. Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays, Marina Park, 42nd Place and Bay, Sea Isle City. Call 609-263-8687.
MUSIC TOGETHER: Join Miss Lelah at the Wetlands Institute in Stone Harbor for a musical hour to help children explore melody and rhythm. See musictogetherofcapemay.com for a complete schedule and to sign up.
OCEAN CITY LIBRARY FALL CHILDREN'S PROGRAMS: Rhythm and rhymes, birth to age 2, 11 to 11:20 a.m. Tuesdays; Family Craft Time, ages 7-12, 6:30 to 7:30 p.m. Tuesdays; Toddler Time, ages 2-3, 10:30 to 11 a.m. Wednesdays; Story Train, ages 3-5, 1:30 to 2 p.m. Wednesdays; Book Surfers, fourth and fifth grades, 2:30 p.m. Thursdays; Seashore Story Time, ages 3-5, 10:30 a.m. Fridays. All at the library, 1735 Simpson Ave., Ocean City. Call 609-399-2434.
PRESCHOOL STORYTIME, 10 to 11 a.m. Tuesdays, Sea Isle City Public Library, 126 John F. Kennedy Blvd., Sea Isle City. Call 609-263-8485.
PENNY PARTY 6 p.m. March 8, Villas Fire House, Bayshore Road. Benefits Middle Lacrosse. Call 609-827-5974.
POLICE ATHLETIC LEAGUE OF CAPE MAY COMEDY NIGHT 7 to 10 p.m. March 15, May Convention Hall. Tickets $35 per person in advance or $45 at the door. Tickets can be purchased online by going to capemaypal.com, by calling 609-884-9563, or by visiting the Cape May Convention Hall box office.
CASH RAFFLE BY BIG BROTHERS BIG SISTERS prizes $10,000 (or 33 percent), $2,000 (or 7 percent), $1,500 (or 5 percent), $1,000 (or 3 percent), $500 (or 2 percent). Only 300 tickets will be sold. Tickets $100 each. Call 609-573-5029. Drawing will be at 8 p.m. during the Beef, Beer, and Band Benefit hosted by Bowl for Kids' Sake Team All-Brite Cleaning, April 13, Flip Flopz 106 Spruce Ave., North Wildwood. You do not need to be present to win.
BOARDWALK EMPIRE FUNDRAISER for Wildwood Catholic High School, 6 p.m. April 19, Cape May Convention Hall, 714 Beach Ave., Cape May. Includes casino games, for $100, you will receive an extra $1,250 in gambling chips. This offer is available through April 5. Also food, live entertainment and live auction. Admission $50 in advance or $60 at door, which includes $25 in chips. Tickets can be purchased online by visiting wildwoodcatholic.org or capemaycity.com.
OPERATION FIRST RESPONSE STICKER FUNDRAISER, cost $5 each, available at the Ocean City Fire Department, Sixth Street, Fire Station 2, 29th Street and Fire Station 3, 46th Street. Also online at ocfire.org, or call 609-525-9183.
AUXILIARY OF SHORE MEDICAL CENTER shops are located at Marmora South Shore Plaza, 232 South Shore Road, Marmora, call 609-390-0913; Somers Point Shopping Center, Route 9, Somers Point, call 609-653-8374. Hours are 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Mondays to Fridays; 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. Saturdays and noon to 4 p.m. Sundays. All proceeds go to the Auxiliary's pledge to Shore Tomorrow, an expansion project of Shore Medical Center. For information, to donate or to volunteer call any of the three shops.
COAT DRIVE to benefit Atlantic City Rescue Mission by Mike and Pam Cardinale, owners of Mrs. Brizzle's Buns and Deli. Donations of gently worn and new winter coats and jackets for adults and children needed; place in collection bin at eatery, 4601 Landis Ave., Sea Isle City, 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. daily. Call 609-263-2773.
Golf events
"BE A HERO" GOLF TOURNAMENT, May 15, Sand Barrens Golf Club, Swainton, 11:30 a.m. lunch and registration, 1 p.m. shotgun start, dinner and auction following golf. 609-626-3882 or 609-567-2241 or beaherogolf.org
OCEAN CITY REGIONAL CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, noon March 11, Flanders Hotel, 719 East 11th St., Ocean City. The event will feature guest speaker U.S. Rep. Frank LoBiondo, R-2nd. The lunch is $20 per person and is open to the public. Reservations can be made by calling 609-399-1412 or by emailing email@example.com.
HISTORICAL PRESERVATION SOCIETY OF UPPER TOWNSHIP COVERED DISH SUPPER AND SHOW AND TELL 7 p.m. March 12, Tuckahoe Methodist Church. The public is invited, bring a covered dish.
GARDEN CLUB OF CAPE MAY 10 a.m. to noon March 12, Kiwanis Club House, 1041 Beach Ave., Cape May. The speaker will be Peter Bozak and the topic will be beneficial insects. Lunch will follow at the Lobster House.
AARP CHAPTER 1062 OCEAN CITY noon March 15, Holy Trinity Church, 30th Street and Bay Avenue, Ocean City. Speaker Jamie Angelini from Mental Health Associates of New Jersey on Mental Health. Bring nonperishable food items for the Ocean City Food Cupboard.
AA AND AL-ANON SUPPORT GROUPS at Cape Regional Medical Center, Stone Harbor Boulevard, Cape May Court House. Call 609-463-4043.
ANGELUS CHORUS seeks new singing members. The group rehearses at the Middle Township High School during the school year and performs concerts in the winter and spring. For more information call Carolyn at 609-898-0324.
ART HISTORY DISCUSSION GROUP, 3 p.m. every other Tuesday, Cape May County Library Lower Branch, 2600 Bayshore Road, Villas. Call 609-886-8999.
CAPE ATLANTIC WOODTURNERS: Learn to Turn. Meets 7 p.m. every third Tuesday at Upper Township Library. Call Ron at 609-601-2663 for details.
CAPE MAY COUNTY ADVISORY COMMISSION ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN, 5:30 p.m. first Tuesdays, Old Courthouse building, 11 North Main St., Cape May Court House.
CO-DEPENDENTS ANONYMOUS (CODA) 7 p.m. Wednesdays at Seaville United Methodist Church, 3100 Shore Road, Seaville. Call 609-408-8033. Also, 7 p.m. Wednesdays, Trinity United Methodist Church, 20 N. Shore Road, Marmora. Call Yvonne at 609-408-8033.
COMPASSIONATE FRIENDS, 6:30 p.m. second Tuesdays, at Lighthouse Church, Route 9, Cape May Court House, for bereaved parents, grandparents, siblings. Call 609-886-2118.
GREAT CLASSICS BOOK CLUB, 4 p.m. third Thursdays, Main Library, 30 W. Mechanic St., Cape May Court House. Call 609-463-6350.
HEARTBREAK TO HEALING GRIEF SUPPORT for those who have lost a loved one to suicide. Call 609-345-3230 for literature and information, or just to talk.
PLAYERS AND PLAYWRIGHTS BY THE JERSEY SHORE meets last Saturday of the month. Bring copies of your original work to the second floor of the Ventnor Library at 1 p.m. New members (playwrights and actors) and the public always welcome. Call 609-601-9191.
SALVATION ARMY SEEKS VOLUNTEERS to help low income families in Cape May County. Call 609-231-5565 or 609-231-3109.
SEX AND LOVE ADDICTS ANONYMOUS 12-step recovery program, 7 p.m. Mondays at Trinity Methodist Church, 20 Route 9 North, Marmora, use side door off parking lot, not affiliated with any religions and confidentiality and privacy respected.
SUICIDE SURVIVORS group for bereaved by Seaville United Methodist Church, 6 to 7 p.m. on the first Wednesday of the month at the church, 3100 Shore Road, Seaville.
Health, fitness
CHILDBIRTH CLASSES 6 to 8 p.m. through April 11, Cape Regional Medical Center. Cost $90. Call the Center for Lifestyle Management at 609-463-4043. Space is limited.
HEALTH FAIR 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. March 21, Cape Assist Office, 3819 New Jersey Ave., Wildwood. The RNS Mammography Van will be available for mammograms; there will also be free Health Screenings (blood pressure screening, cholesterol screening, blood sugar screening), and other health information available. Light refreshments will be served. For more information or to schedule a mammogram, call Gloria Schultz at 609-463-2599.
CAPE REGIONAL MEDICAL CENTER PROGRAMS: Free Blood Pressure Screening, 9 a.m. to noon April 5 and 19, Outpatient South Lobby; Amputee Support Group, 1 p.m. April 23; Grief Support Group, 3 p.m. April 3 and 17; Caregiver Support Group, 1 p.m. April 2; Diabetes Management Series, 9 a.m. April 9, 16, 23 and 30, call 609-463-2547; Diabetes Support Group, 2 p.m. April 18; Peripheral Artery Disease Screening, 9 a.m. to noon April 12; CPR Certification, 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. April 13, fee $42 with manual and $30 without, registration required; CPR Recertification, 5 to 9 p.m. April 18, fee $32 with manual and $20 without, registration required; Stroke/Brain Injury Support Group, 1 p.m. April 18; Breast Cancer Support Group, 2 p.m. April 9; Hard of Hearing Support Group, 6:30 p.m. April 17; Childbirth Education, 6 to 8 p.m. April 4 and 11. For more information on any program or to register call 609-463-4043.
EXERCISE CLASSES by Cape May Recreation at the Franklin Street School gym in Cape May: Jazz Aerobics, 9:30 to 10:30 a.m. Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, 10 classes, $30 or $4 per class; Chair Aerobics and Stretching, 9 to 9:45 a.m. Tuesdays, 10 classes $30 or $4 per class; Zumba with Kelly, 6 to 6:45 p.m. Thursdays, cost $5 per class.
FITNESS CLASSES IN CAPE MAY: Ballet Sculpt, uses ballet barre and light weights to create strong lean muscles. Beginners welcome; 11 a.m. to noon Tuesdays, instructor Karen Manette Bosna; Ballet Sculpt Pilates Fusion, uses ballet and Pilates exercises that work the entire body. Beginners welcome, 11 a.m. to noon Fridays, instructor Karen Manette Bosna; Transformational Pilates, 10:30 to 11:30 a.m. Sundays, instructor Tammy Decker. All at Franklin Street Civic Center, 720 Franklin St., Cape May. Call 609-884-9565 or see capemayrecreation.org.
FIT SENIORS EXERCISE CLASSES, age 60 and older, 10:30 to 11:30 a.m. Tuesdays and Thursdays, Crest Pier, 5800 Ocean Ave., Wildwood Crest. Cost $5 per class or 12 for $50, call 609-523-0202.
INTRODUCTION TO YOGA, 5:30 p.m. Mondays, Stone Harbor Recreation Center, Second Avenue and 82nd Street. Call 609-368-6809.
JUMBA GOLD, low impact workout, 8:30 a.m. Tuesdays and Fridays and 10:45 a.m. Thursdays, First United Methodist Church of Wildwood Crest, 6700 Atlantic Ave., Wildwood Crest. Cost $5 per class. Call 609-827-5924 or 609-729-4265.
WEEKLY YOGA CLASSES at Sea Isle City's Community Lodge, 7 p.m. Wednesdays and 7:30 a.m. Fridays at the Community Lodge, JFK Boulevard and Park Road, led by Teri O'Connor, E-RYT. Cost is $10 per student. Walk-ins welcome, all are invited. Call 609-602-3398 or see njbeachyoga.com.
YOGA CLASSES, 10:30 to 11:45 a.m. and 7:30 to 8:45 p.m. Tuesdays and 7:30 to 8:45 p.m. Thursdays, Crest Pier Recreation Center, 5800 Ocean Ave,. Wildwood Crest. Cost $5 per class or $50 for 12 sessions. All ages are welcome. Attendees are encouraged to arrive five minutes prior to start time and to bring their own mats. Call 609-523-0202.
Music, arts
PHOTO EXHIBIT BY MACY ZHELYAKOVA through February, Ocean City Arts Center, 1735 Simpson Ave. Call 609-399-7628.
CAPE MAY ARTISTS COOPERATIVE EXHIBIT featuring the work of Dennis Dowe, Diane Flanegan, Rich Flanegan and Mary Stewart, West End Garage, West Cape May. Call 609-770-8261 for information.
WATERCOLOR EXHIBIT BY SUSAN HANNAH RAU throughout March, Ocean City Arts Center, 1735 Simpson Ave. Meet the Artist reception, 7 to 8:30 p.m. March 8. See oceancityartscenter.org or call 609-399-7628.
ATLANTIC CITY JAZZ BAND, 2 to 4 p.m. March 10, VFW Post 386, 419 Congress St., Cape May. Tickets $15 in advance, call 609-884-7961; $20 at door. Optional dinner at 4:30 p.m.
RIP VAN WINKLE, 7 p.m. March 13, West Cape May Elementary School, 301 Moore St., West Cape May, performed by elementary students under direction of East Lynne Theater Company's Gayle Stahlhuth, free admission, donation of paper products for The Food Closet accepted. 609-884-5898 or www.eastlynnetheater.org
SHERLOCK HOLMES ADVENTURE OF THE NORWOOD BUILDER by East Lynne Theatre Company, 8 p.m. March 15 and 16, First Presbyterian Church, 500 Hughes St., Cape May. Tickets are $25 for general admission, $15 for full-time students, and age 12 and under free. For information and reservations, call 609-884-5898 or go online to eastlynnetheater.org.
AUDITIONS FOR BRIGADOON, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. March 16, by Youth Opera of South Jersey, Inc., Seaville United Methodist Church, 3100 South Shore Road, Seaville, ages 8 to 18. 609-425-8080.
MICK MALONEY IN CONCERT 4 p.m. March 17, Cape May Convention Hall. Tickets $26, available at Cape May Convention Hall Box Office or by calling 855-708-9699 or 609-884-9563.
'SLEEPING BEAUTY' by The Country Shore Women's Club, 7 p.m. March 21 to 24 and 3 p.m. March 24, Upper Township Elementary School. Advanced tickets prices are $6 for singles and $5 for groups of 15 or more. For more information or to purchase tickets, call Jill Clark at 609-287-9684. Tickets will be sold at the door for $7 each.
AL HARRISON DIXIELAND BAND 2 to 4 p.m. April 21, VFW Post 386, 419 Congress St., Cape May. Tickets $15 advance; $20 at door. Call 609-884-7961. Optional dinner at 4:30 p.m.
BILL HALEY JR AND THE COMETS 7:30 p.m. July 1, Cape May Convention Hall, 714 Beach Drive, Cape May. Tickets $28. Call 855-708-9699 or 609-884-9563.
MUSICAL MONDAYS, 3RD ROCK, 7 p.m. third Monday of each month, Ocean City Repertory Theater, 813 Asbury Ave., Ocean City. Call 609-457-6686 or see facebook.com/oceancityrepertorytheater.
SHORE MEMORIES IN WATERCOLOR II, 1:30 p.m. Thursdays, Sea Isle City Branch Library, 4800 Central Ave., Sea Isle City. Registration required, call 609-263-7301 or see cmclibrary.org.
JUDIASM 101 CLASS, 6:45 to 7:45 p.m. Wednesdays, Beth Judah Temple, Spencer and Pacific avenues, Wildwood. This course is for Jews and non-Jews interested in learing the basics of this religion. The class is free to members of Beth Judah Temple and $10 for non-members or $80 (paid in advance) for the entire course. Call 609-522-7541.
THE LAST SUPPER live dramatization, 7 p.m. March 28 and 29, Ocean City Tabernacle, 550 Wesley Ave., Ocean City. Admission is free (offering received).
EASTER SUNRISE SERVICE, 6:30 a.m. March 31, Music Pier, Moorlyn Terrace and Boardwalk, Ocean City. For more information call 609-525-9300.
CHURCH SERVICES, Worship, 9:30 a.m. and Church School, 9:30 a.m. Sundays, The First United Methodist Church of Wildwood Crest, 6700 Atlantic Ave. Call the church office at 609-729-4265 or Parsonage at 609-522-6439.
FREE CHRISTIAN PRESCHOOL PROGRAM 9:30 to 11:0 a.m. Mondays, Greater Vision Bible Fellowship, 172 Route 50, Seaville. Preregister anytime at greatervisionbf.webs.com or call Missy at 609-463-9067.
INTERDENOMINATIONAL CHRISTIAN MEN'S GROUP, 9:15 a.m. first and third Wednesdays, Price Hall, Academy and Seashore roads, Cold Spring. Call Rob Riehl at 609-889-3538 or email email@example.com.
JUDAISM 101, 6:30 to 7:30 p.m. Wednesdays, Beth Judah Temple, Spencer and Pacific avenues, Wildwood. Fee for nonmembers $5 per class. Call 609-522-7541.
PURPOSE-DRIVEN LIFE SERIES, 10:15 a.m. second and fourth Wednesdays, Cold Spring Presbyterian Church, Academy and Seashore roads, Cold Spring. Call Rob Riehl at 609-889-3538 or email email@example.com.
'NOAH' AT SIGHT AND SOUND THEATER in Lancaster County, Pa., by Forever Young group at Notre Dame de la Mer Parish in Wildwood, April 18. Cost $105, includes transportation, show ticket and dinner at Plain and Fancy Restaurant. For information, call Doris at 609-522-5830.
"A WINTER'S TALE," April 6, McCarter Theatre in Princeton, by Access to Art, Inc., $115 includes bus, lunch and play admission. Call 465-3963 for information and to register.


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Art History Browser \ Byzantine Art \ Duccio di Buoninsegna Gallery
Duccio di Buoninsegna (1255-1319) was one of the most influential Italian artists of his time. Born in Siena, Tuscany, he worked mostly with pigment and egg tempera and like most of his contemporaries he painted religious subject matters. He has influenced Simone Martini and the brothers Ambrogio and Pietro Lorenzetti, among others. more from wikipedia »


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Question: The paper Deception and Design The Impact of Communication Technology
The paper "Deception and Design: The Impact of Communication Technology on Lying Behavior" (Computer-Human Interaction [2009]: 130–136) describes an investigation into whether lying is less common in face-to-face communication than in other forms of communication such as phone conversations or e-mail. Participants in this study were 30 students in an upper-division communications course at Cornell University who received course credit for participation. Participants were asked to record all of their social interactions for a week, making note of any lies told. Based on data from these records, the authors of the paper concluded that students lie more often in phone conversations than in face-to-face conversations and more often in face-to-face conversations than in e-mail. Discuss the limitations of this study, commenting on the way the sample was selected and potential sources of bias.
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Answer to relevant QuestionsThe authors of the paper "Popular Video Games: Quantifying the Presentation of Violence and its Context" (Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media [2003]: 58–76) investigated the relationship between video game ...The article "High Levels of Mercury Are Found in Californians" (Los Angeles Times, Feb ru ary 9, 2006) describes a study in which hair samples were tested for mercury. The hair samples were obtained from more than 6000 ...Can choosing the right music make wine taste better? This question was investigated by a researcher at a university in Edinburgh (www.decanter.com/news). Each of 250 volunteers was assigned at random to one of five rooms ...Red wine contains flavonol, an antioxidant thought to have beneficial health effects. But to have an effect, the antioxidant must be absorbed into the blood. The article "Red Wine is a Poor Source of Bioavailable Flavonols ...An experiment to evaluate whether vitamins can help prevent recurrence of blocked arteries in patients who have had surgery to clear blocked arteries was described in the article "Vitamins Found to Help Prevent Blocked ...
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