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Encrustation patterns on Late Cretaceous (Turonian) echinoids from southern Poland
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This study focuses on sclerobionts from a large collection of epibenthic echinoids (>2,000 specimens) of the genera Conulus and Camerogalerus. Samples were collected from five localities in southern Poland (Polish Jura and Miechów Trough), where Turonian carbonates with terrigenous input are exposed. Low intensity (mean ca. 5 %, maximum ca. 10 %) and slight encrustation ("loosening effect") exclusively by episkeletozoans probably resulted from low productivity of encrusters while the importance of other factors cannot be excluded unambiguously. Echinoids served as a main substratum and after death formed shellgrounds ('echinoid carpet') offering abundant benthic islands for encrusters in an otherwise soft-bottom environment. The moderate abundance but low-diversity assemblage is represented by bivalves, sedentary polychaetes, foraminifera, bryozoans, corals, and sponges. This assemblage is similar to a nearly contemporaneous assemblage from the Bohemian Basin. The presence of numerous spirorbins offers insights into their early evolution and may indicate that their first peak in abundance after origination was not prior to the earliest Turonian. This is regarded as one of the important ecological steps towards the rise of modern sclerobiont communities. Encruster diversities are independent of their abundance and, as shown in our novel planar projections, lateral parts of tests were preferentially encrusted. This pattern is explained by the combination of largest flat area and stable orientation. Encrusting bivalves and serpulids dominated hard substrate environments in the Turonian of Poland.
KeywordsEchinoids Encrusters Ecology Cretaceous Turonian Poland
Encrustation, also termed fouling or epibiosis (see e.g., Wahl 1989; Harder 2009) is a widespread phenomenon in marine environments. It is long-ranging, extending back to Cambrian times, and has received growing interest among both paleontologists and neontologists (e.g., Brett 1988; Wahl 1989; 2009; Lescinsky 2001; Taylor and Wilson 2003; Kukliński 2009; and references cited therein). In many instances, encrusting organisms provide biological, taphonomic, and ecologic information often not available from other sources in the fossil record (Lescinsky 2001). Encrusters are also a powerful tool for recognizing discontinuity surfaces, tracking the taphonomic history of organisms, for paleoenvironmental reconstructions, inferring life styles of host organisms, and for studying biological interactions (see Taylor and Wilson 2003 for examples).
When compared to other biogenic substrates such as mollusks (e.g., Taylor 1979; Lescinsky 1993; McKinney 1996; Lescinsky et al. 2002) or brachiopods (e.g., Bordeaux and Brett 1990; Lescinsky 1997; Rodland et al. 2004), echinoids have been rarely studied as potential substrates for encrustation. To date, there have been few studies on encrustation patterns on echinoids in general (e.g., Hammond 1988; Nebelsick et al. 1997; Schneider 2003; Santos and Mayoral 2008; Zamora et al. 2008).
In the present paper, we focus on encrustation patterns on Cretaceous echinoids from Poland. Although Polish Cretaceous echinoids have been the subject of paleontological investigations for more than a hundred of years (e.g., Zaręczny 1878; Kongiel 1939; Popiel-Barczyk 1958; Mączyńska 1984; Jagt et al. 2004; Jagt and Salamon 2006; Olszewska-Nejbert 2007; Borszcz et al. 2008; Jagt and Kin 2010), records of their encrustation are rather scanty compared to the abundance of these fossils. To date, only octocoral bases (Małecki 1982) and bryozoans (Dzik 1975) encrusting Polish Cretaceous echinoid tests have been taxonomically investigated, while Kudrewicz (1992) illustrated some epibionts on echinoids and used them for taphonomic reconstruction of the Santonian environment of southern Poland.
Here we provide new data concerning the encrustation patterns of Turonian echinoid tests. This time interval is of interest because it follows the controversial Cenomanian-Turonian extinction event (e.g., Smith et al. 2001). Epibionts may add new data and other perspectives in this regard (cf. Lescinsky 2001; Fraiser 2011). Qualitative and quantitative analyses are undertaken on a large sample size, revealing diversity patterns, a distribution, taphonomy, and ecology of the encrusters. An interpretation of the paleoenvironment of the encrusted echinoids is also given.
Geological setting
Paleogeographic background
During Late Cretaceous times, the study area was located at ca. 45ºN (e.g., Golonka 2000) and covered by an epicontinental sea as a result of the extensive transgression that had begun in the Albian (see e.g., Cieśliński 1959; Dadlez 1989; Dadlez et al. 1998; Marcinowski 1974). The study area is confined to the southeastern margin of the Central European Basin as part of the German—Polish Cretaceous Basin, also called the Polish Basin (e.g., Marcinowski and Radwański 1983; Marcinowski and Gasiński 2002).
Studied localities
Five localities with Turonian echinoids were investigated. They are all situated in southern Poland (Fig. 1b), partly in the Miechów Trough and Polish Jura Chain, including the Kraków Upland as their southern tip and represent a 35-km-long transect. These localities (Fig. 1c, d) are represented by abandoned quarries and/or temporary trenches, where such deposits are relatively well exposed and fossiliferous.
The outcrop is located less than 10 km southeast of the city of Wolbrom. During the fieldwork, 6 m of Upper Cretaceous sedimentary rocks, resting on Upper Jurassic (Oxfordian) limestones (e.g., Sujkowski 1926; Marcinowski 1972, 1974), were uncovered. The strata were dated as Cenomanian and Turonian on the basis of inoceramid and ammonite faunas (e.g., Marcinowski 1974; Walaszczyk 1992). The investigated Lower Turonian deposits, situated within the Mytiloides labiatus Zone, are ca. 4 m thick and developed as laminated limestones (wackestones) covered by poorly lithified sandy limestones. This outcrop is well known for its abundant and diverse fossils (e.g., Kongiel 1939; Mączyńska 1958; Popiel-Barczyk 1958; Marcinowski 1974; Borszcz et al. 2008; Salamon et al. 2009). Echinoids are exceptionally abundant about 1 m above the Cenomanian—Turonian boundary (see also Borszcz et al. 2008).
Five meters of Turonian deposits, represented by the Lower Turonian M. labiatus Zone and the Middle and/or Upper Turonian (Inoceramus cotellatus and/or I. lamarcki and I. costellatus zones; see Walaszczyk 1992), are exposed there. The section is represented by strongly lithified massive limestones, sandy limestones, and cherts, followed by pelitic limestones (Kudrewicz and Olszewska-Nejbert 1997).
Specimens were recovered from a trench in Turonian strata developed as sandy limestones with quartz pebbles. Alexandrowicz (1954, pp. 372) dated the outcrops based on the presence of Inoceramus cf. lamarcki and I. cuvieri, indicating a highest Middle Turonian (I. lamarcki Zone) age (e.g., Olszewska-Nejbert 2007).
An abandoned quarry exposes highly karstified Turonian strata less than 1 m thick and comprising limestones with an admixture of quartz grains (see also e.g., Gradziński 1972). Representing the Lower Turonian M. labiatus Zone (Walaszczyk 1992), the deposits contain abundant echinoids of Conulus subrotundus.
This outcrop, also known as Ściejowice (see Alexandrowicz 1954), is one of the most southerly located Upper Cretaceous sections in Poland and comprises poorly cemented limestones with quartz pebbles and occasional manganese concretions. Turonian deposits are up to 1 m thick and have been assigned to the Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica Zone as based on foraminifera (Zofia Dubicka, pers. comm.), thus indicating an Early to Middle Turonian age (Peryt 1980).
Materials and methods
The specimens were collected both by hand picking and bulk sampling. Bulk samples were processed using repeated freezing and thawing in a solution of glauber salts. In total, 2,094 specimens were collected. Among these, 1,882 specimens came from Glanów, where nearly 300 specimens are represented by Camerogalerus minimus, and the rest by Conulus subrotundus. A further 79 specimens come from Tyniec, 69 from Jeziorzany, 40 from Kostrze, and 24 from Trojanowice; all of these are Conulus subrotundus. To our best knowledge, this material is the largest used in a study of echinoid encrustation to date. For comparative purposes we also screened associated bio- and lithoclasts, as well as the residues from sieving. Among these, we focused on other echinoderms (crinoid, ophiuroid, and asteroid remains), brachiopods, bivalves (including a few tens of inoceramid shells), fish teeth and quartz pebbles (90 specimens) and slabs of host sediment with encrusted tests, with a surface area from a few to a few dozens of cm2.
The material was first cleaned and then carefully inspected using a stereo-microscope. Selected specimens were photographed using a digital camera and selected encrusters were scanned using a Philips XL 30 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM) housed in the Faculty of Earth Sciences, Sosnowiec. All material is deposited in the Department of Paleontology and Stratigraphy, University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, Poland (GIUS 9-3478 and GIUS 9-3580).
Analytical methods
Two metrics were used to evaluate epibiont abundance. In the first method, the proportions of particular taxa in the assemblage are expressed as the number of individuals of a particular taxon, and in the second by the number of tests encrusted by this taxon. For the purpose of statistical analysis, we quantified epibiont associations and dispersions, with five and three individuals as a mean, respectively.
Measurements of sizes of epibionts and echinoids were undertaken using a caliper. For the former, bivalves (their attachment bases) and spirorbins were selected as examples. For measurements of substrate sizes, only well-preserved echinoids allowing precise measurements of width, length, and height were incorporated.
Descriptive terminology follows Taylor and Wilson (2002, 2003), and partly Wahl (1989; see also Harder 2009). Encrustation intensity (see also Rodland et al. 2004) was divided into total (mean) and partial, defined as the ratio of encrusted to non-encrusted bioclasts for the whole collection of echinoids (total encrustation intensity) and for respective localities (partial encrustation intensity).
Encruster taxa richness (orders or operational taxonomic units) in this study refer to a micro-alpha diversity on a single echinoid test, an alpha diversity referring to a single locality, and total diversity of all encrusting taxa from all of the localities. Counting higher taxonomic units rather than species is supported by a recent finding that relatively little information is lost when such surrogacy is used (e.g., Włodarska-Kowalczuk and Kędra 2007).
For testing relationships between epibionts and substrate size we used three measurements (width, length, and height). This method was used rather than surface or cubic measurements, which has been successfully applied to various other substrates (e.g., Wilson and Taylor 2001; Grzelak and Kukliński 2010; Zatoń et al. 2011), because the state of preservation of the material did not permit the latter.
We used linear regression (R2) for analysis of relationships between, for example, number of encrusters, species richness, and echinoid test size. ANOVA (F) was used to explore differences between abundance, species richness, and echinoid tests of various states of preservation. To improve normality and homogeneity of the data, the analysis was followed by log (x + 1) transformation. The non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test (H) was used for analysis of the differences between encrusters on tests of different echinoid species, different sectors of echinoid tests, and for investigating microstratigraphic changes in the composition of encrusters. All datasets used in the statistical analyses are derived from our database (see Electronic Supplementary Material 1; ESM 1) and are available from the authors upon request. All statistical analyses and graphs were carried out using the Statistica 8.0 and PAST software (Hammer et al. 2001).
Planar projections
To show the spatial distribution of epibionts on their substrates, we propose a new planar projection, conceptually similar to but more advanced than those used by Nebelsick (1996) or Santos and Mayoral (2008). The previous types of projections or contour diagrams are frequently used for patterns of encrustation, bioerosion, or drilling predation (e.g., Bottjer 1982; Lescinsky 1997; Nebelsick et al. 1997; Santos and Mayoral 2008; Zamora et al. 2008; Sørensen and Surlyk 2010) but are inadequate for our material as they are designed for flat substrates in contrast to the nearly spherical echinoids studied here. The only exception is Hammond (1988), who used 3-D stereographic projections and goniometry-based recording of epibionts. However, during the course of this study, his unpublished PhD thesis was unknown to us.
The full dataset used for this study is provided as an Excel spreadsheet in ESM 1, and is fully explained in ESM 2. Two additional figures are included in ESM 3.
Number of encrusted specimens
Of the 2,094 echinoid specimens, 193 are encrusted (see ESM3 Fig. 1). Of these, 185 encrusted echinoids come from the Glanów section, three from Tyniec, three from Jeziorzany, one from Trojanowice, and one from Kostrze. Total mean encrustation intensity is about 5 % and partial intensity ranges from 2.5 to 9.83 %. The lowest value is from Kostrze and the highest from Glanów (ESM 3 Fig. 1). In total, we found 271 examples of encrustation, 263 of them at Glanów and significantly fewer at the remaining localities.
Characteristics of the encrusted echinoids
These taxa are the main benthic components of Turonian deposits in the areas investigated, and thus they form characteristic biofacies manifested by great abundance (e.g., a few dozen individuals of C. subrotundus can be found on bedding surfaces measuring several hundred cm2). A few dozen C. minimus individuals can also be found in a 1-kg bulk sample. This high abundance of specimens allows for the formation of an echinoid "shellground" (e.g., Dodd and Stanton 1990; Zuschin et al. 1999; Zuschin and Baal 2007). Locally, the Turonian sea floor was densely covered by dead echinoid tests forming a carpet available for colonization by encrusters.
Analysis of epibiont numbers on the two echinoid species shows no statistical difference (H(2,n = 3,900) = 1.81, p = 0.404); therefore, results from the two echinoids are combined in subsequent analyses.
Characteristics of the encrusters
List of encrusting taxa with their frequency and distribution between investigated localities
Locality (+present/−absent)
Number of specimens
Number of tests
Atreta sp.
Bivalvia indet.
Neomicrorbis sp.
Serpulidae indet.
Acruliammina sp.
Foraminifera indet.
Octocorallia indet.
Hexacorallia indet.
?Calcispongiae indet.
Epibiont indet.
The smallest encrusters are tiny agglutinating foraminifera identified as Acruliamina sp., along with other, unidentified forms. The Acruliamina specimens resemble those reported by Žitt and Nekvasilová (1996) as A. longa (see also Hercegová 1988), which is typical for Turonian nearshore environments.
Bivalves are represented by Atreta and other unidentified forms (Fig. 4a, b). Most Atreta specimens are very similar to Atreta sp. 1 of Žitt and Nekvasilová (1996), a taxon also noted by Kudrewicz (1992) encrusting Santonian echinoids from southern Poland. The unidentified bivalves may also include oyster-like forms. Only the attached valves are preserved and thus some taxonomically important features are lacking.
Bryozoans are represented by the form-genus Berenicea with millimeter-sized, sheet-like colonies (Fig. 4c). These colonies cannot be determined to the genus level due to the absence of the taxonomically crucial gonozooids (e.g., Taylor and Sequeiros 1982).
Probable sponges (Fig. 4d) are represented by an unidentified taxon, most probably a calcisponge. They are characterized by irregular and asymmetrical branches, and are among the largest encrusters within the assemblage, with branches more than 1 cm in diameter.
Coiled sedentary polychaetes (Fig. 4e, f) are represented by both dextrally (clockwise, Fig. 4e) and sinistrally (anticlockwise, Fig. 4f) coiled tubes of spirorbins, assigned to the genus Neomicrorbis. They are very similar to N. subrugosus from the Upper Cretaceous of western Europe (Jäger 1983, 2004). Similar forms were also noted in the Santonian of Spain by Zamora et al. (2008). It is worth noting that although true spirorbins became common in the Cenomanian (Jäger 1983; Vinn and Taylor 2007), they were not reported from around Cenomanian/Turonian boundary sections in the neighboring Czech Republic by Žitt and Nekvasilová (1996). Their presence in the Turonian of Poland in larger numbers than ever before deserves attention, reflecting an important ecological step towards the formation of modern-type encrusting communities (Zatoń and Vinn 2011).
Other polychaetes are represented by thin, smooth tubes of the calcareous sabellid Glomerula, well known from Poland and other regions (e.g., Radwańska 1996).
Corals are restricted to the Glanów section and are preserved only as bases, thus their precise identification is precluded. Both hexacorals (Fig. 4g) and octocorals (Fig. 4h) can be recognized, the latter resembling the parataxon Octobasis (Małecki 1982). Based on the co-occurring skeletons and comparisons with the literature, these hexa- and octocorals resemble the genera Parasmilia and Moltkia, respectively. They are well-known encrusters, for example in the Upper Cretaceous of England and Poland (e.g., Gale 2002; Pugaczewska 1965).
Distribution of encrusters
Tests ranging in size from a few mm to more than 4 cm were available for colonization. Size variation represents a near-normal distribution. Relationship between encruster sizes and sizes of the host echinoids was not statistically significant for spirorbins (R2 = 0.001, p = 0.939), but was strongly significant for bivalves (R2 = 0.72, p < 0.001). Visual inspection showed that, on average, the area of the echinoid test coverage does not exceed a few percent of the total test surface. This could be recognized as opposite to "intensification effect" sensu Pineda and Caswell (1997) and may be called by analogy as "loosening effect". Apart from serpulids, other epibionts, such as three bivalve bases, rarely are in close proximity to each other, suggesting a lack of gregariousness.
Bioclasts apart from the echinoid tests studied here show only occasional encrustation. The co-occurring small regular echinoid Salenocidaris granulosa, was found to be free of epibionts. The numerous marginal plates of goniasterid asteroids at the Glanów section are covered only by serpulids, like those found on the echinoids, which occasionally cover articulation surfaces. The bulk samples, except for some corals, yielded no encrusters similar to those on the slab surfaces. Quartz pebbles were also found to be free of encrusters. These data show that echinoids provided the principal substrates for encrusters.
There are no signs of epibiont succession through time (H(3,n = 3,900) = 1.55, p = 0.670), even in the best sampled collection from Glanów. Microencrustation (e.g., Reolid and Gaillard 2007; Reolid et al. 2007) was generally not found in the investigated material with the exception of tiny foraminifera, regarded as microencrusters by some authors.
Interval I at Glanów was probably the oldest sampled and contained sponges, octocorals, and foraminifera, while other taxa appeared in interval II and following intervals. Worthy of mention is the fact that during the first interval only 11 tests were found to be encrusted, while during the next interval more than a hundred tests were encrusted. A distinct encruster bio- and taphofacies could not be recognized. This is probably due to the small number of encrusted tests from localities other than Glanów, and strong homogenization within each sampled interval at Glanów. The same factors may explain the lack of any encruster succession.
Interpretation and discussion
Patterns of encrustation
Encrustation intensity (EI) is similar to "success of encrustation" sensu Nebelsick et al. (1997) and may be regarded as colonizer-inherent or ecosystem-inherent. This important parameter has implications for reconstructing productivity in the fossil record (e.g., Lescinsky et al. 2002 and references therein; see also Rodland et al. 2004). If tracked through time and space, it can potentially serve to test macroevolutionary and macroecological hypotheses. In the encrusted Polish Turonian echinoids studied here, a rather low intensity of encrustation was observed relative to the number of encrusted echinoid tests. Also evident is the small surface coverage (0–5 %), i.e., "light encrustation" seen also in some other skeletobionts (e.g., Brandt 1996; Zhang et al. 2009; Key et al. 2010; Rakociński 2011). This contrasts with the "heavy encrustation" (over 50 %; e.g., Kudrewicz 1992; Nebelsick et al. 1997; Schneider 2003; Zamora et al. 2008).
EI values vary between particular localities as well as between the two encrusted echinoid species. Of about 300 specimens of small C. minimus, only six were encrusted (EI = 2 %). Assuming that the echinoid tests approximate ideal spheres with a diameter of 3 cm, the collected material provided a substrate of a few square meters for encrustation. If this estimate is restricted to tests with documented encrustation, it gives ca. 2 m2 of an available area for colonization. Of course, this area was not all available at any one time.
Encrustation intensity to date has been largely explained in two ways: as a result of different times of exposure on the sea floor, and of variations in productivity. Additionally, disturbance of the substrate and removal of epibionts from the host have also been taken into account (e.g., Wilson 1985, 1987; Rodland et al. 2006). In the case of the Polish Turonian echinoids, a scenario of low productivity is probable. However, factors such as sediment resuspensions preventing or lowering encrustation intensity as well as pre-occupation of substratum surfaces by unpreservable encrusters cannot be excluded with certainty on the basis of investigation of fossil material.
Data concerning the relationship between productivity and encrustation intensity is scarce. However, Lescinsky et al. (2002) found a correlation between productivity and encrustation intensity in a study of molluscs from the Java Sea (Indonesia). If productivity was the primary control in the Polish Turonian, we would expect a low to medium intensity of encrustation and low/moderate percent coverage in view of the paleogeographical location and geologic age.
Living host colonization
The possibility of preferential encrustation of living echinoids (cf. Rodland et al. 2006) may be excluded in our case because encrustation of test oral surfaces and periprocts, as well as lack of stereom malformations, shows that the echinoids were dead.
Erasure of epibionts produces a taphonomic artifact (see e.g., Rodland et al. 2006), masking the true intensity of encrustation and abundance of encrusters. However, the "cleaned" substrate may be later re-encrusted. This scenario is excluded here because many of the Polish Turonian echinoids are characterized by the same taphonomic history and the same state of preservation. It is improbable that in two nearly identical echinoids their epibionts, characterized by the same taphonomic properties, were selectively removed. Additionally, the most fragile epibionts (tiny serpulids and foraminifera) are dominant and important components of the assemblage. Thus, the preservation of such delicate forms in great numbers excludes the possibility that encrusters were removed.
Limited exposure
Intensity of encrustation is often linked with time of exposure of the substratum and taphonomic processes in general are related in some way to the degree of exposure (e.g., Powell et al. 2011). It is predicted that substrates exposed for longer on the sea floor, including redeposited substrates, will have a greater chance to be colonized/recolonized or more heavily encrusted (e.g., Reolid et al. 2005; Rodland et al. 2006). Also substrate size may be significant for exposure time, with larger substrates being exposed for longer. Recent experiments using artificial settlement panels in the Arctic (e.g., Barnes and Kukliński 2005) have shown a nearly linear correlation between the number of colonizers and time of substrate exposure. They also demonstrated that encrustation is a rather quick process. In our case, sedimentation breaks enabling a long persistence of dead echinoids on the sea floor were absent. Redeposition episodes that might have increased the chances of previously non-encrusted echinoids to become re-exposed for colonization are unknown. However, Rodland et al. (2006), based on dated subfossil brachiopods, proved that time of exposure does not matter. Additionally, actualistic data suggest that within a few days the preservable taxa can settle. It is also important that our encrusted echinoids were on the sea floor at the time of death due to their epifaunal mode of life. Quantification of host preservation, although not providing a strong statistical signal, suggests that poorer preservation, partly caused by longer exposure time, is not a primary determinant.
This process (e.g., Osman 1977; Sousa 1979a, b; Wilson 1985, 1987) may itself explain various parameters, such as percent of coverage or diversity of encrusters but rather not EI. As the substratum was frequently overturned, and probably also the ephemeral echinoid substrate, the latter were encrusted more than once while lying on the sea floor. This is supported by the observation that on some of the echinoid tests, the epibionts are occasionally distributed on different surfaces, occupying two or three opposite poles. Such patterns exclude synchronous colonization. This is because encrustation is a rapid and repetitive process. If continuously overturned, echinoids, together with other biogenic material, would probably be destroyed and never preserved, rather than preserved non-encrusted.
Size, shape, and texture of a substrate
The model predicts that heterogeneous substrates (i.e., those that are more diverse in shape, texture, lithology, and are larger) should be more densely covered or might be settled by a more diverse fauna (e.g., Santos and Mayoral 2008; Grzelak and Kukliński 2010; Sørensen and Surlyk 2010). This in consequence may also explain the fouling ratio. However, here we argue that the main substrate was relatively homogeneous because it consisted of only one species, showing slight morphological variability. Because our material was nearly homogenous with respect to shape and texture, all the tests would to have had the same probability of being encrusted. We therefore rule out the heterogeneity model as the sole explanation for the present case.
In summary, we conclude that EI here was most probably the result of low productivity. However, the significance of other factors such as brief time of exposure, resuspensions, or disturbance, cannot be excluded unambiguously.
Abundance and diversity of encrusters
Distribution patterns of encrusters are considered to be determined by both environmental (physical) and biological factors (Perry and Hepburn 2008). These factors are known to act jointly in many instances and are commonly difficult to disentangle. Here, a few most important patterns are discussed.
The reported assemblages of encrusters are of low diversity, the same as the associated benthic organisms at the investigated sites. It is especially evident when biodiversity data is compared with literature sources. For example, Zatoń et al. (2011) noted at least 26 epilithozoan taxa on Middle Jurassic hiatus concretions from Poland. Palmer (1982) noted 13 taxa for the most diverse Cretaceous hardground and showed that total species richness at that time was higher than during the Triassic, and lower when compared to the Jurassic. In general terms, Bambach (1977) pointed out that a mean of 7.5 species are expected in Mesozoic high stress communities, while in variable nearshore and open-marine settings, 17 and 25 taxa are predicted, respectively. As was pointed out by McKinney (1996), fossil assemblages of shell-encrusting communities commonly have low diversity (mean = 8). This is comparable to the diversity of fossils in high-stress marine environments, such as the intertidal zone and estuaries for various parts of the Phanerozoic (Bambach 1977). If our values for the higher taxonomic ranks used here are compared to the data of Bambach (1977), the Late Cretaceous encrusters would be placed between high stress and variable nearshore environments. Bambach's (1977) estimation, however, refers to all taxa, not only encrusters. Thus, it is difficult to compare our values directly with his figures. From the Recent, such low values were noted for example from the brackish encrusting environment of the Gdańsk Bay of the Baltic Sea (Grzelak and Kukliński 2010). This suggests that the low diversity of 10 taxa in our case, is the result of substrate homogeneity, as well as of the state of preservation, rather than of the type of substrate or location. Both Palmer's (1982) data and the current study stay in contrast with the data gathered by Žitt and Nekvasilová (1996) who reported 29 and 23 species from Cenomanian/Turonian nearshore settings nearly contemporaneous with our own. Their data, however, like those of Zatoń et al. (2011), also come from substrates which experienced longer exposure on the sea floor, are better preserved, and thus could be resolved to lower taxonomic units. However, our results are in accordance with Witman et al. (2004), who showed that the number of species is a consequence of processes acting on local and regional scales. Importantly, our study also adds to their conclusions that a time dimension in the fossil record must be taken into account. We presented the data using two methods, which are not congruent but suggest a moderate abundance. Abundance, which is variously counted or expressed and may be variously biased, is difficult to compare. Apart from that, we showed a clear dominance of sedentary polychaetes and bivalves and thus confirming Lescinsky's (2001, p. 461) general observation. Žitt and Nekvasilová (1996) also showed that in their nearly contemporaneous assemblages there was a dominance of two associations on their studied rockgrounds: an oyster-bryozoan and a bivalve-foraminifera association. Similarly, Olszewska-Nejbert (2007) illustrated a dominance of serpulids and bivalves in the Turonian/Coniacian material.
Size relation between the host and encrusters
The size of the substrate, that is the area for living, was considered in numerous studies as one of the most important factor shaping sessile communities (e.g., Pineda and Caswell 1997; Reolid et al. 2005). In some cases, it is also referred to as the "limited ecospace" (Jagt et al. 2007). Osman (1977) pointed out that differences in diversity and species composition may have resulted solely from size differences of the substratum.
In this study, abundance, but also species richness of encrusters, are independent of echinoid size. In general, such a pattern could be explained as a result of random epibiont recruitment on a post-mortem, homogeneously shaped substratum during a particular time of low productivity, the latter factor being the least important. The investigated echinoids, dominated by one species, were nearly homogeneous in shape, thus we may exclude shape of the substrate as a factor influencing our encruster community. Heterogeneous substratum is more attractive for settlers and thus increases diversity and abundance (e.g., Wilson and Taylor 2001; Zatoń et al. 2011). Our material comes from Cretaceous deposits, where much fewer encrusting taxa are found, as compared to other intervals, where they are more diverse as (e.g., during the Jurassic; Palmer 1982; Lescinsky 2001).
The lack of dominance of a particular size class or the absence of the smallest classes of substrate should reflect a stochastic encrustation, as suggested by a near normal distribution of encrusted tests. This explains the rarity of encrustation of the smallest echinoids, which is especially true for a small C. minimus. This is supported, for example, by Schneider (2003, p. 438), who found that the diameter of the echinoid test with and without epibionts does not differ significantly even in syn vivo encrustation. Using two testing groups, we found that among epibionts there is no host-size selection (=host-size preferences) in spirorbins. By contrast, we found such a correlation with respect to bivalves. This is probably an effect of substrate stability if we assume that bivalves grow slower and need a more stable substrate than spirorbins. For example, Spirorbis needs only 3 days to attain 3 mm in diameter (Jagt et al. 2007). In our material, in both cases, encrusters developed near-normal populations (Fig. 15), while the lack of smallest size classes could be regarded as a taphonomic bias. We know from visual inspections that very small encrusters are present but too poorly preserved to be measured. In this way it is hard to discuss the mortality pattern in our assemblage, which in the cases of some juvenile foraminifera may be high. Cornell et al. (2003) observed normal populations of edrioasteroids but with a small number of juveniles. They explained such a pattern as seasonal recruitment influenced by environmental conditions (see also Taylor and Wilson 2003).
Additionally, our data suggests a low-tier assemblage of encrusters. The suspension-feeding epibionts primarily lived at the scrub layer (sensu Palmer 1982), and only in a few instances at the field and canopy layers, while the ground layer was unexplored. Our reasoning is supported by the size of the hosts, the small grain size of the surrounding sediment and the fact that echinoids were a principal component of the shelled benthos and thus served as the main substrate for secondary tiering in the investigated environments. Only corals profited from a higher level while the other groups such as polychaetes and bryozoans exploited lower levels. Additionally, in many instances, the encrusting organisms in our assemblages did not exceed a tier of even 5 cm, while during Cretaceous higher tiers clearly existed (Bottjer and Ausich 1986).
When compared with other echinoid-dwelling assemblages and other types of substrates, our assemblages are fairly typical. Similarly to echinoids from other Polish localities, as well as to some other examples (see also e.g., Kidwell and Baumiller 1990; Rose and Cross 1993), echinoids from the Turonian-Coniacian of Kazakhstan (Olszewska-Nejbert 2007) were also mainly encrusted by bivalves and serpulids. Kudrewicz (1992) also mentioned the common occurrence of bivalves and serpulids encrusting echinoid tests, which suggests that this was typical of that time. Zamora et al. (2008) found nearly the same assemblages in the Santonian deposits of Spain.
With some quantitative and qualitative differences, Dzik (1975), Kudrewicz (1992), and Małecki (1982) also found similar encrusters to those noted by us in the Upper Cretaceous deposits of Poland. In contrast to our material, Małecki (1982) observed a high frequency and diversity of octocoral bases on Santonian echinoids. Dzik (1975), in contrast, found a few taxa of bryozoans represented by few individuals encrusting the Cenomanian echinoid tests. In Cenozoic deposits, El-Hedeny (2007) noted the presence of barnacles, oysters, spirorbins, and bryozoans, while Mikša (2009) illustrated the presence of coralline algae, oysters, and serpulids and Nebelsick et al. (1997) reported bryozoans, polychaetes, barnacles and coralline algae. These data, together with those of Santos and Mayoral (2008), suggest that taxonomic turnover in evolutionary time was a major determinant of the composition of particular assemblages, and other factors such as substrate characteristics (its size and shape) were of minor and/or limited significance. This is also strongly supported by Schneider (2003) who reported very different assemblages on Carboniferous individuals. Thus minor factors such as substrate features only selected or excluded some groups from the available pool and shaped their proportions in particular cases. Our findings, complemented with others from the literature, indicate that the Early Turonian in Poland records the penultimate step in the emergence of "modern-type" encrusting communities. It is the first peak in the abundance of spirorbins after their origination in the Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous. On Santonian echinoids, Zamora et al. (2008) found spirorbins on 34 % of a total of 100 echinoid specimens. Comparing these cases with ours suggests a higher diversity of encrusters in geologically younger communities due to the presence of algae and barnacles that are lacking in our assemblages. In contrast, our assemblages most probably contain sponges. Our data contrast with those from the Recent, mainly due to the absence of non-preservable groups in the fossil record (Nebelsick et al. 1997), such as hydrozoans found on Mediterranean echinoids. Difference between our assemblage and modern examples is also manifested by the occurrence of sabellids represented by Glomerula. In our Turonian communities, as in other Mesozoic ones (e.g., Vinn and Wilson 2010), sabellids were a dominant encrusting group, while they are low in abundance or even absent in Recent hard substrate communities. Probably they were replaced by other clades such as spirorbins, which are one of the dominant encrusters in modern fouling assemblages around the world. In general, Recent encrusting faunas are dominated by common bryozoans, calcareous polychaetes, sponges, ascidians, hydrozoans, corals, and barnacles (e.g., Bowden et al. 2006). Linse et al. (2008) found 51 species of epibionts belonging to ten classes on echinoids from Antarctic settings, with bryozoans as the most diverse group and polychaetes as the most abundant biota. This is very similar to our case, except for bryozoans which are rare and not diverse in our assemblage.
Our study is based on a rich new material of echinoids collected from five localities in southern Poland, representing a transect of 35 km of the Turonian sea. Two species of presumed epibenthic irregular echinoids, C. subrotundus and C. minimus, were found to be encrusted, while other litho- and bioclasts were found to be barren or only rarely encrusted. Encrustation patterns are presented for the first time on echinoneid and holectypoid echinoids and on Turonian echinoids in general, as well as on other hard substrates from the Turonian of Poland.
Encrustation was an entirely post-mortem phenomenon, the abundant dead echinoids forming "shellgrounds" or "echinoid carpets" in a soft-bottom, shallow-marine environment. Dominant encrusters were sabellids and bivalves (see also Lescinsky 2001). The assemblages are characterized by a moderate abundance, low diversity, low intensity, and low area coverage (density). We found diversity and abundance of encrusters to be independent of each other, and none of these parameters was related to substrate size. Episkeletozoans represented a low tier at ground and field layers. The encrusting assemblages are quite similar to near contemporaneous ones from the Bohemian Basin, but in fact they are less diverse than the latter assemblages.
The first author is cordially thankful to numerous colleagues for help in the field work, assisting with photographs, and hospitality, mainly to Maciej Rybicki, Janusz Kucharski, Piotr Sołyga, and Sławomir Warzecha. He is also very grateful to numerous persons, too numerous to list here, for help with the literature organization. The most extensive thanks are to Prof. James Nebelsick, Dr. Paul D. Taylor, Dr. Samuel Zamora, and Dr. Brian Rosen for their thorough insight during the profound pre-review offering many constructive comments, corrections, and remarks towards improving the paper. We are especially grateful to Zofia Dubicka M.Sc. for useful biostratigraphic consultations. We are thankful to Prof. Mark Wilson for his help with recognition of sponges. Great thanks are also to the Editor, Prof. Franz Fürsich, Dr. Olev Vinn, and two anonymous reviewers for valuable comments and corrections of an earlier version of the manuscript. This paper forms an improved part of an unpublished Master Thesis of one of us (Borszcz 2010). We dedicate this paper to the memory of the late Prof. Ryszard Marcinowski, the well-known Polish Cretaceous palaeontologist and stratigrapher, and year-long investigator of the localities studied for the present publication. This study has been completed during an investigation grant to PK from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (No N N304 404038).
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This page lists news items posted at the wiki.
- Anybody may post news items which are related to the Inheritance cycle, as well as the wiki itself.
- To submit news in this category, simply create a blog page and add it to Category:News
- To see the most recent news and comments, you might need to refresh this page's cache.
Current newsEdit
A brief post about the latest release. The book is slated to include:
- A new scene has been inserted into the book.
- Artwork from Christopher Paolini and John Jude Palencar.
- A letter from Jeod on life after the Rider War.
- A letter from Paolini on the series.
The press release.Read more >
The results are in for the contest to find the official theme song for Inheritance and the winners are Borna Matosic and his band Meridian Mind with their song The Time of the Dragon Riders. You can listen to the track here or download it from iTunes.
In this forsaken time
While sinister powers command
A young man rises up
Will he fall or make his stand?
Of all the secrets
That are buried in this land
He found the one that
Would lay history in his hands
Into the sky
Dragon wings carry you, Eragon
Two become one
Bring justice to those that have fallen
Into the sky
Fulfill your destiny, Eragon
May the time of the dragon riders come
Relinquish your despair
A scent of hope now colors the air
A sudden spark relumines the flame
And suddenly the world's not the same
Resistance! Vengeance!
The time for revenge has now finally come
Dragon Rider lead our fight
And we may be victorious tonight!Read more >
This morning, while searching for new fantasy novels on Amazon, I accidently typed "Inheriwiki" into the search field and through an involuntary reflex left clicked on search. In doing so, I discovered the following travesty:
What, for a start, is it? Why is there a picture of a book of major conflicts in the Star Wars universe and why is it here, adorned with a stock photo of a flower? Why are there four of them? Who is making money out of this? How did this get under the radar? Who buys these books anyway?
If you are wondering, no, I don't endorse these products. Such information as is contained therin will be from November at the latest and hence out of date. Advertising may be advertising but this is ludicrous.Read more >
Hey everybody! I thought a great way to draw attention to the wiki would be to get... a... Spotlight!
Here is a list of all short pages. Special:ShortPages
We have not so many stubs, so we can get a spotlight!
Who thinks this is a good idea? This time you won't be heard. 15:13, March 3, 2012 (UTC)
Check the Inheriwiki:Sandbox.
Like teh news section? --This time you won't be heard. 22:43, March 4, 2012 (UTC)Read more >
Last night at Book Expo in New York, Christopher Paolini shared with us a new, action-packed extract from Inheritance, taken from the first chapter, Into the Breach. Read on for the latest developments:
The sound was stabbing, slicing, shivering, like metal scraping against stone. Eragon's teeth vibrated in sympathy, and he covered his ears with his hands, grimacing as he twisted around, trying to locate the source of the noise. Saphira tossed her head, and even through the din, he heard her whine in distress.
Eragon swept his gaze over the courtyard twice before he noticed a faint puff of dust rising up the wall of the keep from a foot-wide crack that had appeared beneath the blackened, partially destroyed window where Blödhgarm had killed the magician. As the squeal increased in intensity, Eragon risked lifting a hand off one ear to point at the crack.
"Look!" he shouted to Arya, who nodded in acknowledgment. He replaced his hand over his ear.
Without warning or preamble, the sound stoppe…
Read more >
The title is here, the cover is revealed and we (finally) have a release date. Christopher Paolini's Inheritance cycle will conclude with Inheritance, released on the 8th of November 2011. The full announcement may be found here.
Wyvern Rex. would, on behalf of the users of the Inheritance Cycle Wiki, like to congratulate JACK5555 for breaking this news to the community.--Wyvern Rex. 14:42, March 23, 2011 (UTC)Read more >
According to Shurtugal.com, in February 2011, Christopher Paolini was writing a scene which involved "a stone table, a brazier filled with glowing coals, a man with impeccably groomed fingernails, and a black cloak."[1]
The main theory at present is that this scene will include Galbatorix. Could this be the first appearance for the man we've waited so long to see?Read more >
The long-awaited Suvudu interview with Christopher Paolini and Mike Macauley has been released. Listen to it through the link.Read more >
Shurtugal.com have launched a new website for sci-fi, fantasy and horror called Lytherus. Webmaster Mike Macauley is among the staff.Read more >
Christopher Paolini recently visited Random Buzzers, an online fan community, and discussed the Inheritance Almanac and Book 4. In the interview, he repeatedly stated that he is nearing completion of the book and that it is likely the title will soon be released. He also revealed a number of interesting facts, such as that Galbatorix named his dragon Shruikan, rather than Shruikan choosing that name. The highlights may be found here.Read more >

subset: commoncrawl


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Jake McDorman is a man of style, and certainly the best kind. This 27-year-old Texas native is going to be seen in one of our favorite shows "Shameless," which premieres its newest season on January 12, 2014. Luckily, he allowed for us to come to his Los Angeles home and document our visit. So today, we present you another day with Jake McDorman.
Really nice pad! What stood out to you the most about the place when you first visited it? Thank you! The floor plan, probably. I like a lot of space in every direction including upwards. So the way the place is laid out definitely appealed to me. That and it had a lot of potential for remodeling. I put a ton of work into the place over the course of four or five months to make it the way it is now, so. I saw promise. It was a project.
Do you have a favorite area in the house?
I have a few. We tore down the kitchen entirely. Everything in there is a choice I made at one point or another. Cabinets, countertops, paint colors, backsplash, you name it. Plus it's where the food is. I've always liked being in the kitchen. At the same time, I like the living area in front of the fire place too. It's the floor plan! Everything's very open and connected. This is also the first place I've lived where I spend a lot of time in my bedroom. Don't take that out of context...
How's your cooking? What's your favorite thing to make? I love to cook. I have a cast iron skillet that I use to cook pretty much anything. I grew up in TX so I'm from a meat and potatoes household. Not too much has changed. Except quinoa. That's LA's contribution. Quinoa.
I can sense the Texan, southern feel to it. How would you describe the style? Really? That's interesting. One of my best friends who lives in Austin, TX came up with the idea for putting the reclaimed wood on the wall above the fire place. I guess it feels southern in some ways. There's a lot of reclaimed wood. Not just over the fire place. When I started I was thinking industrial. It kind of evolved into a rustic hybrid of industrial and farmhouse maybe. I like things that look old and broken in. And I like using living materials. Wood, iron, limestone.
Do you have a favorite place to shop for furniture? Where did you get some of these pieces (like the crescent moon fixture)? There's a lot of great places to shop in LA. HD Buttercup, Cleveland Art, West Elm, Restoration. There's reclaimers in Simi Valley and other places if you want to get creative. Flea Markets are great. The Rosebowl flea market is where I got the crescent moon and a few other things. My coffee table was made by a guy I met at the Rosebowl. Etsy...there's a lot.
What's your morning routine like? Any rituals we normally wouldn't think of? Morning routine? The only thing routine about my morning is waking up at some ungodly hour of my cat's choosing and giving him food. Weird rituals...I read almost every script I get on the couch listening to Ella Fitzgerald & Louie Armstrong Pandora and a pack of American Spirits. That's not that weird, but hours before the audition I'll go over my lines in the bathroom with the shower water running. That's weird. I've always done that too. Something about the running water keeps me focused. I should probably get a little fountain. I'd get a lot more done...
Now say you have come home with a fresh script, like one for "Shameless." Do you go straight into studying or do you read for your own entertainment first? Well for "Shameless" definitely for my own entertainment first, are you kidding? I'm current now! When I booked the show I hadn't seen an episode. Over the hiatus I had the pleasure of binge watching all 3 seasons in a row. I read the script immediately to find out what the hell happens next. But that goes for any script. You can't start studying until you read it anyway. You read the story and then decide if it's a story you're excited to help tell.
And the question everyone always wants to know – Any pets? Dog person or cat person or iguana person? I have a cat named Mr. Boo. He's a snowshoe, he's about 18lbs, and he acts like a dog. He talks constantly and is very social. He's pretty well known amongst my friends and now that I have Vine and Instagram I'm sure he'll gain a following soon enough. I grew up with dogs and cats though. I love both. If I had enough space I'd have a dog too.
Let's talk wardrobe for a second. Is your clothing style similar to your home style? A friend of mine just the other day saw my place for the first time and told me it dresses the same way I do. I can see the similarities for sure. It goes back to liking things that look lived in. Broken in already. Vintage. All that jazz. I've shopped for clothes at the same places I shop for furniture many times.
Take us back to when you were younger. Did you ever picture yourself living the life you have now? I've known I wanted to act for a long time. Since I was very little. When I was younger…I think I always hoped I'd be able to live a life fairly similar to the one I'm living now. But your ideas evolve as you do, right? So if you ask me this again in 10 years, I've got much to do for the answer to be still be yes.
Interview by Amanda Evans Edited by Lucia Tran
Photographed by Vince Trupsin Groomed by Cat White


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The healing power of nature, vis medicatrix naturae, has traditionally been defined as an internal healing response designed to restore health. Almost a century ago, famed biologist Sir John Arthur Thomson provided an additional interpretation of the word nature within the context of vis medicatrix, defining it instead as the natural, non-built external environment. He maintained that the healing power of nature is also that associated with mindful contact with the animate and inanimate natural portions of the outdoor environment. A century on, excessive screen-based media consumption, so-called screen time, may be a driving force in masking awareness of the potential benefits of nature. With global environmental concerns, rapid urban expansion, and mental health disorders at crisis levels, diminished nature contact may not be without consequence to the health of the individual and the planet itself. In the context of emerging research, we will re-examine Sir J. Arthur Thomson's contention that the healing power of the nature-based environment - green space, forests and parks in particular - extends into the realm of mental health and vitality.
PubMed Central Canada is a service of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) working in partnership with the National Research Council's national science library in cooperation with the National Center for Biotechnology Information at the U.S. National Library of Medicine(NCBI/NLM). It includes content provided to the PubMed Central International archive by participating publishers.


text: august, 2016 15aug - 18aug 159:00 amaug 18camp wild things Time15 (Monday) 9:00 am - 18 (Thursday) 4:00 pm Event DetailsMonday, July 18th – Thursday, Event Details Monday, July 18th – Thursday, July 21st Monday, August 1st – Thursday, August 4th Monday, August 15th – Thursday, August 18th Ages 6-10 9:00 a.m. – 4:00 p.m. each day at the Family Barn $500 per camper, registration required Campers, get ready for another fun and exciting week at Camp Wild Things! Art, nature, games, science, swimming and a whole week of daily adventures are in store for you! Each day concludes with free time at the Family Barn pool. Organizer Family firstname.lastname@example.com or 530-550-6070 Calendar GoogleCal No Comments Sorry, the comment form is closed at this time.


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Malga Mezzomiglio rankings
Difficulty ranking world: 1173 (all)
Ranking Italy: 286 (all)
Ranking Dolomites: 105(all)
Difficulty score: 111.14 what?
Malga Mezzomiglio ratings
(rate it)
The Malga Mezzomiglio is situated in Veneto. This climb belongs to the Dolomites.
Starting from Farra d' Alpago,
the Malga Mezzomiglio ascent is 9.08 km long. Over this distance, you climb 856 heightmeters.
The average percentage thus is 9.4 %.
Look for other sides to climb the Malga Mezzomiglio.
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|Named Person:
|William Buel Franklin; Samuel Peter Heintzelman
|Material Type:
|Manuscript, Internet resource
|Document Type:
|Map, Archival Material, Internet Resource
|All Authors / Contributors:
Robert Knox Sneden
|OCLC Number:
|Original scrapbook housed in the Museum Department of the Virginia Historical Society (1994.80.4-525) with restricted access.
NOTE: Researchers will be served a color photocopy of this scrapbook image.
Bottom margin of map: "Copy of map made for Genl. S.P. Heintzelman, 3rd Corps, by R.K.S."
|1 map : pen-and-ink and watercol. ; 23 x 20 cm. on sheet 35 x 45 cm.
|Cartographic Mathematical Data:
|Scale [ca. 1:11,300].
|From engineer's official map, staff of Maj. Genl. Franklin, 6th Corps, additions by R.K. Sneden, Topgr., 3rd Corps.
Concerns the Battle of Savage's Station, Henrico County, Va., which was one of the Seven Days' Battles, 26 June-1 July 1862.
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Related Subjects:(8)
- Franklin, William Buel, -- 1823-1903.
- Heintzelman, Samuel Peter, -- 1805-1880.
- United States. -- Army of the Potomac. -- Corps, 3rd.
- United States. -- Army of the Potomac. -- Corps, 6th.
- Seven Days' Battles, Va., 1862 -- Maps.
- Henrico County (Va.) -- History -- Civil War, 1861-1865 -- Maps.
- Savage's Station (Va.), Battle of, 1862 -- Maps.
- Seven Days' Battles.
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by PamGreene updated 2009-11-06


text: taxes Judge Blocks Tax On Roll Your Own Cigarettes By Lesley McClurg • Jun 26, 2012 bachmont / Wikimedia Commons Currently you can walk out of a tobacco shop with a pack of roll-your-own cigarettes for about $5.50. A pack of Marlboros will put you back almost twice that much. That's because tobacco shops don't charge the same tax on roll-your-own cigarettes as they would for pre-packaged cigarettes. Judge Rules Wash. Supermajority Requirement For Taxes Unconstitutional By Tom Banse • May 30, 2012 State of Washington A King County judge Wednesday ruled that Washington voters cannot impose a two thirds majority requirement to raise taxes on the state legislature. Superior Court Judge Bruce Heller found voter approved anti-tax Initiative 1053 to be unconstitutional. But the ruling is far from the last word on the matter. A group of Democratic state lawmakers and their allies sued to overturn the requirement for a two-thirds vote of the legislature to raise taxes. Washingtonians have repeatedly approved that high threshold at the ballot. But a county judge in Seattle accepted the plaintiffs' argument that the supermajority requirement conflicts with the state constitution. It says a simple majority is all it takes to pass a bill. How A Lobbyist And His iPad Helped Stop A Telephone Tax By Austin Jenkins • May 24, 2012 Photo by Kevin Mooney / Northwest News Network It's no secret that interest groups influence state lawmakers. But it's not often clear how that actually happens. Much of the action occurs behind-the-scenes. So we're going to give you a rare glimpse inside the influence game -- to see how lobbyists help shape public policies that affect our everyday lives. Olympia Correspondent Austin Jenkins reconstructs how a lobbyist and his iPad changed the course of a $1 billion piece of legislation. Great Wolf Lodge Tax Exemption Stands Despite Internal Doubts, Court Ruling By Austin Jenkins • May 14, 2012 Photo by Austin Jenkins / Northwest News Network Since the 1970s, U.S. policy toward American Indian tribes has been to encourage economic independence. Tribal casinos are probably the most visible symbol of that policy. These days, tribes are diversifying into other businesses. In 2005, the Chehalis Indian tribe in southwest Washington partnered with a Wisconsin-based water park chain to build a destination resort. The state of Washington, in turn, granted the project tax exempt status. But now, correspondent Austin Jenkins has obtained internal state documents that question whether Great Wolf Lodge really is a tribal entity and eligible for favorable tax treatment. Corporate Kicker Opponents Collect Initiative Signatures By Colin Fogarty • Apr 20, 2012 Photo credit: Elizabeth Jenkins/ Flickr / Northwest News Network Oregon initiative activists begin gathering signatures this weekend for a measure to do away with a corporate tax rebate. It's known as the kicker because it's triggered when tax revenues exceed projections by more than two percent. There's also a personal tax kicker, which this initiative would not touch. The labor-backed group, Our Oregon is sponsoring the ballot measure. The proposal would send money from the corporate kicker to schools. Spokesman Scott Moore says currently most of the refunds go to companies headquartered outside of Oregon. Idaho Lawmaker Is Tax Crusader To Some, Tax Dodger To Feds By Jessica Robinson • Apr 13, 2012 Photo credit: Idaho House of Representatives / Northwest News Network ATHOL, Idaho -- Tax evasion will get you into hot water with the IRS. But in north Idaho, it won't necessarily spell the end of your political career. A Republican state legislator who believes the federal income tax is unconstitutional is battling charges of tax evasion, even as he seeks reelection. The federal government says Phil Hart owes more than $500,ooo in unpaid taxes, interest and penalties. The U.S. Justice Department is threatening to foreclose on his home near Athol, Idaho if he doesn't pay up. Meanwhile, Idaho tax collectors say Hart owes the state another $53,000. Wash. Governor Urges Congress To Renew Sales Tax Deduction By Austin Jenkins • Mar 27, 2012 Northwest News Network OLYMPIA, Wash. – Unless Congress acts, 2011 will be the last year Washington residents were able to deduct sales tax from their federal income tax returns. Governor Chris Gregoire signed onto a letter Tuesday asking Congressional leaders to reauthorize the deduction for 2012. Secure Rural Schools Amendment Passes US Senate By April Baer • Mar 9, 2012 WASHINGTON, D.C. -- Oregon Senators, Ron Wyden and Jeff Merkley, have secured their colleagues' support of several million dollars in aid to counties in timber country. As Oregon Public Broadcasting's April Baer reports, the Senate voted 86 to 12 in favor of an amendment to extend the Secure Rural Schools Act. Fee On Electric Cars In Wash. To Offset Unpaid Gas Tax By Tom Banse • Mar 9, 2012 Photo by Tom Banse / Northwest News Network OLYMPIA, Wash. - Electric car owners in Washington state would pay a $100 fee under a measure headed to the governor's desk. The aim is to offset the gas taxes these drivers are not paying. The bill passed Thursday night in one of the final votes of this year's regular session of the Washington Legislature, as Tom Banse reports. Wash. Democratic Lawmakers Seek To Overturn Supermajority For Taxes By Austin Jenkins • Feb 27, 2012 Photo courtesy Washington State Legislature OLYMPIA, Wash. - Washington voters consistently send Democratic majorities to the statehouse. But four times over the past 20 years they've also voted to require a supermajority of the legislature to raise taxes. Most recently, in 2010. Now a group of Democratic lawmakers and their allies are challenging the constitutionality of that two-thirds rule. Oral arguments are scheduled for March 9th. Olympia Correspondent Austin Jenkins previews the case. Pages« first ‹ previous … 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 next › last »


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The Chrysanthemum Sect was one of the ten Kolat sects.
Duty Edit
Its role was to monitor the Imperial City, since it was the one place in the Empire where the most power was concentrated. Member of the sect could come from any origin, the only thing they had in common is that they lived in the imperial city. The Chrysanthemum Sect was probably the most exposed sect of all the Kolat sects, and that was why it was also the most easily disposed of, and the sect the most closely watched by the Tiger Sect. This was also why this sect was one of the most independant of Kolat sects. [1]
Secrecy Edit
In order to avoid detection, members had a variety of codes and signs to communicate and recognize eachother. Discipline was also quite harsh in the sect, and those who failed rarely get an other chance to do so. As a last resort, all members carried a small dose of lethal poison, in case they were captured and interrogated. [1]
Debate Edit
After the crippling attacks of the Lying Darkness and Shinjo's purge the kolat were disorganized, and many critical agents were isolated. The organization sought a new focus, torn between their desire to remake the Celestial Order and the more pragmatic desire to ensure the organizations existence. The Master Tiger, Cloud, Lotus, and Dream Masters were traditional Kolat, with Master Cloud the most vocal member of the group. The Steel, Coin, Silk, and Chrysanthemum Masters all adhered to the modern philosophy. Neither Master Jade nor Master Roc seemed interested in this ongoing debate. [2] The latter philosophy was championed by Morito and it seemed to be winning out. [3]
Fall of Otosan Uchi Edit
With the destruction of Otosan Uchi, the Chrysanthemum Sect was forced to move their operations. Many of their members had perished and its Master Ikoma Tsai was only able to obtain a position of minor influence within the new Imperial Court. Some began to question why they had ever been needed at all. [4]
New Purpouse Edit
The threat of Iuchiban and the corruption of its master during the Rain of Blood, the Chrysanthemum Sect was given a new purpose. An alliance between Daigotsu and the Kolat was forged to fight Iuchiban. Ikoma Tsai and most surviving members of its sect (after some mind remodelation by Master Cloud and his sect) were to be the link between the Kolat and Daigotsu. [5] [6]
With the death of Iuchiban and the end of the bloodspeaker threat, the alliance with Daigotsu was probably broken, but there was still no word on the fate of the Chrysanthemum Sect and its Master ever since. [citation needed]
After the Fall of the Hidden Temple Edit
Even after the destruction of the Hidden Temple, the Chrysanthemum Sect continued to operate within Toshi Ranbo, albeit with far fewer resources. [7]
Known Chrysanthemum Masters Edit
The last known master of the sect was Ikoma Tsai.
|This article is a stub. That means that it has been started, but is incomplete. You can help by adding to the information here.


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Best Of :: Food & Drink
You won't find any meat on the menu at Woodlands — but we promise you won't miss it when you get a taste of the restaurant's bold curries and fresh chutneys. If you're confused about what to order, just ask for a few suggestions, or go for one of the signature dosas. These paper-thin crepes made of rice and lentil batter are a staple in South India and come stuffed with everything from potatoes and onions to cheese at this Chandler restaurant. We love the spicy Chettinad dosai, which features onion, cauliflower, tomato, and chettinadu spice, as well as the paneer butter masala, a smooth curry studded with cubes of cheese. The restaurant also offers a complimentary chutney bar, where you'll find pickled veggies, tamarind chutney, yogurt sauce, mint chutney, and coconut chutney to punch up or cool down each dish as you see fit.
Readers choice: Jewel of the Crown
Italian-born owners Roberto Dadone and Luca Dagliano and Cuban native Mili Fernandez make up the trio behind Forno 301 Pizzeria, a lively restaurant that's brought European flair to downtown Phoenix. Both Dadone and Dagliano bring decades of restaurant experience from Italy — but it's the pair's dedication to doing things the traditional way that makes the restaurant stand out. Forno 301's wood-fired pizzas are made with fresh mozzarella and flour from Naples, but they're by no means the only things on the menu worth trying. The bruschetta and salads showcase beautiful, fresh ingredients and want nothing more than to be washed down by a cold Italian beer or glass of $6 house wine. Still, what seals the deal is the owners' over-the-top hospitality. Welcoming but not fussy, casual but not indifferent, Dadone and Dagliano more than live up to the Italian reputation for gracious hospitality.
Readers Choice: Union Barrelhouse
From humble beginnings in central California, chef Silvana Salcido Esparza has risen to become the reigning queen of Mexican food in metro Phoenix. Her original restaurant, Barrio Cafe, is nothing short of a local landmark and has drastically transformed the popular perception of Mexican food since opening in 2002 and these days counts restaurants at Sky Harbor International Airport and The Yard in Phoenix as sibling spots. But Esparza's not just about giving Phoenix diners excellent and affordable food. She's a chef in the true sense of the word, which means "leader" or "chief" in French. Esparza manages to run four restaurants and still finds time to mentor up-and-coming chefs, to give back to the community, and to grab the attention of national critics — including the James Beard Foundation, which has nominated her for awards on four occasions.
Readers Choice: Kevin Binkley
Last fall, Crudo launched a mystery dinner series that tested the creativity of some of the Valley's best chefs — and the trust of Valley diners. Called Blank Space, the monthly series featured big-name talent, including Kevin Binkley of Binkley's Restaurant, Gio Osso of Virtù Honest Craft, and Josh Hebert of Posh Improvisational Cuisine. Each chef collaborated with Crudo's Cullen Campbell on dinner menus with no restrictions or rules. Here's the catch: Diners didn't get to know the menu until they showed up to the event. The good news is that putting faith in local chefs paid off. Throughout the series, chef after chef put on one-night events that aren't likely to be forgotten by attendees. From Jeff Kraus' visually stunning plates and coffee-infused dessert to Binkley's signature series of "snacks," Blank Space highlighted some of the Valley's very best.
Considering that Luncha Libre is one of the Valley's longest-running food trucks, we wondered why owners Tim and Kim Cobb hadn't opened a regular restaurant. After all, their Lucha Libre-themed Mexican food truck has been featured on Food Network's Eat Street show and serves some of the best mobile food in town. Well, this year, they did open a brick-and-mortar spot, called the Taco and Dilla Parlor. But the truck is still where you'll find the newest Luncha Libre specials. The ever-changing menu draws inspiration from Thai, Mexican, and American cuisines, and you can always count on the signature bebidas (freshly made juices) and teas served in quart-size Mason jars.
Readers Choice: Short Leash
Claudio Urciuoli has been one of the most popular Italian chefs in town for years, but at Noble Eatery, he's offering rustic and unforgettable food that's unlike anything he's done before. Simplicity is the name of the game, and Urciuoli has dedicated himself to sourcing the very best ingredients and letting them shine. Of course, housemade Noble Bread serves as the foundation for most of the food, but there's also pristine produce, locally grown grains, and imported meats on the restaurant's ever-changing menu. We've enjoyed everything from a seasonal salad featuring grapefruit and marinated celery to a bowl of creamy wheat berries, farro, tomato, and corn in the cozy dining room of this lunch-only spot. Food lovers will appreciate the level of authenticity on every plate — and won't mind braving the extremely undersize parking lot in order to experience the cuisine.


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71. Britanna is lesbian-liscious
73. --I'm not giving up those Shinny Crowns 17:05, August 30, 2011 (UTC)
74. Can't sing
75. User:Baby Tana
76. Just a Lucky Person
77. you can get married as many times as you want' you only get one shot at your junior prom♥
78. Quinn.Sam
79. Mrs. Puckzilla
81. Tell me if I was brilliant or simply outstanding.' She can be difficult, but, boy, can she sing
82. Did you know that dolphins are just gay sharks?
83. CuteKurt Let me tell you about CHRIS COLFER He is TALENTED HE IS PURE AWESOMENESS
84. I'mfromlimaheights
85. User:xMimiii
86. Look, I don't mean to be a bitch... Well, acutally I do
87. Idobite
88. User:Samantha2337
89. User:Gleek1537
90. D-Dizzle Charlie Swagron 91. Per3ylove - Talk
92. Whether It's a Heart Attack or Heartbreak, just like Broadway... The Show Must Go On
93. SariahOStalk
94. --Shootingstars12
95. RedQueen Still waiting for the right time to be with you.. and spend the rest of my life beside you.
96. User:LoveNayaRivera
97. User:Georgialovesglee:)
98. Quamfan
99. I wish I knew how to make a cool signature
100. --To live a creative life, we must lose our fear of being wrong.


text:
GaiaKids Bronchial Wellness for Kids
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Why You'll Love It
About This Brand
Organic plantain leaf (Plantago lanceolata) ethanolic extract, Organic plantain leaf (Plantago lanceolata) freeze-dried extract, proprietary blend, (Organic Grindelia flowering tops freeze dried extract [Grindelia robusta], Organic helichrysum flowering topis [Helichrysum italicum], Lemon Essential Oil [Citrus x limon], Orange Essential Oil [Citrus aurantium var. dulcis], Myrtle Essential Oil [Myrtus communis].) Other ingredients: Organic sugar cane, Organic acacia honey, water, lemon juice, natural flavor.
California residents: Learn more on Prop 65 warning. Disclaimer: Information, statements, and reviews regarding products have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. Results vary person to person, and there is no guarantee of specific results. Thrive Market assumes no liability for inaccuracies or misstatements about products.
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text:
The 3 MuskatitsFavorites [+]
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You can now enjoy this movie on your iPhone®, iPad®, or compatible Smart TV & Android devices.
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Available MP4 sizes:SD 480p (1.26 GB)
DRM-free downloads offer content that is not limited by standard Digital Rights Management (DRM) access technologies. These technologies allow hardware manufacturers, publishers, copyright holders and individuals to limit the usage of digital content.
When you purchase DRM-free downloadable content, that content is available for you to download on any computer and save to a disk whenever you like. You can also download to multiple computers. There is no timeframe associated with your purchase and the content will not expire.
Running Time: 82 minutes
Released: 05/2009
Studio Name: Pleasure Productions
Director: Stuart Canterbury
Description: Three college beauties reveal their secret fantasies going back to the days of the Three Muskateers in Stuart Canterbury's all star salute to the days of Yore... Yore zipper that is!
5 Scenes from The 3 Muskatits
The 3 Muskatits: Scene 1 Free Preview
Sex Acts: Breast Play, Vaginal Sex, Oral Sex, Throat Fucking, Fetish
Positions: Kneeling, Standing Doggy Style, Laying, Missionary
Settings: Outdoors
The 3 Muskatits: Scene 2 Free Preview
Sex Acts: Breast Play, Vaginal Sex, Oral Sex, Fetish
Positions: Standing Doggy Style, Laying, Missionary, Standing
Settings: Living Room
The 3 Muskatits: Scene 3 Free Preview
Sex Acts: Anal Sex, Vaginal Sex, Oral Sex
Positions: Standing Doggy Style, Laying, Missionary, Standing
Settings: Outdoors
The 3 Muskatits: Scene 4 Free Preview
Sex Acts: Toy Play - Vaginal, Breast Play, Masturbation, Oral Sex, Vaginal Sex
Settings: Living Room
The 3 Muskatits: Scene 5 Free Preview
Sex Acts: Breast Play, Vaginal Sex, Tittie Fucking, Oral Sex
Positions: Cowgirl, Laying, Missionary
Settings: Bedroom
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