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THE STEREOTYPIC PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN SLASHER FILMS: THEN VERSUS NOW. A Thesis
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1 THE STEREOTYPIC PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN SLASHER FILMS: THEN VERSUS NOW A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Mass Communication In The Manship School of Mass Communication By Chad Brewer B.S., Louisiana State University, 2005 May 2009
2 Table of Contents LIST OF TABLES. ABSRACT. iii iv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.. 1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW... 4 The Slasher Film... 4 Stereotype Theory.. 8 Feminist Criticism and Feminist Film Theory Research Questions 21 CHAPTER 3: METHODS 22 Explanation of Textual Analysis. 22 Sample. 23 Procedure 23 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 26 Behavior Categories Fighting Behaviors 26 Behavior in moments of Stress and Fear.. 27 Behavioral Dialogue. 28 Interactions with Others.. 29 General Interactions.. 29 Acts of Violence against Females. 30 Sexual Promiscuity Dialogue during Interaction.. 32 Intelligence.. 33 Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Dialogue during Critical Thinking and Problem Solving. 35 Physical Appearance.. 36 Research Questions CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Discussion. 41 Limitations Future Research. 46 Conclusion. 47 REFERENCES 50 APPENDIX A: FILMOGRAPHY VITA. 62 ii
3 List of Tables 1. Complete List of Slasher Film Examined in this Study Differences in Results between Originals to Remakes. 39 iii
4 Abstract In entertainment, the media manager often portray various social groups, including women, in certain negative ways and as having more negative qualities than other traditional social groups, such as white males. These portrayals provide viewers with ways of thinking about and acting towards members of a particular group, thus affecting communication and perception. This research seeks to analyze data on horror film stereotyping in a new way not by merely observing stereotypes of women in horror film, but by examining the content across timeperiods and societal change. A textual analysis compared 16 total films, 8 original films versus the later remakes of each film. This helped analyze the female stereotypes that exist within horror films as well as society. Results showed that the majority of the female stereotypes found in the original films still existed in the remakes. Thus, even though the media representatives say that stereotypic portrayals have changed over the last few decades, social stereotypes of women still exist today. iv
5 Chapter 1 Introduction In a study of horror films and female stereotyped behavior, Zillmann and Weaver (1996) established that girls and female adolescents [in horror films] who are witnessed displaying fearfulness and protective need in the face of terror on the screen are more favorably evaluated by male and female peers and non-peers than their counterparts who are witnessed displaying no distress (p. 87). This display of fear is merely one example of feminine stereotyping in that viewers expect that females will remain afraid and helpless. Stereotyping in entertainment can also exist in television. Many scholars would argue that the portrayals of women in television and film have changed over the last few decades because of the feminist movement; however, stereotypes of women continue to be present in the media that millions of Americans view daily (Media Awareness Network, 2008). These stereotypes can exist in all forms of media content, from entertainment to the evening news. For the purpose of this analysis, I will specifically be observing the stereotypes of female characters in the slasher film genre to answer the question: Have stereotypes of women in film really changed over the years or are women still objectified and viewed in the same stereotypic manner that they were decades ago? Like most other genres of film, horror films convey social messages about certain timeperiods or historical time frames; however, unlike other genres, horror films delve into deeper context. Price states that horror films: explore more fundamental questions about the nature of human existence, questions that, in some profound ways, go beyond culture and society as these are organized in any given period or form. Here lies the special significance of horror, the factors that truly differentiate it from the other genres and that make it conform most deeply with our contemporary sense of the world (Prince, 2004, p. 2). The anxiety and inner terror produced by the horror genre taps into the heart of human nature. Within horror films, the definition of what it means to be human is unclear. Characters in the 1
6 horror genre often take on animalistic forms or act on the most basic animal instincts and desires; murder, violence, and sex. These characters, most often the villains, often return to wreak havoc on society and challenge or violate the viewers boundaries of human behavior and the very existence of human beings (Prince, 2004). Emotional distress and the psychological violation of human nature in the cognition of viewers has changed in transition from classic horror films to the modern American slasher film, primarily with the production of Psycho in The final scene of the film closes on Norman s smiling face, which Hitchcock described as enduring madness that could not be explained. According to Prince (2004), This is a deeply disturbing admission, which undermines our belief in rationality and an existence whose terms can be controlled or, at least, understood. In its savage assault on the audience and its belief systems, Psycho furnished the signpost for modern horror and for our contemporary sense of the world. Monsters today seem to be everywhere, and they cannot be destroyed (p. 4). Modern slasher films have continued to redefine and challenge what it means to be a human being; however, they have also commented on what it means to be male and female. For example, men are often praised and revered for their sexual prowess; however, women are often punished for sexual promiscuity. In slasher films, the final girls who survive at the end of the film always remain virgins. Those that engage in sexual behavior often die at the hands of the killer. As a whole, society has become more accepting of women s equality to men; therefore, the goal of this analysis then, is to observe whether this societal view has impacted the horror film industry over the last few decades. I will observe the comparison between slasher films produced from 1960 to 1985, termed the Original films, versus the same film produced later (1998 to 2008), referred to as the Remake of each film. This will help explore the female stereotypes that exist within early horror films and more recent horror films, and how these presentations may or may not reflect the ideology of the time period during which producers created the films. Though many researchers have studied this topic at length, this is a new way to 2
7 look at this area because it is not merely observing stereotypes of women in horror film, but it is conducting this study across time and societal change. Though social scientists have conducted previous studies on the original films used in this study, this analysis will produce its own original, important, and valid results. By comparing the re-examination of the original films to the examination of the remade films, I will be able to observe whether or not the same social stereotypes still exist in the media today, or if they have really changed as the media representatives claim they have. The two primary theories guiding this research are stereotype theory and feminist film theory. Both theories are important to mass communication studies, and in particular this thesis topic for two reasons. An abundance of research has found stereotypes to exist in media, with negative effects. Entertainment media outlets often portray specific groups, such as women, in negative ways or as having more negative qualities than the dominant social group. Such portrayals establish context and ways of thinking about and interacting with members of another group, in turn affecting communication socialization (DeFleur & Dennis, 1998). When the dominant group labels another social group with specific negative characteristics or behaviors, scholars refer to the label as a stereotype. Feminist film literature often uses the concept of social labels of women, often applied by men, to defend its theories. Men in power often apply social labels to women, that affect social stereotyping of women, and in return, affect communication. Feminist criticism of slasher films studies how the lives of women in film relate or do not relate to the changing lives of real women in society (Boyle, 2005). Thus, this research will primarily use stereotype theory applied to media studies. The research will then use feminist film theory to reinforce the analysis of stereotype theory in relation to slasher films. Feminist film theory will provide the research a lens through which to view media while simultaneously taking into consideration societal ideologies. 3
8 Chapter 2 Literature Review The Slasher Film The telling of horrifying tales is as old as the human capacity to tell tales. The modern horror film is merely the latest form of such story telling (Weaver & Tamborini, 1996, p. 15). Early film producers realized the potential success of these scary tales in film. According to Weaver and Tamborini (1996), American film producers developed the horror movie genre in the 1930 s with such films as Dracula and Frankenstein. Audiences love to be scared, surprised, and frightened; therefore, it was only a matter of time before the horror film industry would look for new and exciting ways to thrill viewers. This natural progression led to a new sub-genre of the horror film called the slasher film. The forefather of the American slasher film is the Italian slasher film known as Giallo. Scholars originally used the term giallo to refer to the early Italian thriller and mystery novels. Mario Bava s 1962 Hitchcokian thriller, La ragazza che sapeva troppo (The Evil Eye) is usually attributed to be the first cinematic giallo, although there has been a number of Italian thrillers prior to this which could loosely have been defined as such (Luther-Smith, 1999, p. 1). In 1969, Italian filmmaker, Dario Argento defined the modern slasher film with the production of L'Uccello dalle Piume di Cristallo (The Bird with the Crystal Plumage). These films all share the common characteristics of allure, mystery, and madness. The height of the Italian slasher film genre came in the early 1970s and eventually began to decline after On the other hand, the American slasher film became extremely popular in the early 1980s as a result of several American slasher films of the 1970s based on stories originally found in the Italian giallo (Luther-Smith, 1999). 4
9 According to Hutchings (2004), misunderstanding of slasher films often arises from the failure to produce a concrete definition. In relation to US horror of the late 1970s, some scholars and members of popular media have used other terms to describe slasher films. The trade magazine Variety coined the term teenie-kill pic, Vera Dika has proposed stalker film, and Roger Ebert uses the term women-in-danger films (p. 194). Schneider defines the slasher film as a horror film in which isolated psychotic individuals (usually males) are pitted against one or more young people (usually females) whose looks, personalities, and/or promiscuities serve to trigger recollections of some past trauma in the killer s mind (Hutchings, 2004, p. 194). According to Muir (2002), Alfred Hitchcock s Psycho (1960) provided the greatest American influence on the American slasher films of the 1970s. It provided a mold that portrayed a traumatized killer with various mental problems who stalks and murders his victims. Though slasher films all seem to have this element, the plot lines may vary, each often incorporating its own unique element. For example, Black Christmas (1974) and When a Stranger Calls (1979) both utilize modern technology of the time, the telephone. In The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974) and The Hills Have Eyes (1977), slasher producers used cannibalism to add yet another unique, grotesque quality to the 1970s slasher genre. Perhaps Halloween (1978) is the predominant psycho on the loose story. Because of its ability to draw the audience to the slasher film genre, Halloween became the highest grossing independent film ever produced until The popularity of Halloween also spawned several other similar slasher storylines such as Prom Night in The slasher film typically involves a killer who stalks and graphically murders a series of victims in a typically random, unprovoked fashion. The victims are usually teenagers or young adults who are away from mainstream civilization or far away from help. These films typically begin with the murder of a young woman and end with a lone female survivor who manages to 5
10 subdue the killer, only to discover that the problem has not been completely solved (Rockoff, 2002). In a slasher film, the killer usually uses unconventional weapons such as blades, chainsaws, and blunt objects. Rarely, if ever, does the killer use guns as in action films. Often, the killer is able to withstand most or all of his victims' attempts to defend themselves, sometimes because of either explicit or implied supernatural abilities. Thus, even after being shot, stabbed, electrocuted, or burned, he is able to continue stalking his victims. However, the misconception about the killer s supernatural strength often permeates the slasher film genre. With a few exceptions, the killer in slasher films is overtly asexual, aside from the brief bouts of voyeurism which tend to precede the murders, and his/her gender is left ambiguous (Rockoff, 2002, p. 6). On the other hand, from the viewer s perspective, it is imperative that the killer be male, even though his identity is often unknown until the end of the film; therefore, throughout the film, it is up to the viewers to subjectively decide that the killer is male based on assumption of social norms and the perspective through which filmmakers tell the story. Perhaps one of the most misunderstood and questioned aspects of the slasher film, is the use of a subjective perspective and point-of-view. For example, filmmakers often use the music tone or sequence to warn the audience, but never the victims, that the killer is coming, thus leaving the audience subjectively to interpret the events, music, or scenery in order to create or fill in the gaps of the storyline from their own point of view. Scholars, however, believe that the use of a subjective camera represents the killer s point-of-view; therefore, filmmakers force the audience to participate in the murders and identify with the killer rather than the victims. Rockoff (2002) claims that, This subjective view allows audiences to feel involved in the game of the slasher the major points of which are figuring out just who and where the killer is, and when and how he will strike heightening both their enjoyment and excitement (p. 15). 6
11 According to Adam Rockoff (2002), in the majority of slasher films, the killer is an ordinary person who has suffered some terrible-and sometimes not so terrible- trauma. It is because of this past injustice that he seeks vengeance- and the bloodier the better (p. 6). Often a back-story also explains why he focuses primarily on a particular type of victim or a particular location. Slasher films can often begin with a flashback or prologue that illustrates the killer s horrible past. Slasher films often use these past information or flashback scenes in the beginning of the films for two reasons. First, the producers want to attract the audience s attention from the very beginning of the movie and make them want to know how the killer will get his revenge. Second, filmmakers want to explain to the audience why the killer is the way he is. Very few slasher films assume that the killer is born inherently bad or evil; therefore, it is important to explain to the viewers what happened to make the killer unleash his fury (Rockoff, 2002). In this flashback, the killer often witnesses a devastating event or he is the victim of a humiliating prank or tragic event. Often it is the anniversary of such an event that triggers the killer s desire to kill those who directly caused his pain or those who might symbolically represent them. He often returns to the place of the event, or one similar to it, to seek his revenge. Holidays and special occasions, such as Christmas or a high school prom, are also times when killers often seek revenge for past atrocities. The killer s vengeance for such events usually tends to center around an attractive young woman whom he tortures and victimizes through random acts of violence, often referred to as The Final Girl (Rockoff, 2002, p. 13). According to Hutchings (2004), some critics of slasher films view the violence against women as nothing more than a reaction against feminism. He says: For film critics, and especially those on the left, the slasher was too often a reactionary and regressive development, especially in comparison with earlier social-critical U.S. horror films. In particular, the slasher offered a conservative moralism regarding sexuality which was itself just one part of a broader turn to the right that took place in American film and American society towards the end of the 1970s (p. 193). 7
12 In the beginning of the film, filmmakers usually establish the final girl as overtly tough, resourceful, and determined. Despite her friends or relatives, whom she often finds dead or mangled in some way, the final girl manages to survive in the end of the film, often after some sort of final struggle with the killer. Many scholars and feminist film critics have discussed the overt masculinity of the final girl. In Men, Women, and Chainsaws, Carol Clover says that, The Final Girl, is on reflection, a congenial double for the adolescent male. She is feminine enough to act out in a gratifying way, a way unapproved for adult males, the terms and masochistic pleasures of the underlying fantasy, but not so feminine as to disturb the structure of male competence and sexuality (Rockoff, 2002, p. 13). The masculinity is usually a sign of competence or strength, rather than anything related to gender or sexual preference. On the other hand, these final girls can often be prone to many different social stereotypes throughout the film. These stereotypes often work to lead her towards her demise, but she ultimately resorts to masculine behaviors in order to survive in the end. Before one can understand how these social stereotypes affect women in horror film, first it is important to understand the concept of a stereotype. Stereotype Theory Social Scientist, Walter Lippmann, first used the term stereotype in 1922 to refer to an image that individuals hold in their heads about a specific topic. In his critically acclaimed book, Public Opinion (1922), Lippmann explains that the way things are in the real world are often not the same as the images that exist in the minds of individuals within a given society, yet the dominant group perpetuates the inaccurate images. He acquired the actual concept of a stereotype from the idea of the printing press. As the paper passes through the press, the press produces exact copies according to what the press manager has specified the print should look like. Much like powerful players in society, the media directors can determine how society views 8
13 specific groups within that society (DeFleur & Dennis, 1998). He stated that, In the great blooming, buzzing confusion of the outer world we pick out what our culture has already defined for us, and we tend to perceive that which we have picked out in the form stereotyped for us by our culture (Kanahara, 2006, p. 306). After Lippmann coined the term stereotype, many other social science theorists used the concept with a variety of explanations; however, they all seem to focus around the same idea of cultural and superficial beliefs or generalizations about a specific group or subgroup within a given society (Kanahara, 2006). Most often, social scientists defined a stereotype as a negative idea or image thought to be true of every member of a specific group. Stored schemas in the minds of citizens provided by media and governmental messages facilitate these images. These beliefs become shared knowledge between members of the same society and culture. In general, stereotypes function to keep minority people in positions of low power and prestige (DeFleur & Dennis, 1998, p. 482). Ford and Tonander (1998) stated that traits which differentiate a social group from people in general are more likely to be judged as stereotypical than traits which are less differentiating (p. 373). This means that the dominant group tends to label traits or characteristics of another group, that stand out as unique, as stereotypic of a particular group. Stereotypes tend to separate individuals into certain subgroups within society based on a particular group membership. Thus, one might conclude that society, itself, is partially responsible for forming the group concept of a stereotype. In society, stereotypes become comfortable and easy ways for those in the majority to refer to those in the minority. They are unrealistic at times, but they are also unreliable generalizations that give rise to negative feelings and associations of negative qualities with certain groups. For this reason, prejudice often finds its way into society through stereotypes (Kanahara, 2006). On the other hand, the very need of 9
14 the dominant group to achieve self-esteem enhancement can affect the stereotype formation of a particular subordinate or minority group drastically. This means that those members of the dominant group may often put down on members of another group in order to make themselves look better to society. The dominant group needs to believe that it is better than those that are different from them (Ford & Tonander, 1998). This trend becomes crucial to understand as social comparison becomes more important in social group interaction and as tensions arise causing greater conflict between groups struggling for normative status in society. According to McKillip, DiMiceli, and Luebke (1977), there are two different categories of intergroup interaction. They call the first category the universal stereotype. This means that individuals have a tendency to judge those within their group more positively than they do members of other groups. For example, men tend to view other males more favorably and in fewer stereotypic ways than they often view women. McKillip, DiMiceli, and Luebke (1977) refer to the second category as the reciprocal stereotype. This implies that members of the majority may often form stereotypes out of anger, resentment, or confusion. This occurs when members of the majority observe a certain minority group engaging in non-socially sanctioned behavior that. For example, in our culture men are taught the need for dominance and competence while women are taught warmth and expressiveness. The reciprocal stereotype thus develops that men are competent and assertive while women are submissive, and that women are warm and gentle while men are cold and rough (McKillip, & DiMiceli, & Luebke, 1977, p. 82). When people deviate from these social norms formed by stereotypes, others become angry and resentful towards that individual or group. In return, this can often lead to further negative stereotyping. Researchers generally claim that stereotypes are tools that allow those in the majority to keep those in the minority in positions of limited or subordinate power, particularly through 10
15 messages to other members of the majority group facilitated by the mass media outlets. Even though women are technically the majority of the world s population, society has revered males as the dominant social group. Therefore, television shows directed at a target male audience, might be more inclined to portray negative stereotypic portrayals of female characters or ones that reinforce a stringent idea of what a woman should be. Even though the media messages and portrayals of stereotypes have drastically decreased in severity over the last few decades, they still exist in society today, and they still serve a facilitating purpose for prejudice. According to DeFleur and Dennis (1998), The process is still there, however, serving as the foundation on which meanings leading to prejudices and biases toward various categories of people can be learned from exposure to mass-communication content (p. 483). Thus, it is important to understand how stereotype theory relates to the mass media messages of today and how the media managers help to form and facilitate these stereotypes. Entertainment and news programming continue to present certain depictions of stereotyped groups, such as women, in its content. These portrayals often show such stereotyped groups as having less favorable characteristics than those members of the dominant majority, such as heterosexual, white males. This further aids the public, especially majority groups, in subscribing to stereotypic beliefs if they exist across all media. For those in the viewing audience who have had little or no contact with a given stereotyped group, these messages and portrayals through television and film can create constructions of meaning and further solidify stereotypic views about certain social, economic, or ethnic groups. Because of this overall stereotyping within the different media outlets, viewers of the mass media have incorporated certain stereotypes about various social groups into their ways of thinking. In turn, this can often affect how members of the majority communicate and respond to members of a stereotyped group. Incorrect or invalid assumptions about certain group characteristics may affect communication. 11
16 Overall, the process of stereotype formation by the mass media managers hinders the communication process. If a member of the majority holds preconceived notions about the behaviors of a particular group, then he or she might hold back or refrain from interacting with that group. If forced to interact with a member of the stereotyped group, the member of the dominant group might change his own behavior or alter the way in which he communicates in order to avoid a confrontation (DeFleur & Dennis, 1998). Though confrontational situations are often easily avoidable, according to the Media Awareness Network (2008), media stereotypes are often unavoidable. Stereotypes, however, can be particularly damaging. Stereotypes can over simply vast differences among groups to very simple and often unfair generalizations. They can also create misconceptions and incorrect assumptions about a particular group in society. Media directors can also use and enforce stereotypes to reinforce the ideas of those in power. Of course, the most damaging aspect of the media s perpetuation of stereotypes is social inequality and prejudice that they can often cause within a society (Media Awareness Network, 2008). Individuals often use stereotypes in the media to differentiate between the characteristics of two particular groups, such as men and women, without focusing on the legitimacy of the claims themselves. Often in the media, women become the stereotyped group and men become the group who stereotypes (Rettew, Billman, & Davis, 1993). Researchers believe that understanding media stereotypes is important because stereotypes lead to discrimination among the sexes. They hope that their research will provide information that will help minimize public evaluations based on misinterpretations by the media. Stereotypes of women found in the media often come from other aspects of life, as well. For example, the sports industry establishes the stereotypes of female athletes first and then the media content further perpetuates them. According to Schmalz and Davison (2006), because of 12
17 its aggressive and highly competitive nature, sports falls on the masculine end of the scale. Given the social construction of gender and the characteristics associated with acceptable gender behavior, the consistent finding that boys have higher physical self-concept than girls is not surprising (p. 336). The media directors are partially responsible for these stereotypes that exist in the sports industry by further perpetuating the stereotypic portrayal of female athletes or strong powerful women in general as masculine, abnormal, undesirable, and socially unaccepted. The more media content perpetuates these stereotypes, the more it will affect the way in which social groups communicate with one another and discriminate against one another. Often times for women, descriptions such as warm, loving, feminine, and virginal are the only roles that the media allow them to play (Media Awareness Network, 2008, p. 2). Though Schmalz and Davison s study does not directly involve media content, it does show that different media outlets perpetuate these stereotypes throughout its content when constructing images of female athletes, which one could apply to women in general. Though many studies, such as Schmalz and Davison s, seem to analyze social stereotypes of women, the researcher in this study was unable to find other studies that used stereotype theory as a theoretical foundation for studying slasher films. In particular, media programming often portray women as nothing more than the femme fatale, the supermom, the sex kitten, or the nasty corporate climber (Media Awareness Network, 2008, p. 2). Television and film also typically portray an unrealistic view of the ideal woman. Media content presents the image that women can maintain the perfect figure, perfect hair, and perfect makeup, even while engaging in seemingly grueling and masculine activities. From this perspective, stereotypes of women are, in fact, not much different from those that existed decades ago, the idea that women should remain beautiful, proper, and gentle at all times. This 13
18 extends to horror films. Research shows that social stereotypes portrayed in horror films can affect the social perceptions of its viewers. Watching horror films is said to offer viewers a socially sanctioned opportunity to perform behaviors consistent with traditional gender stereotypes (Weaver & Tamborini, 1996, p. 184). When the media, particularly the film industry, repeatedly expose viewers to social stereotypes of violence against helpless women, social acceptance of the behavior occurs. Thus, early work on this topic found that males exposed to a sexually violent slasher film increased their acceptance of beliefs that some violence against women is justified and that it may have positive consequences (p. 184). In the horror genre, the stereotypic characteristics of beauty, gentility, and morality permeate the slasher film. According to Rockoff (2002), One of the most enduring images of the slasher film is that of the beautiful heroine screaming with fear- as the killer rapidly approaches. These post-modern damsels in distress, who have been collectively referred to as the Final Girl, are usually the lone survivors of the killer s rampage (p. 13). In a study conducted by Sapolsky, Molitor, and Luque (2003), researchers observed the 10 most commercially successful slasher films of the 1990s. Results showed that the films portrayed female characters in more instances of fear, screaming, and cowering, than the male characters. Sexual morality is also a stereotypic category of behavior that women fall into in the slasher film. According to the legendary scream queen Jamie Lee Curtis, There s a sexual factor, yes. They kill the loose girls and save the virgins in most of these movies (Rockoff, 2002, p. 14). This further perpetuates the social stereotype in horror films that women are to remain sexually reserved and virginal, if they want to survive. The viewers expect those women who survive to remain proper and virginal, whereas those who are sexually promiscuous often die at the hands of the killer. This plays to the larger misogyny that often exist within stereotype 14
19 theory analysis. Males can engage in sexual activity and still succeed in life; however, film stereotypes sexually active females as promiscuous harlots who deserve to die or fail in some aspect of survival. Cowan and O Brien (1990) conducted a study on this very subject. They conducted a study in which they coded 56 slasher films. They focused on violence directed towards specific characters, male versus female. They found that the films portrayed male and female victims equally in frequency. On most measures, the non-surviving female characters were more frequently more sexual or appeared more sexual than the surviving females as well as the nonsurviving males within each film. Overall, Cowan and O Brien (1990) found that In slasher films, the message appears to be that sexual women get killed and only the pure women survive (p. 194). According to Weaver and Tamborini (1996), traditional gender-role stereotypes also exist throughout horror films. For example, the male characters are far more likely to choose to act aggressively and to attack or fight the killer of their own choice. Female characters, on the other hand, are far more likely to run away from the killer and only engage in physical combat when absolutely forced to defend themselves. Women are also shown expressing fear and panic for much longer time-periods than male characters. These stereotypes serve to reinforce gender norms in the minds of its viewers. Weaver and Tamborini claim that the very nature of horror films often activates certain cognitive images in the minds of the viewers; therefore, viewers are likely to connect stereotyped gender roles to violence and submission. This key point is one that feminists argue is detrimental to the female gender. By perpetuating these social stereotypes, film representations help keep women submissive. Stereotypes may also exist for certain subgroups within a larger category of individuals, for example, feminists exist in the larger category of women. For women, certain subgroups, 15
20 such as feminists, may work against formation of relationships with men in a male dominated society. These stereotypes in the media for certain subgroups, particularly in television and film, can act as a threat to the men in society, thus perpetuating negative stereotypes. Traditionally, researchers have found that men tend to reduce women in television and film to three basic categories: homemaker, professional, and sex object. Researchers have also found that men tend to feel threatened when certain subgroups, of women, such as feminists or female athletes, express non-stereotypic behavior in the media. These two subgroups of women in particular can threaten men s economic success and physical strength (DeWall, Altermatt, & Thompson, 2006). Particularly important to researchers are the social implications that make this kind of research important. For women, gender discrimination remains a problem in society today. Even though societal values may have seemingly changed over the years, media content, particularly film and television, still easily and regularly allow the expression of sexism and prejudice. The media ingrain these stereotypes into the minds of many individuals from all walks of life and it ultimately affects the way one interacts with women on a daily basis. It becomes evident that people still treat women differently than men in society today. The media messages that the film industry portrays can also cause unconscious or unintentional social stereotyping of women (Agars, 2004). This unconscious social stereotyping is often the criticism of feminist film theory. For this study, feminist film theory reinforces stereotype theory and provides a window through which to discuss stereotyping of women in slasher films. Feminist Criticism and Feminist Film Theory Feminism seeks to explain how women find their own power in a world filled with social stereotypes and stigmas. Particularly, according to Knight (1995), feminist film theory is very much political in nature. It seeks to expose, not to perpetuate, patriarchal practices (p. 39). It is about fighting for equal rights for women as a distinct social group, equal to men in every way. 16
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text:
Check BNN and Bulbanews for up-to-date Pokémon news and discuss it on the forums or in the Bulbagarden Discord server.
Talk:Differences between the games and anime
Eggs have differing appearances in the games too: check out the Gen II instruction books. They just never were implemented in the games because that's a lot of freaking sprite data. TTEchidna 21:39, 8 December 2008 (UTC)
It seems to be Status conditions don't really apply to the Anime, nor do levels. SD13 Simpsondude13>SD13 Talk 19:01, 13 December 2008 (UTC)
- Now I saw an episode with Pokémon being confused, and paralized. SD13 Simpsondude13>SD13 Talk 13:18, 21 December 2008 (UTC)
Is it needed?
The differences between games and anime are countless. Those are two different worlds (or one world, but TERRIBLY conveyed by the anime). The Special-to-games differences article would be way more interesting. Because there's not THAT many differences, yet there still are some and they're way more exciting that in the anime (like Elite Four being evil, while it's a pretty controversial change, this is just too "genius" for the anime). --Maxim 07:05, 10 April 2009 (UTC)
- Well then make Differences between games and manga. Truthfully, I dislike the manga... --ケンジのガール 07:22, 10 April 2009 (UTC)
- Is it still needed? I'm interested in contributing by categorizing the differences either by grade (eg.: from minor ones to the ones that would even lead to controversy) or some other attibute. --Solovino 18:04, 28 April 2009 (UTC)

subset: commoncrawl


text:
- Auteur :
- Mulhall
- Editeur :
- Date de parution :
- 19 mai 2011
- 9781607619154
- Dimension :
- 21 x 29,7
- Type :
- Broché
- Descriptif détaillé : Cancer and Sexual Health
The average physician and even cancer care-givers are not knowledgeable about the effects of cancer treatment on sex and reproductive life. They are even less aware of the options available for treatment of such patients. Cancer and Sexual Health fills a great need for a reference work devoted to the link between cancer and human sexuality. The volume is designed to give a comprehensive and state-of-the-art review of the sexual and reproductive consequences of cancer diagnosis and treatment. It will prove an invaluable resource for those clinicians caring for cancer patients as well as acting as a reference text for the sexual medicine clinician who may not see a large number of cancer patients.
- Avis des internautes : Cancer and Sexual Health
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text:
Jinx Build Guide by Sheogorath MWW
Not Updated For Current Season
This guide has not yet been updated for the current season. Please keep this in mind while reading. You can see the most recently updated guides on the browse guides page.
Jinx Build
Starting build
Mid game
Ability Sequence
Not Updated For Current Season
The masteries shown here are not yet updated for the current season, the guide author needs to set up the new masteries. As such, they will be different than the masteries you see in-game.
A little info
This is what i have found to help me most in the game with jinx as we all have our personal preferences i realize some of you might hate this guide but i do like people speaking thier mind to help me tweak in the future so please speak your mind and help me make a great build. i hope to bring you more of these in the futur


text:
Next Steps for Each Access Mode
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We schedule time on the RDC computers on a first-come, first-served basis, taking into account your needs and the availability of the RDC resources involved. Call your RDC Analyst to schedule your time with us. Visits exceeding 5 days in a 90-day period may require additional paperwork. Please let your RDC Analyst know if this is a possibility.
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text:
Wednesday, November 1, 2006
Day, Oracle Partner On Java Components
Newport Beach-based Day Software said today that the firm has partnered with Oracle to develop JSR 170 components. JSR 170 is a Java standard for managing enterprise content. Further details of the partnership were not disclosed. Day Software is a provider of enterprise content management tools and software.


text: Atatürkün ingilizce hayatı Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881-10 November 1938) Mustafa Kemal, founder of the Turkish Republic, was born in Saloniki on the l9th May 1881 of humble background. His father started out as a customs officer, later becoming a timber merchant. Following his sudden death he left behind a family having to fend for itself. As a child Mustafa finished primary school in Saloniki, going on to secondary education at Rucholigè School. Despite opposition from his uncle, who had taken on the responsibility of looking after the widow and her two children following the death of his brother, Mustafa entered military school, completing his military training in Istanbul. He succeeded in entering the Military School (Harbiye) where he completed his studies with flying colours, after which he was accepted into the School of the General Staff. In December 1905 he was commissioned as General Staff Captain. Throughout his studies Mustafa Kemal consistently proved himself a conscientious, aspiring and diligent student who liked to interest himself with particularly difficult and complex problems. Whilst at military school in Saloniki, he distinguished himself in mathematics and literature. At the same time, and due mainly to his own efforts he started to learn French, in which he made considerable progress. Yet another trait of character which began to show through in his early youth was Mustafa's ability to show initiative and exceptionally his ability to give orders, whilst at the same time maintaining a sense of fraternity with his comrades. In the School of the General Staff he pondered long and hard over the hardship caused by the dictatorial rule of Abdullamid, who from within his famous Yildiz Palace spread fear throughout the whole country. Just like his comrades at the school, Mustafa harboured the same feelings of disgust and rebelliousness towards the political regime of the Sultan. For this reason he did not hesitate for one moment about taking part in the secret underground activities going on at the General Staff School, directed towards the overthrow of the Yildiz Regime. Between the years 1905 and 1918 Mustafa Kemal was deservedly awarded high ranking posts in the military chain of command. He became Chief of General Staff of the army that was sent out from Saloniki to put down the uprising of the l3th April 1909, a movement designed to return the country to Hamadic Absolutism and which had started with the non recognition of the Constitution that had been declared on the 23rd July 1908. Mustafa proved to have special qualities in the organisation and management of this army of oppression, known as the Army of the Movement. In 1910 he lead the Turkish Forces during military manoeuvres in the Province of Picardy in France. In 1911 he fought in Tripoli against the Italians, and in 1914 whilst serving as Military Attaché in Sofia, he successfully drew the governments attention to the catastrophic results connected with Turkey's entry into the war with Germany and its allies. During World War I Mustafa fought against the Allied Forces at the Dardanelles, the Russians on the Mus Front, in the east and against the British in Syria and Iraq. During the war he visited Germany as Military Adviser, together with hereditary Prince Vahdettin. At the time of signing the Armistice Declaration on the 30th October 1918 Mustafa Kemal remained at the head of his troops, a command given to him by the German General Liman von Sanders. In the years between 1918 and 1923 Mustafa Kemal was at the forefront of the Turkish War of Independence and involved with the eradication of the antiquated institutions of the Osmanic Empire and in laying the foundations of the new Turkish State. He approached the National Congresses of Erzurum and Sivas to organise and lift the morale of the people in its determined opposition to the Forces of the Entente who were occupying Anatolia. By the end of these conventions he had managed to convey the message that the idea and the ideals of outdated imperialism ought be dropped so that people within the national boundaries could make decisions in accordance with the principles and general guidelines of an effective national policy. After the occupation of Istanbul by the Forces of the Entente he laid the foundations for the new Turkish State when in 1920 he united the Great National Assembly in Ankara. With the government of the Great National Assembly, of which he was President, Mustafa Kemal fought the Forces of the Entente and the Sultan's army which had remained there in collaboration with the occupying forces. Finally, on the 9th September 1922 he succeeded in driving the Allied Forces back to Izmir, along with the other forces which had managed to penetrate the heartland of Anatolia. By this action he saved the country from invasion by foreign forces. On the 24th July 1923 the States of the Entente were obliged to recognise the territorial integrity of Turkey in the Treaty of Lausanne. So it came to pass that in quite a spectacular fashion Mustafa Kemal had achieved the first step in his reform programme, the creation of a sovereign and independent state. From 1923 to 1938 Mustafa Kemal's main work lay in leading the Turkish State and its people along the path in the direction of the outside civilised world. The ideal of an independent fatherland within national boundaries had already been achieved before 1922 and therefore the idea of a truly modern state, whose role relied on the sovereignty of its people, could be developed by the most rational means available during this period. Following their separation, Sultanat was abolished in 1922, whilst Khalifat continued to exist. At the Proclamation of the Republic on the 29th October 1923 this emporia institution proved to be superfluous and it was likewise abolished. This also resulted in the disbandment of other theocratic institutions on which Khalifat was founded. By the same token all similar types of organisations and theological institutions which had regulated the role of the individual and society in general were closed. Finally by amendment to the constitution, the principle of (secularism) - that all so important factor in community life - was introduced as an anchor of the new democratic and republican constitution. As a result of this new direction, all laws, rules and regulations, institutions and methods of a theological nature that had been an influence on the dealings of state and social order were abolished and various political and social reforms introduced along Western lines, suitably adapted to meet national security and interests. In brief are mentioned here some of the important reforms introduced under Kemal: the international calendar and time were adopted (1923). in place of the traditional head garment, the fez, introduced under the rule of Sultan Nahmond II, the West's style of hat became obligatory (1925). Swiss civil law was introduced adapted to the conditions and needs of the country (1926). the Latin alphabet was adopted (1928). The Civil Code, Penal Statute Book and the Trade Law Book were introduced. The legal position of women and their place in society in the new republic was greatly improved (for example the active and passive voting right at national and local elections). Only due to the efforts of this great man, which he maintained with exceptional strength of character and persistence, helped along by his ability to work methodically, was it possible to introduce all these reforms. Thanks to his great organising talent he led the country to considerable prosperity and down the path of civilisation and peace.


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Author | exchange4media News Service | Friday, Oct 06,2006 7:33 AM
The afternoon session of the second day of the ICCO Global Summit saw PR stalwarts discuss the changing face of communication. The theme of the summit is 'Forget Best Practices, Think Next Practices'. In keeping with the theme, Santosh Desai, President, McCann Erickson India, opened the session by providing food for thought when he said that media had been always a catalyst for change. The advent of new media is a testimony for this and now with the emergence of interactive media communication is again poised for a change.
Louis Capozzi, Chairman, Publicis Public Relations and Corporate Communications Group taking the session forward said, "Today communication has made a shift from the controlled environment to that of moving to a conversation age."
With this change the panel discussed about the traditional model being obsolete where advertising, PR or sales cannot just rely on a 30-second solution but have to broaden their perspective.
Paul Taafe, Chairman and CEO, Hill and Knowlton Inc, talked about creating 'Wiki Brands' where the essence was to build the brand based on interactivity. The next practices would also mean being open to adapting to the changing environment.
When asked about turning down clients on philosophical or ethical grounds, Capozzi said, "Individuals can opt out if they are not comfortable with some client because the essence of PR professionals is to be passionate advocates of their client. If someone has a reservation I suggest that the individual can very well stay away from the client but I don't think a firm can categorically refuse a client because it brings the issue of where does one stop and draw the line."
ICCO is the apex body of over 850 public relations consultancies across the globe. It is a landmark that the annual summit is being held in Asia. The summit has been organised in association with Public Relations Consultants Association of India (PRCAI) and The India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF).


text: Please note! If you purchased your ticket before June 20, 2017, please click here to learn more about the baggage rules.It's now easier to understand and purchase only what you need Newfare New Light FareMore affordable for passengers who don't need to check baggage. 50% A 50% discount for youPay your baggage fee through the self-service channels. Carry-on baggage Carry-on baggage may not exceed the following dimensions: 40 x 25 x 55 cm (16 x 10 x 22 in) measured in length, width and height, and not weigh more than 10 kg (22 lbs). Therefore, backpacks and small bags are preferable types of baggage. What can you bring as carry-on? Up to 10 Kg 55 cm40 cm25 cm Checked baggage Checked baggage may not exceed the following dimensions: 50 x 28 x 80 cm (20 x 11 x 31 in) measured in length, width and height. It must also not weigh more than 23 kg (51 lbs). What can you bring as carry-on? Up to 23 Kg 80 cm50 cm28 cm What can you bringas checked baggage? Use our simulator The baggage fees are valid for GOL flights and the prices shown reflect the 50% discount granted for baggage fees paid via the self-service channels.Light NewfareMost affordable fare No free checked baggagePlan Ahead 1st checked bag weighing no more than 23 kg (51 lbs) is freeFlexible 1st checked bag weighing nomore than 23 kg (51 lbs) is freeGOL PremiumAvailable only for international flights. The 1st and 2nd checked bags weighing no more than 23 kg (51 lbs) each are free. Important: the Light fare is not available for flights originating outside of Brazil, nor is it available for purchase on the Uruguay website. If you're a Smiles Diamond, Gold or Silver customer,you have exclusive checked baggage benefits:Silver Category 1st checked bag weighing no more than 23 kg (51 lbs) is free. Gold CategoryThe 1st and 2nd checked bags weighing no more than 23 kg (51 lbs) each are free.Diamond CategoryThe 1st, 2nd and 3rd checked bags weighing no more than 23 kg (51 lbs) each are free. Also: Smiles Platinum cardholders are entitled to an additional benefit of 20 kg (44 lbs) of excess baggage. Please note: This benefit cannot be used to pay baggage fees, in other words, the customer must have at least one checked bag (free or paid) that weighs more than the limit in order to be eligible for the free benefit of 20 kg (44 lbs) of excess baggage. Non-cumulative benefits The checked baggage benefits pertaining to your fare type and your Smiles category are not cumulative. But don't worry. You will always receive the benefit that gives you the most. See the following example:A Plan Ahead Fare: 1 checked bag weighingno more than 23 kg (51 lbs) When purchased by a Smiles Diamond Customer: 3 checked bags weighing no more than 23 kg (51 lbs) each You can travel with up to 3 bags weighing no more than 23 kg (51 lbs) each. Please note: as an example, if you purchased a Plan Ahead fare and are a Smiles Silver customer, your first checked bag is free of charge. If you would like to check more bags, you will be charged a R$50 fee for the second bag, if the fee is paid in advance. Checked baggage fees are charged per passenger and per segment See the following example: Outbound flight Return flight Segment 1Up to 23 kg (51 lbs) each Segment 2Up to 23 kg (51 lbs) each São Paulo - CGH Rio de Janeiro - GIG São Paulo - CGH Important! The baggage fee is valid from the origin to the final destination, regardless of connections or stopovers. Get free checked baggage Fly10Segments When you fly 10 segments2 with GOL, you are upgraded to the Smiles Silver category and your first checked bag is free. Did you issue a ticket using Smiles miles? Passengers who redeemed GOL tickets using Smiles miles are entitled to one carry-on bag weighing up to 10 kg (22 lbs). If you would like to check bags, please pay the checked baggage fee through the self-service channels or you can go to the My Reservations page and enter your locator code and last name. My reservations Remember: Smiles Diamond, Gold and Silver customers are always entitled to free checked baggage. I would like to travel with more baggage.What should I do? discount Get a 50% discount by paying the baggage fee ahead of time through the self-service channels (app, mobile website, website or kiosks). Flights in Brazil International flights Checked baggageup to 23 kg (51 lbs) each Digital channels Check-in counter Digital channels Check-in counter 1st checked bag (Light fare) R$ 30 R$ 60 U$ 10 U$ 20 2nd checked bag R$ 50 R$ 100 U$ 30 U$ 60 3rd to 10th checked bags (each) R$ 60 R$ 120 U$ 45 U$ 90 Remember: should your checked bag weigh more than 23 kg (51 lbs), you will be charged an excess baggage fee of R$12.00 per extra kg for domestic flights and US$4.00 per extra kg for international flights. Baggage items may not weigh more than 45 kg (99 lbs) on domestic flights and 32 kg (71 lbs) on international flights. To learn about the baggage weight limits for international flights operated by GOL partner airlines, please clique aqui and check the baggage rules for the airline that is operating your flight. Are you going to travel with one of our partner airlines? 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This book provides information on the importance of the atmosphere, natural vegetation, soils and the surface of the earth to human society and discusses some of the ways in which the natural order has already been modified by human action. Details are provided through the use of specific examples chosen particularly from Britain and New Zealand. Environmental Systems and Human Impact is part of the Update series which brings together all the important aspects of recent research and up-to-date information for advanced students of geography and related subjects.This book presents important background material for developing the discussion of 'green' issues and is suitable for A-level students and undergraduates.
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Description: The most eloquent translation of Homer's epic chronicle of the Greek hero Odysseus and his arduous journey home after the Trojan War
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Dalmatian food is slowly being discovered around the world, and its unique combination of local fresh ingredients, historical influences and the treasures of the Adriatic ensure that it will remain a foodie's delight. Anthony Bourdain's recent discovery of Croatian cuisine (see the video below) put the region's food firmly into the international spotlight.
We will be expanding this section shortly, but in the interim, here are some Dalmatian recipes from our colleagues at Total Hvar:
To learn more about Dalmatian cooking, why not try our cooking classes when in Split?


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Bright Dairy cuts 10% cost with Tetra Pak program
CHINA – Tetra Pak claims to have cut the operational expenses of Bright Dairy – one of China's largest dairy producers and brand owners – by more than 10% through a consulting service that aims to reduce labour, maintenance and utility costs.
The programme – Operational Cost Reduction (OCR) – was set up by Tetra Pak at Bright Dairy's Fengxian factory, and involved employees engaged directly in 'Focused Improvement' (OCR-FI) group activities analyzing cost and loss, how to reduce costs, and setting cost reduction goals in the brand owner's filling operation.
In the second stage of the program – 'Continuous Improvement' (OCR-CI) – Tetra Pak and Bright Dairy moved on between 2009 and 2010 to explore ways to further improve long-term operational costs, enhance cooperation within the company and to ensure that OCR delivered lasting, positive change.
To achieve this, the programme team collected data and analysis to indentify areas to reduce operational cost, such as extending production time, cutting overfilling and unrecorded waste.
Waste reduction actions included water flush control for pasteurisation, more accurate raw milk reception, optimised milk recycling procedures, air push devices for UHT processing and overfilling reduction —which Tetra Pak claims led to a reduction of product waste of more than 24%.
In addition, Tetra Pak provided a cost reduction methodology and coaching to Bright employees so they can carry on implementing the programme independently.
"With the OCR programme, Bright Dairy has harvested not just money, but more importantly, successful management concepts and methods. It is unique in ensuring our long-term sustainability," said Zhang Fuhua, vice president of Bright Dairy.
After the success of the OCR program in the Fengxian factory, the consulting service has been rolled out to other Bright facilities in the region and other departments within the company.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Sancho Panza
From Wikisource
SANCHO PANZA, săn'kō păn'zạ (Sp. sän'chō pän'tha), the faithful squire of Don Quixote (q.v.), who accompanies his master upon his travels, but who takes a prosaic view of the incidents colored and distorted by his master's illusions. He is famous for his shrewd proverbs.