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The Signalling theory
The Signalling theory - Essay Example
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The Signalling theory
Similarly, human interactions rely on signals most of the time. The signals enable people to identify some hidden qualities of the other person. The theory focuses on providing comprehension of the varied signals as well as noting, which are dependable. For example, in making decisions, employers and managers rely on the information they obtain from the signals they receive. For instance, in making decisions about capital structures and payout policies, a manager would rely on the existing arrangement and try to evaluate its effectiveness before deciding on the next step (Chang & Hong 2000). Signals according to the theory can be categorized into assessment and conventional signals. The assessment signals denote the signals that are reliable; that is, they are signals that tend to restrict individuals who do not pose the quality required by the signal from using it. For example, if a manager perceives the organization to be overvalued, he or she should not signal the stakeholders that the organization holds a better opportunity in the future to increase profits by increasing their payouts. This is because implementing the signal will lead to embarrassment of the manager as well as create distrust. The conventional signals on the other hand denote unreliable indicators. In most cases, the signals are external and can result in heavy consequences. ...
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In economics, this is where one group plausibly conveys information to another about themselves. The stock market is affected by the decisions made by managers in relation to changing the capital structure and payout policies of their organization. …
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|Paul Elschot <paul.elsc...@xs4all.nl>
|Re: [jira] Commented: (LUCENE-395) CoordConstrainedBooleanQuery + QueryParser support
|Thu, 06 Oct 2005 21:05:21 GMT
On Thursday 06 October 2005 22:46, Hoss Man (JIRA) wrote: > [ http://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/ LUCENE-395?page=comments#action_12331531 ] > > Hoss Man commented on LUCENE-395: > --------------------------------- > > I freely admit that I didn't give a lot of thought to incrimenting maxCoord. I did it only because if I didn't, coordinator.coordFactor() generated ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsExceptions -- it assumes that the number of counted matches (nrMatchers) should be used to determine which element of coordFactor should be used, so I assumed that maxCoord allways needed to be equal the the maximum number of potential counted matches. > > Likewise, I put the code in Coordinator.init() instead of initCountingSumScorer() for the sole reason that since i was incrimenting maxCoord, I needed to do it before coordFactors[] was initialized. (allthough, I suppose it could have happened in initCountingSumScorer(), prior to the call to coordinator.init()). > > > Did I mention I'm way over my head as far as this patch goes? ... I don't honestly understand the meaning/purpose of "coordination" -- I just kind of did what I did because it seemed to work (and made some sense in the context of hte existing code). The purpose of the coordination factor is to score higher when more subqueries match. Requiring a minimum number of matchers is somewhat like requiring a minimum amount of coordination. However by default the coordination factor can be easily "overwhelmed" by other factors. Regards, Paul Elschot. --------------------------------------------------------------------- To unsubscribe, e-mail: email@example.com For additional commands, e-mail: email@example.com
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|"Bach Bui (JIRA)" <j...@apache.org>
|[jira] [Commented] (HDFS-3771) Namenode can't restart due to corrupt edit logs, timing issue with shutdown and edit log rolling
|Tue, 21 Aug 2012 17:39:37 GMT
[ https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/HDFS-3771?page=com.atlassian.jira.plugin.system.issuetabpanels:comment-tabpanel&focusedCommentId=13438898#comment-13438898 ] Bach Bui commented on HDFS-3771: -------------------------------- I reproduced this case by simulating the described NN shutdown situation with an exit(0) right after jas.startLogSegment(segmentTxId) in org.apache.hadoop.hdfs.server.namenode.FSEditLog.startLogSegment(long, boolean) This action in effect created an edit_inprogress file that has no transaction in it. NN will now fail to restart, because the error handling code can not handle this case. An easy work around is to delete the edit_inprogress file. As Todd mentioned, there will be no loss in data when we do this, am I right Todd? Ultimately, we need to fix the error handling code in org.apache.hadoop.hdfs.server.namenode.FSImageTransactionalStorageInspector.LogGroup.planAllInProgressRecovery() so that it can detect this situation. It does not seem to be very complicated as this is only a conner case. Please correct me if I am wrong. Could someone also tell me how the NN is shutdown? It seems to me this situation only occur if the NN threads are killed without waiting for them to cleanup themselves. > Namenode can't restart due to corrupt edit logs, timing issue with shutdown and edit log rolling > ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ > > Key: HDFS-3771 > URL: https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/HDFS-3771 > Project: Hadoop HDFS > Issue Type: Bug > Components: name-node > Affects Versions: 0.23.3, 2.0.0-alpha > Environment: QE, 20 node Federated cluster with 3 NNs and 15 DNs, using Kerberos based security > Reporter: patrick white > Priority: Critical > > Our 0.23.3 nightly HDFS regression suite encountered a particularly nasty issue recently, which resulted in the cluster's default Namenode being unable to restart, this was on a 20 node Federated cluster with security. The cause appears to be that the NN was just starting to roll its edit log when a shutdown occurred, the shutdown was intentional to restart the cluster as part of an automated test. > The tests that were running do not appear to be the issue in themselves, the cluster was just wrapping up an adminReport subset and this failure case has not reproduce so far, nor was it failing previously. It looks like a chance occurrence of sending the shutdown just as the edit log roll was begun. > From the NN log, the following sequence is noted: > 1. an InvalidateBlocks operation had completed > 2. FSNamesystem: Roll Edit Log from [Secondary Namenode IPaddr] > 3. FSEditLog: Ending log segment 23963 > 4. FSEditLog: Starting log segment at 23967 > 4. NameNode: SHUTDOWN_MSG > => the NN shuts down and then is restarted... > 5. FSImageTransactionalStorageInspector: Logs beginning at txid 23967 were are all in-progress > 6. FSImageTransactionalStorageInspector: Marking log at /grid/[PATH]/edits_inprogress_0000000000000023967 as corrupt since it has no transactions in it. > 7. NameNode: Exception in namenode join [main]java.lang.IllegalStateException: No non-corrupt logs for txid 23967 > => NN start attempts continue to cycle trying to restart but can't, failing on the same exception due to lack of non-corrupt edit logs > If observations are correct and issue is from shutdown happening as edit logs are rolling, does the NN have an equivalent to the conventional fs 'sync' blocking action that should be called, or perhaps has a timing hole? -- This message is automatically generated by JIRA. If you think it was sent incorrectly, please contact your JIRA administrators: https://issues.apache.org/jira/secure/ContactAdministrators!default.jspa For more information on JIRA, see: http://www.atlassian.com/software/jira
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Down syndrome confirmed(74 Posts)
We had the results from our Cvs today and our precious little girl has down syndrome. We are very undecided about how to proceed. My heart wants to keep her but my husband is very unsure. We have three other children, two teenage boys and a toddler daughter. This is to be our final pregnancy, whatever the outcome
I would appreciate any advice/experience s. Particularly from any parents of children with down syndrome. Thank you wise mumsneters.
Gosh sorry, I have just realised that this thread was started over a month ago. Op, my thoughts are with you, whatever path you have chosen.
Alizeeod, I also found your post very hurtful and offensive. As the op asked for comments from parents of children with Down's syndrome it was fairly likely that a few of us (my dd was diagnosed at birth) would read what you have said. Your experience is of one child with ds, and therefore not reflective of all (or even most) children. It's also not helpful to the op to use scare tactics by saying things like 'I hope you're aware if what you'll put yourself and your family through' .
Op, I'm really sorry you're going through this. As others have said, there is no right or wrong answer, just what you in the end feel is the best for you and your family.
Although having a baby with additional needs was not what we expected or indeed hoped for, and certainly brings added complications, our dd also brings us a huge amount of happiness and I couldn't imagine life without her. I have 3 older children (aged between 9 and 5) who adore their little sister, and - so far- I feel that our experience has brought us closer together. I know there will be things I have to fight for on her behalf as time goes on, and we don't know what her future will hold (although do we know this for any of our children?), but I don't feel as though any of our lives will be ruined by having her here. Times really have changed, and there is so much more help and support out there.
Alizeeod, a poster has told you that your comments have been very hurtful so usually one would respond with some sort of acknowledgement of that rather than more aggression.
Realnappies, I agree. To get a good overview of any 'syndrome' in practical terms then the sensible way forward is to collate as much info and views as possible from the families of those with experience. Then one can make a more informed decision (whichever is right for you) based on reality rather than fear or old fashioned information. It goes without saying that you may be that you may either wish to terminate, or you may not!
Anyone who wants up to date and unbiased advice and information on downs syndrome should refer to the Downs Syndrome Association or to online support group such as Future Of Downs which is run by parents of children with DS for and should not refer to Wikipedia.
I think reading through Wikipedia's DS page like I just did would be something to consider OP as it will give you an UNBIASED and realistic idea of the challenges you WILL face raising a Down's child. It lists all the health and behavioural problems, life expectancy, average IQ etc
It also says that most pregnant women who discover they carry one terminates the pregnancy, so I'm clearly not the only woman who thinks this way.
I am certainly not prejudiced thank you and never said in my comment that all children with DS have behavioural problems like said child. I just shared my experience because all other posters make it sound like raising a child with DS is easy, which it clearly isn't! I felt OP needed to hear the bad as well as the good.
I've read through all the replies and think you have got some sound advice.
My younger dsis has ds. Although I believe she is fairly high functioning.i.e. she can wash, dress, cook simple meals, catch a bus etc
My father left us because he couldn't cope with having an imperfect baby. My dm went into protective overdrive and never really stopped!
My dsis lives semi-independently with another special needs friend, their carers come in three times a day to help. Their carers are absolutely amazing. My dsis is invited to all the careers family gatherings, has been taken on holiday with them and has given my mum total peace of mind.
My dsis is one of the happiest, sunniest, loving and giving person you could ever wish to meet. She is extremely content and secure.
However, I grew up resenting all the attention my dsis had. Every family decision revolved around her and her needs/limitations. I feel that I was sidelined somewhat. As another poster said upthread it made me very independent and I ended up leaving home when I was 17. My sister and I are not close, but I love her dearly.
I feel for you as the decisions you are facing are far-reaching and extremely difficult.
I wanted to post simply to send the hope that you are able to find the right answer for you.
If I can offer my counsel find out as much as you can about what the consequences of continuing with your pregnancy would be but also the consequences of ending your pregnancy.
I'm not sure what I can offer being a man in this discussion. Mrsthedog and I have conversations about this, there is a close familial experience of severe learning disability. We don't find an answer other than to hope we don't have to think about it.
The very best of luck to you and you other half in you future.
I feel for you, a mother always wants her baby but circumstances make her doubt her desicision.
It will be hard and she may have health problems, but she will love you and you'll love her and so will everyone else when she arrives.
It's always the mothers choice, whatever you decide make sure it's your choice x
Alizeeod, as a mother to a beautiful girl with downs syndrome I am very very hurt by your sweeping generalisation of all children with DS based on one child you have met. Your prejudice is an absolute disgrace.
and for what it's worth, I am very pro choice and people must make the decisions that are right for them. I would hope that they are based on reality rather than misconceptions though.
I'm not going to say too much as I don't know what Uma decided as she hasn't reappeared on this post but I will say that you stated that your life would be over if you had a child with DS and that you don't believe it's a life for them (your opinion I know) and that you hope she would know what she would be putting herself and her family through….
I think you are basing those statements on your experience of one child? Please don't make statements like that as fact, as they are simply not true. You are wrong. By all means present what you have observed and have an opinion on it but just be careful…..there is a whole world and life out there that you have no experience of.
TelephoneTree, I'm not implying all children with DS will be as difficult! Just giving OP insight into what my personal experience has been, as most comments make it sound like raising a child with DS is a cake walk.
alizeeod - what you have described is absolutely not the case for all children with DS, or even the majority. In fact - what you describe is the first time I've heard that out of lots of children with DS that I have met...
I think each child is different, with or without DS. For every health problem / issue that may or may not occur with a child with DS, I personally know a typical child who has one or more of these.
Food for thought.
Signing up to be a parent is actually all you can control….
Hi OP, my heart goes out to you.
I do not have children yet (hopefully soon!) but thought I'd tell you what I think for what it's worth.
I'm a nanny and looked after a toddler for a year (last year) and his older brother has DS (he is 10). I had a conversation about abortion with his mom once and she told me she was strongly against it (I'm pro-choice).
To be honest, I witnessed this family's life daily for a year and if you keep this baby, I hope you are aware of what you'll put yourself and your family through.
This child had leukaemia as a baby, then open heart surgery, he goes to hospital regularly because he is always very poorly, he's also very aggressive (I've seen him throw knives at his brothers), cannot go to the bathroom unassisted, and is generally a nightmare.
You can tell his mom loves him but is so very stressed out and constantly worried/exhausted.
I personally would not keep a child with DS as its not a life for them in my opinion and my life would be over, you pretty much have to be a carer for the rest of your life.
My aunt who is in her mid forties terminated a pregnancy at 5 months after finding out the baby had DS. It was her first child and she'll probably never have children now.
You have other kids, so I guess take comfort in that if you decide to terminate the pregnancy.
Good luck!
Hi - only just seen this. We have a gorgeous boy with DS who will be 3 on Tuesday if you would like to PM me or me PM you? x
Thank you Monten and Nyldn, Tuesday will be the result of the CVS. CVS was done really fast, it takes less than 15 seconds if the baby is positioned well- not what I expected.
In the scan it shows that I have 1/2 chance of down syndrome +> 99% harmony came back positive for down, it also showed that there is liquid below the skin (around the chest) which might suggest heart failure and chances that the baby might not survive much longer. As the ob said "baby is not healthy no matter what the result shows..." I do not know why in a way I felt relieved to know that. I feel like it was not meant to be. It is so hard to have to make the choice and sometimes it feels better if it comes naturally...
I am trying to think positive as well for better times ahead. Good luck to all!
Hope you are ok Uma. Haven't read the whole thread but I wanted to recommend a Facebook page I follow (if you are on FB), it's called 'Down's Syndrome - Raising Awareness and Shifting Attitudes'.
It might be an interesting read in your position I think, it certainly describes the ups and downs of the journey they've been on over the last few years and gives a detailed, realistic view of their lives.
My post to Uma was made with the best of intentions and in response to her original post which started the thread. It makes specific references to her post.
Read the post you made, straight after Moten's post. Now think of how it could (perhaps must) have made her feel?
Lougle, at no point have I said that no-one should be entitled to make their own choice, and at no point have I said I'm judgemental of those who make any choice, so your comment confuses me?!
BunnyBaby, that's not the point though is it? Whether you agree with it or not, women do have the choice as to whether they continue with a pregnancy when medical conditions are known to be present. At this point in time, women do not have the choice as to whether to end the life of their child who later develops/is diagnosed with a condition. The fact that life can be changed in an instant for anyone is irrelevant.
If someone has a prenatal diagnosis they have the right to choice. It's deeply insensitive to post your opinion about it once someone has disclosed that they have TFMR.
Just so no one thinks I'm being hypothetical my brother survived a condition only uncovered at age 15 and had a lot of interventions until 30, also I have 2 cousins who have a different condition which killed one at 8, the other, thanks to GOSH and bone marrow transplants is a healthy adult. I know lots of downs adults with excellent support leading busy lives (I volunteer with a group), whereas members of my own family who would have shown as 'perfect' on scans have had their health taken away from them in an instant.
Hi Uma,
Sorry you are in this position. I would not judge anyone, whatever decision they made.
My eldest has angelman syndrome, which leads to severe learning difficulties. I also have 2 other younger children. I would not change a thing. My dd is wonderful and has enriched all our lives. Life is good. We have a very happy family. My younger kids truly adore her and I firmly believe are better people for having their sister in their lives. Dd2 in particular has such a strong bond with her sister, and insists she is going to be a speech therapist when she's older so she can help people with disabilities.
On the other hand, I have to acknowledge that things have only worked out so well thanks to amazing support from my family. DH is amazing, and very involved. My parents are close by and are incredible. I had to change careers when she was small. I still work, but in a much more flexible role. As it happens, this has worked out well, as I much prefer my new career, even if the pay is much lower. Again, I am very lucky. I do worry about the future too.
I know the Holland poem divides opinion, but it has always resonated with me. I love Holland.
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Ensign was the higher grade of junior officer in the British Royal Navy. Though a more senior position than midshipman, it still was not a commissioned position. It often served as a bridging point between being a cadet and a full fledged Lieutenant.
This was the rank people were given if they joined the Navy at an older age, instead of becoming a midshipman as a teenager. The rank was also reserved for cadets who were too old to be considered such. The older cadets were usually those who did not achieve a passing grade on the mandatory exam for a lieutenant's commission. It acted as a sort of purgetory for those who were no longer apprentices but not truly officers yet. A lot of times ensigns remained ensigns indefinately and were too old to be promoted and commisioned. That didn't mean that it wasn't possible to achieve a commission, though as it actually happened quite often.
Sometimes the experience of ensigns was crucial onboard a ship. They were the most sought after individuals when it came to commanding a captured prize ship because of experience. because of this, they often recieved temperary promotions to Acting Lieutenant.
Ensigns were a low variation of Lieutenant, who were responsible for the ensign, or the ship's flag and colours, hence the name. There were usually about two or three Ensigns on board a Royal Navy Frigate.
Gallery of notable EnsignsEdit
Behind the scenes Edit
- In the Pirates of the Caribbean films, Ensigns are recognizable by a single golden line on the sleeves of their uniforms.[1]
- In Pirates of the Caribbean Online, Ensigns are dressed like the Redcoat soldiers.
Notes and referencesEdit
- ↑ These can be noticed from scenes in The Curse of the Black Pearl.


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The Reds' lead was whittled down to six points by Chelsea's win at Manchester City on Wednesday, and the former England man knows how important a win will be against the Trotters.
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An American Vampire In Jamaica
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Scouting The DFS NBA - Sunday, November 22
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Green Data Center Networks: Challenges and Opportunities
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1 Green Data Center Networks: Challenges and Opportunities Kashif Bilal, Samee U. Khan Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering North Dakota State University Fargo ND, USA {kashif.bilal, Albert Y. Zomaya School of Information Technologies University of Sydney Sydney, Australia Abstract The concerns about environmental impacts, electricity cost, and energy needs of data centers are mounting. These concerns have given significant impetus to consider energy efficiency as one of the major data center design parameters for researchers and IT executives. Tremendous growth in the size and computing demands of data centers mandate scalable, fault tolerant, and energy efficient network infrastructure within data centers. In the recent years, new Data Center Network (DCN) architectures have aptly proposed a viable solution to the issues posed by the legacy DCNs. New DCN architectures are required to be energy efficient and energy proportional, besides dealing with other identified design drawbacks, such as scalability, fault tolerance, end-to-end bandwidth, and non-agility. In this article, we will deliberate on the various DCN architectures, their inherent problems, and the potentials to achieve energy efficiency. We will also shed light on myriad techniques that may be suitable to make the DCN architectures more energy efficient and energy proportional. Finally, we will outline future directions. Keywords- data center networks; energy efficiency; energy efficicent networks; cloud computing I. INTRODUCTION For the last several decades, Quality of Service (QoS), reliability, and performance have been given preference over all other design issues in the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector [1]. The customers and government agencies are concerned about Green House Gases (GHG) emissions and environmental impacts of energy-thirsty data centers. Therefore, today s ICT executives are appropriately concerned about the energy efficiency within data centers, besides providing highly available and high performance ICT infrastructures. Nowadays, companies are expected to uphold the service level with much lower GHG emissions and carbon footprints. A scheme named Carbon Reduction Commitment (CRC) requires big companies to purchase annual carbon allowance for companies estimated energy usage, and deliver the required services within the CRC limits. Around 10,000 business firms received warning letters from the UK government that the companies could be affected by the CRC. Gartner now lists Green IT as the leading issue of the top ten strategic trends and technologies for ICT organizations [2]. The networking equipment accounts for around 15% of a data center s overall cyber energy budget [5]. In 2010, the communication infrastructure accounted for approximately 15.6 billion kwh of energy consumption within all data centers worldwide. The servers and cooling infrastructures are the major energy consumers within data centers. Therefore, energy efficiency of the servers and cooling equipment has received more consideration by the research community. As the servers and cooling infrastructures are becoming more energy efficient, it is expected that the power consumption share of the networking devices within a data center will increase. It has been projected that the energy consumption of the network component will increase by up to 50% within data centers [7]. Moreover, the bandwidth demands of new network applications are doubling every 18 months [4]. Furthermore, in the near future, one should expect major network upgrades to support emerging technologies, such as network virtualization and Virtual Desktop Infrastructure (VDI). Table 1 summarizes the electricity usage within data centers [5]. As our reliance on fossil fuels is expected to rise substantially in the coming decades [2], factors, such as: (a) environmental aspects, (b) high energy costs, (c) increased demand, and (d) economic consequences are driving the need to consider energy efficiency as one of the foremost data center design concerns [7]. The heat dissipation from the networking devices makes a significant contribution to the overall thermal signature of the data center. Therefore, energy efficient networking will also result in the reduced data center cooling costs. Energy efficient techniques are emerging rapidly for the networking devices, such as IEEE 802.3az [4]. However, a large base of legacy networking equipment will be continually used for many years. Therefore, there is a need for energy efficiency of the legacy networking equipment [10]. We can categorize the existing green networking techniques into: (a) consolidation, (b) selective connectedness, and (c) proportional computing [4]. The consolidation techniques exploit the network overprovisioning and path diversity to consolidate the network traffic on a subset of devices. For instance, idle networking devices may be turned off to save energy. The idle devices are transitioned to sleep modes transparently in the selective connectedness using the interface proxying technique. Proportional computing refers to the idea of the system consuming energy in proportion to its utilization.
2 TABLE I. ELECTRICITY USAGE WITHIN DATA CENTERS Location Year Communication Infrastructure Electricity Usage (billion KWh) Total Data Center Electricity Usage (billion KWh) Total Data Center Electricity Usage (% of total worldwide electricity usage) Worldwide % US % Worldwide % US % Worldwide % US % Such techniques can be mainly classified into: (a) Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS) and (b) Adaptive Link Rate (ALR). Typically, the DVFS techniques are applied to processors for energy savings. The ALR techniques are aimed to scale down the network link data rates to conserve energy. For example, the IEEE 802.3az Energy Efficient Ethernet (EEE) standard provides a mechanism for energy efficiency in the Ethernet using the ALR [4]. II. DCN ARCHITECTURES The network infrastructure of a data center plays a pivotal role in ascertaining the performance factors and initial capital investment. The legacy DCN infrastructure inherently lacks the capability to meet the current growth trend and bandwidth demands. The legacy DCN architectures mainly suffer from: (a) energy-inefficiency, (b) poor scalability, (c) high cost, (d) low cross-section bandwidth, and (e) non-agility [6]. Many new DCN architectures, such as the fat-tree, DCell, VL2, BCube, flattened butterfly, and FiConn are proposed in response to the limitations posed by the legacy DCN architectures [6]. Moreover, various hybrid DCN architectures using amalgamation of optical and wireless technologies have been proposed in recent years [14]. The state of the art DCN architectures mainly focus on: (a) performance, (b) reliability, (c) fault tolerance, (d) high end-to-end bandwidth, and (e) agility. As a consequence, the new DCN architectures are often highly overprovisioned and underutilized [6], which triggers the inquest to design newer energy-efficient architectures and techniques. Based on the network traffic routing model, we can classify the DCN architectures into two major categories: (a) switch-centric model, (b) hybrid model, and (c) servercentric model. The switch-centric models rely on the network switches to perform network communication and traffic routing. The hybrid models use an amalgamation of electrical network switches and optical or wireless devices to accomplish the network communication and traffic routing. The server-centric models place the routing and switching capability within the computational servers. Computational servers are used for packet forwarding and routing besides performing computational tasks [6]. The three-tier, fat-tree, VL2, Portland, and flattened butterfly DCN architectures are switch-centric. The three-tier DCN architecture is by far the most commonly used network model, in which the switches are arranged in three layers, namely: (a) access, (b) aggregation, and (c) core. Expensive and energy-inefficient high-end equipment is used at the higher layers (aggregation and core) of the topology. However, a high oversubscription ratio in the network leads to low end-to-end bandwidth and high network latency in the three-tier DCN architecture. Al-Fares et al. proposed the fattree DCN architecture using commodity network switches. To deliver 1:1 oversubscription ratio, the commodity network switches are arranged in a Clos topology within the fat-tree. The fat-tree architecture delivers high end-to-end bandwidth at a much lower cost and energy consumption [6]. Subsequently proposed successors of the fat-tree, such as VL2 and Portland, also use the Clos structure and commodity network equipment [7]. Kim et al. proposed the flattened butterfly DCN architecture using high radix routers [8]. The flattened butterfly delivers better end-to-end bandwidth and path diversity than the baseline butterfly network. Recursively defined DCN architectures, such as DCell, BCube, and FiConn use the server-centric routing model [6]. In the DCell architecture, the whole network is composed of a hierarchy of cells called dcells. Higher level dcells are built from lower level dcells. The dcell 0 is composed of n servers and a commodity network switch. dcell 0 provides the foundation of the DCell architecture. Each server in the DCell architecture has multiple network interfaces, which are used to connect severs from one dcell with corresponding servers in other dcells. Each dcell l-1 is connected to all of the other dcells l-1 within the same dcell l. The DCell delivers a highly scalable architecture [6]. A simulation of the DCell and fat-tree DCN is shown in Fig. 1. We will deliberate on various inherent problems and potentials to achieve energy efficiency in the state of the art DCNs in the ensuing section. Optical and hybrid (optical + electrical) DCN architectures are proposed recently to overcome numerous challenges posed by the legacy electrical-only DCNs. Various all-optical interconnects, such as Data center Optical Switch (DOS), Petabit optical switch, E-Rapid, IRIS, and Data vortex, have been proposed recently [14]. Optical DCN architectures, such as Proteus, wield Optical Wavelength Switching (OWS) to reconfigure network topology on the fly. Hybrid interconnects, such as c-through, Helios, and
3 Figure 1: Simulation of DCell (left) and fat-tree (right) DCN architectures in ns-3 HyPac have been proposed to supplement the DCN using optical interconnects [14]. With the advent of 60 GHz wireless technology, numerous wireless and hybrid-wireless (wireless + electrical) DCNs are proposed recently. Wireless connectivity offers cost-effective enrichments in existing DCN infrastructure with little manual intervention. 60 GHz technology exhibits promising opportunities for DCNs by exploiting 2D and 3D beamforming, directional antennas, signal reflection, and frequency reuse. Shin et al. and Vardhan et al. proposed completely wireless DCN using 60 GHz technology. Various hybrid DCNs are proposed to augment the existing DCN by placing one or more wireless devices on servers and Top of Rack (ToR) switches. The IEEE P task group is working to standardize 60 GHz wireless technology with IEEE ad standard [15]. III. DCN ARCHITECTURES: ISSUES, SOLUTIONS, AND POTENTIALS Servers are interconnected to each other in the recursively defined server-centric DCN architectures. Such DCN architectures do not use multiple layers of network switches. Therefore, the network links interconnecting the cells experience high oversubscription ratio (up to 256:1 for 4096 nodes) [6]. The recursively defined DCNs exhibit strong reliance on the network size. The results of our simulation analysis presented in Fig. 2 show that the network throughput and inter-node bandwidth are inversely proportional to the network size in the DCell. Moreover, the servers also perform the additional task of traffic processing and routing within the server-centric routing model, which usually requires a dedicated processor/core. Furthermore, the routing schemes used in the recursive DCN architectures are usually not based on the shortest path routing. The path between the source and destination may possess additional intermediate hops, which results in higher packet delays and increased link utilization. We have simulated the DCell architecture with the DCell s customized routing and shortest path routing schemes. Our simulation results, presented in Fig. 3, demonstrate that the shortest path routing outperforms the DCell s routing in terms of network throughput and average packet delay. Because servers are used to interconnect cells, the idle servers cannot be placed into sleep state. Therefore, Dynamic Power Management (DPM) techniques for energy savings are not feasible for the recursive DCNs, resulting in continuously full energy consumption despite being idle. Details of the simulation analysis can be seen in [6]. The server-centric DCNs inherently save energy that is used in the switch-centric DCNs by network switches. The network traffic flows may be managed by applying loadbalancing techniques to overcome the network congestion problem. The DCell architecture also exhibits path diversity from source to destination. Network flow based adaptive routing protocols may exploit the path diversity to select the best and most conducive path from the source to destination. The switch-centered DCNs exhibit better candidature for energy efficiency, because of high path overprovisioning. One of the major drawbacks of the contemporary switchcentric networks is the use of a large number of network switches to ensure 1:1 oversubscription ratio. For example, the 8-pod (128 nodes) fat-tree network requires 80 network switches [6]. There is a great deal of overprovisioning and path diversity in the switch-centric networks. Moreover, the average link utilization of network links is reported around 5% - 25% [9]. Therefore, underutilization of the links and path diversity may be exploited for energy efficiency. For instance, ALR based techniques can be very conveniently applied to save energy. Moreover, end-to-end path diversity
4 Figure 2: Throughput and average packet delay of DCNs using exponential random traffic distribution Figure 3: Throughput and average packet delay comparison of DCell routing and shortest path routing using exponential random traffic distribution offers an opportunity for network traffic consolidation and re-routing on a subset of links and devices. Therefore, the remaining idle devices may be transitioned to low power sleep mode. Furthermore, IEEE 802.3az EEE may be employed to increase energy savings in amalgamation with other energy efficiency techniques. Hybrid (electrical + optical/wireless) DCNs offer solutions to various DCN problems. Wireless connectivity offers a feasible solution to extend existing DCN infrastructure eliminating cabling cost, complexity, and installation. Wireless links can be created among server and racks on the fly, reducing the network load on the core network. Energy efficiency is one of the foremost design requirements for 60 GHz technology, resulting in energy efficient 60 GHz devices and technology. Wireless interconnects can be exploited to migrate the traffic from underutilized network devices to wireless links to place the idle devices in sleep mode for energy saving. Optical interconnects offer higher port density and bandwidth at considerably low energy consumption. Estimated energy consumption of an optical transmitter is around 0.5nJ/bit, whereas the energy consumed by a high-end electrical router is around 20nJ/bit. Consequently, overall energy consumption can be reduced significantly. A complete optical DCN is estimated to deliver around 75% energy savings. Hybrid DCNs can be used to relieve the hotspots (congested links) in the DCN. Elephant flows and high fan in/out traffic are considered the chief reasons for the network
5 congestion and performance deprivation. 60 GHz wireless flyways and optical circuit switched paths offer load balancing opportunities by offloading elephant flows from electrical switches to reduce network load and congestion. IV. GREEN NETWORKING IN DATA CENTERS Green networking research follows two major trajectories: (a) workload consolidation and (b) scaling down the communication link data rate (based on ALR). Workload consolidation and traffic redirection are used to utilize a subset of network links and devices to serve all of the network traffic flows. Consequently, a subset of idle network links and devices may be transitioned to the sleep or low power idle mode to save energy. Transitioning from sleep to active mode is time consuming and may result in performance degradation. Therefore, another class of network energy optimization based on ALR is used to scale down the data rate of network equipment for underutilized devices. The ALR scales down the data rate of a part of the network equipment, so the energy savings are less as compared to turning off the equipment. The ALR delivers energy savings without affecting the network state and operations. A detailed discussion of energy savings techniques using the ALR is presented in [4]. Mahadevan et al. optimized network energy consumption by consolidating: (a) server workload and (b) network traffic, and reported around 74% energy savings [10]. Abts et al. used network traffic prediction to scale down the network link data rate to obtain energy savings of 30% - 45% at 25% link load [9]. Carrega et al. discussed the energy saving in DCNs using the network traffic aggregation [9]. The authors proposed to merge the traffic from multiple network links so that fewer links are utilized and idle links may be transitioned to sleep. The authors reported 22% energy savings for link loads of 50% [9]. ElasticTree, a network level energy optimizer used the overprovisioning and idleness of network links and devices in the fat-tree topology. The optimizer module finds a subset of links and devices to serve traffic, and powers down the remaining idle devices for energy savings. The authors estimated up to 50% energy savings using the ElasticTree. Zhang et al. proposed an energy-aware traffic engineering scheme to redirect network traffic to underutilized links. The authors reported energy savings of 27% - 42% when the maximum link load is less than 50%. Thu et al. optimized network energy consumption by designing a network control system named Ecodane. The authors implemented topology-aware heuristics and demonstrated energy savings up to 30%. Bolla et al. exploited: (a) resource virtualization and (b) modular architecture of network devices to report 51% energy savings. The aforementioned is achieved by transitioning the underutilized network components into sleep mode and migrate the virtual processes to the active components of the network. Chiaraviglio et al. discussed heuristics to turn-off links and devices while preserving the QoS and connectivity constraints. Simulation results showed up to 24% of energy savings [4]. The detailed discussion of energy efficiency in data centers can be seen in [16]. V. GREEN DCN CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS New DCN architectures are required to handle the increasing GHG emissions produced by the ICT sector. DCNs typically experience an average load of not more than 25% of the peak load. Moreover, around 70% of the time, a considerable number of the links remain idle within data centers [13]. However, the links do not remain idle constantly for long periods of time. Benson et al. analyzed data center traffic over a period of ten days and observed that the set of idle links continuously varied for the entire time period. Moreover, it also was observed that 80% of the links remained idle only for 0.002% of the time [13]. Therefore, it is important to consider the traffic characteristic within a data center prior to applying ALR or other energy saving techniques. Overprovisioning and underutilization of links and devices enable opportunity for energy efficiency techniques. However, due consideration is required to be given to the QoS and performance constraints. Performance degradation and increased latency may result in substantial revenue loss. Google reported 20% revenue loss because of an experiment that added an extra delay of 500ms in displaying the search results. Amazon experienced 1% sales decrease because of 100ms additional delay [11]. Therefore, green networking initiatives must be reliable and ensure required performance and QoS constraints. Hybrid DCNs offer promising opportunities to DCNs. However, hybrids DCNs are in their infancy and are facing numerous challenges. 60 GHz wireless technology is limited by line of sight, short range, propagation loss, and signal attenuation. 60 GHz technology poses serious challenges in transceiver positioning, beam forming, interference due to power leaks, and signal reflection in densely populated data centers. Similarly, optical interconnects also experience numerous challenges, such as cost, scalability, link setup, switching time, and insertion loss. The wavelength switching time for commercially available optical switches is around 10 to 25ms. Moreover, hybrid networks lack sufficient efficacy for DCNs multi-tenant based mixed and heterogeneous workloads. Various hybrid DCN architectures make stringent overlay assumptions, such as that: (a) flows are independent, (b) flows do not have priority, and (c) random hashing for flow distribution is effective. However, in practice such assumptions do not hold true for the DCN traffic patterns. Hybrid interconnects promise significant network upgrades. Aforementioned are some of the numerous unresolved challenges that pose a barrier in adopting hybrid technologies in data centers. Network protocols may be optimized or re-designed for enhanced performance and energy efficiency. Networkaware and energy-aware adaptive routing protocols are needed for better performance, high link utilization, and traffic consolidation and redirection. Moreover, many network services remain active to ratify their availability to periodic heartbeat messages or network chatter. The interface proxying techniques may be used to transparently transition such services to sleep without affecting the network operations [4]. The EEE is a promising energy
6 efficient technology but is still in its infancy. Efficient and reliable ALR policies are required to be designed for the IEEE 802.3az EEE. There are very little details available on characteristics of the data center traffic [11]. There is presumably no network workload generator at hand, which may generate data center traffic for various scenarios, such as one-to-one, all-to-all, and one-to-all, and for data intensive, computational intensive, and mixed workloads. A realistic data center traffic generator will substantially help the research community to analyze DCN under various scenarios, and tune the DCN for energy efficiency and reliability. Energy efficiency of network equipment has not increased following the Dennard s law and current network equipment is not energy-proportional. Energy consumed by network devices in idle state is around 80% - 90% of energy consumed in peak load [12]. Energy proportional network devices are required to be designed, and can save enormous amount of wasted energy. The DCN is one of the most significant data center components wielding a marked impact on initial capital investment and performance parameters. The state of the art DCN are implemented at a very small scale and tested under non-realistic data center traffic [6]. There are very less comparative studies for DCNs [6], and presumably no comparative study of different DCN architectures under realistic traffic conditions. Different DCN comparative studies under realistic workloads are required to highlight the DCN drawbacks and future research for enhancement. VI. CONCLUSIONS This paper presented an overview of the major challenges faced by DCNs. We discussed the need and potentials to achieve energy efficiency within the network portion of a data center. Moreover, we discussed the inherent problems and challenges related to energy efficiency of DCNs. As the energy efficiency efforts for data centers are predominantly targeted towards energy-efficient servers and data center cooling, the networking component in data centers has not yet received the sufficient attention. Therefore, the energy consumption share of the network portion is expected to increase. The ever-increasing share of the network energy consumption in data centers needs concerted and dedicated efforts to conserve significant amount of energy by exploiting overprovisioning and idleness of the network equipment. Several streams of research thrusts may further emerge by resolving the issues highlighted in this paper. REFERENCES [1] S. Murugesan, Harnessing Green IT: Principles and Practices, IEEE IT Professional, Vol. 48, No. 1, 2008, pp [2] Energy efficiency in the data center, Hewlett-Packard, Sep [3] B. Raghavan, D. Irwin, J. Albrecht, J. Ma, and A. Streed, An Intermittent Energy Internet Architecture, In proceedings of the Third International Conference on Future Energy Systems (e-energy 12), Madrid, Spain, May [4] K. Bilal, S.U. Khan, J. Kolodziej, L. Zhang, K. Hayat, S.A. Madani, N. Min-Allah, L. Wang, and D. Chen, A Survey on Green Communications using Adaptive Link Rate, Cluster Computing, (DOI /s ). [5] J. Koomey, Growth in Data Center Electricity Use 2005 to 2010, Analytics Press, [6] K. Bilal, S.U. Khan, L. Zhang, H. Li, K. Hayat, S.A. Madani, N. Min-Allah, L. Wang, and D. Chen, Quantitative Comparisons of the State of the Art Data Center Architectures, Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience, (DOI: /cpe.2963). [7] D. Abts, M. Marty, P. Wells, P. Klausler, and H. Liu, Energy Proportional Datacenter Networks, In Proceedings of the 37th International Symposium on Computer Architecture, Saint Malo, France, June 2010, pp [8] J. Kim, W. Dally, and D. Abts, Flattened Butterfly: a Cost- Efficient Topology for High-Radix Networks, In Proceedings of the 34th International Symposium on Computer Architecture, San Diego, CA, June 2007, pp [9] A. Carrega, S. Singh, R. Bruschi, and R. Bolla, Traffic Merging for Energy-Efficient Datacenter Networks, International Symposium on Performance Evaluation of Computer and Telecommunication Systems (SPECTS 12), Genoa, Italy, July 8 11, [10] P. Mahadevan, S. Banerjee, P. Sharma, A. Shah, and P. Ranganathan, On energy efficiency for enterprise and data center networks, IEEE Communication Magazine, Vol. 49 No. 8, 2011, pp [11] A. Greenberg, J. Hamilton, D. Maltz, and P. Patel, The Cost of a Cloud: Research Problems in Data Center Networks, ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review, Vol. 39, No. 1, Jan. 2009, pp [12] L. Niccolini, G. Iannaccone, S. Ratnasamy, J. Chandrashekar, and L. Rizzo, Building a Power Proportional Router, Usenix ATC '12, Boston, June [13] T. Benson, A. Anand, A. Akella, and M. Zhang, Understanding Data Center Traffic Characteristics, SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review, Vol. 40, No. 1, 2010, pp [14] C. Kachris and L. Tomkos, A Survey on Optical Interconnects for Data Centers, Communications Surveys & Tutorials, IEEE, Vol. 14, No.4, 2012, pp [15] X. Zhou, Z. Zhang, Y. Zhu, Y. Li, S. Kumar, and A. Vahdat, Mirror Mirror On The Ceiling: Flexible Wireless Links For Data Centers, ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp , [16] K. Bilal, S. U. R. Malik, O. Khalid, A. Hameed, E. Alvarez, V. Wijaysekara, R. Irfan, S. Shrestha, D. Dwivedy, M. Ali, S. U. Khan, A. Abbas, N. Jalil, and S. U. Khan, A Taxonomy and Survey on Green Data Center Networks, Future Generation Computer Systems. (Forthcoming.)
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Added: Wednesday, November 03, 2010
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A literary Mistress Owner often enjoys reading in the company of her love slave.
Here she reads a collection of erotic verse while her slave's tongue moves in gentle worship. Occasionally she pinches his nose to stimulate more forcible adoration.
And so a literary Mistress passes an afternoon with her male love slave.


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The Minimum Wage: A Distraction
Published: March 22, 1989
Finally, the long, bitter battle over raising the minimum wage comes down to this: It doesn't make much difference. To working poor people, the pluses and minuses pretty much cancel out. In Congress, the adversaries seem willing, for the first time in eight years, to compromise.
But a red danger light still flashes. All the unfamiliar movement toward accord is likely to distract from a different raise, one that would truly help millions of poor people who work hard all day, every day: the earned income tax credit. Anyone serious about work and serious about minimizing poverty will now press to increase it.
House and Senate committees have approved a $1.30 increase in the $3.35 minimum wage, to be phased in over three years. In return, liberals and labor have abandoned attempts to index the minimum to the cost of living. They may also have to settle for less and accept a ''training'' minimum, still lower, payable during the first few months on the job.
The economist's arguments against the minimum wage haven't changed. The higher the minimum, the more unskilled jobs employers will eliminate. Moreover, most of those who do benefit from increased wages will be part-time workers from middle-income families. What has changed is the likely impact.
The Labor Department still estimates that 650,000 jobs will be lost if the minimum wage goes up by $1.30. But that estimate is based on decade-old research. Inflation has eroded the value of the minimum, thus greatly reducing the number of jobs likely to be abolished to something like 100,000. President Bush's proposed second-tier training minimum wage would further reduce that loss.
That fewer jobs are at risk is no reason to increase the minimum wage. But it does explain why few Congressmen are willing to anger supporters by opposing it. No one should be fooled, though. An increased minimum is no answer to poverty. Even poor people who benefit from an increase to $4.65 will still not earn enough to raise a family of three above the poverty line.
There is, however, a remarkably precise, sensible way to improve the plight of the working poor: the earned income tax credit. It puts extra money in the pay envelopes of low-wage workers. To increase the minimum wage would merely look good; to increase the tax credit would do good.
Low-income workers can now claim a 14 percent tax credit, for a maximum of $953, either subtracting it from taxes owed or, if they don't pay that much in taxes, receiving a refund from Washington. That's like a 14 percent increase in wages. But the credit doesn't change an employer's costs and thus does not encourage him to abolish jobs.
Representatives Thomas Downey, Democrat of New York, and Thomas Petri, Republican of Wisconsin, propose beefing up this refundable credit. Under the Petri plan, for example, a poor family with two preschool children would receive a 35 percent credit, or a maximum of $2,450.
In principle, increasing the earned income credit should appeal to Congress and the President. His own child care credit proposal follows the same lines. The big question is whether support in principle will translate into willingness to finance a new program costing billions. For those who really care about the working poor, the issue is not the minimum wage but minimizing poverty. The tax credit is the right way.


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I've written here before that one possibility under discussion at the Fed is tapering off its $600bn QE2 asset purchases in order to minimise market disruption when they end.
Today, president James Bullard of the St Louis Fed raised the option of tapering so total purchases when the programme stops at the end of June are less than $600bn.
"The natural debate now is whether to complete the program or to taper off to a somewhat lower level of assets"
Mr Bullard told reporters after an interesting speech that he would favour a small reduction in the programme at the next meeting in March to reflect the better economic outlook.
Several market commentators have also put forward a slightly different version of a taper: Read more


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An ideal companion for the Bliss Chair-and-a-Half or Sofa, the Ottoman's single, down-wrapped cushion encourages feet-up lounging, while whitewashed solid ash legs make it a stylish spot to perch during cocktail parties. 35.5"sq. x 19.5"h. Solid ash legs with whitewashed finish. Flanged cushions filled with down blend. View swatches + fabric content for special order upholstery. Meet the maker of this handcrafted piece. Assembled in the USA.