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This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
This review focuses on recent advances in micro- and nano-fabrication techniques and their applications to electrochemical power devices, specifically microfabricated Lithium-ion batteries, enzymatic and microbial fuel cells (biofuel cells), and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Although the maturity of these three technologies ranges from market ready (batteries) to fundamental research (biofuel cells) to applied research (DSSCs), advances in MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) and NEMS (Nano-Electro-Mechanical Systems) techniques, particularly modifications in surface area and surface chemistry, and novel genetic and molecular engineering techniques, significantly improve the electrochemical activity of these technologies across the board. For each of these three categories of power-MEMS devices the review covers: (1) The technical challenges facing the performance and fabrication of electrochemical power devices; (2) Current MEMS and NEMS techniques used to improve efficiency; and (3) Future outlook and suggested improvements of MEMS and NEMS for implementation in electrochemical power devices.
One of the greatest challenges facing modern society is the need for low cost, smart, and sustainable power conversion and energy storage systems. Ecological concerns coupled with dwindling oil and fossil fuel supplies has led to increased interest in research in advanced energy systems [
The last decade has witnessed a tremendous upsurge in nanotechnology and nanomaterials research, seeking to harness the unique catalytic effects exhibited by these materials and their enhanced surface properties [
Electrochemistry, which underlies the energy conversion processes discussed here, is intrinsically a surface and interface science, which has seen major progress within the last few decades due in large part to the significant advances in MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) and nanotechnology. As electrochemical processes are largely driven by electron exchanges between surface and solution, small changes to the surface of electrodes can greatly affect the performance and stability of electrochemical devices. For example, structured nanoelectrodes have been shown to greatly improve the mass transport of electrochemical processes, yielding electrodes with much higher current densities and sensors with much larger sensitivities [
In this review, we will focus on recent advances in MEMS and NEMS techniques and their contributions to three electrochemical power devices that are at the forefront of advanced energy research. To get a broad scope of the extent of research in this direction, we will focus our attention on devices where the utilization of new MEMS and NEMS techniques for their improvement lies at three different stages of research: Mature and commercially available lithium-ion batteries, semi-mature enzymatic, and microbial biofuel cells where nanomaterial morphologies lie in the stage of fundamental research, and dye-sensitized solar cells, where nanostructured architectures lie in the stage of applied research. Furthermore, as shown in the Ragone plot in
Ragone Plot depicting energy
Lithium ion batteries (see
Although lithium ion batteries have been commercially used for more than two decades as a good power source for portable electronics, current electrode materials and chemistries are reaching their limits in performance and safety, particularly for emerging applications, such as electric vehicles and as energy storage systems for smart grids. Challenges include lithium dendrite formation when using lithium metals for the anode, safety concerns due to flammable electrolytes, cycle life and recharging time, cost, and materials availability. Cutting edge research is focused on improving three critical characteristics of lithium ion batteries: energy density, power density, and safety.
Although changes in battery design can help with some of these challenges, breakthroughs in battery materials are indispensable. Advances in lithium batteries can be achieved by new and innovative nanomaterials and MEMS techniques for both the electrodes and the electrolytes for improved battery performance. While there are some disadvantages of implementing nanomaterials in lithium batteries (such as complexity of synthesis and potentially undesirable electrode and electrolyte reactions), the switch to nanomaterials and novel architectures is expected to improve lithium ion batteries in several key ways:
Shorter diffusion path lengths, in contact with current collectors for Li-ion transport from particle core to surface, resulting in increases in power density. Higher charge/discharge rates and greater power density due to the higher surface area of the electrodes. Improvements in cycle life due to decrease of mechanical stresses from lithium insertion and removal.
Shorter diffusion path lengths, in contact with current collectors for Li-ion transport from particle core to surface, resulting in increases in power density.
Higher charge/discharge rates and greater power density due to the higher surface area of the electrodes.
Improvements in cycle life due to decrease of mechanical stresses from lithium insertion and removal.
A typical lithium-ion battery utilizes a graphite-like anode and an intercalated lithium cobalt cathode, separated by a liquid electrolyte containing lithium ions. A lithium battery is charged by the removal of lithium ions through the oxidation of cobalt in the cathode and insertion of lithium ions into the carbon or graphite anode. As ions move from the cathode to the anode (represented by the arrows on
Energy densities of lithium-ion batteries are limited due to the low energy density of the current intercalation compounds. To improve specific energy, composites of lithium metal alloys are used. Though these lithium metal composites have specific capacities that are markedly higher than conventional graphite electrodes (Li4.4Si has a theoretical specific capacity of 4200 mAh g−1 compared with 372 mAh g−1 for graphite), the lithium intercalation comes with very large volume expansion and contraction due to phase transitions during charge and discharge of lithium cells, which can destroy electrodes. To combat these challenges, nanostructures have been developed for electrodes that buffer these volume changes [
One of the approaches by researchers to solve this problem involved the development of an electrode structure based on a Tin-Carbon nanocomposite [
Most recently, Cui
A similar approach utilizes modifications in electrode morphologies, such as the use of different carbon composites, nanowire morphologies, and 3D porous particles, to achieve long cycle lives and improvements in energy density [
Improvements in power include the use of nanostructured electrode morphologies [
Other advances include the use of nanoparticles such as nanosized or nanotextured titanium oxides to increase the surface area of the anode thereby increasing the area available for lithium ion storage [
Major efforts in safety improvements for lithium ion batteries focus on either the reduction of the specific energy of the battery or the use of multi-layer separators which do not necessitate the trade-off between safety and energy performance when reducing specific energy. Safety concerns, which arise when using an organic carbonate solution electrolyte, are: the narrow stability domain, which prevents the use of high voltage cathodes, the high vapor pressure and flammability of electrolytes, and environmental and human health concerns.
Present safety improvement strategies include the use of electrolytes with additives to enhance the thermal stability of the battery [
One of the most promising approaches is to use multi-layer separators such as those manufactured by Celgard (Charlot, NC, USA). These separators are thin porous membranes that physically separate the anode and the cathode, while facilitating ion transport through the cell. Another safety feature of these separators is an incorporated shutdown feature. The different layers have different phase transition temperatures so as the temperature of the cell increases, one of the membranes melts and fills the pores of the other membrane, shutting down the battery during unsafe conditions [
The rapid development and commercialization of lithium batteries over the past two decades has poised them as advanced power sources of the future, expanding their role in diverse applications from power sources in miniature electronics, to hybrid cars, electrical energy storage systems, to pacemakers and implantable defibrillators, and aerospace. Nanomaterials will continue to play an increasingly significant role in lithium battery design. The most promising non-traditional lithium-ion chemistries that have shown potential for dramatic increases in power and energy density include lithium air batteries (
Lithium-air battery schematic.
Lithium Sulfur battery schematic. The chemical reaction for the L–S battery is 16 Li + S8 ↔ 8Li2S and yields a theoretical energy density of 2500 Wh kg−1.
Schematic of 3D electrode architectures for 3D battery designs are shown. Adapted from reference 26. (
The lithium air battery uses a lithium containing anode and a porous, carbon-based, oxygen breathing cathode. Like the high capacity, Zinc-air battery, this battery oxidizes lithium at the anode and reduces oxygen at the cathode. The theoretical energy density for lithium air, or lithium-O2, batteries is upwards of 12 kWh kg−1, comparable with the energy density for gasoline (13 kWh kg−1) and coal (6.7 kWh kg−1). An optimization of performance of lithium-air batteries can potentially lead to power sources that can eliminate our current dependence on fossil fuels. Achieving the theoretically possible power densities of lithium air batteries requires improvements in transport of oxygen through the pores of the electrode and deposition of insulating products on active sites for oxygen reduction and evolution. Advances in nanostructures and techniques for electrode fabrication are being used to optimize lithium-air batteries. One of the most exciting advances in lithium-air batteries is IBM's announcement of the Battery 500 project. Driven by the need for long-range batteries for cars, the Battery 500 project would use a lithium air battery where the oxygen from the air would react with lithium ions during discharge, forming lithium peroxide on a carbon matrix. The oxygen would be put back in the atmosphere during recharge, when lithium is fed back into the anode [
The lithium-sulfur battery has a theoretical density of 2500 Wh kg−1 with 500–600 Wh kg−1 experimentally achievable. One of the main hindrances preventing commercial development of the lithium sulfur battery is the solubility of the lithium polysulfide intermediates in the battery's electrolyte solution. The polysulfides may travel through to the anode and form insolubles, hindering battery capacity and lowering the amount of usable active sulfur. Improvements have been made by using different electrolyte solutions and by using nanocomposite cathodes. Nazar
The most promising future battery designs utilize 3-dimensional electrode architectures [
The most current efforts to produce nano-fabricated electrode architectures include strategies to create and characterize the unique electrode structures involved in 3D microbatteries [
Another method is used to create larger rods (>10 mm diameter) by filling a micromachined mold by electrodeposition or colloidal processing of nanoparticles. Dunn
A recent battery design [
While 3D architectures yield higher energy densities in general, the challenge to small electrode area to volume ratios are that it can lead to significant resistive losses, self-discharge, and poor cycling and life times. A novel method for maximizing surface area while minimizing footprint area is inspired by nature through the use of fractal geometries to create 3D structured electrodes. Fractal electrodes maximize the effective electrode area while minimizing the resistive losses of the battery system. Fractals are utilized by nature at interfaces where matter or energy must be transferred and exchanged. For example the fractal structures observed in the capillary network in our own circulatory system utilize this unique architecture to maximize efficiency while minimizing work/energy lost [
Fractal electrode geometries create an optimal electrode architecture, allowing us to maintain the high surface area of electrodes composed of nanomaterials and the thinner electrolyte use provided by using solid state electrodes [
To achieve these specific nanoarchitectures, the recent development of atomic layer deposition (ALD) shows promise as a method for engineering interfacial surfaces with sub-nm precision. ALD provides the capacity to synthesize nanomaterials and nano-architectures at the atomic level with high specificity. In lithium ion batteries, the engineering of a mere 3–4 Å layer of Al2O3 via ALD increased the capacity retention of the LiCoO2 cathode from 45% to 90% following 120 charge/discharge cycles [
Due to increased interest in alternative fuels within the last few decades, biofuel cells have become a hot topic of research and have shown great potential in certain niche markets. For example, benthic fuel cells have been estimated to save hundreds of thousands of dollars a year in battery replacement for long term biomonitoring of water sources [ Improving power density. The similar unique dimensions of both biomolecules and nanoparticle allow us to create biomolecule nanoparticle hybrids with higher conductivity, better catalysis properties, and better electron transfer efficiencies [ Improving stability. Nanoparticles and nanostructures, such as solid binding matrices, provide functional and structural stability for the enzyme, creating an environment for biocatalysis [ Reducing cost. Certain nanotechnology manufacturing techniques, such as electrospinning and electropolymerization, can be used for the creation of the polymer enzyme support matrix, potentially reducing manufacturing and material costs significantly [
Improving power density. The similar unique dimensions of both biomolecules and nanoparticle allow us to create biomolecule nanoparticle hybrids with higher conductivity, better catalysis properties, and better electron transfer efficiencies [
Improving stability. Nanoparticles and nanostructures, such as solid binding matrices, provide functional and structural stability for the enzyme, creating an environment for biocatalysis [
Reducing cost. Certain nanotechnology manufacturing techniques, such as electrospinning and electropolymerization, can be used for the creation of the polymer enzyme support matrix, potentially reducing manufacturing and material costs significantly [
Ever since Potter demonstrated electron transfer between microbes and electrodes through mediator molecules in 1911 [
The main design challenge for microbial fuel cells, as they pertain to wastewater applications, is the scalability of the system in both cost and power density to meet the power needs of large-scale wastewater treatment facilities. While many of the design challenges are largely macro scale challenges, researchers have started to explore nanotechnology for means to improve the overall fuel cell efficiency. This work will focus on the research done using nanotechnology, rather than macro scale implementations.
The biggest advantage of microbial fuel cells is their longevity. Microbes are robust catalysts that can extend their own lifetimes through reproduction and formation of biofilms [
Microbial fuel cell schematic. Microbial fuel cells utilize microbes to oxidize biofuels in their environment. Electrons are then transferred to an electrode acceptor, the anode, through extracellular electron exchange process (EEE). This exchange can occur directly between the microbe and an anode, or indirectly through mediator molecules. After the electrons pass through a load, they participate in a reduction reaction (typically, the reduction of oxygen to water) at the cathode. The typical design scheme, for most microbial fuel cells is a two-compartment design, where the anode and cathode are separated with a permeable proton exchange membrane (PEM), which allows the flow of protons to the cathode for reduction of oxygen. Organic matter flows into the anode compartment and oxygen into the cathode through small inlets to keep the electrodes in their desired working environment. A single compartment design is also possible with an open-air cathode [
The biggest limitation for microbial fuel cells is their low power density, which are orders of magnitude smaller than that of their enzymatic fuel cell counterparts. The typical power density of microbial fuel cells is about 0.1 mW cm−2 to 0.1 µW cm−2 [
Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) Respiratory Chain Diagram, which shows how energy can be recovered for the fuel cell from the potential between cytochrome c and oxygen. Figure adapted from reference [
Enzymatic fuel cells (EFCs) (see
Though it is inevitable that enzymes will denature over time, new and innovative immobilization schemes using both nanomorphologies and MEMS techniques show promise in improving the stability and power density of enzymatic fuel cells so that one day these "bio-batteries" can find their roles in niche applications.
Enzymatic fuel cell schematic. Enzymatic fuel cell use enzymes as the biocatalysts to oxidize organic fuels and transfer the electrons through either direct electron transfer (DET) or mediated electron transfer (MET) to the anode. DET is the process where electrons can tunnel directly from the enzyme redox centers to the electrodes. MET, on the other hand, uses mediator molecules to shuttle electrons from the enzyme to the electrode. The electrons are used to power a load and are collected at the cathode where they participate in reduction reactions. Enzymatic fuel cells have fewer design constraints than MFCs since the enzymes do not have to work in anaerobic environment. As such, EFC's system designs do not require a separator.
One of the best, albeit most challenging, ways to improve the efficiency of fuel cells is through improvements in the performance of the biocatalyst. For example, many research groups are experimenting with mutant strains of microbes and modifying their genome in hopes of improving fuel cell efficiencies [
EFC researchers have also utilized enzyme engineering to improve the stability and power density of EFCs. Yuhashi
Ohmic losses, from high fuel cell internal resistance, can significantly reduce the power density of biofuel cells. Other factors that can contribute to the internal resistance of the cell include electrode material, electrolyte/separator material, contact resistance, and biofilm and microbe internal resistance. One solution is to utilizing noble metals for electrode materials, which can significantly reduce the internal resistance of the cell of the electrodes. Unfortunately, this method can be costly, preventing its wide scale integration.
These and similar cost constraints are the main reason carbon-based materials have become the most popular electrode support material for MFCs and EFCs. Along with its low cost, carbon has a large electrochemical stability window, biocompatibility, good conductivity, and its many allotropes all have very distinct and beneficial characteristics for electrochemical applications. Among the many carbon allotropes, carbon nanotubes (CNT) show the most promise due to their high conductivity and high aspect ratio structure, which allows them to conform to redox centers in enzymes. Mink's group [
Although EFC research has yielded many different electrode configuration and electrode materials, such as polymer matrices and nanoparticles, most of these systems produce substantially lower power density than carbon nanotube based electrode systems. Carbon nanotubes (CNT) have also been utilized in both EFCs and MFCs to facilitate Direct Electron Transfer (DET) between the electrode and enzymes or microbes. DET is extremely desirable in both microbial and enzymatic fuel cells because it eliminates the need for mediator molecules. Mediator molecules not only introduce addition overpotential losses, but also reduce the stability of the fuel cell, since most mediators have biological origins and are prone to degradation. Unfortunately, DET is not possible with all enzymes and in some cases mediated electron transfer (MET) has better electron transfer efficiencies and can produce more power [
Another way to reduce ohmic losses is by increasing the conductivity of the electrolyte solution. One example is to utilize redox species, such as ferricyanide, in the electrolyte as electron acceptors instead of oxygen. The highest power density, 4310 mW m−2, achieved by an MFC to date was reported by Rabaey
There are three main ways to immobilize enzymes: binding, cross-linking and encapsulation (see
Polymers have been an extremely popular area of materials research for EFCs because polymers can be used to stabilize enzymes, extending the lifetimes of EFCs. While most polymer matrices have low conductivity, they can be chemically modified or blended to be conductive. Conductive polymers, such as polypyrrole (PPy), have been extensively utilized in enzymatic biofuel cell research due to their conductive nature [
Enzyme Immobilization Methods [
Perhaps the greatest advantage of polymers is their low cost and ease of manufacturing. Aside from standard lithography processes, polymer nanostructures can be produced cheaply through electrospinning or electropolymerization processes. Researchers have used electropolymerization to crosslink with and around enzymes, decreasing the gap between the polymer and the enzyme and increasing the efficiency of the electron tunneling process [
Nanoparticles, due to their small size, are extremely useful in biofuel cell applications because of their inherent biocatalytic abilities and their ability to help stabilize enzymes. The high surface free energy of nanoparticles allows them to strongly adsorb biomolecules and microbes, creating a very simple immobilization scheme that also stabilizes enzymes. Unfortunately, adsorbed biomolecules have a tendency to leech out, lowering the lifetime of the biofuel cell. Therefore, most biofuel cells that utilize nanoparticles are typically also entrapped in a 3D nanostructure or polymer matrix [
Nanoparticles immobilized in 3D nanostructures can be produced through electrodeposition [
Researchers have been incrementally improving the performance of biofuel cells over the years. The main issues, power density and longevity, in the case of EFCs, have not been overcome yet, preventing commercialization. As researchers have already demonstrated, the solution will be a combination of multiple technologies, such as polymer biocomposites, which combine all the benefits of the stability and biocompatibility of polymers, with the conductivity and biocatalytic abilities of carbon materials and nanoparticles. Lee
Polymer composites are also inexpensive and can easily be scaled for mass manufacturing techniques, such as electropolymerization and electrospinning. Electropolymerization in particular is ideal since nanoparticles and enzymes could be incorporated into the polymerization process to create a support system for enzymes that not only increases stability, but also increases electron exchange efficiency through intimate contact between nanoparticles and the enzyme.
Miniature MFCs, on the other hand, require a more in-depth look into the biology of microbes. While progress is steadily being made through utilization of nanoparticles to increase power density, the ultimate limiting factor is the microbes themselves. Genetic engineering has already proven to have a tremendous effect on improving the efficiency of MFCs and will remain a key component in incremental improvements in their performance.
Ultimately, for both MFCs and EFCs, the biggest challenge for commercialization is reassessing the advantages and constraints of these systems and determining their niche markets. While further improvements to performance will continue to push the field forward, benthic MFCs have already shown that, under the right conditions, MFCs are already commercially viable. Similarly, EFC researchers have demonstrated the feasibility of utilizing EFCs in smart contact lenses. Miniature MFCs may find success in lower power implantable sensor applications for long-term monitoring of patient vitals. Similar applications in cheap, disposable human to electronic interface devices would be the key market for EFCs. In fact, these markets may already be there, waiting for the right power source to take off.
Though the solar cell industry has been dominated by solid-state solar cells, the photoelectric experiments of Becquerel in 1839 [
To date, the highest energy conversion efficiency currently obtained by DSSCs is 15% [
The schematic of a Graetzel cell shown here converts solar radiation into electricity, imitating the natural process of photosynthesis. The steps for energy conversion are:
The energy band diagram illustrates the electron injection process: (
Unlike traditional solar cells where charge separation and transport occurs within a single medium, DSSCs convert and transport charges between multiple mediums. Due to the multi-interface system of the DSSC, DSSCs incur more overpotential losses (700 mV) than traditional solar cells, losing efficiency as charges moves across different interfaces. Originally these losses were so high that the first DSSCs had an energy conversion efficiency of less than 5%. More recently new dyes and electrolytes, particularly ruthenium based complexes and I−/I3−, and the use of perovskite-based nanomaterials, have pushed the efficiency up to 15% poising DSSCs to become competitive with conventional solar cells.
Unfortunately, there are some disadvantages associated with the utilization of these iodide and ruthenium complexes. The iodide electrolyte is very corrosive, limiting materials selection for solar cells and requiring more expensive packaging methods. Furthermore, iodide has a large overpotential due to the two-step process of regenerating the electrolyte. Ruthenium complexes utilize a rare metal making commercialization and mass production more problematic. Furthermore, these complexes do not cover the optimum spectral range—that of the near infrared (NIR) region.
Therefore, to address these and other challenges of DSSCs, future research must focus on three main challenges that exist for improvement of the efficiency of DSSCs:
DSSCs suffer from low open circuit voltage due to losses in potential during electron transfer from redox couples to dye molecules. Only a small portion of the solar spectrum is currently absorbed by dyes, limiting the short circuit density of DSSCs. Significant increases in efficiency would require absorption in the near-infrared portion of the solar spectrum up to 940 nm. Recombination losses are still significant in the titanium dioxide layer. These losses make it difficult for electrons to diffuse into the TCO substrate on the glass.
DSSCs suffer from low open circuit voltage due to losses in potential during electron transfer from redox couples to dye molecules.
Only a small portion of the solar spectrum is currently absorbed by dyes, limiting the short circuit density of DSSCs. Significant increases in efficiency would require absorption in the near-infrared portion of the solar spectrum up to 940 nm.
Recombination losses are still significant in the titanium dioxide layer. These losses make it difficult for electrons to diffuse into the TCO substrate on the glass.
The limitations of ruthenium and iodide complexes listed above have led researchers to focus on developing alternative dye/redox systems that could improve the performance of DSSCs system. For the redox couples, researchers have developed cobalt and ferrocene, as well as solid-state redox systems that use polymer based hole conductors. Cobalt and ferrocene based redox couples were able to reduce the overpotential losses, but have much faster recombination rates than iodide. Researchers have addressed this issue by modification of the titania surface with an insulating layer to prevent contact with the electrolyte solution. While this method has shown improvement in open circuit potential (
Another extremely promising approach is to use a solid state electrolyte DSSC [
Light trapping methods that increase the path length of light in the DSSC have been used extensively to increase the efficiency of DSSCs. A challenge is to design a DSSC that is thick enough to absorb all the light impinging on it, while thin enough to ensure the collection of all charge carriers. Researchers have addressed this challenge via various light trapping methods.
One method, used by Yella
Similar promising approaches for improving charge collection in DSSCs includes the replacement of the disordered nanoporous TiO2 layer with various nanostructured photoelectrodes. Different nanomorphologies include the use of nanowires, branched nanowires, nanotubes, and nanoflowers, which significantly increase charge collection efficiency by decreasing the pathway for direct electron transport and reducing the recombination effect [
Dye sensitized solar cells usually contain one of two classes of dyes: metal based complexes (such as the popular ruthenium dyes) and metal free organic dyes, which are lower in cost and easier to engineer. Research for DSSCs has focused on the design and molecular engineering of NIR organic dyes that can capture the largest part of the solar energy spectrum at the cheapest possible price [
To address the issue of small bandwidth and to avoid aggregation and recombination issues, researchers have utilized both co-sensitizing dyes and energy relay dyes to broaden the bandwidth of the spectrum that can be absorbed by using multiple types of dyes [
Further work to reduce charge recombination and increase the electron injection efficiency of DSSCs was done by Meier
Aside from synthesizing better dyes and redox species, improved MEMS techniques and nanostructures are the next logical step for improving the performance of DSSCs. Recombination between the semiconductor and dye and semiconductor and redox species are major issues that can be remedied by decreasing the thickness of the semiconductor.
Another unexplored area of research that could have potential benefits for DSSCs is the use of Janus nanoparticles. These are special nanoparticles whose surface has two or more different, distinct physical and chemical properties. A DSSC could utilize Janus particles (see
Another potential DSSC efficiency enhancement could come from using conductive nanostructures and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) processes to grow thin layers of high band gap semiconductors on conductive nanostructures. These nanostructures would not only have the benefits of thin semiconductors, but also have a large accessible surface area for dye attachment.
Schematic for manufacturing of janus nanoparticles via wax emulsion method: 1. Particles are mixed into wax, which is then emulsified with water 2. Since surface energy of particles is between that of the oil and water, they will adsorb onto the interface between the surfaces 3. Face of particles sticking out of wax can now be chemically modified [
The above figure is a representation of a TiO2 Janus nanoparticle, containing a metal coating on one side and a coating of photosensitive dye on the other. As the sunlight strikes the dye and oxidizes it, an electron transfers to the semiconductor. The use of these nanoparticles lowers the distance for the electron to transfer to the metal, reducing the recombination effect.
Finally, we would like to demonstrate the potential of nanotechnology through a theoretical application—the solar battery. Although there have been previous ideas for solar batteries, they are mostly solid-state based and utilize a capacitive storage system that begins to discharge in the absence of sunlight [
The DSCCSB would utilize the semiconductor layer of the DSSC solar cell as a separator between two electrolyte solutions, each with its own redox system. On one side of the separator, the system behaves the same way as a standard DSSC. On the other side, another redox species would be utilized to capture an electron and ferry it to the anode. The oxidized state of the second redox species should be engineered with its energy level overlapping the energy level of the conduction band and its reduced state should be engineered to be well below the conduction band to prevent recombination. In this manner, photonic energy is captured when the DSSC is not attached to an external load and stored as chemical energy that would not discharge in the absence of sunlight (see
Band Gap schematic for a theoretical DSSC solar battery. The arrows show the flow of electrons through the solar battery system.
The biggest advantage of this design is its flexibility. The separator can be anything from a physical separation via a semiconductor layer, to a chemical separation via the use of a hydrophobic/hydrophilic duo electrolyte system. This also means that different nanostructured separator systems can be utilized, such as the Janus nanoparticle idea outlined earlier. We envision the solar battery to have comparable energy density to that of conventional batteries, shown in the Ragone plot in
During the 1980s, studies of surfaces under high vacuum conditions led to the development of interfacial electrochemistry. The next few decades saw a tremendous revolution in nanotechnology and MEMS techniques, the advancement of which was intimately intertwined with electrochemical applications. This review shows how the use of nanoscience and MEMS technologies opens the doorway for the commercialization of advanced electrochemical power devices such as lithium batteries, biofuel cells, and dye sensitized solar cells. In many of these technologies, enhancements in design and chemistry have reached their limits and future advances require new material morphologies. The move to nano-structured materials, shifting the sizes of the relevant interfaces into nano-scale range significantly improves electrode and electrolyte properties, enhancing energy storage, reaction rates, power density, and capacity. Additional improvements come from the utilization of specific nanostructures for light trapping in solar cells or the use of intricate templated nanoparticle nanostructures for maximizing biocatalyst loading in fuel cells.
While these new techniques and morphologies push the boundaries of electrochemical power devices, they also present new unique challenges to scientists and researchers necessitating the development of new theories and ideas in materials chemistry and electrochemical surface science. Furthermore, with the advances in genetic science and genome sequencing, it is becoming imperative to use genetic engineering to create microbes and biomolecules finely tuned to meet the demands necessary for significant improvements in power density, energy density, and stability of bio-electrochemical power devices. This joined development of nanoscience and genetic engineering, particularly in their applications to electrochemical power devices, holds a great promise to help society meet the energy challenges of the present century.
The authors would like to acknowledge Genis Turon Tiexidor of Enevate for his contributions to and review of the manuscript.
All authors helped conceive the idea. Sunshine Holmberg and Alexandra Perebikovsky conducted research and prepared the manuscript. Lawrence Kulinsky and Marc Madou revised the article critically for important intellectual content.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.


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|Scuba Equipment USA - Marine Species Gallery
The Gunnamatta Dendrodoris (Dendrodoris gunnamatta) is a large nudibranch species that belongs to the family Dendrodorididae. It is only known from the waters of southern New South Wales in Australia and is known to occur in silty habitats of sheltered estuaries and embayments. This species looks very similar to Dendrodoris denisoni however it lacks the iridescent blue spots of D. denisoni; this is the most obvious difference between the two species. This species is known to remain hidden during the day and becomes more active at night when it can be spotted by divers. The Gunnamatta Dendrodoris (Dendrodoris gunnamatta) grows to a maximum length of approximately 8cm.
|Scuba Equipment | Marine Species | Vacations | Equipment Store

subset: commoncrawl


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The 4th Annual Great Bend Bridal Affaire will consist of numerous vendors from around the area on Sunday, January 20th from 12-5 p.m. Showcasing everything a bride would want for her big day, such as, music, photography, catering, clothing, gifts, DJ's, hair and make-up, etc.Get lots of ideas for your ceremony and reception decor, and enjoy the Beautiful Beginnings Fashion Show! A donation to the Family Crisis Center will serve as admittance to the Bridal Affaire.You can register online at www.greatbendbridalaffaire.com. More information is available at www.facebook.com/greatbendbridalaffaire.
Date - Jan 20, 2013
Time -
Between 12:00 PM
and 05:00 PM
Type - Community Event
Community - Great Bend
Location - Prince of Peace Parrish Center
Address - 4100 BroadwayGreat Bend, KS
Contact - 620-793-9514
Email - email@example.com
Website - gbbridalaffaire.com


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About four years ago, I was contracting to a large insurance firm in their IT department in City Centre Dublin (Dawson Street, as it happens, for those who wish to guess what the firm is).
Anyway, my boss, Harry for the sake of this account, had asked me to go to Server Room Two and repatch some of the panels, as the cables were in an awful state. After about an hour on the job, alone in the server room, I started to get a little bored and so decided to go get a cup of coffee. I began to untangle myself from the cables around my feet and in the process turned around in order to make my exit from the room.
Unfortunately, untangling myself suddenly became a problem as my foot slipped through a gap in the floor. I instantly realized my foot was jammed and so I bent down to attempt to free it.
This is where things went haywire.
During the action of bending down, my bum extended toward the patch panel behind me and caught on a very large sharp edge to the poorly finished panel. It totally impaled my rear end and I let out a yelp. I immediately pulled myself of the metal spike and in the same movement, tripped on a cable and fell to the floor, thankfully freeing my foot in the process. My problem then was that my posterior was pouring blood at an ever increasing rate and my trousers were ripped through at the back. Not good.
As this calamity unfolded, Harry heard the commotion as he passed the server room and immediately entered only to find me gathering myself together while trying to stop the blood flow. He walked over to me and as he stood beside me he began a total laughing fit, and I mean hysterics as I revealed the disaster that had occurred moments before.
While laughing, he bent over double and impaled himself on the same spike! He, too, let out a yelp, lifted himself off the spike, and attempted to stop the torrent of blood flow from his rear! At this point terror entered his eyes. I was immediately asked if I had taken drugs. Or have AIDS. Maybe an STD or two. He seemed massively relieved to hear that I had never touched any drugs and was carrying no STDs.
But this story is only half over. We now had to figure out what to do. We realized we had to make our way to the first aid room. We literally legged it out of the server room, blood gushing all the way to the first aid room. What other employees thought of us as we rushed down the corridor clutching our collective bleeding butts, I'll never know, but people kept strangely silent. I think fear and shock may have been the prevailing emotions. After running down three corridors and catching the elevator, we made it to the first aid room and applied bandages to our behinds. Thankfully we managed our own bandaging.
After the gushing was under control, my boss and I took a joint trip to Marks and Spencer to buy new trousers, wearing jackets around our waists on the way in order to cover our missing trousers. We were happy now that nothing else could go wrong.
When we returned to the office, however, we discovered that the security guard had gotten our antics all on tape and had already shown our corridor dash to several staff members. I have never and will never live this down. But neither will my boss.


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GLASGOW: As far as defender Sharni Layton is concerned the Australian netball team's cruisy match against Barbados might just as well have been a final.
The Diamonds easily saw off the world No.9 team 77-27 in their Commonwealth Games pool match in Glasgow on Sunday.
Normally an impact player off the bench, Layton was given the chance to start and kept up her trademark intense defence for the three quarters she played, picking off four passes and deflecting four more.
Layton also stood out during Australia's one-point win against England a day earlier, when she came on in the final quarter and matched the opposition's bruising defence to help get her team over the line.
"Sometimes it can be over the top and sometimes the girls need to tell me to calm the farm, but it's what I like to bring to any team that I'm in," said 26-year-old Layton of her intensity.
It's a trait Layton said the Diamonds need to maintain against lower-ranked sides in their remaining pool matches, including world No.10 Trinidad and Tobago who they face on Monday.
"If you don't, you're going to get to finals time and if there's one loose ball, that can be the difference at the end of the game," she said.
"Every team here has quality and today, the scoreboard didn't show it, but it was a tough game."
The Barbados match gave Aussie coach Lisa Alexander the chance to give her less relied upon players more game time, including Layton and goal shooter Caitlin Thwaites.
It was also a chance for rookie shooter Tegan Caldwell to rid herself of nerves she appeared to suffer in previous games, particularly against England when she was subbed off after the first quarter.
Caldwell did just that, playing the entire game to finish on 35 from 39 attempts shooting and also notched up an intercept and four deflections.
"I think the more experience you get out on the court, the more comfortable you feel," she said.
"It was a step-up from yesterday's game, but there's still room for me to improve as well."
Alexander has declared all 12 players are in contention for starting spots heading in to the finals, where Australia is seeking its first Commonwealth Games gold medal in 12 years.


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Michelle Dockery Shares "Downton Abbey" Details in Manhattan March 2014
With her film "Non-Stop" continuing to be a huge success in the theaters, Michelle Dockery scored a feature in the March 2014 issue of Manhattan magazine.
During her interview with the publication, the 32-year-old actress opened up about everything from her new action-packed flick to more details about her character Lady Mary in "Downton Abbey"
Check out GossipCenter's recap of Miss Dockery's interview below. For more, be sure to visit Manhattan magazine!
On her acting training:
"I had dance training from a very young age, 3 or 4… it taught me how to present myself, about preparation and working in an ensemble, and it's something that carries with me to this day. By 16 I knew I had more passion for acting. I never wanted to leave the drama department. I was always working on scenes or thinking up stuff to perform with friends, and I'm afraid some of my other subjects might have slightly suffered."
On Lady Mary:
"I love that she's so complex. She's very modern in that sense because she's more than a strong woman: She's witty, vicious even. She doesn't suffer fools, yet she's sensitive. She's a mixed bag, and I enjoy playing those sides of her. I also love [that] she doesn't apologize for who she is or what she's done. She might confess a doubt to Anna [her trusted lady's maid] in private, but in public? Never."
On "Non-Stop":
"It was an entirely new experience—the film, living in New York and working in a studio where they pretty much built a plane. Although not quite as many as I would have liked. But as much as I loved it, I'm looking forward to going back to the castle."
Photo Credit: Andrew Macpherson for Manhattan


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Hi, I am on work permit (intra company tranfer) status in US.I am planning to invest in the range of $ 500,000 to $800,000 by purchasing Motel/Hotel. Please let me know if I am eligible to apply green card through investment law and how much time...
This is a good question, but it is more complex than it seems.
I devote a substantial amount of time to EB-5 cases (and to intracompany transferee cases), and based on my experience, I would not assume that EB-5 is even a good approach for you. (It may be, but I would not assume so.)
I would recommend first looking very carefully at all other cheaper, easier, and less restrictive options first. I would look at EB-5 only if you can't find something else better. For example, if you are already here as an L-1 intracompany transferee, you may be able to obtain your green card more quickly through that path. To take advantage of that path, though, you would have to qualify for EB-1C, which is essentially the "green card" version of L-1A (i.e., executives or managers).
If you are instead only in L-1B (i.e., "specialized knowledge"), you may be able to qualify for a green card through the PERM labor certification process instead, which might ultimately lead you to a permanent green card faster than EB-5, anyway, depending on where you were born, what type of job you do, and what the job requirements are.
(EB-5 might be a faster path to a "temporary" green card, but then you would have to wait about two years before you could file for a "permanent" green card. Also, many bad things could happen in the meantime that might prevent you from ever converting your temporary EB-5-based green card into a permanent one.)
If you ultimately find that EB-5 is your best option, then you are looking at preparation time of anywhere from about a month to about a year or more, depending on how clear your plan of action is, how fast any related transaction closes, how organized you are, how much experience your immigration lawyer has in EB-5 cases, etc.
As for the government, USCIS normally takes 5-8 months to adjudicate the initial EB-5 petition--although currently USCIS seems to be moving slower and slower on these cases these days. You would then have to apply for your temporary green card, which you should plan on taking another several months to more than a year, depending on whether you file for "adjustment of status" in the United States (instead of doing "consular processing" at a U.S. consulate overseas). (If doing consular processing, the country in which you do that also matters quite a bit.) And as mentioned, you would still have to file for a "permanent" green card a couple years after obtaining your "temporary" green card. That process can take around 5-8 months as well, but can also take years and years if your case is denied and you choose to try to keep your case alive in immigration court. . . .
Anyway, best of luck with your case. If you would like more information about EB-5, you can find more through the link below.
(By the way, this answer is intented to provide only general information. You should not rely on it to take action or refrain from taking action in your particular case. Thanks.)See question
I'm a senior student graduating this coming May. I already have a business, but it is not registered in the States yet. I know that international students are not supposed to work off-campus, but my business has nothing to do with work. I buy elec...
I love working with entrepreneurs, because America needs people who have the brains and guts to make businesses from scratch--and entrepreneurs create desperately needed jobs for U.S. workers, which helps our country grow and prosper. If you want to stay here and do this, I hope you succeed.
The answer to your question, though, really depends on the EXACT details (including size/type of business, ownership, investment, where you were born, where you are currently a citizen if different from your country of birth, and so on). I have obtained many green cards (and temporary visas) for entrepreneurs, and there are a number of ways to make this work, but there are also some potential traps, too, so you need to be careful.
First, you have to be safe and not do something that gets you in trouble. Maybe what you are doing now is allowed, but maybe the government could argue that it actually constitutes "work" even though you are simply exporting. You need to look at this very carefully, because if you get it wrong, you could end up going backward instead of forward.
Second, you need to try to figure out if and how you can make this business into a temporary work status (either on its own or as a side job while you work primarily for some other company) or into a green card. You need to know what the options are, how to bridge across from where you are now to where you want to be in the future, and how to do that without hurting yourself.
Peng & Weber, PLLC, where I am a co-founder, provides free evaluations for such cases through a link on our website. www.GreencardLawyers.com. I have included the link below. Although our office is across the bridge from Seattle, Washington, we represent clients around the country and around the world. I shake hands with most of my clients virtually, but am always happy to see in person those who make it to Seattle.
Please note:
* Normally, I try to respond to evaluation requests within 24 hours, but I will be in Washington, DC on Sunday through Wednesday for an EB-5 "stakeholder" meeting with USCIS as well as to attend our membership meeting of The Association to Invest In USA (IIUSA).
EB-5 immigrant investor visas are the green card version of entreprenuer visas. You can find a link below for more details about EB-5 visas. EB-5 might work in your case, but that really depends on some factors that might not fit your case--at least not yet. . . .
* The free evaluation is only to see if something jumps out at me as a good possible path for you. If it becomes too complex to figure out (or to explain) quickly, I may respond that for further help, you will need to schedule a paid consulation instead (also discussed on our website).
Best of luck!
SecondSee question
What is the difference?
This is a superb question.
With apologies for a somewhat long response, this question is one that U.S. businesses and immigrants alike could save themselves HUGE headaches by paying closer attention to--along with selecting immigration attorneys more carefully, instead of just relying on scores, ads, perceived reputation, etc. (Those indicators can be helpful, too, but it is more important to ask clear and direct questions--some examples discussed below.)
Because immigration law itself is a highly specialized area of law, one might think that all immigration lawyers are specialized in all areas of immigration law. In reality, immigration law has many sub-specialties that have hardly anything to do with each other, and many immigration lawyers practice for years and can be truly extraordinary immigration lawyers yet know little or nothing about areas of immigration in which they do not practice.
Because of this, it is critical that you find an immigration lawyer that has experience in YOUR specific immigration needs, not just immigration in general.
Perhaps the best way to understand the difference among various immigration lawyers is to think of immigration law falling primarily into 3 large groups of immigration cases:
* "Business" immigration. This focuses primarily on obtaining temporary or permanent permission for employees (or investors) to live and work in the USA. (Below, I have provided links to books on some key "business" immigration topics.)
* "Removal defense" is primarily court work aimed at trying to prevent someone from being deported.
* "Family" immigration is primarily obtaining visas, etc. for spouses, children, parents, and siblings.
(Of course, there are also aslyum, visa lottery, naturalization, etc., but the categories above are the 3 main types of cases.)
Because U.S. immigration law is so complex and rapidly changing and because the stakes are so high in many cases, most (but not all) immigration lawyers prefer to focus on EITHER "business" immigration OR "removal defense". Of course, virtually all immigration lawyers also do "family" immigration, because lots of clients are or want to be married.
Perhaps, there are a number of lawyers nationally who are well versed in BOTH business immigration and removal defense, but based on my 20 years of experience, I believe the best outcomes come from lawyers who specialize in one area or the other. (Of course, there are exceptions. I am just saying "generally" that is what I have seen.)
So when you are trying to figure out whether you need an "immigration" lawyer or a "business immigration" lawyer, you need to keep in mind that the many "business immigration" lawyers (which is what I am) sometimes call themselves "immigration" lawyers or "business immigration" lawyers.
The question you need to ask to get an appropriate attorney to help you (in any case) is not what they call themselves, but what they actually do.
Here are some suggestions for questions to ask before you hire ANY lawyer, not just immigration lawyers):
1. How many cases have you done like mine and what results have you achieved?
2. Do you feel my case is easy or difficult, and why do you feel that way?
3. Who is going to work on my case? If it is not you, what experience does that person have in cases like mine?
4. What could go wrong in my case, what can you do to try to prevent that, and what can you do to protect me if that (or something else bad) happens?
Listen carefully to the answers and ask more questions if you are unclear about what the lawyer is telling you. If you cannot get clear answers or feel uncomfortable with the answers, find someone else.
The reason I encourage you to ask these questions is that in the times I have been asked to review the work of other immigration lawyers and have found serious problems, I feel many of these problems could have been prevented by the client by simply asking these questions in advance. . . .
Best of luck!See question
Recently, I got my I-140 approved by my current employer (employer A). I have the receipt number for the I-140. I have a job offer from employer B and I am planning to join employer B. Employer B will extend my H1-B visa for three years (as I a...
Although one would normally send the I-140 approval notice, it is not required. In cases like this, we just enter the receipt number in the online case status checking link on the USCIS website and print out the page showing that the I-140 petition's current status is approved. That has been enough for us to obtain the 3-year extension in cases similar to yours.
Although there is some risk that USCIS may ask for a copy of the Company A's I-140 approval notice, I would think it is a small risk, because the whole point of the law is the status of the petition, not the actual document that describes the status. That is, with the receipt number, the USCIS officer can presumably look up the status in the USCIS database.
If you are worried, though, ask Company B file the new H-1B for you based on the online print out showing the approval of Company A's I-140 petition. If the H-1B is approved, as I would expect it to be (assuming it is otherwise approvable), then you can change to Company B. If it is denied for some reason, stay with Company A.
(I would not worry about Company A trying to withdraw or revoke its approved I-140 on your behalf. I have not researched it again carefully, but my recollection is that employer's cannot withdraw or revoke I-140 petitions after approval. They can do so only BEFORE approval.)
Good luck with your case.
(This is just general information, so don't rely on it by itself. Thanks.)See question
Hi, I'm a Canadian citizen, but have been a US resident for 10 years, first on a string of TN visas and then on an H1B. The H1B expires in a couple of days, and tomorrrow I'm going to file a CoS to a B-2 in order to stay in SF for about six ...
If you are planning to return to Canada anyway after your six weeks of relaxing in SF, there should be no problem in applying for schools during that time period.
There is a question of whether you need to disclose that you will be applying for U.S. graduate schools while you are hanging out in SF, though. It may be okay to apply for schools while you are here in your particular circumstances, because you intend to leave anyway and apply to return in F-1 student status later, but if the USCIS officer somehow misunderstands your request to relax and apply for schools, the officer may think you want to go to school either in B-2 status or later on in F-1 as soon as you get into school, and then may deny your change of status from H-1B to B-2, saying something like, "You are applying for B-2 status, but are saying you are going to go to school, which is not permitted in B-2 status."
Any decision is likely to arrive after you have already left the country, and when you come back in, the CBP officer in the airport or border may see that denial and then ask you a million questions about it and then search your laptop to read all your emails to find out your "true" intentions about attending school.
If I were you and intended to hang out for a while and look for schools in the meantime and planned to visit the folks in Canada for a while before coming back to the United States for studies, I would make it VERY clear (super clear) on your application for B-2 status that you do NOT intend to go to school on your B-2 status, but that if you do get into a graduate school, you will apply for F-1 status and re-enter later on in F-1 status. That way, when you go to the border (either after an approved COS or after a denied COS), you will be able to show the CBP officer exactly what you said you were going to do/not going to do and that you did/didn't do those things exactly as you said you were going to/not going to.
(This is my approach. Others may advise you differently about whether to disclose/not disclose the graduate application process, but being honest AND clear is the best policy. If you are honest, but not clear, you risk someone misinterpreting what you said and then accusing of having done something other than what you said you were going to do.)
A separate question that may come up later on is whether you will be returning to Canada after working in the United States for 10 years. In general, I would expect you to be admitted back to graduate school in F-1 student status after this 10-year period of employment, but you need to be prepared to answer that question, because if the CBP officer feels that you intend to stay in the United States permanently after your graduate program is over, the officer may not let you in in the first place.
I don't expect this to be a problem for you, because it seems natural to return to Canada after your graduate program, but you just need to prepare to answer those questions, because they are going to come up. Also expect questions about significant others as evidence of your intent.
Anyway, I hope this helps. Best of luck with your immigration matters, with the graduate school application process, and the graduate program.See question
I came in US 6 years ago with B-1 visa,entered legally In US,but I overstayed the 'time frame" I-94 because i did'nt want to go back to my country due to the economical situation existing there.I've paid my taxes every year since i'm here.never ha...
I do not have detailed answers to your questions, because advising someone in your circumstances requires very careful consideration of your specific circumstances.
I can tell you one thing, though: Consult a competent immigration lawyer in your area BEFORE you do anything else. I know a lot of excellent immigration lawyers in Portland, so if you don't know of someone, please email me, and I will forward you some names. Otherwise, look on this website or Google for someone on your own.
Going to the immigration service for assistance before talking with an immigration lawyer would be a terrible mistake. You need to know your rights first BEFORE you ask for benefits from the immigration service (which is now called USCIS, not INS). Your attorney can tell you your rights.See question
I have an approve H1B petition from the Philippines. When I entered US the immigration officer note on my I-94 that NO COS and AOS. My lawyer is planning to file for change of status. Is it still possible or I should go back to my country and do c...
The NO COS/AOS language is a notation that U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) puts on your I-94 to make it more difficult for you to file for nonimmigrant Change of Status (COS) or file for immigrant Adjustment of Status (AOS). I am not positive USCIS will honor it, but the reason CBP gave it to you is that they probably asked you a question, such as, "Do you want to study or work while you are here?" and you answered, "No."
In any event, it is what it is.
It is not clear when you say you have an approved H1B but have an I-94 already AND your lawyer is planning to file for change of status, because when you have an H1B approval notice, it should say on it that your status has ALREADY been changed or that you have to go overseas to obtain your H1B visa. But in any event, you have a choice of trying to COS in the United States or simply going back to the Philippines to obtain your H1B visa stamp.
The advantage of COS, if it is approved, is that you do not have to leave the country. The disadvantage is that if you do COS and then travel later on, you will have to obtain an H1B visa to return, and when you do, the consular officer overseas will be question you seriously about having said you were going to visit friends or business associates on your visitor visa, but then you changed and went to work instead. In general, it is legal to COS, but if you do it too soon after your arrival in visitor visa status, the government may try to penalize you because they feel that your changing so quickly means that you had already planned to change, but then lied about it at the border.
You have to face the consular officer eventually if you ever travel. Most of the time, our clients just go home instead of COSing from visitor visa. COSing from F1 student visa (or from some other visas) is not such a big deal most of the time, but COSing from B1/B2 visitor status can be problematic when you return to the U.S. consulate abroad to obtain your H1B visa.
I don't have all of your details, so can't advise exactly what I would recommend in your particular case, but I do strongly recommend that your discuss the issue with your current attorney and ask your attorney to let you know the advantages and disadvantages and then make your best decision.
Best of luck with your immigration case and with your new job in the United States. If you have other questions, you can read our website at the link below.See question
am a Three year diploma holder in IT and as well as i have done Bachelors and master degree in IT through distance education scheme in india. At present i am working for MNC it client and i was asked to apply for L1A visa.Could you please let me k...
There is no direct minimum educational requirement for L-1A. You just need to meet the general L-1A requirements, which are as follows:
1. The company you worked for overseas and the company you will work for in the United States have to have a "qualifying relationship," which generally means parent-subsidiary or affiliate relationship.
2. You generally have to have worked for the overseas company in an executive or managerial capacity for at least one year of the last three years before you entered the United States.
3. You have to be coming to the United States to work for the U.S. company in an executive or managerial capacity.
Educational background is not required, but it helps to show you qualifications for being an executive or manager.
If you plan to work in L-1B capacity instead of L-1A, then the relationship requirements are similar, but instead of working in an executive or managerial capacity, you have to be coming to the United States to work in a position that requires "specialized knowledge."
You can find more information on our website, www.greencardlawyers.com. Please see links below.
Best of luck with your job and your immigration efforts.See question
to be processed. And the current moment there are a lot of job opportunities for me here. But everything so far has be rejected due to know valid documents. All i know now is that i will be receiving my approval of the (1 140 )soon what do i do ne...
Mostly it depends on what type of I-140 your company has filed for you and how close it is to being approved (and potentially your country of birth).
If your I-140 is approved under EB-1C Multinational Executives or Managers, then you can file for your green card immediately after the I-140 is approved. (If you lose your job before the I-140 is approved OR even if you think that is a possibility, you should consult competent immigration counsel ASAP to help you plan for alternatives.)
(If you happen to be overseas when the I-140 is approved, then you have to file for your green card through consular processing or wait until you return to the United States and then file for your green card through an I-485 application.)
If you are in the United States when your I-140 is approved, then when you file your I-485 green card application, you can also file a form I-765 for work authorization (i.e., EAD). That work authorization typically arrives in 2-4 months after you file for it.
Normally, you will need to continue working for the same employer until you get your green card before changing jobs, though. There are some exceptions that allow you to leave your current employer after the I-485 application has been pending for 180 days or more. (I strongly recommend that you do NOT use that so-called "portability" provision to transfer jobs until you have an immigration attorney review your case and guide you in how to do it properly.)
If your I-140 was filed on some other standard basis, such as PERM, AND you were born in mainland China or in India, then you will first have to wait for many years before you can file your green card application and before you can work for someone else. If these circumstances apply to you (i.e., you were born in China or India and your I-140 is not for EB-1C), then you need to start planning your immigration status ASAP, because your current path appears to be ending soon if you have no alternatives lined up.
You can find out which category your I-140 was filed under by looking at a copy of your I-140 petition, which your employer or you should have.
Please see links below for more information.
Good luck with your ongoing job and immigration efforts.See question
ocFGossb19 Hi, I have H1 visa valid till june 2010 with a indian company. In april my project got over and I had to stay back in US due to some personal constraints so I converted my visa to H4. I was arrested for class 5 felony and on pro...
Your question has an easy part and and a difficult part. I will answer the easy part and explain what to do with the hard part.
The easy part to explain is the H-1B. If you have already had one in the recent past, and if you timely filed your previous change of status from H-1B to H-4, and if your new employer properly files the new H-1B petition, then the petition should be approved. No guarantee, but it should be--at least as far as H-1B qualifications go.
Whether you need to get a new visa (in addition to just changing your "status" from H-4 to H-1B) depends on whether everything else has been properly done and whether you need to travel. I hesitate to give you a more detailed answer on this in part because there may be a piece missing or miscommunicated that would change the result for you.
Another reason for the hesitation is that I am going to recommend that you consult with an immigration attorney ASAP on the impact of the "probation." And I would strongly recommend that you do that BEFORE you file your H-1B. You may need to try to get that cleared up before you file.
The type of immigration lawyer you need for this type of case is not a newbie or "all around" lawyer who practices family law, tax, real estate law, and immigration at the same time. You need someone who knows the area of immigration law commonly referred to as "immigration consequences of criminal convictions." Google that phrase, contact one of those firms and ask for a recommendation for someone in your local area who knows the criminal statutes there. (Immigration law is uniform throughout the United States, but criminal law is typically localized.)
If you email me your specific location, I would be happy to see if I could refer you to someone in your local area to help. You definitely need a good lawyer here. I wouldn't play games with it.
Best of luck with getting this favorably resolved.See question


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On the feast of St. Joseph, patron saint of the universal church and Jesus' earthly father, Pope Francis urged all dads in the world to stick by their children's side, teaching them, guiding them and loving them.
"I ask that you have the grace to be very close to your children, letting them grow, but being by their side. They need you, your presence, to be there, your love," the pope told fathers present in St. Peter's Square.
Despite a massive citywide transport strike in Rome, more than 80,000 people made their way to the square for the pope's weekly audience Wednesday.
The pope dedicated his catechesis to the role and example of St. Joseph. March 19 also marks the celebration of Father's Day in Italy, as well as the first anniversary of the formal inauguration of Pope Francis' ministry as bishop of Rome and pope.
St. Joseph's "great mission is to be a guardian," the pope said.
The saint is a model for all educators, whether they are teachers, catechists, parents, religious or priests, "who are fathers, too, you know," he said.
Like an educator, St. Joseph guided and accompanied Jesus so he could grow in "wisdom and age and grace," Pope Francis said. This is the same thing all parents must do, and "it would be a serious mistake to think that a father and a mother can't do anything to teach their children to grow in God's grace," he said.
Even though God was Jesus father, St. Joseph lovingly took on the paternal role and taught the young Jesus various skills, the value of work, reverence for the Lord, and fidelity and obedience to God's will, the pope said.
He also had to keep his family safe during the difficult period of their exile to Egypt, he said, which makes the saint a special example for refugees and those facing persecution.
In brief remarks to Arab-speaking visitors, especially those from Lebanon and the Holy Land, the pope said St. Joseph "knew how to cross the darkness of doubt, the experience of exile and fleeing from home, without ever losing faith in God and his love."
"Learn from him that only trust in God can turn doubt into certainty, evil into good, total darkness of the night into a radiant dawn," he said.
In his main audience address, the pope gave his heartfelt greetings to all fathers in the square, asking them to show who they were by raising their hands. "Oh, how many dads!" he said. "Best wishes! All the best on your day!"
Pope Francis led the crowd in praying the Our Father, urging them to remember God the father in heaven, but also their own fathers and every father, whether alive or deceased.
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Earlier this year EA released NCAA 14, the latest in their popular college football franchise. Shortly after that, they had a bit of a scuffle with the NCAA. Disagreements over …Continue reading →
John Callahan
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text: Hi, I have a few queues and like to have nodes 'attached' to them with faster nodes being able to take overflow from the slower queues, in the past I have used something like: # Tie slower quad phenoms to medium64 queue SRCFG[medium64] HOSTLIST=a01,a02,a03,a04,a05,a06,a07,a08,a09,a10,a11,a12,a13,a14,a15,a16,a17,a18,a19,a20,l01,l02,l03,l04,temp1 SRCFG[medium64] CLASSLIST=medium64 SRCFG[medium64] PERIOD=INFINITY SRCFG[medium64] RESOURCES=PROCS:-1 # Tie the parallel queue to the faster quad core phenoms cpus, allow medium64 overflow SRCFG[parallel] HOSTLIST=f01,f02,f03,f04,f05,f06,f07,f08,f09,f10,d01,d02,d03,d04,d05,d06,d07,d08,d09,d10,k01,k02,k03,k04,k05,k06, k07,k08,k09,k10 SRCFG[parallel] CLASSLIST=parallel,medium64- SRCFG[parallel] PERIOD=INFINITY SRCFG[parallel] RESOURCES=PROCS:-1 However it now seems that the negative affinity of medium64- is not honored, if we suibmit a job to the medium64 queue it always seems to go to a f,d or k node even when there are many a nodes that are few. Perhaps I am doing something wrong but is it possible that the negative affinity no longer works and all the affinities are equal now and if so can it be reverted back to the old way? showconfig shows this: SRCFG[medium64] CLASSLIST=medium64 HOSTLIST=a01 a02 a03 a04 a05 a06 a07 a08 a09 a10 a11 a12 a13 a14 a15 a16 a17 a18 a19 a20 l01 l02 l03 l04 temp1 SRCFG[parallel] CLASSLIST=parallel:==medium64 HOSTLIST=f01 f02 f03 f04 f05 f06 f07 f08 f09 f10 d01 d02 d03 d04 d 05 d06 d07 d08 d09 d10 k01 k02 k03 k04 k05 k06 k07 k08 k09 k10 Any help gratefully received, Jon


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Atlanta -- Developer OliverMcMillan has secured a $167 million syndicated construction loan, led by PNC Capital Markets, LLC, to finance construction of Buckhead Atlanta, the mixed-use retail, residential and office development located in Atlanta's Buckhead neighborhood.
The loan will cover the full construction of the six-block, 8-acre complex. Five lenders are involved, including PNC Bank, N.A., CIT Finance LLC, Compass Bank, Regions Bank and SunTrust Banks.
Construction began in August 2012, and shops will begin to open in mid-2014. The completed project will include 300,000 sq. ft. of retail stores, restaurants and cafes, more than 100,000 sq. ft. of office space and 370 high-rise residences.
OliverMcMillan worked exclusively with HFF, a real estate capital intermediary, to secure the financing.


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|Material Type:
|Internet resource
|Document Type:
|Book, Internet Resource
|All Authors / Contributors:
Paul Roberts
|0618239774 9780618239771
|OCLC Number:
|389 pages ; 24 cm
|Free ride --
Light the fire --
Last of the easy oil --
Future's so bright --
Energy is power --
Too hot --
On the road to nowhere --
Give the people what they want --
Big oil gets anxious --
And now for something completely different --
Less is more --
Into the blue --
Energy security --
Invisible hand --
Digging in our heels --
How do we get there?
|Paul Roberts.
|More information:
Petroleum is now so deeply entrenched in our economy, our politics, and our personal expectations that even modest efforts to phase it out are fought tooth and nail by the most powerful forces in the world: companies and governments that depend on oil revenues; the developing nations that see oil as the only means to industrial success; and a Western middle class that refuses to modify its energy-dependent lifestyle. But within thirty years, by even conservative estimates, we will have burned our way through most of the oil that is easily accessible. And well before then, the side effects of an oil-based society -- economic volatility, geopolitical conflict, and the climate-changing impact of hydrocarbon pollution -- will render fossil fuels an all but unacceptable solution. How will we break our addiction to oil? And what will we use in its place to maintain a global economy and political system that are entirely reliant on cheap, readily available energy?Brilliantly reported from around the globe, The End of Oil brings the world situation into fresh and dramatic focus for business and general readers alike. Roberts talks to both oil optimists and oil pessimists, delves deep into the economics and politics of oil, considers the promises and pitfalls of alternatives, and shows that, although the world energy system has begun its epoch-defining transition, disruption and violent dislocation are almost assured if we do not take a more proactive stance. With the topicality and readability of Fast Food Nation and the scope and trenchant analysis of Guns, Germs, and Steel, this is a vitally important book for the new century.
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It's probably not the way Gus Kleekamp envisioned being the hero.
But, facing Wentzville Tuesday night at Rotary Recreational Complex - Ronsick Field, it's what Kleekamp didn't do which allowed Post 218 to earn a 7-6 Ninth District victory.
"in the last inning we decided to make the pitcher throw strikes so we were taking pitches," Post 218 Manager Jordan Bierbaum said. "As that goes, they walked in the winning run. You would like to see your team hit in the game winner, but in a crucial district game we were glad with the win."
Kleekamp declined to swing at any of the four pitches sent to him and drew a walk, bringing home teammate Will Davis with two outs in the bottom of the seventh to end the game.
Washington (14-5, 7-0) took the lead with one run in the first inning and added two more in the fourth.
But then came the inning Post 218 would like to forget.
Three walks, two doubles, two errors and a single led to Wentzville scoring six runs in the top of the fifth inning.
"Gus Kleekamp started the game and looked good at times through the first couple of innings," Bierbaum said. "He lost a little control late and it cost him the win. Walking batters will almost always come back to hurt the pitcher and it did in Gus' case."
To their credit, Washington bounced back to tie it in the bottom of the frame with two runs, 6-6.
After that, the teams played a scoreless sixth inning and Wentzville was retired in order in the top of the seventh.
Post 218 made the most out of their five hits and six walks. Additionally, four Washington batters were hit by pitches.
"Offensively, there are two hitters who really made a difference," Bierbaum said. "Nik Alferman got us on the board and really has been a force all year in the four hole. And Trey Hunter fought off a pitch and drove in the tying run on an opposite-field single. That at- bat is what he has done all year for us. He is a tough out and can really hit to all fields. To his credit, hard work is showing itself at the plate."
Kleekamp, Blake Pickard, Hunter, Alferman and Daniel Diener recorded hits for Washington.
Diener doubled, scored once, drove in one and walked twice. He added one stolen base.
Kleekamp singled, walked three times, scored twice and drove in one run.
Pickard singled, drove in two, stole a base and sacrificed.
Hunter singled, scored, drove in a run and was hit by a pitch.
Alferman singled, walked and drove in a run.
Davis scored two runs while being hit by a pitch.
Kolby Lang was hit by a pitch and scored.
Garrett Leimkuehler was hit by a pitch.
Kleekamp started on the hill for Post 218 and lasted 4.1 innings. He allowed five unearned runs on two hits and six walks. He struck out six.
Leimkuehler relieved and got the win. Over 2.2 innings, he allowed one unearned run on three hits and one walk. He struck out four.
Josiah Hagemeier had two hits for Wentzville. Andrew Siemer suffered the loss.


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1Department of Molecular and Microbiology, George Mason University, 2Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study, George Mason University
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In this video-article we present a method for the isolation and purification of Drosophila peripheral neurons using a fast magnetic bead assisted cell sorting strategy. RNA obtained from the isolated cells can be readily used for downstream applications including microarray analyses.
Date Published: 12/01/2009, Issue 34; doi: 10.3791/1599
Keywords: Cellular Biology, Issue 34, Drosophila, cell dissociation, neuron, Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), dendritic arborization neurons, RNA, microarray, magnetic bead sorting, cell isolation
Iyer, E. P., Iyer, S. C., Sulkowski, M. J., Cox, D. N. Isolation and Purification of Drosophila Peripheral Neurons by Magnetic Bead Sorting. J. Vis. Exp. (34), e1599, doi:10.3791/1599 (2009).
General Comments on Magnetic Bead Sorting of Drosophila Peripheral Neurons (Total Timing for the Completion of the Protocol: 2.5-3 hours)
Standard lab procedures for maintaining a clean, RNAse free environment must be observed at all times to prevent RNA degradation.
When the Drosophila larval cuticle is dissected and placed in the cell dissociation buffer, the peripheral neurons are one of the last cells to detach from the cuticle. We have exploited this property and designed this protocol to remove most of the non-specific cells from the cuticle such as muscle and fat prior to isolating the da neurons.
With practice, the whole protocol can be successfully completed within approximately 2.5 hours. The preparation of antibody coated beads must be completed before the experiment begins.
1. Preparing Magnetic Beads for Binding Cells:
This step must be completed prior to the start of the experiment. The prepared beads can be prepared and stored at 4°C until needed.
2. Selecting and Washing Larvae: (10-15 minutes)
3. Dissection: (10-12 minutes)
4. Removal of loosely adherent non-specific cells: (2-3 minutes)
[This step aids the clearing of loosely adherent non-specific tissues such as fat bodies and CNS.]
5. Dissociating the tissue into a single cell suspension: (18-20 minutes)
[Critical Step: Over-dissociation may cause the loss of the cell-surface marker leading to poor cell yield and low cell viability The larval tissue can be dissociated by either mechanical dissociation (sonication, douncing), enzymatic dissociation (trypsin, collagenase etc.) or a combination of both. As these larval tissues are difficult to dissociate, we found that a combination of both mechanical and enzymatic dissociation yielded the best results.]
6. Magnetic Bead Cell Sorting: (45 - 75 minutes, dependent on antibody incubation time)
7. RNA Isolation from Magnetic Bead Sorted Cells: (60 – 75 minutes)
Representative Results:
Magnetic bead sorting was used to isolate Drosophila da neurons (Figure 1). The RNA purified from these isolated da neurons (Figure 2a) was found to be of excellent quality as indicated by the presence of sharp 5.8S, 18S and 28S ribosomal RNA peaks when analyzed on an Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies, Inc.) (Figure 2b). Beginning with 30-40 third instar larvae we were capable of isolating on average 300-500 class-IV da neurons using the ppk-GAL4 driver, and 1500-2000 da neurons (Class I,II,III & IV) using the pan-da neuron-specific GAL421-7 driver. To assess the neuronal-specific enrichment of our isolated cells we performed quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) using two neuronal gene-specific markers (elav and futsch). These analyses revealed significant fold enrichment of both marker genes indicating a highly specific enrichment for da neurons as compared to flow through using our protocol (Figure 3). Finally, the isolated RNA from both pan-da neurons and class-IV da neurons was used to perform transcriptional expression profiling on Agilent Drosophila melanogaster whole-genome oligo microarrays (4 x 44K) (Figure 4). These analyses identified numerous previously implicated regulators of da neuron dendrite morphogenesis in addition to a broad spectrum of previously uncharacterized molecules and putative signal transduction pathways that potentially play important functional roles in da neuron development. Studies designed to assess the potential role(s) of these previously uncharacterized molecules in mediating da neuron development, and specifically dendrite morphogenesis, are presently underway.
Figure 1: Schematic of magnetic bead sorting of Drosophila da neurons. (a) Age matched third instar larvae bearing the da neuron-specific GAL4,UAS-mCD8-GFP reporter transgene are dissected by inverting the larval cuticle inside-out, to expose the PNS to dissociation buffer and stored in ice-cold PBS. (b) Enzymatic dissociation is carried out by adding Liberase Blendzyme 3 to the solution containing larval cuticle. (c) The larval tissues are further dissociated by a combination of vortexing, trituration and douncing to remove non-specifically labeled tissues such as fat-bodies, gut and CNS. (d,e) The cells are then filtered using a 30 μm cell filter. The solution contains a single cell suspension of different cell types including epithelia, muscle and neurons. (f) Anti-mouse CD8a-antibody coated Dynabeads M-280 are added to the cell suspension, and incubated on ice for 30-60 minutes. (g) The magnetic beads binds to the da neurons that are expressing a mouse CD8 tagged GFP fusion protein. (h,i) The magnetic bead coated cells are separated by placing the solution in a strong magnetic field. The supernatant is discarded, and the cells are washed three times to remove any residual non-specific cells, resulting in (j) highly purified populations of da neurons. Please click here to see a larger version of figure 1.
Figure 2: (a) Representative image of positively selected, GFP fluorescent class-IV da neurons isolated by cell dissociation and magnetic bead sorting. The resulting population of neurons was determined to be highly enriched for class-IV da neurons with little or no contaminating cell impurities. (b) An Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies, Inc.) electropherogram of total RNA isolated from magnetic bead sorted da neurons, showing an excellent total RNA quality as indicated by the presence of 5.8S, 18S, and 28S rRNAs. Please click here to see a larger version of figure 2.
Figure 3: qRT–PCR analysis of neuronal marker gene expression in isolated da neurons (GAL421-7,UAS-mCD8-GFP) and the flow through fraction was performed in triplicate. The expression levels of the two neuronal-specific marker genes (elav and futsch) were assessed by qRT–PCR. Values obtained from these analyses were normalized to the endogenous control (rp49), and the levels relative to those observed in flow through fraction were calculated using the ΔΔCτ method6. Both elav and futsch were significantly enriched in the isolated da neuron population as compared to the flow through fraction.
Figure 4: Representative class-IV da neuron-specific Cy3 labeled microarray image file. Shown here is an Agilent Drosophila melanogaster whole-genome oligo microarray (4 x 44K) hybridized with Cy3-labeld total RNA isolated from class-IV da neurons purified by magnetic bead sorting. Please click here to see a larger version of figure 4.
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The protocol presented here is optimized for the isolation and purification of peripheral neurons which adhere tightly to the inner surface of the Drosophila third instar larval cuticle using a magnetic bead cell sorting strategy. While we have used this protocol to specifically isolate Drosophila da neurons, applications of this protocol to the isolation of other cell types that adhere to the cuticle in larval or pupal stages of development (e.g. epithelia, muscle, other peripheral neurons) can be adapted by varying a few parameters and using distinct GAL4,UAS-mCD8-GFP reporter transgenes which label the cell type or types of interest. Moreover, this protocol can be used in both loss-of-function and gain-of-function approaches where a gene of interest may be cloned into a UAS-mCD8-GFP transgene that can be coupled with a GAL4 transgene to direct either gene-specific loss-of-function (e.g. UAS-RNAi) or gain-of-function to a cell type of interest. For example, in the case of a transcription factor one may wish to identify potentially up- or down-regulated genes upon loss-of-function or gain-of-function expression in a cell type of interest. By isolating total RNA from the purified cell type of interest via this protocol and using this RNA to perform microarray expression profiling it is possible to identify differentially regulated genes that may represent downstream targets of transcriptional regulation that play a role in mediating phenotypic changes within the cell.
For successful cell sorting it is essential to give careful attention to the critical steps highlighted in the above protocol. Examples of common problem areas that may require some further troubleshooting and optimization, depending upon cell type, include (1) low cell yield and (2) cell clumping during magnetic bead isolation. In the first case, one may try reducing the concentration of Liberase Blendzyme 3, and compensate by increasing mechanical dissociation via douncing. In the second case, one may try reducing the magnetic field strength by applying a single or multiple layers of adhesive lab tape over the magnet.
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We thank Drs. Yuh-Nung Jan and Wes Grueber for providing fly stocks used in this study. The authors acknowledge the Thomas F. and Kate Miller Jeffress Memorial Trust for support of this research (D.N.C.) and the George Mason University Provost's Office (E.P.R.I.).
|Catalog Number
|10X Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS)
|MP Biomedicals
|Diluted to 1X working solution
|10X Liberase Blendzyme 3
|Roche Group
|Diluted to 1X working solution (28 Wünsch units/vial)
|Biotinylated Rat anti-Mouse-CD8a antibody
|100 μg/ml stock concentration
|BSA (Bovine Serum Albumin), Fraction V
|GIBCO, by Life Technologies
|Prepare a 1% BSA solution in PBS
|Dynabeads M-280 Streptavidin
|1 μl can bind 0.05-0.10 μg of biotinylated antibody
|PicoPure RNA Isolation Kit
|Molecular Devices
|Follow manufacturer's instructions
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Wednesday, December 5, 2012
Tyler Technologies Wins Customer In Virginia
Dallas-based government and municipal software developer Tyler Technologies reported a win with Loudoun County, Virginia today, saying that the county will use its CLT Appraisal Services to enhance the accuracy of its real estate data. Financial impact of the contract was not announced. Tyler said the deal includes onsite physical inspections and use of its service to capture street-front imaging of residential structures.