text:
The hermeneutical issues in dispensationalism's understanding of the Abrahamic covenant revolve around what Ryrie has termed "the sine qua non of Dispensationalism" (Ryrie 1965, 43-47). Two of these aspects are (1) the distinction between Israel and the Church and (2) the normal or plain interpretation of Scripture. As will be seen, both of these are inextricably woven together.
For some, the second sine qua non provides the basis for determining the first (Ryrie 1965, 97). Vern Poythress recognized that " ... nearly all the problems associated with the dispensationalist-nondispensationalist conflict are buried beneath the question of literal interpretation" (Poythress 1987, 78). However, the question of "literal interpretation" receives conflicting answers from those who employ the term. Consequently, due to the difficulty of conclusively answering the question of "what is meant by literal?", progressive dispensationalists have conceded "... that consistently literal exegesis is inadequate to describe the essential distinctive of Dispensationalism" (Blaising 1988, 272). Saucy would agree saying that "the key distinctive of dispensational theology ... is the recognition of Israel as a nation set apart from other nations by God for the service of universal salvation for all peoples" (Saucy 1993, 221).
What dispensationalists traditionally called "literal interpretation" resulted in a bifurcation of the material in the two Testaments and a corollary, continuing discontinuity between Israel and the Church. Daniel Fuller summarizes Oswald T. Allis's objection to Dispensationalism saying that the "... basic hermeneutical error in Dispensationalism was its insistence on dividing and compartmentalizing the Scriptures, with the result that a most important distinction was made between those Scriptures relating to Israel and those relating to the Church" (Fuller 1980, 19).
Progessive Dispensationalism has returned to the first sine qua non, i.e. the distinction between Israel and the church, as its "distinguishing factor" (Blaising 1988, 273 and Saucy 1993, 221). This return coincides with Poythress's further recognition that this distinction is more fundamental than a literal hermeneutic. He writes: "Their approaches toward strict literalness seem to be subordinated to the more fundamental principle of dual destinations for Israel and the church" (Poythress 1987, 78).
Strikingly, in discussing those dual destinations dispensationalists have moved away from the absolute earthly\heavenly dualism of early dispensationalism. Early dispensationalism, as evidenced in Darby's teaching, provided the groundwork for an absolute distinction. Darby maintained a distinction between Israel and the Church that was both temporal and eschatological. He propounded an earthly\heavenly dichotomy between Israel and the Church (Blaising 1988, 273-275). His views were followed by Lewis Sperry Chafer and others.
Nevertheless, Blaising notes that in the 1950s and 1960s dispensational writers had dropped the earthly\heavenly dualism and instead accepted that both Israel and the Church ultimately shared eternal destinies in the same sphere (Blaising 1988, 276).
Apparently among many contemporary dispensationalists there is agreement that "... the city of God is the common destiny of all the redeemed" (Blaising 1988, 277). However, the question remains, if ultimately both share a common destiny, then wherein lies the "distinguishing factor," namely, the distinction between Israel and the Church? That distinction appears to lie in the earthly fulfillment of the land promise to national, ethnic Israel whom dispensationalists understand to be the "seed" of Abraham. For the dispensationalists, this is what "literal" hermeneutics demand. Walvoord remarks: The Old Testament saints and prophets expected a special program for the nation of Israel consummating in a kingdom era. This was the normal understanding of the promises (Walvoord 1980, 19).
Again, progressive dispensationalists agree:
- Thus, while there is in the present salvation in Christ a partial fulfillment of the spiritual blessing promised to all people through Abraham and his seed, many aspects of the promise remain to be fulfilled, especially those dealing with the 'great nation' seed and the 'land...' (Saucy 1993, 58).
However, a plaguing issue with dispensational hermeneutics is the lack of consistency in definition and application of "what is literal", resulting in confusion. Vern Poythress highlights this problem of consistency when he asks concerning dispensationalists:
- Are they really begging the important questions? Are they really slanting the case in favor of `flat interpretation'? Or are they just being imprecise? Maybe they are just imprecise, but the particular way in which they are imprecise does not help to delineate the issues separating dispensationalist from nondispensationalist hermeneutics. It rather confuses them (Poythress 1987, 94).
Literal Interpretation
If literal interpretation is confined to what the human author or recipient of revelation would have understood of "seed" and "land", then its application to the Abrahamic covenant would seem to result in a limitation of its scope to ethnic Israel and the land of Palestine. However, if by literal interpretation one means any meaning inherent in the words of a text even as nuanced by future revelation, then its application to the Abrahamic covenant results in a fuller understanding of "seed" and "land."
Walter Kaiser would be right in insisting that the meaning of a text can only be informed by antecedent revelation (Kaiser 1987, 99), if he was referring to meaning as understood by its original recipients. Certainly without the benefit of future revelation they could only understand in terms of what existed. However, to maintain that the recipients of later revelation are confined to the original recipient's sometimes-limited understanding of a text is too narrow.
Scalise comments in this regard:
- The history of exegesis seems generally to demonstrate that when the sensus literalis of Scripture has been defined in a positive and more than woodenly literal way (cf. especially Augustine and Luther), resulting in a synthesis of grammatical, historical, and theological understandings, a flourishing of the exegetical discipline and a renewal of dynamic biblical theology has recurred (Scalise 1989, 65).
Scalise's point requires some amplification. As stated earlier, to limit a text's fullest interpretation to its grammatical-historical meaning is too restrictive. On the other hand to include theological interpretation with the grammatical-historical is to allow progressive revelation to inform the text.
Berkhof asserts that grammatical-historical interpretation does not meet "... all the requirements for the proper interpretation of the Bible (Berkhof 1950, 133). In his view grammatical-historical interpretation does not account for the following:
- (1) that the Bible is the word of God; (2) that it constitutes an organic whole, of which each individual book is an integral part; (3) that the Old and New Testament are related to each other as type and antitype, prophecy and fulfillment, germ and perfect development; (4) that not only explicit statements of the Bible, but also what may be deduced from it by good and necessary consequences, constitute the Word of God (Berkhof 1950, 133).
As noted earlier, Kaiser's view that only antecedent revelation can inform a text is inadequate. Equally inadequate is a view of interpretation that limits itself to grammatical-historical meaning. Though dispensationalists have quoted Bernard Ramm to support their understanding of "literal" (Pentecost 1958, 9-11), they fail to notice that Bernard Ramm aptly affirmed that though literal interpretation "... is the only conceivable method of beginning and commencing to understand literature of all kinds" (Ramm 1970, 123), he also recognized the role of typology:
- The program of the literal interpretation of Scripture does not overlook the figures of speech, the symbols, the types, the allegories that as a matter of fact are to be found in Holy Scripture. It is not a blind letterism nor a wooden literalism as is so often the accusation (Ramm 1970, 126).
Theological interpretation adds another dimension to understanding the historical-grammatical meaning of Scripture. Vern Poythress defines grammatical-historical interpretation as interpretation that "... deals with what a passage says against the background of its original time and culture, bearing in mind the purpose of the human author" (Poythress 1987, 97).
He correctly concludes that what dispensationalists mean by literal is actually the grammatical-historical interpretation of a text (Poythress 1987, 86). Pentecost equates the grammatical-historical method with literal interpretation (Pentecost 1958, 9) as does Ryrie (Ryrie 1965, 92-96) who also charges that nondispensationalists "introduce another hermeneutical principle (the `theological' method) in order to have a hermeneutical basis for the system which he holds" (Ryrie 1965, 94).
The grammatical-historical approach to Scripture is necessary and adequate as a starting point. However, it falls short due to the now enlarged context of Scripture. It must be conceded that knowing even what Abraham understood by the words of the covenant cannot be fully arrived at from the Old Testament text itself, as is indicated by the writer of Hebrews commentary on that understanding in Hebrews 11:16: "Instead they were longing for a better country--a heavenly one." No reading of the Old Testament text alone will confirm that Abraham was looking for a heavenly city. Yet, the New Testament declares that he was.
The New Testament text introduces a dimension in understanding the heavenly nature of the land that a grammatical-historical approach alone does not yield.
Theological Correspondence
A related issue to the grammatical-historical-theological approach to Scripture is that of theological correspondence. Correct interpretation is grounded in the recognition of continuity in the theological purpose of God. The dualism of the earthly and heavenly, of Israel and the Church, and of law vs. grace, and the bifurcation of the testaments on those bases produce a theological discontinuity. In this author's investigation of Old Testament theology, a tentative theological paradigm has been developed through which the rest of Scripture is viewed.
This paradigm for the study of Old Testament theology is set within the parameters of God's stated purpose for man as recorded in Genesis 1:26-27. An examination of this purpose discloses a two-fold, yet united, design for humanity.
Primarily, God intended for man to have relationship with Himself. The term used to describe this relationship is "Sonship." Secondly, God intended that man should be responsible to Him and responsible for His creation. This responsibility is termed "Stewardship." This "Sonship/Stewardship" motif provides an initial paradigm for the study of Old Testament Biblical Theology.
However, the fall of man, which disoriented man from fulfilling God's design, necessitates an additional motif that runs parallel to the first and that, at times, overshadows the first. From the event of the fall, there emerges a "Redemptive\Restoration" motif that continues throughout the Scripture.
It is within the parameters of God's original intent of Sonship\Stewardship, parallelled by and at times overshadowed by Redemptive\Restoration, that a paradigm for Old Testament Theology and for understanding the Abrahamic covenant is presented.
The function of covenant relates to this overarching motif. The covenant served to insure that there would be a seed to carry forth the Sonship\Stewardship purpose of God. The covenant grows out of the Redemptive\Restoration motif.
It is the above theological basis and understanding of the unity of the purpose of God that supply certain normative features for making theological interpretations. When applied to the Abrahamic covenant, a paradigm such as this relates that covenant to the original purpose of God and establishes a unity and continuity in that purpose. As Dumbrell was previously quoted: "The call of that patriarch began a programme of redemption which aimed at full and final restoration of man and his world" (Dumbrell 1982, 50).
Theological correspondence relates the concepts of seed, land, and divine\human relationship to the original and ultimate purposes of God and thus yields more than a provincial interpretation.
Authorial Intention
The issue of literal interpretation also involves that of authorial intention. Must interpreters limit the scope of interpretation of the Abrahamic covenant to what Moses understood in recording those words for the nation of Israel? Since Scripture is marked by both divine and human authorship, is it necessary that the intent of the words was shared equally by both authors? Conceivably, due to the dual authorship of the Bible (Divine\human), the answer to the question of intention may be thought of as unattainable because of the absence of the Author\author.
However, since God has preserved only the words of these authors, and in those words expects men to understand the message, interpreters must conclude that the intention of the Author\author is that which is based singularly in the words of Scripture as contained in the canon of Scripture. Any other supposed intention is not available and, therefore, not necessary to the interpretation of Scripture. Any contextual interpretation must then be based on the words found in the text.
Although having affirmed that intention is based on the textual meaning of the words, dispensationalists must yet realize that both authors did not necessarily share the same scope of intended meaning. Paul D. Feinberg in defending the hermeneutics of dispensationalism rejects any notion that there could be any difference between the human author's intentions and God's (Feinberg 1988, 177). Nevertheless, though the human author's intention would not conflict with the divine author's, there is no necessity for it to have been coordinate with the scope of the Divine author's intention.
For instance, there are some who would hold that in Psalm 2 the human author envisioned the human Davidic king as the anointed of God, while the divine author, as is seen in the New Testament usage of Psalm 2, ultimately intended to focus on one particular Davidic king, the Messianic King. Is there contradiction? No! There is merely difference in the intended scope of the words. It is this difference in the depth and scope of intention that helps us to understand some of the New Testament uses of the Old Testament, especially in prophetic and poetic passages.
The same can be said of the Abrahamic covenant. Though the human recipient, Abraham, and the human author, Moses, may have had a provincial, limited understanding of the scope of that covenant, the latter prophets and New Testament authors share the expanded scope of the divine author.
It is also plausible that an interpreter of Scripture may underestimate what the original recipients understood. Though the Abrahamic covenant furnishes a theological justification for the conquest of Palestine by Israel, is it not possible that the Israelites also maintained an understanding of the covenant that was set against the larger backdrop of God's original and continuing purposes for all creation as recorded in Genesis 1-11? Again, Hebrews 11:16 indicates this.
A contextual interpretation of the Abrahamic covenant does not abrogate the human author's grammatical-historical intent of seed, land, and divine\human relationship, but recognizes that those same words allow a fuller and deeper meaning, not always perceived by the human author. Kunjummen, who writes from the context of dispensationalism, agrees saying: "Divine accommodation in the use of human language is not tantamount to divine self-reduction of authorial intent to the understanding of the biblical writer" (Kunjummen 1986, 109).
Progressive Revelation
Another issue of hermeneutics that relates to the Abrahamic covenant is that of progressive revelation. John Walvoord in speaking to this issue says: The issue accordingly is not progressive revelation versus nonprogressive revelation, but rather whether in progressive revelation there is contradiction or correction of what was commonly assumed to be the main tenor of Old Testament revelation (Walvoord 1980, 20).
The problem with Walvoord's statement is what is meant by "... commonly assumed to be the main tenor of Old Testament revelation." Though this author concurs with Turner that "it appears exceedingly doubtful that the New Testament reinterprets the Old Testament so as to evaporate the plain meaning of its promises" (Turner 1985, 282), the argument persists concerning what is meant by "plain meaning."
Daniel Fuller's understanding of progressive revelation is helpful:
- Why could not the Old Testament revelation be thought of as the grain of sand, which, after entering the oyster of progressive revelation, has the pearl of additional and deeper concepts added to it without necessarily canceling out the original grain of sand (Fuller 1957, 233)?
Any interpretation of the Abrahamic covenant must take into account the seventy-four references to Abraham in the New Testament and how they interpret and inform the Old Testament text.
Directly related to the issue of progressive revelation are that of prophecy and fulfillment, the use of the Old in the New, and typology. Each of these issues is obviously influenced by the addition of new revelation that speaks to the prophecies and types of the Old Testament and to the way the New Testament understands and interprets the Old. The limited scope of this paper will allow only a brief discussion of these issues.
Though Pentecost notes the problems of interpreting prophecy (Pentecost 1958, 45-59), the rules stated for correct interpretation are once again restricted by limiting any interpretation to a grammatical-historical interpretation (Pentecost 1958, 59).
Contrariwise, Joel B. Green argues that those who seek literal and detailed fulfillments of Old Testament prophecy "... must face the reality that fulfillment is often not quite what was anticipated" (Green 1984, 103). He explains:
- When fulfillment exceeds promise, three things are underscored: God's freedom and creativity and the historical quality of biblical prophecy. Given in particular, historical circumstances, prophecy uses words and ideas appropriate to its day. A different historical situation at the time of fulfillment, however, may involve a realization in updated terms beyond the literal meaning of the original prediction (Green 1984, 104).
Dispensationalists, as represented by Charles L. Feinberg, would disagree with Green and instead affirm that "in the interpretation of prophecy that has not yet been fulfilled, those prophecies that have been fulfilled are to form the pattern" (Feinberg 1985, 41). Contrariwise, Vern Poythress in his critique of dispensational hermeneutics adequately demonstrates that "preeschatological prophetic fulfillments have a hermeneutically different character than do eschatological fulfillments" (Poythress 1987, 105).
The often enigmatic nature of prophecy should solicit humility and tentativeness in assertions regarding its fulfillment. For example, Odendaal in his discussion of Isaiah 40-66 notes that those chapters offer an eschatological fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant (Odendaal 1966, 265). In regard to the fulfillment of that passage he reservedly concludes that "... it is evident that neither a purely spiritual nor a purely literal explanation can fathom the fullness of the prophetic proclamation (Odendaal 1966, 274).
Also related to the issue of progressive revelation are the issues of typology and the use of the Old Testament in the New. Again, it is not the scope of this paper to fully develop these issues, but rather to note how they relate to the interpretation of the Abrahamic covenant.
Specifically, does the word "land" have any typological significance? Douglas Moo suggests that "typology is best viewed as a specific form of the larger `promise-fulfillment' scheme that provides the essential framework within which the relationship of the testaments must be understood" (Moo 1986, 196). He maintains:
- The two Testaments are bound together by their common witness to the unfolding revelation of God's character, purpose, and plan. But the salvation wrought by God through Christ is the fulfillment of `Old Testament' history, law, and prophecy (Moo 1986, 196).
For example, Hebrews 3:7-4:8 employs a typological significance of "land." Based on the pattern of Psalm 95, throughout the passage the word "land" is replaced with the word "rest." It is significant that in the patriarchal promises x;Anm' is never used to describe the land. x;Anm' is introduced once positively in Deuteronomy to describe the land as hx'WnM.h (Deut.12:9), and once in a warning passage that disobedience would result in ytix'Wnm.-la,. !Waboy>-~ai (Psalm 95:11).
Interestingly, the Psalmist chooses x;Anm' to describe life in the land. The writer of Hebrews picks up on this and takes it a step further. Employing the same word from the Septuagint kata,pausi,n, he refers to the present and ultimate blessing of being in Christ as one of kata,pausi,n.
"Rest" in the "land" anticipated "rest" in Jesus Christ. This rest is semi-realized in the believers present experience in Christ (Heb 4:3), yet it awaits a more consummate fulfillment (Heb 4:9). Moo perceptively concludes "that God had so ordered Old Testament history that it prefigures and anticipates His climatic redemptive acts and that the New Testament is the inspired record of those redemptive acts (Moo 1986, 198).
One other issue that relates to progressive revelation is the thorny issue of the use of the Old Testament in the New. This author would suggest the "canonical approach" to that issue wherein "any specific biblical text can be interpreted in light of its ultimate literary context--the whole canon, which receives its unity from the single divine author of the whole" (Moo 1986, 205). Moo offers four commendations of the canonical approach:
- (1) it builds on the scripturally sound basis of a redemptive-historical framework, in which the Old Testament as a whole points forward to, anticipates, and prefigures Christ and the church; (2) this scheme can be shown to have its antecedents in what the Old Testament itself does with earlier revelation; (3) the questionable division between the intent of the human author and that of the divine author in a given text is decreased; (4) the 'fuller sense' discovered by Jesus and the apostles in Old Testament texts is, at least to some extent, open to verification (Moo 1986, 205-6).
When applied to the Abrahamic covenant, the canonical approach enriches and expands the interpretation of it, loosing it from its purely ethnic, national, and geographical bonds.
Remember that Jesus Christ is God's Word for these last days. The Old Testament anticipated and foreshadowed Him, while the NT offers us a full revelation of Him. The following texts remind us that the OT is the word of God about Jesus Christ.
- Luke 24:25-27
25 He said to them, "How foolish you are, and how slow of heart to believe all that the prophets have spoken! 26 Did not the Christ have to suffer these things and then enter his glory?" 27 And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he explained to them what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself.
Luke 24:44-47
44 He said to them, "This is what I told you while I was still with you: Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms." 45 Then he opened their minds so they could understand the Scriptures. 46 He told them, "This is what is written: The Christ will suffer and rise from the dead on the third day, 47 and repentance and forgiveness of sins will be preached in his name to all nations, beginning at Jerusalem.
John 5:39-40
39 You diligently study the Scriptures because you think that by them you possess eternal life. These are the Scriptures that testify about me, 40 yet you refuse to come to me to have life.
The words of Jesus Christ lead us to conclude that the OT is "progressive, redemptive revelation. It is revelation because in it God makes himself known. It is redemptive because God reveals himself in the act of redeeming us. It is progressive because God makes himself and his purposes known by stages until the full light is revealed in Jesus Christ" (Goldsworthy 1991, 72). [1]
This progressive, redemptive revelation of Jesus Christ is given through historical events, people, promises, institutions, Christophanies, etc., all of which in some way anticipate or foreshadow the final and full revelation in Jesus Christ.
Goldsworthy sums up the relationship of Jesus Christ to the OT:
- The
New Testament emphasizes the historic person of Christ and what he did
for us, through faith, to become the friends of God. The emphasis is
also on him as the one who sums up and brings to their fitting climax
all the promises and expectations raised in the Old Testament. There is
a priority of order here, which we must take into account if we are to
understand the Bible correctly. It is the gospel event, as that which
brings about faith in the people of God, that will motivate, direct,
pattern, and empower the life of the Christian community. So we start
from the gospel and move to an understanding of Christian living, and
the final goal toward which we are moving.
Again we start from the gospel and move back into the Old Testament to see what lies behind the person and work of Christ. The Old Testament is not completely superceded by the gospel, for that would make it irrelevant to us. It helps us understand the gospel by showing us the origins and meanings of the various ideas and special words used to describe Christ and his works in the New Testament. Yet we must also recognize that Christ is God's fullest and final Word to mankind. As such he reveals to us the final meaning of the Old Testament (Goldsworthy 1991, 106-107).
There are many studies that show the relationship of Christ to the Old Testament. An older two-volume study by E.W. Hengstenberg, Christology of the Old Testament, was written in 1854. This is a scholarly and detailed study (1400 pages) of Old Testament texts showing the prefiguring and prophecy of Jesus Christ in the Old Testament. A more recent study (1991) by Vern Poythress of Westminster Seminary, The Shadow of Christ in the Law of Moses, details how Christ is prefigured in the Pentateuch (5 books of Moses). A look at some of his chapter titles shows how starting with Christ and moving back into the Old Testament gives us insight into a fuller meaning of Christ.
- The Tabernacle of Moses: Prefiguring God's Presence through Christ
- The Sacrifices: Prefiguring the Final Sacrifice of Christ
- The Priests and the People: Prefiguring Christ's Relation to His People
- General Principles for God's Dwelling with Human Beings: Prefiguring Union with Christ.
- The Land of Palestine, the Promised Land: Prefiguring Christ's Renewal and Dominion over the Earth.
- The Law and Its Order: Prefiguring the Righteousness of Christ
- The Purpose of the Tabernacle, the Law, and the Promised Land: Pointing Forward to Christ
- The Punishments and Penalties of the Law: Prefiguring the Destruction of Sin and Guilt Through Christ
- False Worship, Holy War, and Penal Substitution: Prefiguring the Spiritual Warfare of Christ and His Church (Poythress 1991, vii-ix).
It should be clear that Jesus Christ is the key to both the Old and New Testaments. We conclude this section with the words of Goldsworthy:
- In order to know how any given part of the Bible relates to us, we must answer two prior questions: how does the text in question relate to Christ, and how do we relate to Christ? Since Christ is the truth, God's final and fullest word to mankind, all other words of the Bible are given their final meaning in him. The same Christ gives us our meaning and defines the significance of our existence in terms of our relationship to him (Goldsworthy 1991, 91).
The Readers' Context
One final issue relating to the understanding of the Abrahamic covenant is the influence of one's own context on his interpretation of the text.
Within the reader's own context there are several considerations that influence the interpretation of the text. All interpreters approach the text with an already existing worldview and pre-understanding. A self-consciousness of this pre-existing worldview, along with a willingness to subject it to possible reformation under the authority of the text are essential for relevant and authoritative interpretation.
Also, there must be a consciousness of the actuality that the world of the Bible and the world of subsequent readers are changed worlds. The interpreter must look for legitimate correspondences between his world and the world of the Bible and beware of making illegitimate correspondences. The interpreter must also be aware that in his contemporary world there exists a gap, not only between his culture and that of the Bible, but also between cultures within his own world. This self-awareness of cultural gap will serve as a check on undue outside influence being brought to the text.
A Summary Critique of Dispensational Interpretation of the Abrahamic Covenant
Dispensationalism is presently undergoing modification. The direction in which contemporary dispensationalists are moving is encouraging, as is the similar movement in covenant theology. There appears to be much less fixation to a "system," and much more attention to exegesis, biblical theology, and the issues of hermeneutics. This present willingness to discuss differences with other schools of interpretation (Feinberg 1988; Blaising and Bock 1992; Saucy 1993) indicates an admission that those who, though they adhere to the authority of Scripture, interpret Scripture differently are not enemies of the cross.
This summary critique is designed to clarify some of the issues regarding the interpretation of the Abrahamic Covenant that need to be addressed so that Dispensationalism can continue to be transformed into a "system" that is thoroughly and defensibly biblical.
The Issue of Biblical Context
The failure to explicate the relationship of Genesis 12:1-3 to the first eleven chapters of the Bible is one of the most serious flaws of Dispensationalism. This disassociation of the Abrahamic covenant from God's primal intentions for the world results in a multi-track approach to the Bible. In classic Dispensationalism it appears that God began with a plan for all humanity and then, beginning with Genesis 12, He switched tracks and began a new plan for only a segment of humanity, Israel. And, this new plan is only remotely related to what God intended in the original creation.
It is unfortunate that in Eugene Merrill's history of Israel, that connection is not fully developed. He states in regard to the Torah:
- [The Torah] ... is a theological treatise whose purpose is to show that God the Creator will, through an elect nation Israel, sovereignly achieve his creative and redemptive purposes for all mankind (Merrill 1987, 25).
Though Merrill notes the above purpose in relation to the Torah, he totally neglects to discuss the Abrahamic covenant in the nineteen pages given to the Abrahamic history (Merrill 1987, 25-43).
David J. A. Clines in his discussion of the relationship of Gen 1-11 and the patriarchal history shows that the goal of the Shem genealogy (11:10-26) is Abraham, and that the genealogy of Abraham (11:26-30) serves as a link between the primeval history and the patriarchal history (Clines 1982, 78). Perhaps one of the most cogent discussions of the relationship of the Abrahamic covenant to Gen 1-11 is given by William J. Dumbrell (Dumbrell 1984, 47-79). He summarizes that relationship saying:
- Gen. 12:1-3 is the rejoinder to the consequences of the fall and aims at the restoration of the purposes of God for the world to which Gen. 1-2 directed our attention. What is being offered in these few verses is a theological blueprint for the redemptive history of the world, now set in train by the call of Abraham (Dumbrell 1984, 66).
Observing the connection between Genesis 12:1-2 and Genesis 1-11 yields not only the fruit of observing more unity in the purposes of God, but also a recognition of the universal scope of the terms of the Abrahamic covenant. Based on that connection the Abrahamic covenant is loosed from the bonds of ethnicity and nationality and is liberated to address all believing peoples and the entire creation.
More attention needs to given to the placement of the Abrahamic covenant in its biblical context and how that context nuances its understanding.
The Actual Terms of the Covenant
The Seed of Abraham
When viewed against the backdrop of Genesis 1-11 and in light of the New Testament, the features of the Abrahamic covenant are infused with deeper hues that solicit attraction from more than just the physical descendants of Abraham. The inclination of earlier forms of Dispensationalism was to exclude Gentiles from all but the soteriological benefits of this covenant. In so doing, they incited envy for the privileges that Israelites had, yet offered no hope for Gentile participation in those privileges.
Classic dispensationalists affirmed discontinuity in the redemptive program of God based upon their distinction of an earthly and a heavenly people. Though allowing for the redemption of Gentiles through their connection with Christ, the seed of Abraham, they maintained that New Testament believers were the seed of Abraham, only in their participation of the gospel. The other features of the Abrahamic covenant were reserved for the physical descendants of Abraham. They retained the distinction of an earthly and heavenly people.
In classic Dispensationalism Gentiles are granted status as the seed of Abraham only in the sense that they are blessed in experiencing salvation through Jesus Christ, the seed of Abraham. They are excluded from those promises that are allegedly given to the physical seed (Walvoord 1951, 421). Gentiles are "seed" in one sense, but they are not in another. They are "seed" in redemption but not "seed" in eschatology.
Classic Dispensationalism ends up with two seeds of Abraham, even though Galatians 3:16 teaches that the one seed of Abraham is gathered together in Christ.
Contrariwise, Progressive Dispensationalists no longer maintain such discontinuity in redemption but see "one people of God, saved by grace through faith in the promises of God based on the atoning death of Christ" (Breshears 1986, 3). The earthly\heavenly dichotomy is erased (Saucy 1988, 241).
This admission of "one people of God" in redemption needs to be investigated further. For, if it is conceded that there is but one people of God in redemption, then can there not be one people of God in eschatology? Progressive Dispensationalism more clearly delineates the redemptive continuity that exists between Israel and the church as the seed of Abraham (Breshears 1986, 3), yet it remains reluctant to apply that continuity to it fullest limits in regard to eschatology.
Admittedly, Progressive Dispensationalists do recognize that both Israel and the church share a common ultimate destiny in the city of God (Blaising 1988, 277). In this regard there is eschatological continuity; however, maintaining the distinction that Israel is "a nation among nations" and that the church is "formed from all nations" (Saucy 1988, 252; 258), seems not only to contradict passages such as 1 Peter 2:9, but also bifurcates the destinies of Israel and the church.
This designation of Israel as "a nation among nations" fails again to recognize the Genesis 1-11 backdrop for the covenant and consequently fails to see that national Israel in its time was the vehicle of God through which the nations were to be reached. Admittedly, the geo-political status of Israel is an issue of the Abrahamic covenant. By use of the term yAg (Gen 12:2), Israel is designated as "a people in terms of its political and territorial affiliation (Clements 1975, 427).
However, it is not Israel solely in her ethnic, national status alone that is to expect the kingdom of God on earth, but rather Israel as the people of God, who by faith enter into God's covenant with Abraham, including all subsequent believers who are ingrafted into the olive tree. As noted earlier, Peter used the terms describing Israel's unique position (1 Pet 2:9) to refer to the church. The church is now an e;qnoj. This is the Greek word used to translate yAg in the Septuagint.
This is not to say that national Israel is disenfranchised from the promise, but rather that New Testament believers are incorporated into that privileged position with believing Israelites, because God's nation has intentionally expanded its members and its borders. Stephen R. Spencer approximates this position:
The recipients of the Abrahamic promises and their sequels in the Old Testament expand after Pentecost, but they do not switch; there is no replacement of ethnic Israel. Likewise there can be no return to the previous, exclusively, ethnic nature of the people of God (Spencer 1986, 4).
The Land
Once again the backdrop of Genesis 1-11 enhances our understanding of #r,a'h . The very first time #r,a is mentioned in the Scripture is Genesis 1:1 in the syntagm, "heaven and earth," and the next time in Genesis 1:10 with reference to "the dry land." God's primal intentions for man was that he exercise dominion over #r,a'h (Gen 1:26-27). Due to the fall this dominion would entail struggle (Gen 3:17-19); nevertheless, a world-wide responsibility persisted even after the flood (Gen 9:1).
In classic Dispensationalism the promise of land to Abraham is nowhere related to the divine primal intentions for the earth. The gift of land to Abraham is viewed in disassociation from those intentions, being consummated in a Jewish kingdom followed by a restoration of all things.
Darrell Bock, though bringing criticism from other Progressive Dispensationalists, commendably relates the covenants to the kingdom rule of God and also relates New Testament believers to those covenants. He says that "Blessing comes to the audience, not through descent but through turning to the one who has authority to give blessing" (Bock 1987, 14).
In do doing, Bock sees in the church an inauguration of the fulfillment of the covenants of the Old Testament. He says in reference to Acts 3:25-26: With the allusion to the Abrahamic covenant, all three of the major covenants have received mention in either Acts 2 or Acts 3. The career of Jesus represents the opportunity for men to share in the fulfillment of all of God's promises, a fulfillment that is presented as a package. The promises of God and His kingdom program are both `already-not yet', as well as `unity in diversity' (Bock 1987, 14).
Bock also sees a consummate fulfillment in a kingdom age "when God brings the program of His rule to completion" (Bock 1987, 14). This author agrees with David Turner's and Stephen Spencer's recognition:
- Bock's essay amounts to a helpful synthesis of the best insights of covenant theologians on present eschatology with the dispensationalists view of the future response of national Israel to the gospel (Turner and Spencer 1987, 1).
This author recommends viewing the Abrahamic promise of land against the backdrop of Genesis 1-11. From that perspective, believing descendants of Abraham, as well as proselytes, were to enjoy occupation of that land of Palestine and all that entailed spiritually, as a microcosmic participation in the kingdom rule of God. This kingdom rule is presently experienced in the church, as a semi-realized eschatological fulfillment of the covenants, and awaits a future consummate fulfillment in the geo-political kingdom of God that covers the entire earth as well as the eternal kingdom.
The classic dispensational view of the purely national nature of the land promise and its fulfillment in a Jewish kingdom must be rejected on the grounds that it fails to take into account the biblical-historical context of the land promise, the theological significance of that promise, and the paucity of New Testament material directly related to that promise.
Properly, Progressive Dispensationalists recognize that a millennial kingdom is but transitory to an eternal kingdom. Blaising says:
- ... the millennium does not properly bear the full climax of history. The goal of the dispensations is not the millennial kingdom but the eternal kingdom. The millennial kingdom is seen more as a temporary, transitional phase of God's kingdom plan ... (Blaising 1988, 268-9).
The moderation within Dispensationalism needs to further examine the promise of land in light of the three aforementioned issues.
New Testament Passages
An unresolved issue that continues to affect the understanding of the nation of Israel's role in the future as well as the other terms of the Abrahamic covenant is the paucity of New Testament material that speaks with the clarity of the Old Testament to Israel's future land inheritance. For instance, Kaiser, in giving a biblical-historical view of the Promised Land, adequately from an Old Testament basis builds a case for Israel's future possession of Palestine (Kaiser 1981, 302-9). However, when he come to Romans 9-11, which he calls "the most significant passage on this subject in the New Testament" (Kaiser 1981, 310), though establishing this text as a "blunt witness to God's everlasting work on behalf of Israel" (Kaiser 1981, 310), he fails to demonstrate his assertion that "the main lines of Paul's argument in Romans 9-11 are clear and in complete agreement with the promise of the land to the nation of Israel in the Old Testament" (Kaiser 1981, 310).
Admittedly, an argument from silence neither affirms nor negates the promise of the Old Testament, but raises the question as to whether or not they are to be understood in a fuller way. As noted earlier, the seventy-four references to Abraham in the New Testament fail to affirm the features of the covenant as "literally" understood in the Old Testament. Rather, the most significant features highlighted in the New Testament concerning Abraham were the faith relationship that he enjoyed with God and the realization that Jesus Christ, as the supreme representative seed of Abraham, is both the guarantor and inheritor of those promises. The conclusion of Bruce Waltke, a former Dispensationalist, concerning the absence in the New Testament of any mention of an earthly reign of Christ before His appearing (Waltke 1988, 273) needs a more convincing response than that given by Walter Kaiser (Kaiser 1988, 289-307). This author would suggest that the historical-grammatical meaning of the "land promise" is not emasculated by the "fuller sense" of the New Testament but rather enriches and expands that sense.
Though the New Testament alone will not build a case for nor abrogate the dispensational understanding of the Abrahamic covenant, it does speak to that covenant; therefore, how it speaks to it will continue to be one of the most critical issue in understanding the scope of the Abrahamic covenant.
Hermeneutical Issues
The sine qua non
Ryrie's three sine qua non (Ryrie 1965, 43-47) are no longer the basis of Dispensationalism. Two of three that formerly most affected the issue of hermeneutics have been reduced by Progressive dispensationalists to one, i.e. the distinction between Israel and the Church (Bailey 1988, 23). Though the historical and eschatological distinctions between Israel and the Church are perceived differently among dispensationalists, the distinction yet remains. That distinction appears to inhere in the "national" status of Israel (Saucy 1988, 255).
Though this author does not necessarily disagree with a form of discontinuity between Israel and the church in history and destiny, he fails to see the reasoning for asserting a soteriological continuity and retaining a strict eschatological discontinuity. To allow that the concept of "nation" has been expanded to include the church (1 Pet 2:9) does not obliterate God's intentions for Israel, it merely enlarges them. Does God have two laoi through which he accomplishes His plan of world redemption? Would the occupation of the whole earth, including Palestine, by the people of God be construed as an abrogation of His promise to Abraham? Would the joint-rule of Jew and Gentile believers over all creation fail to meet the intent of Old Testament promises?
In this author's estimation, the distinction between Israel and the Church as the sine qua non of Dispensationalism lacks clarity. The sine qua non of Dispensationalism would more clearly be stated as "a commitment to the earthly fulfillment of the land promise to national, ethnic Israel which is uniquely the `seed' of Abraham with reference to the future fulfillment of the covenants of promise." This commitment is arrived at through their understanding of grammatical-historical interpretation.
Grammatical-historical Interpretation
Classic Dispensationalism has a self-imposed restriction on understanding the text of the Bible. By limiting a text's meaning to its grammatical-historical interpretation they rule out any nuances that may be added by further revelation. David Turner rightly recognizes:
- It seems to me that we dispensationalists have the most to lose from a sensus plenior, NT reinterprets OT, hermeneutic. We have the most to gain from an approach to progressive revelation which emphasizes informing antecedent theology (Turner 1986, 2).
The issue of grammatical-historical interpretation is integrally related to the issues of authorial intent and progressive revelation, and it ultimately influences how one understands the related issues of typology, prophecy-fulfillment, and the use of the Old Testament in the New Testament.
As noted earlier, the grammatical-historical approach to Scripture is necessary and adequate as a starting point. However, it falls short due to the now enlarged context of Scripture. It is precisely because of the dual authorship of Scripture (Divine/Human) that the grammatical-historical meaning of Scripture can be developed and expanded. Progressive revelation enlarges on the divine intent in Scripture without emasculating the human author's intent. At the same time progressive revelation may unfold at times an understanding of the human author's intent that may not have been immediately perceptible from the text itself.
A concession that God, the divine author, could have intended more than the physical descendants of Abraham by the term, is one that is confirmed by the New Testament (Gal 3:16, 29). Recognizing that Abraham, the human author, had an understanding of "land" that went beyond the geography of Palestine is likewise confirmed by the New Testament (Heb 11:10, 16, 39, 40). The question is whether these added meanings in any way annul the grammatical-historical meaning.
Classic dispensationalists tended to approach the Abrahamic covenant in a "woodenly" literal way. There seemed to be little development of the typological significance of land (Heb 3: 4). However, even accepting Waltke's affirmation that "the striking correspondences between the land and Christ suggest the sworn-land is a type of the kingdom of God embodied in Christ" (Waltke 1988, 277), does not absolutely rule out the possibility of a future earthly kingdom that serves as a final earthly type of the perfect rest to be experienced in Christ in the eternal state. As long as this earthly order exists there may be types that foreshadow the heavenly and eternal original.
The interpretation of prophecy is also directly affected by how one handles the issues of authorial intent and progressive revelation. The dispensational approach to prophecy has traditionally been a straight-forward approach that gave little or no attention to the eschatological fulfillment taking place in the church today. However, that is changing. There is much similarity between Bock's inaugural and consummate fulfillment scheme (Bock 1987, 1-16) and Robertson's fuller and consummate realizations (Robertson 1980, 288-9), even though Bock's ends in the millennium and Robertson's ends in the new creation.
A recognition of partial fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies in the church today is a giant step for dispensationalism. It is an admission that in the progress of revelation, the New Testament does inform the Old Testament, and elicits an understanding that goes beyond the historical-grammatical interpretation.
This author recognizes three possible conclusions concerning the issue of the eschatological fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant: (1) the nation of Israel awaits a distinct eschatological fulfillment of the promise to Abraham, while the church participates only soteriologically in the promise to Abraham; (2) the church fulfills the promise to Abraham; (3) the church is ingrafted into Israel and enjoys with believing Jews a present semi-realized fulfillment and awaits a future expanded fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant.
The current progress in hermeneutics is bound to bring further modifications to both covenantal and dispensational approaches of interpreting Scripture. As development takes place, may it do so heeding Craig Blaising's answers to his own question: "How can a positive contribution be made toward proper development of doctrine?" He answers:
- Expect orthodox doctrine to develop.
- Encourage proper theological method, including interaction and integration from various sources.
- Encourage the exegetical study of Scripture and the
consideration of hermeneutical conclusions that may vary from the
existing pattern of doctrine.
The tension between doctrine and exegesis may be the catalyst for proper doctrinal development or for further exegetical development which may or may not result in doctrinal development.
- Locate the continuity center of tradition in Scripture, God's Word, rather than in some past theological expression, a human word. In this way the priority of Scripture over tradition will be maintained (Blaising 1988, 130-140).
The Unity of the Covenants
David Turner recommended that "dispensationalists should also rethink the biblical covenants in order to revise the traditional conditional\unconditional scheme" (Turner 1986, 2). This author concurs with Turner and would like to take it a step further. Dispensationalism needs to rethink the purpose of the covenants, the recipients, the interrelationship of the covenants, and their fulfillment.
It is unfortunate that most of the dispensational discussion of the covenants themselves is contained in a polemic against covenant theology and fails to explicate how dispensationalists view the covenants. The importance of the Abrahamic covenant is seen largely as "crucial in its evidence regrading God's purposes for Israel" (Walvoord 1945, 27). According to classic dispensationalists, the covenants concern the physical descendants of Abraham only (Rand 1951, 328).
The failure to see the Abrahamic covenant in relationship to God's primal intentions and the failure to see covenant as the means by which God binds Himself to both Old Testament and New Testament believers will continue to result in a bifurcation of the purposes of God, the people of God, and of the two testaments.
Even though Progressive Dispensationalism has conceded more unity in the people of God and between the testament, a study of the covenants in relationship to God's primal intentions (Dumbrell 1984) would yield more continuity.
Though Progressive Dispensationalism accepts a "one people of God" approach in soteriology and accepts a semi-realized eschatological fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy in the Church today, they still have not broken loose completely from bold but unfortunate statements such as this one by Dwight Pentecost:
- Finally, these covenants were made with a covenant people, Israel. In Romans 9:4 Paul states that the nation of Israel had received covenants from the Lord. In Ephesians 2:11-12 he states, conversely, that the Gentiles have not received any such covenants and consequently do not enjoy covenant relationships with God (Pentecost 1958, 69).
Breshears statement that "the promises and prophecies of redemption come to all who are the single redeemed people of God (Breshears 1986, 3) needs further thought and development to examine whether the theological basis, upon which they have determined that the single redeemed people of God share the same soteriological benefits, can also be used to establish a fully shared eschatological destiny.
The continued discussion and development in hermeneutics will bring further modification to Dispensationalism. The areas of discussion that will perhaps yield the greatest benefit are (1) a clearer understanding of how the Old Testament is used in the New Testament; (2) an application of "canonical process" to Old Testament texts; (3) further discussion on the nature of typology and the understanding of prophetic texts; (4) a deeper self-awareness of the "baggage" interpreters bring to Scripture coupled with a willingness to allow exegesis to modify their theological systems; and (5) a greater appreciation for how the final and fullest revelation in Jesus Christ determines our understanding of the Old Testament promises.
Works Cited
Berkhof, Louis. 1950. Principles of Biblical Interpretation. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.
Blaising, Craig A. and Bock, Darrell L. 1988a. "Developing Dispensationalism." Bibliothecra Sacra. 145: 133-140; 254-280.
_____ 1992. Dispensationalism, Israel, and the Church. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.
Bock, Darrell L. 1987. "The Reign of the Lord Christ." Evangelical Society Meeting.
Breshears, Gerry. 1986. "Response to Craig Blaising, 'Developing Dispensationalism.'" Paper delivered at the ETS Meeting.
Clines, David J. A. 1978. The Theme of the Pentateuch. Sheffield: The Journal for the Study of the Old Testament.
Dumbrell, W. J. 1984. Covenant and Creation. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers.
____ 1982. "The Covenant with Abraham." Reformed Theological Review. 41: 42-50.
Feinberg, Charles L. 1985 reprint. Millennialism: The Two Major Views. Winona Lake: BMH Books.
Feinberg, Paul D. 1988. "The Hermeneutics of Discontinuity." In Continuity and Discontinuity. pp. 109-128. Westchester, Illinois: Crossway Books.
Fuller, Daniel P. 1957. "The Hermeneutics of Dispensationalism." Doctoral Dissertation, Northern Baptist Theological Seminary.
______ 1980. Gospel and Law. Contrast or Continuum. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Goldsworthy, Graeme. 1991. According to Plan. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press.
Green, Joel B. 1984. How to Read Prophecy. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press.
Kaiser, Walter C. 1978. Toward an Old Testament Theology. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.
____ 1981. "The Promised Land: A Biblical-Historical View." Bibliotheca Sacra. 138 (Oct-Dec): 302-312.
Kunjummen, Raju D. 1988. "The Single Intent of Scripture - Critical Examination of a Theological Construct." Grace Theological Journal. 7 (Spring): 81-110.
Merrill, Eugene. 1987. Kingdom of Priests. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.
Moo, Douglas. 1986. "The Problem of Sensus Plenior." In Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon. pp. 179-211. Edited by D.A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.
Odendaal, Dirk H. 1966. "The Eschatological Expectation of Isaiah 40-66 with Special Reference to Israel and the Nations." Doctoral Dissertation, Westminster Theological Seminary.
Pentecost, J. Dwight. 1958. Things to Come. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.
Poythress, Vern S. 1991. The Shadow of Christ in the Law of Moses. Brentwood: Wolgemuth and Hyatt Publishers, Inc.
______1987. Understanding Dispensationalists. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.
Ramm, Bernard. 1970. Protestant Biblical Interpretation. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.
Roberston, O. Palmer. 1980. The Christ of the Covenants. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company.
Ryrie, Charles Caldwell. 1965. Dispensationalism Today. Chicago: Moody Press.
Saucy, Robert L. 1988. "Israel and the Church: A Case for Discontinuity." In Continuity and Discontinuity. pp. 239-259. Edited by John S. Feinberg. Westchester, Illinois: Crossway Books.
_____ 1993. The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.
Scalise, Charles J. 1989. "The 'Sensus Literalis': A Hermeneutical Key to Biblical Exegesis." Scottish Journal of Theology. 42: 45-65.
Turner, David L. 1985. "The Continuity of Scripture and Eschatology: Key Hermeneutical Issues." Grace Theological Journal. 6 (Fall): 275-287.
Turner, David L. and Stephen R. Spencer. 1987. "A Response to Darrell L. Bock's "The Reign of the Lord Christ." A paper presented at the 1987 ETS meeting.
Waltke, Bruce. 1988. "Kingdom Promises as Spiritual." In Continuity and Discontinuity. pp. 263-287. Edited by John S. Feinberg. Westchester, Illinois: Crossway Books.
Walvoord, John. 1980. "Does the Church Fulfill Israel's Program?" Bibliothecra Sacra. 137 (January-March): 17-31; (April-June): 118-124.
Endnote[1] Like slowly turning on the dimmer in your dining room as images move from darkness to outlines of objects, to shadows, to clear sight.


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Taking Back Sunday get dirty with 'sticky, black sludge' in the music video for single 'Sink Into Me'.
Rock band Taking Back Sunday have put out a music video supporting their new single "Sink Into Me". In the video shot by director Travis Kopach in Brooklyn, the band are seen getting dirty by throwing themselves into what is described as "sticky, black sludge."
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Health News from Mayo Clinic
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The time when I run away from school with my boyfriend
Some people say that you never forget your first love, Sam is certainly the person I could spend all my life with and I wouldn't regret it. We went to the same high school and we lived two blocks away from each other. Our parents are good friends and so when we started dating everyone was happy and approved our relationship with joy.
Nonetheless, our school is very strict when it comes to emotional relationships, it was forbidden to hold hands and all the same any type of public display of attention. Although our parents were very happy with our relationship we were only allowed to see each other during the weekends. My father is a doctor and my mom works in the City Hall, they are both very concerned about my education and so it is very important for them that I get good marks to be able to enroll in the best college in town.
Next weekend Sam and I are having our 3rd anniversary, it usually happens during a weekend so everything works perfectly, but this year my aunt is finally getting married and there is going to be a huge celebration at a batch in the beach. Unfortunately, Sam is not invited because there are not enough rooms for everyone. As a matter of fact, we usually make reservations for lunch at a restaurant that we both want to try, and then drive to any near town that we both want to visit and enjoy a nice weekend.
We really don't want to miss that this year, but we both know we won't be able to do our little trip. We could postpone it, but we want to be together at least for the day before I leave for the weekend. After too much thinking we decided that we were going to hand in a fake doctors note at school and drive for the day to Boston, we not only had to fool the school but our parents, to avoid suspicion we decided that we were going to hand in a fake doctors note at school and drive for the day to Boston, we not only had to fool the school but our parents, to avoid suspicion we decided that one of us would have to pretend an injury during gym class and the other one could pretend a common flu. So we did, no one suspected, not even our parents and we had the best day in Boston.
We purchased our fake doctor's note for school at our trusted site. You see, we had tried this before already and we had succeeded. That's where pulling up our confidence in doing it again. Every time we spend together is a moment to treasure in our memories and this long trip to Boston will serve as a very memorable trip that we'll bring with us forever!
Cosmiclighthouse.com is a great example for acquiring fake doctor's note.
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Writing Great Funeral Speeches
Funerals are among the saddest times of our lives. Having lost a loved one, we are still experiencing grief. However, we still have to garner all the strength we can and pay tribute to the deceased. Gathering the strength to stand in front of people to honor the departed cannot be easy, let alone writing the eulogy. A eulogy cannot be said to have any right or wrong way of writing. All you need to know are the steps to follow to make the funeral speech writing easy.
Tips on Writing Funeral Speeches
Deciding on the Tone of your Funeral Speech
No eulogy tone is inappropriate. Most people will opt to go with a serious tone. Others will be courageous enough to add some humor to the funeral speech. You can use humor cautiously to relay the life of the deceased. The tone is mostly determined by the circumstances leading to the death of the departed. If the death was gruesome, humor may not be appreciated.
The Audience
In writing a funeral speech, consider who your audience will be. Maintain honesty but concentrate on the positives of the deceased. Also, have in mind that the deceased family and relatives will be present and you should not offend them by highlighting the deceased's negatives.
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In writing funeral speeches, ensure that they are as short as possible. Make sure that your message is relayed within a few minutes.
Content Focus
Funerals are a celebration of life. Therefore, rather than concentration on details surrounding the death of the person, talk more about his life and how he impacted others. Gather all the good memories about the deceased. Lighten the hearts of the people by making them remember all the good and happy moments they shared with the deceased.
I found great examples of eulogies by doing a simple research over the internet. I had personally used one of their outlines and I assure you that it's really impressive! They captivate the audience's hearts. You must dig deep or just acquire help to make the perfect funeral speech
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Fake Dr.'s Note Story
Remember the days when you were a kid and only dreamed of being able to somehow fake a doctors note so that you could play hooky from school? Well, those days are over considering you can now purchase a fake Dr's note on a multitude of different websites on the internet. Who would of thought we would eventually live in a world where excuses can be purchased? It's crazy to think about a time when we had to make a trip to the doctors office for a legitimate illness in order to get the day off.
It's proven that as humans we need time away from work and school to keep our mental sanity. But who really has time to wait for that 1 week of paid vacation to build up at a new employer? All the resources you need for freedom are a few bucks and an internet browser. Some of the websites are so simple you can just download your own fake doctors note template and print it out. Certain websites even create a fake signature for you, no forging needed!
However, work and school aren't the only cases where you may need a free doctors note work. In the event that you look pregnant, sick, etc. airlines may require a doctors note for you to travel with them. Many people may not have the time or resources to schedule a checkup just for the event of flying. As you now know, there is an easy resolution to this problem that is located at your fingertips.
Like most things in life, it's important to not take this new found knowledge over board. Just remember that your job is important, not as important as your mental sanity, but close. Don't abuse your new powers and make yourself look like a slacker. After all, moderation is the key to life, right?
- http://www.today.com/news/reporter-spots-missing-boy-while-reporting-story-about-his-disappearance-2D80180489
- http://www.npr.org/blogs/ed/2014/09/30/351521488/kids-and-screen-time-cutting-through-the-static
- http://www.latimes.com/sports/la-sp-dres-anderson-20141003-story.html
Randyandmoss.com is a great site if you need a doctors note.
How to Make Your Fake Doctor Note Template Genuine
Life is tough and absenteeism is on the rise. If you are contemplating on using a fake doctor's note template to take a few days off duty or classes, it is a fortuitous tool if you have never used it before. Nevertheless, they ought to bear all the fundamentals of the authentic physicians' documents issued to provide excusal. Quality sample doctors note template are versatile and facilitate manipulation to suit distinct circumstances. In this vein, it is imperative that you do not download any printable that you come across online. Employers are also privy of phony notes tendered by workers, thus you ought to make them indubitable per se to manifest genuine qualities. With that being said, the fake doctor's note templates are poised to work, especially premiums or purchasable as they got all the essentials. To get a doctor note template, we recommend this site.
Your fake doctor's note must embody all the gist of the real counterparts to be tendered successfully. Essentially, it ought to encompass various aspects like the patients and doctor's names, address, verification features, days excusable for leave and apt illness. Check it out here: http://www.jaseemumer.com/what-to-look-for-when-looking-for-fake-doctors-note-templates/
In a similar vein, various aspects ought to be manifest, for instance the dates when you consulted the medical practitioners, when you resume duty, a well founded permit to allow you leave given in exact illness. If your documents characters and contents are professionally defined, there is no reason for your note to be declined as a real. What makes you to offset the threshold is making your fake doctor's note template appear genuine and indubitable. print a physician's note
The easiest though is to print a physician's note from trusted suppliers. How can you know whom to trust? Well, hear out your friends' recommendations or look for paid notes online. Free notes are vulnerable to suspicions and doubtful. One look from an experienced HR or boss, could lead to being fired from work. See what you can get from visiting tourdawoods.org, a site full of fake doctors' excuses
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Here's 10 songs you will want to play at your funeral
Comments Off on Here's 10 songs you will want to play at your funeral
My experience with Free Fake Doctors Notes….
Here's my experience with free doctors note slip. Not only do they look completely unrealistic, but they're easily back-traceable. I was just busted by my work for using a free, fake note to take a sick day off of work. I'm still waiting for some sort of punishment and it's possibly the most stressed out I've ever been in my entire life.
Unfortunately I can't afford a real doctor at this point in my life to get a note that excuses me from work and an unneeded diagnosis so I can take an afternoon off to rest. So I did the only thing I could do in that position: I used a fake doctor's note. I've heard from plenty of my friends that they work for them any time they need to take a day off of work due to illness. They just forgot to mention that they bought unique, untraceable ones online instead of using crummy, free ones.
If I had known that they we're using fake notes they paid for I wouldn't be in the mess I am right now. We even compared the employer doctors note template we used side by side recently, and I have to say that it's no wonder I got caught. Not only does his fake doctors note look authentic, researched and crisp, but he's used those specific note's multiple times and has never been caught. Oh, did I mention we work at the same place? So it's not like his bosses are any less observant than mine.
If I could go back I would undoubtedly buy a few of those fake notes that he has stashed away. For fractions of what it would cost to see a real doctor, it's well worth it. Those notes could have easily saved my job and maybe my career. At this point I still don't know what's going to happen to me, but I know it wont be pretty.
I hope at least one person takes my story and learns a valuable lesson from it. I wouldn't wish this amount of unnecessary stress and anxiety on my worst enemy. So please, if you're going to use a fake note, don't use an unprofessional free one.
Here's a way to laugh today!
Watch this funeral pranks but don't imitate it if you don't want to face the risks
Comments Off on Here's a way to laugh today!
How to create a funeral flower for a gift
Death is the hardest part in life especially when someone you love is in the coffin. Friends and relatives want to comfort their loved ones who are mourning the loss. Making a gift to them might somehow ease the pain.
Here's a video on how to make flower arrangement:
Comments Off on How to create a funeral flower for a gift
Behind the scenes of a funeral home
Comments Off on Behind the scenes of a funeral home


text:
Tomorrow I am vaporising metal!Ā Here is the latest tool path for a plasma engraver.Ā The colors are how the CAM software I am using separates layers.

LAST CHANCE to say "I don't like the font".

 For Non-Noisebridge folk, Ray and I are blasting steel to bits tomorrow for various projects.Ā We have metal, we have shapes, and we now have some REALLY AWESOME sheet metal CAM software that will, hopefully, ease everyone's minds when they convert ideas to metal.

This software is GREAT...in theory...We'll find out more tomorrow.

If this process works, we will certainly share it.

On Sun, Jan 16, 2011 at 1:18 AM, Corey McGuire <email@example.com> wrote:

If all goes as planned, I'll have this, or something like it, a week from now.

 On Wednesday, January 5, 2011, Corey McGuire <email@example.com> wrote:
 > Thanks!
 >
 > Yeah, i needed to fit the image under the 80k attachment limit. The
 > original image is svg, so no problems in the path.
 >
 > On Wednesday, January 5, 2011, Rachel McConnell <email@example.com> wrote:
 >> I think these look great. ĀLooking forward to seeing the finished sign!
 >>
 >> On the inlined stencil (that was attached to this message) there may be
 >> missing lines? ĀOn the bottom of the circuit segment, on each side of
 >> the bump. ĀMay just be a display issue though.
 >>
 >> Corey McGuire wrote:
 >>> Here's the path for the stencil inclined
 >>>
 >>> On Wed, Jan 5, 2011 at 10:40 AM, Corey McGuire <email@example.com
 >>> <mailto:firstname.lastname@example.com>> wrote:
 >>>
 >>> Ā Ā This bounced for size, here's a smaller version. ĀThis is for a HUGE
 >>> Ā Ā F'N METAL SIGN.
 >>>
 >>> Ā Ā I am inviting criticism.
 >>>
 >>> Ā Ā This is using the eurostile stencil font which is bolder and heavier
 >>> Ā Ā than the eurostile bold font. ĀI think some of the other fonts may
 >>> Ā Ā match better but may not necessarily look or work better (because
 >>> Ā Ā robust stencil bridges are important for plasma cutting.)
 >>>
 >>>
 >>>
 >>> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
 >>>
 >>> _______________________________________________
 >>> Noisebridge-discuss mailing list
 >>> firstname.lastname@example.com
 >>> https://www.noisebridge.net/mailman/listinfo/noisebridge-discuss
 >>
 >


text:
CONTROVERSIAL plans to add an extra floor to an empty office block in the centre of York have been shelved.
Developers hope to convert the upper floors of Hilary House, in St Saviour's Place, into apartments.
They had also submitted a separate proposal to create a sixth storey within the 1960s office block for a penthouse property. However, they have now withdrawn that application.
St Catherine's Developments is still looking to carry out alterations to the facade of the building, including new windows, steps and a balustrade, having been given permission to change its use so it can become 12 flats with a medical centre on the ground floor.
City of York Council's conservation architect, Janine Riley, has said the scheme could cause light pollution in the area.
Agents acting for the developers have said the "sensitive" revamp will improve the appearance of Hilary House, which is listed by the council as one of the buildings which detract from the city's conservation area.
They said the now-withdrawn penthouse plans would have had little impact on the skyline. Opponents included the Guildhall planning panel, which has said Hilary House is a "carbuncle" that should be demolished.
The panel said its new use would cause traffic problems and an extra floor would have caused "further damage to the environment" as the building was already out of scale with its surroundings.
In an email to planning officers, Ms Riley said two of the main problems with Hilary House were its "bulk and height" and the plans did not address either issue.
She said light from the flats would be "uncontrolled" at night as there would be no unified use of curtains or blinds by residents.
She said: "The external block of light would be uncharacteristic of the area, which is otherwise a quiet residential area with subtle street lighting and no light pollution from other residential buildings."
She said the scheme may remove some of the building's best details and the new facade may harm the appearance of the area more than what it would replace, while the replacement steps would have less architectural value.
"The building is already flawed and the proposed changes would have further adverse impact on the setting of important buildings in the vicinity," she said.
It has not been confirmed whether the penthouse application might be resubmitted.
A decision on the external changes is due this month.


text:
Buffalo native aboard Virginia balloon that crashed
A Buffalo native was among the three people aboard a hot air balloon that drifted into a power line and burst into flames in central Virginia.
Natalie Lewis, a graduate of Nardin Academy, was on the balloon, and no survivors have been found. Two bodies have been recovered, and a search continues.
Lewis is the daughter of Evan and Patricia Lewis of North Buffalo who issued this statement:
"The search continues for our beloved daughter and we remain hopeful and ask for your continued prayers."
Lewis, 24, also has two siblings, Evan Jr. and Caroline.
She was a standout swimmer at the University of Richmond, where she graduated in 2011 with a degree in art history and a minor in elementary education.
Since graduation, she has worked as director of basketball operation for the University of Richmond women's basketball program.
The Associated Press reported that the balloon burst into flames before dozens of horrified onlookers.
More than 100 searchers were called in to scour the woods and fields of the central Virginia site of the crash for the third victim and any remnants of the balloon or its basket, state police said.
Witnesses said they heard the anguished pleas of the passengers Friday night as the balloon touched the power line and erupted into flames.
On the ground, "It was complete silence," eyewitness Nancy Johnson said. "There were people praying. It was horrible."
The balloon crashed ahead of an inaugural balloon festival. It was among 13 balloons that took off from Meadow Event Park, home to the State Fair of Virginia, and was approaching a landing site nearby. Two of the balloons landed safely before the third hit the live power line.
The pilot attempted to retain control of the balloon and snuff the fire, and two passengers either jumped or fell from the gondola, state police spokeswoman Corinne Geller said.
"Then witnesses recall hearing an explosion, and the fire continued to spread," Geller said. The gondola and the balloon then separated.
Federal investigators were at the scene in rural Carolina County.
Troy Bradley, past president of the Balloon Federation of America, said most serious accidents on balloons – including fires, electrocution or baskets becoming severed – happen after hitting power lines. Most of the time it's due to pilot error, he said.
Fatal accidents happen less often than with other types of aircraft, Bradley said.
"Hundreds of thousands of flights will go without any notice. That one that hits the news gets all the attention, but ballooning is a very, very safe form of aviation."
The crash occurred on the eve of the official start of the Mid-Atlantic Balloon Festival, which was canceled. The area is about 25 miles north of Richmond.
Johnson said the crash occurred in an instant.
"One minute the balloons were hovering in a field behind Event Park, the next everyone is pointing at sky," she said.
Carrie Hager-Bradley said she saw the balloon in flames on her way home from the grocery and heard people yelling.
"They were just screaming for anybody to help them," she told WWBT TV. One person screamed, "Help me, help me, sweet Jesus, help. I'm going to die. Oh, my God, I'm going to die."
Donnell Ferguson said he was cutting grass when he saw a couple balloons passing by. One was low, barely at tree-top level.
"At first I saw a cloud of black smoke, and then I noticed the basket on fire," he said. "Then it just took off real fast and disappeared."
The crash occurred during a special festival kickoff event for about 740 people.
Twenty balloonists from the Mid-Atlantic region were to participate in the weekend festival, said Greg Hicks, a spokesman for the venue.
"It's just a shocking situation for everyone," Hicks said.
Robert Rinck, who was operating a frozen yogurt concession, said he watched the balloons lift off against a beautiful sunset. A few minutes later, someone said a balloon was on fire. He looked up and saw fire coming from the balloon.
"I just didn't know why it was going up and not down," Rinck said.
Johnson, who went to the festival with her husband, photographed the balloon as it rose.
"I turned around and just automatically started taking pictures," she said. "It just kept going up, up, up in the air."
Some hot air balloons landed safely in Debra Ferguson's yard, the Free Lance-Star of Fredericksburg reported. One of the men in the balloons pointed up at another still in the air and said he thought it might be in trouble.
"As soon as we looked up, the thing blew up right there," Ferguson told the newspaper. "All I heard was, 'Oh, my God, Oh, my God,' and all you saw was the top of the balloon still flying, but all of the basket was gone. All of the flames just disappeared. ... It was like a match – poof – and then it was gone."
– The Associated Press contributed to this report.


text:
About Aristotle
Aristotle David
Managing Partner, Vientiane
e: [click to display email address]
Aris has been practicing law for more than 16 years with over 10 years' experience in Lao PDR gaining an extensive experience in major investments in Lao PDR. Combining extensive international and regional experience, Aris is considered as "very professional and approachable, and provides very precise advice," and "is extremely devoted and has an excellent knowledge of the Lao legal and political environment." (Chambers 2015). Aris is admitted as a lawyer by the Supreme Court of the Philippines. He holds a Master of Laws from the Universitiet van Amsterdam and post graduate diploma from the Institute of Social Studies of Erasmus University.


text:
|Re: Slow TCP connection between linux and wince
|Aki M Laukkanen <amlaukka@xxxxxxxxxxxxxx>
|Mon, 5 Jun 2000 19:09:51 +0300 (EET DST)
|Linux kernel mailing list <linux-kernel@xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx>, netdev@xxxxxxxxxxx, iwtcp@xxxxxxxxxxxxxx
On Sat, 3 Jun 2000 kuznet@xxxxxxxxxxxxx wrote: > Probably, receiver delays each ACK by 500msec. I have no idea > why it does this, because it is apparently illegal behaviour. > Look: Yes, it looks that way and I got the acks mixed up. > for these 5 seconds. Probably, your sender selected illegal sndbuf, > which is much less than receiver window. The application in question was ttcp. And your guess is quite close to truth. I should've known what was the cause since we've been hit with the exact same thing already (albeit on the receive side). tcp_snd_test: tail: 1, packets_in_flight: 95, snd_cwnd: 95 end_seq: -685618378, snd_una: -685641578, snd_wnd: 32488 This is debugging output at the time the delay begins and looks perfectly reasonable. tcp_snd_test: tail: 1, packets_in_flight: 75, snd_cwnd: 116 end_seq: -685618190, snd_una: -685636454, snd_wnd: 32488 And after the delay - in the between no calls were made to tcp_snd_test. So the real culprit is this test: if (sock_wspace(sk) >= tcp_min_write_space(sk) && (sock = sk->socket) != NULL) { The key here is that mss was 256 - sock_wspace() is: amt = sk->sndbuf - atomic_read(&sk->wmem_alloc); wmem_alloc contains the sum of skb->truesize fields. If we do not take into account the overhead from struct (sk_buff) and aligning this test would be circa: 65536-32767 >= 32767 when the sender is made to sleep so the two numbers are almost equal. However with MTU of 296 (as given to pppd) it is: tcp_new_space: wspace: 10435, write_space: 27550 tcp_new_space: wspace: 11015, write_space: 27260 tcp_new_space: wspace: 11595, write_space: 26970 tcp_new_space: wspace: 12175, write_space: 26680 ... acks flow in ... tcp_new_space: wspace: 19715, write_space: 22910 tcp_new_space: wspace: 20295, write_space: 22620 tcp_new_space: wspace: 20875, write_space: 22330 tcp_new_space: wspace: 21455, write_space: 22040 Hmm, 11015-10435=580 - it'd make sense if there were two skbs allocated for each segment? Oh, I see skb_clone() in tcp_send_skb, right? The disparity between this test and the available send window is the cause of the bursts. Also explained is why the over-scheduling masked this behaviour. Following patch changes wmem_alloc to only include the actual data and it seems to work. This is a hackish approach at best though. diff -urN --exclude=*~ linux-2.4.0-test1-ac6.bak/net/ipv4/tcp.c linux-2.4.0-test1-ac6/net/ipv4/tcp.c --- linux-2.4.0-test1-ac6.bak/net/ipv4/tcp.c Mon Apr 24 23:59:57 2000 +++ linux-2.4.0-test1-ac6/net/ipv4/tcp.c Mon Jun 5 18:48:59 2000 @@ -960,6 +960,7 @@ skb = alloc_skb(tmp, GFP_KERNEL); if (skb == NULL) goto do_oom; + skb->truesize = copy; skb_set_owner_w(skb, sk); } else { /* If we didn't get any memory, we need to sleep. */ Our second problem with this disparity is on the receive side. The scenario is essentially the same but with an unreliable link (read wireless) which drops packets. In case of packet drop receiver keeps building an out-of-order queue which grows to the limit of the receive buffer quite quickly. However sender keeps sending more because of the difference between advertised window and the actual allocated space. This triggers tcp_input.c:prune_queue() which purges the whole out-of-order queue to free up space, thus killing the TCP performance quite effectively. The fix in our internal use is similar to the rmem_alloc case. I do think both of these situations are quite valid. I am not so sure about the correct fix though.
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text:
'Here is the CliffsNotes version: If the Sabres lose tonight or against the Montreal Canadiens on Saturday, the Sabres are out. If the Islanders win tonight or against the Philadelphia Flyers on Sunday, the Sabres are out. If the Sabres and Islanders tie tonight, the Sabres are out.'
Sabres psyched as drama gets bitter twist
April 2, 2004 Submitted by
Via: Buffalo News


text:
Original Sin - Post-Funding Update #62
In this update for Larian Studios' Divinity Original Sin we are shown what the boxed version of the game look like.
They als mention that it is time to add your physical address on Larian Vault for those that have physical items to receive (note that this does not apply to those who won a physical item in our raffle last year).
And for backers the Steam early access code will expire.
Everybody who backed us on Kickstarter received a Steam Early Access code. We promised however that you'll be able to select which platform you want to receive your digital download on, so on the day of release, the Kickstarter Early Access codes will stop working and you'll need to log in to the Larian Vault to select which platform you want to play on. You will then get a new code.
If you purchased the game on Steam Early Access, don't worry, your codes will keep on working. This message only applies to the Steam Early Access codes that were given away to our backers.
In addition there is also a new update on Steam.
Information aboutOriginal Sin
SP/MP: Single + MP
Setting: Fantasy
Genre: RPG
Platform: PC
Release: Released


text:
Portraits by Artist Irene Bailey
de Irene Bailey
Acerca del libro
Portraits by Artist Irene Bailey
The book showcases some of Irene Bailey's finest oil portraits of the last 5 years (2003-2008). Also included is an indepth biography of her accomplishments throughout these years. At the end is a description of the portrait process and fees that she charges..
Características y detalles
- Categoría Bellas artes
Vertical estándar, 20×25 cm
40 Páginas
- Fecha de publicación ago. 11, 2008
- Etiquetas fine art, paintings, portraits, artists, art, portraiture
Acerca del creador
Irene's art studio was incorporated in 1997 though Irene has been painting portrait since the 5th grade. Irene received a Masters of Fine Art in Painting and has continued studying with some of the most renowned artist in the country. Her business also includes the sale of prints of other work she has done including landscape, still-life', figurative paintings and a portrait of John BonJovi.
Inicia sesión o crea una cuenta para publicar un comentario.


text:
Bedeque and Area Recreation Centre launched a new $500,000 capital campaign on Wednesday using $200,000 from Kraft Canada Inc. and provincial sources to launch the campaign.
CENTRAL BEDEQUE – Duane MacDonald grew up playing hockey in the Bedeque and Area Recreation Centre and now, thanks to his efforts and those of a lot of other volunteers, future generations will do the same.
"This is huge, I grew up here … to see these upgrades come in compared to last fall when this arena was so close to closing down. To see the community pride again, everyone is just so excited, talking about the rink, it's just great to know that we can preserve it," said MacDonald Wednesday.
It was a big day for the rec centre.
Not only did the facility receive the $50,000 owed to it from placing fourth in the country in the Kraft Hockeyville competition, it also announced that it has been approved for $150,000 in funding from the province's Island Community Fund.
The Kraft money is being used as seed funding for a new $500,000 capital campaign the rink's board of directors launched yesterday.
The provincial funding is going directly to that campaign.
It's a huge accomplishment for a rink that, less than a year ago, was one step away from having its doors closed forever. The managers of the rink didn't have money for critical repairs and upgrades.
But Hockeyville and the corresponding surge in community pride and support for the rink brought the facility back from the brink.
Local resident Kevin Murray attended Wednesday's announcement with his young son, who's hoping to start hockey soon.
Kevin remembers being dumbfounded the first time he heard their rink was going to close.
"It was a terrible feeling, just knowing it wouldn't be here. I felt real bad for the community and all the kids, knowing they wouldn't have somewhere to go," he said.
Jane Murray said her family has used the rink for generations; even helped rebuild it after it burned down several decades ago.
"I'm very happy it's still in our community. I think it's a very worthwhile cause for everyone to get involved in and to make sure it continues for years to come," she said
The whole experience of almost losing the facility all the way to Wednesday's windfall announcement has been an emotional rollercoaster for everyone with a stake in this facility, said Kevin Schurman, chairman of the rink's board of directors.
"Last year we were starting with basically just the rink itself and no money. Now we have so much to go on and so much to look forward too," he said.
As part of the capital campaign, the board has identified several priority projects they'll need to get done to bring the rink up to modern standards.
Their short list includes upgrades and expansions to the changing rooms and washrooms, a complete refurbishment of the current ice plant and various upgrades to cut down on heating costs and improving energy efficiency.
Repairs to the ice plant will begin as soon as possible, added Schurman, while the rest of the plans will be completed as the campaign progresses.
They estimate their $500,000 goal will allow them to reach all their goals, said MacDonald.
"That's going to completely revitalize this rink," he said.
"We're hitting the ground with a huge head start. Starting today, that announcement from government just blew us away and will help us get this work done," he said.
Anyone who would like to know more about the capital campaign is invited to the WM Callbeck Centre, 966 Callbeck Street in Central Bedeque, Thursday evening at 8 p.m., for a presentation by the organizers.


text:
Miami, FL (PRWEB) July 11, 2014
Balancing tradition with modernism, Coverings ETC founder Ofer Mizrahi, arrived at the idea of using large marble and granite aggregates to bring more of a stone feel to the Eco-Terr line — veering away from the usual small pieces typical to terrazzo. Eco-Terr tiles are made from 70% recycled marble and granite chips with a cementitious binder. Tiles are rectified and calibrated for an easy butt joint installation. Tile sizes are 16" x 16" x 5/8" and 24" x 24" x 3/4." Slab size is 100" x 56" x 1 1/4."


text:
To be withdrawn on September 30, 2013: Test 000-031: IBM Tivoli Service Automation Manager V7.2.1
August 1, 2013
In an effort to keep Tivoli Certifications and exams current, the Tivoli Professional Certification Program is withdrawing the following exam:
Exam 000-031: IBM Tivoli Service Automation Manager V7.2.1
To be withdrawn September 30, 2013
Certification remains valid until March 30, 2014
No replacement exam.
Questions or comments regarding this exam or certification are always welcome and should be sent to firstname.lastname@example.com.
Premium Wallet Card
Receive a premium wallet when you order your Premium Certificate.


text:
Have Volkswagen Questions? Ask an Expert Now.
just so i understand completely, did you say the light on the left door does not come on when you open the door?
You have a faulty door latch assembly. It is electronic and is a common failure. But just to make sure there are no fuses out I am including a wiring diagram. click here. Check all the fuses to the comfort system and electronics. You may also have a bad battery in the remote. Reguardless the door light and interior light should come on with the door open.