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Employment Development Department
Labor Market Information
* * * This is NOT a job offer * * *
The purpose of this occupational guide is to provide you with useful information to help you make career decisions.
If you are searching for a job, please go to
CalJOBSSM (for jobs in California) OR JOBcentral (for jobs nationwide)
BarbersCalifornia Occupational Guide Number 78
Interest Area: 5-C
BARBERS perform a variety of services to improve the appearance and condition of
customers' hair, but their main job is cutting hair, adapting current styles to their customers' wants.
Barbers who are hair stylists specialize in shaping hair to suit the individual's facial features, hair quality and life style. After consulting with the customer, a stylist shampoos, conditions, cuts, dries and shapes the hair, using the latest techniques. Hair styling requires greater skill, care and a lot more time than regular haircutting.
Many Barbers also curl, color, or straighten hair, using special chemical solutions and equipment. Barbers also give shaves, shape and trim beards and mustaches and give facial or scalp massages. Barbers may keep card files on their clientele. After each visit they note work done, products used and fees charged. A barber may recommend and sell the products used by the shop.
Barbers are responsible for keeping scissors, combs, and other instruments sterilized and in good condition. They clean their work stations and may sweep the shop. Shop owners and managers have additional responsibilities: ordering supplies, keeping records, paying bills, and hiring and supervising personnel.
Barber shops are located in many different localities: residential neighborhoods, downtown business districts,
suburban shopping centers, airports and hotels.
Shops ordinarily are attractive, clean and well lighted. They vary in size from one to five or more chairs. Large hair styling salons may be divided into different work areas, including styling stations, shampoo rooms, and hair analysis laboratories. In most shops, Barbers do their work in one, relatively small area. The job is not strenuous, but since Barbers stand for most of the day, with their arms at shoulder level, it may be physically tiring. They occasionally develop allergic reactions to hair processing chemicals. Routine use of protective rubber gloves generally prevents this problem.
Barbers may belong to the United Food and Commercial Workers Union, AFL-CIO in Southern California or the Retail Clerks Union in the northern part of the State. Fewer than half of the shops in the State are covered by union contracts.
Barbers usually provide their own tools and basic supplies-clippers, scissors, combs, and smocks-which cost about $200. Stylists are responsible for their shampoo, solutions, and styling products.
The following information is from the California Projections of Employment published by the Labor Market Information Division.
|Estimated number of workers in 1993
|Estimated number of workers in 2005
|Projected Growth 1993-2005
|Estimated openings due to separations by 2005
|(These figures do not include self-employment nor openings due to turnover.)
There are over 17,000 Barbers licensed by the State of California; however, the actual number of Barbers who are
working at their trade is unknown. Employment indicators show that jobs are declining. However, most Barbers are
self-employed, either in their own shops or in shops where they rent a chair from the owner, and are not counted in
employment surveys.
Barber schools report that employers' demand for trained Barbers far exceeds the supply of graduates despite full classes.
kinds of jobs. In addition, there will always be jobs for Barbers with creative abilities, sound job skills and a faithful following.
Barbers generally earn either a commission or a set fee for each service performed or a guaranteed weekly wage,
whichever is higher. Commissions range from 40 percent to 80 percent of the gross earnings of the station at which
the Barber works. Typical hourly earnings for beginners start at minimum wage, but the median wage for Barbers in
California is $5.45 per hour. Earnings usually depend on the size, type and location of the shop. With experience,
Barbers are capable of earning up to $20.00 or more an hour. Barbers may receive a commission on products they
sell, and most of them receive tips. State law requires that overtime be paid at time and a half or double time.
Fringe benefits are minimal; very few Barbers receive benefits such as paid vacations or medical insurance.
The basic workweek for Barbers is 40 hours, usually including evenings or weekends. Days and hours vary with different shops or salons, depending upon location and clientele.
Barbers practicing in California must be licensed by the State Board of Barbering and Cosmetology. Those being
examined must be at least 17 years old, have a ninth grade (or equivalent) education and complete an approved
barber course. Graduates take a written, oral and practical examination in all aspects of barbering, including
The second way to qualify for a license is through a two-year apprenticeship program sponsored by the Joint Apprenticeship Training Committees (JATC). The program includes classroom instruction and full-time, paid on-the-job training. Apprentices work under the close supervision of a licensed Barber in a licensed shop. At the end of two years, they are eligible to take the State Board exam. Apprenticeships are available in many metropolitan areas through the California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Apprenticeship Standards.
In some areas, the JATC, barber colleges or manufacturers sponsor advanced courses for registered Barbers wanting to improve their skills. Some experienced Barbers become shop managers or operate their own shops. A few complete the additional requirements to become licensed as barber college instructors. Others get jobs with manufacturers of barber products, demonstrating new styles and techniques.
Job seekers should ask for leads from their college, since employers often contact schools when openings are available. Some employers may visit schools to watch students work on customers' hair before they hire. Job seekers should apply directly to shops, contact their union and register with the California Employment Development Department Job Services. Jobs are also listed in newspaper help wanted ads. Some employers, particularly in large shops, do not need to actively recruit. They interview job seekers who apply in person and contact those who qualify when suitable openings occur.
For information about job opportunities as reservation and transportation ticket agents, write to individual
airline companies. Addresses are available from:
California State Board of Barbering and Cosmetology Examiners
400 R Street, Suite 4080
Sacramento, CA 95814
(916) 445-7061
California Department of Industrial Relations
Division of Apprenticeship Standards
2424 Arden Way, Suite 160
Sacramento, CA 95825
(916) 263-2877
California Barber College Association
2645 El Camino Avenue
Sacramento, CA 95821
(916) 482-0871
No. 58
DOT (Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 4th Ed. 1991)
Barber Apprentice
(Occupational Employment Statistics) System
Barbers 680020
State of California
Employment Development Department
Labor Market Information Division
Information Services Group
(916) 262-2162.
Note: This is NOT a job opening. The purpose of This California Occupational Guide is to provide you with useful information to help you make career decisions. If you are searching for a job, go to:
- CalJOBSSM (for jobs in California)
- JOBcentral (for jobs nationwide)


text: The deadly elephant walk Elephants, people killed in clashes over farmland Officials in Kenya struggle to control the carnage ANDREW ENGLAND ASSOCIATED PRESS MOUNT KENYA, KENYA-Three days after an elephant gored and trampled a farmer to death, game wardens tracked down the huge bull and fired nine .458-calibre bullets into his hulking frame. The elephant and farmer Martin Kagwe were the latest victims of the spiral of corruption and destruction in the forest that surrounds snow-capped Mount Kenya in the centre of the East African country. The elephant's crime was bursting onto one of the farms on the edge of the forest with a half dozen others to feast on cabbages and corn, and then charging at Kagwe and other farmers who were trying to drive the animals away from their precious crops. Illegal logging, farms spreading into the wilderness and corrupt management have caused wholesale destruction of Mount Kenya's indigenous forest over the past two decades. That has eaten away at the elephants' traditional habitat and propelled them into conflict with humans in the fertile foothills of Africa's second-highest mountain. So far this year, Kenya Wildlife Service rangers have killed at least eight elephants. Last year, they shot two, while farmers killed 11. Mount Kenya National Forest Reserve covers 2,200 square kilometres around the base of the 5,149-metre mountain and is home to some 2,000 elephants as well as buffalo, waterbuck, bushbuck, wild pigs, rhinos, monkeys and other wildlife. Until three years ago, the reserve was managed by Kenya's Forest Department, which environmentalists say was deliberately crippled under former president Daniel arap Moi so the forest could be exploited commercially. Moi became president in 1978 and for the next 20 years swathes of indigenous trees were felled by logging companies, many of them connected to high-powered politicians and their families. The "shamba" system that was supposed to encourage farmers to plant trees within the forest also became corrupt and ineffective, says Bongo Woodley, the Wildlife Service's senior warden for Mount Kenya. The system, introduced in 1910 by the British colonial administration, allows farmers to cultivate small plots of forest land as long as they plant tree seedlings among their crops. After three years, the farmer is supposed to leave the shamba - a Kiswahili word meaning plot or garden - and allow the trees to take over. But because the Forest Department managed the system poorly, farmers stayed on and took over large sections of the forest, burning wood for charcoal, growing marijuana and snaring wildlife to sell as bush meat. A 1999 Wildlife Service survey found no seedlings growing on 76 per cent of the area under the shamba system, while marijuana plots covered 200 hectares. After a public outcry over the report, the Wildlife Service took over Kenya's largest forest in July, 2000. Since then, game wardens have arrested 1,200 people for illegal logging, charcoal-making and poaching. All were farmers in the shamba system, Woodley says. "You cannot protect wildlife and maintain the shamba system because we have encroached so much on wildlife that we have made it impossible for them to live in their natural habitat in peace," says Wangari Maathai, an activist named assistant environment minister in the new Kenyan government. Maathai was appointed by President Mwai Kibaki, who took office Dec. 30 after leading an opposition alliance to a historic election victory that ended the 39-year rule of Moi's Kenya African National Union party. Kibaki's National Rainbow Coalition government has promised widespread reform, including protecting the parks and forests that are vital sources of income in a country that has few other natural resources. Woodley says the only solution to the elephant problem is to fence areas like the forest reserve, creating corridors for the animals to move to other traditional feeding areas, such as the Aberdares, 40 kilometres to the southwest. _______________________________________ Barry Kent MacKay Senior Program Coordinator: Canada Animal Protection Institute www.api4animals.org <http://www.api4animals.org/> -------------- next part -------------- An HTML attachment was scrubbed... URL: http://lists.envirolink.org/pipermail/ar-news/attachments/20030621/98fc6dbc/attachment.html

subset: commoncrawl


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Valentine V1 Brand New, Never used, NIB
I have a brand new Valentine V1 that I bought my sister for her birthday. She never used it and now wants a TV instead :rolleyes:. So its available for sale. Its brand new, never been used, or even plugged in. I have the serial number if you guys really need that, I assume its the updated version as I bought it on July 14th and didnt recieve it until a few days after.
Asking: $400 Shipped. Saves about 25 off new. Maybe some tax for those sales tax states.
You love pizza
Thats funny cause I actually got a salad one day and a calzone or stromboli (can't remember) two days later, both for lunch. That price includes tip. And on 7/6 I did get a Pizza, hangover food from July 4th weekend.
lots of interest here, no cash yet!
wish i could buy this.
u might have to sell below refurb cost to make it a little more appealing. For an extra 25 you can get one straight from V1
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Dance Video of the Day: Seaweed Sisters "Water Fountain"
Seaweed Sisters is a passion project by acclaimed dancers/choreographers Megan Lawson, Jillian Meyers and Dana Wilson. Prior to meeting my girlfriend I wasn't at all familiar with the dance world, but these days my favourite thing to search on Youtube is urban dance camp, and I've become a huge fan of these three women. This film, set to Tuneyard's "Water Fountain", is a follow up to their last film choreographed to Major Lazer's "Get Free".
Watch both films below.


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Interesting Info -> Body Language -> Male Flirting Body Language
Reading Men's Body Language
Is he Flirting with you?
Did you catch a glimpse of him looking at you from across the room? Did you notice his eyebrows?
1. Flirting Signals - In His Face
Often when our eyes meet those of an attractive stranger, our eyebrows raise up then go back down.
This split-second gesture (called the "eyebrow flash") can be an invitation to start a conversation.
Raising his eyebrows in a "surprise" manner during conversation is also a good signal.
Eye contact can definitely help decode his feelings. A man might hold a women's gaze just slightly longer than normal to indicate his interest.
Another male flirting cue to slightly flare his nostrils, make his face appear wider. His lips may also part slightly.
2. Manly Mannerisms
You'll know he is trying to impress you when he moves into his classic courtship stance:
- Head slightly tilted to one side
3. Pretty Boys
Guys preening themselves is cute -- guess that's why it's flirting gesture. Common male grooming flirting signals:
- Adjusting their collars, sleeves, socks
4. Other Body Language Cues and Gestures
- Anything gesture that makes him "seem" bigger (wide arm gestures, stretching, etc.)
Keep in mind these are only guidelines and suggestions, every person is different -- compare body language observations to base behavior before drawing serious conclusions.
Related Articles on Blifaloo:
Body Language and Flirting
How to Detect Lies <-- Popular
Online Dating Doesn't Require a PhD... Or Does It?
Bored? Learn Something:
Copyright 2004 - 2012 | Blifaloo.com - All Rights Reserved


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JERUSALEM (Nov. 15)
Premier Levi Eshkol told Parliament today that "God is my witness that we do not want bloodshed to go on both sides of the border" but "Israeli blood is no less than that of any other."
Addressing a session on Israel's reprisal raid last Sunday against Jordan, the Premier reminded the house of the growing incidence of border attacks from Jordan. He quoted a threat by the Damascus Radio that Syria would turn every house in Israel "into a grave." Let it be clear, the Prime Minister declared, that the Jordanian raid was a warning directed as well to Syria.
He said the Soviet veto of a resolution at the Security Council on November 4, asking Syria to strengthen its borders against terrorist raids into Israel, had aggravated the problem because it made the Arabs "think they can get away with anything, including organized murder." He pointed out that Israel had repeatedly exercised patience, "but even the greatest patience can come to an end," he declared.
Only speakers for the Communist Party and Haolem Hazeh, a fringe party, dissociated themselves from the raid. All other parties voted for a Government motion to discuss the question in committee. Yosef Serlin, speaking for the opposition Gahal Party, declared his faction's unreserved support for the Government on the issue.


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I absolutely love how I can get both air and ocean international shipping rates in 2 minutes or less instead of waiting 24 hours or more with XpressRate™. We can now provide a higher level of customer service to our customers by being able to respond to their international import and export requests quicker than ever before. The XpressRate™ team has been very responsive when I have questions about the shipments that I have booked with them. The international rates and high level of customer service that XpressRate™ offers are fantastic.
Gabriel Flesher, SLS International
Xpressrate™ provided me the best rate for my shipping needs and their staff was enjoyable to work with. I look forward to shipping with them again.
Josh Miller, Director of Operations
Advocates for World Health
The average knowledge worker spends 25%-30% of their day looking for information. Any time we can put useful information in the hands of our clients, it's a benefit. And this one is free.
Ron Lackey, President CUSTOMS Info
Latest News
Announcing Service to Brazil: XpressRate™ launches FCL, LCL, Container Shipping and Air Freight Shipping Service to Brazil! Search from millions of rates! Discover and compare the most competitive freight rates for your international cargo shipping today!
U.S. Commercial Service: XpressRate™ is proud to partner with Export.gov to help small and medium-sized U.S. companies expand their export sales by providing world-class service and international support.
Read more...
K.C. Business Magazine: XpressRate's services are invaluable to businesses, with shipments to places all across the world.
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Inbound Logistics: The world's first neutral site combining several forwarder rates into one system.
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CUSTOMS Info: Customs Info partners with XpressRate™ to offer fast international shipping quotes.
Read more...
What are shipping requirements?
How many pallets in a 20' container?
How do I determine shipping costs?
What are insurance recommendations?
Can transit time be guaranteed?
How long are rate quotes valid?
What is a "Known Shipper" for air shipments?
What does creating an account provide me?
Resources: International Shipping Terms & Links
Shipping Tip: Plastic pallets are your best option over wooden pallets. Plastic pallets are lighter (thus cheaper to ship), fire resistant, sanitizable, and do not require a fumigation certificate.
More about the benefits of plastic pallet shipping...


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View your issue connections in a mind-map like display
View your issue connections in a mind-map like display
Use the power of JQL and custom filter features to create a diagram that you are looking for. Find any content in the issues by using searching
Our plugin provides ability to move issues and zoom in/out in order to get the graph and generate reports that satisfies your requests
Generate one level deep graph, and navigate easily between issues inside. Use the history to get back to the previously visited issues
More details
For more details please visit Mapster Wiki
User reviews(8)Sign in to write a review
I should admit that the tool is still experimental, and currently not under development.
Please note that it doesn't work well in all browsers - it is tested in Firefox and Chrome only, and performs better in Chrome.
EPAM Systems, Inc. provides support for this add-on.
Vendor support resources
Find out how this add-on works.
Atlassian-hosted discussions connect you to other customers who use this add-on.
Version 1.6.0 • JIRA Server 7.0.0 - 7.3.3 • Released 2016-10-26
JIRA 7 compatibility
JIRA 7 compatibility. You must uninstall previous plugin version.
- Log into your JIRA instance as an admin.
- Click the admin dropdown and choose Add-ons. The Manage add-ons screen loads.
- Click Find new add-ons from the left-hand side of the page.
- Locate Mapster issue link visualization via search. Results include add-on versions compatible with your JIRA instance.
- Click Install to download and install your add-on.
- You're all set! Click Close in the Installed and ready to go dialog.
To find older Mapster issue link visualization versions compatible with your instance, you can look through our version history page.


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Buzz With YouTube
Earlier this month, in an interview with CNBC, Google CEO Eric Schmidt said, "We believe the best [YouTube] products are coming out this year. And they're new products…much more participative, much more creative…much more interesting in and of themselves."
As part of their continued efforts to experiment with new ways to provide value to YouTube advertisers, Google have announced buzz targeting. The press release reads:
"One of the greatest aspects of YouTube is how it has democratized the way in which videos are discovered and promoted," said Shiva Rajaraman, YouTube Product Manager. "On any given day, a video from a top-tier content creator or an ordinary YouTube user can become the next big thing."
YouTube's product and engineering team tapped into this core ethos by creating an algorithm that determines which YouTube partner videos are quickly becoming popular on the site and about to go viral. The algorithm looks at several factors, such as acceleration of views, favorites, and ratings activity, and then allows advertisers to target their ads specifically to these videos on YouTube.
"Every advertiser hopes that their campaign will to be the next big viral hit online, and they come to YouTube to reach the millions of video viewers who are on the site everyday," said Rajaraman. "Buzz targeting lets them do both at the same time. They associate their brand with the hottest content of the day, while reaching the most engaged users in our community."
Lionsgate was the first advertiser to partner with YouTube in the pilot of this product, by using buzz targeting to promote the release of the film "The Forbidden Kingdom."
"With so many videos going viral on YouTube at any given time, buzz targeting allowed us to reach a very large, diverse audience," said Danielle DePalma, Director of Digital Media, Lionsgate. "By running ads against some of the most prominent content on the site, we were able to place our brand at the center of the experience that millions of people have on YouTube every day."
Ads for "The Forbidden Kingdom" ran against more than 500 of the most popular partner videos in music and entertainment, including content from major music labels and videos from users in the YouTube Partner Program.
"Buzz Targeting was an amazing opportunity for us to capitalize on the most popular videos on the site," said DePalma.


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Cartoon Wars
by: GAMEVIL Inc. • 569K
All Android applications categories
by: GAMEVIL Inc. • 569K
Published: 2013-01-18, by Manu Galvez.
Cartoon Wars merges Tower Defense and Real Time Strategy gameplay. It's set in a doodle world where there are two conflicting tribes. You lead one of them: a breed of doodle men that has been forced into slavery by the monsters tribe. Like other tower defense, the goal is to protect your headquarters. In addition, you have to reach the monsters' headquarters and break it down.
As you progress through the game, you will earn gold and gems that are required to upgrade your troops: ninja, gunner, cannon, black wizard... There are over 20 types of units, 16 upgrades for troops, tower, weapons and productivity items. Actually, you'll have to upgrade if you want to beat the increasing amount of hordes that the enemy will send to you in new each level.
The artwork is simple cool, specially regarding doodle moves. There's a dashboard to control your units by tapping the production of troops and the tower shooting. Use tilt controls to swipe the scroll the screen view.
The game is simple and really addictive: a perfect timewaster. We're just missing more types of levels. It's true, there are unlimited stages, but they're basically the same background with more hordes of enemies. Anyway, worthy.
Tags: cartoon wars mod money and gem , cartoon wars , cartoon wars wallpaper , cartoon wars black wizard , cartoon wars 2 , cartoon wars hack , cartoonwars , w wizard cartoon war , cartoon war gunner background
by Manu , Appszoom
Jan 18, 2013
from 568.988 reviews
by mat fauzi
Jul 13, 2017 | "Awesome"
by Iliana Rodriguez
Jul 13, 2017 | "Poor"
It wont work on my samsung tablet
by A Google user
Jul 13, 2017 | "Awesome"
I like it
by Prince Rafael Gulen
Jul 13, 2017 | "Awesome"
Super love this game thank you God ,
by A Google user
Jul 13, 2017 | "Awesome"
Awesome this game
by Shikha Gohal
Jul 12, 2017 | "Awesome"
I love the game very much
Download Cartoon Wars
Free - V1.1.2 - 26M
Share this app


text:
Amy Winehouse's Dad Gave Her Clothes To Fans, Why Does That Sound Familiar?
Ah, yes:
On June 29, 1763, a week after the siege began, Bouquet was preparing to lead an expedition to relieve Fort Pitt when he received a letter from Amherst making the following proposal: "Could it not be contrived to send the smallpox among the disaffected tribes of Indians? We must on this occasion use every stratagem in our power to reduce them.
Bouquet agreed, writing back to Amherst on July 13, 1763: "I will try to inoculate the bastards with some blankets that may fall into their hands, and take care not to get the disease myself." Amherst responded favorably on July 16, 1763: "You will do well to inoculate the Indians by means of blankets, as well as every other method that can serve to extirpate this execrable race.
As it turned out, however, officers at the besieged Fort Pitt had already exposed the Indians in just the manner Amherst and Bouquet were discussing. During a parley at Fort Pitt on June 24, 1763, Captain Simeon Ecuyer gave representatives of the besieging Delawares two blankets and a handkerchief from the smallpox ward "out of regard to them" after the Delawares pledged to renew their friendship. While the exact meaning of his phrase was unclear, a later invoice appears to clearly establish the purpose was transmittal of small pox.
In Mitch's defense, the place was crawling with gypsies. I don't see how he had a choice.


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Hello there my fellow IGNers, it has been a while since I have been able to blog but I am back now and want to kick off with the yearly debate: what is the best game of the year? We're getting to that time where we will begin to discuss which title we think deserves to take the crown, and so I wanted to go over the top games of 2012 and get your opinion on which title deserves the award.
Mass Effect 3
The conclusion to Commander Shepard's story doesn't really need any explaining on why it's in this debate so I'll just give a short overview. It has an incredible story which is affected by your choices in the game and in previous games, amazing characters and voice acting and some great gameplay. And if that's not enough for you, you get to sleep with Jessica Chobot. Need I say more?
Halo 4
I won't lie, when I first heard about this game's production I did not agree with it at all. I believed no one could do what Bungie did in the Halo series. I was wrong. 343 did an excellent job producing the next game in the critically acclaimed series. With an intense story, amazing sound, a refined multiplayer, and free weekly extra missions how can anyone not like this game? (Unless you don't like first person shooters, or just Halo in general lol)
This is one of the most original games this year. I can't even begin to explain why I feel this game needs to be in contention for this title. Read or watch the review and see for yourself: http://uk.ign.com/articles/2012/10/08/dishonored-review
The Walking Dead
This series of games is truly something else. Every decision that you make somehow affects the story, and not just in the same episode. It's an emotional adventure where you're not just playing the story, you're creating it. The relationships your character has are due to the decisions you made earlier on. This game really does make you feel like you are living in The Walking Dead. I know I haven't picked a particular episode as I feel it is difficult to judge them individually seeing as it's the series that you really get the full experience from, but if I have to pick one then I guess it would have to be episode 5.
Zero Escape: Virtue's Last Reward
I know there will be people reading this thinking wtf but I felt this game needed to be considered. This is a perfect example of how a sequel should be done. It's predecessor, 999, while brilliant, was not without it's issues. Zero Escape attends to all of these and then some. The new timeline system means seeing the alternate endings is a lot easier, and it also leads to some psychedelic s*** the likes of which I have never seen before. The only negative points the IGN reviewer gave were "You'll lose sleep" and "Waiting for Volume 3 may kill you". Says it all really.
Some people believe we are in a bad era of gaming for various reasons, but how can anyone believe that when we have such original games being produced? (That's an argument for another day) We live in an era where indy games can be compared with some of the biggest hitters cause they're just that good, and Journey is without a doubt one of those games. Journey is simple and only a couple of hours long, but it is a couple of hours of pure gorgeousness. Not just in terms of it's visuals, but it's story, and it's gameplay too.
Diablo III and Guild Wars 2
Unfortunately I know very little about these two games (not being a PC gamer myself) but from what I hear they're both meant to be very good games and deserve to be acknowledged in this discussion.
So what do you guys think? Maybe you feel a game I didn't mention deserves the title of game of the year, Borderlands 2 for instance, Max Payne 3 maybe, or even the first ever direct sequel in the pokemon series Pokemon Black/White 2. Let me know your thoughts and opinions, and as always, thanks for reading.


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WEBCHAT GUIDELINES 1. One question per member plus one follow-up. 2. Keep your question brief. 3. Don't moan if your question doesn't get answered. 4. Do be civil/polite. More here.
Live webchat with Gabrielle Palmer, author of The Politics of Breastfeeding, this Friday (20 Nov, 1-2pm)(179 Posts)
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Echo One was the first subspace amplifier deployed by the United Earth starship Enterprise. It was deployed in July of 2151.
In September of 2151, Echo One was destroyed, along with Echo Two, by an unknown alien vessel. (ENT: "Silent Enemy")
Echo One was used by Vice Admiral Forrest to relay a Vulcan request for assistance at Paan Mokar to Enterprise in 2152, suggesting it had been replaced. (ENT: "Cease Fire")
According to the Star Trek: Star Charts, on page 60, Echo One was located in the Beta Quadrant.


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Eaton Compressor
Eaton Compressor Announces the "2012 Polar Air Truck Pulling Team"
Eaton Compressor is known for excellence in selling high-quality compressors and other air products to customers nationwide. But Team Eaton doesn't only use its expertise in the professional realm. In fact, Team Eaton is transferring that expertise to the track with the company announcement of its 2012 Polar Air Truck Pulling Team.
Eaton Compressor and its Polar Air Pulling Team made quite the introduction to the professional truck pulling circuit with an impressive first and fourth place showing in the recent KTPA Invitational at Kentucky's Rupp Arena.
Eaton Compressor will feature three drivers on its Polar Air Pulling Team in 2012: Matt Cain, Alan Cain, and Tina Cain, all of whom will compete on the NTPA, KTPA, and PPL circuits in 2012. All told, the team is expected to compete in some twenty regional and national events.
Eaton Compressor owner Matt Cain completed his first full season of official NTPA competition last year and recently won first place decisively in the KTPA Invitational at Kentucky's Rupp Arena event. He will be competing in the 6200 LB Super-Modified TWD class driving the team's "Under Pressure" truck—a Chevy with a custom Eder Motorsports chassis and Pro-Fab 3-speed transmission powered by a custom 526 Hemi engine that produces a violent 2,600 HP. His truck features a personal, heart-felt tribute to his late father, Marvin Cain, who was the company's original founder and who shared his love of truck pulling and compressors with Matt.
Eaton Compressor vice-president of operations Alan Cain competed in a limited rookie season and won fourth place at the recent KTPA Invitational. He will also compete in the 6200 LB Super-Modified TWD class driving the teams "Buy Polar" truck—a clever play on the company's Polar Air branded product. The "Buy Polar" truck is a Ford with a custom Eder Motorsports chassis and Pro-Fab 5-speed transmission powered by a custom 526 Billet Hemi engine that produces pulling power in excess of 2,600 HP. Alan and his "Buy Polar" beast look to have raised the bar on the circuit with his truck's visually stunning full-body wrap with "artic flame" graphics. The truck is being touted as "ahead of its time".
Eaton Compressor CFO Tina Cain will be launching her truck pulling career this year by debuting on the NPTA circuit. She will be competing in the 98/3500 4-Wheel Drive Diesel Division, 2.6 Class. Her "Buy Polar Unleashed" truck is a modified Dodge Ram with a 5.9L Cummins Diesel engine which will put 1,030HP at her command. Tina will be one of the few women on the circuit, but relishes the opportunity to compete against "the boys." With husband Matt Cain, brother-in-law Alan Cain, and crew chief Buff Anspaugh designing and building Tina's truck, as well as teaching Tina "the ropes," Tina should be a force to be reckoned with!
Eaton Compressor is a premier manufacturer of air compressors and air products located just outside of Dayton, Ohio. Eaton Compressor is family owned and operated and has been servicing customers with premium industrial / commercial air compressors "factory direct" for over 35 years. Eaton Compressor's unique, innovative products combined with their award-winning service and support offer customers the best value in the air compressor market today!
You can get your Polar Air by Eaton Compressor products today by visiting Eaton Compressor at www.eatoncompressor.com or calling 877-283-7614. For more exciting news on Eaton Compressor and the "Polar Air Pulling Team" visit Eaton Compressor's company website at www.eatoncompressor.com.
Additional Resources:
Eaton Compressor : Information on Corporateinfotoday.com
Eaton Compressor : Profile on Companynewsengine.com
Eaton Compressor : Article on Incwebstats.com
Eaton Compressor : Listed on Profileleadercorp.com


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While Donald Trump, the official Republican presidential nominee, has to first deal with his opponent Hillary Clinton, he may find himself in a peculiar situation if he's elected. The situation? Going to war with North Korea. Would Trump do it? Would Hillary? With new tensions arising, Trump as the president may need to declare a fight earlier than expected…
North Korea's top diplomat for U.S. affairs told The Associated Press on Thursday that Washington "crossed the red line" and effectively declared war by putting leader Kim Jong Un on its list of sanctioned individuals, and said a vicious showdown could erupt if the U.S. and South Korea hold annual war games as planned next month.
Han Song Ryol, director-general of the U.S. affairs department at the North's Foreign Ministry, said in an interview that recent U.S. actions have put the situation on the Korean Peninsula on a war footing.
The United States and South Korea regularly conduct joint military exercises south of the Demilitarized Zone, and Pyongyang typically responds to them with tough talk and threats of retaliation.
Han said North Korea believes the nature of the maneuvers has become openly aggressive because they reportedly now include training designed to prepare troops for the invasion of the North's capital and "decapitation strikes" aimed at killing its top leadership.
"The Obama administration went so far to have the impudence to challenge the supreme dignity of the DPRK in order to get rid of its unfavorable position during the political and military showdown with the DPRK," Han said, using the acronym for North Korea's official name, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.
"The United States has crossed the red line in our showdown," he said. "We regard this thrice-cursed crime as a declaration of war."


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For Release: June 10, 2011
Contact: David Almasi at (202) 507-6398 x11 or (703) 568-4727 or [email protected] or Judy Kent at (703) 759-7476 or [email protected]
Obama's Council on Jobs and Competitiveness Meeting at Cree Inc. Highlights the Failure of the President's Economic Stimulus Plan
Cree Cashed In on Millions in Tax Credits and Grants by Following the President's Clean Energy Fantasy
Obama's Command-and-Control Energy Policy is Failing America, says Policy Experts from the National Center
Washington, D.C. - In anticipation of President Obama's meeting with his Jobs and Competitive Council at the headquarters of Cree Inc., policy experts from the National Center for Public Policy Research are calling attention today to the failure of President Obama's clean energy stimulus plan to stimulate economic growth and job creation. The meeting will be held in Durham, NC on Monday, June 13.
The President's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 committed $90 billion for clean energy, and Cree directly benefited from the president's stimulus plan. The company received $39 million in tax credits and at least $6 million in grants from the Department of Energy. Cree makes LED lighting products.
"It's ironic that Obama's jobs panel is meeting at the headquarters of a company that received millions of dollars of taxpayer money. Rising unemployment is evidence that Obama's clean energy plan did not work as he had hoped, yet the president is stubbornly adhering to his fantasy of creating a clean energy economy," said Tom Borelli, Ph.D., director of the National Center's Free Enterprise Project.
"The failure of Obama's jobs panel is really not surprising since the group is packed with green-energy and cap-and-trade cheerleaders such as GE CEO Jeff Immelt, green-energy venture capitalist John Doerr, DuPont CEO Ellen Kullman and NextEra Energy CEO Lewis Hay," added Tom Borelli.
"With high gasoline prices and a slow economy, hardworking Americans can't afford Obama's command-and-control energy policy," said Deneen Borelli, full-time fellow of the National Center-sponsored Project 21 black leadership network. "Many households can't afford the type of lights Obama is forcing us to use. Cree's LED lighting products are really expensive – a 60-watt light bulb costs almost $60."
"It's disgusting that these CEOs want to make money on the backs of hardworking Americans," added Deneen Borelli.
The National Center For Public Policy Research is a conservative, free-market, non-profit think-tank established in 1982. Its 2010 revenues were over $12 million. It is supported by the voluntary gifts of over 100,000 individual recent supporters, receiving less than one percent of its revenue from corporate sources. Contributions to it are tax-deductible.
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E-Mail: [email protected]
Web: www.nationalcenter.org


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Taylor Swift Gets Her Tourist On At London Zoo (PHOTOS)
Taylor Swift was able to spend some downtime at the London Zoo Wednesday afternoon, where cameras were, of course, there to catch her every move.With the nasty rain out of the way,
Dressed in a red toggle coat, Taylor kept mostly to herself as she engaged in full-on tourist mode as she made her way about town, often seen listening to music with her headphones.
Could she have been listening to the Les Miserables soundtrack, perhaps? Rumor has it, Taylor's up for the role of Eponine in Tom Hooper's much-anticipated movie adaptation. If cast, Taylor would tackle one of the show's most famous songs, "On My Own."
Whether she's officially in the movie has yet to be determined. In the meantime, check out Taylor's tourist-filled adventure in London in our gallery above, and see her braving the rain below!


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... well, he's here. He posted on July 29th on the "Sterling Webb Jumps the Shark" thread:
Now, that's great if you want to email him, but i was hoping that we could start a kindasorta Question and Answer in the comments of this particular post.
I have no idea if Mr. Milton will cooperate, but i'm betting he needs to vent. Just like YOU do.
Ask away... and, Vic, if you are reading this and feel obliged to answer as you are able, thank you in advance.


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Terrazzo is a faux-marble flooring or countertopping material.
Terrazzo workers create walkways, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of finished concrete or epoxy-resin. Much of the preliminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to that of cement masons. Marble-chip, cementitious terrazzo requires three layers of materials. First, cement masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete foundation that is 3 to 4 inches deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers add a 1-inch layer of sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal divider strips in the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place into each of the panels a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-pigmented. While the mixture is still wet, workers toss additional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a lightweight roller over the entire surface.
In the 1970s, polymer-based terrazzo was introduced and is called thin-set terrazzo. Initially polyester and vinyl ester resins were used as the binder resin. Today, most of the terrazzo installed is epoxy terrazzo. The advantages of this material over cementitious terrazzo include wider selection of colors, 1/4 inch to 3/8 inch installation thickness, lighter weight, faster installation, impermeable finish, higher strength, and less susceptibility to cracking. In addition to marble aggregate blends, other aggregates have been used such as mother of pearl and abalone shell. Recycled aggregates include: glass, porcelain, concrete and metal. Shapes and medallions can be fabricated on site by bending divider strips or off site by water-jet cutting.
When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry (or cured in the case of thin-set terrazzo), helpers grind it with a terrazzo grinder, which is somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier. Slight depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand-troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. Terrazzo workers then clean, polish, and seal the dry surface for a lustrous finish.[1]
Terrazzo was originally invented by Venetian construction workers as a low cost flooring material using marble chips from upscale jobs. The workers would usually set them in clay to surface the patios around their living quarters. Consisting originally of marble chips, clay, and goat milk (as the sealer), production of terrazzo became much easier after the 1920s and the introduction of electric industrial grinders and other power equipment.
Newly-set terrazzo will not look like marble unless it is wet. That's where the goat's milk comes in, acting as a sealer and preserving the wet and marble-like look.
Archaeologists use the word terrazzo to describe the floors of early neolithic buildings (PPN A and B, ca. 9.000-8.000 BC) in Western Asia, that are constructed of burnt lime and clay, colored red with ochre and polished. The embedded crushed limestone gives it a slightly mottled appearance. The use of fire to produce burnt lime, which was also used for the hafting of implements thus predates the use of pottery by almost a thousand years. In the early Neolithic settlement of Cayönü in eastern Turkey ca. 90 m² of terrazzo floors have been uncovered. The floors of the PPN B settlement of Nevali Cori measure about 80 m². They are 15 cm thick, and contain about 10-15 % lime.
These floors are almost impenetrable to moisture and very durable, but their construction involved a high input of energy. Gourdin and Kingery (1975) estimate that about 5 times the amount of wood is needed to produce the required amount of lime, but recent experiments by Affonso and Pernicka have shown that only the double amount is needed. But that would still amount to 4.5 metric tons of dry wood for the floors in Cayönü, in what is an only sparsely wooded environment today.
Other sites with terrazzo floors include Nevali Cori, Göbekli Tepe, Jericho, and Kastros (Cyprus).
- ↑ U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Handbook. 'Cement Masons, Concrete Finishers, Segmental Pavers, and Terrazzo Workers', http://stats.bls.gov/oco/ocos204.htm
External linksEdit
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Terrazzo that may be added
- Information about types of terrazzo and terrazzo systems (National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association)
- Conservation of terrazzo on Preservapediacs:Terrazzová dlažba
da:Terrazzo de:Terrazzo es:Terrazo it:Terrazzo alla veneziana he:טרצו nl:Terrazzo (materiaal) pl:Lastriko sv:Terrazzo


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4 thoughts on "I am arriving at DOHA airport next week is there a bar that sells beer there"
G'day Just Mike 53,
Thanks for the question. Apparently, there is one in the upstairs area as well as a VIP area
Unfortunately, it only seems to be available to first class and business class passengers of Qatar Airlines
I would contact the airline you are travelling with.
In departures there is the Coffee Beanery Café, A&W, Sterling, TCBY and Ponderosa. In arrivals there is a Costa Coffee café. These restaurants and snack bars offer buffet foods, fresh ground coffee, fast foods, snacks and ice creams.
I dont think beer is allowed there..
whether your destination is Doha, or transiting through, alcoholic drinks are not sold for consumption in Doha International Airport.
you may buy alcoholic drinks from duty-free shop in Doha Airport, or from Qatar Airways, but you are not allowed to take them beyond customs line.
However, if your transit consist of accomodation in one of the hotels in Doha, then you can buy beer and other alcoholic drinks in all 5-stars and 4-stars hotels that you will stay in.
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Prettifier Infinity by Nancy Totten
Welcome! You are browsing as a guestWould you like to see projects made from this pattern and much more? create a free account What am I missing?
© Nancy Totten
© Nancy Totten
© Nancy Totten
Prettifier Infinity
This pattern is available for $4.00 USD buy it now
Starting with provisional cast on, approx 300 yds (275 m) of DK wt yarn and using this vintage lace stitch, you can create a great infinity scarf long enough to wrap once around the neck. Uses US #6 needles it is knit flat. Easy to make beautiful lace that makes the knitter look like a genius!


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Quick navigation
Tag Archives: raiding
Oh Thok! We missed one!
Yeah so we killed the big dinobot thing a good long while ago but I forgot to put the kill-shot up. Then I kept forgetting. Apologies, but here it is now and good work to all involved in making him …
Read More
Posted in Guild Tagged heroic, raiding, Thok the Bloodthirsty Leave a comment
Heroic spoils ruined.
Is this the box with James Woods in it? No? What about this one?… This fight is not too different to the normal version back when you first encountered it. There's a new mechanic, the dps requirement is higher and …
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Posted in Guild Tagged heroic, raiding, Spoils of Pandaria Leave a comment
Bird is the Word.
Eggs smashed, feathers ruffled. Ji-Kun killed. After a swap in tactics to a group per nest method we took this down with little difficulty. Well done raiders.
Posted in Guild Tagged 25, Ji-Kun, raiding Leave a comment
Horridon and his horrid mates defeated.
There were many trolls dispatched and then some god guy showed up. After we killed all of his mates the big reptile was actually not as tough as he looked. Well done all on the second boss in Throne of Thunder.


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Oysters Rockefeller
For this recipe you will need:
1 dozen oysters
To prepare this recipe:
Shuck the oysters, and clean and reserve the bottom shells. Place the butter in a large saute pan and brown slightly over medium heat. Add the shallots and cook slowly until they become translucent and soft. Deglaze the pan with the brandy, reduce the volume by half, then add the cream and salt and pepper to taste. Add the oysters and gently cook until the edges begin to ruffle. Remove the oysters. Increase the heat and cook the sauce for about a minute to allow it to thicken.
Place another large saute pan on medium high heat. Add the oil and saute the garlic until it becomes fragrant. Add the spinach, and quickly toss until it is wilted.
Turn on the broiler in your oven. Place the bottom oyster shells on a cookie sheet. Line them with a layer of the wilted spinach. Top each shell with an oyster, coat each oyster with some sauce and sprinkle the Asagio cheese on top. Place the cookie sheet a few inches under the broiler, just until the cheese turns golden. Using tongs, place the oyster shells on a platter lined with rock salt, and garnish with the chives.
This recipe will serve 4 people.


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Ten prospects to watch in the IL
Minor, Mesoraco, Montero look to tear up Triple-A
By Josh Jackson / Special to MLB.com | April 4, 2011 6:00 AM ET
Here's a look at the top 10 prospects in the International League heading into the 2011 season.
Chris Archer, RHP -- Durham Bulls
Archer came to the Rays organization in the offseason deal that sent Matt Garza to the Cubs, and now fans in Durham are likely in for a treat. MLB.com's No. 47 prospect has a mid-90s fastball, a tricky slider that dives out of the zone and a changeup he's generally been able to locate thus far, and his 8-2, 1.80 numbers in his first crack at Double-A ball helped make him the Cubs' Pitcher of the Year in 2010.
Domonic Brown, OF -- Lehigh Valley IronPigs
Brown entered the spring with a shot at winning a job with the Phillies, but a fractured hamate in early March nixed that. As it stands, the toolsy outfielder will likely join the IronPigs by the beginning of May and, depending on his performance and what happens in the Majors, MLB.com's No. 4 prospect could be in the big leagues by midsummer.
Lonnie Chisenhall, 3B -- Columbus Clippers
An All-Star in every league he's played in since starting with short-season Mahoning Valley in 2008, Chisenhall makes his International League debut this year. After a monster spring (.500 batting average, five extra-base hits in 12 games), some were surprised to see MLB.com's No. 36 prospect cut from the big club. He's only 22, though, and the Indians probably want to see him show consistency in Triple-A at-bats over a solid stretch of the season.
Kyle Gibson, RHP -- Rochester Red Wings
Gibson catapulted himself from the Class A Advanced Florida State League, through the Double-A Eastern League and into the IL last year, and Twins fans could see MLB.com's No. 40 prospect make a difference in the Twin Cities at some point this season. For now, the 23-year-old righty with excellent control is scheduled to start the Red Wings' home opener against Scranton/Wilkes-Barre.
Jose Iglesias, SS -- Pawtucket Red Sox
A Cuban-born defensive wunderkind who made his Stateside pro debut last season, Iglesias hit better than he was expected to and was as good as promised with the leather. He was also an Arizona Fall League Rising Stars Showcase participant in November and had a decent camp with Boston in March. MLB.com's No. 42 prospect will spend the bulk of the season with the PawSox and has a good shot to be Boston's everyday shortstop in 2012.
Desmond Jennings, OF -- Durham Bulls
After injuries slowed Jennings in three of the past four seasons, the outfielder with leadoff makeup has been healthy this spring and seems destined to get in a solid chunk of time at the Triple-A levels at the beginning of the 2011 campaign. It may not be long before the Rays can use him in the Majors, but MLB.com's No. 11 prospect is likely going to be wherever he can get in the most at-bats.
Jason Kipnis, 2B -- Columbus Clippers
Joining Chisenhall on the defending league-champion Clippers, Kipnis will look to pick up where he left off in his Triple-A debut stretch during last summer's playoffs. He played his first Triple-A tilt in Game 1 of the Governors' Cup and cycled in the Game 4 clincher. He was a single shy of a second cycle in the next contest he played in, the Triple-A Baseball National Championship Game. He'll probably be the Clippers' everyday second baseman.
Devin Mesoraco, C -- Louisville Bats
Praised by Reds manager Dusty Baker for his work ethic during a strong spring, Mesoraco comes back to Louisville after a 14-game stint in Triple-A last year. If he performs as well as he's expected to, he's a legitimate contender for the Cincinnati backstop job in 2012. MLB.com's No. 45 prospect strikes out plenty, but he can also be counted on for solid power numbers.
Mike Minor, LHP -- Gwinnett Braves
After narrowly losing the Braves' fifth starting job to Brandon Beachy, Minor will continue to develop with the G-Braves when Jair Jurrjens recovers from an oblique injury and returns to the Atlanta rotation. MLB.com's No. 21 prospect was dominant in the IL last year, and nothing suggests he won't have the same success this season. He struggled with a 5.98 ERA over 40 2/3 innings in the Majors last year, but an injury to an Atlanta starter or a few troublesome outings by Beachy would likely give him his chance at redemption.
Jesus Montero, C -- Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Montero clubbed 21 dingers and hit .289 while catching for the Baby Bombers over 123 IL games last year, and he's back to wreak some more havoc. There was plenty of speculation that he'd serve as Russell Martin's backup with the Yankees, but his return to Triple-A gives MLB.com's No. 9 prospect the opportunity to continue to grow and hone his defensive skills as an everyday player.
Josh Jackson is a contributor to MLB.com. This story was not subject to the approval of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues or its clubs.View More


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Depending on the nature of the audit or the audit findings,
the Follow-Up procedure may be formal or informal. In either case,
after a reasonable period of time, the auditee will be contacted
regarding the departmental progress with the corrective actions that
were identified in the audit. At this time, we may perform a
follow-up review concluding with a follow-up report.
In most cases,
the auditee is only contacted informally, possibly several times, to
monitor the status of the department's progress. If you have any
questions or new concerns in the follow-up period, we welcome you to
share them at this time, so that we may determine if further audit
work is necessary.


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Matthew C.wrote a review of Katadyn Hiker Pro Replacement Cartridge on September 21, 2009
PUR fect
Drop in replacement for my old PUR filter. Used extensively to filter out windblown "trail spice" on Rainier. Find clean snow, melt/boil with the ol MSR, cool pan in snow, filter into Nalgene's, repeat.


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Looks like Salado Springs Apartments is no longer available on Rent.com which means this information is likely out of date.
Live it. Love it. Guaranteed. ... Resort style living at its best...Premier location, luxurious amenities, beautiful surroundings...Luxury living you can afford... Call Now! We're available 24-7 to assist you with your leasing enquiries.
The Luxury you deserve is right here! Overlooking the beautifully scenic Phil Hardberger Park Concervancy and situated in San Antonio's highly desired north central corridor. Our luxurious community offers a designed-to-live clubhouse and resort-style pool with spa area.
Salado Springs also has one and two bedroom corporate units. Experience a move in so exceptional that we guarantee it. Live it. Love it. Guaranteed!
Please call below to find out about lease terms.
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Several weeks ago, a huge argument erupted on my Facebook page. When the government passed legislation to legalise same sex marriage, I posted a sarcastic status:
"Oh no! My marriage has been completely devalued because two people who love each other who happen to be the same gender can now get married"
It was lighthearted, but the central premise is still true. I could not understand how some church members could be so vehemently against it, when I took the opposite view.
Amongst the discussion some very strong opinions were expressed by a member of my ward, and this continued for days. We have since continued our discussion privately as I was not comfortable with some of his views being publicly viewable on my timeline. He posted me a link to an article by Elder Oaks from the October 2012 conference about the raising of children to back up his point (http://www.lds.org/general-conference/2012/10/protect-the-children?lang=eng).
My response went as follows:
I've read that article by Elder Oaks before, but read it again this evening. I agree with the sentiment and intentions of his talk wholeheartedly, with just a single reservation. There is an underlying theme in his talk that suggests that marriage is the perfect situation for a child, and that anything else is less than ideal. Whilst on the whole, this is true, there are far too many cases of children being born into homes of abusive marriages to simple hold up marriage as the ideal. Individual integrity, love, nurturing, time, care and education are amongst the key contributors to the well-being of a child, and whilst this may be more likely in a marriage, there is certainly no matrimonial monopoly on these virtues. Elder Oaks himself was raised by a widowed mother, and she seemingly did a superb job, as do the vast majority of other single parents. Single parenthood is not something that people aspire to, but something people deal with as part of a day to day struggle, and I think from my experience as a teacher that 90% of single parents do an incredible job, some even better than married couples.
As for same sex marriage, I cannot align myself with the position of church leaders on this issue. We have our beliefs and values regarding marriage, a belief that the relationship of husband and wife can stretch into eternity. 99.8% of the people in society do not hold these beliefs, and whilst it is important for the church to voice it's opinion, I don't believe in the assumed corollary that we should therefore legislate our beliefs.
Arguments against same sex marriage fall into one of several categories (each of which I think is fallacious):
1) The need to protect children.
2) The belief that traditional marriage will be 'devalued'.
3) The belief that homosexual people will further their crusade to force religious institutions to do things against their will and beliefs.
4) The belief that homosexuality is wrong and should not be condoned.
None of these arguments hold water for me at all. Let me address them all individually.
1) As mentioned earlier, I believe that the most important values in the home of a child are based around love and nurture. This bears little correlation in real life to the legal status of parents. Even Elder Oaks in the article says that the future in this area is inconclusive. I would suggest that he is erring on the side of caution here and whilst refusing to suggest that it would be bad for children, he won't admit that there is scope for it to do tremendous good.
2) Despite lots of discussion with other members, I fail to see how my marriage will be devalued by other loving couples who happen to be the same sex getting married.
3) I cannot conceive a situation where a homosexual couple try to force a religious institution to perform a marriage for them, and then attempt legal proceedings because they are denied. Religious freedom is guaranteed in the ECHR, and the government have put several 'locks' in place in the proposed legislation to ensure this does not happen. I am completely satisfied by this.
4) Regardless of our own personal feelings on the morality of homosexual behaviour, it is not our place to sit as judge and jury and decide on the moral validity of others. I have serious concerns over church policy in regard to this issue. In the last few years, the church has begun to admit what the scientists have been saying for years; that homosexuality is innate. There seems to be a paradox here that if God creates all men (and women!), then he has created some of his children with inborn sexual attraction to those of the same gender, yet the church teaches that acting on this attraction, which would seem totally natural to the person, is wrong and sinful. They are therefore expected to live a life of complete celibacy, which I believe could be more dangerous than condoning a committed same sex relationship. The scriptures are not that clear on the issue either (aside from Leviticus, which doesn't sway me in the least), and this leads me to think that maybe this is another area of church policy that is a perpetuation of outdated attitudes such as the insistence of the church in the 1960s that those of African descent were cursed from being less valiant in the pre-existence and therefore should be segregated, denied the priesthood and restricted from inter-racial wedlock.
My final problem on this issue is the insistence of the church (especially in the USA) that members should join the political charge to quash legislation enacting same sex marriage. I deplored the situation in California when the First Presidency issued a letter to all congregations asking members to 'give of their time and means' to fight the legislation. I find it incongruous as a follower of Christ that my time and efforts are best placed in denying the right of loving couples to form a union and a family. I completely resent the fact that what is supposed to be the church bearing the saviour's name solicited donations and volunteer hours for a cause not at the heart of the teachings of Christ.
I don't expect you to agree with me, and I'm quite sure that some of my views are quite marginal in the church, but I feel very strongly on this issue. History has told us that the church doesn't get policies and political positions right every time (in fact, it could be argued that they are more often wrong!). I believe that the church's current position will be regretted in 30 years time (much the same as the 1960s racial policies).


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SHUT UP, SWEET CHARLOTTE! - Thursday, Jan 10th, 8pm
Thursday, January 10, 2013 at 8:00 PM (CST)
Event Details
starring Varla Jean Merman, Ricky Graham, Yvette Hargis, Brian Peterson, Jack Long, Michael Sullivan and Brian Johnston. The show is a side-splitting parody of the original novel and the camp classic film Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964) which starred Bette Davis and Olivia de Havilland. This larger-than-life production has played to packed audiences across the country and now it's back
January 10th (Thursday at 8pm)
Tickets $30 (General Admission) (Reserved, VIP seating available by phone at 504.488.1460, only)
Mid City Theatre is at 3540 Toulouse Street
-- between N. Cortez and Jeff Davis Pkwy...just behind the American Can Company
There is a bar, and free parking all around the building!
Your reservation is not complete unitl you receive confirmation email from Eventbrite, with the link to your actual tickets.
When & Where
3540 Toulouse Street
(between N. Cortez & N. Jeff Davis Pkwy)
New Orleans,
Thursday, January 10, 2013 at 8:00 PM (CST)
Add to my calendar


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Fixing its awful contested ball count is the top priority for Richmond ahead of Saturday's massive assignment against Fremantle.
The Tigers collapsed in the second half last week against North Melbourne and now face the Dockers, who are building a head of steam with three straight wins.
Richmond coach Damien Hardwick is happy enough with his team's defensive work - they are just doing too much of it because they cannot win the ball themselves.
''If you start getting the ball controlled a little bit more through your offence, your defence becomes remarkably better,'' Hardwick said.
''We just couldn't get our hands on the ball to get our offensive game up and going, which means you're defending for a long period of time. Eventually, the dam wall is going to break, which is obviously what we experienced in the third quarter.''
Fremantle is renowned for its contested ball work, while Richmond's task in that area will be even harder given Matt Thomas is suspended.
For all Richmond's problems, Hardwick said its focus remains on winning. He said its 3-8 win-loss record did not reflect its abilities. ''Like Mick Malthouse said [of Carlton] … there is no white flag,'' he said.


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When Gregor Mendel formulated his laws of heredity, he postulated a particulate nature for the units of inheritance. What exactly these particles were he did not know. Today scientists understand not only the physical location of hereditary units (i.e., the genes) but their molecular composition as well. The unravelling unraveling of the physical basis of heredity makes up one of the most fascinating chapters in the history of biology.
As has been discussed, each individual in a sexually reproducing species inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. Furthermore, when such an individual forms sex cells, each of the resultant gametes receives one member of each allelic pair. The formation of gametes occurs through a process of cell division called meiosis; it is also known as reduction division, because the amount of hereditary material present in the gametes has been reduced by half. When gametes unite in fertilization, the double dose of hereditary material is restored, and a new individual is created. This individual, consisting at first of only one cell, grows via mitosis, a process of repeated cell divisions. Mitosis differs from meiosis in that each daughter cell receives a full copy of all the hereditary material found in the parent cell.
It is apparent that the genes must physically reside in cellular structures that meet two criteria. First, these structures must be replicated and passed on to each generation of daughter cells during mitosis. Second, they must be organized into homologous pairs, one member of which is parcelled parceled out to each gamete formed during meiosis.
As early as 1848, biologists had observed that cell nuclei resolve themselves into small , rodlike bodies during mitosis; later these structures were found to absorb certain dyes and so came to be called chromosomes (coloured bodies). During the early years of the 20th century, cellular studies using ordinary light microscopes clarified the behaviour of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis, which led to the conclusion that chromosomes are the carriers of genes.
When the chromosomes condense during cell division, they have already undergone replication. Each chromosome thus consists of two identical replicas, called chromatids, joined at a point called the centromere. During mitosis the sister chromatids separate, one going to each daughter cell. Chromosomes thus meet the first criterion for being the repository of genes: they are replicated, and a full copy is passed to each daughter cell during mitosis.
It was the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis, however, that provided the strongest evidence for their being the carriers of genes. In 1902 the American scientist Walter S. Sutton reported on his observations of the action of chromosomes during sperm formation in grasshoppers. Sutton had observed that, during meiosis, each chromosome (consisting of two chromatids) becomes paired with another, a physically similar chromosome. These homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis, with one member of each pair going to a different cell. Assuming that one member of each homologous pair was of maternal origin and the other was paternally derived, here was an event that fulfilled the behaviour of genes postulated in Mendel's first law.
It is now known that the number of chromosomes within the nucleus is usually constant in all individuals of a given species—for example, 46 in humansthe human; 40 in the house mouse; 8 in the vinegar , or fruit, fly (Drosophila melanogaster; sometimes called fruit fly); 20 in corn (maize); 24 in the tomato; and 48 in the potato. In sexually reproducing organisms, this number is called the diploid number of chromosomes, as it represents the double dose of chromosomes received from two parents. The nucleus of a gamete, however, contains half this number of chromosomes, or the haploid number. Thus, a human gamete contains 23 chromosomes, while a Drosophila gamete contains four. Meiosis produces the haploid gametes.
The essential features of meiosis are shown in Figure 3the diagram. For the sake of simplicity, the diploid parent cell is shown to contain a single pair of homologous chromosomes, one member of which is represented black in blue (from the father) and the other white in red (from the mother). At the leptotene stage the chromosomes appear as long, thin threads. At pachytene they pair, the corresponding portions of the two chromosomes lying side - by - side. The chromosomes then duplicate and contract into paired chromatids. At this stage the pair of chromosomes is known as a tetrad, as it consists of four chromatids. Also at this stage an extremely important event occurs: portions of the maternal and paternal chromosomes are exchanged. This exchange process, called crossing over, results in chromatids that include both paternal and maternal genes and consequently introduces new genetic combinations. The first meiotic , or reduction, division separates the chromosomal tetrads, with the paternal chromosome (whose chromatids now contain some maternal genes) going to one cell , and the maternal chromosome (containing some paternal genes) going to another cell. During the second meiotic division the chromatids separate. The original diploid cell has thus given rise to four haploid gametes (only two of which are shown in Figure 3the diagram). Not only has a reduction in chromosome number occurred, but the resulting single member of each homologous chromosome pair may be a new combination (through crossing over) of genes present in the original diploid cell.
Suppose that the white red chromosome shown in Figure 3 the diagram carries the gene for albinism, and the black blue chromosome carries the gene for dark pigmentation. It is evident that the two gene alleles will undergo segregation at meiosis , and that one-half of the gametes formed will contain the albino gene and the other half the pigmentation gene. Following the scheme in Figure 1the diagram, random combination of the gametes with the albino gene and the pigmentation gene will give two kinds of homozygotes and one kind of heterozygote in a ratio of 1 : 1 : 2. Mendel's law of segregation is , thus , the outcome of chromosome behaviour at meiosis. The same is true of the second law, that of the independent assortment.
Consider the inheritance of two pairs of genes, such as Mendel's factors for seed coloration and seed surface in peas; these genes are located on different pairs of chromosomes. Since maternal and paternal members of different chromosome pairs are assorted independently, so are the genes they contain. This explains, in part, the genetic variety seen among the progeny of the same pair of parents. As stated above, humans have 46 chromosomes in the body cells and in the cells (oogonia and spermatogonia) from which the sex cells arise. At meiosis these 46 chromosomes form 23 pairs, one of the chromosomes of each pair being of maternal and the other of paternal origin. Independent assortment is, then, capable of producing 223, or 8,388,608, kinds of sex cells with different combinations of the grandmaternal and grandpaternal chromosomes. Since each parent has the potentiality of producing 223 kinds of sex cells, the total number of possible combinations of the grandparental chromosomes is 223 × 223 = 246. The population of the world is now more than 4,000,000,000 6 billion persons, or approximately 232 persons. It is , therefore , certain that only a tiny fraction of the potentially possible chromosome and gene combinations can ever be realized. Yet even 246 is an underestimate of the variety potentially possible. The grandmaternal and grandpaternal members of the chromosome pairs are not indivisible units. Each chromosome carries many genes, and the chromosome pairs exchange segments at meiosis through the process of crossing over. This is evidence that the genes rather than the chromosomes are the units of Mendelian segregation.
As pointed out above, the random assortment of the maternal and paternal chromosomes at meiosis is the physical basis of the independent assortment of genes and of the traits they control. This is the basis of the second law of Mendel (see the section Mendelian genetics above). The number of the genes in a sex cell is, however, much greater than that of the chromosomes. When two or more genes are borne on the same chromosome, these genes may not be assorted independently; such genes are said to be linked. When a Drosophila fly homozygous for a normal gray body and long wings is crossed with one having a black body and vestigial wings, the F1 consists of hybrid gray, long-winged flies (Figure 4see the figure). Gray body (B) is evidently dominant over black body (b), and long wing (V) is dominant over vestigial wing (v). Now consider a backcross of the heterozygous F1 males to double-recessive black-vestigial females (bbvvbbvv). Independent assortment would be expected to give in the progeny of the backcross the following: 1 gray-long : 1 gray-vestigial : 1 black-long : 1 black-vestigial. In reality, only gray-long and black-vestigial flies are produced, in approximately equal numbers; the genes remain linked in the same combinations in which they were found in the parents. The backcross of the heterozygous F1 females to double-recessive males gives a somewhat different result: 42 percent each of gray-long and black-vestigial flies and about 8 percent each of black-long and gray-vestigial classes. In sum, 84 percent of the progeny have the parental combinations of traits, and 16 percent have the traits recombined. The interpretation of these results given in 1911 by the U.S. American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan laid the foundations foundation of the theory of linear arrangement of genes in the chromosomes.
Traits that exhibit linkage in experimental crosses (such as black body and vestigial wings) are determined by genes located in the same chromosome. As more and more genes became known in Drosophila melanogaster, they fell neatly into four linkage groups corresponding to the four pairs of the chromosomes this species possesses. One linkage group consists of sex-linked genes, located in the X chromosome (see the section Sex linkage below); of the three remaining linkage groups, two have many more genes than the remaining one; this , which corresponds to the presence of two pairs of large chromosomes and one pair of tiny dotlike chromosomes. The numbers of linkage groups in other organisms are equal to or smaller than the numbers of the chromosomes in the sex cells; ecells—e.g., 10 linkage groups and 10 chromosomes in corn, 19 linkage groups and 20 chromosomes in the house mouse, and 23 linkage groups and 23 chromosomes in the human beings.
As seen above, the linkage of the genes black and vestigial in Drosophila is complete in heterozygous males, while in the progeny of females there appear about 17 percent of recombination classes. With very rare exceptions, the linkage of all genes belonging to the same linkage group is complete in Drosophila males, while in the females different pairs of genes exhibit all degrees of linkage from complete (no recombination) to 50 percent (random assortment). Morgan's inference was that the degree of linkage depends on physical distance between the genes in the chromosome: the closer the genes, the tighter the linkage , and vice versa. Furthermore, Morgan perceived that the chiasmata , (crosses that occur in meiotic chromosomes, ) indicate the mechanism underlying the phenomena of linkage and crossing over. As shown schematically in Figure 3the diagram of chromosomes at meiosis, the maternal and paternal chromosomes (represented black in blue and whitered) cross over and exchange segments, so that a chromosome emerging from the process of meiosis may consist of some maternal (grandmaternal) and some paternal (grandpaternal) sections. If the probability of crossing - over taking place is uniform along the length of a chromosome (which was later shown to be not quite true), then genes close together will be recombined less frequently than those far apart.
This realization opened an opportunity to map the arrangement of the genes and the estimated distances between them in the chromosome by studying the frequencies of recombination of various traits in the progenies of hybrids. In other words, the linkage maps of the chromosomes are really summaries of many statistical observations on the outcomes of hybridization experiments. In principle at least, such maps could be prepared even if the chromosomes, not to speak of the chiasmata at meiosis, were unknown. But an interesting and relevant fact is that in Drosophila males the linkage of the genes in the same chromosome is complete, and observations under the microscope show that no chiasmata are formed in the chromosomes at meiosis. In most organisms, including humans, chiasmata are seen in the meiotic chromosomes in both sexes, and observations on hybrid progenies show that recombination of linked genes occurs also in both sexes.
The most detailed chromosome maps have been constructed for Morgan's classical material—Drosophila melanogaster. Less detailed chromosome maps exist for some other species of Drosophila flies, for Chromosome maps exist for the Drosophila fly, corn, the house mouse, the bread mold Neurospora crassa, and for some bacteria and bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria). Until quite late in the 20th century, the mapping of human chromosomes presented a particularly difficult problem: experimental crosses could not be arranged in humans, and only a few linkages could be determined by analysis of unique family histories. However, the development of somatic cell genetics (see below) recombinant DNA technology provided new understanding of human genetic processes and new methods of research. Using the techniques of somatic cell geneticsrecombinant DNA technology, hundreds of genes have been mapped to the human chromosomes and many linkages established.
The male of many animals has one chromosome pair, the sex chromosomes, consisting of unequal members called X and Y. At meiosis the X and Y chromosomes first pair , then disjoin and pass to different cells. One-half of the gametes (spermatozoa) formed contain the X chromosome and the other half the Y chromosome. The female has two X chromosomes, and ; all egg cells normally carry a single X. The eggs fertilized by X-bearing spermatozoa give females (XX), and those fertilized by Y-bearing spermatozoa give males (XY).
The genes located in the X chromosomes exhibit what is known as sex-linkage or crisscross inheritance. This is due to because of a crucial difference between the paired sex chromosomes and the other pairs of chromosomes (called autosomes). The members of the autosome pairs are truly homologous; that is, each member of a pair contains a full complement of the same genes (albeit, perhaps, in different allelic forms). The sex chromosomes, on the other hand, do not constitute a homologous pair, as the X chromosome is much larger and carries far more genes than does the Y. Consequently, many recessive alleles carried on the X chromosome of a male will be expressed just as if they were dominant, for the Y chromosome carries no genes to counteract them. The classic case of sex-linked inheritance, described by Morgan in 1910, is that of the white eyes in Drosophila. White-eyed females crossed to males with the normal red eye colour produce red-eyed daughters and white-eyed sons in the F1 generation and equal numbers of white-eyed and red-eyed females and males in the F2 generation. The cross of red-eyed females to white-eyed males gives a different result: both sexes are red-eyed in F1 , and the females in the F2 generation are red-eyed, half of the males are red-eyed, and the other half white-eyed. As interpreted by Morgan, the gene that determines the red or white eyes is borne on the X chromosome, and the allele for red eye is dominant over that for white eye. Since a male receives its single X chromosome from his mother, all sons of white-eyed females also have white eyes. A female inherits one X chromosome from her mother and the other X from her father. Red-eyed females may have genes for red eyes in both of their X chromosomes (homozygotes), or they may have one X with the gene for red and the other for white (heterozygotes). In the progeny of heterozygous females, one-half of the sons will receive the X chromosome with the gene for white and will have white eyes, and the other half will receive the X with the gene for red eyes. The daughters of the heterozygous females crossed with white-eyed males will have either two X chromosomes with the gene for white and white—and hence have white eyes or will have eyes—or one X with the gene for white and the other X with the gene for red eyes and will be red-eyed heterozygotes.
In humans, the red-green colour blindness and hemophilia are among many traits showing sex-linked inheritance and are consequently are due to genes borne in the X chromosome.
In some animals—birds, butterflies and moths, some fish, and at least some amphibians and reptiles—the chromosomal mechanism of sex determination is a mirror image of that described above. The male has two X chromosomes and the female an X and Y chromosome. Here the spermatozoa all have an X chromosome; the eggs are of two kinds, some with X and others with Y chromosomes, usually in equal numbers. The sex of the offspring is then determined by the egg rather than by the spermatozoon. Sex-linked inheritance is altered correspondingly. A male homozygous for a sex-linked recessive trait , crossed to a female with the dominant one gives, gives in the F1 generation, daughters with the recessive trait and heterozygous sons with the corresponding dominant trait. The F2 generation has recessive and dominant females and males in equal numbers. A male with a dominant trait crossed to a female with a recessive trait gives uniformly dominant F1 and a segregation in a ratio of 2 dominant males : 1 dominant female : 1 recessive female.
Observations on pedigrees or experimental crosses show that certain traits exhibit sex-linked inheritance; the behaviour of the X chromosomes at meiosis is such that the genes they carry may be expected to exhibit sex-linkage. This evidence still failed to convince some skeptics that the genes for the sex-linked traits were in fact borne in certain chromosomes seen under the microscope. An elegant experimental proof was furnished in 1916 by the U.S. American geneticist Calvin Blackman Bridges. As stated above, white-eyed Drosophila females crossed to red-eyed males usually produce red-eyed female and white-eyed male progeny. Among thousands of such "regular" offspring, there are occasionally found exceptional white-eyed females and red-eyed males. Bridges constructed the following working hypothesis. Suppose that, during meiosis in the female, gametogenesis occasionally goes wrong, and the two X chromosomes fail to disjoin. Exceptional eggs will then be produced, carrying two X chromosomes and eggs carrying none. An egg with two X chromosomes coming from a white-eyed female fertilized by a spermatozoon with a Y chromosome will give an exceptional white-eyed female. An egg with no X chromosome fertilized by a spermatozoon with an X chromosome derived from a red-eyed father will yield an exceptional red-eyed male. This hypothesis can be rigorously tested. The exceptional white-eyed females should have not only the two X chromosomes but also a Y chromosome, which normal females do not have. The exceptional males should, on the other hand, lack a Y chromosome, which normal males do have. Both predictions were verified by examination under a microscope of the chromosomes of exceptional females and males. The hypothesis also predicts that exceptional eggs with two X chromosomes fertilized by X-bearing spermatozoa must give individuals with three X chromosomes; such individuals were later identified by Bridges as poorly viable "superfemales." Exceptional eggs with no Xs, fertilized by Y-bearing spermatozoa, will give zygotes without X chromosomes; such zygotes die in early stages of development.
Two general types of chromosomal abnormalities occur: numerical and structural. Numerical aberrations result from nondisjunction; that is, from the failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids to separate during cell division. As described above, when nondisjunction occurs during meiosis two types of germ cells will be formed, those with an extra chromosome and those with a missing chromosome. If one of the former combines with a normal germ cell, the new fertilized egg and all the cells of the individual it produces will have an extra chromosome (trisomy); if one of the latter combines with a normal germ cell, the fertilized egg will lack a chromosome (monosomy). If nondisjunction occurs after fertilization, the resulting individual will be a mosaic and will have two or more populations of cells differing in chromosomal number.
Structural aberrations result from chromosome breakages. Chromosomes may break spontaneously, or they may be broken by such environmental agents as radiation, viruses, and toxic chemicals. If a chromosomal segment breaks off and is not rejoined, it may be lost entirely in the gametes or somatic cells that derive, respectively, from meiosis or mitosis. Such a loss is called a deletion. In other instances, the broken-off segment may rejoin its chromosome but with its position inverted 180°; such inversions can alter the sequence of genetic information along the chromosome. In other cases, the segment may become translocated; that is, it may become attached to a different chromosome. When such a rearrangement occurs between two nonhomologous chromosomes without net loss or gain of chromosomal material, it is called a balanced, or reciprocal, translocation, and the individual is not phenotypically affected. If, however, the translocation results in the deletion or duplication of chromosomal material in gametes or somatic cells, the effects may be severe. This is especially true in the event of gametes that carry autosomal translocations; such chromosomal aberrations often produce lethal phenotypic effects.
The chromosome set of a species remains relatively stable over long periods of time. However, within populations there can be found abnormalities involving the structure or number of chromosomes. These alterations arise spontaneously from errors in the normal processes of the cell. Their consequences are usually deleterious, giving rise to individuals who are unhealthy or sterile, though in rare cases alterations provide new adaptive opportunities that allow evolutionary change to occur. In fact, the discovery of visible chromosomal differences between species has given rise to the belief that radical restructuring of chromosome architecture has been an important force in evolution.
Two important principles dictate the properties of a large proportion of structural chromosomal changes. The first principle is that any deviation from the normal ratio of genetic material in the genome results in genetic imbalance and abnormal function. In the normal nuclei of both diploid and haploid cells, the ratio of the individual chromosomes to one another is 1:1. Any deviation from this ratio by addition or subtraction of either whole chromosomes or parts of chromosomes results in genomic imbalance. The second principle is that homologous chromosomes go to great lengths to pair at meiosis. The tightly paired homologous regions are joined by a ladderlike longitudinal structure called the synaptonemal complex. Homologous regions seem to be able to find each other and form a synaptonemal complex whether or not they are part of normal chromosomes. Therefore, when structural changes occur, not only are the resulting pairing formations highly characteristic of that type of structural change but they also dictate the packaging of normal and abnormal chromosomes into the gametes and subsequently into the progeny.
The simplest, but perhaps most damaging, structural change is a deletion—the complete loss of a part of one chromosome. In a haploid cell this is lethal, because part of the essential genome is lost. However, even in diploid cells deletions are generally lethal or have other serious consequences. In a diploid a heterozygous deletion results in a cell that has one normal chromosome set and another set that contains a truncated chromosome. Such cells show genomic imbalance, which increases in severity with the size of the deletion. Another potential source of damage is that any recessive, deleterious, or lethal alleles that are in the normal counterpart of the deleted region will be expressed in the phenotype. In humans, cri-du-chat syndrome is caused by a heterozygous deletion at the tip of the short arm of chromosome 5. Infants are born with this condition as the result of a deletion arising in parental germinal tissues or even in sex cells. The manifestations of this deletion, in addition to the "cat cry" that gives the syndrome its name, include severe mental retardation and an abnormally small head.
A heterozygous duplication (an extra copy of some chromosome region) also results in a genomic imbalance with deleterious consequences. Small duplications within a gene can arise spontaneously. Larger duplications can be caused by crossovers following asymmetrical chromosome pairing or by meiotic irregularities resulting from other types of altered chromosome structures. If a duplication becomes homozygous, it can provide the organism with an opportunity to acquire new genetic functions through mutations within the duplicate copy.
An inversion occurs when a chromosome breaks in two places and the region between the break rotates 180° before rejoining with the two end fragments. If the inverted segment contains the centromere (i.e., the point where the two chromatids are joined), the inversion is said to be pericentric; if not, it is called paracentric. Inversions do not result in a gain or loss of genetic material, and they have deleterious effects only if one of the chromosomal breaks occurs within an essential gene or if the function of a gene is altered by its relocation to a new chromosomal neighbourhood (called the position effect). However, individuals who are heterozygous for inversions produce aberrant meiotic products along with normal products. The only way uninverted and inverted segments can pair is by forming an inversion loop. If no crossovers occur in the loop, half of the gametes will be normal and the other half will contain an inverted chromosome. If a crossover does occur within the loop of a paracentric inversion, a chromosome bridge and an acentric chromosome (i.e., a chromosome without a centromere) will be formed, and this will give rise to abnormal meiotic products carrying deletions, which are inviable. In a pericentric inversion, a crossover within the loop does not result in a bridge or an acentric chromosome, but inviable products are produced carrying a duplication and a deletion.
If a chromosome break occurs in each of two nonhomologous chromosomes and the two breaks rejoin in a new arrangement, the new segment is called a translocation. A cell bearing a heterozygous translocation has a full set of genes and will be viable unless one of the breaks causes damage within a gene or if there is a position effect on gene function. However, once again the pairing properties of the chromosomes at meiosis result in aberrant meiotic products. Specifically, half of the products are deleted for one of the chromosome regions that changed positions and half of the products are duplicated for the other. These duplications and deletions usually result in inviability, so translocation heterozygotes are generally semisterile ("half-sterile").
Two types of changes in chromosome numbers can be distinguished: a change in the number of whole chromosome sets (polyploidy) and a change in chromosomes within a set (aneuploidy).
An individual with additional chromosome sets is called a polyploid. Individuals with three sets of chromosomes (triploids, 3n) or four sets of chromosomes (tetraploids, 4n) are polyploid derivatives of the basic diploid (2n) constitution. Polyploids with odd numbers of sets (e.g., triploids) are sterile, because homologous chromosomes pair only two by two, and the extra chromosome moves randomly to a cell pole, resulting in highly unbalanced, nonfunctional meiotic products. It is for this reason that triploid watermelons are seedless. However, polyploids with even numbers of chromosome sets can be fertile if orderly two-by-two chromosome pairing occurs.
Though two organisms from closely related species frequently hybridize, the chromosomes of the fusing partners are different enough that the two sets do not pair at meiosis, resulting in sterile offspring. However, if by chance the number of chromosome sets in the hybrid accidentally duplicates, a pairing partner for each chromosome will be produced, and the hybrid will be fertile. These chromosomally doubled hybrids are called allotetraploids. Bread wheat, which is hexaploid (6n) due to several natural spontaneous hybridizations, is an example of an allotetraploid. Some polyploid plants are able to produce seeds through an asexual type of reproduction called apomixis; in such cases, all progeny are identical to the parent. Polyploidy does arise spontaneously in humans, but all polyploids either abort in utero or die shortly after birth.
Some cells have an abnormal number of chromosomes that is not a whole multiple of the haploid number. This condition is called aneuploidy. Most aneuploids arise by nondisjunction, a failure of homologous chromosomes to separate at meiosis. When a gamete of this type is fertilized by a normal gamete, the zygotes formed will have an unequal distribution of chromosomes. Such genomic imbalance results in severe abnormalities or death. Only aneuploids involving small chromosomes tend to survive and even then only with an aberrant phenotype.
The most common form of aneuploidy in humans results in Down syndrome, a suite of specific disorders in individuals possessing an extra chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). The symptoms of Down syndrome include mental retardation, severe disorders of internal organs such as the heart and kidneys, up-slanted eyes, an enlarged tongue, and abnormal dermal ridge patterns on the fingers, palms, and soles. Other forms of aneuploidy in humans result from abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes. Turner syndrome is a condition in which females have only one X chromosome. Symptoms may include short stature, webbed neck, kidney or heart malformations, underdeveloped sex characteristics, or sterility. Klinefelter syndrome is a condition in which males have one extra female sex chromosome, resulting in an XXY pattern. (Other, less frequent, chromosomal patterns include XXXY, XXXXY, XXYY, and XXXYY.) Symptoms of Klinefelter syndrome may include sterility, a tall physique, lack of secondary sex characteristics, breast development, and learning disabilities.