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About Me
I was born sometime in November of 2004, in Thomasville, GA. My
doggie mom is a black Lab named Mystique. We're not sure about my doggie dad, but we think he may be German Shorthaired
Pointer. My doggie mom, sister and I were found living under a trailer in Georgia when I was just a tiny puppy. We were
taken to a shelter, but then we were picked up by a rescue group from Florida called Florida All Retriever Rescue. FARR placed us in temporary foster homes, but eventually we each
found loving families to adopt us. My foster mom, Carol, named me after her favorite NFL quarterback
(it was Superbowl time) and my new parents kept the name because they said it fit me. I love to get out and meet people and other dogs
at places like the park and the pet store. I'm very good in the car, so my parents never mind taking me along.
My favorite place to go is the beach, but I don't like to go in the water if it's too rough. The pool
at home is always calm. I also like to meet up with my friends at the dog park once or twice a week. My favorite
toy is a blue teddy bear that plays "Rock-a-Bye Baby" when I squeeze it. I squeeze it a lot. I like
to watch TV, especially things with dogs like the Super Retriever Series, K-9 Nation and The Dog Whisperer and of course
I'm a Patriots fan so I watch football when they play. But what I like better than anything else is wrestling with
my sisters, Maggie & Daisy. We spend most of our day either playing or sleeping. I'm never lonely now
that I have them around.
About my Family and Friends
My Dad's name is Robert and he owns an asphalt paving business called
Eagle Asphalt & Sealcoat. My Mom's name is Kathy. She is a professional dog groomer at Bath & Biscuit Pet Boutique.
For my first birthday my parents decided to find me a sister so we adopted a puppy from another
rescue group, Mid-Florida Retriever Rescue. She's a Yellow Lab/Golden Retriever mix named Maggie, born on August 28, 2005. She's a lot more
energetic than I am so she keeps me busy. Her favorite thing in the world is our pool. She never gets tired
of playing in it. She can jump really far. Mom got her into dock diving - Maggie had her first
chance at the St. Petersburg Home & Remodeling Show Sept. 29 - Oct. 1, 2006. Maggie also likes to do agility
but just for fun, not competition. She gets lazy after a few runs and starts to take shortcuts.
Daisy was a holiday gift for a little girl but the family didn't take the time to train her so when
she chewed up toys or had an accident they locked her in her crate. Eventually, she ended up in her crate almost
all the time until she came to live with us in July of 2008. Now she has the run of the house and yard and she absolutely
loves the pool. She has learned to chew just her bones and toys and is perfectly potty trained. Her favorite sport
is Flyball, but she will only play with her special glow ball. Her birthday is September 13th, 2007 which makes her
a Virgo and therefore just like Maggie. She's the perfect addition to our family. Daisy wants everyone to
know: Dogs are forever - NOT for Christmas!
In MemoriumCallie the cat passed away on October 3, 2006.She was nearly 21 years
old.In life, Mom called Callie her"Guardian Angel".Now she is an Angel for real.We all miss her.
Aunt Mi-sa was rescued from an abusive home when she was just 6 months old. When my Grandma
lost her own mom, my mom decided she needed a kitty to love and to help her feel better. So off they went to the SPCA Tampa Bay where they found and adopted Mi-sa. Grandma named her after an ancient Seminole medicine woman
because Mi-sa was "good medicine" for her. Mi-sa liked water straight from the faucet, sleeping with her stuffed
toys and on her back in her bed. She crossed the Rainbow Bridge in 2010.
Uncle Bear Adopted my Gradparents on Thanksgiving of 2008. He was partially feral, but really wanted
to have a family. With the help of a cat coach (seriously!) and lots of love he has become a sweet, loving guy.
My and Maggie's best friend
is a Chestnut Golden Retriever named Sam. Sam's a rescued dog too. He lives in Tampa. He
was left anonymously at a shelter in Central Florida so we don't know where he came from, but he was in good shape and well
trained. The shelter messed up his neutering operation and he was very ill for a while, but thanks to the love and support
of his mom and mine he is better now.
My doggie mom is named Mystique (like in the X-Men). She had
heartworms when we were first found, but she's better now. She stayed on with her foster mom from the rescue group because
they bonded so well.
Maggie came from a backyard breeder who didn't realize how much was
involved in caring for and raising puppies. When they found out how much work, money, and time it cost
them, they took all their dogs to a rescue group and left them. Thankfully, everyone has found their new forever
homes. Maggie's doggie mom is Linda. She lives in St. Petersburg and works as a therapy dog now.
Maggie's doggie dad, Jackson, was also adopted into a loving family as were all Maggie's
brothers and sisters.
About Bradyville
Ever since I moved in, I've been working hard at training my parents,
so I thought it might be nice to let Mom have a little fun. I talked her into doing some custom collars for me with
my name and some of my favorite things painted on them. I also got her to personalize my treat bag so everyone would
know it belongs to me. She had so much fun doing them that I suggested she might like to make some for other people's
pets too. She started doing so many that she had to get my grandma to help her with them. They're also helping
me to write a children's book all about my adventures. I thought putting our products on the web would be a great way
to reach animal lovers and to let everyone know how great it can be to adopt a homeless pet. I also wanted to bring
attention to all the great work that animal rescue groups do. They do it purely for the love of animals, usually with
their own money and rely on donations and fund raisers for the money they need to keep saving homeless pets.
Looking to adopt a homeless pet? My parents found Maggie and me at
Want to order? Click Here
Questions or comments?
Email Brady!
Most orders can be shipped via US Postal Service Priority Mail
for $4.50 - $8.50 (US only).
Contact us for specific pricing on larger orders.
Custom orders happily accepted!


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Very Spacious Duplex Featuring 3 Bedrooms, 2 Baths, New Kitchen With Granite Countertops, Newly Done Hardwood Floors, New Washer/Dryer. Cac. Off Street Parking For 1 Car.
Tucked away on a peninsula along Nassau County's North Shore is a beautiful small waterfront town known as Port Washington. Just 17 miles from New York City, Port Washington is a tranquil town boasting a real sense of community pride and beautiful views of Manhasset Bay, the Manhattan skyline and the Long Island Sound.
Residents and visitors alike enjoy the beautiful waterfront area with its beaches, parks and marinas. Sunset Park offers weekly concerts and movies at the John Phillip Sousa Band Shell in warm weather. Besides the many waterfront activities Port Washington has three golf courses, a tennis academy and several country clubs. More than 24 restaurants dot the downtown area offering American to Continental delights, family restaurants to fine cuisine. Main Street is known for antique shops, spas, small boutiques, art galleries, book stores and a variety of other shops. The state-of-the-art library and The Jeanne Rimsky Theater are wonderful assets to the community offering entertainment, lectures and educational programs for all ages. An excellent school system offers challenging educational opportunities as well as special help programs. Real estate in Port Washington/Sands Point run from small co-ops to palatial mansions.
Located at the tip of the peninsula is the incorporated Village of Sands Point. All residents are entitled to membership in the Village Club of Sands Point which Village is owned. Members have access to golf, tennis, swimming, picnic areas, hiking trails and 1900 feet of beach. The historic Guggenheim mansion serves as the focal point of the club where residents gather for parties, dining, and concerts. There is also lodging for guests of residents.

subset: commoncrawl


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Senior restructuring assistants had better start polishing up their CVs. White & Case is the latest US firm to target the insolvency market by hiring Dan Hamilton from CMS Cameron McKenna. White & Case is following in the footsteps of Sidley Austin Brown & Wood, which made its first foray into this market a few months ago when it plucked Patrick Corr from Pinsent Curtis Biddle.
Hamilton is a good catch for White & Case. He was an attractive prospect not least because Camerons tends to produce well-rounded lawyers who are at home in both formal insolvency situations and workouts. And the firm has consistently fielded one of the strongest teams in the market, well liked by both banks and accountants. So why the move? Of course, one can speculate whether Hamilton – regarded as a particularly able technician – felt increasingly in the shadow of rising star Stephen Foster; but the more obvious conclusion is that Hamilton was attracted by a firm that could handle the US end.
White & Case will be claiming to be able to service the European restructuring market. Realistically, it will need a few more lawyers in London, but it's a claim that verges on the credible. Few firms – apart from the inevitable exceptions of Allen & Overy and Clifford Chance – have any sort of pan-European insolvency practice. DLA's hook-up with Görg in Germany gives it access to the middle market, but not the big-ticket work. Dentons' practice is almost entirely UK domestic. Meanwhile, White & Case Feddersen has a stellar German insolvency business. Ironically, the only other substantial firm in Germany with a restructuring practice is CMS Hasche Sigle, the ally of – you guessed it – Camerons.
Until recently there has been only a tiny number of US firms active in insolvency. Those that have made a name for themselves have focused on the bondholders, most famously Andrew Wilkinson at Cadwalader and James Roome at Bingham McCutcheon, the latter having been particularly busy on the Energis deal over the last few weeks. The giants of Chapter 11 have virtually ignored the European scene, presumably because it is only with difficulty that a debtor practice translates into a UK creditor-led practice. But don't presume too much on US firms' insularity. After all, Weil Gotshal recently hired Chris Mallon from Freshfields, while former Wilkinson protégé Lyndon Norley just moved from Cadwalader's London office to Kirkland & Ellis. Are these the signs of something stirring?


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Over the last several months I have been covering appearances and performances of Janie Steele & Pacific Electric for The Tolucan Times. Steele's first appearance at the long-established restaurant The Smokehouse in Burbank took place on Saturday evening, Sept. 15, in their lounge area, and Janie and her group were warmly welcomed by the patrons and guests.
Janie Steele is a multi-talented adorable individual, who not only has been gifted with musical and voice talents, but is also an accomplished actress. She has appeared on shows such as Everybody Loves Raymond and Frasier, among others. This night, along with the excellent Pacific Electric Band, she made a smashing appearance before the enthusiastic crowd.
Janie loves all eras of music and says "oldies" are so much fun to sing. Among her favorites are "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'," Nancy Sinatra's big hit, "Sweet Nothin's" by Brenda Lee, and anything by Patsy Cline. The audience thoroughly enjoyed this trip through memory lane!
Along with her talented musical group, they even did Michael Jackson's "Billie Jean" and several of The Beatles' numbers. Pacific Electric includes Mark Marino with his magic guitar-playing as well as his excellent vocal talents; Kurt Fries on keyboard and singing; and drumming by Jim Salisbury. Janie and the band presented many surprising numbers and it wasn't long before the dancing began!
Everyone in earshot got caught up in the incredible musical evening presented by Janie Steele and the members of this incredibly talented group. When midnight came around, the management had to call it a night — and what a night!
For comments, you may reach me at email@example.com, and Janie would love to hear from you as well! Her website is janiesteeleandpacificelectric.com or call (818) 209-3676. 'Til next time, keep happy!


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"Game changer" is a term you hear often when people talk about how technology has changed their industry.
KWizCom has introduced CRM Internet Gateway, an add-on for Microsoft Dynamics CRM. The CRM Internet Gateway allows for easy integration between Website forms and Microsoft CRM 4.0. It enables linking Multiple Web forms to Dynamics CRM, automatically creating any type of CRM entity—case, lead, customer, etc.—and running workflow rules in Dynamics CRM. The application opens the gate for information to flow from the Internet to Microsoft Dynamics CRM and automatically become part of the corporate workflow.


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An Effective method of calculating transonic flows and wave drag of axisymmetric and 3-D elongate bodies within framework of transonic equivalence rule
Fonarev, A.S., Madhani, Jehangir T., & Naida, M.A. (2001) An Effective method of calculating transonic flows and wave drag of axisymmetric and 3-D elongate bodies within framework of transonic equivalence rule. In 14th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference, 10 -14th December 2001, Adelaide University, Adelaide, Australia.
|PDF (85kB)
A theoretical study of steady transonic flows about axisymmetric and 3-D elongate bodies has been carried out within the framework of non-linear small disturbance theory using the transonic equivalence rule. A numerical method for calculating transonic flow about bodies of revolution was used by formulating the Alterating Direction Method together with monotone Engquist-Osher's algorithm for the axisymmetric case. This approach has a good reputation in solving similar two-dimensional problems. A new effective algorithm to determine wave drag of bodies of revolution in inviscid transonic flow has been developed. As a result, the wave drag value is obtained by velocity jump integration along shocks closing local supersonic regions. This method is more exact then the ordinary method of integration of pressure along the body surface.
The efficiency of a numerical algorithm is demonstrated by calculating transonic flow over thin bodies of revolution. The results concerning calculations of the wave drag of elongate 3-D configurations of hypersonic aircraft in the framework of transonic equivalence rule are also given; these results were derived earlier by A.S. Fonarev and M.A. Naida, whilst working at the Central Aero-hydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI), Moscow, Russia.
Impact and interest:
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Citations counts from the Google Scholar™ indexing service can be viewed at the linked Google Scholar™ search.
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|ID Code:
|Item Type:
|Conference Paper
|Additional URLs:
|Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classification > ENGINEERING (090000) > AEROSPACE ENGINEERING (090100)
Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classification > MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES (010000) > NUMERICAL AND COMPUTATIONAL MATHEMATICS (010300) > Numerical Analysis (010301)
Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classification > ENGINEERING (090000) > AEROSPACE ENGINEERING (090100) > Aerodynamics (excl. Hypersonic Aerodynamics) (090101)
|Past > QUT Faculties & Divisions > Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering
|Copyright Owner:
|Copyright 2001 (please consult author)
|Deposited On:
|21 Nov 2005 00:00
|Last Modified:
|25 May 2016 01:36
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KENNER, La. (AP) A Delta Air Lines plane with 190 people on board safely landed in New Orleans after striking birds shortly after takeoff.
Delta Flight 1053 returned Monday morning to Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport, said airport spokeswoman Michelle Wilcut. The Boeing 757 was bound for Atlanta.
The plane, which was carrying 184 passengers and six crewmembers, left the airport around 7:20 a.m. A short time later, birds were sucked into one of the airplane's two engines, said Delta spokeswoman Betsy Talton.
The captain chose to return to the airport as a precaution and the airplane landed without incident, Talton said.
Passengers were rebooked on other flights, Wilcut said.
Gunnery Sgt. Dwayne Gillingham of the New Orleans-based 4th Marine Logistics Group and his colleague, Gunnery Sgt. John Aliciea, were onboard, on the first leg of a trip that would take them on assignment to Puerto Rico.
"We were at about 10,000 feet when the pilot came on and said we were turning around to inspect damage," Gillingham said. The pilot informed passengers of a vibration in the aircraft, he said.
Alicea said he felt an unusual "bump" on takeoff. He said the aircraft had no trouble returning to the airport and was met by fire trucks and other emergency equipment when it landed.
"They were inspecting the wing," he said.
In January, a US Airways plane that had taken off from LaGuardia Airport in New York had to make an emergency landing in the Hudson River when both of its engines were disabled by bird strikes shortly after takeoff.
Copyright 2009 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
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Full disclosure: I do not claim to have mastered the editorial craft, but this blog post is in response to the many people I've spoken to who wish to break into the publishing industry in order to become writers. Many intern applicants have told me that they want to go into publishing because they want to be writers. They, like most, believe that writing and editing go hand in hand. If you are a good writer, you must be a good editor. And vice-a-versa. I don't blame them. It's a reasonable assumption, one I even made myself. But I quickly learned that this is not always the case.
Writing and editing require very different skill sets. Among other qualifications, great writers must have a voice, they must have a story to tell and be able to bring it to life. The dialogue must be realistic and the characters vivid, interesting, engaging.
What, then, is the editor's job? What makes a great editor?
Editors must be able to assemble the writer's story in a cohesive manner, must clearly see what the finish product should look like and know how to achieve that endgame, like a master watchmaker who sees how all the minuscule, intricate parts of a timepiece should fit together so that each one works in perfect concert with the other, so that the whole mechanism runs smoothly, flawlessly, beautifully. Move a chapter here, dissect some paragraphs there, control the rhythm and pacing of the book as a ship's captain does the wind.
Yes, great writers can make great editors. And great editors can make great writers. But to confuse the two jobs is a common mistake that we should all try to avoid. Not only does it cheapen the arts of both writing and editing, but publishing houses and literary agencies aren't looking to hire writers. In fact, it's often frowned upon and seen as a distraction or conflict of interest.


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As the population ages, designers of commercial and multifamily applications are incorporating new solutions to meet those demands. Ergonomics can be an integral part of design, manufacturing, and use. Nowhere is this more critical than in bathroom design.read more
Europa Building, Brussels, Belgium. Photo: Riki, Wikipedia Creative Commons
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Texas Capitol Building. Pixabay Public Domain
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Rendering courtesy of JE Dunn
The hotel will combine the AC Hotels, Residence Inn, and SpringHill Suites brands.
Rendering courtesy of Michael Maltzan Architecture, Inc. via ArchDaily
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Image © GAO Wenzhonglow via ArchDaily.
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Photo: © 1st Image courtesy of Goettsch Partners.
The 66-story building is now the 7th tallest completed building in Guangzhou.
The Pavilion at Ole Miss opened January 7. The 9,500-seat multipurpose facility is home to the University of Mississippi men's and women's basketball teams. AECOM designed the $96.5 million facility. BL Harbert International was general contractor. The Rebels men beat 'Bama in the opener, 74-66. Image: © Jeffrey Jacobs courtesy of AECOM.
Schools are renovating existing structures or building new sports facilities that can serve the s...read more
The Pavilion at Ole Miss, Oxford, Miss. AECOM (architect) and BL Harbert International (GC). Image courtesy of AECOM.
Populous, HKS, and HOK top Building Design+Construction's annual ranking of the nation's largest...read more
A construction crew installs one of 1,200 prefabricated cross-laminated timber (CLT) wall panels that make up the 92-room Candlewood Suites at Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Ala. Leadlease was the GC, developer, and owner on the project. It is the nation's first all-CLT hotel project. Photo courtesy of Lendlease.
By privatizing the construction, renovation, operation, maintenance, and ownership of its hotels ...read more
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HDR, Clark Nexsen, and Guernsey top Building Design+Construction's annual ranking of the nation's...read more
The Francis Crick Institute, which opens this summer in London, epitomizes the trend in science and technology projects to combine disciplines and encourage transparency. The Building Team includes HOK (architect and lead designer), AKT-II (SE), Arup (PM, services engineer), CBRE (planning consultant), Turner & Townsend (cost consultant), HCD (approved inspector), RLB (CDM consultant), Cordless (ICT consultant), Exova Warrington (fire consultant), and Horus (security consultant). Photo courtesy of HOK.
Interdisciplinary interaction is a common theme among many new science and technology offices....
Georgia BioScience Training Center, Atlanta, Ga. Cooper Carry (architect), Technical College System of Georgia (owner), NBP Engineers (MEP), Eberly & Associates (CE). Photo: Carol Meyhoefer courtesy of Cooper Carry.
Perkins+Will, HDR, and HOK top Building Design+Construction's annual ranking of the nation's larg...read more
As part of the design for its corporate headquarters, SRAM, a bike parts maker in Chicago, held a contest for employees to design bike racks for their workstations. Perkins+Will was designer on this project. Photo: Michelle Litvin Studio courtesy of Perkins+Will.
Technology is redefining how offices function and is particularly salient in the growing trend of...read more
Lenovo Campus Global Headquarters, Beijing, China. Lenovo Co. Ltd. (owner), CallisonRTKL (architect). Photo courtesy of CallisionRTKL.
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Cadillac House is definitely not your father's car dealership. The 12,000-sf showroom in New York City, part Cadillac's new corporate headquarters, includes an events runway and incubator space for visiting designers. Shawmut Design + Construction built it, Gensler designed it. Photo: @Chris Leonard, courtesy of Gensler.
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A dramatic, three-story wood sculpture of North Carolina State University's wolf mascot highlights the central atrium of the school's $120 million Talley Student Union in Raleigh, N.C. On the Building Team: Duda Paine Architects (design architect), Cooper Carry (interior architect), Stewart, Inc. (SE), Stanford White (MEP), Kimley-Horn & Associates (CE), and Rodgers Builders/Russell/Dayeco (joint CM). Photo courtesy of Rodgers Builders.
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Only a few studies have examined hormones in psychopathy and results have been mixed. It has been suggested that since hormone systems are highly interconnected, it may be important to examine multiple systems simultaneously to gain a clearer picture of how hormones work together to predispose for a certain construct. In the present study, we attempt to clarify the role of the hormones cortisol and testosterone in psychopathy by examining both hormones in a community sample of 178 adults demonstrating a wide range of psychopathy scores. Results showed that psychopathy scores were associated with an increased ratio of testosterone (baseline) to cortisol responsivity to a stressor. Psychopathy was not associated with either of these measures independently, or with baseline cortisol levels. These findings suggest that these highly interconnected hormone systems may work in concert to predispose to psychopathy.
The hypothalamus -pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis are two hormonal axes that work together to maintain an appropriate balance between withdrawing in the presence of fearful or threatening stimuli, and approaching in the presence of rewarding stimuli. Psychopathy is a disorder associated with an apparent imbalance in these processes, as it is characterized by traits such as reduced fearfulness, insensitivity to punishment, reward-seeking, and aggression (Hare, 2003). Only a few studies have examined the relationship between hormone systems and psychopathy and results have been mixed, possibly in part due to the examination of only one hormone at a time. Hormone researchers have begun to emphasize the interconnectedness of hormone systems, and recommend examining multiple systems within a study in order to examine potential interactions between them (Bauer, Quas, & Boyce, 2002; Brown, et al., 2008; Lovallo & Thomas, 2000); several studies have demonstrated the value of this approach (El-Sheikh, Erath, Buckhalt, Granger, & Mize, 2008; Gordis, Granger, Susman, & Trickett, 2006). Thus, the goal of the present study was to simultaneously examine the HPA and HPG hormone systems, via measurements of their end products, cortisol and testosterone, in relation to psychopathy.
The HPA axis is involved in potentiating the state of fear, generating sensitivity to punishment, and inducing withdrawal behavior (Schulkin, Gold, & McEwen, 1998), leading to the hypothesis that this system may be hypoactive in psychopathic individuals. In antisocial groups more generally, low cortisol levels have been observed in aggressive children (McBurnett, Lahey, Rathouz, & Loeber, 2000), adolescents with conduct disorder (Pajer, Gardner, Rubin, Perel, & Neal, 2001) and violent adults (Virkkunen, 1985). However, results from prior studies of psychopathy that measure cortisol are mixed. Holi et al. (2006) found reduced cortisol levels in young adult male psychopathic offenders with a history of violence. Similarly, Cima, Smeets, & Jelicic (2008) found lower average daily cortisol levels in a group of psychopathic offenders. However, others have failed to replicate this finding (van Honk, Schutter, Hermans, & Putman, 2003). A study by O'Leary, Loney, & Eckel (2007) found reduced cortisol responses to a stressor in male undergraduates scoring higher in psychopathy, but no differences in pre-stressor levels of cortisol.
The HPG axis is hypothesized to be associated with psychopathy because its end product testosterone has been associated with approach-related behaviors including reward-seeking (Daitzman & Zuckerman, 1980), dominance (Archer, 2006), and aggression (Dabbs, Jurkovic, & Frady, 1991). Testosterone has been associated with a variety of antisocial behaviors including difficulties on the job, law breaking, marriage failures, drug use, alcohol abuse, and violent behavior (Mazur & Booth, 1998), which are commonly observed in psychopathy. However, only one study has tested the relationship between testosterone and psychopathy in adults. Stalenheim et al. (1998) found testosterone levels to be positively correlated with the impulsive and antisocial behavior aspects of psychopathy, but not with psychopathy as a whole. A study of youth with callous-unemotional traits, which are thought to be similar to psychopathic traits in adulthood, found no difference in testosterone levels in these youth compared to control participants (Loney, Butler, Lima, Counts, & Eckel, 2006).
We sought to test the main effects and interactions between cortisol and testosterone in relation to psychopathy, as well as in relation to the different aspects of psychopathy. Psychopathy has been divided into four facets roughly representing superficial charm, manipulativeness, and deceitfulness (Facet 1 – Interpersonal), reduced guilt and emotional responsiveness (Facet 2 – Affective), impulsivity and stimulation-seeking (Facet 3 – Lifestyle), and antisocial behavior (Facet 4 – Antisocial). These facets have two overarching factors (Factor 1 – Interpersonal-Affective and Factor 2 – Lifestyle-Antisocial).
In addition to exploring the main effects and interactions between cortisol and testosterone, a secondary goal of the study was to test a recent theory put forth that the ratio between testosterone and cortisol may predispose to more severe forms of social aggression that include both instrumental and reactive forms of aggression, as observed in psychopathy (Terburg, Morgan, & Van Honk, 2009). Terburg et al. (2009) base the ratio hypothesis on the Triple Balance Model of Emotion set forth by van Honk & Schutter (2006) which explains the role that cortisol and testosterone may play in the development of psychopathic traits. This model highlights that the HPA and HPG axes counteract each other, and that the relative activity of the two axes can significantly influence brain regions and pathways that have been implicated in psychopathy. The HPA and HPG axes are mutually inhibitory – testosterone inhibits functioning of the HPA axis at the level of the hypothalamus, while cortisol suppresses the activity of the HPG axis at all levels, diminishing the production of testosterone and inhibiting the action of testosterone at target tissues (Johnson, Kamilaris, Chrousos, & Gold, 1992; Tilbrook, Turner, & Clark, 2000). Animal studies have shown that one of the primary targets of testosterone and cortisol is the amygdala (Koolhass, Van den Brink, Roozendaal, & Boorsma, 1990), a brain region that is consistently implicated in psychopathy (Blair, 2007). In the amygdala, cortisol is hypothesized to promote fearfulness and withdrawal behavior (Schulkin, et al., 1998); testosterone has the opposite effect – it serves to promote reward-seeking and approach behavior (Daitzman & Zuckerman, 1980).
If the balance between these two hormones is changed so that there is more testosterone relative to cortisol acting on the amygdala, an individual may become less fearful, and more reward seeking and aggressive (van Honk, Harmon-Jones, Morgan, & Schutter, 2010; van Honk & Schutter, 2006); these traits are associated with Facets 2 (Affective), 3 (Lifestyle), and 4 (Antisocial) of psychopathy, respectively. Furthermore, cortisol and testosterone affect the amount of communication between subcortical regions, such as the amygdala, and cortical regions, such as the orbitofrontal cortex. Cortisol has been found to strengthen the communication between these regions, whereas testosterone has been found to reduce it (Schutter & van Honk, 2005; van Wingen, Mattern, Verkes, Buitelaar, & Fernandez, 2010). Increased testosterone relative to cortisol may reduce the communication between the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex, meaning that there is less emotional input from the amygdala to guide decision-making in the orbitofrontal cortex. This may result in the key components of Facet 2 of psychopathy – callousness, lack of empathy, and relatedly, increased instrumental aggression (Facet 4). Conversely, the cortical regions that are important in emotion regulation and inhibition are less able to regulate input from sub-cortical regions, including impulsive, reward-seeking, and aggressive urges (i.e. related to Facets 3 and 4). In sum, a high testosterone/cortisol ratio may enhance sensitivity to reward relative to punishment, promote approach rather than avoidance reactions, and reduce the emotional input from the amygdala to the orbitofrontal cortex that is critical for empathy and recognizing cues that a decision may be risky or harmful. It may also impair the ability to regulate emotion and aggression. Together, it is hypothesized that these mechanisms may predispose toward psychopathy (Terburg, et al., 2009; van Honk & Schutter, 2006). However, a full understanding of this relationship remains to be elucidated. Based on the mechanisms described, we hypothesized that the ratio of testosterone to cortisol would be associated with psychopathy, and that the strongest relationships would be with Facets 2, 3, and 4.
Participants were 178 adults (22 females) recruited from temporary employment agencies in the greater Los Angeles area. Because participation in the study included magnetic resonance brain imaging, participants were excluded if they were under 18 or over 45 years of age; nonfluent in English; claustrophobic; or had a pacemaker, metal implants, or history of epilepsy. Qualified participants were informed of the nature of the study and of the study's potential risks and benefits. After giving signed, informed consent, participants were individually tested over two days. Prior to beginning data collection, the principal investigator obtained a certificate of confidentiality from the Secretary of Health pursuant to Section 303(a) of Public Health Act 42. Participants were informed that any information they might provide about uninvestigated crimes could not be subpoenaed by any United States federal, state, or local court.
Psychopathy was assessed using the PCL-R: 2nd Edition (Hare, 2003), which consists of a semi-structured interview and is supplemented by collateral data. The PCL-R: 2nd Edition consists of 20 items and reflects two overarching factors: interpersonal/affective characteristics (e.g., glibness/superficial charm, pathological lying, shallow affect) and antisocial behavior (e.g., impulsivity, need for stimulation/proneness to boredom, juvenile delinquency; Hare, 2003). Ratings were made by a Ph.D. clinical graduate student who received intensive, systematic training on the administration and scoring of the PCL-R by Dr. Robert D. Hare and Dr. Adelle Forth—including the completion of a series of PCL-R assessments on standardized videotaped case histories of adult male offenders (Pearson r correlations between rater's and standardized criterion scores: Total PCL-R = .92, Factor 1 = .93, Factor 2 = .91). Raters were also supervised by one of the authors (A.R.) who has substantial prior working/assessment knowledge of the PCL-R. Internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) was .87, and the scale had good external validity in relation to Antisocial Personality Disorder symptom count (r = .43, p < .001).
The seven collateral data sources for assessing psychopathy were: (a) information gained from the Interpersonal Measure of Psychopathy (IM-P; Kosson, Steuwerald, Forth, & Kirkhart, 1997), a measure designed to be completed by the interviewer which asks about the participant's psychopathic interpersonal behaviors that may have occurred during the session1; the IM-P has demonstrated construct validity with the PCL-R in a prison sample, and has been validated for use with nonincarcerated samples (i.e., college students; Kosson et al., 1997); (b) self-reported theft, drug offenses, and violent crime as assessed by an adult extension (Raine, Lencz, Bihrle, LaCasse, & Colletti, 2000) of the National Youth Survey self-report delinquency measure (Elliot, Ageton, Huizinga, Knowles, & Canter, 1983); (c) official state Department of Justice criminal records; (d) professional nationwide criminal and court record database searches; (e) data derived from, and behavioral observations made during, the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I; First, Spitzer, Gibbon, & Williams, 1996), and (f) the SCID Axis II Personality Disorders (SCID-II; First, Gibbon, Spitzer, Williams, & Benjamin, 1997). The SCID I and II were administered by a trained clinical Ph.D. student (see Ventura, Liberman, Green, Shaner, & Mintz, 1998). Finally, independent IM-P ratings made by two different laboratory assistants during separate phases of testing provided a seventh source of collateral data2.
Three resting saliva samples were collected in the morning of two consecutive days between 900 and 1000 h. The samples were obtained in 15-minute intervals. All six samples (three from each day) were assayed for cortisol and the values were averaged; one sample from each morning was assayed for testosterone levels (as in Cohan, Booth, & Granger, 2003) and the values were averaged.
For each sample, participants were required to deposit 6 mL of saliva by passive drool through a short straw into separate collection vials (Granger, et al., 2007). Participants were asked to abstain from exercise, smoking, eating, and consuming caffeinated beverages or alcohol for 1 hour prior to the collection of saliva in all instances. Samples were immediately frozen at -85°Celsius in a Revco upright Elite 13.4 ft3 deep freezer.
In the afternoon (1300 to 1800 h) on one of the testing days, four saliva samples were collected to track the hormone response to two consecutive stressor tasks. The samples were collected in approximately 20-minute intervals, with the first sample representing baseline levels, the second and third samples representing responses to the stressors, and the fourth sample representing a return to baseline levels. Two consecutive stressor tasks were used – one involving an uncontrollable stressor and one involving a socially-relevant stressor. According to a meta-analysis (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004), psychological stressors that contain uncontrollable elements or socially-relevant elements are found to induce the greatest cortisol stress response. The study was designed to obtain an overall measure of reactivity, rather than separate analyses of the effects of each type of stressor. The first sample was obtained after an 8-minute rest period. Next, the participants performed a countdown task (uncontrollable stressor). In this task, participants were told that they would see numbers counting down from 12 to 0 on a computer monitor situated directly in front of them and that at the end of the countdown they would hear a loud, white noise through headphones. In addition to the anticipated loud noise following the countdown, there were two trials in which the noise was presented unannounced and could occur at any point during the countdown. The loud noise had a frequency of 5000 Hz, a rise and decay time of 0.5 ms, and was presented at 105 dB for a duration of 1s. There were 3 "expected countdown" and 2 "unnanounced" trials in total. The trials were presented in the following order: countdown (41 second ITI), unannounced (46 second ITI), countdown (45 second ITI), unannounced (49 second ITI), and countdown. Both the countdown and the unannounced trials lasted 12 seconds. This task lasted 6 minutes in total. The second saliva sample was collected approximately 20 minutes after the first sample.
The second stressor was a modified version of the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST; Kirschbaum, Pirke, & Hellhammer, 1993), which was adapted for this sample by shortening its duration and increasing its relevance to the participants. During this task, the participant was asked to give a speech about the worst thing he/she has ever done. The participant was given two minutes to think about and prepare the speech. In the next two minutes, the participant presented the speech about the worst thing he/she had ever done. The speech was videotaped and a research assistant remained in the room to enhance the stressfulness of the situation. If the participant had difficulty speaking continuously, the research assistant prompted him/her to elaborate and give specific examples to enhance social demands on the participant. The third saliva sample was collected approximately 20-minutes after the collection of the second sample.
A final saliva sample was collected after another 20-minute period. During this time participants were engaged in non-stressful tasks. The timing between sample collection varied slightly between participants, and thus was recorded and included in analyses.
Saliva samples were analyzed using commercially available enzyme immunoassay kits without modification to the manufacturers recommended protocols (Salmetrics LLC – State College, PA). Samples were assayed in duplicate and the average of duplicate tests were used in analyses.
For cortisol, average recovery across saliva samples with known cortisol concentrations is 100.8%, and sensitivity of the cortisol kit is 0.003 μg/dL to 3.0 ug/dL. For this study, inter-assay and intra-assay precision (coefficient of variation) were less than 5.0%. For testosterone, average recovery across saliva samples of known concentrations of testosterone is 105.3%, and sensitivity of the kit is 1.0 to 600 pg/mL. Inter-assay and intra-assay precision (coefficient of variation) were, on average, less than 5.0%.
Testosterone scores were not significantly skewed and did not require transformation. Cortisol scores were log-transformed to adjust for skewness. Outliers defined as values more than three standard deviations from the mean group score were removed (Gordis, et al., 2006). Deleted values were interpolated when sufficient remaining data was available. Five male participants were excluded from analyses involving cortisol reactivity due to outliers that required removing.
Cortisol reactivity to the stressors was measured by calculating the area under the curve (AUC) with respect to ground for the four samples obtained during the stressor tasks (Gordis, et al., 2006). The formula is given by:
where ti is the precise interval between sample i and sample i+1 (these times are specific for each subject and each interval) and mi is the level of the hormone for sample i. This analysis resulted in one number representing a general index of cortisol reactivity for each subject. This was used in multiple regression analyses to test for associations with psychopathy scores, controlling for gender and age. The start time of the stressor session was also included as a covariate to account for diurnal variation. Cortisol AUC has been used in the past to represent cortisol reactivity to a stressor. However, it is important to note that the reactivity to the stressor is overlaid on each participant's normal diurnal decline in cortisol. Thus, the area under the curve represents the combined effect of the response to the stressor, and declining cortisol levels due to the diurnal cycle. In some cases, a small response to the stressor may have been masked by the diurnal change (i.e., their slope may not have dropped as steeply as it might have had the stressor not been present, although the overall distribution appears to decline with time).
To examine the testosterone/cortisol ratio, distributions for baseline testosterone, baseline cortisol, and cortisol reactivity were standardized to t scores (mean 50; SD 10) and individual testosterone/cortisol and testosterone/cortisol reactivity ratio scores were calculated, as in Hermans, Ramsey, & van Honk (2009).
Multiple regression analyses were used to examine main effects of hormone variables (baseline testosterone, baseline cortisol, cortisol reactivity, ratio scores) on total psychopathy scores, controlling for gender and start time of the stressor when necessary. In the event that a hormone variable was significantly associated with the total score, additional regression analyses were performed entering the two psychopathy factors simultaneously as predictors of the variable in order to determine if one factor uniquely contributed to the relationship. If one factor was a unique predictor, the two facets of that factor were then entered into the model, along with the other factor.
Multiple regression was also used to test for interactive effects between baseline cortisol and testosterone, and between baseline testosterone and cortisol reactivity. All variables were standardized prior to entry into the model.
Because our sample was primarily composed of males, and because hormone systems function differently in males and females, we also analyzed the data in the sample of males only (See Appendix). Age was significantly correlated with testosterone in the male sample, and therefore was included in regressions involving testosterone.
Descriptive statistics for the sample are provided in Table 1. Baseline levels of testosterone and cortisol are within range of previously reported studies (Brown, et al., 2008). As expected, there were clear gender differences in baseline testosterone levels (t = 6.57, p < .001) and thus was controlled for in analyses involving testosterone. There were no gender differences in baseline cortisol levels (t = 1.66, p = .25). Age was not correlated with any of the hormone variables (p>.06) and therefore was not used as a covariate. In analyses of cortisol reactivity, we also controlled for the start time of the stressor session in order to account for variation in the diurnal cycle.
When controlling for gender, baseline testosterone was not found to be significantly associated with psychopathy scores (β = .11, p = .22).
In regression analyses, baseline cortisol levels were not significantly associated with total psychopathy scores (β = .06, p = .42).
We proceeded with planned analyses of cortisol reactivity by calculating the area under the curve for each participant (cortisol AUC). When controlling for start time, cortisol AUC was not significantly associated with psychopathy scores (β = -.08, p = .40).
Upon examining the cortisol response during the stressor session, we found that there was not an overall increase in cortisol values in response to the stressors (i.e., Time 2 or Time 3). Upon further examination, we found that only 35% of participants showed an increase in cortisol from Time 1 to Time 2. Of these subjects, the mean increase was 53.1%. Only 34% of participants showed an increase from Time 1 to Time 3. Of these subjects, the mean increase from Time 1 to Time 3 was 77.3%. Because not all participants demonstrated a cortisol response to the stressor task, we decided to perform an additional analysis in which we divided the sample into groups of "Responders" and "Non-responders." Responders were defined as individuals with an increase in cortisol values of 10% or more at either Time 2 or Time 3, compared to Time 1. Non-responders were defined as participants whose cortisol levels either decreased or stayed the same for Time 2 and Time 3. This resulted in 59 participants being classified as Responders and 77 being classified as Non-responders. We found that non-responders demonstrated marginally higher scores on total psychopathy (t = 1.7, p = .09), as well as on Factor 2 (Lifestyle-Antisocial) (t = 1.8, p = .07) and its Lifestyle Facet 3 (t = 2.0, p = .05), although these did not reach significance. There was no significant difference on the remainder of the factors/facets (all p > .11). We also looked within the Responders to see if there was an association between psychopathy scores and cortisol reactivity. This relationship was not significant (β = -.11, p = .42, N = 59).
A multiple regression with psychopathy total scores as the dependent variable and with gender, baseline testosterone, baseline cortisol, and baseline testosterone × baseline cortisol as independent variables revealed no significant interaction between baseline testosterone and cortisol levels (β = .23, p = .52). A multiple regression with psychopathy total scores as the dependent variable and with gender, start time of the stressor, baseline testosterone, cortisol AUC, and baseline testosterone × cortisol AUC as independent variables also revealed no significant interaction between baseline testosterone and cortisol AUC (β = -.12, p = .23).
We tested the hypothesis set forth by Terburg et al. (2009) that psychopathy is associated with the ratio of testosterone to cortisol. After controlling for gender, we did not find a significant association between psychopathy and the ratio of baseline testosterone to baseline cortisol (β = .06, p = .46). However, we did find a significant association between psychopathy scores and the ratio of baseline testosterone to cortisol reactivity (AUC) (β = .28, p <.01), controlling for gender and the start time of the stressor. This ratio score accounted for 5% of the variance in psychopathy scores; the variance accounted for by the ratio score, controlling for the covariates, was significant (R2 = .05, F(1, 169) = 7.1, p < .01).
To determine whether one factor of psychopathy contributed uniquely to this relationship, Factors 1 and 2 were entered as predictors, along with gender and the start time of the stressor, and the ratio score was entered as the dependent variable. When entered simultaneously, Factor 2 (Lifestyle-Antisocial) significantly predicted ratio scores, but Factor 1 (Interpersonal-Affective) did not (Table 2). We ran an additional regression analysis replacing Factor 2 scores with Facets 3 (Lifestyle) and 4 (Antisocial), along with Factor 1. Neither facet was a significant predictor, suggesting that the common variance between these facets is associated with the ratio score.
Additional analyses were conducted to determine whether the significant association between psychopathy and the ratio of testosterone to cortisol reactivity was specific to psychopathy. Controlling for gender and the start time of the stressor, none of the following variables were associated with the ratio score: Antisocial Personality Disorder symptom count (β = .07, p = .56), Interpersonal Measure of Psychopathy score (β = .07, p = .51), or number of self-report violent offenses (β = .02, p = .88).
Finally, in order to accurately interpret the ratio score, we conducted further analyses of the relationship with psychopathy. Since the ratio score is a relative measure of testosterone to cortisol AUC, we wanted to determine whether the relationship with psychopathy was significant at different absolute levels of testosterone or cortisol AUC (e.g., Is the effect driven by individuals with high levels of testosterone who have a high ratio, or is it true across all levels of testosterone?). Therefore, we tested the interaction between baseline testosterone and the ratio score in predicting psychopathy. A multiple regression with psychopathy total scores as the dependent variable and with gender, start time of the stressor, baseline testosterone, the ratio score, and baseline testosterone × the ratio score as independent variables revealed a significant interaction between baseline testosterone and the ratio score (β = .28, p = .003). In contrast, a multiple regression with psychopathy total scores as the dependent variable and with gender, start time of the stressor, cortisol AUC, the ratio score, and cortisol AUC × the ratio score as independent variables revealed no significant interaction between cortisol AUC and the ratio score (β = .10, p = .293). To deconstruct the interaction between testosterone and the ratio score, we used procedures described by Aiken and West (1991) and plotted the slope of the relation between psychopathy and the ratio score at 1 standard deviation above and below the mean on testosterone. We found that at 1 SD above the mean on testosterone, the simple slope of the relation between the ratio score and psychopathy was significant and positive (β = .54, p = .03), whereas at 1 SD below the mean, the relationship was null (β = .10, p = .67). Figure 1 illustrates that individuals with high baseline testosterone who have a high ratio score exhibit relatively higher levels of psychopathic traits than those with a low ratio score. In contrast, psychopathic traits were unrelated to the ratio score in individuals with low levels of testosterone.
Zero-order correlations between psychopathy, hormone measures, and covariates appear in Table 3. Psychopathy was not significantly associated with morning-time baseline cortisol or testosterone, or the ratio between them. Nor was it associated with cortisol reactivity. However, psychopathy and its two factors were significantly associated with the testosterone/cortisol reactivity ratio. In addition, Facets 2 (Affective) and 3 (Lifestyle) were correlated with the ratio.
Supplementary analyses restricted to the male participants only can be found in the Appendix. Results largely paralleled those from the whole group analyses. Unlike the total sample, the ratio score was not correlated with Factor 1 (Interpersonal-Affective) or either of its facets in the male sample. The ratio score was correlated with Facet 4 (Antisocial) in the male sample, as well as with Facet 3 (Lifestyle), which was also observed in the total sample.
In a large sample of adults, no significant relationships were observed between psychopathy and baseline testosterone or cortisol, or cortisol reactivity to a stressor. Furthermore, there were no significant interactions between these variables. Although we did not observe a relationship between psychopathy and the ratio of baseline testosterone to cortisol, predicted by Terburg et al. (2009), we did observe a significant relationship between psychopathy and the ratio of baseline testosterone to cortisol reactivity. Individuals scoring higher in psychopathy had a higher ratio of baseline testosterone to cortisol reactivity; this accounted for 5% of the variance in psychopathic traits. This effect was only true for individuals with high baseline levels of testosterone. These findings highlight the importance of a multi-system approach in hormone research.
The fact that we observed a significant relationship with the ratio score (at high levels of testosterone), but not with levels of the individual hormones or their interactions, may be indicative of the interconnected nature of the hormone systems. The ratio score indicates the level of testosterone relative to cortisol reactivity within an individual. This score could be viewed as a general index of the imbalance between the HPA and HPG axes within that individual. In contrast, the interaction term for cortisol × testosterone treats the hormones as two distinct variables, with the individual's score on each hormone being relative to the scores of the group. For example, an individual may have high testosterone (relative to the group) and low cortisol reactivity (relative to the group), but the important question seems to be 'how high is the individual's testosterone relative to his own cortisol reactivity?' This makes sense given the high degree of interconnectedness between the HPA and HPG axes. High HPG axis activity relative to HPA axis activity may affect the sensitivity of brain regions such as the amygdala. Both testosterone and cortisol regulate and facilitate neuropeptide gene expression in the amygdala, and their influence on the probability of approach versus withdrawal is in opposing directions (Schulkin, 2003; Szot & Dorsa, 1994) – cortisol facilitates withdrawal and fearfulness, whereas testosterone facilitates approach and reward-seeking. Therefore, the relative contribution of each hormone is important in determining the reactivity of the amygdala to environmental stimuli. Similarly, the HPA and HPG axes act in opposite directions in their influence on the connectivity between subcortical and cortical regions. Increased levels of cortisol have been associated with enhanced functional connectivity between subcortical and cortical regions (Schutter & van Honk, 2005), whereas injections of testosterone have been found to reduce this communication (Schutter & van Honk, 2004; van Wingen, et al., 2010). Therefore, the activity of these two systems relative to each other seems have a significant effect on brain systems that are relevant to psychopathy.
A high ratio of testosterone relative to cortisol reactivity may mean that amygdala functioning is driven more by testosterone than cortisol, so the individual becomes more likely to engage in approach-related or aggressive behavior, is more sensitive to reward, and is less fearful and less sensitive to cues of punishment or threat (Terburg, et al., 2009; van Honk & Schutter, 2006). This may contribute to the fearlessness, reward-seeking, impulsiveness, and poor decision-making observed in psychopathy. Furthermore, the decoupling between subcortical and cortical regions that results from increased testosterone relative to cortisol may have effects in two ways: 1) During decision-making, emotion-related information from the amygdala that signals cues of threat, risk, or harm to others may not be able to reach cortical areas in order to inform the decision. This may result in the callousness, lack of empathy, risk-taking, and instrumental aggression observed in psychopathy. 2) Cortical regions may be less able to send inhibitory signals to subcortical regions, resulting in deficits in emotion regulation and inhibition (van Honk & Schutter, 2006), which contribute to reactive aggression and labile affect observed in psychopathy. Thus, through these processes, a high ratio between testosterone and cortisol reactivity may contribute to a variety of psychopathic traits, including both instrumental and reactive forms of aggression.
An additional finding of the present study was that psychopathy was only related to the ratio score at high levels of testosterone. This may mean that at lower levels of testosterone, the effect of testosterone on the amygdala and its connectivity to cortical regions is minimal, and the ratio of testosterone to cortisol becomes less relevant to behavior. Low testosterone levels have previously been described as a protective factor against antisocial behavior (Farrington & Coid, 2003). In contrast, at higher levels, testosterone may have a pronounced effect on amygdala functioning and connectivity; without sufficient cortisol responding to counterbalance these effects and to promote withdrawal behavior and fearfulness, psychopathic traits may develop.
It is unclear why the ratio involving cortisol reactivity was significant whereas the ratio involving baseline cortisol levels was not – it is unknown whether this discrepancy is a result of measurement factors, or whether there is a neurobiological explanation. With regards to measurement, it has been suggested that the degree of cortisol reactivity to a stressor is a more robust indicator than baseline cortisol of how an individual responds to cues of threat or punishment; baseline cortisol may be a less reliable and valid indicator of stress reactivity, as it is influenced by a multitude of daily living factors that can impact cortisol levels (Loney, et al., 2006). Stress induced changes in cortisol may provide a more precise measure of the functioning of the HPA axis and may be less susceptible to the influence of confounding factors (O'Leary, et al., 2007). In the current study, the correlation between baseline cortisol and cortisol reactivity (AUC) was 0.47, suggesting that the two variables are clearly related, but that having high baseline cortisol levels does not directly translate into increased cortisol reactivity – other factors are involved in this process.
A possible neurobiological explanation is based on the idea that testosterone has more of an influence on cortisol reactivity than on baseline cortisol levels. In animals, castration and androgen replacement studies have found that androgens inhibit stress-stimulated cortisol release, but not baseline cortisol concentrations (Handa, et al., 1994; Papadopoulos & Wardlaw, 2000). Similarly, in humans, testosterone was found to decrease cortisol reactivity (as measured by area under the curve) to stress-stimulation, but not baseline cortisol levels (Rubinow, et al., 2005). Therefore, the association between testosterone and cortisol reactivity may be the most relevant indicator of how the HPA and HPG axes interact. As we see in the present study, not all individuals with high testosterone levels had a high testosterone to cortisol reactivity ratio, indicating that there are individual differences in the degree to which testosterone suppresses the cortisol response. Individuals with high testosterone levels in which testosterone suppresses cortisol reactivity to a greater extent, may have the most pronounced alterations in amygdala functioning. In these individuals, the amygdala may be tuned to the testosterone-driven reward-seeking and approach-related behavior (Daitzman & Zuckerman, 1980), and much less responsive to cues of fear or threat that are facilitated by the HPA axis (Schulkin, et al., 1998), which would predispose for psychopathic traits. Furthermore, the higher levels of testosterone may reduce the connectivity between the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex, thus impairing decision-making and inhibitory mechanisms (discussed above).
Analyses of the subfactors of psychopathy revealed that Factor 2 (Lifestyle-Antisocial) of psychopathy was a unique predictor of the testosterone-cortisol reactivity ratio. When entered together neither of its subfactors (Lifestyle or Antisocial) were significant, suggesting that it is the common variance that is shared between the two factors that is most associated with the ratio score. The altered imbalance between the HPA and HPG axis that may generally increase the probability of approach over withdrawal behavior and increase sensitivity to reward versus punishment (discussed above) may be associated with a latent factor that contributes to the specific features of Facets 3 and 4. Increased sensitivity to reward versus punishment, as well as an inclination toward approach behavior would likely result in the development of the more specific traits and behavior such as impulsivity, stimulation-seeking, irresponsibility (Facet 3), poor behavioral controls, and aggressive and deviant behavior (Facet 4).
Zero-order correlations also revealed a significant correlation between the ratio score and Facet 2 (Affective), suggesting that this factor may be related despite a lack of significance with the overall Interpersonal – Affective factor. This result may be potentially explained by reduced communication between the amygdala and cortical regions – if emotional input from the amygdala is unable to influence cognitive processes such as decision-making, the result may be that decision-making becomes cold and calculated, and the individual is described as callous and unemotional.
Limitations of this study include the fact that the sample was predominantly male, so findings cannot be generalized to psychopathic women, particularly considering the large gender differences in hormones between males and females. Many participants did not respond to the stressor task, which may be due to the fact that this temporary employment agency is a high-risk sample that attracts disproportionately high numbers of antisocial individuals. We do not have inter-rater reliability information for the PCL-R assessments, which were conducted by three raters. Finally, due to practical considerations, baseline saliva samples were acquired when participants came into the lab, rather than at waking, so it is possible that effects may not have been detected. However, all correlations with baseline cortisol and testosterone were .1 or less, so it is likely that any effects would have been small.
Although the present findings did not support the exact hypothesis of Terburg et al. (2009), the significant relationship between psychopathy and the testosterone/cortisol reactivity ratio provides support for the idea that the HPA and HPG axes may work in concert to predispose toward psychopathic traits, and highlights the importance of a multi-system approach. The interconnected nature of these systems may help to explain the mixed findings in previous studies examining individual hormones, as well as the lack of main effects of individual hormones in the present study. Future research will be necessary to elucidate the mechanisms of hormone action outlined by Terburg et al. (2009) and van Honk & Schutter (2006). Research on hormones may be a key element in aiding our understanding of the how brain abnormalities associated with psychopathy may arise.
This study was supported by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health to Dr. Raine (Research Scientist Development Award No. K02 MH01114-01, Independent Scientist Award K02 MH01114-01, and Grant No. 5 R03 MH50940-02).
|Mean (SD)
|Age (years)
|36.8 (8.6)
|Psychopathy total scores
|18.8 (9.0)
|Baseline Cortisol (ug/dL)
|.216 (.12)
|Cortisol (Stressor session)
|Time 1
|.160 (.16)
|Time 2
|.145 (.13)
|Time 3
|.141 (.12)
|Time 4
|.133 (.16)
|Baseline Testosterone (pg/ml)
|157.3 (62.0)
|Psychopathy Total Score
|Baseline Testosterone
|Baseline Cortisol
|Cortisol AUC
|Ratio Testo/CortBaseline
|Ratio Testo/Cort AUC
|<.01a, b
|Testosterone/Cortisol AUC
|Total psychopathy scoresa
|Entered simultaneouslyb:
|Factor 1 – Interpersonal-Affective
|Factor 2 – Lifestyle-Antisocial
|Entered simultaneouslyb:
|Factor 1 – Interpersonal-Affective
|Facet 3 – Lifestyle
|Facet 4 – Antisocial
|1. Psychopathy
|2. F1 – Interpersonal –Affective
|3. F2 – Lifestyle-Antisocial
|4. Facet 1 – Interpersonal
|5. Facet 2 – Affective
|6. Facet 3 – Lifestyle
|7. Facet 4 – Antisocial
|8. Baseline Testosterone
|9. Baseline Cortisol
|10. Cortisol AUC
|11. Ratio Testo/CortBaseline
|12. Ratio Testo/Cort AUC
|13. Age
1The IM-P asks about nonverbal behavior and interpersonal tendencies that are not directly assessed in the interview itself. The information gained from the IM-P was used as supplementary evidence and was never used as a sole piece of evidence for determining the rating for an item.
2Although not empirically tested, the authors of the IM-P state that information gained from the measure after other types of interviews or unstructured professional interactions may also prove useful (D. Kosson, personal communication, April 23, 3009). This information was used a supplementary information and never used alone when determining ratings.
Publisher's Disclaimer: The following manuscript is the final accepted manuscript. It has not been subjected to the final copyediting, fact-checking, and proofreading required for formal publication. It is not the definitive, publisher-authenticated version. The American Psychological Association and its Council of Editors disclaim any responsibility or liabilities for errors or omissions of this manuscript version, any version derived from this manuscript by NIH, or other third parties. The published version is available at www.apa.org/pubs/journals/ABN
PubMed Central Canada is a service of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) working in partnership with the National Research Council's national science library in cooperation with the National Center for Biotechnology Information at the U.S. National Library of Medicine(NCBI/NLM). It includes content provided to the PubMed Central International archive by participating publishers.


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Roddenberry, (Eu)Gene Wesley (1921–1991)
After that series was canceled, Roddenberry wrote and produced a non-SF theatrical film, Pretty Maids All in a Row (1971), but its lack of success brought him back to TV and SF. He produced and wrote (or co-wrote) several TV movies, each a pilot, although none resulted in a series. These include Genesis II (1973), Planet Earth (1974), the fantasy-horror Spectre (1977), and The Questor Tapes (1974), the best of the lot.
Roddenberry has been only peripherally involved with the Star Trek theatrical films and TV series "sequel," Star Trek: The Next Generation, and he has always been active as a spokesman for the original Star Trek series and its spin-offs.
He is much more significant as a producer than as a writer of SF: few number his episodes as the best of Star Trek. Although his ideas are earnest and often intelligent, they are generally also overstated and do not bear close examination as science fiction.
Related categories SCIENCE FICTION
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About Mikeg85
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Mikeg85 replied to Joe Jets fan's topic in New York Jets Message BoardI sure hope he gets fired. I'd love to have him as my DC.
Mikeg85 replied to LionelRichie's topic in New York Jets Message BoardIndividual QB stats can be about as misleading/irrelevant statistic as there is in all of professional sports. And the same stats can be used to argue for or against any particular case. When comparing eras they are less than pointless. Carson Palmer is potentially on track to throw for more yards this season than Marino, Elway, or Montana ever did. Clearly Carson Palmer is > than Marino, Elway and Montana. Going into last week Alex Smith was the #3 rated QB in the league. Clearly Alex Smith is the 3rd best QB in the league. Elway was awesome. Not quite on par with Marino, but his name deserves to be right up there with Marino/Montana.
Mikeg85 replied to Blackout's topic in New York Jets Message BoardYou're right. Alex Smith is clearly the 3rd best QB in the NFL and his recent success has nothing to do with his supporting cast and everything to do with how accurately he rifles in 5 yard passes.
Mikeg85 replied to Blackout's topic in New York Jets Message BoardIf those numbers were as straight-forward as you believe, then he would not be getting pushed out the door in favor of a rookie, period. I'm not saying Alex Smith hasn't improved, he has. But take a look at what he is asked to do as a passer to obtain those numbers. When you're surrounded with endless amounts of talent and 95% of your passes are either check downs, screens, 5 yard hitches and in routes then it's not real hard to statistically look like a very good QB. Again, it's very similar to Sanchez. Sanchez just doesn't have the supporting cast anymore to enable a "game manager" QB to be successful.
Mikeg85 replied to Blackout's topic in New York Jets Message Board2012 Alex Smith = 2009 Mark Sanchez and vice-versa. Maybe smith is slightly better than Sanchez, but not by much if he is. It's amazing how good a QB can look when he is surrounded by massive talent everywhere he turns. Sanchez looks just as good if he's on the niners, and Smith looks just as bad if he's on the Jets this year.
Mikeg85 replied to Mikeg85's topic in New York Jets Message BoardI'm assuming that you are typically the guy in the group who repeatedly has to ask everyone else to explain the joke. BTW It's spelled 'douche'. edit: "Taco" definitely was lol worthy.
Mikeg85 replied to Mikeg85's topic in New York Jets Message BoardI'd kill to have Rex on my team....as a DC that is. Ironic thing is this time next year Rob is most likely a head coach while Rex is running someones defense. That is assuming his ego allows him to be "demoted" This literally made me laugh out loud. What's Cowher doing these days anyway?
Mikeg85 posted a topic in New York Jets Message BoardForgive me in advance. Since it appears that Eli Manning has been taking Quarterback lessons from Mark Sanchez for the past month, I couldn't help but think of my green and white cousins. Seriously though, now that the Giants suck I am obligated to do what every miserable football fan does in his time of mourning: Talk about Tim Tebow. I don't want to make any heads explode, but perhaps an outside fans perspective on the NYJ QB situation might be useful. Probably not, but anyway the Jets really need to just start the kid. It would seem obvious to me that starting a terrible QB who wants to win and would probably literally die on the field if he had to, is a better choice than starting a slightly less terrible QB who clearly doesn't care at all. I mean, he's gone in 2 months anyway, at least make some merchandise money on all the Jesus freaks and holy rollers who are going to come out of the woodwork if Tebow starts so you can begin to pay back that comical Sanchize contract. Also worth mentioning that your O-line is probably going to get Sanchez killed or paralyzed before the season ends so it would probably be smart to have the guy back there who is only making a million bucks at this point. Just sayin.... How's McElroy progressing btw? I freaking loved that kid in college. Definitely rooting for his success.
Mikeg85 replied to CobraVerde's topic in New York Jets Message BoardDidn't Tebow actually recognize that the D was on to that play and tuck and run instead? I'm pretty sure Sanchez throws a pick 6 there every time. My memory is a little blurry. I was at my brothers house and that was right about the time that he was tearing everything in half in the house that was Jets related and trying to find out if Woody is listed in the yellow pages..
Mikeg85 replied to Mikeg85's topic in New York Jets Message BoardCool, will do.
Mikeg85 replied to Mikeg85's topic in New York Jets Message BoardYEAS BRO DATS IT!!!!11one I wish I was a moron so I could base all of my thoughts on half witted assumptions like you do.
Mikeg85 replied to Mikeg85's topic in New York Jets Message BoardIronic because your sig is exactly what I'm trying to say, yet I should go **** myself. Not because I'm bashing the Jets, but because I'm more positive about your team than your average poster is. You're really a special kind of stupid. Seriously. I'm going to go out on a limb and assume that you spent your childhood riding in a school bus that was smaller than the one the other kids rode in, right? (BTW to answer your question, when the Giants were 7-7 I wasn't talking sh*t about your team, and for what it's worth, they are now SB champs and I'm still not talking sh*t about your team.The only difference is I had no clue that this board existed at that time)
Mikeg85 replied to b&bjetsfan's topic in New York Jets Message Boardsh*tty. He's a real class act and someone I wish would just get one more shot to start. One of the few times I actually felt bad for a pro athlete was when he was all pumped up to get his start with Miami, only to go down and out on the first play.
Mikeg85 replied to Mikeg85's topic in New York Jets Message BoardYou hate the Giants because a fan of theirs who is looking from the outside-in is telling you not to panic, and that your team isn't in this disarray that everyone thinks they are? Makes a TON of sense dude.
Mikeg85 replied to Favorite_Toon's topic in New York Jets Message BoardYour logic is just brilliant. If Welker catches the ball on the 25 with 4 minutes left and a Giants timeout, it is absolutely guaranteed that the Patriots score a touchdown 100 out of 100 times? And even if they don't, and the Giants get the ball back, the guy who has won the game in the 4th quarter 9 times this year and has more 4th quarter touchdowns than any QB in history is 100% not going to score, right? Do you "what if" people actually proof read these bizarre posts before you publish them?


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In the headlines of the press, once again, the remarks of the Pope have been dragged through the ideological bias of each particular editorial board.
The liberal press molded his words to justify their constant push to coerce enslavement under government totalitarianism, which caused, once again, a reaction by people who do not ascribe to the Pope's Catholicism to seek to justify their prejudice against it and him because of what the press said he said, but didn't.
The press has caused friction on the right; and the right keeps falling for it by not reading his actual words and understanding he is not an American.
The thing that should be remembered, when the Pope presents his speeches, is that he is the leader of a worldwide faith, not a counselor to government. No matter what he suggests, he is not to be held as so many wish to hold him, as a politician trying to persuade his colleagues of a particular legislative action. He is simply giving his faith's angle on what should be done. This distinction is not important to a lot of countries, but it should be to ours.
Americans have the exclusive founding documents of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution to thank for our precocious view that we are a nation of people who will not be dictated to by tyrannical Kings of men, but we, instead, are the rulers of our own government. So, when we react to headlines that say that the Pope is pushing government for redistribution of wealth by sneering and shouting "Marxist!" we forget that we are the government, and perhaps forget that our system, when employed properly, indeed does exactly what the Pope seeks globally, because power in the hands of the many proves that people are good.
Give me the names of the countries that are currently part of the U.N. who do what we do. Our welfare system is so vast that it is failing the poor, disabled, and the sick. Our veterans system of benefits is so bureaucratized that our brave men are dying without care. Our unemployed are at such a high number, that many go on disability benefits to stay out of the work place, or, as a result of losing their will to live. I'll bet you could give me a lot of countries whose poor and sick and elderly go through what ours go through as a result of no policy to help But, only in America could the bureaucracy of excess cause the very same result.
Sure, many are helped through these programs, and my point is not ever to argue that programs to help the poor, sick and disabled, and veterans should be eliminated. It is the degree to which these programs can be administered properly in conjunction with our other obligations that is always up for debate. But the left uses the words of the Pontiff, successfully and repetitively, to bludgeon Americans into accepting more and more government confiscation of wealth under the guise that the government can properly do the work of the clergy.
But, the fact is, it cannot. All it does is take from the successful, skim a hefty fee off the top for advertisement, administrative and paper-pushing bureaucrats, and then allow a percentage of that money to trickle down to the actual needy, as well as the lazy and self-righteous entitled. We have so much product from individual success wrapped up in these systems, that they cannot be sustained forever.
The words that the Pope used that got so many hot this past week are contained in this pull-quote:
"A contribution to this equitable development will also be made both by international activity aimed at the integral human development of all the world's peoples and by the legitimate redistribution of economic benefits by the State, as well as indispensable cooperation between the private sector and civil society."
Think of all the countries that are not doing the minimum on human development. In fact, the U.S. press glossed over the Pontiff's lament about a throwaway society and a culture of death, which the Vatican laid squarely at the feet of the Democratic Party in America in 2008. That aside, the word, "legitimate" has meaning. We should take care of the disabled, sick, elderly and veterans shouldn't we? The fact that the left has pushed that notion to mean what it does not is our failing for being unable, or unwilling, to rein them in. And "indispensable cooperation between the private sector and civil society" is what both Protestantism and Catholicism do best. Bazaars and bake sales and potlucks and auctions of donated items or services from local businesses for charity are a weekly commitment for hundreds of thousands of church groups in this nation.
If you want to read the whole speech, go ahead, it is not long, Pope Francis is preaching to everyone at the U.N. to do something that they are not predisposed to do: put aside their own bias and respective country's greed or stated policy and do what Christ commands us to do.
Of course, in America, it was never the proper interpretation of our founding documents to do so through government coercion, but the system we have now has, unfortunately, disregarded our founding. The fact that we, as a society, already meet and surpass these basic requirements of Christianity should simply cause us to nod and thank him for his comments.
Instead, words, taken out of context and without proper analysis, cause a rash of hatred and hardened hearts.
Lighten up, we are already doing good; we ought to focus on the abuse of the least of society that a greedy government impels.


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Scotch-Irish-L ArchivesArchiver > Scotch-Irish > 2001-03 > 0985015148
From: Michael Cassidy <>
Subject: Re: [Scotch-Irish] English Customs
Date: Mon, 19 Mar 2001 10:20:11 -0500
In-Reply-To: <firstname.lastname@example.com>
>By the way, Ireland was rarely, if ever, under the control of one sovereign
>ruler. I could also argue that the island never had one specific culture or
>ethnicity. The statutes of Kilkenny dating from the Fourteenth century
>speak against Anglo-Norman subjects marrying native Irish. Guess what,
>those same French speaking Anglo-Normans are still in Ireland today, and
>they're NOT loyalists. What about the Danes? What about people from the
>areas now known as Galloway and Cumbria settling freely in Ulster since,
>well, the dawn of time?
as for "under the rule of one sovereign," you'd be hard pressed to find a
period of longer then 5 years when the British island [scotland, wales and
england etc] was under one sovereign. there was a continual sweeping up and
down the island of armies.
according to the british, all civil wars in ireland and kenya were tribal;
all civil wars in great britain were great and important wars dealing with
great and important world issues
were the people from Galloway and Cumbria settling ireland i thought the
irish were settling in wales england and scotland and then once in while
coming back to ireland to visit their relatives?
history is many threaded and you grab the threads that interest you or
justify your political/social/economic positions.
Jazz is freedom. - T. Monk
This thread:
|Re: [Scotch-Irish] English Customs by Michael Cassidy <>


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What were the features of the Articles of Confederation?
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The Articles of Confederation, which really went into effect in 1781, was described at the time as a "firm league of friendship." It's most important characteristic was that it reserved most powers to the states, granting very few to the central government. The central government itself was composed of a unicameral legislature in which each state got one vote. This Congress was unable to levy taxes on the states and unable to force states (though it could ask) to send troops in case of military crisis. It also lacked the power to regulate interstate commerce. The major powers it did have were to make war and peace, to coin money, and to conduct diplomacy. There was also no federal executive (though there was a President of Congress) to enforce the laws the Congress could make, and no federal judiciary. The Articles are often derided, but it should be understood that the state leaders, fighting to secure independence from Great Britain, were not terribly enthusiastic about establishing a strong central government. Another paralyzing aspect of the Articles, however, was the stipulation that a unanimous vote was needed to amend the Articles. The Articles were discarded as a form of government after the ratification of the Constitution in 1789.


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The Mojo Fins - The Sound That I Still Hear
'First Conversation' immediately launches their flag and lets us know what they're about, and why we should listen to them.Read more on The Mojo Fins Listen to The Mojo Fins on Spotify
Debut albums are difficult little things. There are so many variables, each contributing to its success or downfall; some come by and are sock-blower-offs, whilst some tumble and are never seen again. Some, however, sit between the two, leaving us anxiously anticipating the next album. 'The Sound That I Still Hear' is one of these - it's solid, and offers real hope for the future.
'First Conversation' opens with clean guitars that sound like we've heard them before, which, any unknown law-suits aside, surely is a grand thing. This track immediately launches the Mojo Fins flag and lets us know what they're about, and why we should listen to them. The melodic verses melt into time-signature abnormality, and slip back into catchy grand scheme of things without blinking, let alone breaking a sweat. Tracks like 'Final Correspondence' and 'Meet Me At The Pictures' give off a sort of progressive indie feel, akin to Incubus at times, although it feels the musical experimentation can be a tad contrived.
A shining light is 'Always Now', reminiscent of Snow Patrol when actually up-tempo. An ascending vocal melody in the verse blends brilliantly with the backing "ahh ahhs", and with a memorable chorus to boot, this is pretty exciting stuff. And with the band having lost their previous singer in a 2007 road accident, this whole album exudes a real poignancy. Let's hope they can build on this promising release, not only for themselves, but also for their former bandmate too.


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Germany's choice of futures
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It is almost 200 years since the German introvert Arthur Schopenhauer turned pessimism into a philosophical school of thought, arguing that the human condition is fundamentally painful and the world a place of endless strife.
That modern Germany is stalked by a collective national gloom is mainly a natural reaction to its protracted and painful economic decline. But there is something else in play: a propensity to look on the dark side of life. As one German official explained, it is like a school student who is accustomed to scoring 100 per cent. When a report goes home with a mark of 97 per cent, the student falls into deep decline. Hence the string of recent bestsellers with titles such as Germany, the Fall of a Superstar and Can Germany Still be Saved? This from a nation which rose from the ashes of postwar hunger, humiliation and disgrace to build Europe's largest, most dynamic economy. That Germans have become so morbidly fascinated by their economic wounds, however, is a measure of this past success.
Imagine the national surprise, then, when Germany regained its position as the world's largest exporter this year - selling goods worth $US920 billion ($1.2 trillion) - and economic growth hit zero per cent. That is not positive territory, but it is not going backwards either. Unemployment is still a crushing 11 per cent and consumers are so fearful they have stashed record amounts of savings in the banks, much to the chagrin of retailers. But company profits are soaring and the stock market is following suit. Analysts are cautiously suggesting the German tide has turned. That would be the first good economic news since reunification 15 years ago produced a brief, euphoric boom before the decisive bust. And the impact of German recovery would be felt far beyond its borders. Germany was once the engine of European growth and still accounts for a full third of gross domestic product in the eurodollar zone. Germany's near-stagnation has cast a very long shadow over much of western Europe.
The new economic sparks are the result of radical labour market and welfare reforms under the centre-left Government of Chancellor Gerhard Schroder - reforms so unpopular among his traditional working-class constituents and within his own Social Democratic party that Mr Schroder engineered his own defeat in a confidence motion, bringing national elections forward a year. Germany goes to the polls next Sunday with the centre-right Christian Democrats, led by Angela Merkel, ahead and leftist parties splintered. Mrs Merkel is widely expected to become Germany's first female chancellor, but she is not a polished populist and is unlikely to be able to govern alone. There is even the chance of a cumbersome "grand coalition" including Mr Schroder's Social Democrats, an outcome not seen since the 1960s.
Germany's modest recovery may have come too late to save Mr Schroder, but whoever governs next has little choice but to continue along a similar reform path. Germany's recent woes are real enough, but pessimism can too easily become a habit. It shouldn't. Take a step back and the larger, postwar picture is decidedly more optimistic: modern Germany remains one of the world's wealthiest and most equitable nations.
HECS and its missing billions
Debt owed by students under the Higher Education Contribution Scheme is growing. More ominously, less of it looks likely to be repaid. In 1995-96, only 17 per cent of an outstanding debt of $3.95 billion was regarded as doubtful. By 2003-04 the debt owed by students had grown to $10.2 billion, and 28 per cent of it looked beyond recovery. While the system is well based, the figures should worry the Government.
The principle that students should contribute to the cost of their education is sound. It is fair that those who will benefit directly from acquiring qualifications should be asked to pay part of the cost. The beauty of the HECS scheme is that it allows for subsequent hardship. If the qualifications are gained and the graduate cannot get a job, or gets stuck in a low-paid one, the money is not repaid. The scheme has become something of a model for higher education funding overseas.
The Federal Opposition is claiming the figures show some graduates can face a lifetime of debt. That is only partly true. The phrase suggests a lifelong treadmill of repayments, whereas those in hardship repay none of their HECS debt. One reason less of the debt is being recovered is that - in a welcome move - the Government has raised from $24,000 to $36,000 a year the income threshold above which graduates must start repaying what they owe. A legitimate criticism of the system is that the threshold takes no account of individual circumstances. Single parents, for example, complain they must pay for child care in order to work, yet must also start repaying HECS at the same threshold as everyone else. The double hit can leave little to live on. Another fear is that the Government will over the years rely increasingly on fees and direct less in grants to higher education. The fee burden on students is certainly growing: the size of the average HECS debt has more than doubled under the Howard Government.
Those imperfections, though, are only superficial; the debt figures suggest there may be a deeper flaw. If more of the debt is becoming unrecoverable, taxpayers, who are the lenders in this case, are entitled to ask why. Are degrees not the guarantee of future income that the HECS system assumes? Are some graduates avoiding their obligations? Whatever the cause, there is a case for examining how well the system is working. Recovering part of the cost of education from those who benefit is a fine principle - as long as it works.


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