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Run-Off-Road Collisions
Description of Strategies
The objectives for reducing the number of ROR fatality crashes are to
The ideal objective of good roadway design is to keep the vehicle in the travel lane. A secondary but related objective for a vehicle that inadvertently crosses the edgeline is to allow it to recover safely before going beyond the shoulder (if present) or back onto the roadside. Motorists will not purposely move onto the shoulder unless they need to pull over to slow or stop their vehicle. However, errant vehicles will cross over onto the shoulder and then the roadside, ending in an ROR crash. The reasons for inadvertent roadside encroachments are varied and include avoiding a vehicle, object, or animal in the travel lane; inattentive driving due to distraction, fatigue, sleep, or drugs; the effects of weather on pavement conditions; and traveling too fast through a curve. Several roadway design factors can also increase the probability that a driver error will become an ROR crash: travel lanes that are too narrow, substandard curves, and unforgiving shoulders and roadsides. Specific strategies can be applied to deal with ROR crashes caused by these factors. If a motorist travels onto the roadside, the probability of a crash depends to some extent on the speed of the vehicle and the driver's experience and capabilities. However, for normal travel on higher-speed roads, the crash probability, and primarily its severity, depends more upon roadside features, such as the presence and location of fixed objects, shoulder drop-off, sideslopes, ditches, and trees. If the roadside is fairly flat without objects and the soil can support the vehicle tires, the probability of a serious crash is minimal (and in many cases the driver fully recovers and there is no reported ROR crash). Conversely, when there is a continuous line of different types of objects and features or when the soil produces "vehicle tripping," the probability of a serious crash is high. Therefore, there are strategies directed at reducing the number and density of possible hazardous roadside features or the proximity of these features to the traveled war.
The final objective, reducing the severity of the crash, can be met by changes in the design of roadside features (e.g., making roadside hardware more forgiving or modifying sideslopes to prevent rollovers) and by changes in the vehicle (e.g., better restraint systems or improved side protection) or by increased occupant use of available restraints. A combination of strategies appears appropriate, with increased use of restraints providing the greatest benefit. This discussion focuses on roadway-related improvements.
Exhibit V-1 lists the objectives and several related strategies to reduce the consequences of ROR crashes. Details of these strategies are covered below. This is not a comprehensive listing of all possible strategies to reduce ROR crashes. For example, roadway design or rehabilitation strategies (such as building wide lanes or adding lane width on entire systems or subsystems) or the use of positive guidance principles in new roadway design can clearly affect ROR crashes. However, these strategies are most likely used in the design phase for new facilities or rehabilitation of long sections of roadways and are often high-cost improvements. AASHTO has chosen to concentrate efforts in this guide on lower-cost strategies that can be implemented relatively quickly, including strategies that can be applied to "spots" on the roadway (e.g., lane widening on hazardous curves). With few exceptions, it is these lower-cost, quickly implementable strategies that are covered below.
Types of Strategies
The strategies in this ROR guide were identified from a number of sources, including the literature, contact with state and local agencies throughout the United States, and federal programs. Some of the strategies are widely used, while others are primarily an experimental idea of a single individual or agency. Some have been subjected to well-designed evaluations to prove their effectiveness. However, it was found that many strategies, including some that are widely used, have not been adequately evaluated.
The implication of the widely varying experience with these strategies, as well as of the range of knowledge about their effectiveness, is that the reader should be prepared to exercise caution in many cases before adopting a particular strategy for implementation. To help the reader, the strategies have been classified into three types, each identified by a letter:
Targeting the Objectives
The first objective, keeping vehicles on the roadway, addresses various means of communicating with the driver. However, other strategies for fulfilling this objective target highway design features that could contribute to a crash (e.g., shoulder drop-offs and pavement with low skid resistance).
The second objective, minimizing the likelihood of an ROR crash given an encroachment, uses strategies that focus on the highway, with more concentration devoted to nonfreeway facilities and especially to higher-speed rural roads. Higher-design facilities such as freeways typically have fairly wide shoulders and more forgiving, wider clear zones. Features within the clear zone are shielded from traffic by barriers and crash attenuation devices. However, there is an extensive system of mostly two-lane, rural, high-speed roadways that do not have these features. The crash data presented earlier show that this system is particularly vulnerable to ROR crashes and should be targeted for appropriate measures. Vehicle design, restraint features and usage, and design of roadside features are all valid targets associated with the third objective, reducing the severity of ROR crashes.
The largest part of the ROR crash problem is on two-lane, rural, high-speed roads. Therefore, most of the emphasis in the following discussion of strategies is oriented to this road class. This is not to imply that there is no ROR problem on suburban or urban streets. Many of the strategies included in this guide could be implemented on such roadways, since many suburban roadways have "near-rural" designs. However, the strategy may well be restricted on these streets and roads by restricted right-of-way and preexisting roadside conditions (e.g., curbs and sidewalks, utility poles adjacent to the travel lane, and bicycle paths) that will prevent implementation of strategies oriented to the "shoulder" or "roadside." The urban safety engineer will have to rely on strategies related to keeping the driver in the travel lane (e.g., enhanced pavement markings, roadside delineation, and skid-resistant pavement).
There are also many miles of rural two-lane roads that carry significant traffic at fairly high speeds that are also characterized by very limited rights-of-way. These conditions limit the range of strategy choices. Some experimental strategies (see definition above) have been included that are oriented to these types of roadways (e.g., profile marking, edgeline rumble strips, modified rumble strips for narrow shoulders, various pavement markings at horizontal curves, and the delineation of utility poles and trees). These same strategies might be considered for urban and suburban streets. As is emphasized below, these strategies are considered experimental, since no valid effectiveness evaluations have been found. The user should not substitute these strategies for the "proven" strategies when the latter can be implemented.
Related Strategies for Creating a Truly Comprehensive Approach
The strategies listed above and described in detail below are those considered unique to this emphasis area. However, to create a truly comprehensive approach to the highway safety problems associated with this emphasis area, five types of related strategies should be included as candidates in any program planning process:
Within this guide, where the application of PI&E campaigns is deemed appropriate, it is usually in support of some other strategy. In such a case, the description for that strategy will suggest this possibility (see the attribute area for each strategy entitled "Associated Needs"). In some cases, specialized PI&E campaigns are deemed unique for the emphasis area and are detailed in the guide. In the future, additional guides may exclusively address the details regarding PI&E strategy design and implementation.
Enforcement programs, by nature, are conducted at specific locations. The effect (e.g., lower speeds, greater use of seat belts, and reduced impaired driving) may occur at or near the specific location where the enforcement is applied. This effect can often be enhanced by coordinating the effort with an appropriate PI&E program. However, in many cases (e.g., speeding and seat belt usage), the impact is areawide or jurisdictionwide. The effect can be either positive (i.e., the desired reductions occur over a greater part of the system) or negative (i.e., the problem moves to another location as road users move to new routes where enforcement is not applied). Where it is not clear how the enforcement effort may impact behavior or where an innovative and untried method could be used, a pilot program is recommended. Within this guide, where the application of enforcement programs is deemed appropriate, it is often in support of some other strategy. Many of those strategies may be targeted at either a whole system or a specific location. In such cases, the description for that strategy will suggest this possibility (see the attribute area for each strategy entitled "Associated Needs for, or in Relation to, Support Services"). In some cases, where an enforcement program is deemed unique for the emphasis area, the strategy will be detailed. As additional guides are completed, they may detail the design and implementation of enforcement strategies.
Objective 15.1 AKeep Vehicles from Encroaching on the Roadside
Strategy 15.1 A1Shoulder Rumble Strips
Many agencies have long used rumble strips on the roadway itself to alert drivers to unexpected or particularly important features ahead. Cross-lane rumble strips are commonly used in advance of stop signs on rural highways or in advance of construction zones. While the application of rumble strips on the shoulder is relatively new as an ROR safety strategy, there is considerable experience and information on design and construction, operational qualities, and the performance of shoulder rumble strips on freeways. Thus, this strategy is "proven"1 for such freeways. Due to the current use in some states, but lack of effectiveness information, shoulder rumble strips are considered a "tried" strategy for two-lane roads.
1 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Additional details concerning current practice with rumble strips can be found on the Federal Highway Administration's (FHWA's) "Rumble Strip Community of Practice" Web page at the following address: http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/programs/rumble.htm. This site provides definitions of types of rumble strips used, detailed construction drawings, effectiveness estimates, and interviews with users and other experts, among other information. Information and details describing, for example, the three major types of rumble strips (milled, rolled [or formed], and raised) are given on the FHWA Web page.
Shoulder rumble strips are compatible with other strategies designed to reduce the likelihood or severity of roadside encroachments and can sometimes be implemented in the same project effort with appropriate planning at little or no additional cost (e.g., inclusion of rumble strips in safety-based shoulder reconstruction or curve-flattening efforts).
Information on Agencies or Organizations Currently Implementing this Strategy
Almost all states have experience with shoulder rumble strips on interstates and other freeways. Some states are beginning to use them on two-lane roads. For example, as described in Appendix 2, Maryland has installed shoulder rumble strips on a limited number of miles of two-lane highways. Pennsylvania is currently installing "edgeline rumble strips" on the edgelines of two-lane roads with 4-foot shoulders (see Appendix 1). As noted above, Pennsylvania, California, and Colorado DOTs have developed a "bicycle-tolerable" rumble strip for use on such roads. As described in Appendix 3, Kansas is currently changing its rumble strip policy to move to milled-in strips only and has used shoulder rumble strips on limited sections of "Super Two" roadways (i.e., two-lane roads with wider lanes and full shoulders).
Strategy 15.1 A2Rumble Strips for Roads with Narrow or Unpaved Shoulders (Experimental Treatment)
Most agencies require fairly wide paved shoulders before rumble strips will be installed (e.g., at least 4 feet in Pennsylvania, and 6 to 8 feet preferably in Pennsylvania and other states). However, state and local agencies are often faced with locations having high ROR crashes and either no paved shoulder or a very limited paved shoulder. In many cases, these roads are also characterized by lower average daily traffic (ADT) and limited right-of-way. Thus, widening and paving a shoulder for use with rumble strips may not be a viable option.
Three experimental2 treatments that might be considered include a milled-in "edgeline" rumble strip design placed on the edgeline (see Exhibit V-6), the above-noted raised/inverted profile thermoplastic profile marker (edgeline) that was tested by California for use on shoulders of less than 5 feet in width, and a modified "standard" rumble strip design for use on narrow shoulders (e.g., 2-foot paved shoulders).
2 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
North Carolina tested the raised/inverted profile marking on a limited sample of about 40 to 50 miles of two-lane rural U.S. routes, but has not completed any effectiveness evaluation (Appendix 4). Pennsylvania is pilot testing the milled-in edgeline rumble strip on sections with 4-foot paved shoulders and hopes to move to narrower shoulders in the future. Since this design is on the edgeline, it could be tested on roadways with no paved shoulders. As shown in Exhibit V-6 above, the Pennsylvania milled-in design is approximately 7 inches apart, 5 inches wide, 0.25 inches deep, and the width of the edgeline (see Appendix 1 for contact information).
North Carolina has also initiated a test program on a 9-mile section of rural two-lane highway with narrow (i.e., 2-foot) paved shoulders. The rumble strip design being used is a modification of the "standard" milled-in design used in North Carolina. The 7-inch-wide milled cuts are
A major potential problem with the raised/inverted profile edgeline is durability in areas where snowplowing is done. North Carolina has experienced this problem in its pilot test and is no longer using this design in areas where snowfall is expected. Local residents have also complained of noise problems. The potential problems with the milled-in design for shoulders would be the samepossible (but not proven) complications with snow removal, shoulder maintenance requirements, and noise. If bicyclists regularly use these roads with narrow shoulders, the same concerns would exist.
Finally, these treatments have either not been tested or are being pilot tested at this point. They should not be used in place of other nonexperimental treatments and should be pilot tested and evaluated before widespread use. The effectiveness of these designs is unknown and may be well be lessened from the estimates in the previous section, since these sections have poor or narrow shoulders where even an "alerted" motorist might not be able to safely recover. However, given the number of miles of such roads in the United States where ROR crashes do occur, pilot testing of these designs is clearly warranted.
Strategy 15.1 A3Midlane Rumble Strips (Experimental Treatment)
Midlane rumble strips are an experimental3 treatment that might be pilot tested on roadways with no shoulders or narrow paved shoulders. (This treatment is untested at this point, should not be used in place of other nonexperimental treatments, and should be pilot tested and evaluated before widespread use.) Midlane rumble strips appear similar to shoulder rumble stripscrosswise grooves in the pavement, perhaps 0.5 inch deep, spaced about 4 inches apart, and cut in groups of four or five, but installed in the center of the travel lane versus on the edge of the shoulder. They can be rolled into hot asphalt or concrete as it is laid, or they can be milled in later. Details of shoulder rumble strips that could be considered for use midlane can be found on the FHWA rumble strip Web site at http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/programs/rumble.htm.
3 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Midlane rumble strips have the same intent as shoulder rumble strips. When the driver tracks a path leading to an encroachment on the roadside, the rumble strip acts on the inside tire (as opposed to the outside tire for shoulder rumble strips) to alert the driver. Unlike shoulder rumble strips, midlane rumble strips would be compatible with bicycle use, but may be incompatible with motorcycle use. In addition, there is fear among some designers and safety engineers that the strip in the center of the lane may become an additional driver distraction. Since midlane rumble strips should also affect head-on crashes, they might be considered at locations with both an ROR and a head-on crash problem.
The major potential difficulty with this strategy would be public acceptance, particularly with motorcyclists. The California DOT had four police motorcyclists test steering and recovery capabilities on 11 different shoulder rumble strip configurations and found no problems. However, further testing by nonprofessional riders is needed. Midlane strips could have other adverse effects, including potential snow removal problems, additional lane maintenance costs, and noise. Snow removal and maintenance problems have not been found to be a major issue for shoulder rumbles strips (see discussion in "Potential Difficulties" for shoulder rumble strips in Exhibit V-3).
Clearly this is a new, experimental intervention that will give a different look and feel to the roadway. Thus, a public information/education program is necessary to explain the benefits of the treatment, and public and motorcycle groups should be included in early planning activities.
In summary, while there are potential problems with this experimental treatment, if successfully tested, evaluated, and documented, it could provide a new tool for preventing ROR crashes on roadways where shoulder rumble strips cannot be installed, and the treatment might provide additional benefits in terms of reduction of head-on crashes.
Strategy 15.1 A4Enhanced Delineation of Sharp Curves
General Description
ROR crash risk on rural two-lane roads increases with degree of curvature. Given the knowledge that sharper curves result in more shoulder encroachments and crashes and given that the flattening of the curve may be too costly, the concept here is to provide drivers with a clear picture of the sharpness of the curve prior to curve entry, to "warn" drivers of the hazardous situation, or to cause drivers to decrease their speed prior to entering the curve (Exhibit V-7). The first and second could be done through improved shoulder delineation (e.g., chevrons or high-intensity chevrons, large arrow signs, or delineators on guardrails); by improved curve warning signs (e.g., warning signs with flashing beacons); or innovative on-pavement markings (e.g., warning arrows on the pavement prior to the curve). The speed-reduction treatment would also involve innovative pavement markings that create a sense of "danger" (e.g., transverse lines with decreasing spacing or edgelines that give the appearance of a narrowing lane width). As a last resort, one state installed transverse rumble strips on the traveled way prior to the hazardous curve.
Strategy Attributes
As noted below, the shoulder delineation treatments are considered "proven"4 strategies in terms of crash reduction, while the on-pavement treatments, aimed at warning the driver or increasing the visible level of hazard, have been "tried" by states, but are not considered "proven" in terms of crash reductions. This series of treatments is compatible with other ROR and head-on crash treatments and should not adversely affect other road users such as bicyclists or motorcyclists.
4 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Strategy 15.1 A5Improved Highway Geometry for Horizontal Curves
General Description
Both ROR and head-on crashes are 1.5 to 4 times more likely to occur on curves than on tangents (Glennon et al., 1985). Zegeer et al. (1992) found that ROR crashes accounted for approximately 57 percent of the total crashes on a sample of over 11,000 curves on two-lane rural roads. While many of the other strategies in this section (e.g., rumble strips, shoulder treatments, wider clear zones, and skid-resistant pavement) would have equal or greater effectiveness on curves, crash reductions on curves can also be realized through tailored programs. Specifically, flattening curves (i.e., increasing the curve radius on two-lane rural roadways) has been found by Zegeer et al. to result in total curve crash reductions of up to 80 percent (i.e., flattening a 30-degree curve to 5 degrees). Thus, this strategy has been "proven"5 to reduce crashes. Given the size of these potential reductions, an agency should clearly consider this as a treatment alternative for locations with significant ROR problems if right-of-way and funding are available. Since some head-on crashes are the result of vehicles leaving the lane onto the shoulder area and then "overcorrecting" such that they cross into the opposing lane of travel and strike an oncoming vehicle, this treatment will also affect head-on crashes.
5 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Flattening of curves involves reconstructing a road section and changing the alignment. This strategy is among the higher-cost alternatives of those considered. Reconstruction may also entail the environmental process and will often include right-of-way acquisition, both of which require substantial time. Therefore, curve flattening will usually be outside the timeframe adopted for the AASHTO Strategic Highway Safety Plan. However, the strategy is included here since it can result in significant crash savings, which is based upon extensive research. Curve flattening is compatible with other ROR strategies such as shoulder or midlane rumble strips, enhanced delineation, wider shoulders, and roadside improvements. These complementary modifications, when implemented together, can result in lower costs than if they were instituted at separate times.
Strategy 15.1 A6Enhanced Pavement Markings at Appropriate Locations
General Description
Strategy Attributes
The goal of the strategy is to mark the roadway more clearly so that drivers will use the information to stay in their lanes and not merely to maintain or increase their speed. The specific markings to be used are low-cost, readily available materials.
As will be seen below, there remains conflicting evidence concerning the crash-related effectiveness of these devices. Thus, they are considered to be in the "tried"6 category of strategies. If truly effective, these treatments appear to be compatible with other ROR and head-on treatments and should not adversely affect other road users such as bicyclists or motorcyclists.
6 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Strategy 15.1 A7Skid-Resistant Pavements
General Description
A vehicle will skid during braking and maneuvering when frictional demand exceeds the friction force that can be developed at the tire-road interface. While this can happen on dry pavements at high speeds, friction force is greatly reduced by a wet pavement surface. In fact, a water film thickness of 0.002 inches reduces the tire pavement friction by 20 to 30 percent of the dry surface friction. Therefore, countermeasures should seek to increase the friction force at the tire-road interface and reduce water on the pavement surface. The coefficient of friction is most influenced by speed. However, many additional factors affect skid resistance, including the age of the pavement, pavement structural condition, traffic volume, road surface type and texture, aggregates used, pavement mix characteristics, tire conditions, and presence of surface water.
There has been a large amount of research funded by the FHWA, AASHTO, and pavement associations concerning designing better pavementspavements which are more durable and more cost-effective (e.g., the FHWA/AASHTO Strategy Highway Research Program). The FHWA has issued a series of pavement-related technical advisories on such issues as needed changes in surface finishing of Portland cement concrete pavements for increased safety (FHWA, 1996). An important parameter in all this work is pavement skid resistance, perhaps the major safety-related factor along with pavement drainage design. However, most of this research and implementation effort is oriented toward policy or systemwide changes in new pavements or repaving efforts. While the best safety-related pavement design possible should be used in all paving efforts, the details of pavement design are beyond the scope of this guide.
Instead, this section will concentrate on improvements that can be made to sites that have, or are expected to experience, skidding-related ROR crashes. These usually involve improvements to increase skid resistance (higher friction factor). Such improvements should have high initial skid resistance, durability to retain skid resistance with time and traffic, and minimum decrease in skid resistance with increasing speed. Countermeasures to improve skid resistance include asphalt mixture (type and gradation of aggregate as well as asphalt content), pavement overlays on both concrete or asphalt pavements, and pavement grooving. Water can also build up on pavement surfaces due to tire rutting, an inadequate crown, and poor shoulder maintenance. These problems can also cause skidding crashes and should be treated when present. While there is only limited research on such site-specific programs (see below), the results of this research coupled with the results of research on the general effectiveness of decreasing skidding would place this in the "proven"7 category.
7 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Information on Current Knowledge Regarding Agencies or Organizations that Are Implementing This Strategy
Many states have an ongoing program aimed at the systematic monitoring of pavements, including measurement of skid numbers. As described in Appendix 5, New York State DOT has established SKARP to incorporate safety into pavement maintenance. The program was established to address problems with inadequate pavement friction. Using a systematic approach, over 100 statewide sites are identified annually and further tested and possibly treated. The treatments include resurfacing and microsurfacing.
Strategy 15.1 A8Shoulder Treatments
General Description
If a vehicle that has intentionally or unintentionally left its lane and entered the shoulder area is allowed to safely recover, ROR crashes can be reduced. The probability of such a safe recovery is increased if the errant vehicle is provided with a wider and smoother area in which to initiate such a recovery and if the recovery is not impeded by a pavement irregularity that causes the driver to either fail to re-enter the lane or to enter it at such an angle that the vehicle crosses into the opposing lane. Shoulder treatments that promote safe recovery include shoulder widening, shoulder paving, and the reduction of pavement edgedrops (i.e., differences in lane pavement and shoulder surface heights, whether paved or not). While each strategy could be covered separately, the effectiveness is related, and the actual treatment can often be completed as a "package" during roadway resurfacing. Note that these same shoulder treatments, particularly shoulder paving and correcting edgedrops, can reduce head-on crashes. These treatments enable the vehicle's recovery to be made in a more controlled fashion and at a less sharp angle, thereby reducing the chances that the recovering vehicle will over-correct into the opposing lane.
Strategy Attributes
Based upon current research concerning crash-related effectiveness, shoulder paving and widening are considered "proven" strategies, while edgedrop treatments are considered "experimental."8 These shoulder treatments are compatible with other ROR treatments. Paving shoulders can be accompanied by shoulder rumble strips, and paving and widening shoulders should make the shoulders more compatible with bicycle use.
8 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Information on Agencies or Organizations Currently Implementing this Strategy
Objective 15.1 BMinimize the Likelihood of Crashing into an Object or Overturning if the Vehicle Travels Off the Shoulder
Strategy 15.1 B1Design Safer Slopes and Ditches to Prevent Rollovers
This strategy has been covered below with closely related strategies under the section entitled Combined Strategy: Improving Roadsides.
Strategy 15.1 B2Remove/Relocate Objects in Hazardous Locations
This strategy has been covered below with closely related strategies under the section entitled Combined Strategy: Improving Roadsides.
Strategy 15.1 B3Delineation of Roadside Objects (Experimental Treatment)
This strategy has been covered below with closely related strategies under the section entitled Combined Strategy: Improving Roadsides.
Objective 15.1 CReduce the Severity of the Crash
Strategy 15.1 C1Improve Design of Roadside Hardware (e.g., Bridge Rails)
This strategy has been covered below with closely related strategies under the section entitled Combined Strategy: Improving Roadsides.
Strategy 15.1 C2Improve Design and Application of Barrier and Attenuation Systems
This strategy has been covered below with closely related strategies under the section entitled Combined Strategy: Improving Roadsides.
Combined Strategy: Improving Roadsides
The section includes strategies aimed at both minimizing the likelihood of a crash or overturning, if a vehicle travels off the shoulder and onto the roadside, and minimizing the severity of the crashes that do occur on the roadside. Because this strategy has multiple possible components that are covered in detail in other documents, the following narrative will be more general than the preceding sections. The reader should also refer to the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide for a detailed discussion of this strategy area.
General Description
The series of strategies covered first in this guide are related to keeping the vehicle from encroaching onto the shoulderkeeping the vehicle in its lane (e.g., shoulder rumble strips). The second set of strategies describing shoulder treatments is related to minimizing ROR crash likelihood by allowing the errant vehicle to safely recover to the travel lane. The set of strategies covered in this final section are related to the roadsidethe area outside the shoulder. Each strategy is aimed at meeting one or both of the following goals:
Improvements to the roadside can meet both goals by providing a traversable "clear zone," which (a) is free of highway hardware and unsafe natural objects (e.g., trees); (b) protects the objects that cannot be removed (e.g., crash attenuators in front of hazardous utility poles, guardrails protecting steep sideslopes); or (c) makes objects that cannot be removed less severe to the striking vehicle (e.g., breakaway signs and utility poles). In addition, the well-designed clear zone will
Strategy Attributes
Strategies that are directed at roadside design range from very costly to relatively inexpensive. The former include purchasing new right-of-way, building wider and safer clear zones where limited zones now exist, and clearing and grading clear zones on right-of-way already owned. Less costly (but not inexpensive) strategies may include replacing nonbreakaway or outdated roadside hardware (e.g., guardrail ends, culverts) with newer technology at selected locations, burying utility lines, or relocating utility poles. The question for the agency then becomes one of how to spend limited roadside safety dollars in the most cost-efficient manner. That is, what should be targeted, and how?
Rural and urban interstate roads (which experience approximately 18 percent of the ROR fatalities) exhibit a slightly different pattern, since the roadsides on interstates are built to a much higher standard. "Overturn" is much more prevalent as the most harmful event (59 percent); guardrails and concrete traffic barriers are slightly more prevalent (6 percent and 2 percent, respectively); ditch and embankments are slightly less prevalent (3 percent); and utility pole impacts are virtually eliminated. Somewhat surprisingly, while less prevalent, trees are still the most harmful event in interstate ROR fatal crashes in 13 percent of the cases.
Because of the importance of tree impacts on all roads and utility pole impacts on two-lane roads, they have been designated as separate emphasis areas with separate guides. For that reason, this section will not concentrate on these areas in terms of specific treatment strategies.
Rollover Reduction
If one were concerned with addressing a significant proportion of ROR fatalities with roadside treatments other than those aimed at trees and utility poles, the above data would point to concentration on treatments that lessen rollovers. The issue is complex, in that roadway and roadside design are only one of many factors affecting rollovers. Important factors not under the control of the roadway engineer include driver control factors (e.g., speed control or steering or braking during attempted recovery) and vehicle factors (e.g., the higher rollover propensity of SUVs and pickups). In addition, treatments aimed at rollover prevention are, in general, expensive. They either involve the development and deployment of new roadside hardware to replace outdated installations that might produce vehicle rollovers (e.g., replacing outdated guardrail ends) or, more often, widening and flattening roadside slopes. There is also some initial evidence that certain soils may cause rollovers on sideslopes that are otherwise safe. Given the size of the problem, and the severity of rollovers, the effort and expense is often warranted.
Because of the significance of the rollover problem, the FHWA initiated a major research effort in this area. While the results of that program will not be available until 2003, the initial phase of the effortthe experimental design of the research, which details the nature of the problem and possible avenues of researchhas been completed (see Harkey et al., 2000). The roadside design features most likely to affect rollover include the sideslope (particularly fill slopes), ditch design, the nature of the soil on the slope, and the design of roadside hardware that might lead to rollovers (e.g., poorly designed guardrail ends). Unfortunately, little is known at this point concerning how soil types (or possible treatments) might affect rollover.
The AASHTO Roadside Design Guide (2002) provides guidance concerning the recommended clear zone distance for given cut or fill slopes, design speed, and design ADT (Exhibits V-21 and V-22). The guide also presents adjustment figures based on horizontal curvature. As noted in the recent NCHRP Report 440 (Fitzpatrick et al., 2000), "The guidance curves provided [in the Roadside Design Guide] are based on limited empirical data that was then extrapolated to provide data for a wide range of roadside conditions; therefore, the numbers obtained from these curves represent a 'reasonable measure' of the degree of safety suggested for a particular roadway." Attempts are continually being made to update and improve these data. NCHRP Project 17-11, "Determination of Safe/Cost Effective Roadside Slopes and Associated Clear Distances," is aimed at increasing the understanding of roadside encroachment distances (i.e., the distance a vehicle strays from the travel lane) and rollover occurrence on roadside slopes.
Additional rollover (and other ROR) crash reduction could come from improved designs of roadside ditches. While the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide includes preferred foreslopes and backslopes for basic ditch configurations, these configurations are primarily seen on interstates and other higher-order roads and are often very different from the ditches on two-lane rural roads. Designs have not yet been developed to grade common two-lane shoulder-ditch combinations to reduce the chances of rollover and of vehicle encroachment across the ditch. Thus, based on today's knowledge, the best "rollover-prevention" program will be related to flattening and widening side slopes, particularly fill slopes.
In summary, based on research evidence to date, the set of strategies related to rollover (and ROR crash) reduction through changes in the "vertical" component of the sideslope (i.e., the degree and length or slope and related ditch design) would be considered "proven"9 strategies.
9 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Widening Clear Zones
Reducing rollover crashes is primarily accomplished by improvements to sideslopes and ditches. These are both components of the "clear zone"the recovery area provided to vehicles that leave the roadway. In addition to modifying these "vertical" components of the clear zone, additional crash and fatality savings can be realized by modifying the width of the zone. The wider the object-free recovery area provided, the more likely an errant vehicle will either safely return to the travel lanes or stop on the roadside without a reportable crash. The width of the zone is normally set by either natural objects (e.g., trees, rock outcrops, embankments), or by roadside hardware (e.g., guardrails).
The question then becomes how wide to make the zone. While conventional wisdom (and the Roadside Design Guide) implies that a "safe clear zone width" on higher-speed roads is approximately 30 feet, there is no single width that defines maximum safety. Indeed, the guidance on clear zone width provided in the Roadside Design Guide is based on factors including design speed of the roadway, design ADT, the prevailing sideslope, and curvature. In general, the wider the better, up to some limit beyond which no significant number of vehicles will encroach.
Crash research provides a variety of approaches to answering the question of how wide a clear zone should be. For example, using crash, inventory, and ADT data from two states to study median widths (which act as "clear zones" for these freeways and other divided roads), Knuiman et al. (1993) found that accident rates continued to decrease as median widths increased up to about 80 feet. The effect was seen for head-on/opposite direction sideswipe crashes, as expected. A similar effect was also found for single- and multiple-vehicle crashes.
A 1995 study for the Texas DOT used a benefit-cost approach to establish guidelines for clear zone on suburban high-speed roadways with curb and gutter (Fambro et al., 1995). Based upon crash and roadside data and the ROADSIDE computer model, an appropriate and cost-beneficial clear zone width requirement was determined for such sections. "High-speed" was defined as a section with posted speed limits of 50 or 55 mph. The study focused on situations in which growth in traffic volume and frequency of turning movements necessitate the widening of an existing two-lane highway to four or more lanes. For this study, the baseline minimum clear zone width used in the calculation was approximately 10 feet. That is, even with added lanes, the existing right-of-way would allow at least 3.0 meters (10 feet) of clear zone. Based upon an incremental benefit-cost analysis for various combinations of baseline clear zone width, ADT, roadside hazard rating, and unit right-of-way acquisition cost, the study found the following in general:
These findings are for suburban roads rather than rural roads, and the fatality costs used in the calculations were $500,000. Higher fatality costs such as those used today would change these break-even points.
In summary, the determination of an optimum clear zone width may best be answered in some type of economic analysiscomparing the cost of widening the zone with the savings in crashes (along with other costs and benefits). Savings in crashes will be a function of the number of vehicles that leave the roadway (which is strongly related to ADT, alignment, and vehicle speeds); how far they encroach onto the roadside (a function of exit angle, speed, and driver braking and steering); and the nature of the object that will be struck at the far edge of the clear zone. In short, this is a complex prediction problem.
An economic analysis program has been developed to aid the user in this effort: the ROADSIDE computer program. Details of the program are found in the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide. A revised and improved version of this program (the Roadside Safety Analysis Program, or RSAP) is expected to be completed by the end of 2002 under NCHRP Project 22-9 (Sicking et al., 2003). In addition, both these programs are based on limited data concerning the critical factors of roadside encroachment rates and extents; AASHTO is currently updating these data as part of the work in NCHRP Project 17-11, being conducted by the Texas Transportation Institute.
The wider the clear zone, the safer it will be. While additional guidance on widths and slopes and economic analysis techniques should be developed within the next 1 to 5 years, the best current guidance on widths and slopes is in the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide. Based on the current research concerning crash-related effectiveness, strategies aimed at widening the clearzone are considered to have "proven" effectiveness.10
10 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Improving Roadside Hardware and Natural Objects
The clear zone concept requires that no objects that can result in crashes be located in the zone. However, some objects must be located near the traveled way for a variety of reasons. These include hardware or objects related to traffic guidance or control (e.g., signs, some lighting supports); protection of more hazardous objects or situations (e.g., guardrails or median barriers); roadway design requirements (e.g., culverts); and traditional right-of-way uses (e.g., utility poles, mail boxes). Regardless of the reason, the best treatment for all objects is to remove them from the zone. If this cannot be done, alternative strategies include the following:
The AASHTO Roadside Design Guide includes detailed discussion of this overall "forgiving roadside" strategy, along with design specifications, placement information and crash test results for a large number of roadside hardware devices. The guide also includes criteria for use in determining which of the many alternative hardware types should be chosen for a specific application.
A final strategy for improving roadside hardware involves replacing less forgiving, older hardware with newer designs. The Roadside Design Guide is also a useful reference in this context, since it provides effectiveness information on both older and newer hardware designs. For example, there is a detailed discussion of the Breakaway Cable Terminal (BCT) guardrail end, including problems that have been experienced due to improper installation (e.g., a lack of critical "flare" from the roadway). The guide presents information on a series of possible replacement terminals, including the Modified Eccentric Loader Terminal (MELT) and others. The guide does not include information on older guardrail terminal designs such as blunt or turned-down ends. The clear implication is that these designs are much less safe than newer designs and should be replaced.
The Roadside Design Guide provides general direction for a number of different types of hardware regarding when an older, outdated piece of hardware should be replaced: "This device should no longer be used on new installations for higher volumes and speeds, and should be upgraded as required by the state's policies and practices during rehabilitation projects or as needed during maintenance operations." More detailed guidance is given for roadside barriers. The primary criterion is whether the older barrier meets current structural guidelines (based primarily on crash test results) or whether it meets current design and location guidelines (e.g., too short to protect the hazard or too close to the hazard, based upon barrier deflection characteristics).
In a limited number of cases, the FHWA required that states upgrade older hardware. The most recent example involves the BCT and MELT guardrail terminals. The FHWA and AASHTO agreed to use only terminals that pass new crash test standards in new construction and rehabilitation projects as of October 1, 1998. Since neither the BCT nor MELT passed the new standards, neither can be used in new construction or reconstruction projects. Unfortunately, as will be seen in the later Effectiveness section, most of the upgrading guidance cannot be based on accident studies, since almost none exist. Instead, it is based solely on crash test results. For more information on barriers and other safety devices that have been approved by the FHWA for use on National Highway System roads, see http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/fourthlevel/pro_res_road_nchrp350.htm.
In summary, based upon current crash-related research, the relocation of "hard" objects farther from the roadway or their replacement with more forgiving designs (e.g., breakaway designs) are considered "proven"11 strategies to reduce roadside harm. As will be seen below, the replacement of older "approved" barrier terminal designs with newer designs would be considered a "tried" strategy at this time, since sufficient real-world crash data have not been accumulated to move it into the "proven" category.
11 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
Delineation of Roadside Objects (Experimental Treatment)
The above described strategies for reducing roadside crash risk and severity have been evaluated to some extend either through crash testing or crash-based evaluations. At least two states are currently pilot testing a low-cost experimental12 strategy where roadside objects are delineated so that they are more visible to drivers at night. Pennsylvania is testing this strategy at sites with high ROR utility-pole and tree-related crash frequencies (particularly at night) where it was not feasible to remove or relocate the object either due to budget constraints or due to the object being on private property. The tree or utility pole is marked with a 4-inch round of reflective tape. (One round is used on each tree and each utility pole, except for poles at intersections where two rounds are used.) The treatment is being tested in 11 districts in over 50 counties. (See Appendix 1 for contact information.)
12 See explanation of ratings on page V-3.
In the Iowa DOT pilot test, crash-prone utility poles that cannot be relocated or removed are being marked with a single band of 6-inch white reflective tape. Iowa identified corridors with high numbers of utility pole impacts from a statewide analysis and found that two 5- to 10-block corridors were in one city. One of the corridors was a four-lane street with higher speeds. The other included a 90-degree "bend" in the middle of the section. The Iowa DOT worked with the city (which owned the utility) in this effort. (See Appendix 6 for contact information.) They are now beginning to expand the pilot test to DOT districts.
The hypothesis is that such treatments could (a) provide additional guidance cues to the driver so that he or she is more likely to stay on the roadway (in the case of the regularly spaced utility poles); (b) make the hazard more visible (which might provide further "incentive" for staying on the roadway); or (c) provide "safer escape route" information to those vehicles that do leave the roadway (assuming the driver has time to react and to control the vehicle after leaving the roadway).
Pennsylvania has found that the utility pole tape can become detached and slide down the pole within a year in some cases. Iowa used an additional special adhesive to increase the life of the tape. Neither state has conducted what it considers to be a good evaluation of the utility pole tape, and so the utility pole tape's effectiveness is unknown. Therefore, the treatment must be considered experimental. It is unknown whether the additional visual input to the driver provided by these markings is beneficial or confusing. This should not be used in place of other nonexperimental treatment and should be pilot tested and evaluated before widespread use in any jurisdiction. (Note that these experimental strategies are not covered in Exhibit V-23.)
Targeting Roadside Improvements
Given the large number of miles of roadside and the expense of several of the important strategies (e.g., sideslope flattening or clear zone widening), it is important to target the various roadside improvement strategies to sites where they will be most beneficial. Targeting can be done in a number of ways, including the following:
Initial location of potential treatment sites might be accomplished using programs that states currently use to identify hazardous sections of roads. These programs could be modified to focus on ROR crashes. These initial candidates might be further examined by comparing ROR rates at these sites with overall ROR rates on similar highway classes (e.g., two-lane rural roads). Care must be taken to avoid selection bias resulting from regression to the mean.
Since the ROR crashes being targeted here are those occurring on "problem" roadsides, further office-based examination of potential sites might then be accomplished by review of agency photologs or videologs for these sites. Lastly, since the final decision concerning treatment alternatives and final implementation should be based upon cost-effectiveness, the ROADSIDE or RSAP program could be used to examine the benefits and costs of alternatives. A study of sideslope flattening in Washington State (Allaire et al., 1996) concluded that the use of benefit-cost analyses of roadside safety improvements should be included in all types of highway construction projects to better identify how best to use roadside safety funds.
Other innovative targeting schemes could be used if an agency has some form of roadside inventory or roadside hardware inventory. In this case, the inventory data could be either used alone or combined with the crash data to target treatment locations. For example, if an inventory of guardrail terminals exists or can be collected from "windshield surveys" or photo/videologs, an agency could target terminal upgrading efforts to designs known to have problems if installed improperly (e.g., the BCT device). Colorado has an inventory of certain classes of hardware and has attempted to develop such procedures.
Compatibility with Other Strategies
All roadside improvement strategies would appear to be compatible with other ROR strategies aimed at keeping the vehicle on the roadway. The roadside improvement strategies are aimed at vehicles that leave the roadway even in the presence of other treatments. In addition, since these strategies affect areas outside the shoulders, they are compatible with bicycle and other uses. Widening existing clear zones, through the removal of trees, is perhaps both the most effective and the most problematic (it is problematic when there is opposition to removal of trees alongside roadways). The reader is referred to Volume 3 of this report for a full discussion on this potential conflict.
Information on Agencies or Organizations Currently Implementing this Strategy
Many state and local agencies implement clear zone policies for roadway construction. Some are implementing programs aimed at improving the clear zone, including programs focused upon flattening roadside slopes. Examples include the Washington State DOT 3R program, Washington's utility pole relocation program (which will be covered in an upcoming volume of this report), and Pennsylvania's tree removal program (see Volume 3 of this report). As required by FHWA, all states are using newer guardrail end terminal designs in new construction and reconstruction, and other hardware is often upgraded in major reconstruction projects. No states have been identified that are currently replacing older hardware on a systemwide basis. Finally, the Pennsylvania DOT is exploring the use of single-faced concrete barriers (instead of guardrail) in urban/suburban locations where the right-of-way is restricted and there is no option to relocate utility poles or to improve sideslopes.
Key References
AASHTO. Roadside Design Guide, 3rd Edition. Washington, D.C. (More information can be found at http://www.transportation.org/publications/bookstore.nsf/Home?OpenForm). 2002.
Agent, K. R. "Transverse Pavement Markings for Speed Control and Accident Reduction (Abridgement)." Transportation Research Record 773, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. 1980.
Agent, K. R., and J. G. Pigman. Performance of Guardrail End Treatments in Traffic Accidents. Research Report KTC-91-1, Kentucky Transportation Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky. 1991.
Allaire, C., D. Ahner, M. Abarca, P. Adgar, and S. Long. Relationship Between Side Slope Conditions and Collision Records in Washington State. Final Report, WA-RD 425.1, Washington State Department of Transportation, Olympia, Washington. 1996.
Black, G. W., Jr., and L. E. Jackson. "Pavement Surface Water Phenomena and Traffic Safety." ITE Journal, pp. 32-37, February 2000.
Bray, J. Memo on "Skid Accident Reduction Program," NYSDOT. 2001.
Bucko, T. R., and A. Khorashadi. Evaluation of Milled-In Rumble Strips, Rolled-In Rumble Strips and Audible Edge Stripe. Office of Transportation Safety and Research, California Department of Transportation. 2001.
Fambro, D. B., R. L. Nowlin, S. P. Warren, K. A. Lienau, J. M. Mounce, R. P. Bligh, K. K. Mak, and H. E. Ross. Geometric Design Guidelines for Suburban High-Speed Curb and Gutter Roadways. Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas. 1995.
FHWA. Draft Technical Advisory on Roadway Shoulder Rumble Strips. http://safety.fhwa.dot. gov/fourthlevel/rumstrp_ta.htm. 1999.
FHWA. http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/rumblestrips/.
FHWA. "Skid Accident Reduction Program." FHWA Technical Advisory T 5040.17, December 23, 1980 (see http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/legsregs/directives/techadvs/t504017.htm).
FHWA. HSIS Summary Report: Safety Evaluation of Rolled- In Continuous Shoulder Rumble Strips Installed on Freeways. Washington, D.C. FHWA-RD-00-32. 1999.
FHWA. Surface Finishing of Portland Cement Concrete PavementFinal Report FHWA-SA-96-068, Tire Pavement Noise and Safety Performance, May 1996. FHWA Policy Memorandum, Office of Engineering, November 12, 1996 (see http://wwwcf.fhwa.dot.gov/legsregs/directives/policy/sa_96_06.htm).
FHWA. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Washington, D.C. 1988.
Fitzpatrick, K., K. Balke, D. W. Harwood, and I. B. Anderson. NCHRP Report 440: Accident Mitigation Guide for Congested Rural Two-Lane Highways. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. 2000.
Foody, T. J., and W. C. Taylor. Curve Delineation and Accidents. Ohio Department of Highways, Bureau of Traffic. Columbus, Ohio. 1966.
Galal, A. A., R. Al-Mahrooqui, and R. Taha. Measurement, Analysis, Evaluation and Restoration of Skid Resistance on the Streets of Muscat. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, TRB 78th Annual Meeting Preprint CD-ROM, paper #991343. 1999.
Glennon, J. C., T. R. Newman, and J. E. Leisch. Safety and Operational Considerations for Design of Rural Highway Curves, FHWA/RD-86/035. FHWA, U.S. Department of Transportation. 1985.
Griffith, M. S. Safety Evaluation of Continuous Shoulder Rumble Strips Installed on Freeways. Federal Highway Administration. Reference number: TRB No. 990162. 1999.
Harkey, D. L., F. M. Council, K. Digges, A. Eskandarian, W. W. Hunter, and K. K. Eccles. Effects of Highway Design on RolloverExperimental Design. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. Unpublished report. 2000. Available from primary author at firstname.lastname@example.com.
Harwood, D. W. NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 191: Use of Rumble Strips to Enhance Safety. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. 1993.
Harwood, D. W., F. M. Council, E. Hauer, W. E. Hughes, and A. Vogt. Prediction of the Expected Safety Performance of Rural Two-Lane Highways, FHWA-RD-99-207, Federal Highway Administration. 2000.
Hatcher, C. W. "Grooving Streets and Highways Can Help Stop Skid Crashes." Traffic Engineering. 1974.
Hauer, E. Review of Literature Concerning the Safety Effects of Roadway and Intersection Factors. Unpublished. 2000. http://www.roadsafetyresearch.com/.
Humphreys, J. B., and J. A. Parham. The Elimination or Mitigation of Hazards Associated with Pavement Edge Drop-Offs During Roadway Resurfacing. AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, Washington, D.C. 1994.
Jennings, B. E., and M. J. Demetsky. Evaluation of Curve Delineation Signs on Rural Highways. Virginia Highway and Transportation Research Council. 1983.
Kallberg, V. "Reflector PostsSigns or Danger?" Transportation Research Record 1403. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. 1993.
Knuiman, M. W., F. M. Council, and D. W. Reinfurt. "The Association of Median Width and Highway Accident Rates." Transportation Research Record 1401. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. 1993.
Ligon, C. M., E. D. Carter, D. B. Joost, and W. W. Wolman. Effects of Shoulder Textured Treatments on Safety. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. FHWA/RD-85/027. 1985.
Meyer, E. "A New Look at Optical Speed Bars." ITE Journal. November 2001.
Migletz, J., J. K. Fish, and J. L. Graham. Roadway Delineation Practices Handbook. FHWA-SA-93-001, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. 1994.
Morena, D. A., and L. S. Schroeder. Accident Analysis of the Michigan Breakaway Cable Terminals (BCT). Federal Highway Administration, Michigan Division, Washington, D.C. 1994.
New York State Department of Transportation. 1988 Annual Evaluation Report: Highway Safety Improvement Program. 1988.
New York State Department of Transportation. Safe-Strips (Safety Shoulder Rumble Strips). April 1998.
New York State Department of Transportation. Raised Reflectorized Snowplowable Pavement Markers: A Report to the Governor. 1997.
The Ohio Underwriter. "Research on Reflective Markers Indicates Savings of $6.50 for each Dollar Spent." 1981.
Perrillo, K. The Effectiveness and Use of Continuous Shoulder Rumble Strips. Federal Highway Administration. 1998. http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/rumblestrips/resources/rumblekp.htm.
Pendleton, O. Evaluation of Accident Analysis Methodology. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. FHWA RD-96-039. 1996.
Ray, M. H. "Safety Effectiveness of Upgrading Guardrail Terminals to NCHRP Report 350 Standards." Transportation Research Record 1720. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. 2000.
Retting, R. A. Personal correspondence from author concerning Pennsylvania curve marking experiment. 1999.
Retting, R. A., and C. M. Farmer. "Use of Pavement Markings to Reduce Excessive Traffic Speeds on Hazardous Curves," ITE Journal. September 1998.
Retting, R. A., H. W. McGee, and C. M. Farmer. "Influence of Experimental Pavement Markings on Urban Freeway Exit-Ramp Traffic Speeds." Transportation Research Record 1705, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. 2000.
Sicking, D. L., K. K. Mak, and K. Zimmerman. NCHRP Report 492: Roadside Safety Analysis Program (RSAP)Engineer's Manual. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. 2003.
State of New Jersey. Annual Safety Report. Fiscal Year 1986.
Steyvers, F. and D. Waard. "Road Edge Delineation in Rural Areas: Effects on Driving Behaviour," Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, HFES Europe Chapter Annual Meeting, Haren, the Netherlands. 1997.
Torbic, D., L. Elefteriadou, M. El-Gindy. "Development of Rumble Strip Configurations that Are More Bicycle Friendly." Transportation Research Record 1773. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. 2001.
Zador, P., H. S. Stein, P. Wright, and J. Hall. "Effects of Chevrons, Post-Mounted Delineators, and Raised Pavement Markers on Driver Behavior at Roadway Curves." Transportation Research Record 1114, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. 1987.
Zegeer, C. V., J. R. Stewart, D. W. Reinfurt, F. M. Council, T. R. Newman, E. G. Hamilton, T. Miller, and W. W. Hunter. Cost Effective Geometric Improvements for Safety Upgrading of Horizontal CurvesFinal Report. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. 1990.
Zegeer, C. V., J. Hummer, D. Reinfurt, L. Herf, W. Hunter. Safety Effects of Cross-Section Design for Two-Lane RoadsVolumes I and II. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. FHWA-RD-87-008. 1987.
Zegeer, C. V., J. R. Stewart, F. M. Council, D. W. Reinfurt, and E. Hamilton. "Safety Effects of Geometric Improvements on Horizontal Curves," Transportation Research Record 1356. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. 1992.
Zwahlen, H. T., and T. Schnell. "Knowledge-Based Personal Computer Software Package for Applying and Placing Curve Delineation Devices." Transportation Research Record 1495. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. Washington, D.C. 1995.


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Rejuvenate your body, mind, and spirit with a relaxing and healing therapeutic massage. Massage techniques can reverse the negative effects of stress, repair damaged muscle tissue, and remove pain throughout your body. I use a range of massage techniques that improve circulation, detoxify your body, relieve tension, improve digestion, enhance muscle tone, and increase mental alertness and body awareness. Regular massage will not only benefit the body, but benefit the mind as well. Experience the mental and spiritual healing as your mind releases stress and worry, and allows a renewed sense to energy and emotional well-being to enter your spirit.
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subset: commoncrawl


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Train Milan → TurinFrom ₹ 720
- Arrival station : Torino porta nuov (Via Paolo Sacchi, 11 10125 Torino)
5.5 milliontravellers in 2015
75+years of rail travel experience
Secured payment
Travel forum
Travel resources
Contact Us
Main stations in Milan and Turin
Travel inspiration in Milan and Turin
Milan, the second largest city in Italy
Milan is a main Italian city and regarded as the fashion capital of Europe. Milan is also an transport hub for Italy. The city has an important stake in the finance, commerce, media and sport of Italy. Two of its football teams, Inter Milan and Milan AC, are known throughout the world. Milan is located in the north west of Italy and is home to a number of museums, designers factory shops, churches and other landmarks. Those who love street style would love the Navigli area. In Piazza XXIV Maggio, shoppers will find brands such Custo-Barcellona, Diesel, Miss Sixteen, Gas and Fornarina, alongside second-hand clothes shops, handmade clothes and accessory stores made from silk and other precious materials.
The main railway stations of Milan are Milan Centrale and Milan Porta Garibaldi. The two stations are about 1.5 kilometres away from each other.
Turin, an unforgettable experience
Wide streets and 17th-century buildings are surrounded by snow-capped mountains in Turin, dubbed the Capital of the Alps. This wealthy Italian city is a centre for industry, fashion and the arts, with a football-mad population who split their rabid loyalty between giants Juventus and Torino.
Reviews & ratings Milan - Turin
The coach is clear. Chairs are comfortable and gives my wife a good rest after a long fight. It's the first time she travel by train in Italy, and she's very enjoy.
I never gone with sleeper train before and im realy surprise to knew that we will be sleep with 6 bed on the same carrier. But over all its okey. Nice to knew about that situation.
First Class seating is very comfy, and there is free espresso and snack, newspaper. Satisfied! If free WIFI is available that's better
This is my 2nd time traveled to Milan by Rail Europe. The reason I chose Rail Europe because of the convenient and value for money. The next visit i will still take Rail Europe.
Smooth trip. Very clean train. Very fast...an hour just fly away
Travelling by train for short distances is more fast and even more comfortable than by plane. The train was clean, the service excellent and the travel time shorter than if I did it by car.
The train was on time. The seats were comfortable and it was a pleasant ride.
Everything went perfectly. No complaints with the trip at all, but the Lisbon train station was a challenge. It was virtually closed upon arrival and I had to wait about 45 minutes before I could ask someone how to get in the general direction of my hotel since the signage at the Lisbon train station is terrible.
Really good train in 1st class (the 2nd class tickets were fully booked on the internet but the train was empty!). Despite that it could be better if it had a wifi connection on the train.


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Academic Resource CenterThe Academic Resource Center offers services to help students reach their full potential. The ARC offers skill-building workshops in note taking, test taking strategies, time management, stress management, and preparing for final exams, in addition to individual and group tutoring. Learn more »
Academic Support for Student Athletes Learning consultants and tutors work together in Academic Support Services to serve student-athletes by maintaining contact with faculty, monitoring study halls, facilitating advisement and overseeing compliance with university and NCAA academic regulations. Learn more »
Campus ID OfficeThe Campus ID Office is responsible for issuing student, employee, vendor, visitor and temporary identification cards. The Campus ID Office also manages the Pirate's Gold program, which enables identification card holders to deposit funds into a Pirate's Gold account and to use the ID card as a debit card on campus and at participating locations throughout South Orange. Learn More »
The Career CenterWhether you are a first-year or graduate level student, The Career Center offers an array of programs and services to assist you in pursuing your career aspirations. The Career Center takes pride in its strong partnerships with employers from all industries and offers a variety of recruiting venues each year. The Career Center also assists our alumni with professional career coaching for career transitions. Learn More »
Counseling and Psychological Services (CAPS) CAPS provides year-round counseling, crisis intervention, consultation, outreach, and referral services to the Seton Hall University community. Learn More »
Dean of Students and Community DevelopmentThe mission of the Office of the Dean of Students and Community Development is to work with students, faculty, and staff to create and sustain a vital, engaged University community. Learn More »
Disability Support ServicesThe Office of Disability Support Services (DSS) coordinates accommodations and services for students with disabilities. Learn More »
Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) EOP offers support and financial aid to qualified prospective students who demonstrate potential to perform at the college level but who may not meet regular admissions qualifications. Learn more »
Freshman Studies The Freshman Studies program assists first-year college students in defining their academic and career goals. Every student has a mentor, who serves as their academic adviser during the first year, as well as a peer adviser. In addition, first-year students take a University Life course in the Fall as a part of this program. Learn more »
Housing and Residence LifeThe Department of Housing and Residence Life at Seton Hall University is dedicated to providing a safe and inclusive living and learning environment within our residence halls. Learn More »
Health ServicesSeton Hall University Health Services promotes and supports health in its broadest interpretation, by providing high quality health care to University students, health education to the University community, and promoting a safe environment of caring and community. Learn More »
Public Safety and SecurityThe Department of Public Safety and Security is staffed 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Learn More »
ROTC The Army Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) program in the Department of Military Science offers cadets a way to simultaneously attend college and train to commission as an officer in the US Army. Eligible students can receive a scholarship for up to four years, as well as a stipend. Prospective candidates can apply as incoming freshman or up until they have two years of school left. Information is available for high school students, college students, and enlisted soldiers. Learn more »
Division of Student Services (973) 761-9075 Fax (973) 761-9797 email@example.com Bishop Dougherty University Center


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I am going to be brief, because I have a lot of information to pass along. Bear with me.
4216sf 1 story home built 2 years ago (I am the builder)
Bio-base foam insulation throughout
Unvented, conditioned attic space (insulation on underside of roof deck)
Vinyl low-e windows, insulated doors, etc.
Two (2) 5-ton Amana Heat Pump units
Programmable T-stats set on 82 during the day, 74 overnight
Last month's bill - $688 (approx. 3900 KWH)
Prior month's bill - $461 (approx. 3000 KWH)
Two April Aire dehumidifiers
High bill - generally August / September - $900 +/- $50
No pool, no outbuildings, CF bulbs everywhere, on-demand water heaters
Recently had an energy audit performed. Was told I had one of the tightest houses they'd ever measured in the Houston area; somewhere in the neighborhood of 14% leakage. I went through the house with them with the FLIR camera; no hotspots. Duct leakage on the order of 10% on each system, but it's leaking into conditioned attic space, so I figure that's a wash. Basically beat the pants off the local Energy-Star homes.
Only thing we could figure is the HVAC system is WAY oversized. I had an analysis done prior to building the home, gave to the A/C contractor, they used it for toilet paper or something. I have since gone back and found that analysis and deciphered it, and it appears to show that I need 6.5 tons MAX. I purchased HVAC Calc prior to building, and spent a long time inputting all the correct information. It said I needed something like 4 tons total.
Unfortunately, I caved to the contractor at build-time, assuming he knew more than I did (mistake, apparently). So now, I can't keep the house dry (60% RH or higher, with two dehumidifiers running full-blast), the units short-cycle all day and night, and my utility bills are freaking ridiculous. We are about to pull the trigger on two new 3-ton units (or maybe two 2.5-ton units), and my question is this:
Where can I get some kind of idea what kind of energy savings I can expect? I mean, if two 5-ton 13-seer units are, say, $500/month, what are two 3-ton 14-seer units going to cost? Or two 3-ton 16-seer units? I've googled this, but I can't find a calculator that does what I want.


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Atlanta Braves' B.J. Upton Strikes Out Three Times in Third Rehab Game » rsz_cubs-vs-braves-4-7-2013_l
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Dr. Anuradha Rao MD, FACC Video
- Cardiovascular Disease Birmingham, AL
Take a minute to learn about Dr. Anuradha Rao in this video.
Meet Doctor Anuradha Rao. Here are her vitals: She's board certified, specializing in Internal Medicine. She has 20 years experience. The average for this specialty is 22 years. Highly regarded by her patients they rate her 3.5 out of 4 stars. They point out her bedside manners. She has won a number of awards, including Top Ten Doctors 2012 and Patients' Choice Award 2010. Graduated from Memorial Univ Faculty Of Med. Her average waiting time is 20 minutes. She accepts new patients. She has a number of insurance plans accepted. Use Vitals.com to examine Doctor Anuradha V Rao from Birmingham, Alabama. See patient comments make an appointment or even let us help you to prepare for your visit. Vitals .com where doctors are examined.
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Dr. Anuradha Rao, MD, FACC is similar to these 3 Doctors near Birmingham, AL.


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Modern yet classic, the Hillsdale Dutton Full/Queen Headboard with five-leg frame features an intriguing mix of angles and scrollwork. Manufactured of heavy gauge tubing in a brown crystal finish, this headboard and frame goes perfectly with an earth-toned inspired decor. This product requires some assembly.
Buying Details:
- Fabulous mix of angles and sweeping scrollwork
- The Brown Crystal finish is a handsome compliment to today's popular earth tone inspired decors
- Fully-welded construction featuring heavy gauge tubing
- Some assembly required
Set includes:
- (1) Headboard
- (1) Bed Frame
Finish: Brown Crystal
HB: 52"H x 61"W x 1.25"D
Frame: 83.5"L x 78"W
Furnished Over 1 Million Homes Since 1997...
I was very satisfied with One Way Furniture Service. I have referred them to many friends, family, and customers. Thank you. Kathy A. Eisele, Boston, MA
Product Review - Hillsdale Dutton Headboard Full / Queen - 5 Leg Frame With Large Glides
Furniture Brand
As a leader in quality home furniture, Hillsdale Furniture has solidified itself as a top manufacturer. Stretching across a wide range of furniture and accessories from bar stools, dining rooms, kitchen chairs, iron beds, and even bedding comforters, Hillsdale is diversified. Hillsdale furniture is quality craftsmanship that has earned the respect of consumers all over America. Hillsdale
Weight & Size
Reference - Sku: 1598HFQR - Hillsdale Dutton Headboard Full / Queen - 5 Leg Frame With Large Glides by Hillsdale


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Kid-Friendly Gluten-Free Desserts
15 Chewy, Gooey, and Gluten-Free Treats For Kids
Start Slideshow
15 Chewy, Gooey, and Gluten-Free Treats For Kids
When most kids want something sweet, all mom has to do is whip up a batch of brownies from the box — that is, unless they suffer from celiac disease. When your child has a gluten intolerance, putting dessert on the table is no easy task. However, that doesn't mean your little one has to be deprived of sweets. From cookies to cakes that certainly aren't missing out on taste, check out these gluten-free treats that tots will love!
Source: Allyson Kramer


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Hello, My name is Charles Mackenzie-Hill and our company CMH.Properties is responsible for looking after this apartment. To double-check that we are looking at the same property the owners direct property reference is S20223
As for the location please click here to take you the Google map utility or Copy and paste these coordinates into the Google map search bar 36°30'51" N 4°55'30" W
The property is a 3 bedroom 2 bathroom apartment all on one level. Although there are some stairs that will need to be negotiated as the property is on the first floor with no lift.
The apartment is situated inside a development and the only access is by key. The swimming pool is also gated for insurance reasons, having said that there is promised, a life guard that will be present for the months of July and August
The most common way that people reach the area is by flying into Malaga airport and taking the A340 Cadiz road towards Estepona
Once you have passed Marbella its junction 181b Nagueles, First right ,first left and left again and we can meet in the car park
To reach either Marbella or Puerto Banus is about the same time of under ten minutes
the spacious apartment is 145m2 with air-conditioning hot and cold
You can see by the large image tour here that there is a double bed in the Master Bedroom and 2 single beds in both of the 2nd and third bedroom
We have left the master bedroom with room for a cot if you should need it
The tv in tuned to local Spanish station but as digital there will be programs that you can change language to English
The dining area has four seats but there are plenty of other chairs to pull in and around the table
The kitchen is fully equipped with oven, microwave , dishwasher and washing machine
On the terrace with views of the pool is a table with 4 Chairs
We do advise a car , but there is a bus , that runs about a ten minute walk away
We hope that you watch the video as it will provide a good insight in to the location and property.
Please watch the video on any of the following video hosting portals that we subscribe to
If you're wondering how we come to know this apartment, well its a good story and through friends. We were also lucky and privileged enough to help an owner out with what to do with their holiday home. If fact we wrote and recorded a video blog about the whole process that you kind find out below.
If we can help you with any further information then a really easy way to get hold of me is via leaving a comment.
Thank you very much for your interest
Charles Mackenzie-Hill


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This laboratory has the necessary equipment for the production of SWNTs.We count with vertical and horizontal bed reactors. A great advantage of fluidized bed reactors is that they permit continuous addition and removal of solid particles from the reactor, without stopping the operation.
Temperature programmed techniques (TPR and TPO) are performed to determine coke deposits and reducible species on the catalysts as well as SWNT yield in the reaction.
For more information click on the following links:
The role of water in carbon feed on the surface-guided growth of horizontally aligned single-walled carbon
nanotubes (HA-SWCNTs) was investigated. It is shown that the amount of water can be optimized to favor HA-SWCNT growth, which is proposed to be due to selective etching of carbon deposits at carbon–metal interface. Without water, nanotube–nanotube interaction and carbon accumulation at the interface are disproportionately large compared to the rate of nanotube growth, leading to catalyst deactivation. With excess water, suppression of nanotube growth occurs, resulting in reduced carbon yield on the surface.
Intermediate carbon/water feed ratios achieve cleaner growth with high efficiency.


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Talk:Richard Hammond
From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia
edit Facts!
The factual information in this article scares me...
Help! Police!
Shall I rewrite crash? It appears to have been written by a fourteen year old who is either dyslexic or just plain stupid. Either way it's completely lacking in humor and spelling.
- Go ahead, knock yourself out. I don't think anyone will object. -- Hindleyite Converse 14:55, 28 January 2007 (UTC)


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I like to Run Marathons .
I've got AdHD.
This does not define who I am.
I am Me.
Like to get plenty of exercise. Have a phobia of butterflies dating back since I was 5. Almost over it.btw
Writing and reading..
I'm here to enjoy myself and have some fun with who knows may be you. For friendship,and who knows what else :)
But I'm also in to cycling or jogging, Or just chillsessions with some good friends.
Smoke some weed on occasions.
When I'm curious about something I look it up . And try understanding what it means.
Still trying to find my place in this strange confusing world.. Blabla..the rest you'll find out . Gotta keep some of the mystery intact.
Gathering information
Superstreetfighter 4
reading, writing, badminton, Jogging/running,Not to shabby with a chess board.
Watching anime ^^
training, throwing myself in new adventures
Films: vechtfilms , comedies, romance, maar vooral HORROR
Muziek:Amon Tobin,Cypresshill, shaggy, Fantah Moja,
Celine Dion, The killers, shanaia twain, Journey, Buckethead, Jeff Beck, Bob Marley,Alborosie, Collie budz, Alfa Blondie, Damian Marley, Jean paul, classic van alles eigenlijk.
Eten: Oma's spinazie , Nasi goreng, Pasta gerechten , skoarma , stampotjes Indonesich eten , spruitjes, zeg maar alles behalve zuurkool.
food and water
diary/dream diary/writers diary
pen and paper
My dream
Friends ,family


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If terrorists put down arms, the shooting will stop and peace will reign
Predictably, the Presbyterian Church (USA) Office of Public Witness sent us an email to help urge my Senators and Congressmen to harass Israel about misuse of foreign aid. The underlying presumption of their demand was that Israel is at fault for the regional conflict and our tax dollars are being used to kill Palestinians in violation of US law.
At the same time, our nation is pouring millions into Islamist-controlled countries who are overtly supporting or conducting offensive killing operations against Israel. The recent transfer of US F-16s to the Muslim Brotherhood controlled Egypt is the latest example.
This fact is lost on the anti-Israel zealots inside the PCUSA.
Instead of using their boilerplate, slanted and factually incorrect email, I sent an email urging a Congressional investigation into the offensive military and terrorist activities of Islamist controlled nations, such as Egypt, who receive our taxpayer support but attack Israel.
Peace will erupt in the Middle East with three changes:
- Islamist acceptance of Israel's right to exist (as specified in international law and UN resolutions).
- A renouncing of terrorism as a practice and policy.
- An immediate, permanent ceasefire along the borders of Israel.
Remember, if the terrorists put down their arms, the shooting will stop, peace will reign. If Israel puts down its arms, the wholesale genocide will commence. Those are inescapable facts in the region.
Martin Roules
San Diego, Calif.
You cannot insert your own agenda between the lines of Scripture
Re: Janet Edwards' letter posted 11/28/12
As far as David and Jonathan being gay, I don't think so. David saw Bathsheba bathing and lusted after her. She was very beautiful and he sent for her and he slept with her. She became pregnant and David had her husband Uriah sent to the front lines in battle so he would be killed. I don't think David would do that if he was gay. He had sons by her.
Did Jesus say anything about gays? Remember, if we believe in the triune God there is the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, who are one God. The Holy Spirit inspired the writing of the Scriptures and God's commands are in the Scriptures. Jesus would say the same thing as the inspired Scriptures and the same thing God the Father says in them. Jesus said marriage was between a man and a woman, not two men or two women.
Jesus was not gay because He perfectly fulfilled the Law and He was sinless. It is certainly not scholarship to say because John was called the beloved disciple it means he and Jesus were lovers. You cannot insert your own agenda between the lines of Scripture.
Daniel Patterson


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SheevaPlug uses 5 watts of power, runs Linux, and is open-source from prong to port, according to maker Marvell Semiconductor.
In fact, prongs and ports are all you'll see on this tiny device, which has 512MB of RAM, a 1.2GHz ARM CPU and a $100 price tag. What is it good for? Anything! It comes with an SDK. Well, nearly anything: it doesn't have video-out.
The tiny embedded PC also includes gigabit Ethernet and USB 2.0 ports. Marvell did not release precise dimensions for the platform, but one early product based on the design is listed as measuring 4.0 x 2.5 x 2.0 inches. Plugging directly into a standard wall socket, the Plug Computer draws less than five watts under normal operation, compared to 25-100 watts for a PC being used as a home server, claims Marvell.
$100 Linux wall-wart launches [Linux Devices via Make]


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Here's the latest dispatch from never-not-funny land. Jimmy Kimmel is back with more celebrities reading terribly mean tweets.
People are brutal. I guess most people don't think that celebrities actually take the time to read the horrible things they say about them on Twitter, and maybe they don't. I'm glad we have Jimmy Kimmel to make sure these celebs know exactly how the peanut gallery feels about them.
I guess this is why George Clooney can't understand why in the hell any famous person would want to be on Twitter.
For more of this, which I'm sure you're interested in, check here. And here, and here.
Image via Jimmy Kimmel Live, YouTube


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A guide to living in Liverpool
Untitled Document
Jobs in Liverpool | Pictures of Liverpool
Football analogies are often used in this part of the country to explain why certain things happen. And what Liverpool FC achieved in the 2005 Champions League final beautifully encapsulates the spirit of the people the city they love so much.
Like their Newcastle brethren, Liverpudlians have an eternal, stubborn optimism that refuses to go down even in the face of overwhelming odds, complemented by an acerbic wit that binds the people together. And as a city, Liverpool is a rich, diverse, energetic and exciting place to live and work, thanks to the visionary redevelopment programmes initiated in the 1990s.
Getting around Liverpool
Regardless of whether you are coming to city centre from the north, east or south (or west, if you happen to be commuting from the Wirral on the Mersey Ferry), you won't have much use of a car. The morning rush-hour can be frustrating at best. And once you get there you have to fight to find a parking space. Granted, there are a number of car parks and meters throughout the city centre but, they are not cheap.
For a stress-free commute it really is advisable to use public transport – its quicker, cheaper and probably stop a lot closer to your office than your car does.
Liverpool has four main train stops that serve the four key areas of the city centre, Lime Street , James Street , Liverpool Central and Moorfields. Operated by Merseyrail, each of these stations links the city centre with all other areas in the Merseyside area, with services running every 15 minutes from all regional stations into the city.
Alternatively, all local bus routes arrive at and depart from Queen Square and Paradise Street with Mersey Travel running a late night bus service every Friday and Saturday night.
Eating, drinking and shopping in Liverpool
Liverpool 's passion for pubs is on a par with its passion for football. A recent survey places Liverpool at the top of the All-England drinking league and after a walking around the city centre, it soon becomes obvious why; no, I don't mean that drunken Liverpudlians lie slumped across the doorway of every pub in town. What I mean is that there is a huge selection of pubs, bars and clubs throughout the city to appeal to every taste imaginable for a hard day's night .
Much of Liverpool 's nightlife drinking culture is based around the Ropewalks area, Wood Street , Bold Street and Fleet Street, with the action focused on Concert Square . There are also a number of chic designer bars at the Albert Dock including Baby Cream, an offshoot of the legendary nightclub, and the PanAm. And Victoria Street , in the business district, is another fast-developing area for bars and nightlife.
And Liverpool 's dining out offering continues to get better and better. Again the Ropeworks has a good choice, along with Hardman Street and Hope Street – the latter being the choice for sophisticated diners thanks to two of the finest restaurants in Liverpool that come together, 60 Hope Street and the London Carriage Works.
Elsewhere, many of the city's bars also do food, the PanAm at Albert Dock being a prime example. And as the home of the UK 's oldest Chinese community, Chinese restaurants are found in abundance.
Or if none of these tempt you, then grab a cab and take the short trip a little further out of the city centre and head to Lark Lane in Aigburth, with a number of restaurants and bars crammed into one street.
And when pay day comes along, Liverpool 's shops will be more than willing to relieve you of your hard earned cash. After years of neglect and eventual decay, Liverpool's city centre has been brought back to life with a little help from our friends in the council planning department and it is now ranked as the fifth best shopping city in the UK .
Bold Street, Clayton Square and St John's Shopping Centre are all within a stones throw from one another and house all the usual high street retailers. However, the completion of Liverpool One has arguably transformed the city's shopping experience.
As one of Europe 's largest retail developments, it is be home to more than 150 stores, including the biggest John Lewis department store in North West England and the city's first Debenhams.
Elsewhere, the Cavern Walks shopping complex, situated on the famous Mathew Street, is the place where your money won't stretch quite as far, being home to a number of designer outlets including Vivienne Westwood, Drome and Cricket. Whereas the Albert Dock has a number of shops primarily aimed at the tourist looking for some Liverpool nostalgia and souvenirs.
Liverpool is a passionate city and this passion is manifested in its music, sport, culture, nightlife and heritage. All of which make for a modern vibrant city that makes the most of its past as much as it boasts about what it has to offer today. And if you find yourself at a loose end with time to kill, the city centre and Dock are the perfect tonic.
Liverpool can lay claim to having the largest number of museums and art galleries in the UK after London . The Albert Dock is Liverpool's biggest attraction and home to the Merseyside Maritime Museum , Tate Liverpool and the Beatles Story. Just north of this is Pier Head, an area dominated by a trio of Edwardian buildings known as the Three Graces.
But without question, the Walker Art Gallery silences any criticism or doubt over Liverpool 's status as European Capital of Culture. Frequently referred to as the 'National Gallery of the North', over 800 years of art are represented here, from pre-Raphaelite art to contemporary British art and sculpture. Also here is FACT, an innovative media centre.
And can you believe we got this far without mentioning a certain four-piece skiffle band? Love 'em of loathe 'em, these four lads from the Allerton area of the city did pretty well for themselves, although the barber shop on Penny Lane – after whom the song was named after – has a lot to answer for. Liverpool makes the most of The Beatles and Matthew Street , home of the Cavern Club, is almost entirely dedicated to the Fab Four with numerous shops selling the band's memorabilia.
After drinking, Liverpool 's most popular recreational activity, without exception, is football. The city is home to two Premiership football teams, Liverpool and Everton, who ply their trade within ½ mile of one another. Liverpool is the most successful football club in English history, whereas Everton…And not forgetting the Grand National that is held every year in nearby Aintree.
From a city with such a sporting pedigree, it comes as read that there are a number of leisure clubs and facilities, health and fitness centres, sporting societies, outdoor pursuit's centres and sports grounds in and around the city.
Key residential areas
With a population of 436,100, Liverpool is the sixth largest city in the United Kingdom. Average income in 2006, was £26,800.
Within the centre of Liverpool , waterfront properties are particularly sought-after. These can be very stylish and offer an appealing city centre lifestyle. Many properties offer good views over the river and are in easy access to the cultural and recreational amenities of the city. Indeed, most of the maritime warehouses and dockland buildings have been converted into extremely impressive, modern and fashionable apartments and penthouses with an equally fancy price tag.
The immediate surrounding boroughs of the city are largely what you would expect from a large conurbation, predominantly blue collar areas made up of terraced houses and flats. However, some of the more desirable districts are in the east of the city centre, such as the suburbs of West Derby , Childwall and Knotty Ash. These offer attractive housing and have good local schools and amenities. A range of terraced, semi-detached and detached houses are seen here.
The small, exclusive development at nearby Croxteth Country Park is particularly popular, and includes some more expensive housing. Woolton is another established, sought-after residential area and neighbouring Allerton (of Penny Lane fame) have a number of attractive properties for sale and rent at a price to suit most professional budgets.
If you're thinking of moving to the area, take a look at some of the current property available to buy or let in Liverpool.
Take a closer look
A picture is worth a thousand words. You can see some images from in and around Liverpool below.
Looking for local vacancies? See all current jobs in Liverpool or find out more information on the local area.


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Super Majesty Holds On for Dogwood Win
The finish line came just in time for Super Majesty, who won $100,000 Dogwood Stakes (gr. III) for 3-year-old fillies over fast-finishing Chide Sept. 19 on the "Downs After Dark" card at Churchill Downs.
The finish line came just in time for Super Majesty, who won $100,000 Dogwood Stakes (gr. III) for 3-year-old fillies over fast-finishing Chide Sept. 19 on the "Downs After Dark" card at Churchill Downs.
A full field of 12 3-year-old fillies will seek their first graded stakes victory late in the evening of Sept. 19 in the $100,000 Dogwood Stakes (gr. III) at Churchill Downs.
Brittlyn Stable's Sunbean will seek his third stakes win in six weeks when he defends his title in the $150,000 Louisiana Champions Day Classic Dec. 13 at Fair Grounds Race Course & Slots.
Ken and Sarah Ramsey's Thank You Marylou took charge at the quarter pole and romped away to her first graded stakes victory in the $112,000 Dogwood Stakes (gr. III) Sept. 20 at Churchill Downs.
Dogwood Stable's 2013 Belmont Stakes (gr. I) winner Palace Malice will shoot for his second win of the season in the $400,000 New Orleans Handicap (gr. II) March 29 at Fair Grounds Race Course & Slots.
Princess of Sylmar, a four-time grade I winner in 2013, has been named Pennsylvania Horse of the Year by the Pennsylvania Horse Breeders Association.
Brittlyn Stable's Sunbean returned to Louisiana-bred company in winning style, nosing out String King in the $150,000 Louisiana Champions Day Classic at Fair Grounds Race Course & Slots.
Aqueduct's Comely Stakes (gr. III) drew a field of 10 3-year-old fillies for a run at graded black type...and a $400,000 purse.
Ciao Bella Luna and Lighthouse Bay head an overflow field for the $250,000 Lexus Raven Run (gr. II) at Keeneland Oct. 19, one of the final graded sprints limited to 3-year-old fillies in 2013.
Owner Maggi Moss said Sept. 23 she has sold grade I-winning 3-year-old filly So Many Ways to Katsumi Yoshida of Northern Farms in Hokkaido, Japan, for breeding purposes. The purchase price wasn't disclosed.
Maggi Moss' So Many Ways got back on track with a strong off-the-pace victory in the $400,000 Charles Town Oaks for 3-year-old fillies at Hollywood Casino at Charles Town Races Sept. 21.
After being purchased privately for a lofty but undisclosed sum, Sky Girl provided new owner John Clay's Alpha Delta Stables with a quick return on investment in the $110,000 Dogwood Stakes Sept. 21 at Churchill Downs.
Ten 3-year-old fillies, including grade I winner So Many Ways and twice grade I-placed My Happy Face, are expected to compete in the $400,000 Charles Town Oaks at Hollywood Casino at Charles Town Races Sept. 21.
So Many Ways, winner of the Spinaway Stakes (gr. I) at 2 and the Eight Belles (gr. III) this season, heads a field of nine 3-year-old fillies in the $100,000 Dogwood Stakes (gr. III) Sept. 21 at Churchill Downs.
Can Lighthouse Bay, who won the Prioress at odds of 21-1, hold off the likes of My Happy Face, So Many Ways, Ju Ju Eyeballs, Baby J, and California invader Sweet Lulu in Saratoga's $500,000 Test?
Richlyn Farm's homebred Lighthouse Bay upset the $300,000 Prioress Stakes (gr. I) at Saratoga Race Course July 27, winning at odds of 21-1 while 2-5 favorite Kauai Katie failed to fire.
Kauai Katie has not run at Saratoga Race Course since winning the Adirondack Stakes (gr. II) as a 2-year-old, but she's 2-for-2 at the upstate oval, having broken her maiden at first asking there by 12 lengths.
Tim Keeley's homebred My Option earned her first graded stakes score in the $150,000 Arlington Oaks (gr. III) at Arlington Park July 20, fending off the bid of Frivolous to preserve the decision by a neck.
Following a half-mile work over the main track at Saratoga July 20, Mylute was confirmed as a starter for the $600,000 Jim Dandy (gr. II). So Many Ways and Delaunay were also on the tab for trainer Tom Amoss.
An open field of experience, including graded stakes winners Seaneen Girl and Gold Edge, makes up the field of seven 3-year-old fillies that will go from the gate for the $150,000 Arlington Oaks (gr. III) July 20.
Wildcat Lily stalked her way to a victory in the 39th running of the $150,000 Azalea Stakes (gr. III) for 3-year-old fillies at Calder Race Course July 6.
After posting a four-length victory in the local prep race for the Azalea Stakes (gr. III), Rontos Racing Stable's Wildcat Lily will enter the six-furlong sprint for 3-year-old fillies July 6 in top form.
Fiftyshadesofhay made the most of her trip from California with a powerful victory in the $200,000 Iowa Oaks (gr. III) for 3-year-old fillies at Prairie Meadows Racetrack & Casino June 29.
Paul Pompa Jr.'s Baby J re-rallies to overtake Bridgehampton in the final furlong to win the June 29 Victory Ride Stakes (gr. III) at Belmont Park. The daughter of J Be K covers the six furlongs in 1:10.84.
A trio of talented 3-year-old fillies from trainer Todd Pletcher, including multiple graded stakes winner Kauai Katie, heads the $150,000 Victory Ride Stakes (gr. III) June 29 at Belmont Park.
|Breeder / Owner
|Don't Tell Veda
|Vickie L. Foley
|Elusive Fate
|George R. Arnold, II
|Finding More
|Jim Penney
|Tevis Q. McCauley
|Guadalupe High
|Ronny W. Werner
|Irish Lute
|Dallas Stewart
|Sky Girl
|William I. Mott
|So Many Ways
|Thomas M. Amoss
|Eric R. Reed
|Prairie Gold Lassie S.
|A. P. Smithwick Memorial Steeplechase H. (G1)
|John Morrissey S.
|Real Good Deal S.
|Prairie Gold Juvenile S.