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The Southeast environment is composed of a series of physiographic and ecological zones. A coastal lowland belt broadly encompasses the subtropical zone of southern Florida; the . To the north, this gives way to the scrub forest, sandy soil, and savannah savanna grassland of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains; and , as well as the alluvial floodplains of the Mississippi drainage. Second, there is the piedmont of the midland interior, where the landscape changes to rolling hills, crisscrossed by several major river systems and covered predominantly with oak-hickory forest. Third, there is the southern Appalachian Mountains area of eastern Tennessee River. Moving inland one finds the piedmont, a landscape of rolling hills and major river systems that is predominantly covered with forests of oak and hickory. A third zone is characterized by the portion of the Appalachian Mountains that lies in present-day eastern Tennessee, northern Georgia, and the western Carolinas, a land of high peaks and , deeply etched valleys, containing hardwood forests, and, at high elevations, flora and fauna typical of more-northerly regions.
The Southeast was one of the more densely populated areas of native North America, having an aboriginal population conservatively estimated at 120,000. The bulk of this population resided inland, where advantage could be taken of extensive game resources, wild plant foods, and an abundance of arable land. Only the non-horticultural peoples of south Florida appear to have satisfactorily adjusted to a basically maritime way of life.Population was distributed among a large number of separate groups—independent villages, autonomous village clusters, and "tribelets." Most of those tribelets disappeared soon after white contact and left only faint traces in recorded history. They perished through the lethal combination of newly introduced diseases, removal into slavery, and direct warfare with white invaders or intertribal conflicts generated by white pressure. The survivors, if any, were assimilated into such larger, more powerful tribes as the Choctaw and Cherokee and various member tribes of the Creek Confederacy. These latter tribes persist to the present as distinctive peoples possessing a rich history and viable cultural heritage. Other intermediate-sized groups, such as the Houma, Catawba, and Chickasaw, survive as marginal enclaves but have lost much of their historic Indian identity. Such groups as the Seminoles (a branch of the Creek that migrated to Florida in the 18th century) and the Lumbee (a large group of Indians in Robeson County, North Carolina, whose precise Indian ancestry is unknown) appear to be entering an active phase of retribalization in which their Indian identification is being reasserted
Scholarly knowledge of the Southeastern cultures relies on evidence from diverse sources, including artifacts, historical documents, ethnography, linguistics, folklore, and oral history. Many cultural traditions reported by the earliest European explorers, such as the use of ceremonial mounds, the heavy reliance on corn (maize), and the importance of social stratification in some areas, were clearly developed during the Mississippian culture period (c. AD 700–1600). The Mississippians maintained fine craft traditions and also engaged in long-distance trade throughout the Southeast and the surrounding culture areas. The ceremonial centre, Cahokia, was home to many thousands at its climax about AD 1100 (estimates range from 8,000 to 40,000 people). The Natchez are perhaps the best-known members of the Mississippian culture to survive relatively intact into the colonial period.
The indigenous peoples of the Southeast represent members of the Muskogean, Siouan, Iroquoian, and Caddoan language families. The region was also home to several linguistic isolates, or languages that have only tenuous connections to a major language family (see also North American Indian languages).
Muskogean-speaking peoples constituted the
largest linguistic
group in the aboriginal Southeast
and minimally included the
Choctaw, Chickasaw, Apalachee, Creek, Seminole, Alabama, Koasati, Hitchiti, and Mikasuki branches.
Four Lower Mississippi Valley
the Natchez,
Tunicas, and
Atakapas, spoke languages with a distant affinity to Muskogean. However,
their languages show sufficient divergence
from the main Muskogean languages and from each other to warrant semi-independent status as linguistic isolates.
The Tutelos, Biloxis, Ofos (Mosopeleas), and Catawbas spoke Siouan languages. These tribes were widely scattered and
probably represent different prehistoric penetrations of Siouan speakers into the Southeast. The Yuchi
also demonstrates distant affinities to Siouan but is sufficiently distinctive to be classified as an isolate. Many small piedmont
groups were probably Siouan-speaking peoples, but surviving data are insufficient to make definite identifications.
Cherokees represent the sole
speakers of
an Iroquoian
language in the
although the Iroquoian-speaking
Nottaways, and
Meherrins, residing on the northerly margin of the
region, are included in the Southeast in some culture area maps. The Caddoan speakers on the western boundary of the
region belong to a distinctive language family that shows
remote relationships to the Siouan and Iroquoian families.
present status of the language spoken by the Timucuas, once the predominant tribe of northern Florida, is problematic; linguists have suggested that it is related to such diverse groups as the Muskogean, Siouan, Algonquian, and Arawakan families. Mobilian was an important trade language containing many Choctaw components
and served as a lingua franca in the Mississippi Valley.
The Southeast was one of the more densely populated areas of native North America at the time of European contact. Most groups resided in the piedmont, where they took advantage of extensive game resources, wild plant foods, and an abundance of arable land. The peoples of south Florida are an exception, as they adjusted to an essentially subtropical maritime way of life.
The primary division of labour was by gender. Women were responsible for cultivating the fields, gathering wild plant foods, cooking and preserving food, taking care of young children and elders, and manufacturing cordage, baskets, pottery, clothing, and other goods. Men assumed duties associated with war, trade, and the hunt; they were often away from the community for extended periods of time. Men also assisted in the harvest, cleared the fields by girdling trees, and constructed houses and public buildings. Both genders manufactured ceremonial objects.
The economic mainstay of the Southeast was corn, the cultivation of which had been well established by about AD 500. Several varieties were grown, including "little corn" (related to popcorn); flint, or hominy, corn; and flour, or dent, corn. Some varieties were baked or roasted on the cob; some were boiled into a succotash (a dish of stewed corn and beans); and still others were pounded into hominy or cornmeal in wooden mortars made of large upright, partly hollowed logs. Domesticated varieties of beans and squash were also important in the diet, as were wild greens. Fields were prepared with mattocks and hoes and planted by punching holes in the ground with digging sticks, inserting seed corn, and covering the holes with earth to form a mound about two feet (one-half metre) in diameter; in some areas the soil was instead hilled into a series of linear mounds or ridges some three feet (one metre) across. Typically beans and squash were planted as well; beans used corn stalks as trellises, and the broad leaves of squash, planted in the hollow between the mounds, shaded the soil, minimizing weed growth and conserving moisture. Most fields belonged to individual households, although some tribes also cultivated communal fields. Communally grown produce was given to chiefs for redistribution to the needy and for use in various ceremonies and festivals.
The importance of corn in the Southeast cannot be overemphasized. It provided a high yield of nutritious food with a minimal expenditure of labour; further, corn, beans, and squash were easily dried and stored for later consumption. This reliable food base was crucial in allowing men to conduct lengthy hunting, trading, and war expeditions. It also enabled a complex civil-religious hierarchy in which political, priestly, and sometimes hereditary offices and privileges coincided..
Other cultivated plants included the sunflower, which was processed for its oil; Chenopodium and orache, which produced starchy seeds and spinachlike greens; and tobacco. Many additional plants, such as wild grapes, plums, and perhaps walnut and pecan trees, were in a condition of incipient domestication; indigenous peoples exerted some effect on the propagation of these plants but did not fully domesticate them. Other important plant foods included berries, nuts, acorns, potatoes, zamia roots (similar to turnips), amaranths and smilax (providing shoots and seeds), and maple and honey locust sap. Two species of holly (Ilex cassine and I. vomitoria) were used as ingredients in a special decoction, the "black drink," to induce sweating and vomiting in ceremonial and medical contexts. The economic botany of the region also encompassed a vast array of plants used for cordage, clothing, dyes, fish poisons, medicines, building materials, and various tools and utensils.
Before European colonization, the only domesticated animal in the Southeast was the dog. In this region canines were used to a minor extent in hunting and as food but were probably most important as sentinels that warned of approaching strangers. In accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition (1539–43), there are several references to small, fat, barkless dogs that were served to the Spanish visitors by their indigenous hosts. Some of the 300 or more trail hogs that were transported by de Soto to feed his troops escaped and became the ancestors of the modern razorback hog. The Spanish also brought horses to North America, but their use was primarily confined to the Southwest and Mexico; as a result, the Southeastern peoples generally obtained horses at a much later date, through trade with Plains tribes.
Most of the region teemed with wild game: deer, black bears, a forest-dwelling subspecies of bison, elks, beavers, squirrels, rabbits, otters, and raccoons. In Florida, turtles and alligators played an important part in subsistence. Wild turkeys were the principal fowl taken, but partridges, quail, and seasonal flights of pigeons, ducks, and geese also contributed to the diet. The feathers of eagles, hawks, swans, and cranes were highly valued for ornamentation, and in some tribes a special status was reserved for an eagle hunter.
In both salt and fresh waters a wide variety of fish were taken; fishing equipment included weirs (underwater corrals or pens), traps, dip nets, dragnets, hooks and lines, bows and arrows, and spears. Botanical poisons were administered in ponds and sluggish or dammed streams, creating a rich harvest of stunned, but edible, fish. Coastal groups gathered oysters, clams, mussels, cockles, and crabs, while those residing in the interior collected freshwater mussels and crayfish.
The peoples of the Southeast altered the landscape significantly by girdling trees and by the controlled use of fire. These activities created large areas of secondary growth that favoured certain types of berry bushes and peanuts (groundnuts). The presence of this secondary-growth flora was essential for supporting the large populations of browsing deer, squirrels, rabbits, and wild turkeys on which people depended for sustenance. These environmental changes, combined with hunting, probably accelerated the decline of the wood bison and in some places other species; in areas with intensive corn cultivation, such as the Lower Mississippi, early European explorers reported that game animals were scarce. In the central Southeast, however, native groups maintained an equilibrated balance with nature.
The external relations of this culture area were complex. A lack of geographic barriers to the north and west allowed significant cultural interchange
with Northeastern and Plains peoples. There is evidence of overseas cultural connections with the Antilles;
the dominant direction of this diffusion seems to have been from the mainland to the islands.
Pre-Columbian interaction with Mesoamerican Indians, while indirect, nonetheless introduced corn, beans, and squash to the Southeast. Many scholars maintain that the building of mounds and the use of certain symbolic motifs also derive from Mesoamerica, although some believe these were developed independently by the Mississippians and their predecessors. Culture traits such as the cane blowgun, double-weave basketry, fibre-tempered pottery, and
certain musical, ritual, and mythological elements suggest at least limited contact with
The picture of the Southeast that emerges at the time of first European contact is one of intensive cultural change. One senses a period of cultural levelling marked by considerable population movement, warfare, and the formation of confederacies, all of which was accompanied by large-scale technological and ideological diffusion. A distinctive southeastern cultural tradition or style was in the process of being forged, but this fusion was far from complete on the eve of European contact.
American peoples as well.
As each household was fairly self-sufficient, the economic specializations and trade networks that developed tended to centre on subsidiary and luxury items. For instance, as salt deposits were unequally distributed, salt became an important trade item. There was regular trade between the coast and the interior; shells, which were used for beads and pendants and to decorate ritual objects, were exchanged for soapstone, flint, furs, and other inland resources. Pottery made with distinctive types of red clay and artifacts made of native copper suggest important trade connections with the western Great Lakes groups that controlled the locales where these raw materials were found.
The basic settlement unit throughout the Southeast was the local village or town.This unit
These varied in size and configuration depending ondifferences in
local ecologicalpotential
resources and culturalpreference
preferences. Some towns attained populations of more than 1,000 individuals, but the more typicalSoutheastern
was home to fewer than 500 residents. Settlement patterns conformed to two basic types: (1) dispersed hamlets, with several households that were strung out—often for several miles—usually following
. Dispersed hamlets, each of which might contain storage buildings and a special cookhouse in addition to one or more dwellings, were arrayed along the valley bottoms or the course of streams, and (2)
. In contrast were tightly nucleated settlementsthat
, oftenwere
surrounded with protective timber palisades. Usually each group of hamlets was associated with a palisaded town where the community as a whole gathered for celebrations and ritual events.
In general, settlements were semipermanent and located near rich alluvial soil or, in the Lower Mississippi region, near natural levees. Such land was easily tilled, possessed adequate drainage, and enjoyed renewable productivity. Fertility was enhanced by burning off any stalks or vines that remained from the previous harvest. Theheart of the local town was
length of the growing season in the Southeast allowed many fields to be planted twice each year. The first planting was done in spring, and some produce was available by midsummer, when a second planting was undertaken. The major harvest time, in late summer and early fall, was a time of plenty during which most of the major ceremonies were celebrated. Many villages emptied somewhat during the winter months, when households took to the woods in search of game; individuals with limited mobility, however, would remain at home. Men also undertook a shorter hunt in late spring and early summer, after the first crops had been planted.
The heart of a town was typically a ceremonial centre consisting of acentral
council house or temple, which in the interior region might be semisubterranean or located ona pre-existing
an earthen mound; a central plaza or square, which, among the Muskogean-
speakers, was usually surrounded by three or four benches or arbours oriented in the cardinal directions; a ball pole or scalp post sometimesculminating in
topped with a carved animal emblem; the residences of the chief and other important local dignitaries; and sometimesstorage
granaries or other structures for storing communal produce.
Considerable variation in house types existed. In much of thearea, the Indians constructed
region, people built circular, conical-roofed winter "hothouses,"
houses" that were sealed tight,
except for an entryway and smoke hole. Summer dwellings tended to be rectangular, gabled, thatch-roofed structures made from a framework of upright poles, lashed together
andcovered with lath, grass, cane matting, or bark and plastered with clay
walled with wattle and daub. To the south,housing tended to be more flimsy, with
especially from the early 19th century onward, houses often had raised floors, palmetto-thatched roofs, and, often,
open sides. To the west, the Caddoans lived in domed"grass houses." A homestead might contain auxiliary storage buildings and a special cookhouse.Generally speaking, each town or village was fairly autonomous. Superordinate control at the tribal level tended to be weakly developed, although pressure for tribal consolidation and even the formation of intertribal confederacies was greatly increased with the spread of European settlement.
grass houses.
The picture of the Southeast that emerges at the time of first European contact is one of intensive cultural change. The final centuries before contact appear to have been a period of cultural leveling marked by considerable population movement, warfare, and the formation of chieftains. Early written reports describe the political organization of the Southeast as including independent villages, autonomous village clusters, and "tribelets," independent polities that recognized cultural connections with the other groups or polities within the same tribe. Perhaps most analogous to the many independent polities of the California Indians, tribelets generally ranged in size from about a hundred to a few thousand people, depending on the richness of locally available resources.
Generally speaking, each community was fairly autonomous. A village might be linked toother villages
others in the same area by ties of kinship, language, and shared cultural traditions; nevertheless, eachvillage
claimed sovereignty over itslocal area
locale and was governed by its own religio-political chiefs (during peacetime) and a complementary group of war leaders.Stratification
(during periods of conflict). Superordinate control at the tribal level was generally avoided, although the consolidation of tribelets into larger coalescent groups and even the formation of intertribal confederacies occurred as European settlements spread in the region.
Over most of the Southeast,chieftainship tended to be
religio-political chieftainship was hereditary within certain lineages. The degree of chiefly power and authority varied, however, from the almost divine kingship of the Great Sun among the theocratic Natchez to the self-effacing status of thepeace-making
peacemaking, consensus-seeking micos and ukus among the more egalitarian Choctaws, Creeks, and Cherokees.War
In contrast, war leaders normally achieved their positions on the basis ofpast
personal accomplishment.War chiefs
They also tended to be active and assertive personalities and younger, by about a generation, than thepeace
hereditary or "peace" chiefs.
Thealternation between
complementarity of peace chiefs and waror
leaders and the occurrence ofsuch
competitive activities betweenalien groups as
neighbouring groups—including ball games,communal hunts
hunting contests, and tradingexpeditions helped to imbue much of Southeast Indian social structure
expeditions—imbued traditional social structures with a characteristic dualism. The peace chief held sway in thedomestic
village, whereas the warchief
leader was ascendant in areas external to the village, except when
; he had authority in the village itself only when it was under the threat of imminent attack. Young menin the village alternately adjusted to roles appropriate to war and peace, often symbolically represented as red and white activities, and these transformations were usually effected through extensive ritual. This dualistic emphasis was also frequently
adjusted their behaviour according to the context of war or peace; they also prepared for the psychological and physical rigours of battle through extensive rituals in which war and peace were symbolically represented by the colours red and white, respectively.
Dualism was also expressed in the organization of clans, subtribes, and villages into complementarysocial divisions.
pairs, which in turn were sometimes characterized as red or white. Member towns of the Creek Confederacy were sometimes ranked in terms of their tribal affiliations or on the basis of outcomes of lacrosselike ball games between towns. The Caddos were said to have ranked their clans on the basis of the reputed strength of the totemic animal ancestor, creating a symbolic pecking order.
Social stratification was highly developed in some parts of the Southeast, while its significance in other subareas was minimal
and insignificant in others. Although much has been written about thesupposed
so-called caste systems among the tribes of theLower
lower Mississippi, theChitimacha
Chitimachas appear to have been the only society to have possessed true castes in the sense of ranked groups that practiced strict endogamy(
, or marriage within the group).
The elaborate rank system of the Natchez consisted of four groups: three upper classes, composed hierarchically of the suns, the nobles, and the honoured people, and a lower class of commoners (or stinkards, as they are referred to in the early French sources). Upper class individuals were required to marry into the lower class of commoners, and many commoners also married other commoners. Offspring of males in the upper classes would assume a rank one step below that of their fathers (thus, the child of a sun father and commoner mother would become a member of the noble class). The progeny of upper class females, however, would retain the rank of their mothers rather than descend to a lower station. The system, as described, would be unstable, since the supply of available commoner women would soon be depleted after several generations. Many explanations have been advanced to explain this so-called "Natchez paradox," but the difficulties probably reside in the inaccuracies or incompleteness of the original French sources.Social stratification also was
. While not a caste system in the strict sense of the term, social stratification was nonetheless highly elaborated among the aboriginal inhabitants of Florida. Among theTimucua
Timucuas, for instance, the "king" enjoyed an elevated status considerably above that of his followers and was sometimes carried about in a litter.In many other Southeastern societies there was a trend toward the ranking of towns or clans. Member towns of the Creek Confederacy were sometimes ranked in terms of their tribal affiliations or on the basis of outcomes of inter-town ball games. The Caddo were said to have ranked their clans on the basis of the reputed strength of the totemic animal ancestor in a kind of natural "pecking order."
The Natchez social hierarchy included strict rules for marriage and social status (see below Kinship and marriage). In other tribes, such as theCherokee
Cherokees, stratification wasonly weakly developed, though
relatively unimportant, although certain clans might possess special ceremonial prerogatives and recruitment to certain offices might be determined on the basis of clan.
Among Southeastern peoples, descent was almost universally matrilineal, or reckonedin the female line, though not all societies possessed matrilineal clans. Clans, where they existed, were apparently not restricted to nor localized within specific villages. The resulting dispersal of clan members
through the mother. Many societies further organized kinship through matrilineal lineages or clans—extended families in which all members could claim descent from a particular ancestor or totem. For those groups that had them, clans were usually dispersed throughout a tribe or nationthus served as a
rather than limited to a particular village or tribelet. This arrangement provided a kind of social adhesivebinding
that crosscut and bound together the larger body politic.Certain ceremonial
For instance, clan members were generally expected to offer hospitality to clan kin from other villages; certain ritual knowledge and ceremonial privilegesmight
were alsobe
customarily passed down along clan lines. In addition,and
clans werealso
important as mechanisms of social control,since
as vengeance for serious crimes was frequently a clan responsibility.
Marriage was often marked by a symbolic ceremonial exchange whereby the groom presentedhis
the bride with game and the bride reciprocated withvegetable
plant food.Because residence
Residence after marriage was normallyfound the man moving into the
established in the wife's natal household,
; the husband was expected to contribute to the economic maintenance of his wife's family,
as a form of bride service and to prove his abilities as a provider. After a few years the couple might leave to form their own household. MostSoutheast Indian
tribes permitted (and someeven encouraged pre-marital sexuality
encouraged) premarital sexual intimacy. After marriage, however, adultery—especially on the part of thewife—was often
wife—could be severely punished. Nevertheless
, with penalties up to and including death. In contrast, divorce seems to have been a frequent and, often,
almost casual event.Polygamy
Polygyny, a form of marriage in which wives share a husband, was permitted in most groups, although a man usually had to gain the assent of his first wife before taking on a second spouse
; usually new partners could not join the marriage without the consent of all the extant partners. The levirate, a custom by which a widowwas remarried to
marries her deceased husband's brother, was fairly common, particularly as male mortality increased during the wars of the European period.SocializationDuring a woman's late
. Because it was a method for ensuring that each woman and her children had a male provider, levirate marriages increased with the heightened male mortality that resulted when tribes resisted colonial conquest.
The French described the elaborate rank system of the Natchez as being considerably entwined with marriage and kin customs. Natchez social hierarchy was divided into four groups: three upper classes composed hierarchically of the suns, the nobles, and the honoured people, and a lower class of commoners (whom the early French sources refer to as "stinkards"). Members of the upper classes were required to marry members of the commoner class; many commoners also married other commoners. The offspring of upper-class men would assume a rank one step below that of their fathers; for example, the child of a sun father and commoner mother would become a member of the noble class. The children of upper-class women, however, retained the rank of their mothers. Interestingly, the system described by the French would have been unstable, as all women would have been born into the upper classes after several generations. Many explanations have been advanced to explain this "Natchez paradox," but the problem probably originated in the inaccuracies or incompleteness of the original French sources.
Late in a woman's pregnancy, both she and the father wereoften subjected
generally subject to various dietary taboos and restrictions on their activities. Children were nursed for several years, until theytired of the breast or until
self-weaned or the mother again became pregnant. Responsibility for the child's early education was vested in the mother.Later, a young boy received instruction in male skills from his father and his mother's brother
As they grew older, girls were trained in duties such as the growing, preserving, and storing of food, receiving instruction from their mothers and other female relatives. Boys received instruction from their fathers and their mother's brothers; in many systems the mother's eldest brother, as the senior male in the matrilineage, assumed considerable importance as a disciplinarian, tutor, and sponsor for his sister's son.Young girls remained at their mother's side and were trained in various duties associated with the domestic household.
Behaviour considered proper was reinforced with praise and encouragement, as when a boy killed his first deer or ayoung
completed her first basket; behaviour
. Behaviour considered impropermight be greeted with mild rebuke, ridicule, or
was usually greeted mildly; preferred responses ranged from gentle ribbings, rebukes, and ridicule to shame. Children were rarely subjected to physical punishment. In those few instances in which corporal punishment was deemed necessary, it was generally meted out by someone other than the parents. A popular method of chastisement throughout the Southeast was the raking of the skin with briars or a special pointed scratching instrument, but, even here,
generally such action was regarded as strengthening or toughening theyouth,
child rather than as delivering direct retribution for misdeeds.Young boys
Boys enjoyed considerable permissiveness. They
and spent much of their time with their peersin
; common activities included wrestling, playing games imitative of adult activities, and stalking rabbits, squirrels, and birds with blowgunsand
or scaled-down bows and arrows.The freedom and wide behavioral space permitted the young boy contrasted markedly with the restricted sphere, close surveillance, and early responsibility training that characterized the daily routine of his sister
Girls, in contrast, were subject to close surveillance and assumed household responsibilities from an early age.
Puberty rituals were either absent oronly weakly developed
relatively undeveloped in the Southeast. Girls were secludedduring their first menstruation
at menarche, but this event occasioned no public celebration. (Menstrual blood, though, was regarded as a potent and polluting substance, and women either absented themselves from the household during their periods or were subjected to restrictive taboos.)
; all women were provided with a few days of seclusion and rest during menstruation. Similarly, no special rituals attended the transition from boyhood to manhood. A boy might receive instructions from tribal elders in esoteric lore or in preparation for special ritual offices, butgraduation from
the completion of such training was seldomwas
marked by a formal commencement. A young man's first participation in a war party and the achievement of military honours were, however, given public recognition. Probably the clearestmarker
markers of the passage from adolescence to adulthoodwas marriage.
As already implied, the primary division of labour was by sex. Women were responsible for cultivating the fields, gathering wild-plant food, cooking and preserving food, rearing the young children, and manufacturing such basic domestic items as cordage, baskets, pottery, and clothing. Men assumed the primary roles of warriors and hunters, occupations that often took them away from the village for extended periods of time. Men also cleared the fields by girdling trees, assisted in the harvest, constructed houses and public buildings, and manufactured ceremonial objects and implements for personal use.
Except for the marginal groups on the western Gulf Coast, villages were semipermanent and located near rich alluvial soil or, in the Lower Mississippi region, near natural levees. Such land was easily tilled, possessed adequate drainage, and enjoyed enduring productivity. Fertility was enhanced by the custom of annually burning off the brush. The length of the growing season in most regions of the Southeast allowed multiple crops. Planting was done in spring, and some produce was available by mid-summer. The major harvest time, however, was late summer and early fall, a time of plenty when most of the major ceremonies were celebrated. Many villages became deserted, except for older people, during the winter months, when families took to the woods in search of game. Men also departed for a shorter hunt in late spring and early summer, after the crops had been planted.
The economic mainstay of the Southeast was maize, the cultivation of which was well established in most areas by the time of first European contact in the mid-16th century. Several varieties of maize were grown, including "little corn" (related to popcorn); flint, or hominy, corn; and flour, or dent, corn. Early corn was baked as roasting ears; later corn was pounded into hominy or cornmeal in wooden mortars made of large, upright, partly hollowed logs. Associated in the maize complex were varieties of beans and squash. Fields were prepared with mattocks and hoes and planted by punching holes in the ground with dibbles (digging sticks), inserting seed, and covering the holes with earth to form a small mound. Cornfields belonged to individual households, but among some tribes communal fields were also cultivated, with the produce going to the chiefs for support of the civil–religious hierarchy or for redistribution to the needy.
The importance of maize cultivation to the way of life of the southern Indians cannot be overemphasized. Not only did maize provide a high yield of nutritious food with a minimal expenditure of labour, but maize, beans, and squash could be easily dried and stored for later consumption. This reliable food base enabled men to spend much time away from their villages on hunting, trading, and war expeditions. It was not fortuitous that the standard war ration was parched corn.
Secondary cultivated plants included the sunflower (processed for its oil), chenopodium or orache (spinach-like greens), and tobacco. Many additional plants, such as species of wild grapes, plums, and perhaps walnut and pecan trees, can be regarded as being in a condition of incipient domestication, since there is evidence to suggest that Indians exerted some effect on selection. Important wild-plant foods were various types of berries, nuts and acorns, wild potatoes and amaranths, smilax, zamia root, and maple sugar or honey locust sap. The economic botany of the Southeast Indians can be expanded to encompass the vast array of plants utilized for cordage, clothing, dyes, fish poisons, medicines, building materials, and various tools and utensils. Perhaps mention should be made of the distinctive southeastern use of two species of holly (Ilex cassine and Ilex vomitoria) as ingredients in a special decoction, the "black drink," to induce sweating and vomiting in ceremonial and medical contexts.
The only native domesticated animal in the Southeast was the dog, which was used to a minor extent in hunting and was probably more important as a sentinel to warn of the approach of strangers. In accounts of the Hernando De Soto expedition (1539–43), there are several references to small, fat, barkless dogs that were served to the Spanish visitors by their Indian hosts. Spanish trail hogs, brought by De Soto to feed his troops, became wild and were ancestral to the modern mongrel razorback hog. Horses were introduced later, mostly through the intermediacy of tribes to the west.
The aboriginal Southeast also teemed with wild game: deer, black bears, bison, elks, beavers, squirrels, rabbit, otters, and raccoon—some of which were used for their hides, bone, or fat as well as for food. In Florida, turtles and alligators played an important part in subsistence. Among birds, wild turkeys were the principal quarry, but partridges, quails, and seasonal flights of pigeons, ducks, and geese also contributed to the larder. The feathers of eagles, hawks, swans, and cranes were highly valued for ornamentation, and in some tribes a special status was reserved for an eagle hunter.
Both on the coast and on inland rivers, streams, and lakes, a wide variety of fish were taken in weirs, fish traps, and dip nets and dragnets and by hooks and lines, bows and arrows, and spears. In the interior, poison was administered in ponds and sluggish or dammed streams to gather a rich harvest of stunned fish. Coastal groups gathered oysters, clams, mussels, cockles, and crabs. Interior groups found freshwater mussels and crawfish.
In the well-endowed Southeastern area, each household group was fairly self-sufficient. The economic specializations and trade networks that did develop tended to centre on subsidiary and luxury items. Salt deposits were unequally distributed and formed one basis for trade. There also was regular trade between the coast and interior, with shells, which were used for beads, pendants, and horns, exchanged for soapstone, flint, furs, and other inland resources. The presence in the Southeast of artifacts made of imported copper and certain types of red clay suggests important trade connections with the western Great Lakes tribes.
Indians are popularly viewed as living in a primeval or virginal territory. Such was not the case in the Southeast. Indians maintained a delicate balance with their environment, and their presence was a vital link in a complex ecological chain. By tillage, controlled use of fire, and hunting, they altered the landscape significantly. Large areas of secondary re-growth favoured certain types of berry bushes and groundnuts. The presence of this secondary-growth flora was, in turn, essential for supporting large populations of browsing deer, squirrels, rabbit, and wild turkeys on which man depended for a large measure of his sustenance. In this process and in combination with hunting, the decline of other animals, such as the wood bison, was probably accelerated. In areas where intensive maize cultivation had already taken hold, such as in the Lower Mississippi, game animals had become scarce in historical time. In the central Southeast, however, the very diversity of plant and animal resources and the highly generalized adaptation of the Indian in exploiting these resources seems to have resulted in maintenance of an equilibrated balance between man and nature.
were marriage and the birth of one's first child.
The delicate relationship between humans and the natural world is well expressed in what is known of traditional Southeast religions and worldviews. These emphasized animism, a perspective in which humans share the world with a proliferation of spiritual essences of animals, plants, and natural objects or phenomena.As can be inferred from the frequent elaboration of funerary practices, most groups professed belief in an afterlife. The location of the resting place for deceased souls was either in the direction of the western setting sun or up above in a celestial firmament. It was generally thought that the souls of the recently deceased would hover around the community and try to induce close friends and relatives to join them in their journey to eternity. The elaborate funerary rites and the extensive taboos associated with death were as much a protection for the living as a commemoration of the dead. Death was nowhere considered a natural event but always the result of malevolent animal spirits or witches or the deadly machinations of sorcerers. If death was thought to be caused by human agents, the soul of the deceased would never rest until vengeance had been secured by living relatives.It was also
The peoples of this region believed that animals possessed souls. Slain animals sought vengeance againstman
humanity through the agency of theirspecies "chief
"species chief," amythological
supernatural animal with greatsupernatural
power (e.g., the Deer Chief). Hunting thus became a sacred act,
and was much imbued withtaboos
taboo, ritual, and sacrifice. Most disease was attributed tofailure to placate
failures in placating the souls of slain animals.
The plant world was considered friendly tomankind
humans, and the Cherokees thought that every animal-sent disease could be cured by a corresponding plant antidote. The economic significance ofmaize
corn was memorialized by the near universality of the Green Corn ceremony, or Busk,ceremonies
throughout the Southeast. This was a major ceremonialwas
suffused with an ethos of annual renewal in which the sacredfire was
fire—and often the hearth fires of each home—was rekindled; old debts and grudges were forgiven and forgotten; old clothing and stored food were discarded; and a sense of community was regenerated.Spiritual power might also reside in physical objects
During the Busk the Apalachee also dedicated ball games to the divinities of sun, rain, and thunder in the hope that these beings would bestow on the people the ideal conditions for crop growth.
Spiritual power could reside in objects other than plants and animals. Medicine men possessed sacred stones, quartz crystals, and other mystically endowed paraphernalia. Other objects were consecrated to symbolize the collective solidarity of the group. The Cherokees made use of a palanquin or litter within which were placed revered objects; the Tukabahchee Creeks possessed sacred embossed copper plates; and the temples of several Lower Mississippi tribes contained an assortment of idols and icons. Natural objects could be infused with sacred power in a variety of ways:
, including contact with thunder, as in lightning-struck wood; immersion in a rapidly flowing stream; and exposure to the smoke of the sacred fire or of ritually prepared tobacco.Remnants
The outlines of a formal theology can bereconstructed
discerned from early accounts of some of the stratified societies andof
from those tribeswho
that survived the immediate ravages of European contact. Most groups possessed origin myths, often involving a primal deluge into which prototypical beingsfrom on high
plunged to secure a portion of mud that magically expanded to create the Earth, which was often viewed as an island. The subsequent course of mythological historyis
was frequently related in terms of a cosmic struggle betweengood and bad culture heroes, one of whom bestows boons on mankind, the other serving as the
a celestial culture hero who bestowed boons on humankind and an underworld antihero who became the source of the fatality and misfortune inherent in the human condition. Southeastern myths and folktales are populated byan incredible host
a myriad of nature spirits, monsters, tricksters, giants, and little people (see trickster tale).
Among many tribes, evidence survives that suggests belief in a supreme being,or
sometimes depicted as the master of breath. This ultimate divinity was frequently associated with the sun and its earthly aspect, fire. In addition, the world was viewed asdivided into four quarters defined
quadrisected by the cardinal directions; eachsection
direction had a presidingdeity
spirit and appropriate colour symbolism. Concern with the remote supreme being seems to have rested more with the priesthood than with the everyday activities of the averageman
individual. The life of the latter was more intimately tied up withmore
the proximal spiritual beings who were felt to intervene more directlyinto
in human affairs.Priests and diviners
In some of the wealthier stratified societies, priests were given specialized training and became full-time religious practitioners responsible for the spiritual health of the communityand assuming responsibilities for
. Priests also assumed the responsibility of conducting the major collective religious rituals that punctuated theannual
calendrical cycle. Complementary to the priesthood were various individual magico-medical practitioners, such as sorcerers, conjurors, diviners, herbalists, andmedicine men
healers, who were generallyonly
part-time specialists and catered to individual needs and crises, especially the treatment of illness. Medical therapy was intricately enmeshed in themagical
spiritual view of the worldbut
and might include such practical procedures as isolation, sweating, bathing, bloodletting, sucking, the inducement of vomiting,and
the internal and external application of herbal medicines, and the recitation of ritual chants.
The complex history of the Southeast Indians after contact with Europeans can be outlined here only briefly. The 16th century witnessed European exploration of the Southeast, though without permanent settlement. During the 17th century, settlement was begun on the coastal fringes, and the deerskin trade made the Indians increasingly dependent on whites for firearms, metal tools, and luxury items. By the 18th century the Southeast Indians became counters in the struggle between France, Spain, England, and the nascent United States for control of North America. With the ascendance of the United States, the military threat of the Indians became gradually neutralized, and Indians ceded large tracts of their land in an attempt to placate the insatiable appetite of land-hungry frontiersmen and the ensuing waves of white settlers.
A short-lived Indian renaissance occurred during the first third of the 19th century, when the major surviving Southeastern groups became known as the Five Civilized Tribes. Unabated pressure for Indian land continued, however, and federal policy eventually culminated in the 1830s in the removal of the Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Seminoles to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi. Allotment of tribal lands to individual Indians, which paved the way for Oklahoma statehood, began in the 1890s; some of the land was also opened to white homesteaders, held in trust by the federal government, or allotted to freed slaves. It was originally agreed that tribal governments would be dissolved in 1906, but they continue to exist in a limited form.
Most of the surviving Southeast Indian population resides in Oklahoma. Although this population reflects a full spectrum of assimilation—from oil company executives to culturally conservative "full bloods"—the increasingly numerous segment of people occupying the culturally conservative end of the continuum exists in poverty. Small contingents of Cherokee, Seminole, and Choctaw who managed to escape the general removal of the 1830s live on tribal landholdings in their traditional homelands. In addition, several remnant groups, such as the Catawba, Lumbee, and Houma, remain in the Southeast, though much of their cultural distinctiveness has disappeared.
The frequent elaboration of funerary practices, including burying the chiefly dead with great quantities of freshwater pearls and other rare materials, indicates that most groups believed in an afterlife. It was generally thought that the souls of the recently deceased would hover around the community and try to induce close friends and relatives to join them in their journey to eternity; thus, the elaborate funerary rites and the extensive taboos associated with death were as much a protection for the living as a commemoration of the dead. This was especially the case because death was never considered a natural event but was always the result of malevolent animal spirits, witches, or the deadly machinations of sorcerers. If a death had been caused by human agents, the soul of the deceased would never rest until vengeance had been secured by its living relatives. Once appeased, the soul moved to a final resting place, the location of which varied from group to group; typically, this was either in the direction of the setting sun, in the celestial firmament, or in a non-hellish part of the underworld.
Although permanent colonial settlements were not established in the region until 1565, when the Spanish founded Saint Augustine in present-day Florida, the peoples of the Southeast suffered greatly during the 16th century. The earliest expeditions, by Juan Ponce de Léon (1513, 1521) and Pánfilo de Narváez (1528; best known for the narrative produced by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca), were short-lived but exposed indigenous peoples to the devastating effects of European diseases to which they had not been previously exposed. Epidemics soon decimated the native population; mortality rates for these nonimmune populations are estimated to have been as high as 50 to 90 percent (these rates generally combine deaths due directly to disease with those resulting from subsidiary causes, such as famine).
Hernando de Soto, who had proved instrumental in the conquest of the Inca (1532), was eventually commissioned by Spain to conquer La Florida; from 1539 to 1543 his expedition traveled through what are now the states of Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana. Some Southeastern tribes greeted de Soto as they would a paramount chief, offering food, tribute of pearls and copper, sexual access to women, and porters. Other towns in de Soto's path attacked the expedition. However, as the Spanish group included some 600 heavily armed professional soldiers, the conquistadors' counteroffenses left few settlements intact.
By the close of the 16th century, several factors had combined to disrupt traditional life in the Southeast. Thousands of individuals were killed during direct warfare with explorers. European diseases caused thousands more deaths. The subsidiary effects of these losses further devastated the Southeast: groups with too few people to plant and hunt were forced into starvation or refugee status; much practical and ritual knowledge was lost; and indigenous political structures were weakened. The final and perhaps least well-known factor was the trade in indigenous slaves, who were generally captured by rival tribelets and sold to the Spanish for export to New England, the Caribbean, and elsewhere. Many groups on the coast and in the piedmont lost their political or social viability during this period; their surviving members generally became part of larger, more powerful tribes such as the Choctaw, Cherokee, or various member tribes of the Creek Confederacy.
During the 17th century, trade, particularly in deerskins, grew tremendously, as did indigenous reliance on European firearms and ammunition. European exploration of the inland Southeast generally ceased, and colonial settlement began in earnest on the coasts. The most important development in this century, however, was the establishment of missions and the propagation of Roman Catholicism among native peoples. Jesuits initiated missionization in coastal Georgia and South Carolina in 1566 but abandoned those areas after several friars were killed. Spain replaced the Jesuits with Franciscans in 1573; by 1700 more than 100 missions had been established in northern Florida and southern Georgia, particularly among the Timucua, Guale, and Apalachee peoples. Reports to Spain describe these groups as almost entirely Christianized by 1670.
The Southeastern missions drew (or were assigned) fewer Spanish soldiers and civilians than missions in other areas; their absence allowed the friars to proceed with their work unhindered by the rapes, kidnappings, and beatings that such individuals commonly visited upon native peoples elsewhere. The indigenous power structures of the region had been weakened, and the surviving hereditary chiefs and war leaders had proved incapable of ending the losses caused by disease, warfare, and slavery. As they were accustomed to accepting leadership that combined religion and politics, many people realized that allying themselves with the Franciscans would afford a measure of protection against further military and slaving raids; they may have also hoped that the presence of a new deity would bring some relief from disease. Finally, the friars themselves were careful to limit their mandate to those aspects of culture that were overtly religious, such as baptism and attendance at mass; other aspects were left alone and might incorporate Christianity (or not) depending upon the wishes of a given community. Among the Apalachee, for instance, the late-summer Busk quickly incorporated celebrations of the feast day of San Luis Rey, which occurred at the same time of year.
In 1706 the last missions were abandoned because of the conflicts that were arising between Europe's imperial powers. However, the friars' work was enduring; during the 20th century, many indigenous groups from the Southeast persisted in practicing more or less syncretic religions that combined indigenous and Catholic practices, as well as preparing the ground for later conversion to Protestant sects.
In the early 18th century, the indigenous peoples of the Southeast (and the Northeast) found themselves drawn into the struggle between Spain, France, and England for control of Europe and North America. Chaotic European politics and the conflicts thus created—Queen Anne's War (1702–13; also called the Spanish War of Succession), the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48), the Seven Years' War (1756–63), and the American Revolution (1775–83), among others—became sources of conflict in the New World as empires fought to gain and keep resources and territory.
By this time many smaller indigenous groups had merged with larger tribes, notably the Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Cherokees. Each of these tribes engaged in alliances with the European powers, and they often found themselves pitted against one another. Indigenous communities soon realized that trade and diplomatic relations with Spain, France, and England were intertwined and could be manipulated to their advantage; the Creeks found it especially profitable to set the three imperial powers against one another.
By mid-century, however, the Southeastern Indians' ascendancy in trade, military might, and diplomacy was being overshadowed by an increasing mass of European immigrants. Many were fleeing homelands torn by war; some were fleeing religious persecution; and others sought to escape depressed economies or were transported as punishment for petty crimes. The colonizing population in the Southeast alone had grown from perhaps 50,000 Europeans in 1690 to approximately 1,000,000 individuals by 1790; the enslaved African population in the region grew from about 3,000 to 500,000 during the same period.
Previous colonizers had built most of their settlements near the swampy, malarial wetlands of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts; most Southeastern peoples found these locations relatively undesirable. As coastal locales could not support the enormous increase in European and African populations, an inland development boom ensued. This ultimately proved more dangerous to the Southeastern tribes than epidemics or war.
During the first 300 years of colonization, the Southeastern peoples had adopted what new practices they found useful without completely altering their traditional cultures. This was a very successful strategy, and they often became the owners of large, prosperous farms and plantations. As the pressure to cede land to settlers increased, the tribes opted to negotiate with the nascent United States in the belief that treaties and other agreements would be enforced by this government, as they had by Spain, England, and France.
The land hunger of the burgeoning Euro-American population was fierce. Tensions were heightened by the envy that those building new farms had for those with established operations; the latter were almost all members of the Creek, Cherokee, Choctaw, or Chickasaw tribes, who with the Seminoles became known as the Five Civilized Tribes. The Seminoles were a multiethnic group that included Creek and other native refugees who had fled the mid-18th century conflicts, as well as Africans and African Americans who had escaped slavery.
The settlers' desire for more land and their envy at indigenous prosperity caused them to agitate for oppressive Indian policies. Violence eventually erupted in the form of the Seminole Wars. The first war (1817–18) was fought in part to defend individuals of African descent from capture and a return to enslavement. American forces led by Andrew Jackson invaded northern Florida, kidnapped a few individuals, and destroyed many Seminole settlements. In response, the tribe moved south to Lake Okeechobee and rebuilt their society.
The Cherokees preferred to use legal strategies to maintain their property and the political independence guaranteed them by treaty. Sequoyah's 1821 invention of a syllable-based writing system for the Cherokee language enabled the wide circulation of a draft Cherokee constitution; tribal members voted to adopt the new constitution in 1827. At the same time, settler agitation regarding the primacy of state versus tribal sovereignty was accelerated by the discovery of gold within the Cherokee Nation lands, and the Georgia legislature in turn passed a law extending state authority to tribal lands; many Euro-Americans felt that tribes should not be allowed to maintain separate governments within state boundaries. Instead, they proposed that tribal members choose between regular citizenship or tribal sovereignty; Indians could either give up the protections provided by treaty agreements or remove themselves to territories outside the states. The Cherokees saw this as a vacuous argument, as their sovereign status was very clearly delineated in the treaties they had negotiated with the federal government. They chose to file suit against the state in federal court.
While the Cherokee lawsuit moved through the judicial system, the United States Congress passed the Indian Removal Act (1830). This enabled the government to designate as Indian Territory land in the trans-Mississippi West; it created a process through which land in the new territory would be exchanged for tribal land in the East and provided funds for the transportation of tribes to the new domain.
The native peoples of the Southeast responded in different ways to the realpolitik of this event. The Choctaw quickly agreed to removal, hoping to leave the conflict behind them. Federal corruption and incompetence ensured that their journey was poorly provisioned, however; inadequate food, sanitation, shelter, and transport caused many deaths.
In the meantime, Cherokee NationGeorgia had made its way to the United States Supreme Court. In 1831 the court decided that indigenous peoples living within the United States were no longer independent nations and that as a domestic sovereign nation—in other words, one that depended upon the United States to uphold its political independence—the Cherokees had no right to sue in the federal court system.
A related suit, WorcesterGeorgia, involved a Euro-American missionary who refused to take a state loyalty oath and visited native property without the necessary state permit. The Supreme Court decision, made in 1832, stated that the right to regulate tribal affairs was exclusive to the federal government—states had no similar right to extend their laws to the tribes. President Andrew Jackson refused to enforce the Worcester decision. This allowed the states to enact further legislation damaging to the tribes. Notably, these two cases have formed the basis for most subsequent Indian law in the United States.
The Creeks agreed to removal in 1832, but delays in their departure resulted in great hardship on their journey westward. A few Seminole leaders signed an agreement of removal in 1832, but the majority of tribal members declared that the agreement was not binding and refused to go; this provoked the Second Seminole War (1835–42), a conflict that the Seminoles eventually lost, with many being forcibly removed to the west.
Learning of the hardships suffered by other indigenous groups, most of the Chickasaw tribelets took matters into their own hands. They sold their land at a profit and moved west one by one in the late 1830s; having planned, provisioned, and paid for the journey themselves, they fared better than other tribes. Most Cherokees refused to depart, and many were forced from their homes at gunpoint beginning in 1837. In the most infamous of the forced relocations conducted under the Removal Act, some 15,000 Cherokee were evicted and marched mostly westward on what has since come to be known as the Trail of Tears, a harrowing journey causing the deaths of some 4,000 people.
The Removal Act was enforced throughout the Eastern Woodlands, and very few native individuals remained there after 1840, with some notable exceptions: groups of Seminoles in Florida; the Eastern band of Cherokees in North Carolina; some Catawbas and many Lumbees in the piedmont area of North and South Carolina; the Poarch Creeks in eastern Alabama; the Mississippi Choctaws; the Tunicas and Chitimachas of Louisiana; small remnant groups in the coastal Carolinas; and, scattered throughout the Southeast, innumerable unrecognized groups claiming Indian descent.
Historical demographers estimate that some 90,000–100,000 people were forced from their homelands and that some 15,000 died while en route to their new territories.
Once in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), the Five Civilized Tribes worked to rebuild their economies. Most individuals focused on farming, with some providing other services such as blacksmithing. Economic revitalization was very successful, but it was later interrupted by the Civil War. Surrounded by states committed to the war, Indian Territory became a crossroads of conflict. Many residents suffered at the hands of the Union and Confederate armies; people were assaulted, farms and outbuildings burned, and crops and livestock stolen, destroyed, or dispersed. After the war, the tribes worked to rebuild their communities yet again. The United States, having allowed indigenous owners to retain slaves during removal, now insisted that all former slaves be freed and recognized as official members of the tribes of their owners; known as freedmen, this population experienced various phases of acceptance and rejection from others in the Native American community, and their status remained controversial in the early 21st century.
During Reconstruction (1865–77), conflicts in the West resulted in the movement of a large number of displaced Plains tribes and others from their traditional homelands to Indian Territory. The United States took land assigned to groups already resident in the territory and transferred it to the newcomers. By the 1890s, continued Euro-American land hunger had resulted in allotment, a federal policy under which land held in common by tribes was divided into parcels and dispersed. Each indigenous head of household was assigned a parcel, as were orphans and a few other categories of individuals. The remaining land was made available to settlers, railroads, and others for development. Although the Five Civilized Tribes were immune from the initial enforcement of the new policy because they held clear title to their property, an act of Congress brought them under allotment jurisdiction in 1898. Like the other indigenous residents of the territory, they lost tens of thousands of acres.
Under policies initiated in 1906, indigenous peoples lost the right to elect their own tribal governments, which were replaced by federally appointed chiefs and tribal councils. The administration of schools and other institutions formerly managed by the tribes of Indian Territory also devolved to the United States. With allotment, these policies paved the way for Euro-American settlement of the territory and thus for statehood. In 1907 Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory combined to become the new state of Oklahoma.
These and other pressures on traditional culture were clear abrogations of tribal sovereignty, but tribes from the Southeast culture area saw just as clearly that fighting them head-on would prove unproductive. As a result, many engaged in passive resistance. Families refused to sign up for or receive their allotments; former tribal council members revitalized traditional governance and ritual activities away from the geographic seats of power; and children were schooled at home. Ironically, the United States' efforts to complete the assimilation of the Southeastern peoples had resulted in a grassroots movement that strengthened traditional cultures considerably.
During the remainder of the 20th century, Southeastern peoples were affected by a number of events of global importance, such as the oil boom of the 1920s; the Great Depression; the world wars and the Korean, Vietnam, and Gulf wars; and the advent of the civil rights and counterculture eras of the 1960s. In 1968 three Southeastern groups that had long been in bureaucratic limbo allied themselves to gain greater traction with the federal government. They included groups that had escaped removal—Cherokee communities in North Carolina and Seminole groups in Florida—as well as a tribelet of Choctaw that had traveled only as far as the state of Mississippi during removal. Having avoided removal and undertaken efforts to escape governmental scrutiny, they had seen many of their rights as native peoples abridged; their efforts eventually led to federal recognition of their status as tribes.
During the 1970s, the federal government relinquished the right to appoint tribal governments; the Southeastern tribes quickly reinstated their constitutions and held elections. From that point into the early 21st century, the Southeast nations emphasized economic development, the revenues of which were used to support programs ranging from education to health care to cultural preservation. For instance, Chickasaw Nation Industries and Choctaw Management Services Enterprise, each owned by its constituent tribe, included firms providing construction, information technology services, and professional recruiting. The Florida Seminole instituted ecotourism programs that acquainted visitors with the state's wetlands. Many tribes also turned to casino-based gaming; these operations often included hotel and restaurant facilities that generated income and provided employment to tribal members. Casino revenue, sometimes referred to as "the new buffalo," lifted many tribes above the poverty line and encouraged a revival of traditional cultural practices.


text:
When Joe Parsons breaks into the Fortrillium network,...
The Secret Bunker 1: Darkness Falls
- by PaulTeague
- Rating:
- Published: 28 May 2016
- Updated: 28 May 2016
- Status: Complete
Dan Tracy has left school to become home educated by his dad, after some unspecified and mysterious 'difficulties' at school. When the family wins a rather unusual holiday competition, they set off on what begins as a regular family holiday. But on a day-trip to a disused Cold War bunker, the family gets caught up in life-threatening events which have cast a sudden and terrible darkness over the surface of the planet, putting all known life to sleep and causing havoc in its wake. Dan's family are separated in the panic that follows. 24 hours after the darkness descends, the bunker undergoes a massive transformation and it emerges that the dusty old Cold War bunker is actually a state-of-the-art operations centre which has been hiding in open view for many decades. The bunker is at the centre of a conspiracy to destroy the Earth - but there's something special about Dan and his twin that could stop the terrorists dead in their tracks.
Join MovellasFind out what all the buzz is about. Join now to start sharing your creativity and passion
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Arsenal 2007-08 red polo shirt.Features embroidered team crest and logo.Also embroidered `ARSENAL` on the right sleeve and Nike corporate logo on the left.Embroidered sponsor under the crest in front.Quick-drying, moisture wicking polo with open two button collar design.100% cotton.
Soccerplus first opened in 1994. We were one of the first soccer websites to hit the webView more
Address: 1640 E. Washington Blvd.
Pasadena, Ca 91104, USA
Phone: 1-800-945-7291
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BLOOMINGTON, IN – The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) recently released proposed revisions to its "Guides for the Use of Environmental Marketing Claims."
The proposed revisions to the "Green Guides" will help marketers avoid making misleading environmental claims, including new guidance on marketers' use of product certifications and seals of approval, "renewable energy" claims, "renewable materials" claims, and "carbon offset" claims.
The changes are designed to update the Guides and make them easier for companies to understand and use.
The FTC is seeking public comments on the proposed changes until December 10, 2010, after which it will decide which changes to make final. "The FTC has added new terms and examples to their long-awaited expanded version of the Green Guides that will help companies reduce their risk of greenwashing and will help purchasers be more informed," explains Steve Ashkin, president of The Ashkin Group.
The Green Guides were first issued in 1992, and revised in 1996 and 1998, to help marketers ensure that the claims they are making are true and substantiated.
"In recent years, businesses have increasingly used 'green' marketing to capture consumers' attention and move Americans toward a more environmentally friendly future. But what companies think green claims mean and what consumers really understand are sometimes two different things," says Jon Leibowitz, FTC chairman. "The proposed updates to the Green Guides will help businesses better align their product claims with consumer expectations."
A summary of the proposed revised Guides can be found at: www.ftc.gov/os/2010/10/101006greenguidesproposal.pdf. A complete version of the revised Guides can be found at: http://ftc.gov/bcp/grnrule/guides980427.htm.
The FTC is accepting comments on the Guides until December 10, 2010. Comments can be submitted electronically at: https://ftcpublic.commentworks.com/ftc/revisedgreenguides.


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Compostio Indoor Composter
Item# 8594869
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NEW | Electric Composter Makes High-Quality Compost All Year-Round
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This energy-efficient electric composter makes it easy to recycle food scraps into high-quality, nutrient-rich compost. And unlike outdoor composters, this one uses a hot composting process which allows you to add meat, fish and dairy items. The constant air flow, accelerated heat and continued mixing breaks down materials quickly and efficiently. The interior is made from food-grade metal, and a control panel lets you choose high, medium and low power settings to accommodate different quantities of food scraps.
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March (Spring Training)
April (Regular Season)
September (Fall Instructional League)
Subscribe to LoneStarDugout.com today! Only $79.95 brings you one full year of Total Access Pass and all premium content on LoneStarDugout.com, Scout™ Player and Roster Database (including the 'Hot News' at the top of the site), Breaking News and Information, Total Access to all Scout.com Websites, and Player Pages, detailing the progress and careers of players from high school, the minors, and the pro ranks.
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leonine - from roosevelt, NY
A baking party is a great idea! I think you and your friends will enjoy making this cute caterpillar. Everyone can tint a bit of icing with their favorite color, then sprinkle with pretty colored sugars. Then just add some candy, and line up your cupcakes to see the fiinished project.
Have fun!


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Anyone got the results from this show?
Anyone got the results from this show?
70kg Leon Mitchell DRAW Aidan Stephen N/A 3 15:00
66Kg Gary Grant DEF Euan McLeod Unanimous Decision 3 15:00
73Kg Dave Philip DEF Mateusz Grabiek Rear-naked Choke 2 0:33
77Kg Iain Feenan DEF Piotrek Zajac Arm Triangle 1 3:50
82Kg Michal Szczepanek DEF Alex MacDonald Rear-naked Choke 2 3:04
70Kg Nath MacDonald DEF Chris Cownie Inverted Triangle 1 2:37
70Kg John Black DEF James Scott Rear-naked Choke 2 1:02
Again a great wee show in spite of all the pullouts and fight changes, well done Gavin.
Can't wait till the next one.


text: Dave Fowler, of uC Hobby, sent us a link to this java app for determining resistor code values. There are a lot of these resistor ID tools floating around, in different formats — it's nice to have the option to use which one works best for you and your circumstances (for instance, I don't have a computer at my workbench, so it's easiest for me to just use my DMM or one of those paper dial IDers I got from Radio Shack several decades ago). But YMMV.


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Your filter combination returned zero results. Please remove some selected facets.
Rogue Fitness carries many of the most trusted training books from the worlds of CrossFit, strength training, and nutrition. Written by pros, and available here. Whether you need step-by-step training guides or motivational reads, our library has proven results getters. Click any book above to get a detailed summary and ordering information.


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Months after being criticized for its lack of black female performers, Saturday Night Live has taken some action.
The sketch show held a round of auditions at L.A.'s Groundlings Theater a few weeks ago specifically for black women, Entertainment Weekly reports.
"Omg I am at the Groundlings theater about to audition for #SNL please pray for me yall!" comedian Tiffany Haddish tweeted on Dec. 2.
The women were reportedly contacted by SNL to attend auditions and, while it's unclear how many showed up, comedian Simone Shepherd posted a photo to her Instagram account from the audition showing her surrounded by 10 fellow actresses. "The hilarious BLACK women who just rock (sic) the SNL audition. #WeJustMadeHistory,"she captioned the snap.
Scandal actress Kerry Washington hosted the show in early November after the controversy about the show's diversity problem bubbled up. However, the last black actress to be featured as a player on the show was Maya Rudolph, who left in 2007.


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O'Reilly Calls His Guest A "Smear Merchant" After Being Held Accountable For Anti-Gay Fear Mongering
Blog ››› ››› CARLOS MAZA
Fox News' Bill O'Reilly berated a guest on his show, calling him a "smear merchant" and a "charlatan," for accurately accusing him of attempting to depict a gay Colorado lawmaker as being lenient towards child molesters.
During the March 13 edition of The O'Reilly Factor, O'Reilly hosted Denver Post editorial page editor Curtis Hubbard to discuss Hubbard's column criticizing O'Reilly's ongoing attacks against openly gay Colorado lawmaker Rep. Mark Ferrandino (D-2).
In his March 10 column, Hubbard condemned O'Reilly for repeatedly citing Rep. Ferrandino's sexual orientation while discussing the lawmaker's opposition to Jessica's Law, a measure deemed unnecessary by law enforcement experts and victims' advocates that would impose a 25-year minimum sentence on those found guilty of sexually assaulting children. Hubbard accused O'Reilly of attempting to conflate homosexuality and pedophilia, writing:
O'Reilly's fear-mongering should offend all Coloradans. He was saying "gay," but what he wanted his listeners to hear was "pervert-pedophile."
Disagree? Then you try explaining what Ferrandino's sexual orientation and stance on civil unions has to do with Jessica's Law.
On his show, O'Reilly denied Hubbard's accusations, calling him a "smear merchant" and a "charlatan":
O'REILLY: I described Ferrandino to the audience because the audience doesn't know who the heck he is and I did it in the context of what his priorities are. His priorities are civil unions, alright, which you guys are going to have pretty soon out there, and legalizing marijuana, which you already have out there. And he's a gay marriage proponent, as you know. So I said he are Ferrandino's priorities, here's what he spends his time on, alright? And Jessica's Law he doesn't want.
O'REILLY: I described him the way he describes himself.
HUBBARD: If you had simply said 'Democrats in Colorado oppose Jessica's law, here's why,' I probably never would have brought it up.
O'REILLY: Look.
HUBBARD: But the fact of the matter is that you used his sexuality to impugn his character and to imply to your viewers that it was his sexuality -
O'REILLY: I didn't impugn his character at all. I said what his priorities are as Speaker of the House. Look, I'm going to post this on BillOReilly.com, the whole thing, so people can see what a charlatan you are.
In fact, Hubbard's description of O'Reilly's comments is accurate:
- February 22: When O'Reilly first mentioned Ferrandino's sexuality on his show, it was not in the context of the speaker's legislative "priorities." Rather, O'Reilly mentioned Ferrandino's sexuality while asking Colorado Rep. Libby Szabo (R-27) what reason Ferrandino might have for opposing Jessica's Law. When Szabo suggested that Ferrandino might be "protecting somebody" because child molesters "hold more credence" with him than victims do, O'Reilly didn't push back against the accusation.
- March 4: The next time O'Reilly targeted Ferrandino, he cited the lawmaker's support for LGBT equality as evidence that he was trying to "impose a secular paradise" in Colorado - a "paradise" which ostensibly includes lax sentencing for child molesters.
Even conservative media critic Bernie Sanders expressed concern about O'Reilly's description of Ferrandino, asking O'Reilly "what does [Ferrandino's] sexuality have anything to do" with his position on Jessica's Law?
Hubbard's criticism is especially appropriate given that O'Reilly has previously expressed support for the myth that homosexuality is linked to pedophilia (a position he reversed earlier this week after backlash over his attacks on Ferrandino).
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LITHONIA, GA -- A&M Equipment Sales will offer a webinar titled "Success Secrets of Vending Business Professionals." Featuring three industry veterans with wide experience in different segments, it will explore topics such as planning for success, the benefits of using refurbished equipment and vending secrets that make money.
The webinar will be held on Jan. 14 at 8:30 p.m, EST. Click here to register.
The presenters are --
» Larry Towner, who is now a vending business consultant with Service Group International, who built a part-time operation headquartered in his garage into three routes serving 135 accounts.
» A&M owner Joe Nichols, who worked with his father to grow the company into a vending operation with $1.4 million in annual volume before changing its focus to vending equipment sales.
» Tim Paul, Automated Merchandising Systems, who has spent 39 years in vending, first with a full-line operation and then on the manufacturing side.
A question and answer period will follow the presentations.


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Over the past year I have been independently working on own Linux pen test environment as proof of concept for security policies. Pretty sure a lot of people will find this useful for their own use so dumping it here for others to use (just attribute). The AndroidClone dev team was inspired by the concepts behind bootubuntu, but we had ideas on another way to script and implement them to overcome the limitations experienced by chrooting into a mobile environment. Hence, the bootLaika bootscript was born. This post describes the results and shares the awesomeness
The main benefit of this script are these:
1 Minimized to core needs
2 Removes redundant and defunct items
3 Able to define mount points to call up and mount different images
4 If following the proper cycle, endless ability for loop devices
5 Allows larger file directory size for saving scans, network captures, and pen test results to bring back to home base
To use this bootscript for other Linux distributions adopted to ARM devices using the chroot method, you will need to adapt file names and file directories. Please do make mention of the bootlaika bootscript for Laika Linux if you decide to use our method.
Heres the script:
With this script, there are more loop devices to increase the overall image file size and organization. If done properly, its possible to have multiple assigned loop devices instead of just one randomly created one. The key here is assigned. During the load up process, each loop device needs to be created and assigned a proper mount point. Heres a portion of the bootscript in more detail and relevant information:Code:# This didnt work out, oh well. !/bin/bash mkdir /mnt/laika mount -o remount,rw -t yaffs2 /dev/block/mtdblock3 /system # You can make other loop devices and pair them with the image files following this example # I left in a commented out usr.img if you wanted to make your own # first make a loop device, then pair it to an image, and then mount it last in the chain. # Dont forget to add it to the end to unmount it mknod /dev/loop0 b 7 0 mknod /dev/loop1 b 7 1 # mknod /dev/loop2 b 7 2 losetup /dev/loop0 /sdcard/laika/laika.img losetup /dev/loop1 /sdcard/laika/var.img # losetup /dev/loop2 /sdcard/laika/usr.img export bin=/system/bin export PATH=$bin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin:/bin:$PATH export TERM=linux export HOME=/root mount -o noatime -t ext2 /dev/loop0 /mnt/laika mount -o noatime -t ext2 /dev/loop1 /mnt/laika/var # mount -o noatime -t ext2 /dev/loop2 /mnt/laika/usr mount -t devpts devpts /mnt/laika/dev/pts mount -t proc none /mnt/laika/proc mount -t sysfs sysfs /mnt/laika/sys echo echo Fancy Ascii Art for Laika edited out! echo To save space! echo echo Laika Linux Brought to you by AndroidClone.com echo echo Lead Developer jus @androidclone.com echo Project Coordinator jay @jaycehaliwell.com echo echo Enter cat README to view the readme file echo chroot /mnt/laika /bin/bash echo echo Shutting down Laika Linux . # umount /mnt/laika/usr umount /mnt/laika/var umount /mnt/laika/dev/pts umount /mnt/laika/proc umount /mnt/laika/sys fuser -k /mnt/laika umount /mnt/laika
In this example there are three loop devices with an assigned image file to mount, they are:Code:mknod /dev/loop0 b 7 0 mknod /dev/loop1 b 7 1 mknod /dev/loop2 b 7 2 losetup /dev/loop0 /sdcard/laika/laika.img losetup /dev/loop1 /sdcard/laika/var.img losetup /dev/loop2 /sdcard/laika/usr.img mount -o noatime -t ext2 /dev/loop0 /mnt/laika mount -o noatime -t ext2 /dev/loop1 /mnt/laika/var mount -o noatime -t ext2 /dev/loop2 /mnt/laika/usr
Each loop and assignment has three parts:loop 0 = laika.img
loop 1 = var.img
loop 2 = usr.img
mknod /dev/loop0 b 7 0
This makes the loop0 block device (the b), our first block device. Remember, counting starts at 0.
If you want to add more, each loop is incremental, meaning add one to these two areas:
mknod /dev/loop1 b 7 1
The second loop device is now loop1, and the 0 at the end is now a 1, 7 stays the same.
The next part is to make sure each loop device is assigned an appropriate image file, to ensure load order and proper load. Do that with the following:
losetup /dev/loop0 /sdcard/laika/laika.img
This says loop0 is paired with the laika.img from the SD Card.
The next part actually mounts the image files:
mount -o noatime -t ext2 /dev/loop0 /mnt/laika
The assigned loop device is then mounted to mount location as the chroot (Change root) image is built up directory by directory.
Each successive mount increases the size of the file directory and structure as it builds up. Its like creating a different partition for each file. We had some problems compiling and building packages due to size limitations. This bootscript fixes those problems by increasing dedicated size for images.
The only remaining limitation is the SD Card size; 8 GB seems to be fairly common now for usage. I personally run 12 GB for the images I use off of a 16 GB sd-card. That allows for a lot more room to save network scans and capture results while Im at one of the branch offices.


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As a preface, this bag was probably my most mulled-over purchase to date. I'd like to think that every one of my larger purchases are carefully-considered, but unfortunately, some of them could've used more thought and research on alternatives. I've been trying to shop more deliberately, which starts with discovering what the biggest "voids" are in my closet. I realized early this year that many of my work and casual outfits could use a simple brown, medium-sized bag. I needed one that was durable, lightweight, and preferably weather-resistant. I fell in love with Prada's Saffiano tote, and spent half a year trying on all the options, scouring the pre-owned market, and looking for any small ways to save. There was no rush to buy, and ultimately I ended up with something that I am in love with and do not regret (so far, anyways).
What exactly is "Saffiano" leather? I couldn't find any authorized information directly from Prada, but this thread on The Purse Forum contains some member opinions that sound right. Based on that thread and a few other articles, Saffiano leather is treated for increased durability, scratch-resistance, and water-resistance. Several other handbag designers use it as well.
There are so many sizes and variations of this bag that I often get confused, but the sizes that I have tried on include..
**Prices are as of 9/2012 and will probably change**
Mini Double Zip w/ strap - 7" x 10" x 4.15" - $1520
Small Double Zip w/ strap - 8.25" x 11.5" x 5" - 1730
Medium Double Zip w/ strap - 9"x 15" x 5.5" - $1810
Medium Double Zip no strap - 10" x 14.5" x 6" - $1960
Large Double Zip no strap - 12" x 15.75" x 6.75" - $2100
Open Tote no strap- I've seen a range of online measurements and don't know exactly which one is right...approximate size is 10" x 14" x 7" - $1730
The open tote easily fits a 15" laptop, small makeup bag, wallet, plus baggie for shoes:
Where to Buy
After I decided on the size/style/color combo, I combed eBay for a pre-owned bag that fit the bill. There are so many options available with this tote that it was hard to find the exact one on the secondhand market. I am also not an expert in gauging Prada authenticity via photos, and was worried about purchasing a counterfeit. The similar ones I watched on eBay went for about $1,200-$1,400, so it was a lot to pay for the risk of unauthentic merchandise, plus not getting the exact bag sought. I ended up buying mine from Neiman Marcus at full price, choosing them over the Prada boutique because I trust their customer service and return policy more.
Relatively Lower-Priced Alternative
Ever since I started looking at Prada's Double Zip Tote, a few readers have suggested Tory Burch's rendition. This bag is also made of Saffiano leather and comes in a variety of colors, including "luggage" brown. At 10" x 16" x 5.5," it is approximately comparable to Prada's larger medium size but has a detachable strap, and has the same inside compartments.


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Perhaps without ever intending to, Beth Sersig, MD (MED '84) and Christopher Brandt, MD, PhD (WRC '80, MED '84), have become examples of lifelong, dedicated alumni involvement at the School of Medicine. Both accomplished physicians in their fields, they focus their time and resources on advancing the future of health care.
Sersig is a staff physician and director of women's health at Case Western Reserve University Student Health Services. Brandt is a general surgeon at MetroHealth Medical Center, a professor at the School of Medicine and this year's recipient of the school's Kaiser-Permanente Excellence in Teaching Award. Both have been active volunteers at the school and university levels.
One of the ways the couple has celebrated their commitment to the school is through their philanthropy. They have established an endowed scholarship and have made a will commitment to provide additional funds in the future. The scholarship supports School of Medicine students, with a preference to graduates of public schools within Cuyahoga County.
"It's getting harder and harder to attract students to medicine who are from underserved populations," Brandt observes. "While issues earlier in their educational experiences may impact their ability to be competitive students, they simply cannot get there without financial resources in medical school."
Whatever the reason for a gift, the university is profoundly grateful for the support of our alumni and friends.


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23andMe has a new design for our website. We'd like you to take a peek. With input from our customers, we created a cleaner and more personalized layout that highlights some of the features you know and love, and adds a few new ones to boot. While customers still have access to the same breadth of ...
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April 5, 2013
A New Look at 23andMe
Published by 23andMe under 23andMe and you, announcements


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SAN BERNARDINO - The Way World Outreach church opened a new downtown campus Tuesday, dramatically increasing its capacity to serve the needy near downtown.
The nearly 8-year-old church has renovated a 25,000-square-foot building at 1001 N. Arrowhead Ave. that once housed First Christian Church of San Bernardino.
"Thousands will come without hope, and they will leave with hope," said Assistant Pastor Robert Cuencas, during ribbon-cutting ceremonies in the courtyard of the new location.
The building replaces a smaller mission at 375 W. Seventh St. that served 5,000, church officials said.
The Way operates a separate campus for worship services and other activities at 3701 N. Sierra Way in San Bernardino.
But at 7 tonight, the worship service will be shown by satellite at the downtown campus, said Pastor Marco Garcia.
"This is bigger than a building. We are not interested in buildings. We are interested in people. With this building, it will be easier to bring more people in," Garcia said at the dedication.
"This will be a life-transformation center, where people will be made whole," he said.
The original church opened in 1937 during the Great Depression, Garcia said.
Now another church is coming out of the same location "in another great depression, and the city is in bankruptcy," he said.
"The city is going, down and the church is rising up," Garcia said.
"I am so anxious to have you begin this downtown ministry," Mayor Pat Morris said at the opening ceremony.
"There are thousands of people (in the area served by the mission) needing your assistance, in need of their whole lives being reformed and renewed through your church. I know you will find them and bring them home," Morris said.
Volunteers worked thousands of hours cleaning, painting, installing new carpeting and creating amenities for various rooms.
Many of those rooms are decorated for children of various age groups.
For more information, go to thewayworldoutreach.org.
Reach Jim via email, call him at 909-386-3855, or find him on Twitter @JSteinbergsRoad.


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Vince Neil becomes arena football team owner
Listen to Motley Crue on iHeartRadio
Vince Neil is joining the ranks of rockers who are getting into the Arena Football League.
The Motley Crue frontman tells The Las Vegas Sun he's now a co-owner of the Jacksonville Sharks. He reportedly inked the deal to buy the team with other rockers, but his partners haven't been named. And while the Sharks are based in Florida, Neil wants to bring Arena Football to the desert. He says it's "a great action sport" that's "growing in popularity," and he thinks Las Vegas is a perfect place for a team.
Happy Easter Everyone!!
— Vince Neil (@TheVinceNeil) April 20, 2014
Neil isn't the only rocker involved with the AFL. KISS' Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley are celebrating the inaugural season for their team, L.A. KISS, while Bon Jovi's Jon Bon Jovi helped establish the Philadelphia Soul ten years ago.
Photo Credit Getty Images


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The 2013 Monster Energy Supercross Series continued to traverse the West Coast, as its time in California would not be complete without a stop in the Bay Area and Oakland's O.co Coliseum. We have seen plenty of excitement, surprises, and momentum swings to last a year, but we are now only four rounds into the 17-stop tour.
Eli Tomac's stranglehold over the 250 championship was broken, as two mishaps in the main event kept him from finishing the race. It would be Ken Roczen taking the opening at the top of the order, and now the Red Bull KTM racer also has control over the championship point standings.
While the first weeks of his championship defense appeared shaky, the dominating Ryan Villopoto of the past years is back. Though second-turn crash knocked a slew of competition out of the fight for the win, Villopoto was already in the lead and pulling away from the other 19 racers on the field. Despite this two-race streak of wins, Davi Millsaps continues to lead the 450 Supercross standings.
250 West Coast Championship
Heat One
Jessy Nelson was quickest to turn one in the first eight-lap 250 heat race, but most of the crowd's attention was on defending champ and points leader Eli Tomac, who went down in turn one. Cole Seely snuck under Nelson and took the lead for a few seconds, but lost traction and went down on the slippery track. Nelson regained the lead and was never challenged as he raced to the first heat race win of his young career. Tyla Rattray moved into second when Jake Canada skipped off the track in the whoops, and stayed there to the finish. Third went to Jason Anderson, while Seely moved back to fourth. After crashing in turn one, Tomac recovered to seventh.
1. Jessy Nelson (Hon)
2. Tyla Rattray (Kaw)
3. Jason Anderson (Suz)
4. Cole Seely (Hon)
5. Jake Canada (Suz)
6. Christian Craig (Hon)
7. Eli Tomac (Hon)
8. Jean Ramos (Kaw)
9. Chris Plouffe (Hon)
Heat Two
Zach Osborne snared the holeshot at the start of the second 250 heat, but his lead only lasted a lap, as Ken Roczen blazed past in the sand section and took over the point. Roczen established a two second lead almost immediately, and maintained it to the finish. Osborne was a solid second, with Martin Davalos, Joey Savatgy, Malcolm Stewart and Austin Politelli.
1. Ken Roczen (KTM)
2. Zach Osborne (Hon)
3. Martin Davalos (Kaw)
4. Joey Savatgy (KTM)
5. Malcolm Stewart (KTM)
6. Austin Politelli (Hon)
7. Kyle Cunningham (Yam)
8. Travis Baker (Yam)
9. Kade Mosig (Kawasaki)
Max Anstie holeshot the LCQ but went wide in the first turn and let many riders slip past. JDR KTM's Josh Cachia stole the lead and held it to the end. Killian Rusk came home second, in spite of a massive late-race charge by Scott Champion.
1. Josh Cachia (KTM)
2. Killian Rusk (Hon)
Main Event
Savatgy grabbed a surprise holeshot at the start of the 15-lap 250 main, but Troy Lee Honda's Cole Seely stole the lead on lap one. Roczen moved into second quickly, while his rival Tomac was mired in the middle of the pack. Tomac's woes continued when he went down early in the race and dropped back to nearly last. Things went from worse to worst for Tomac at the halfway point when a gnarly crash in the whoops left him on the side of the track, in pain and unable to continue.
Out front, Seely rode a calm and collected race. Roczen was faster, but made more mistakes and would gain and then lose ground to the leader. Seely bobbles a couple times in the rhythm section after the sand and allowed Roczen to really close in, and on lap 12 the German rider forced his way past when he took the low line in a bown corner.
Once into the lead, Roczen began to pull away and sliced through the lapped traffic with efficiency. Seely held on as best he could, but at the finish, Roczen enjoyed a five second lead. Thirteen seconds further back came Anderson, who notched his first-ever podium finish. Davalos and Malcolm Stewart rounded out the top five.
1. Ken Roczen
2. Cole Seely
3. Jason Anderson
4. Martin Davalos
5. Malcolm Stewart
6. Joey Savatgy
7. Kyle Cunningham
8. Austin Politelli
9. Christian Craig
10. Zach Osborne
11. Tyla Rattray
12. Travis Baker
13. Jessy Nelson
14. Chris Plouffe
15. Jean Ramos
16. Josh Cachia
17. Kade Mosig
18. Killian Rusk
19. Jake Canada
20. Eli Tomac
|250 Class Championship Points Standings (After 4 of 9 rounds)
1. Ken Roczen (91pts/1 win)
2. Cole Seely (80)
3. Eli Tomac (76/3)
4. Zach Osborne (58)
5. Jason Anderson (52)
6. Kyle Cunningham (49)
7. Martin Davalos (48)
8. Christian Craig (47)
9. Malcolm Stewart (45)
10. Tyla Rattray (45)
Top Lap Times
1. Ken Roczen 55.453
2. Cole Seely 55.988
3. Eli Tomac 56.022
4. Malcolm Stewart 56.349
5. Jason Anderson 56.441


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Body found in pond identified
(Olmsted Township) -- Police say the body of a man found floating in a retention pond a week and a half ago has been identified as Carl Edward Acoff, Jr., 20, of Cleveland.
Olmsted Township police say Acoff was identified by the Cuyahoga County Medical Examiner's office through a DNA match. His badly decomposed body was found in the pond on April 17 after missing since March 27. The body had been tied to a piece of concrete or to a steel pipe. He was wearing a jacket, a tank top and three bras, nothing from the waist down.
(Photo by Colleen O'Neill/WTAM 1100)
Police had little else to say about Acoff today, only saying it's an active investigation.
On April 17, dive teams were called to a retention pond behind an old nursery on MacKenzie Road, not far from Cook Road. "All I saw was a swimsuit on a body. To me, it looked like a mannequin," said Collin Garratt, who saw the body up close.
Get breaking news sent to your mobile phone.Text "news" to 21095.
(Copyright 2013 Clear Channel, all rights reserved. Mug shot from Cleveland Police Department.)


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Moroccan Atlas Pillow Cover
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Loomed from rich, nubby yarns, Berber-inspired weaves trace our pillows with exotic textures and ancient, tribal stripes. The yarns are spun with a generous complement of wool and alpaca, giving the pillows a sumptuous natural softness.
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- 22" sq.
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