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I just finished uploading my recipe for these spicy ahi tuna poke bowls to Instagram - go check them out before they disappear! Such a perfect summer meal because you don't have to use the stove or oven at all!... Continue Reading →
Lately I have been really into lettuce wraps. Don't judge the lettuce - these are damn good and take 15 minutes to make. Weekday dinner perfection. Ingredients: 1 lb ground beef 1 head butter lettuce or cabbage if you're into... Continue Reading →
Ingredients: 1 lb fresh calamari 1 teaspoon chopped parsley 1 teaspoon chopped cilantro 1 hot chili pepper chopped finely 1 tablespoon olive oil 1 teaspoon salt & pepper 1 lemon 8 cloves garlic, chopped 5 roma tomates 1 baguette ... Continue Reading →
Ingredients: For sauce: 2 tbsp soy sauce 2 tbsp rice vinegar 4 tbsp brown sugar 4 tbsp gochujang 4 tbsp honey 2 tbsp freshly minced ginger 6 cloves minced Garlic For chicken: 4 chicken thighs chopped into bite sized pieces ... Continue Reading →
Ingredients: Donuts: 1 cup flour 1/4 cup cocoa powder 1/2 teaspoon baking soda 1/2 teaspoon salt 3 tablespoons melted butter 1 egg 1/4 cup brown sugar 2 tablespoons white sugar 2 tablespoons vanilla 1/4 cup half and half Icing: 1/2... Continue Reading →
Learning how to make pasta has simultaneously been the easiest and most frustrating experience I have had in quite some time. So excited to eat my weight in carbs 😋
I cook the bacon until most of the fat is rendered off and dry it on paper towels. While that's cooking roast the halved Brussel Sprouts with some olive oil and salt and pepper until the start to get golden... Continue Reading →
My first time making ravioli was a success! There are definitely changes I will make next time but until then I am happy to add another notch on my belt.


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"I would say 75% of the economy is now being run by ex-science-fiction fans."
The Hangman, the telefactoring robot, achieves self-awareness with a unique computing device.
See also the entry for neuristor.
Compare to the artificial brain from Edmond Hamilton's 1926 classic The Metal Giants.
Compare to the artificial brain from Edmond Hamilton's 1926 classic The Metal Giants.
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Sometimes a film makes history; it doesn't just document it. So it is with Granito: How to Nail a Dictator", the astonishing new film by Pamela Yates. Part political thriller, part memoir, Yates transports us back in time through a riveting, haunting tale of genocide and returns to the present with a cast of characters joined by destiny and the quest to bring a malevolent dictator to justice.As if a watchful Maya god were weaving back together threads of a story unraveled by the passage of time, forgotten by most, our characters become integral to the overarching narrative of wrongs done and justice sought that they have pieced together, each adding their granito, their tiny grain of sand, to the epic tale.
pamela yates
rigoberta menchü
fredy peccerelli
alejandra garcia
kate doyle
antonio caba caba
credits: © 2011 International Film Circuit / http://skylightpictures.com/films/granito
posted on 03/21/2012
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Dreams turning into reality for aspiring broadcaster
Marissa Marshall,
Staff Writer
May 24, 2017
Filed under Campus, Opinion, Sports
I'm in the middle of work, and I get a phone call. Usually, I don't answer calls from numbers I don't know, but this was different. It was an area code from my hometown Los Angeles, so I was under the impression a family member was giving me a call, so I answered. The caller on the other en...
Limited financial aid offered for summer
Daisy Ortiz,
March 15, 2017
Filed under Campus, Features
For many Cal State East Bay students, summer quarter provides an opportunity to get ahead on coursework or simply catch up on classes they need for the next academic year. For those students, financial aid typically plays a significant role. Of the 7,000 students that enrolled in summer courses last year,...
Home can never be replaced
Marissa Marshall,
Staff Writer
June 29, 2016
Filed under Opinion
In August 2015 I moved away from home in Los Angeles to attend my first year of college at California State University East Bay. I finished my first year, and am finally home for summer break before I return for my second year. It was a surreal feeling for me when I first got to college. I was not sad I...


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As a rural community, Northern Neck food pantries were limited by time, space, money
and ability. Many food pantries purchased food at retail
prices locally, and due to limited cold storage, were unable to offer fresher,
healthier food. In 2009, three area food pantries
were supported with transport and storage of food and over the next year discussions were held for the need for an official CVFB distribution point in the Northern Neck region of
Virginia. In July 2010, the Northern Neck Food Bank officially formed, CVFB
created the NNFB as a rural Redistribution Organization and the NNFB received its non profit 501(c) 3 status in September 2010. Today, the NNFB has grown to serve 33 food pantries and distribution sites throughout Lancaster, Northumberland, Richmond, Westmoreland, Essex and Middlesex Counties. The organization remains committed to meeting the unique needs of our rural community and continues to offer free delivery of fresh, frozen and non-perishable food to our partner pantries.
I was standing at the entry to a food pantry that I had been running when one of the most gut-wrenching realizations occurred to me. I had been serving, and smiling, and shaking hands with the people who needed food in our community for four years and I didn't know any of their names. I knew the "stories" of so many, but never took the time to get to know the individuals themselves; and that was the day that everything changed.
The NNFB is an organization built on the idea that dignity is a much more important gift to offer someone than a box of canned goods. In a country where people do not starve, it is the only real currency. We realize that in order to truly help those in our community who need it, we have to start with a deep look at those who are willing to serve. There is an undeniable chasm between these two groups and for us it is more important to blur those lines than it is to distribute food. Until we are able to step up to the problem of "us and them", no amount of "help" will be effective in changing the circumstances of someone's life.
Finally, NNFB was designed with a built-in ceiling for growth by limiting ourselves to the six surrounding counties of the Northern Neck, Middlesex and Essex. This forces us to concentrate on building better resources at home, rather than building a bigger non-profit. It is here to cater to the unique needs of our rural community. Our desire is that if there is large-scale growth to come out of this organization, it would be in the form of an example that can be picked up by similar communities to be "owned" and operated by the people who live in those communities.
Julie Dudley, Executive VP of Development
The Delivery Program is very important benefit we offer the food pantries in our rural area. Through free deliveries to pantries, the NNFB has resolved a major challenge faced by Northern Neck food pantries, the ability to transport large quantities of food to their location.
Indirect Public Support HelpIndirect public support represents revenue received through solicitation campaigns. This includes funding United Way and other federated fundraising organizations, but does not include donor designated contributions.
Earned Revenue HelpEarned revenue represents income generated in direct exchange for a product or service.Earned income includes income from government contracts.
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I wanted to eat chicken today. I actually wanted to eat chicken really badly today! So I thawed an Extra Large whole chicken that I got from Coles last week On Special, and while it was thawing I was pondering all day what I would do with it. In other words, how would I cook this chicken to best satisfy my craving for chicken??? Do I cook a chicken curry? Do I steam it? Do I chop it up and make fried chicken (I probably would have if it wasn't so much effort, but it was too much effort when I had two kids around to keep me busy). So I decided to roast it.
Then came the next question. What do I do with it before I roast it?
I looked in my fridge, and I looked in my pantry. I looked in my spices cupboard. Put a bunch of things together... and voila! Dinner was prepped in under 5 minutes and into the oven to slow roast for 2.5 hours. Easy peasy!
The result? Pretty darn good if you ask me. Did it satisfy my craving for chicken? It sure did! The slow roasting process meant the chicken was deliciously moist and juicy. The spices and sauces I put together resulted in a slightly spicy and quite flavoursome chicken. All the flavours and juices were retained inside the casserole dish (use a dish big enough to fit the chicken and cover with casserole dish lid).
These were roughly the ingredients I used:
Taco seasoning powder
Nando's Hot Peri Peri Sauce
Sweet Chilli Mix with Olive Oil (from the deli)
Salt and Pepper to taste
Extra olive oil for when rubbing all the ingredients in
Extra olive oil for when rubbing all the ingredients in
Just rub all the ingredients generously around the chicken and stuff the sweet chilli mix into the chicken. Roast it in the oven at 130 degrees Celcius for approximately 2.5 hours in a covered casserole dish. Serve immediately and enjoy!
If you want the flavours to truly soak into the chicken, maybe wait half an hour before putting it into the oven to let all the marinade sit.


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Man wanted for murders named as Feher
Rome, April 13 - A Serbian suspected of killing two people and thought to be armed and dangerous was named Thursday as Norbert Feher, Italian police said after consulting officials in Serbia where he is wanted for robbery and sexual violence. The 41-year-old Feher, who also goes by the name of Igor Vaclavic, under which he was tried in Ferrara some years ago, is the suspected killer of Davide Fabbri, a 52-year-old who was shot dead during an attempted robbery at his bar at Budrio, near Bologna, on April 1, and of a voluntary environmental ranger who was shot dead near Ferrara Saturday.
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Get an overview of this hotelBoardwalk Qingdao hotel in Qingdao City Centre with 3 restaurants
Popular property highlights
Located in Qingdao City Centre, this hotel is within 2 mi (3 km) of Qingdao University, Hisense Plaza, and Olympic Sailing Museum. Qingdao Modern Art Park and May Fourth Square are also within 3 mi (5 km).
Hotel Features
Along with 3 restaurants, this hotel has a marina and an indoor pool. Free WiFi in public areas and a free airport shuttle are also provided. Other amenities include an outdoor pool, a fitness center, and a bar/lounge.
Room Amenities
All 204 soundproofed rooms feature free WiFi and minibars. For a bit of entertainment, LCD TVs come with digital channels, and guests will also appreciate thoughtful touches like pillow menus and bathrobes.Information missing or incorrect? Tell us!Opens in a new window
Qingdao Seaview Garden Hotel
Hotel Amenities
Hotel Amenities
In addition to a marina, Qingdao Seaview Garden Hotel features an indoor pool and an outdoor pool. Dining is available at one of the hotel's 3 restaurants. The property also offers a grocery/convenience store. A bar/lounge is on site where guests can unwind with a drink. Wireless Internet access is complimentary.
This 4-star property offers access to a business center and meeting rooms. 11 meeting rooms are available. This business-friendly hotel also offers a children's pool, a fitness center, and a sauna. A roundtrip airport shuttle is complimentary to guests (available 24 hours).
- 24-hour front desk
- Free airport transportation
- Total number of rooms - 204
- Number of floors - 9
- Bar/lounge
- Breakfast available (surcharge)
- Business center
- Coffee/tea in common areas
- Free newspapers in lobby
- Conference space
- Dry cleaning/laundry service
- Elevator/lift
- Express check-in
- Express check-out
- Fitness facilities
- Hair salon
- Free WiFi
- Billiards or pool table
- Grocery/convenience store
- Tours/ticket assistance
- Marina on site
- Meeting rooms
- Multilingual staff
- Garden
- Porter/bellhop
- Luggage storage
- Safe-deposit box at front desk
- Free grocery shopping service
- Pool sun loungers
- Number of meeting rooms - 11
- Year Built 1995
- Number of restaurants - 3
- Sauna
- Shopping on site
- Number of buildings/towers - 3
- Spa services on site
- Children's pool
- Indoor pool
- Outdoor pool
- Outdoor seasonal pool
Family Friendly Amenities
- Family Hotel
- Outdoor pool
- Indoor pool
- Children's pool
- Free Wi-Fi
- Soundproofed rooms
- Grocery/convenience store
- Refrigerator
- Cribs/infant beds (complimentary)
Available in all rooms: Free WiFi
Available in some public areas: Free WiFi
Room Amenities
- Soundproofed rooms
- Air conditioning
- Free newspaper
- Phone
- Refrigerator
- Minibar
- Free bottled water
- Daily housekeeping
- Turndown service
- Designer toiletries
- Private bathroom
- Bathrobes
- Free toiletries
- Hair dryer
- In-room massage available
- Slippers
- Separate bathtub and shower
- Iron/ironing board
- In-room safe
- Desk
- Blackout drapes/curtains
- Digital TV service
- Free WiFi
- Room service
- Pillow menu
- Free cribs/infant beds
- Rollaway/extra beds (surcharge)
Where to Eat
Buffet breakfasts are available for a surcharge and are served each morning between 6 AM and 10 AM.
Coffee Shop - This fine-dining restaurant specializes in American cuisine and serves breakfast, lunch, and dinner.
Seabreeze Restaurant - This restaurant serves lunch and dinner.
Cantonese Hall - This restaurant specializes in Chinese cuisine and serves breakfast, lunch, and dinner.
A complimentary grocery shopping service is offered and room service is available.
Nearby Things to Do
An indoor pool, an outdoor pool, and a children's pool are on site. Other recreational amenities include a sauna and a fitness center.
Spa Services
- Massages
Hotel Policies
Special check-in instructions:
Check-out time is noon
Payment types
Children and extra beds
- Children are welcome.
- Rollaway/extra beds are available for CNY 380 per night.
- Free cribs (infant beds)!
- Pets not allowed
You need to know
Extra-person charges may apply and vary depending on property policy.
Government-issued photo identification and a credit card or cash deposit are required at check-in for incidental charges.
Special requests are subject to availability upon check-in and may incur additional charges. Special requests cannot be guaranteed.
24-hour check-in
- Resort fee
Optional extras
- Fee for buffet breakfast: CNY 80 per person (approximately)
- Rollaway bed fee: CNY 380 per night
Hotel Name
- Garden Seaview Hotel
- Qingdao Garden Hotel
- Qingdao Seaview Garden
- Qingdao Seaview Garden Hotel
- Qingdao Seaview Hotel
- Seaview Garden Hotel
- Seaview Garden Hotel Qingdao
- Seaview Garden Qingdao
- Seaview Hotel Qingdao
We should mention
Reservations are required for massage services. Reservations can be made by contacting the hotel prior to arrival, using the contact information on the booking confirmation. A resort fee is included in the total price displayed.
National Rating
For the benefit of our customers, we have provided a rating based on our rating system.


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I think our Jenny looked stunning at the Oscars, not only has she got a figure to die for, her hair and make up was stunning.
Her make up (and new diet) added in her skin looking iridescent. If you have a special event coming up or are dying to recreate this phenomenal look check this make-up tutorial from Destinygodley on Youtube
In addition, I must mention the queen of the red carpet, Halle Berry. Unsurprisingly, despite her recent troubles, the ever professional Berry sparkled once again on the red carpet. Her figure hugging dress complemented her svelte figure perfectly.


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|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Apr 27, 1982
|Filing date
|Aug 18, 1980
|Priority date
|Aug 18, 1980
|Publication number
|Gerhard G. Ramlow, Duane A. Heyman, Richard A. Moore
|Original Assignee
|Basf Wyandotte Corporation
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (9), Referenced by (17), Classifications (24), Legal Events (2)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to stable graft polymer dispersions of low viscosity at temperatures below 100� C. More particularly, the invention relates to graft copolymer dispersions prepared by the improved process of in situ free radical polymerization of ethylenically unsaturated monomer or monomers in polyol in the presence of an effective amount of a preformed polymeric stabilizer.
2. Prior Art
The prior art, as evidenced by U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,652,659; 3,875,258; 3,950,317; and U.S. Pat. No. Re. 28,715 and No. Re. 29,014, teaches the preparation of graft copolymer dispersions which are useful in the preparation of polyurethanes by the free radical polymerization of ethylenically unsaturated monomers in the presence of polyols. These patents disclose various methods of preparing graft polymer dispersions. The prior art is silent regarding the desirability of using a preformed polymeric stabilizer based on alkoxylated styrene-allyl alcohol polymers during the addition of ethylenically unsaturated monomer or monomers.
It has been discovered that stable graft polymer dispersions of low viscosity can be prepared at temperatures below 100� C. employing preformed polymeric stabilizers. The preformed polymeric stabilizer is an alkylene oxide adduct of a copolymer of styrene-allyl alcohol.
In accordance with the improved process for the preparation of stable graft copolymer dispersions prepared by the in situ free radical polymerization of an ethylenically unsaturated monomer or mixture of said monomers and a polyol, the improvement comprises conducting said polymerization in the presence of an effective amount of a preformed polymeric stabilizer.
The polymeric stabilizer is an alkylene oxide adduct of a copolymer of styrene-allyl alcohol. The copolymer contains from about 15 weight percent to about 85 weight percent styrene, and has an equivalent weight of 58 to 4000. The alkoxylated copolymer employed as the stabilizer has an equivalent weight of 220 to 8000 and a viscosity of 2000-4000 cps at 25� C. As is well known to those skilled in the art, these copolymers may be prepared with or in the absence of, polymerization initiators. The copolymer is then reacted with alkylene oxides. The alkylene oxides which may be employed include ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, butylene oxide and mixtures thereof.
The stabilizers of the instant invention were prepared by the following general procedure:
Five parts of toluene and 5 parts of styrene-allyl alcohol copolymer having an equivalent weight of 300 and a hydroxyl content of 5.7 percent were charged to a reaction flask equipped with a stirrer, thermometer, and water-cooled condenser. Upon heating the mixture to 100� C., 44 parts of 45 percent KOH were added and water was azeotroped off. To the reaction was added 2340 parts of propylene oxide maintaining the temperature of the reaction between 90�-100� C. After addition of the propylene oxide was completed, the reaction mixture was refluxed for 4 to 5 hours. The product was then treated with adsorbent to remove the KoH and stripped for 1 hour at 105� C. at less than 10 millimeters Hg pressure.
The ratio of the preformed polymeric stabilizer which is employed may vary from 10:1 to 1:1 monomer:stabilizer. The polymerization of ethylenically unsaturated monomer or monomers may be carried out at a temperature between 25� C. and 170� C., preferably between 80� C. to 100� C. The preformed polymeric stabilizer is incorporated in the polyol that is initially added to the reaction, upon which the monomer and catalyst are added to the reaction vessel. This polyol may or may not contain unsaturation within the molecule. Preferably, however, this polyol contains within it at least 0.3 mole of unsaturation per mole of polyol.
The advantages of employing the process of the instant invention are that the finely divided solid polymers may be prepared at low temperatures, that is, at about 80� C., and that only about one-half of the free radical initiator normally required is effective.
The polyols which may be employed in the present invention are well known in the art. Both conventional polyols essentially free from ethylenic unsaturation, such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. Re. 28,715 and unsaturated polyols such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,652,659 and U.S. Pat. No. Re. 29,014, may be employed in the invention.
Representative polyols essentially free from ethylenic unsaturation which may be employed in the present invention are well known in the art. They are often prepared by the catalytic condensation of an alkylene oxide or mixture of alkylene oxides either simultaneously or sequentially with an organic compound having at least two active hydrogen atoms such as evidenced by U.S. Pat. Nos. 1,922,459; 3,190,927, and 3,346,557.
Representative polyols include polyhydroxyl-containing polyesters, polyalkylene polyether polyols, polyhydroxy-terminated polyurethane polymers, polyhydroxyl-containing phosphorus compounds, and alkylene oxide adducts of polyhydric polythioesters, polyacetals, aliphatic polyols and thiols, ammonia, and amines including aromatic, aliphatic, and heterocyclic amines, as well as mixtures thereof. Alkylene oxide adducts of compounds which contain two or more different groups within the above-defined classes may also be used such as amino alcohols which contain an amino group and a hydroxyl group. Also, alkylene oxide adducts of compounds which contain one --SH group and one --OH group as well as those which contain an amino group and a --SH group may be used. Generally, the equivalent weight of the polyols will vary from 100 to 10,000, preferably from 1000 to 3000.
Any suitable hydroxy-terminated polyester may be used such as are obtained, for example, from polycarboxylic acids and polyhydric alcohols. Any suitable polycarboxylic acid may be used such as oxalic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, glutaric acid, adipic acid, pimelic acid, suberic acid, azelaic acid, sebacic acid, brassylic acid, thapsic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, glutaconic acid, alpha-hydromuconic acid, beta-hydromuconic acid, alpha-butyl-alpha-ethyl-glutaric acid, alpha,beta-diethylsuccinic acid, isophthalic acid, terephthalic acid, hemimellitic acid, and 1,4-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid. Any suitable polyhydric alcohol, including both aliphatic and aromatic, may be used such as ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, trimethylene glycol, 1,2-butanediol, 1,3-butanediol, 1,4-butanediol, 1,2-pentanediol, 1,4-pentanediol, 1,5-pentanediol, 1,6-hexanediol, 1,7-heptanediol, glyercol, 1,1,1-trimethylolpropane, 1,1,1-trimethylolethane, 1,2,6-hexanetriol, alpha-methyl glucoside, pentaerythritol, and sorbitol. Also included within the term "polyhydric alcohol" are compounds derived from phenol such as 2,2'-bis(4,4'-hydroxyphenyl)propane, commonly known as Bisphenol A.
Any suitable polyalkylene polyether polyol may be used such as the polymerization product of an alkylene oxide or of an alkylene oxide with a polyhydric alcohol. Any suitable polyhydric alcohol may be used such as those disclosed above for use in the preparation of the hydroxy-terminated polyesters. Any suitable alkylene oxide may be used such as ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, butylene oxide, amylene oxide, and mixtures of these oxides. The polyalkylene polyether polyols may be prepared from other starting materials such as tetrahydrofuran and alkylene oxide-tetrahydrofuran mixtures; epihalohydrins such as epichlorohydrin; as well as aralkylene oxides such as styrene oxide. The polyalkylene polyether polyols may have either primary or secondary hydroxyl groups. Included among the polyether polyols are polyoxyethylene glycol, polyoxypropylene glycol, polyoxybutylene glycol, polytetramethylene glycol, block copolymers, for example, combinations of polyoxypropylene and polyoxyethylene glycols, poly-1,2-oxybutylene and polyoxyethylene glycols, poly-1,4-oxybutylene and polyoxyethylene glycols, and random copolymer glycols prepared from blends of sequential addition of two or more alkylene oxides. The polyalkylene polyether polyols may be prepared by any known process such as, for example, the process disclosed by Wurtz in 1859 and Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol. 7, pp. 257-262, published by Interscience Publishers, Inc. (1951) or in U.S. Pat. No. 1,922,459. Polyethers which are preferred include the alkylene oxide addition products of trimethylolpropane, glycerine, pentaerythritol, sucrose, sorbitol, propylene glycol, and 2,2'-(4,4'-hydroxyphenyl)propane and blends thereof having equivalent weights of from 100 to 5000.
Suitable polyhydric polythioethers which may be condensed with alkylene oxides include the condensation product of thiodiglycol or the reaction product of a dihydric alcohol such as is disclosed above for the preparation of the hydroxyl-containing polyesters with any other suitable thioether glycol.
The hydroxyl-containing polyester may also be a polyester amide such as is obtained by including some amine or amino alcohol in the reactants for the preparation of the polyesters. Thus, polyester amides may be obtained by condensing an amino alcohol such as ethanolamine with the polycarboxylic acids set forth above or they may be made using the same components that make up the hydroxyl-containing polyester with only a portion of the components being a diamine such as ethylene diamine.
Polyhydroxyl-containing phosphorus compounds which may be used include those compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,639,542. Preferred polyhydroxyl-containing phosphorus compounds are prepared from alkylene oxides and acids of phosphorus having a P2 O5 equivalency of from about 72 percent to about 95 percent.
Suitable polyacetals which may be condensed with alkylene oxides include the reaction product of formaldehyde or other suitable aldehyde with a dihydric alcohol or an alkylene oxide such as those disclosed above.
Suitable aliphatic thiols which may be condensed with alkylene oxides include alkanethiols containing at least two --SH groups such as 1,2-ethanedithiol, 1,2-propanedithiol, 1,3-propanedithiol, and 1,6-hexanedithiol; alkenethiols such as 2-butene-1,4-dithiol; and alkynethiols such as 3-hexyne-1,6-dithiol.
Suitable amines which may be condensed with alkylene oxides include aromatic amines such as aniline, o-chloroaniline, p-aminoaniline, 1,5-diaminonaphthalene, methylene dianiline, the condensation products of aniline and formaldehyde, and 2,4-diaminotoluene; aliphatic amines such as methylamine, triisopropanolamine, ethylenediamine, 1,3-diaminopropane, 1,3-diaminobutane, and 1,4-diaminobutane.
The unsaturated polyols which may be employed in the present invention may be prepared by the reaction of any conventional polyol such as those described above with an organic compound having both ethylenic unsaturation and a hydroxyl, carboxyl, anhydride, isocyanate or epoxy group or they may be prepared by employing an organic compound having both ethylenic unsaturation and a hydroxyl, carboxyl, anhydride, or epoxy group as a reactant in the preparation of the conventional polyol. Representative of such organic compounds include unsaturated mono- and polycarboxylic acids and anhydrides such as maleic acid and anhydride, fumaric acid, crotonic acid and anhydride, propenyl succinic anhydride, and halogenated maleic acids and anhydrides, unsaturated polyhydric alcohols such as 2-butene-1,4-diol, glycerol allyl ether, trimethylolpropane allyl ether, pentaerythritol allyl ether, pentaerythritol vinyl ether, pentaerythritol diallyl ether, and 1-butene-3,4-diol, unsaturated epoxides such as 1-vinylcyclohexene-3,4-epoxide, butadiene monoxide, vinyl glycidyl ether(1-vinyloxy-2,3-epoxy propane), glycidyl methacrylate and 3-allyloxypropylene oxide (allyl glycidyl ether). If a polycarboxylic acid or anhydride is employed to incorporate unsaturation into the polyols, it is preferable to react the unsaturated polyol with an alkylene oxide, preferably ethylene or propylene oxide, to replace the carboxyl groups with hydroxyl groups prior to employment in the present invention. The amount of alkylene oxide employed is such to reduce the acid number of the unsaturated polyol to about one or less.
To prepare the unsaturated polyols for use in the present invention, from about 0.05 mole to about 3.0 moles, preferably from 0.30 mole to 1.50 moles, of said organic compound per mole of polyol is employed. The preparation of the unsaturated polyols employed in the present invention follows conventional prior art procedures such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,275,606 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,280,077. Generally, this requires a reaction at a temperature between 0� C. and 130� C. Both acidic catalysts, such as Lewis acid catalysts and basic catalysts such as alkali metal hydroxides, may be used. In addition, a noncatalyzed reaction may be used employing temperatures between 50� C. and 200� C.
As mentioned above, the graft copolymer dispersions of the invention are prepared by the in situ polymerization, in the above-described polyols and a small amount of a preformed graft polymer dispersion, of an ethylenically unsaturated monomer or a mixture of ethylenically unsaturated monomers. Representative ethylenically unsaturated monomers which may be employed in the present invention include butadiene, isoprene, 1,4-pentadiene, 1,5-hexadiene, 1,7-octadiene, styrene, alpha-methylstyrene, methylstyrene, 2,4-dimethylstyrene, ethylstyrene, isopropylstyrene, butylstyrene, phenylstyrene, cyclohexylstyrene, benzylstyrene, and the like; substituted styrenes such as chlorostyrene, 2,5-dichlorostyrene, bromostyrene, fluorostyrene, trifluoromethylstyrene, iodostyrene, cyanostyrene, nitrostyrene, N,N-dimethylaminostyrene, acetoxylstyrene, methyl-4-vinylbenzoate, phenoxystyrene, p-vinyldiphenyl sulfide, p-vinylphenyl oxide, and the like; the acrylic and substituted acrylic monomers such as acrylonitrile, acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, methylacrylate, 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate, methyl methacrylate, cyclohexyl methacrylate, benzyl methacrylate, isopropyl methacrylate, octyl methacrylate, methacrylonitrile, methyl alpha-chloroacrylate, ethyl alpha-ethoxyacrylate, methyl alpha-acetaminoacrylate, butyl acrylate, 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, phenyl acrylate, phenyl methacrylate, alpha-chloroacrylonitrile, N,N-dimethylacrylamide, N,N-dibenzylacrylamide, N-butylacrylamide, methacrylyl formamide, and the like; the vinyl esters, vinyl ethers, vinyl ketones, etc., such as vinyl acetate, vinyl chloroacetate, vinyl alcohol, vinyl butyrate, isopropenyl acetate, vinyl formate, vinyl acrylate, vinyl methacrylate, vinyl methoxyacetate, vinyl benzoate, vinyl iodide, vinyltoluene, vinylnaphthalene, vinyl bromide, vinyl fluoride, vinylidene bromide, 1-chloro-1-fluoroethylene, vinylidene fluoride, vinyl methyl ether, vinyl ethyl ether, vinyl propyl ethers, vinyl butyl ethers, vinyl 2-ethylhexyl ether, vinyl phenyl ether, vinyl 2-methoxyethyl ether, methoxybutadiene, vinyl 2-butoxyethyl ether, 3,4-dihydro-1,2-pyran, 2-butoxy-2'-vinyloxy diethyl ether, vinyl 2-ethylmercaptoethyl ether, vinyl methyl ketone, vinyl ethyl ketone, vinyl phosphonates such as bis(beta-chloroethyl) vinyl-phosphonate, vinyl phenyl ketone, vinyl ethyl sulfide, vinyl ethyl sulfone, N-methyl-N-vinyl acetamide, N-vinyl-pyrrolidone, vinyl imidazole, divinyl sulfide, divinyl sulfoxide, divinyl sulfone, sodium vinylsulfonate, methyl vinylsulfonate, N-vinyl pyrrole, and the like; dimethyl fumarate, dimethyl maleate, maleic acid, crotonic acid, fumaric acid, itaconic acid monomethyl itaconate, t-butylaminoethyl methacrylate, dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate, glycidyl acrylate, allyl alcohol, glycol monoesters of itaconic acid, dichlorobutadiene, vinyl pyridine, and the like. Any of the known polymerizable monomers can be used and the compounds listed above are illustrative and not restrictive of the monomers suitable for use in this invention. Preferably, the monomer is selected from the group consisting of acrylonitrile, styrene and mixtures thereof.
The amount of ethylenically unsaturated monomer employed in the polymerization reaction is generally from one percent to 50 percent, preferably from 15 percent to 40 percent, based on the total weight of the product.
Illustrative initiators which may be employed are the well-known free radical types of vinyl polymerization initiators, for example, the peroxides, persulfates, perborates, percarbonates, azo compounds, etc., including hydrogen peroxide, dibenzoyl peroxide, acetyl peroxide, benzoyl hydroperoxide, t-butyl hydroperoxide, di-t-butyl peroxide, lauroyl peroxide, butyryl peroxide, diisopropylbenzene hydroperoxide, cumene hydroperoxide, paramenthane hydroperoxide, diacetyl peroxide, di-alpha-cumyl peroxide, dipropyl peroxide, diisopropyl peroxide, isopropyl-t-butyl peroxide, butyl-t-butyl peroxide, dilauroyl peroxide, difuroyl peroxide, bis(triphenylmethyl)peroxide, bis(p-methoxybenzoyl)peroxide, p-monomethoxybenzoyl peroxide, rubene peroxide, ascaridol, t-butyl peroxybenzoate, diethyl peroxyterephthalate, propyl hydroperoxide, isopropyl hydroperoxide, n-butyl hydroperoxide, t-butyl hydroperoxide, cyclohexyl hydroperoxide, trans-decalin hydroperoxide, alpha-methylbenzyl hydroperoxide, alpha-methyl-alpha-ethyl benzyl hydroperoxide, tetralin hydroperoxide, triphenylmethyl hydroperoxide, diphenylmethyl hydroperoxide, alpha-alpha'-azo-2-methyl butyronitrile, alpha,alpha'-azo-2-methyl heptonitrile, 1,1'-azo-1-cyclohexane carbonitrile, dimethyl alpha,alpha'-azoisobutyrate, 4,4'-azo-4-cyanopentanoic acid, azobis-(isobutyronitrile), 1-t-amylazo-1-cyanocyclohexane, persuccinic acid, diisopropyl peroxy dicarbonate, 2-t-butylazo-2-cyano-4-methylpentane and the like; a mixture of catalysts may also be used. Azobis(isobutyronitrile) and 2-t-butylazo-2-cyano-4-methylpentane are the preferred catalysts. Generally, from about 0.5 percent to about 10 percent, preferably from about 1 percent to about 4 percent, by weight of catalyst based on the weight of the monomer will be employed in the process of the invention.
If desired, a chain transfer agent such as 1-dodecanethiol may be employed. Under some conditions, it may be desirable to add a relatively inert solvent to the polymerization mixture. To be useful in the present invention, the solvent employed preferably has a boiling point of from 20� C. to 250� C. at ambient pressure. Representative organic solvents which may be employed in the preparation of the graft copolymer dispersions include aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, esters, ketones, amides, amines, ethers, nitriles, sulfoxides and the corresponding nitro- and halo-substituted derivatives thereof. These include, pentane, hexane, heptane, nonane, undecane, dodecane, petroleum ether, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, butanol, benzyl alcohol, acetone, proponane, methylethylketone, ethylbutylketone, acetophenone, benzyl, naphthalene, toluene, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, ethylacetate, isopropylacetate, butylacetate, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, chlorobenzene, trichloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane, trifluorochloromethane, dimethylformamide, dimethylsulfoxide, tetrahydrofuran, bis(2-methoxyethylether), benzonitrile, 2-nitropropane, nitrobenzene and acetonitrile. Mixtures of the above solvents may also be employed. The particular solvent employed is not critical to the process of the invention. The preferred solvents are the aliphatic alcohols having from one to four carbon atoms such as methanol, ethanol, propanol, isopropanol and the various butanols.
The polyurethane foams of the present invention are generally prepared by the reaction of the graft copolymer dispersion prepared in accordance with the process of the instant invention, with an organic polyisocyanate in the presence of a blowing agent and optionally in the presence of additional polyhydroxyl-containing components, chain-extending agents, catalysts, surface-active agents, stabilizers, dyes, fillers and pigments. Suitable processes for the preparation of cellular polyurethane plastics are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. Re. 24,514 together with suitable machinery to be used in conjunction therewith. When water is added as the blowing agent, corresponding quantities of excess isocyanate to react with the water and produce carbon dioxide may be used. It is also possible to proceed with the preparation of the polyurethane plastics by a prepolymer technique wherein an excess of organic polyisocyanate is reacted in a first step with the polyol of the present invention to prepare a prepolymer having free isocyanate groups which is then reacted in a second step with water to prepare a foam. Alternately, the components may be reacted in a single working step commonly known as the "one-shot" technique of preparing polyurethanes. Furthermore, instead of water, low boiling hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, heptane, pentene, and heptene; azo compounds such as azohexahydrobenzodinitrile; halogenated hydrocarbons such as dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorodifluoroethane, vinylidene chloride, and methylene chloride may be used as blowing agents.
Organic polyisocyanates which may be employed include aromatic, aliphatic, and cycloaliphatic polyisocyanates and combinations thereof. Representative of these types are the diisocyanates such as m-phenylene diisocyanate, tolylene-2,4-diisocyanate, tolylene-2,6-diisocyanate, mixtures of 2,4- and 2,6-tolylene diisocyanate, hexamethylene-1,6-diisocyanate, tetramethylene-1,4-diisocyanate, cyclohexane-1,4-diisocyanate, hexahydrotolylene diisocyanate (and isomers), naphthylene-1,5-diisocyanate, 1-methoxyphenyl-2,4-diisocyanate, diphenylmethane-4,4'-diisocyanate, 4,4'-biphenylene diisocyanate, 3,3'-dimethoxy-4,4'-biphenyl diisocyanate, 3,3'-dimethyl-4,4'-biphenyl diisocyanate and 3,3'-dimethyldiphenylmethane-4,4'-diisocyanate; the triisocyanates such as 4,4',4"-triphenylmethane triisocyanate, polymethylene polyphenylisocyanate and tolylene 2,4,6-triisocyanate; and the tetraisocyanates such as 4,4'-dimethyldiphenylmethane-2,2'-5,5'-tetraisocyanate. Especially useful due to their availability and properties are tolylene diisocyanate, diphenylmethane-4,4'-diisocyanate and polymethylene polyphenylisocyanate.
Crude polyisocyanate may also be used in the compositions of the present invention, such as crude toluene diisocyanate obtained by the phosgenation of a mixture of toluene diamines or crude diphenylmethane isocyanate obtained by the phosgenation of crude diphenylmethyl diamine. The preferred unreacted or crude isocyanates are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,215,652.
As mentioned above, the graft polyols may be employed along with another polyhydroxyl-containing component commonly employed in the art. Any of the polyhydroxyl-containing components which are described above for use in the preparation of the graft polyols may be employed in the preparation of the polyurethane foams useful in the present invention.
Chain-extending agents which may be employed in the preparation of he polyurethane foams include those compounds having at least two functional groups bearing active hydrogen atoms such as water, hydrazine, primary and secondary diamines, amino alcohols, amino acids, hydroxy acids, glycols, or mixtures thereof. A preferred group of chain-extending agents includes water and primary and secondary diamines which react more readily with the prepolymer than does water such as phenylene diamine, 1,4-cyclohexane-bis(methylamine), ethylene diamine, diethylene triamine, N-(2-hydroxypropyl)ethylene diamine, N,N'-di(2-hydroxypropyl)ethylene diamine, piperazine, 2-methylpiperazine, and morpholine.
Any suitable catalyst may be used including tertiary amines such as, for example, triethylene diamine, N-methyl morpholine, N-ethyl morpholine, diethyl ethanolamine, N-cocomorpholine, 1-methyl-4-dimethylamino ethyl piperazine, 3-methoxy-N-dimethyl propylamine, N-dimethyl-N'-methyl isopropyl propylenediamine, N,N'-diethyl-3-diethyl amino propylamine, dimethyl benzylamine, and the like. Other suitable catalysts are, for example, tin compounds such as stannous chloride, tin salts of carboxylic acids, such as dibutyltin di-2-ethyl hexoate, tin alcoholates such as stannous octoate, as well as other organo metallic compounds such as are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 2,846,408.
A surface-active agent is generally necessary for production of high grade polyurethane foam according to the present invention, since in the absence of same, the foams collapse or contain very large uneven cells. Numerous surfactants have been found satisfactory. Nonionic surfactants are preferred. Of these, the nonionic surface-active agents prepared by the sequential addition of propylene oxide and then ethylene oxide to propylene glycol and the solid or liquid organosilicones have been found particularly desirable. Other surface-active agents which are operative, although not preferred, include polyethylene glycol ethers of long chain alcohols, tertiary amine or alkylolamine salts of long chain alkyl acid sulfate esters, alkyl sulfonic esters, and alkyl arylsulfonic acids.
The following examples illustrate the nature of the invention. All parts are by weight unless otherwise stated. In the examples, the physical properties of the polyurethane foam were determined by the following ASTM tests:
Tensile Strength: D-412
Elongation: D-412
Block Tear: D-470
Compression Load: D-1654
Compression Set: D-1395
In these examples, the composition of the stabilizer and the polyols as designated by the letters A, B, etc., are as follows:
Polyol A is a propylene oxide ethylene oxide adduct of a glycerine propylene glycol mixture, equivalent weight 1700, containing 15 weight percent ethylene oxide and 0.3 moles of unsaturation per mole of polyol.
Polyol B is a propylene oxide ethylene oxide adduct of glycerine containing 16.5 weight percent ethylene oxide with an equivalent weight of 1600.
Polyol C is polyol A containing 8 weight percent acrylonitrile and 12 weight percent styrene as a graft copolymer dispersion.
Stabilizer D is a propylene oxide adduct of a copolymer of styrene-allyl alcohol with an equivalent weight of 300 and a hydroxyl content of 5.7 percent, the stabilizer eqivalent weight being 2800.
Stabilizer E is a propylene oxide adduct of a copolymer of styrene-allyl alcohol with an equivalent weight of 220 and a hydroxyl content of 7.7 percent, the stabilizer equivalent weight being 2100.
Into a one liter, four neck flask fitted with a stirrer, thermometer, nitrogen inlet, water cooled condenser and inlet tube was charged 300 parts of Polyol A, 20 parts of Stabilizer C, 10 parts of styrene, 10 parts of acrylonitrile, 0.3 part of 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile, and 0.4 part of dodecanethiol. The mixture was heated to 80� C. After 20 minutes, the addition of a monomer consisting of 50 parts of styrene and 50 parts of acrylonitrile was begun simultaneously with a stream of 160 parts of Polyol A, 0.9 part of 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile and 0.9 part of dodecanethiol was begun. The monomer addition time was 65 minutes. The polyol addition time was 70 minutes. The mixture temperature was then raised to 90� C. for 60 minutes. The resulting product was vacuum stripped at 110� C. and less than 1 millimeter Hg pressure. The product had a Brookfield viscosity at 25� C. of 2830 cps.
Examples 2-9 were prepared in a manner similar to the process employed in Example 1. Polyol A was employed at a level of 460 parts. The other variables are listed in Table I below with the resulting Brookfield viscosities of the products prepared.
TABLE I__________________________________________________________________________ Reaction Reaction Monomer PolyolIsopropanol, Mercaptan, Stabilizer/ Temperature Time Feed Feed ViscosityExampleParts Parts Parts 0� C. (min.) (min.) (min.) cps, 25� C.__________________________________________________________________________2 -- 1.5 D/20 90 60 64 70 7,8303 -- 1.5 D/20 100 45 60 65 2,1604 39 1.5 D/20 80 180 -- -- 2,0505 -- 1.5 E/20 90 60 65 70 2,4306 39 1.5 E/20 90 60 65 70 1,9807 39 -- E/20 90 60 65 70 1,9708 -- 1.5 -- 90 30 64 70 13,2609 -- -- E/20 90 60 65 70 33,080__________________________________________________________________________
Using a one-quart capacity cylindrical containing equipped with the Lightning Model V-7 mixer fitted with a shrouded blade, the indicated amounts of polyol, water, catalyst and silicone surfactant was added to the container. The mixture was stirred for about 30 seconds, allowed to set for about 15 seconds and stirring was resumed. After about 60 seconds elapsed time, the polyisocyanate was added to the container and the resulting mixture was stirred for about 4 to 5 seconds. The contents of the container were then immediately poured into cardboard cake boxes and the foams were allowed to rise therein. After foam rise was completed, the resulting foams were oven cured for about 5-8 minutes. The following table, Table II, sets forth the ingredients and amounts that were used to prepare the foams as well as the physical properties of the foams.
TABLE II______________________________________ 10 11 12______________________________________Composition of Ex. 2, parts 300 0 0Composition of Ex. 3, parts 0 300 0Polyol C, parts 0 0 300Distilled water, parts 8.1 8.1 8.1Triethylenediamine, parts 0.7 0.7 0.7Silicone surfactant, parts 4.0 4.0 4.0Dibutyltin dilaurate, parts 0.02 0.02 0.02TDI-PAPI 80/20 (105 index), parts 102 102 102Physical PropertiesRise time, sec. 120 120 100Density, pcf. 2.04 2.00 2.05Tensile strength, psi. 23.9 23.2 22.1Elongation, % 160 170 159Block tear, pi. 2.6 1.8 2.1CLD, psi.50% defl. 0.55 0.54 0.44CLD, psi. (humid aged)50% defl. 0.42 0.41 0.35Compression set, %50% 8.0 9.2 14.890% 6.4 7.1 92.1Compression set, % (humid aged)50% 12.2 20.5 25.390% 21.0 24.6 75.4Air flow, cfm. 1.54 0.53 0.60______________________________________
|Cited Patent
|Filing date
|Publication date
|Jun 24, 1963
|May 2, 1967
|Ici Ltd
|Polymeric dispersion stabilizers for dispersions of synthetic polymers in organic liquids
|Aug 12, 1964
|May 14, 1968
|Paul Stamberger
|Polyurethanes, reactive solutions and methods and their production
|Mar 12, 1970
|Apr 11, 1972
|Firestone Tire & Rubber Co
|Process for grafting polymeric vinyl and vinylidene chloride side-chains to polyols and fluid dispersion compositions
|Dec 4, 1972
|Jul 9, 1974
|Basf Wyandotte Corp
|Highly-stable graft copolymer dispersions in polyols containing unsaturation and polyurethanes prepared therefrom
|Oct 15, 1973
|Apr 1, 1975
|Basf Wyandotte Corp
|Graft copolymers
|Apr 29, 1974
|Jan 6, 1976
|Basf Wyandotte Corporation
|Finely-divided polymeric solids having improved physical properties
|Oct 29, 1973
|Apr 13, 1976
|Basf Wyandotte Corporation
|Process for the preparation of graft copolymer dispersions
|Mar 29, 1978
|Apr 10, 1979
|Union Carbide Corporation
|Polymer/polyol compositions made from preformed polymer/polyols, processes for making same and processes for making polyurethane products therefrom
|Jun 7, 1978
|Jul 17, 1979
|Basf Wyandotte Corporation
|Process for the preparation of graft polymer dispersions employing liquid free radical catalysts
|Citing Patent
|Filing date
|Publication date
|Dec 7, 1984
|Jun 10, 1986
|Union Carbide Corporation
|Connected branched polyols and polyurethanes based thereon
|Jan 29, 1987
|May 3, 1988
|Reeves Bros., Inc.
|Method for forming thermoformable polyurethane foam articles
|Dec 16, 1987
|Sep 5, 1989
|Rohm And Haas Company
|Modified solution polymers for coatings, films, mastics, caulks, and adhesives
|Jul 29, 1988
|Jun 4, 1991
|Arco Chemical Technology, Inc.
|Polyol polyacrylate dispersants
|Jul 29, 1988
|Dec 3, 1991
|Arco Chemical Technology, Inc.
|Polyacrylate graft-polyol dispersants
|Mar 4, 1991
|Jul 6, 1993
|Arco Chemical Technology, L.P.
|Polyol polyacrylate dispersants
|May 17, 1990
|Oct 25, 1994
|Arco Chemical Technology, L.P.
|Use of polyethylenically unsaturated monomers in polymers polyol dispersants
|Dec 22, 1993
|Jan 3, 1995
|Basf Corporation
|Polymeric pigment dispersants for use in coating compositions
|Jul 28, 1993
|Jan 17, 1995
|Arco Chemical Technology, L.P.
|Copolymers of allyl alcohol propoxylates and vinyl aromatic monomers
|May 26, 1994
|Sep 19, 1995
|Arco Chemical Technology, L.P.
|Alkyd resins and coating compositions therefrom based on copolymers of allyl alcohol propoxylates and vinyl aromatic monomers
|Apr 12, 1995
|Apr 30, 1996
|Arco Chemical Technology, L.P.
|Unsaturated polyester resins from copolymers of allyl alcohol propoxylates and vinyl aromatic monomers
|Apr 12, 1995
|May 14, 1996
|Arco Chemical Technology, L.P.
|Melamine-based coatings from copolyners of allyl alcohol propoxylates and vinyl aromatic monomers
|Apr 12, 1995
|May 28, 1996
|Arco Chemical Technology, L.P.
|Polyurethanes from copolymers of allyl alcohol propoxylates and vinyl aromatic monomers
|May 13, 1995
|Apr 14, 1998
|Basf Aktiengesellschaft
|Process for the preparation of stable water-in-oil emulsions of hydrolyzed polymers of N-vinyl amides and the use thereof
|Apr 1, 1999
|Jan 9, 2001
|Basf Corporation
|Process for making graft polyols using t-amyl peroxy free radical initiator
|Nov 21, 2007
|Jun 11, 2008
|Bayer MaterialScience LLC
|Allophanate-modified stabilizers and the polymer polyols prepared from these stabilizers
|Dec 18, 1986
|Jul 2, 1987
|The Dow Chemical Company
|Low viscosity, high solids polymer polyols prepared using a preformed dispersant
|U.S. Classification
|524/377, 524/504, 524/535, 528/392, 524/529, 525/11
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification
|Dec 31, 1981
Owner name: BASF WYANDOTTE CORPORATION, 1609 BIDDLE AVE., WYAN
Free format text: ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST.;ASSIGNORS:RAMLOW, GERHARD G.;HEYMAN, DUANE A.;MOORE, RICHARD A.;REEL/FRAME:003938/0941;SIGNING DATES FROM 19800902 TO 19800908
|Jun 30, 1987
Owner name: BASF CORPORATION
Free format text: MERGER;ASSIGNORS:BASF WYANDOTTE CORPORATION, A MI CORP.;BADISCHE CORPORATION;BASF SYSTEMS CORPORATION;AND OTHERS;REEL/FRAME:004844/0837
Effective date: 19860409
Owner name: BASF CORPORATION, STATELESS
Free format text: MERGER;ASSIGNORS:BASF WYANDOTTE CORPORATION, A MI CORP.;BADISCHE CORPORATION;BASF SYSTEMS CORPORATION;AND OTHERS;REEL/FRAME:004844/0837
Effective date: 19860409


text:
Question about Microwave Ovens
Posted by pabretz on
Sounds like the door switches are out of adjustment or broken.
There is only one main fuse, so if you have a display, it must be
OK. Could also be a failure in the high power that runs the
magnatron plus the lamp.
I would take it to a shop for repair. Microwaves are almost always repaired affordably unless it is really old.
Hope ya fix it!
Posted on Feb 04, 2008
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Are you attending ASIL's Annual Meeting next week? DipLawMatic Dialogues is seeking volunteers to blog from and about the meeting. If you are interested, please contact Loren Turner at firstname.lastname@example.com. Thank you for considering and see you soon!
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Skipped the London Eye, Headed for the UK Supreme Court
By: Amy Flick & Julienne Grant
After IALL in Oxford, some of us seized the opportunity to take a few extra days to explore London. London is full of tourists, and sometimes the lines can be daunting, particularly at sites like the London Eye. Tourists were not pounding at the doors of the UK Supreme Court, however, which made for a very pleasant visit. Several of us opted for guided tours and also explored the excellent exhibition in the basement.
The UK Supreme Court has only existed since October 2009 per the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. Final judicial authority for the UK was previously vested in the Appellate Committee of The House of Lords, its members serving as judges known as Law Lords. When the UK Supreme Court opened for business, the 12 Law Lords became the first sitting UK Supreme Court Justices. According to the Court's website, the Court was "established to achieve a complete separation between the United Kingdom's senior Judges and the Upper House of Parliament, emphasizing the independence of the Law Lords and increasing the transparency between Parliament and the courts."
The UK Supreme Court is housed in the former Middlesex Guildhall, which sits on Parliament Square, across from the Houses of Parliament and next to Westminster Abbey. Constructed in 1913, the building once served as a Crown Court and was refurbished to house the new UK Supreme Court. There are three courtrooms in the building with the first being the largest and most traditional in appearance. The second courtroom is sleek and modern, and its glass back wall is etched with an Eleanor Roosevelt quotation. Court 3 is used by the Judicial Committee of The Privy Council (JCPC).
The 12 Justices sit on panels of five, seven, or nine, with five being the most common. Panels are assigned by the Court's president, currently the Lord Neuberger of Abbotsbury. The Court is the final court of appeal for civil cases from all of the UK, and criminal cases from England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Court hears around 100 cases a year with about a quarter being criminal, and the rest covering a broad range of topics. The 12 Justices also sit on the JCPC, although other Commonwealth judges may be invited to sit on those panels. The JCPC docket runs about 50 to 60 cases per year.
Cases can take up to four years to wind through the UK lower courts, but can be expedited if they are time sensitive. Cases are chosen for a hearing in the Supreme Court if they have an arguable point of law and/or a "general impact on society." The Court operates from October through the end of July, spread over four terms. Hearings average between one and five days in length. One recent, and quite compelling case, involved a transgender individual. In that case, the plaintiff applied for her state retirement pension when she was 60, but was denied as she had not formally applied for a gender recognition certificate. The Court had not yet decided the case when we were on site, but the judgment came down last week. The Court elected to defer the legal question to the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). One assumes that the CJEU will be out of the picture completely once Brexit is implemented.
The Court's Justices are selected in a process that is quite different from that in the U.S., which is highly politicized. To be eligible to serve on the Court, a candidate must have served at least 15 years as a "qualifying practitioner" or two years as a judge in the UK court system. An independent panel of legal and non-legal experts vets and interviews candidates. The Queen formally makes the appointment. Mandatory retirement age is 75 for those Justices who were Law Lords, and 70 otherwise. In the next couple of years, half of the Court will be retiring. Currently, two Justices are Scottish, another is from Northern Ireland, and the Baroness Hale of Richmond is the only female Justice. The current lack of diversity on the Court will seemingly be addressed with the forthcoming wave of retirements.
The Court's elegant emblem includes the blue flax flower of Northern Ireland, England's Tudor rose, Wales' green leek leaves, and Scotland's purple thistle. These symbols are intertwined with a Libra representing the scales of justice, and an Omega, which represents the Court as the final source of justice in the UK. The Court's colorful carpeting repeats the emblem and was designed by Sir Peter Blake, who also designed the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's album cover. The Court's interior is functional, but also quite attractive; you can even rent out the place for a wedding, dinner, or other event. (Somehow it's difficult to picture a wild wedding reception taking place here, but anything is possible.)
The Court employs eight Judicial Assistants (JAs)—one permanent, the others serve for one year. The four Justices with the highest seniority have their own clerks, while the remaining eight share four JAs. The Justices don't wear traditional robes in the courtroom and sit on the same level as the parties' legal teams. The Court's usher does wear a gown, and barristers have the option of wearing wigs and robes. Barristers address the Justices as "Lord" and "Lady." Hearings are streamed live and remain on the Court's web archive for a year.
The Court's library is generally not open to the public, but we were allowed a visit, hosted very graciously by Head Librarian Paul Sandles (one of two librarians on staff). The library spans two floors, and the walls have quotations (selected by the Justices) penned by a wide variety of authors ranging from Aristotle to Martin Luther King. The print collection is somewhat limited since most of the Law Lords' book collection remained on site within the House of Lords. The library concentrates on basic texts on subjects covered in court, adding titles preemptively and as needed. There are some primary and secondary foreign materials. The library's U.S. Reports set was donated by the U.S. Supreme Court after a visit by the U.S. Justices.
Although the Court tour does not offer the London Eye's "view you'll never forget," it is nonetheless a worthwhile way to spend an afternoon. In a jurisdiction that can lay claim to the Magna Carta (1215), it is fascinating to get a glimpse of a legal institution in its infancy.
#IALL2016 Recap: Precedent and Authority: the Continental Dimension
By: Jim Hart
Professor Ibbetson began with the point that precedent has not always been a part of English law and has been more a part of Continental law than we think. He explained that historically, in general, common law precedent focused on law as it was applied in court whereas civil law precedent focused on the principles and rules in the codes.
He began with England because here we're on fairly familiar and firm ground. Before the nineteenth century there was no strict rule of bindingness and no structure by which courts were only bound by courts above them. This is not surprising because it was only in the nineteenth century that we began to get enough regular, reliable reports and a clear hierarchy of courts to think of precedents binding on lower courts.
It was only in the seventeenth century that changes in the direction of the modern ways of thinking began to occur. And it wouldn't surprise anybody, especially after hearing Professor Baker's lecture, that a central figure in this process was Sir Edmund Coke. We need to address three closely related, but separate phenomena. The first was the practice of following previous cases. Although this was not new and it probably goes back as far as we think there was a common law system, it became more intense with high quality reports. It's probably hard for us to think of the common law without this since we expect judges to act consistently and English law had nothing like the books and rules of Roman law.
The second phenomenon was the development of the idea of authority. Professor Ibbetson paused a minute here before saying something more about it. Naturally King had authority, sheriff had authority in his county, the bailiff in his bailiwick and so on. From the late 15th century we begin to see that some texts were considered to have authority, which must mean that they contained rules that had to be followed, just as the instructions of King, sheriff or bailiff. As the sixteenth century progressed we find it more normal to say that these texts were authority and being authority was something different from having authority. The only books that were authority, of course, were law books. And increasingly there was a strong focus on decided cases that had been authorities. I suspect that the development of the idea of authority at that time was related to the differences between Plowden and Dyer's methods and those of the Year Books although Professor Ibettson did not say so.
And thirdly there was precedent. Many lawyers had been familiar with precedent having prepared formal documents such as precedents of pleading. In the early seventeenth century we find special status being given to judicial precedent, that is decided cases and, in particular, decided cases where the reasons had been recorded. Just as we would say today that judicial rulings and decided cases as precedents were authorities.
This judicial authority developed from the theory of argument by dialectic, which would have been familiar to anyone from a medieval university. At this time nearly any text could be authoritative. But there were two categories of authority: necessary and probable. The best example of a necessary authority was the Bible which was true by definition and any conclusion drawn from it was equally true as long as the argument was validly drawn from premise to conclusion. Probable authorities were things that were not true in themselves, but might be true. It was not what learned men said that constituted probable authority, but things like moralizing fables, popular sayings, and customary ways of doing things. This is the world of the medieval university on the continent and in England. In the early 16th century, perhaps first in Holland, a specifically legal dialectic began to appear about how to frame a forensic argument. The argument from authority is the strongest in law (argumentum ab auctoritate est fortissimum in lege), wrote one commentator. The authorities that formed the basis of the argument might be necessary or probable. In the medieval university, the theory of authority was based on a tradition that went back to Cicero. But dialectic and rhetoric were not miles apart.
There was another classical tradition. This one was traced not back to Cicero, but to Quintillian. And here we find the Latin term, "praejudicia," which we can translate as precedents. We're not sure what Quintillian meant by this term, but it might have meant things that had been adjudged before, the literal translation of praeiudicia. In the early sixteenth century it was said that auctoritas and praeiudicia were interchangeable terms. We don't know which of these ideas of legal dialectic were used in England, but we do know that some were. Moreover as more common lawyers spent time at university, they would have come across Cicero and Quintillian and would be utterly familiar with the basics of dialectic and rhetoric. We are sure that Coke was familiar with these precise terms when he was at university. Coke used these two sources explicitly in his writing. Indeed he peppered his writings with quotations and near quotations on authority and precedent. Coke was quite clear that these judicial precedents were only probable authority. Although judicial precedent was only probable, it was authoritative in court. All other things being equal, they should be followed. But other things were not always equal. So from about 1700, England had a doctrine of precedent that was rooted in dialectical theory. Notice that this process began about a hundred years before the period covered by Professor Baker and stretched to about fifty years later.
How different were things on the continent? At first glance they weren't very different in theory, but they differed in operation. The writers on legal dialectic in Holland, Germany or elsewhere in Europe were thinking in terms of their own systems, not at all in terms of the unruly English common law. So the argument from authority would have been utterly familiar. To continental lawyers some authorities were necessary, in particular the writings of the Roman jurists. It was laid down in Justinian's code that they had the force of legislation. The medieval jurists were not regarded as necessary authorities, but as probable ones and the same applied to all the modern writers. The best way to influence a judge was to follow a long line of legal opinion. But the dominant line of legal opinion might be held to be wrong, especially by an appellate court. Previous cases were a problem. Another Roman law text seemed to exclude their significance saying that judgments should be made on the basis of a lex rather than an exemplum. But previous decisions could be distinguished. What really mattered with previous decisions was that they came from a particular court that was known for its learning or issued its decisions under the name of the monarch or ruler. It is tempting to conclude that the mass of citations from Roman law was little more than froth. What really mattered was the jurisprudence of this court. But we should resist that temptation. We should say that the previous case showed the issue behind the mass of citation. These were all probable authorities according to the writers on dialectic. And the previous case merely showed what the correct path through all these authorities was. Courts might look at previous decisions, but their decisions were made according to the true law. Earlier decisions might help them to understand what law lay behind a complex plethora of authorities cited in a present case. In England we can say that it was the printing of large numbers of reports that was really central in allowing the increase in the use of precedent in the early seventeenth century.
So do we get case reports in early modern Europe? We certainly do and lots and lots and lots of them. In Italy by 1600 there were thirty-two separate volumes of reports printed in very large folio volumes. There was a real difference between these volumes and those in England. The English reports included the arguments given in court sometimes together with the decision that had been reached, which allowed the successful arguments to be identified so that later readers could identify the reason for the decision and understand what the case was an authority for. The continental model was different. The reason for the decision was constructed by the person producing the volume. In so far as they could be said to be authority, it was probable authority like all the other forms of legal writing that were being produced.
Although it's anachronistic to make the comparison, the continental reports had the same authority as the textbooks used to elucidate the law whereas the English reports had far greater authority. The legal systems of Europe of this time were similar and they were held together by the common Roman law. Professor Ibbetson said that he didn't think that it was an exaggeration to say that there was so vast an amount of legal literature on the continent in the sixteenth century that one could probably prove an argument and its opposite from it. There was a crying need for something like the English doctrine of precedent to cut through all this mass. A couple of Spaniards even suggested that all foreign law books should be burned. And we do find something similar to the English doctrine, but, in one crucial respect, not identical to it. We can begin tracing this in Naples in the 1490s; one of their statutes said that decisions of the Sacrum Concilium, the highest court, were given in the name of the prince. Thus it was said that it was if the Sacrum Consilium's judgements had been given by the prince himself, i.e. that they had legislative force. This appeared in one of the most important collections of decisions. But it did not apply to the most important court of the Roman Catholic Church, the Roman Rota, a court whose reasoning was worthy of enormous respect. But its decisions were not given in the name of the pope so they didn't count as legislation. However, as the sixteenth century progressed all across Europe, decisions of courts were said to have the force of legislation.
One of the best discussions of this issue comes from early seventeenth century Portugal. The core rule there was something like that of Naples: decisions of the Senate given in the presence of the King were treated as having legislative force since the king was presumed to have approved them. But the king was not always present. So further arguments were needed to bolster up the authority of court decisions.
One very important rule, backed up by a Roman law text, said that a rule of custom might displace a rule of Roman law itself since all law ultimately came from the people. How could you identify such customs? Decisions of the local court would suffice to do so provided of course that they had come from a court whose decisions were worthy of respect, effectively from a superior court. Decisions of the Senate were always more or less acceptable.
European legal systems based on Roman law contained a great deal of probable authority, from many thousands of volumes, some of which were very thick. But when we see citations to previous cases, they are overwhelmingly drowned out by the noise of commentators. England had hardly any textbooks, but by the seventeenth century judicial precedents contained almost exclusively probable authority in what was a very small number of reports. The continental doctrine of precedent, on the other hand, had come about differently. For there the relevant case law in the judgment was necessary authority, which meant that it created absolutely firm binding rules. The great advantage in the seventeenth century and today in the English doctrine was that it created a great deal of provisional bindingness. But it was only the decisions of the House of Lords that produced any binding rules and they were relatively few in number. On the continent Supreme Court decisions have stronger authority, but they lack the flexibility of the English doctrine. Their very rigidity prevented them from developing into something like the English doctrine. The continental doctrine lacked the ability to work over a very long time.
Professor Ibbetson followed with a gracious thank you and we with thundering applause.
#IALL2016 Recap: Law Reporting in England 1550-1650
By: Jim Hart
After Professor Reynolds presentation, Diversities among Common Law Nations, Emeritus Professor Sir John Baker and Professor David Ibbetson spoke on the historical development of modern precedent and case reporting. Although the two differ superficially, they are in fact deeply intertwined. It may be said that they both spring from the same origin: changes in the theory of authority in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Professor Baker began with the origins of case reporting in England, as we know it, between 1550 and 1650. The story begins at the end of the series of Year Books in 1535. When Edmund Plowden entered the Middle Temple in 1538, he began compiling reports of cases and continued this practice throughout his career. These reports were published as Plowden's Commentaries in 1571. They were the first of the nominate reporters and differed in important respects from the Year Books.
Although the Year Books had been anonymous, Plowden published his Commentaries under his own name. He had found out that someone had quickly and carelessly copied his notes and intended to publish them. He was forced to publish them under his name to secure the credit for his assiduous work. Indeed Plowden felt it necessary to apologize for putting out his reports in his own name.
A more substantive departure from the Year Books is his decision to include only considered decisions (decisions of particular importance that set precedent) in his reports. Although he copied the Latin so that readers could see the pleadings, he translated them into law French because of the wide-spread doubt that the common law could be expressed satisfactorily in English.
But his greatest departure was recording cases after judgment because this is what the profession wanted. The Year Books had recorded cases before trial, which is why they had not included many things that we now take for granted. This is why the Year Books seem so inconclusive. To the compilers of the Year Books, the judgment was considered legally uninteresting in comparison with the material that preceded it such as the pleadings, the issue, the arguments, etc. At this time the judicial system was not designed primarily to elicit decisions, but to frame the points that were to be referred to a jury. Judges' rulings concerned procedure and were spoken in court so they were not available for copying. By Plowden's time things had changed. The profession wanted to know how and why a case ended as it did. It seems to me that this is the most important point made in Professor Baker's talk. For it was the development of the idea of precedent both on the Continent and in England at this time, as Professor Ibbetson was to explain next, that led to the changes in the legal system that the profession's need for a new kind of reporter.
Finally there were two other new, important practice adopted by Powden. Unlike the Year Books, Plowden also consulted those who were involved in the case to ensure accuracy and he included the judgment, which the Year Books could not have done because they reported cases before judgment. The judgments were set in a different type so they wouldn't be confused with the reports.
Plowden set a high standard and there was never to be another volume quite like it. Most of what Plowden included is to be found in today's reports. Indeed Plowden's departures from the Year Books were the origin of our view of what a good report should include. What we now call the judgment includes the judge's informal statement of the case, the facts of the case, the legal question, the arguments presented in court, references to the authorities, and the reasons for the conclusion.
The second most important point that Professor Baker made, in my opinion, was that there was a continuous line of reporting that began with Plowden and continued through Dyer and Coke. This line formed the tradition that the future nominate reports continued.
The work of the next reporter, Dyer, was published posthumously. Sir James Dyer began gathering his reports in the 1530s, before Plowden had begun. He left his manuscripts to his two nephews who were law students. The published edition was taken straight from Dyer's notebooks. Although it included over a thousand entries, it left a lot out, e.g, cases that might embarrass a living person, cases that Plowden had already covered, and matters too sensitive to make public for reasons of state. Within twenty-five years of their publication, the notebooks were in the possession of Sir Edmund Coke who cited them often.
It was common for judges to keep jottings in notebooks at this time as aids to memory. The exception to this was Edmund Coke whose work was published in eight volumes. He began taking notes in the 1570s and began making them available to others in the next decade. The earlier notebooks were essentially the story of Coke's rise in the bar. Coke embellished and amplified on many of the cases. In 1616 he was charged with inaccurate reporting and assigned to correct them. Francis Bacon volunteered to help with the task. In the very next year Bacon was made Lord Chancellor and banned Coke from Westminster. He did, however, put forward a proposal to hire three lawyers to report on the cases at Westminster at a salary of £100 a year. Although there were never more than two reporters, Bacon had revived the old custom. He appointed lawyers to do the reporting because they did a better job than judges. Before the reports were published, the reporters checked with the judges. Bacon's scheme continued Coke's reports up to 1619 when there was a hiatus in reporting until 1621.
This presentation outlines the origins of the nominate reporters and our own systems of law reporting. But many of them are still in manuscript form. As the summary of Professor Baker's presentation states, "Law reporting was to remain a matter of private initiative until the end of the eighteenth century, and many of the best reports…have still not been published. Anyone seeking to trace the evolution of a legal doctrine or practice before about 1700 must regard manuscript reports as an essential recourse."
#IALL2016 Recap: Humans as Service? Regulating Work in the Sharing Economy
By: Charles Bjork
Session Six of IALL's 35rd annual course on international law and legal information in Oxford featured a talk by Associate Professor Jeremias Prassl of the Oxford University Law Faculty on the following topic: Humans as a Service? Regulating Work in the Sharing Economy.
Professor Prassl began by describing the phenomenon known as the "collaborative," "sharing," or "gig" economy. This phenomenon relies on crowdsourcing, a term coined by Jeff Howe of Wired magazine in 2006 to describe a business model in which online providers (platforms) outsource everything from project financing to the performance of specific tasks to large groups of individuals (crowds). Examples of crowdsourcing platforms disrupting established business models include Uber and Lyft (taxi services) and airbnb (hotels). Jeff Bezos, the CEO of Amazon.com, has stated that it is his ambition to use the provision of "humans as a service," his term for crowdsourcing, to disrupt all types of conventional industries.
From the consumer's perspective, the sharing economy offers several advantages, notably more providers of services at a lower cost, and the opportunity to incentivize better service through rating systems. From the service provider's perspective, the sharing economy also offers concrete benefits, such as the possibility of earning extra income, greater flexibility in the scheduling of work, and the opportunity to be one's own boss by becoming a "micro-entrepreneur." However, as Prof. Prassl noted, the sharing economy is analogous to an iceberg. The benefits are readily apparent on the surface, but hidden dangers lurk below the waterline.
The biggest downside of the sharing economy for service providers is that there is no guarantee that steady work will be available when needed. Even when work is available, competition may drive down the price that providers can charge. Thus micro-entrepreneurs may find themselves working long hours for low, unpredictable pay. Micro-entrepreneurs also face legal uncertainties. Will they be eligible for workers' compensation if they are injured while performing a gig? Not if they are classified as independent contractors, rather than employees. What about liability insurance for negligent acts? Most individual auto insurance policies don't provide coverage when an Uber driver uses her vehicle to carry passengers for hire.
Consumers also face hidden downsides. Rating systems are subject to manipulation and don't guarantee good service. In addition, platform owners, such as Uber, almost always require users to not to hold them liable for the negligence or fraudulent conduct of service providers as a condition of downloading the platform owner's app. Few users bother to read this fine print before downloading. Consequently, a platform user who is injured or defrauded by a service provider may have no recourse other than to sue the service provider as an individual, rather than the platform owner with the deeper pockets. If the service provider isn't covered by liability insurance, there is a real danger that he may turn out to be judgment-proof.
Platform owners insist that they should not be subject to conventional employment laws because their new technologies are transformative. Uber, for example, is actively lobbying to exempt itself from being subject to minimum wage and unemployment insurance laws. Professor Prassl contends that, from a legal perspective, "gigs," "tasks," and "orders" are indistinguishable from conventional employment. The technology may be novel, but the issues that it raises are not new.
The sharing economy can be seen as the continuation of longstanding trend among employers to shift more and more risks on to workers. Individuals may find themselves working almost non-stop during periods of high demand, or risk being dropped by platform owners if they fail to make themselves available, and then go for long stretches with little or no work when demand is low. Thus fluctuations in the business cycle are now born by workers rather than employers. These practices undermines the conventional social contract whereby employers make long-term commitments to employees, providing them with a steady income and benefits, in return for a stable, better trained, and more highly motivated workforce.
Moving forward, the challenge will be to bring the new employment opportunities created by the sharing economy within the legal framework of conventional employment law. Platform owners need not be required to provide the same level of legal protections and benefits to service providers that would be expected of a conventional employer, but some baseline level of protections and benefits should be required in order to create a more level playing field among conventional businesses and novel service providers.
#IALL2016 Recap: Guy Goodwin-Gill on Refugee Law
By: Amy Flick
Our program on Wednesday, August 3 included a program on "International Refugee Law: Where it Comes From, and Where It's Going." This was a timely topic this year, and our speaker was an expert on the subject. Guy Goodwin-Gill practices as a barrister from Blackstone Chambers in London and has served as Legal Adviser in the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, as an advisor to United Kingdom Parliament Committees on asylum and immigration control, as Professor of asylum law at the University of Amsterdam, as Professor of international refugee law at All Souls' College of Oxford University, and as founding editor and Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Refugee Law.
Goodwin-Gill noted that refugee law developed along with international organizations, so he began with historical background as important to understanding refugee law. The first High Commissioner for Refugees, Fridtjof Nansen, was appointed when the International Committee of the Red Cross wrote to the League of Nations in 1921 about Russian refugees needing attention in the displacements that followed World War I and the Russian Revolution. Nansen identified identification documents as a primary need to allow refugees to travel and find work, so he persuaded states to issue "Nansen passports." Rather than returning refugees to dangerous environments, he concentrated on allowing states to allow resettlement and employment. The earliest refugee law focused on Russian refugees, but there were three million refugees in need of resettlement after World War I. Aid was provided in a piecemeal fashion as individual groups in need were identified.
In 1933, the League appointed James Grover McDonald as High Commissioner for Refugees to work with the growing number of Jewish refugees from Germany. He found that governments were unwilling to deal with the causes of the refugee crisis and resigned in 1935, with a famous letter of resignation, noting that "conditions in Germany which create refugees have developed so catastrophically that a reconsideration by the League of Nations of the entire situation is essential." Goodwin-Gill asserted that the challenges of earlier decades in refugee law are still those of today, where governments need to lead the way and do not.
In 1946, at the first session of the United Nations General Assembly (at the Central Hall Westminster in London), the refugee problem was the second most debated issue, after peace and security. Refugee law "took off" in 1948 with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its recognition of the right of persons to seek asylum. Politics are always involved in refugee law, and early refugee law was informed by Cold War politics, with United States policy important in setting the direction of the law. The 1951 Convention on the Status of Refugees was adopted by a United Nations conference and was signed in July 1951. Goodwin-Gill pointed out that the convention is on the status of refugees, concentrating on how refugees are treated, not on the bigger picture of the conditions creating refugees. States sought to limit their obligations, and definitions of who is a refugee were limited to those outside their own country, with a well-founded fear of persecution.
Goodwin-Gill began work with High Commissioner Sadruddin Aga Khan in 1976, and he recommends Aga Khan's lectures on refugee law at the Hague Academy of International Law as reading for law students. Under Sadruddin Aga Khan, the UNHCR expanded its jurisdiction beyond Europe, encouraged self-sufficiency, and encouraged repatriation and aid to refugees who do return. States were still reluctant to recognize the reasons for refugees to remain, and Aga Khan encouraged mediation of international disputes and recognized that underdevelopment is as much of an issue as conflict. As co-chairman of the Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues in 1986, Aga Khan pushed for a new international humanitarian order, with a report on international cooperation to avert new flows of refugees that Goodwin-Gill recommends.
Before the 1980s, there was little writing on "aliens" and the movement between states, but in the 1980s there was an explosion in the literature on refugee law, including Goodwin-Gill's own book, a fourth edition of which is in the works now. There was also an explosion of jurisprudence on refugee law that hadn't existed before, but states wanted procedures for determining refugee status.
In current refugee law, Goodwin-Gill finds that there has been an over-judicialization of refugee law, approached on a case-by-case basis. Human rights jurisprudence has contributed to more progressive thinking on refugees, with human rights law, international humanitarian law, and refugee law all cross-referenced.
The challenges of 2016 include the inability of the European Union states to develop a coherent response to the crisis, which is smaller than earlier crises like that of the 1930s. EU states have been reluctant to provide practical help, wanting someone else to be responsible. Goodwin-Gill argues that there is need to focus on the practice of states. There should be collective action of the European Union, which has principles of cooperation in its treaties. Its failure to respond has left people in limbo and has been a major political failure. The European Union has promised migration agreements to developing countries but has failed to deliver. Forty years after his work with the UNHCR, the world is facing the same challenges. How Europe, and the world, work through the current issues will influence the future of refugee law.
#IALL2016 Recap: Diversities Among Common Law Countries
By: Julienne Grant
On the morning of August 1, Professor Francis Reynolds Q.C., Emeritus Professor of Law at Worcester College (University of Oxford), began the 2016 IALL Course with a talk on "Diversities Among Common Law Nations." As indicated by the speaker, the purpose of the presentation was to provide only general observations of differences between selected countries following the common law tradition.
Before proceeding into the main content of his lecture, Professor Reynolds made a brief detour to define common law. According to him, the common law is a legal system wherein the application of law does not begin with a code, but rather a corpus of prior court decisions that judges utilize to reason by analogy. In defining common law, the speaker also contrasted it with the civil law tradition, suggesting that the methodology is the same, but the technique is different; that is, the two systems differ in their treatment of precedent.
Professor Reynolds next segued into a general examination of the development and use of common law in various jurisdictions. The speaker posited that the common law itself is largely an English invention that is now utilized in numerous countries across the globe, although its functionality varies. The speaker emphasized that there is really no such thing as British law, as Scotland has its own legal system. He said that the term "U.K. courts," however, can be accurate in the right context and noted that there is now a U.K. Supreme Court that has been operational since 2009. The professor contended that the use of common law in the U.S. departs from that utilized in the U.K., partly because of the U.S.' sheer size and geography.
Turning to Australia, the speaker specified that there is also no general Australian law and that emphasis there is on court opinions emanating from the states of Victoria and New South Wales, with the latter decisions being "more adventurous." Professor Reynolds observed that the High Court of Australia, the country's final court of appeal, has been reducing the number of categories of law as of late. The professor also mentioned the 1974 Trade Practices Act, specifically §52, which created a new form of liability for deceptive conduct in the consumer protection context, along with a new remedy. Focusing next on New Zealand, the speaker asserted that legal reform began there in earnest in the 1970s, specifically referencing the 1970 Illegal Contracts Act and the Contracts (Privity) Act of 1982. Professor Reynolds noted that not all of the attempted legal reforms have been successful in that country, although these types of changes are generally easier to implement in smaller jurisdictions.
Moving to Hong Kong, the speaker indicated that the Court of Final Appeal there is a bastion of the retention of common law values. The Court, which is Hong Kong's highest appellate court, has a high standing in the common law world. He noted that there is increasing use of Chinese in the lower courts, which begs the question, can the common law be applied successfully in a language other than English. Turning to Singapore, the professor explained that there has been an increasing amount of commercial law litigation there in the past ten to fifteen years. In Singapore, there is no third tier appellate court of review, and the country is currently experimenting with a new International Commercial Court.
Professor Reynolds conceded that he did not have a clear view of the common law in Canada, a statement that prompted laughter from many audience members. He suggested that Canada is another example of where common law is utilized in a jurisdiction where its linguistic tradition is not exclusively linked to the English language. He also briefly touched upon India, where he maintained there are serious delays in the judicial system and outdated codes. The speaker also mentioned the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC), which he contended does not have enough vision, although there are still some important cases emerging from the JCPC.
The speaker closed his talk with a brief look at the current status and future of the common law. Overall, Professor Reynolds views it as a satisfactory method for private law cases and stipulated that the common law would be difficult to change, as its legal methodology is essentially a cultural matter. In addition, he pointed out the increasing popularity of international commercial arbitration, concurrently noting that the common law is often applied in that context. Regarding the latter, he referenced recent developments in Singapore, Dubai, and Abu Dhabi. Professor Reynolds concluded that the common law is indeed still vigorous and internationally viable.
Several attendees subsequently added to the discussion with information, questions, and comments. Professor Reynolds' paper on his presentation topic will be published in a forthcoming issue of the International Journal of Legal Information (possibly in January 2017).


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Niki Homes is a high school girl with a frightening power. She gets a blood bath, and killes her best friend, and herself. The only survivor is her brother David who has a mental problem.
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Product Details
- 9781304556660
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- Lulu, & Ryan Risdon (Standard Copyright License)
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- 1st Harcover
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- Lulu
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- December 22, 2013
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- English
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- 48
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- Hardcover (dust-jacket)
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