text:
Pittsburgh Theological Journal
All correspondence should be addressed to: The Editors, Pittsburgh Theological Journal Pittsburgh Theological Seminary 616 North Highland Avenue Pittsburgh, PA 15206 Phone: 412‑362‑5610 Photocopies may be made for personal, congregational or classroom use. Copies should be distributed at no cost and include the following information: "Copyright [year] [author]. Reprinted from the Pittsburgh Theological Journal." Additional print copies can be purchased at cost on amazon.com, and the online version can be found at http://www.pts.edu/Pittsburgh_Theological_Journal The views expressed are those of the individual authors; they do not necessarily represent the opinion of Pittsburgh Theological Seminary students, faculty, administration, or Board of Directors. Cover art submitted by Aaron Price. See page 10 for artist statement.
Staff of the Pittsburgh Theological Journal Faculty Advisor: Dr. John P. Burgess is the James Henry Snowden Professor of Systematic Theology at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and an ordained minister of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). Editor-in-Chief: Kelly Jean "K.J.� Norris-Wilke is a graduating M.Div. senior. She is a member of Open Door Church and a candidate in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). General Editors: Danielle Graham is a graduating senior at PTS. She is licensed to preach through the Baptist Church. Shana Hutchings is a graduating senior at PTS. She is seeking ordination in the Episcopal Church and will be serving at Church of the Holy Cross in Pittsburgh starting this summer. Brian Lays is a Middler M.Div. student from Denver, Colorado, on track for ordination in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). His favorite theologian is John Calvin. Craig Meek is a graduating senior who completed the M.Div. thesis option. Bradley Rito is a middler in the M.Div. program seeking ordination in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). He recently had his first novel (A Balanced Apocalypse) published and seeks to write more. Bonnie Taylor is a graduating M.Div senior. She is certified ready in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) to receive a call ordained as a Chaplain with the VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System.
Letter from the Editor June 2014 Dear Readers, The back cover of this year's Pittsburgh Theological Journal highlights the mission statement, "to contribute to the development of pastor-theologians by promoting theological reflection, intellectual integrity, and practical wisdom." It has been my joy and privilege to watch these goals come to fulfillment through collecting work from my peers, our faculty, staff, and alumni. Opening the Research Articles section of this year's Journal are two thoughtprovoking pieces written by faculty members. The first is co-authored by Rev. Dr. Swart, Associate Professor of World Mission and Evangelism, who joined the faculty in 2013 and Rev. Brown, who began serving on the staff early this year as Coordinator of the Church Planting Initiative. Together, they present a case for "rediscovering [the Church's] missional vocation" and show how the new Church Planting Emphasis seeks to equip students for today's world. In the second piece, Dr. Smith, Professor of Urban Ministry, who also joined the faculty in 2013, presents a contemporary history of urban America and lays the groundwork for understanding "the urgent need for rethinking conceptions of community." Also included in the Research Articles section are three theology papers. The first two, written by Master's degree candidates, focus on Barth and Torrance; the third, written by one of our Doctor of Ministry students, deals with Theological Anthropology. The section closes with three Biblical exegesis works. The first of these, entitled, "The Song of Hannah" was written by the winner of the 2013 Fred McFeely Rogers Prize in Biblical Studies. The final two both focus on the much discussed "Christ Hymn" in Philippians; though very different in style and emphasis, these pieces can be seen as complementary for studying anew this beloved passage. I am especially grateful to Administrative Assistant, Kathy Anderson, who earned her MA at PTS in 2004, for submitting her work and encouraging me in mine. The Sermon section this year opens with a contribution from the winner of 2013 Walter P. and Anna L. McConkey Award in Homiletics and includes four pieces focusing on the themes of salvation, love, violence, and identity. Each is a powerful messages spoken boldly. The three remaining sections include a book review and two categories less seen in theological journals today: art and poetry. Throughout church history, art and poetry have been known as beautiful vehicles through which deep theological principles have been taught and experienced. Starting with last year's Journal,
under the direction of Editor-in-Chief Anthony Hita, we have worked to reclaim this spiritual heritage. Through what some might call coincidence, the three pieces which close the Journal, YHWH, Shepherd, and Pneuma, stand as a praise to our one God--Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. To God be the glory! I am thankful to the many people who contributed to the successful publication of this Journal. It could not have come to completion without the excellent submissions we received. Limited time and space kept us from publishing them all, but I am grateful to all who submitted and hope that each one reading this will contribute pieces in the coming years. The library staff including Rebecca DePoe, Laurie Gourdet, Darryl Lockie, and Stephanie Martin, under the direction of Ellen Little, pulled reference material to enable the editorial team to fact check; Melissa Logan made available the PTS logo and photos; Treasurer of the Student Association, Gregory Steible, managed the finances; and Kimberly Fleeger served as our graphic designer. Thank you all so much! Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to the members of the editorial staff who had the very difficult task of choosing among over 40 pieces submitted this year. I am thankful for their discerning spirits and gracious collaboration. Special thanks to our Faculty Advisor, Dr. Burgess, for his advice and leadership. Grace & Peace, KJ Norris-Wilke Editor-in-Chief
Table of Contents ART WORK Solidarity Aaron Price
Receptive to the Revelation: A Vision for the Future of the Church Planting Initiative at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary 14 Rev. Christopher A. Brown & Rev. Dr. Johannes G.J. Swart "Higher Ground": the Elusive Church Consensus on Equality, Empowerment, and Community in Urban America Rev. Dr. R. Drew Smith Our (Friendly) Union with Christ: A Reformed Reappraisal Garrett Yates
The Reasonable Trinitarian Mind: Unpacking Reason and Revelation within T.F. Torrance's Epistemology Matthew Jones
Chosen and Equipped: the Election of Hominids in Evolutionary History and Theological Imagination Nick Stavlund
The Song of Hannah Benjamin Phipps Philippians 2:6-11: Encomium to the Lord Jesus Christ for the Roman Colony of Philippi K.J. Norris-Wilke The Christ Hymn in Paul's Letter to the Philippians (Philippians 2:6-11) Kathy Anderson
SERMONS Stop Trying So Hard Charissa Clark Howe
So This is Love Rebecca Dix
Cutting Up the Concubine Lisa Franklin-Robinson
Identity Crisis Susan A. Blank
BOOK REVIEW The Rebirth of the Church: Applying Paul's Vision for Ministry in Our Post-Christian World Brian Lays
POETRY YHWH Rev. Charlie Hamill
Shepherd Jeffrey D. Bergeson
Pneuma Rebecca Cole-Turner
Pittsburgh Theological Journal SPRING 2014
Aaron Price The cover art and the following art piece were originally commissioned for the Lenten Art & Meditation Vigil for the Hot Metal Bridge Faith Community Church located on the Southside of Pittsburgh. A collaboration of artist from the community that came together to share their reflections on the Christian season of lent. The focus of meditation surrounded the concept of "Solidarity� in light of the story of the incarnation in the Christian scriptures. HMBFC is the artist's approved Field Education Placement congregation.
Charcoal is compressed carbon and ashes. It represents our mortality. We are reminded that we are here for a brief moment in time. In the time we have, Scripture reminds us to evaluate ourselves, to repent of our sins and turn to God.
The theme of these pieces is solidarity. To understand unity within diversity, we must look to the revelation of the persons of the Triune God. These drawings attempt to capture the struggle and tension towards unity. The war on our hearts comes from a misunderstanding of where our significance comes from. Our point of reference can only be found in the right relationship demonstrated between the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, showing us how to love God first and others second. Jesus is present in our weakness and lives in our exposed inability to help ourselves. He is close. He is in and through our suffering.
Pittsburgh Theological Journal SPRING 2014
Rev. Christopher A. Brown & Rev. Dr. Johannes G.J. Swart Christopher Brown serves as co-pastor to The Upper Room and as Coordinator of the Church Planting Initiative at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary. Jannie Swart serves as Associate Professor of World Mission and Evangelism at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary.
Receptive to the Revelation: A Vision for the Future of the Church Planting Initiative at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary This paper describes how Pittsburgh Theological Seminary is developing a unique approach to the formation of missional leaders through its Church Planting Initiative and the Church Planting Emphasis within the M.Div degree. This approach is characterized by relational practices of discernment and informed by attentiveness to both God and others.
Receptive to the Revelation: A Vision for the Future of the Church Planting Initiative at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary The main concern of any missionary training should be to help people to become more receptive to the revelations of God. – John V. Taylor1 –
Introduction In the post-Christendom context of North America, the Church is rediscovering its missional vocation of witnessing to the loving reign of Jesus Christ.2 Such a vocation must be re-discovered as a result of numerous changes that have taken place both within the Church and within the culture which surrounds us.3 One such change is the fact that the Church no longer occupies a privileged place in society. Rather, "Christianity in North America has moved (or been moved) away from its position of dominance as it has experienced the loss not only of numbers but of power and influence within society."4 This means that the Church is being invited to adopt new forms of witness which can be practiced from postures of humility and powerlessness. The cultural landscapes surrounding the Church are also increasingly characterized by discontinuous change,5 with factors such as rapid technological developments and movements of people groups combining in such a way that "uncertainty is the tenor of the times."6 Such rapid discontinuous change seems to correlate to the destabilization of traditional Church structures, forcing the Church to become more nimble in order to respond to its varying contexts. 1 John V. Taylor, The Go-Between God: The Holy Spirit and Christian Mission (St. Albans Pl: SCM Press, 1972), 70. 2 For tracing the development of the so-called "missional" conversation about the Church's vocation in a post-Christendom North American context, see Craig van Gelder and Dwight Zscheile, The Missional Church in Perspective: Mapping the Trends and Shaping the Conversation (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2011). 3 For an approach addressing this awareness, see Patrick Keifert, We Are Here Now: A New Missional Era (Boise: Allelon, 2006). 4 Darrell L. Guder ed., Missional Church: A Vision for the Sending of the Church in North America (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 1998), 1. 5 In contrast to continuous change, which "develops out of what has gone before and therefore can be expected, anticipated, and managed," discontinuous change "is disruptive and unanticipated; it creates situations that challenge our assumptions." Alan Roxburgh and Fred Romanuk, The Missional Leader: Equipping Your Church to Reach a Changing World (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass 2006), 7. 6 Alan Roxurgh, The Sky is Falling!?!: Leaders Lost in Transition (Eagle, ID: ACI Publishing 2005), 40.
As the Church becomes increasingly aware of these changes, the Holy Spirit is inspiring the development of new forms of Christian community with fresh expressions of worship and witness suited for these changing cultural contexts. As Darrell Guder has observed, "American indigenous churches" are proliferating across the country in myriad forms, including "so-called megachurches, as well as a staggering diversity of house churches, specialized fellowships, and genuinely new formations of Christian community."7 Initiating, cultivating and sustaining such communities require very specific leadership postures, habits, practices, and skills.8 This creates wonderful opportunities for those in theological education to explore appropriate approaches to leadership formation for such Christian communities. This paper describes how Pittsburgh Theological Seminary is developing one such approach to the formation of missional leaders through its Church Planting Initiative and the Church Planting Emphasis of the Master of Divinity degree program. Background Early in 2010, leaders at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary (PTS) noticed that the seminary was acquiring a reputation for preparing leaders of new ministries. Former students such as BJ Woodworth, John Creasy, Jeff Eddings, and Jim Walker had all planted churches while attending seminary parttime. Christopher Brown and Michael Gehrling, 2008 graduates of PTS, were serving as bi-vocational co-pastors leading a new ministry called The Upper Room. Students such as Sally Henry, Nate Wigfield and Chris Thomas attended Pittsburgh Seminary with an expressed interest in church-planting, having learned of the seminary's reputation for producing leaders of such new communities. Thus on June 3, 2010, a meeting was convened at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary to discuss the possibility of a more formalized program for preparing students at PTS to plant and lead new churches.9 A vision began to emerge from this meeting for a program which would use an extended internship program to provide comprehensive on-the-ground experience in the contexts of newly forming ministries. Recognizing the potential for burn-out among churchplanting pastors, those gathered also suggested students participating in the new program for prospective church planters share fellowship with one another in 7 Darrell L. Guder, "Leadership in New Congregations: New Church Development from the Perspective of Missional Theology" in Extraordinary Leaders in Extraordinary Times: Unadorned Clay Pot Messengers ed. H. Stanley Wood (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 2006), 16. 8 See Dan Steigerwald Growing Local Missionaries: Equipping Churches to Sow Shalom in Their Own Cultural Backyard (Portland: Urban Loft Publishers 2014), 37-79. See also Tim Keel Intuitive Leadership: Embracing a Paradigm of Narrative, Metaphor, and Chaos (Grand Rapids: Baker 2007), 225-254. 9 Present at this meeting were Don Dawson, Vera White, Eugene Blackwell, Jeff Eddings, B.J. Woodworth, Nate Wigfield, Michael Gehrling, Christopher Brown, Sally Henry, Chris Thomas, and Beckie Hickok.
cohort groups and on retreats. Such cohorts would provide space for reflection among the students as well as a venue for shared spiritual formation. At the same time, Brian Clark, pastor of Riverside Presbyterian Church in Sterling, VA, was preparing to open a training center for new church leaders which would later become the East Coast Presbyterian Center for New Church Innovation. Brian wrote to those who had gathered at PTS to envision the new training program suggesting the development of a potential partnership between the training center housed at Riverside and the program which was in development at PTS. In October of 2010, Brian travelled to Pittsburgh alongside Philip Lotspeich, director of the Office of Church Growth of the Presbyterian Church (USA). At PTS, Brian and Philip met with a group of students who were interested in church planting and with the newly formed Church Planting Advisory Group.10 This meeting produced a proposal for a Church Planting Track which was then passed along through the administration of the seminary for approval. The faculty of Pittsburgh Theological Seminary approved the creation of the Church Planting Emphasis within the Master of Divinity Degree and its inclusion in the seminary's course catalog on January 18, 2011. From 2011 to 2014, the development of the Church Planting Emphasis moved gradually at PTS. In the fall of 2011, Eric Vinsel enrolled at PTS and became the first student to officially enroll in the Church Planting Emphasis. A group of students travelled to Brazil in the spring of 2012 with José Pezini to study church planting in the Brazilian Presbyterian churches. That summer, Scott Sunquist departed Pittsburgh to serve as Dean of the School of Intercultural Studies and Professor of World Christianity at Fuller Theological Seminary. The intensive summer course in church planting which Sunquist had been scheduled to teach that year was instead taught by H. Stanley Wood, executive director of a church planting consulting and coaching organization called Sower's Field and a former faculty member of both Columbia Theological Seminary and San Francisco Theological Seminary. That summer the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church (USA) also approved its 1001 New Worshiping Communities initiative, setting a goal of creating 1001 new Christian communities between 2012 and 2022.11 In 2013 Jannie Swart was hired as Associate Professor of World Mission and Evangelism and given oversight of the Church Planting Emphasis. Later in 2013 a grant was secured from the Arthur Vining Davis Foundation to provide funding for a Church Planting Initiative at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, including a part-time staff person to both coordinate the initiative and oversee the emphasis. In February of 2014, Chris Brown was hired to serve as the 10 The members of this advisory group were Philip Lotspeich, Brian Clark, Vera White, Chris Brown, Eugene Blackwell, Scott Sunquist, Don Dawson, and Dean Jackson 11 Presbyterian Church (USA), Minutes: 220th General Assembly 2012: Part 1, Journal (Louisville: Office of the General Assembly 2012), 1443-1444.
Coordinator of the Church Planting Initiative. We (Jannie and Chris) then began developing the Church Planting Initiative according to the vision articulated in this paper. In the spring of 2014, Jannie began teaching EV15: Planting and Leading New Churches with Chris, Michael Gehrling, BJ Woodworth, and Vera White serving as a team of supplemental instructors for the course. This course became a microcosm in which students were exposed in one term to various aspects of missional formation which will characterize the entirety of the Church Planting Emphasis and other programs developed by the Church Planting Initiative. Missional Formation The approach to initiating, cultivating, and sustaining Church Planting that we are currently developing at PTS is best characterized by missional formation. We believe missional formation is at the heart of forming new Christian community with people who are not currently belonging to an existing Christian community. Missional formation refers to the cultivation of the capacity to discern participation in the mission of God.12 The task of formation in this regard points at the cultivation of a variety of components of capacity at stake in discerning participation in God's mission. For the sake of this article, we will frame these components with four "f's": fellowship, focus, formation, faithfulness.13 Together, these four components include the primary postures, beliefs, attitudes, habits, practices, and skills to be cultivated for the sake of initiating and forming new Christian communities in the midst of the Church's post-Christendom context. This relational approach to formation puts fellowship at the core of what is at stake in forming Christian community.14 Guided by the conviction that the Triune God is already at work in the world, we believe that attentive listening and faithfully discerning participation in the mission of God are among the primary postures, habits, and practices needed for leaders of new Christian communities. Thus we believe that the growth of new congregations which bear witness to Christ in their present contexts flows out of fellowship with the Triune God and with the people to whom and with whom God sends us. As leaders pursue intimate fellowship with God and others, they cultivate the ability to sense and listen to the Holy Spirit's direction, sharpening their focus on the mission on which God sends them. Led by the Holy Spirit, these leaders participate in God's formation of a new Christian community among those to whom they are sent. These practices of fellowship, focus, and formation repeat 12 The term missional here refers to discerning participation in God's mission in the world. Formation refers to the cultivation of capacities such as postures, beliefs, attitudes, behavior, habits, practices, and skills. 13 This framework also guides the structure of the Spring 2014 Planting and Leading New Churches course. 14 Fellowship here can be thought of in terms of the biblical concept of koinonia, implying the state of shared communion and joint participation which in the NT characterizes both the Church as the Body of Christ and the relationship of the Church with the Triune God.
continually throughout the ensuing life of the new community as its leaders dwell in faithfulness to God, to their calling, and to the people to whom God sends them. From this approach it is clear that initiating, cultivating, and sustaining new Christian communities is first and foremost a matter of discernment in relationship with God and people rather than merely a functional matter of applying the right technology in planting a new church. John Taylor's receptivity to the revelations of God (opening quote of this article) comes to mind in this regard, because missional discernment refers to the Church's capacity of receiving God's gift of revelation in community with God and other people. Cultivating such environments of discernment requires integrated postures, habits, and practices of fellowship, focus, formation, and faithfulness. We hope to provide the theological education necessary for church planting leaders to develop the ability to cultivate such environments of discernment. This approach to church planting which emphasizes discernment and relationship stands in contrast to approaches which teach methods and models as though church planting were an act initiated by human beings and fulfilled through the sharpening of human skills. Church planting is not a commodity that we sell to other people; it refers to a community that God forms through us with other people. It does not refer to a vendor that sells religious goods to other people; it is shaped by receiving the gift of God's gathering of people. It is not an instrumental matter of controlling and manipulating others into a new form of church; it is a relational matter of living faithfully in community with God and other people. Leaders who cultivate new Christian communities according to this approach must thus be formed relationally in community into people who attentively receive what God initiates and faithfully participate in the work God sustains. A Vision for the Future With this vision for missional formation in mind, we (Jannie and Chris) set about revising the official requirements for and descriptions of the Church Planting Emphasis at PTS early in 2014. On April 14, 2014, the faculty of Pittsburgh Theological Seminary approved this new description of the Church Planting Emphasis which reflects some of these changes. The language which was approved for inclusion in the forthcoming 2014-2015 course catalog reads: In addition to the regular requirements for Master of Divinity students, those pursuing the church planting emphasis must also complete: •
Courses in church planting and evangelism
Concentration in gospel and culture and church leadership and ministry in selected courses
Specialized internships emphasizing observation of, participation in, and cultivation of new worshiping communities. These three components may be completed in separate internships (part-time during an academic year or full time in a summer) or a one-year, full-time supervised internship in church planting.
Participation in a cohort with other church planting emphasis students while enrolled in the emphasis. Participation in a cohort will include retreats, regular reflection on coursework and internships, and shared spiritual practices.
A short-term international experience related to church planting
This emphasis within the M.Div. is designed to facilitate missional formation not only through classes, but through internships and cohort participation. The internships begin with a period devoted to observation particularly because observation is an essential skill for a new church leader. In courses on church planting, students may participate in "neighborhood exegesis" assignments through which they "experience the power of missionary listening in particular areas or neighborhoods in their city."15 This allows students to grow in attentiveness to both God's voice and the voices of a neighborhood's constituents, receiving and contemplating input before acting upon any plans or impulses. An observation year in a fledgling congregation allows a student to practice missionary listening by observing the community dynamics of a congregation in a similar way. As Alan Roxburgh has written, Missional leaders must learn how to discern what God is doing in, through, and among all the movements of change in which a congregation finds itself. To do this, leaders will develop the capacity to assist the members in reflecting on what they are experiencing, and listening to each other's stories in terms of their encounter with a radically changing environment.16 As students observe, they learn to ask questions such as, What is happening to people? What might God be saying in the stories and narratives of the people in a congregation, if we would listen to them and give them voice? In what ways might God already be ahead of us and present among people in our community? How might we join with God in what is already happening?17 Having given extensive time to the practice of asking such questions and listening for the Holy Spirit's answers through prayer and through the voices 15 Steigerwald, 89. See Appendix A of Growing Local Missionaries for a complete description of a neighborhood exegesis exercise. 16 Roxburgh and Romanuk, 24. 17 Ibid.
of a particular community's members, a student would then take a more active role in leading a new community. Thus in the participation phase, the student would participate more directly in the responsibilities of leading a developing congregation, working with its leaders and gaining experience in a variety of ministry roles and responsibilities. This internship component allows students to gain the ministry experience often associated with field education at the seminary, while building upon the practices of attentiveness and discernment that they honed over their observation period. The final component of the internship requirement is an experience in the cultivation of a new Christian community. It is possible that such new Christian community could even have the potential to exist under the student's leadership after graduation. Students who complete the program thus gain a rich amount of experience and generate a potential ministry placement for themselves after completing the program. Realistically, many experiments in cultivation may not yield new churches, but they could still give birth to new ministries housed within existing congregations. It is also a possibility that a student's new Christian community will not continue to exist after the duration of the internship. This should not be perceived negatively as failure. The cultivation component of these internships is intended to allow for experimentation for the purpose of formation. In this sense, the internships could be viewed as venues for students to engage in practices which are good in and of themselves, regardless of the external results of such practices.18 To reflect upon and internalize the lessons learned from both their classes and their internship experiences, students in the emphasis will be placed in cohort groups. Though such groups do facilitate the reflection piece of an actionreflection model of education, they also serve a deeply theological purpose in the structure of the Church Planting Emphasis. Church planting is by nature an ecclesial action. This means that it cannot be carried out apart from the larger community of the Body of Christ. To again quote Darrell Guder, It is clear from the New Testament that God's Spirit forms a community for mission. God's call has always formed a people, a community, within which God was known, worshiped, made known, and served. . . . The life of the community is the primary form of its witness, and it is also the equipper and supporter of each individual Christian in the practice of his or her vocation as witnesses for Christ. This community is, as ecclesia, called out and set apart for public witness, for demonstration before the world of the presence and power of Jesus the king.19 18 On the intrinsic value of such practices, see Bryan Stone, Evangelism after Christendom: The Theology and Practice of Christian Witness (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press 2007), 29-53. 19 Darrell L. Guder, The Continuing Conversion of the Church (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 2000), 68.
The communities of the cohorts serve, in Guder's words, as equippers and supporters of these individual students in the practice of their vocations. Such equipping and support necessarily entails spiritual formation because the students are growing together through this season in the attentiveness and discernment that flow from fellowship with the Triune God and with God's people. These relationships become contexts in which God works out our sanctification. As Bryan Stone writes, "the faithful practice of evangelism requires both 'saints' and a social context (ecclesia) in which saintliness can be cultivated and recognized."20 Wise and experienced leaders are thus an invaluable ingredient in such a social context, hence our vision for a mentoring program in which experienced church planters will shepherd the cohort groups of students in the Emphasis. The Church Planting Emphasis will thus become a crucible for the formation of missionary saints who bear witness to the reign of Jesus Christ by gathering communities through which not-yet Christians may become saints. Such saintliness consists not in arbitrary separation from the world, but rather from a holy attentiveness to the God who sends and the world to whom we are sent. This in turn requires a depth of self-awareness, psychological maturity, and integrity of character. As Roxburgh and Romanuk write, "Cultivating an environment where the missional imagination of the people of God can emerge requires a mature leader who is self-aware, authentic, and present to the realities and concerns of those being led."21 Such maturity and self-awareness will be honed through experience and relationship as students pursue this emphasis and will enable leaders to participate more deeply in the fellowship with God and others that is both the beginning and end of our missional vocations. This vision for the missional formation of new leaders in the Church can also extend far beyond the new format for the Church Planting Emphasis M.Div. at PTS. In our immediate context, the Church Planting Initiative at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary will become a venue in which people outside the Church Planting Emphasis – whether lay or ordained, students or graduates – can receive the gift of such formation for mission and ministry. While the Church Planting Emphasis refers specifically to the track within the M.Div. degree program, the Church Planting Initiative is a more comprehensive goal of cultivating environments in which other students and church leaders can experience this formation. As we partner with other ministries such as the Presbyterian Centers for New Church Innovation, these opportunities will include events on campus which cast vision for the development of new Christian communities in ways congruent with this understanding of church planting, assessments for potential church planters, and other programs and events designed to resource and form leaders of new Christian communities. Such programs may include various 20 Stone, 45. 21 Roxburgh and Romanuk, 127.
certificate programs in Church Planting Leadership which will equip both leaders who are already ordained and desire deeper formation along these lines, and leaders who come from traditions which may not require formal seminary education. Conclusion: The Vision Takes Flesh At the time this article is being completed, we are midway through the experience of teaching a course at Pittsburgh Seminary entitled Planting and Leading New Churches. This course is structured around the "Four F's" of fellowship, focus, formation, and faithfulness, and has thus become a proving ground for the vision articulated here. Students engage in fellowship with God and one another through participation in cohort groups and the creation of individual rules of life intended to help the students grow in spiritual maturity. Each cohort was assigned a mentor from among the team of instructors and also given a neighborhood near the seminary in which they would practice focusing their vision on God's mission. A few weeks into the course, the students were sent out to these neighborhoods to practice attentiveness to God and to others, engaging in conversation with people they met and learning to listen both to the communities to whom they were sent and to the God who is already present and at work in these places. Reporting back on their experience in the neighborhoods, students evidenced a variety of reactions: fear of rejection, anger at injustice, authentic desires to learn about their communities and grow in relationships within them. As the students and instructors processed these experiences and reactions together in class, one could sense that we were standing on holy ground. Through the exercises the students are engaging in together, lives of prayer are being deepened, relationships are being fostered, self-awareness is being sharpened, and God is sanctifying and sending new missionaries to the world. By the end of the course, each cohort will present a hypothetical vision for a new Christian community in the neighborhood to which they were sent. If the Lord wills, such visions may not remain merely hypothetical. We thus stand now at a point in the story of this academic program where church planters often find themselves: vision has been provided and a new form of life is sprouting, but the end results are still to be discovered. While we wait to see how God's purpose unfolds with the Church Planting Emphasis and Initiative at Pittsburgh Seminary, we ourselves will seek to dwell in fellowship as we attend to the focus God has given us in the formation of these programs. May the Lord grant us and all who participate in the Church Planting Emphasis and Initiative at Pittsburgh Seminary the faithfulness necessary to fulfill our callings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Guder, Darrell L. ed. Missional Church: A Vision for the Sending of the Church in North America. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. Guder, Darrell L. "Leadership in New Congregations: New Church Development from the Perspective of Missional Theology� in Extraordinary Leaders in Extraordinary Times: Unadorned Clay Pot Messengers, ed. H. Stanley Wood, 1-30. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. Guder, Darrell L. The Continuing Conversion of the Church. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000. Keel, Tim. Intuitive Leadership: Embracing a Paradigm of Narrative, Metaphor, and Chaos. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007. Keifert, Patrick. We Are Here Now: A New Missional Era. Boise: Allelon, 2006. Roxburgh, Alan and Fred Romanuk. The Missional Leader: Equipping Your Church to Reach a Changing World. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 2006. Roxurgh, Alan. The Sky is Falling!?!: Leaders Lost in Transition Eagle, ID: ACI Publishing, 2005. Steigerwald, Dan. Growing Local Missionaries: Equipping Churches to Sow Shalom in Their Own Cultural Backyard. Portland: Urban Loft Publishers, 2014. Stone, Bryan. Evangelism after Christendom: The Theology and Practice of Christian Witness. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2007. Taylor, John V. The Go-Between God: The Holy Spirit and Christian Mission. St. Albans Pl: SCM Press, 1972. Van Gelder, Craig and Dwight Zscheile. The Missional Church in Perspective: Mapping the Trends and Shaping the Conversation. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2011.
Rev. Dr. R. Drew Smith R. Drew Smith, Ph.D. is Professor of Urban Ministry and Council Chairman of the Metro Urban Institute (MUI), Pittsburgh Theological Seminary. He is also Co-Convener of the Transatlantic Roundtable on Religion and Race (TRRR). Versions of this article were presented at an April 2014 MUI symposium in Pittsburgh, titled "Ministry at the Margins in Times of Government Cutback" and at a July 2013 TRRR symposium at the University of London, titled "The Church's Community Role in Times of Austerity."
"Higher Ground": the Elusive Church Consensus on Equality, Empowerment, and Community in Urban America Severe socio-economic disparities, imbalances, and conflicts within urban America make clear the urgent need for rethinking conceptions of community and for achieving a higher ground from which to pursue common cause. Clergy responses to economic formation and de-formation within Rust Belt cities such as Pittsburgh and Detroit are examined in the light of conceptions of civic and Christian "community" as drawn from select sources in ethics and political philosophy.
"Higher Ground": the Elusive Church Consensus on Equality, Empowerment, and Community in Urban America In 1950, Detroit was the wealthiest city in the country based on per capita income. In July 2013, the city of Detroit filed for bankruptcy, and although this qualifies as the largest municipal bankruptcy in history, apparently unlike some large U.S. corporations who have had financial crises, a city such as Detroit is not considered by the broader governmental or economic sectors as too big or too important to be allowed to fail. Many factors no doubt led to Detroit's decline to the point of bankruptcy, with a strongly supported view being that Detroit largely brought this on itself through poor internal choices and performance. This view was captured in a report issued by Detroit's emergency manager, Kevyn Orr, who Michigan's governor, Richard Snyder (R), appointed in March 2013 as part of an emergency state takeover of Detroit city government. The report was well-received in official policy circles, as demonstrated by a Washington Post editorial written by economist Charles Lane in the days immediately following Detroit's declaration of bankruptcy. Lane interprets the report as attributing Detroit's collapse to "institutional rot and social collapse, brought on by decades of government of, by and for special-interest groups. Prominent among them . . . public-employee unions. . . ." Although Lane goes on to mention that the report also "details the city's chronic job losses, brought on by the long, slow contraction of the auto industry," he clearly appears less interested in this factor than in political corruption and the growth of unions as an explanation for Detroit's woes.1 Lane is also careful to point out that Orr's report "could have" but did not "go into Detroit's devastating history of racism and racial conflict, including horrific riots in 1967." While appropriately drawing attention to the omission of racial antagonisms as a contributing factor to Detroit's economic problems, his wording connects Detroit's racial problems more with black rioting (read as illegitimate grievances) than with legitimate and lawfully pursued black grievances related to white exclusion and marginalization of black Detroiters through what appeared to many as a race-driven, large-scale white population and resource flight from Detroit. What gets missed about Detroit's decline in explanations centering on the city's poor choices and performance are the forces aligned against Detroit's success over which the city (or at least those still left in Detroit by the early 21st century) may have had very little control—including large-scale depopulation and disinvestment. 1 Charles Lane, "Detroit's Greek Tragedy," Washington Post (July 8, 2013).
Moreover, attempts to explain Detroit's flagging fortunes as resulting from too many resources being expended on "special interest groups" misses the point that resources marshaled on behalf of the kind of "special interest groups" identified in Lane's editorial (particularly unionized workers) are for purposes of empowering persons shown very little interest by key sectors presumably concerned with the public interest (including government and the "American" corporate sector). The disinterestedness toward the poor and less-empowered has been demonstrated, for example, by corporate sector "choices" about which communities they will invest in, how long they will remain, and who they will consult with in the process. These corporate sector choices (or governmental sector choices) may strongly influence the empowerment prospects of varying groups of persons, granting some more favorable prospects than others. Corporate choices certainly had an enormous impact on the relative prospects for empowerment for various groups and communities within the metropolitan Detroit area. Gross inequities within Detroit were also widely apparent in the early20th century, a time when the auto industry's influence was becoming broadly encompassing. It was during this time, from 1915 to 1928, that renowned theologian, Reinhold Niebuhr, served as pastor of a Detroit congregation. In Niebuhr's public theological praxis during his Detroit pastorate, and more explicitly in an unpublished essay on Detroit written about the same time, Niebuhr challenged social imbalances of power and divergences of perspective between "aristocratic" auto industry executives and Detroit's laboring classes, juxtaposing the political, economic, and moral self-certainties of auto industry movers and shakers with the day-to-day uncertainties and increasing misgivings of underpaid semi-skilled laborers.2 Niebuhr objected to the indifference demonstrated toward the struggles of workers by persons in the power structure and by community constituencies actively or passively aligned with persons in power (including clergy), and made clear in his unpublished essay and in his public leadership within Detroit that an appropriate response to these community-threatening dichotomizations and imbalances was unionism. For Niebuhr, unionism was the best available strategy at the time and deserved broad support among community leaders entrusted with community interests. He therefore applauds the handful of clergy leaders in Detroit who supported unionization, even in the face of the Detroit power structure's systematic capacity for reprisal against pro-union community leaders, and he strongly criticizes clergy "who talked endlessly about love and brotherhood but 2 Reinhold Niebuhr, "Detroit," unpublished essay available at: http://www.onbeing.org/ program/moral-man-and-immoral-society-rediscovering-reinhold-niebuhr/extra/reinholdniebuhr-timeli-3#main_contenthttp://www.onbeing.org/program/moral-man-andimmoral-society-rediscovering-reinhold-niebuhr/extra/reinhold-niebuhr-timeli-3#main_ contenthttp://www.onbeing.org/program/moral-man-and-immoral-society-rediscoveringreinhold-niebuhr/extra/reinhold-niebuhr-timeli-3#main_content
[whose] preachments had little relevance to the problems . . . of adjudicating interests and balancing power." Niebuhr addressed similar concerns in a published collection of reflections on his Detroit pastorate, entitled Leaves from the Notebook of a Tamed Cynic. In Leaves, Niebuhr assails the social inequalities, economic disparities, and racism evident within the Detroit context, he rejects prevailing rationalizations of Detroit's growing inequalities as inevitable and acceptable costs of economic progress, and he challenges church conformity to these rationales and the failure of church leaders to draw connections between the spiritual and social aspects of their faith. In these various Detroit reflections and involvements, Niebuhr's intersecting theological and sociological positioning allowed him to bring into view essential contradictions between economically-defined panaceas of human fulfillment and the realities of social disparity and inequality characteristic of industrializing Detroit—while also disabusing the church sector of notions of neutrality on these issues.3 Conflicting ideas within 20th- and 21st-century Detroit (and across urban America) about what it means to be "in community" and what it means to operate in a community's "best interest" make clear the ongoing need for higher ground from which to arbitrate conflicting interests and pursue common cause. Although acknowledging the elusiveness of social spaces capable of escaping inherent self-interestedness, the essay here (after itemizing urban depopulation and disinvestment dynamics that have eroded urban communities) appeals for conceptions of urban community and "peoplehood" (along lines identified by political scientist Rogers Smith) operative at the sometimes egalitarian intersections between competing traditions of American civic ideals. A subtext of the present essay (and frequently of American civic traditions) is that a concern for neighbor and a commitment to community well-being are divinelyinstilled within humanity, but find fulfillment only though intentional, sacrificial action. Christian teachings challenge us to seek this higher ground, and the growing disparities, imbalances, and conflicts within our urban contexts signal a new urgency for us to do so. Resource Retractions, Relocations, and Mobility In 1915, the year Niebuhr arrived in Detroit, the American auto industry was experiencing rapid growth, including a manufacturing infrastructure concentrated in metropolitan Detroit producing an enormous number of Ford, Chrysler, and General Motors vehicles. The explosive early-20th century growth of Detroit's auto industry generated a large influx of whites from nearby rural areas and African Americans from the South seeking employment within Detroit's mass-assembly auto plants. In1910, the city's population was roughly a half million people and by 1930 its population had increased by another 3 Reinhold Niebuhr, Leaves from the Notebook of a Tamed Cynic, (New York: Harper & Row, 1929/1980), see e.g., pp. 47-48, 83-84, 113-119, 132-135, and 160.
million. Detroit's population would peak at 1.9 million by 1950, which was also about the time its economic fortunes peaked. Detroit's economic situation began shifting dramatically during the 1950s, with the big automakers building plants in Detroit's suburbs and pulling residents out of the city, and with the ongoing black influx into Detroit from the South eventually producing a tipping point in white perceptions and experiencing of the city and pushing them toward the suburbs in ever greater numbers. In 1910, there were less than 6,000 blacks in Detroit, comprising less than 2 percent of Detroit's overall population. In 1930, there were 120,000 blacks, which constituted 7 percent of Detroit's population. By 1950, blacks numbered more than 300,000 in Detroit, which was 16 percent of the population, leading to an even more rapid increase in the black percentage of Detroit's population due mainly to white exodus rather than black influx. Detroit's population went from 83 percent white and 16 percent black in 1950, to 70 percent white and 29 percent black in 1960, to 55 percent white and 43 percent black in 1970. By 1980, blacks were in the majority at 63 percent compared to 34 percent white population, and the declining white percentage would continue apace over the next few decades. By 2010, Detroit's overall population had decreased to 713,000 persons, 10 percent of which were white and 82 percent of which were black. Coinciding with the exodus of Detroit's white population was a significant exodus of resources. Between 1947 and 1955, Ford, Chrysler, and General Motors decentralized their Detroit operations and built 20 new plants in suburban Detroit. This auto industry decentralization contributed to a loss of manufacturing jobs in Detroit, with Detroit's percentage of manufacturing jobs within the metropolitan area declining from 60 percent in 1948 to 53 percent in 1954. Manufacturing jobs continued declining in Detroit, with the number of manufacturing jobs falling from 145,200 to 141, 400 between 1958 and 1963, and decreasing another 15 percent between 1972 and 1977. By 1982, the city of Detroit accounted for only 25 percent of manufacturing jobs within the metropolitan area. Retail jobs were also becoming more concentrated in suburban Detroit by the 1950s, with Detroit's share of retail jobs within the metropolitan area decreasing from 72 percent in 1948, to 63 percent in 1954, to 15 percent in 1982. Emblematic of the sharp decline of retail jobs in Detroit is the absence of a real shopping mall within Detroit's city limits (with the exception of a modest mall in Detroit's downtown Renaissance Center. One other important indicator of Detroit's declining resource base is that between 1958 and 1977, "metropolitan industrial development targeted to Detroit fell from 44 percent . . . to 22 percent—a decline of 50 percent in just two decades."4 The degree of depopulation and disinvestment that has occurred in Detroit over 4 Statistics and quote from Joe T. Darden et al, Detroit: Race and Uneven Development, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 24.
the last 60 years has been unmatched by any major U.S. city and was undeniably a central factor leading to its 2013 bankruptcy. The contexts of early-industrialization and of urban population and capital concentrations characteristic of many early-20th century American cities gave way by the mid-20th century to nascent de-industrialization and urban disinvestment and depopulation. This was true of Detroit, but this was also true of other U.S. cities within the industrial zone that ran from the Northeast, through the Midwest, to parts of the upper-South—i.e., the stretch that would come to be known as the "Rust Belt." Cleveland's population peaked at 914,000 persons in 1950, but by 2010 its population had declined to 396,000 and it was designated as the poorest city in the U.S. based upon per capita income (the second poorest city being Detroit). Similarly, Buffalo reached the height of its population in 1950, when it numbered 580,000 people, but by 2010 its population had fallen to 261,000 people, 27 percent of its population was classified as living in poverty, and its median family income (at $33,000) was 40 percent below the national average. Each of these contexts of early-20th century industrial promise fell victim to a mid-20th century de-industrialization, depopulation, and disinvestment, and then to a 21st century despair. Pittsburgh has fared somewhat better than its Rust Belt neighbors, at least as it relates to a 21st century recovery. Nevertheless, its social low points have stood out for their severity, dating back to the hostile and sometimes violent labor relations of the late-19th century, and later including the precipitous 20th century decline of a steel sector that was once one of the top steel producing sectors in the country, with a mid-20th century employee base of 90,000 Pittsburgh-area workers. By 2009, Pittsburgh's steel sector employed only 6,900 workers, with much of its steel mill activity long since shut down in response to stiff competition from other parts of the U.S. and from overseas. Pittsburgh's population suffered similarly stark numerical decline, peaking in 1950 when it numbered 677,000 residents, but dropping to 307,000 by 2010. Where Pittsburgh has achieved greater success than several of its neighboring Rust Belt cities, however, has been the diversification of its post-industrial economy during the latter-20th and early-21st century. The largest employer in Pittsburgh is now the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC), which has more than 60,000 employees and had 2013 revenues in excess of $10 billion. UPMC's considerable impact within metro-Pittsburg has been fervently celebrated as well as criticized (much like the steel industry which preceded it within Pittsburgh, and the automobile industry in Detroit). These major industries have provided the economic life blood within their respective urban contexts but, in important respects, with noticeable costs to the social and moral fabric that binds communities together. One of Niebuhr's concerns about industrialization was that it magnified the economic basis of social organization and relationships and conferred upon corporate executives (guided by financial
or technological considerations more than by community impact) the ability to become "arbiters over the lives and fortunes" of masses of people.5 Niebuhr did not discount the possibility of industry moguls pursuing a public good broader than the financial interests of their corporation, and he pointed particularly to the Ford Foundation as an example of substantial corporate philanthropy.6 But Niebuhr sharply criticized the inordinate influence of industry leaders and the unacceptable extent to which the normative trajectories of civic leaders and church leaders of his day took their cues from industry logic and leaders—a deference Niebuhr regarded as a broader cultural deference to power. Niebuhr's critique of the power of industry executives (who during his Detroit pastorate received an average compensation approaching 40 times that of an average worker's pay) possesses even greater relevance for today's context, where the compensation of corporate executives reached 375 times the pay of an average worker in 2000, and where corporate executives could preside over a corporation potentially possessing more wealth than a number of the world's individual nations. This is a troubling concentration of power in the hands of persons not subject to validation by a democratic electorate nor to any broadly public process whereby a commitment to a robust definition of the common good could be assessed. That is why Niebuhr and many others have viewed unions as one way of insuring a systematically negotiated interaction between corporate leaders and the people over which they exercise power. UPMC is currently at the center of contestations within Pittsburgh (and, in some ways, nationally) over the unionization of workers. Workers at the lower end of UPMC's pay scale have expressed concerns about their financial insecurity and about the need for collective representation, and have been exploring becoming part of the Service Employees International Union, a union to which many hospital workers around the country belong. UPMC management feels they are on good footing with their employees, paying service workers a starting wage of $11 per hour, providing good benefits for service workers, and maintaining an open communication process between workers and management that allows for dialogue when issues arise. The dispute has been ongoing for two years, with UPMC management accused by pro-union activists (and by the National Labor Relations Board in a case that stuck) of union-busting activities, and UPMC countering by pointing to the existence of unionization among various professional sectors of UPMC's workforce. The ongoing tensions manifested in fairly large street protests by service workers and their allies outside UPMC's downtown Pittsburgh headquarters in March 2014 and a few weeks earlier 10 clergy affiliated with Pittsburgh Interfaith Impact Network were arrested for blocking an entrance to UPMC headquarters after being refused an audience with the CEO of the company. The clergy said their purpose was "to see UPMC offer employees a more friendly work environment free of intimidation and to be able to earn a honest living wage to afford 5 Niebuhr, Leaves, 123. 6 Niebuhr's reference to the Ford Foundation is in his unpublished essay on Detroit, op cit.
premiums of their healthcare." 7 Roughly 90 years after the pro-union stance by Niebuhr and a remnant of Detroit clergy, a remnant of Pittsburgh clergy saw the need for what continues to be a risky and unpopular stance. Even where cities and neighborhoods have begun to reverse the outward flow of resources and population, the poor are still losing out as a result of displacement by corporate sector development agendas and by gentrification. As corporations and wealthier residents move into what had become impoverished urban core neighborhoods, low-income residents may end up dispersed to even poorer central city neighborhoods or to outer ring neighborhoods where they become cut off from social networks upon which they had come to depend. This was seen in mid-20th century Pittsburgh's decision to build a civic center in its downtown area, acquiring a significant portion of the historic African American Hill neighborhood through eminent domain in order to do so. The encroachment upon the Hill District neighborhood resulted in the displacement of 8,000 residents and 400 businesses from the Hill neighborhood while providing little compensation to the displaced in the process. Many of the more than 1,800 displaced black families ended up dispersed across town to lowincome housing largely in Pittsburgh's East Liberty neighborhood. By the 1980s and 1990s, the East Liberty neighborhood would itself become a target of major corporate speculation and development, displacing many of the low-income black residents that had concentrated in that neighborhood, pushing them out into the even poorer adjacent neighborhood of Homewood. Whether or not the arrival of corporations in urban neighborhoods is objected to by local leaders or residents for its displacement effects, it may be viewed as imposing its will on communities in other ways that overrule or undermine stated or agreed-upon local community development objectives or policy priorities. An interesting example of this took place recently in Washington, D.C., where local leaders pushed back against an agreement between Wal-Mart and the city government for Wal-Mart to introduce six stores into the District. Although there was general support (if not enthusiasm) for Wal-Mart's soon-to-come presence in the District, a number of local leaders felt Wal-Mart had the capacity and the obligation to pay livable wages to the workers in these new locations, and City Council leaders approved a bill requiring retailers with corporate sales of $1 billion or more and operating in spaces 75,000 square feet or larger to pay persons working in their District stores a minimum of $12.50 an hour rather than the official local minimum of $8.25 an hour. In response, Wal-Mart indicated that if the bill was signed into 7 See, Ann Belser, "Union sees national focus in UPMC organizing effort," (Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 9, 2014); R. Zullo and M. Balingit, "Hundreds protest UPMC over wages for service employees," (Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 3, 2014); Dave Jamieson, "Pittsburgh largest employer draws hundreds of protesters over 'poverty' wages," (Huffington Post, March 3, 2014); and Alyssa Marsico, "10 clergy members arrested during UPMC protest," (KDKA News, February 27, 2014).
law by the mayor, the company would not pursue construction of three of the stores at all and might hold off completing construction of the three stores where construction was already underway. This left local leaders, including the mayor, with a choice between standing for job-creation (within a city where jobs were desperately needed) or wage fairness (in a national context where too many Americans find themselves working jobs that do not pay livable wages). In the end, the mayor vetoed the bill, so Wal-Mart will eventually provide the District with approximately 1,800 new jobs—with most of those jobs paying what many do not consider a livable wage. As evident in these various examples, the corporate sector wields enormous power in the shaping of priorities within their organizations and within the communities and municipalities in which they operate. They make decisions bearing on the financial prospects, working conditions, and advancement possibilities of large populations of workers, as well as on the developmental trajectories, cultural milieus, and policy dynamics within their community contexts. But they are able to wield this kind of power because they are vital to the well-being of the community contexts in which they operate. They make jobs available to large population of workers, they facilitate working contexts for these workers that generally are safe and conducive to worker productivity and advancement, and they enhance communities through the products they generate, through the catalyzing of secondary economies, through direct and indirect infrastructural development, and through donations of human, financial, and material resources. But with this kind of power and influence come obligations to the communities and people affected by the exercise of that power and influence—at the very least through effective mechanisms and processes for negotiating conflicting interests between corporations and communities and between the executives and the rank-and-file within corporations. "Who is My Neighbor?" Variations on a Biblical Theme American social divisions have been of a kind more or less pronounced from one time or place to another. Although current urban social divisions along lines of race, ethnicity, income, and ideology are of crisis proportions in many contexts, the crises have not escalated to the red hot levels of the urban riots that broke out in many cities during the late-1960s, including in Detroit, Buffalo, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh (or even the much earlier 1877 riot in Pittsburgh connected to labor disputes). These "civil disorders" (as they are euphemistically referred to at times) represented breaking points in a fragile co-existence between various groups, where conflicting interests escalated into warring interests and community fragmentation hastened toward community dissolution.
The 1967 riot in Detroit was one of the deadliest and most destructive riots in U.S. history and in response President Lyndon Johnson appointed a commission to investigate the causes of the riots. Referred to as the Kerner Commission (after its chair, Governor Otto Kerner, Jr. of Illinois), the commission issued a report in 1968 that included the now often cited conclusion that "America is moving toward two societies—black and white, separate and unequal."8 Almost 50 years has passed since the commission issued its report, and its sobering conclusion remains relevant to our current context given the country's enormous economic disparities and the continued racial dimensions of that economic stratification. According to 2010 U.S. Census data, "20.5 million Americans, or 6.7 percent of the U.S. population, make up the poorest poor, defined as those at 50 percent or less of the official poverty level." Defined in actual income terms, people living in deep poverty had an income of $5,570 or less for an individual and $11,157 for a family of four. What is also noteworthy is that the percentage of persons living in deep poverty in the U.S. is higher than at any point in the 35 years that the Census Bureau has kept track of these figures. In addition, there continue to be troubling income and wealth disparities between whites and people of color. In 1963, black families earned 55 cents for every dollar earned by whites and only 66 cents for every dollar earned by whites in 2011. The wealth gap is far worse than the income gap, with blacks possessing 6 cents and Latinos 7 cents for every dollar possessed by whites. Meanwhile, a figure that communicates the stark wealth disparities more than these comparative racial figures is the share of income going to the top 10 percent of U.S. earners, which rose from 33 percent in 1950 to 43 percent in 2002 and to just over 50 percent in 2012.9 These kinds of resource disparities are clearly not in the best interest of urban community-building, national cohesion, or a democratic system of governance, and they certainly run counter to a Biblical ethic of loving our neighbors as ourselves. Yet these disparities are maintained and advanced through social policies, economic policies, and personal and collective practices that have received surprisingly little pushback from the American public—including the church sector. There are certainly democratic, pragmatic, humanitarian, and theo-ethical instincts within American social culture that would seem capable of producing a greater sense of outrage over the social injustice or illogic of these social imbalances and greater concern over their dire individual and social consequences. Within the contemporary American context, however, public outrage and concern too often has been less about our growing social imbalances than about our growing governmental budgetary imbalances, and less about what is happening to our neighbors than about who qualifies as 8 United States. Kerner Commission, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968). 9 Douglass Massey, Categorically Unequal: The American Stratification System, (New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 2007), 34-35; Annie Lowrey, "The Rich Get Richer Through the Recovery," Economix, (September 10, 2013).
our neighbor. As communications, media, and transportation technologies have made us more proximate to persons outside our homes, neighborhoods, cities, and country, our concepts of community have in some ways contracted rather than expanded; and as social inequities have multiplied, a growing number of Americans are contending governmental and corporate sectors should do less rather than more to address these inequities. What all of this suggests, perhaps, is that a sense of social obligation is in critically short supply within the American context. That is not to say that policies and approaches by the American governmental and corporate sectors in pursuit of collective well-being have not been socially generous in many respects. But the generosity in both instances has tended more toward charity and relief than toward empowerment. Americans with great individual wealth also have operated with a similar generosity in the form of charity rather than empowerment. The empowerment of socially less-advantaged populations is what is most needed, and what has been most desired by lessadvantaged populations themselves. For example, the pursuit of employmentrelated opportunity in the form of job security, job benefits, job advancement, institutional leadership and voice, job creation, personal entrepreneurialism and business development—these bear on empowerment, and much of this agenda has been at the heart of unionism (though not only unionism, and not always effectively within unionism). Nevertheless, the resistance to unionism cannot help but be seen as resistance to the empowerment of less-advantaged populations—unless corporations choose independently of unions to effectively implement power-sharing and resource-sharing measures that satisfy expressed empowerment concerns and needs of less-advantaged workers. Similarly, community empowerment concerns (both with respect to process, and economic and social prospects for the community) have animated activists who object to the community impact of corporations that push in or pull out of neighborhoods without properly consulting or showing consideration for local residents. The movement of corporations away from American cities into suburban or overseas contexts, and the devastating impact on the urban contexts and communities these corporations leave behind (as in the Detroit case ) has been a clear sore point in this regard. Also objected to has been the kind of corporate (and governmental) disregard for community costs of grand development schemes, as in the case of the mid-20th century maneuverings related to the Civic Center project in Pittsburgh or the contested impact WalMart's current entrance into Washington, D.C. will have on local labor relations and workforce culture. The extent to which the corporate sector has facilitated public input, approaches that advance and safeguard short-term and long-term community interests, or internal power-sharing and resource-sharing procedures across their workforce are matters that are subject to debate. Equally debatable may be
the extent to which collective attempts to reorient corporate practices (through unionism or otherwise) have operated at cross-purposes with economically rational outcomes for workers or for the geographical contexts they inhabit. Nevertheless, it is fairly evident that prevailing policies and practices on the part of the corporate and governmental sectors in response to the nation's crisislevel social imbalances have been inadequate and, any steps toward diminishing rather than broadening conceptions of mutual social obligation, inappropriate. Responses by church leaders to these social imbalances have also been inadequate, although there have been some trajectories of engagement that have demonstrated the strategic and unique role church leaders can play in response to these urgencies. Pope Francis and many Catholic bishops have taken especially strong and clear positions in recent months against poverty. In January 2014, the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops called on the U.S. Senate to take steps against inequality in America, including raising the federal minimum wage to livable levels. This call was echoed by Catholic bishops at state levels across the country who advocated that their state legislative bodies pass comparable state legislation. While Catholics have had a strong anti-poverty focus since at least Vatican II, that focus has become even more strongly stated since the 2013 election of Pope Francis, who has referred to poverty as a "scandal" and has openly criticized cultural orientations and social structures that perpetuate inequality, as he does in the following statement: "A way has to be found to enable everyone to benefit from the fruits of the earth, and not simply to close the gap between the affluent and those who must be satisfied with the crumbs falling from the table, but above all to satisfy the demands of justice, fairness and respect for every human being."10 Protestant leaders, especially through the National Council of Churches of Christ, USA and the World Council of Churches, have also waged systematic campaigns in recent years, challenging economic inequality and promoting livable wages. Important anti-poverty critiques emanating more centrally from within black church leadership circles have included community hearings convened in various cities by the Samuel DeWitt Proctor Conference (a network of social just-oriented church leaders) to examine the national response to poverty as reflected in the crisis endured by black residents left behind in New Orleans during and after Hurricane Katrina and as reflected in structural and policy components of black mass incarceration. These anti-poverty and anti-inequality campaigns waged at high levels of Catholic and Protestant leadership are certainly encouraging but, unfortunately, the views promoted at these levels are not widely-enough embraced among their church constituencies or within society more broadly. 10 Pope Francis, "Address to Participants in the 38th Conference of the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations," June 20, 2013, http:// w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2013/june/documents/papafrancesco_20130620_38-sessione-fao.html.
In fact, there is far more clash than consensus with respect to the frameworks of social philosophy and tradition out of which Americans form their understandings of community and social obligation. An influential book on American civil ideals written by political scientist, Rogers Smith, draws attention to what have been viewed historically as two competing civic outlooks within American socio-political culture: one that is more "individualistic and property oriented," and another that is more "democratic, public-spirited, and community-oriented." In this view, says Smith, conflicts occur "between those benefitting from . . . property rights, and majorities suffering from them." Smith actually takes issue with this historical rendering of American civic culture, and argues for a more complex integration and overlap between the two trajectories in which the two trajectories need not be mutually exclusive. The key, for Smith, is that either of the tracks, or combinations thereof, proceed from a sense of shared citizenship and peoplehood from which to respond to inequities (built into any social arrangement), but with a sense of cross-cutting interests and memberships (as opposed to more particularistic and compartmentalized constructs of community). At the heart of any such vision of citizenship and peoplehood, says Smith, must be a shared commitment to "protect and enhance all persons' capacities for personal and collective self-governance." 11 Applied to the very real conflicts seen in Detroit, Pittsburgh, and elsewhere between a free-wheeling corporate culture, on the one hand, and the communities being pushed and pulled by corporate decision-making and actions, on the other, Smith's argument would first reinforce the need to work to transcend "ascriptive mythologies" that compartmentalize group interests and particularities rather than build consensus across often complex and conflicting social positionings. Consensus, however, is very difficult across conflicts that are very real—and that is certainly the case in the deeply embedded conflicts of race, class, and social and physical geographies at stake in the demographic and economic reconfigurations of metro-Detroit and metro-Pittsburgh over the past century. It will certainly take more than a consensualizing narrative to bridge the structural divide between urban and suburban or between corporate executives, laborers, and local communities within these contexts. But what Smith pushes for is the ability to envision a shared stake— without which, actions toward structuring shared interests likely will not happen. For example, the likelihood of resource-sharing and problem-solving taking place across urban-suburban or neighborhood boundaries is less likely in metro contexts where all residents within such a context do not identify as a singular, connected "people" or where corporate commitments to a metro area are not sufficiently deep, wide, or enduring The momentum over the past few decades toward distinctive neighborhood or township demarcations, identities, 11 Rogers M. Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 8-9, 489.
and renaming does not contribute favorably to prospects of constructing or reinforcing metropolitan area identities—nor does corporate willingness to move assets and operations from one community context to another (including off-shore) without sufficient regard for the impact of such actions on the various communities in question. Whole communities cannot be seen as expendable, nor can individual sub-groups within those communities—such as low-income residents who are displaced by urban renewal agendas or low-wage workers whose needs for fair wages, benefits, and voice are resisted by the power structure. Capital and populations are mobile within free societies, and their movements may be driven by numerous factors related to reconfigurations of social landscapes and opportunities and shifts in economic markets and trends. Dynamic, competitive processes such as these will inevitably prove favorable for some communities and populations and unfavorable for others. But when a process is framed in a way that gives clear advantage to one side over another, it is more adversarial than competitive, and when resulting in the kinds of socioeconomic disparities and imbalances being witnessed within American society (and elsewhere), it is a process that is unacceptable and unsustainable. In the face of the rapid urbanization of the American population, disengagement in any form from urban and metropolitan community building solutions is not an option. Ultimately, more effective and creative approaches to the sharing of resources and opportunities across geographic and social boundaries must be advanced—through both corporate and governmental backing and leadership— and more robust conceptions of community and social obligation must be cultivated from all directions—including from within the church sector. In a 1964 sermon, Martin Luther King, Jr. placed before us a critical challenge facing that period, and ours. He stated: "We must learn to live together as brothers [and sisters] or perish together as fools."12
12 Martin Luther King, Jr., Sermon, Christ Church Cathedral, St. Louis, MO, March 22, 1964.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Darden, Joe T., et al. Detroit: Race and Uneven Development. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990. Jamieson, Dave. "Pittsburgh largest employer draws hundreds of protesters over 'poverty' wages," Huffington Post, March 3, 2014. King Jr., Martin Luther. Sermon: Christ Church Cathedral. St. Louis, MO, March 22, 1964. Lowrey, Annie. "The Rich Get Richer Through the Recovery," Economix, September 10, 2013.Belser, Ann. "Union sees national focus in UPMC organizing effort," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 9, 2014. Marsico, Alyssa. "10 clergy members arrested during UPMC protest," KDKA News, February 27, 2014. Massey, Douglass. Categorically Unequal: The American Stratification System, New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 2007. Niebuhr, Reinhold. Leaves from the Notebook of a Tamed Cynic, New York: Harper & Row, 1929/1980. Pope Francis, "Address to Participants in the 38th Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations," June 20, 2013, http:// w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2013/june/documents/papafrancesco_20130620_38-sessione-fao.html. Smith, Rogers M. Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. Zullo, R. and Balingit, M. "Hundreds protest UPMC over wages for service employees," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 3, 2014.
Garrett Yates Garrett Yates is a 2nd year Master of Divinity student at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary. When he grows up he wants to either make millions of dollars in the NBA or be ordained in the Episcopal Church. As of right now, he is leaning towards ordination.
Our (Friendly) Union with Christ: A Reformed Reappraisal How do divinity and humanity come together? For the Christian, especially in the Reformed vein, this has usually been understood to have happened in the person of Jesus Christ. This doctrine, far from being an antiquated relic of the tradition, is vitally useful and also, for present purposes, an altogether suggestive means to answer the questions and critiques administered by post-modern thought.
Our (Friendly) Union with Christ: A Reformed Reappraisal Introduction It has been suggested that the heart of the Scot's Confession, at least as Barth reads it, is the doctrine of the Vicarious Agency of Jesus Christ. Although Barth is often times implicit in his presentation, the doctrine underpins everything he is doing in his 1937-38 Gifford Lectures. The Vicarious Agency of Jesus Christ can be adequately summed up in the following two statements: "Let us return once more to God's revelation in Jesus Christ. It is man who meets God here and it is man whom God is with here."1 And: "What if the Son of God has taken our place that we might come to stand in His place? What if we might be permitted to become by grace what He is by nature? ... God sees us in His beloved Son - that is the joy of the good news."2 In other words, Jesus Christ acts vicariously on behalf of God and humanity. This meeting of humanity and divinity is held together in what the early Church referred to as the hypostatic nature of Jesus Christ. Central and altogether unprecedented about Christianity, and what Barth draws on so massively, is the claim that this meeting of humanity and divinity is not located in an abstract or speculative principle, but is knit and held together in the flesh of a person. In short, there is no God to be known that is not the God-for-us that we encounter in Jesus Christ. The doctrine of Vicarious Agency comes into sharpest focus in Barth's development of his doctrine of God's election.3 In maintaining that there is no God behind the back of Jesus Christ, Barth's doctrine of election receives a remarkably Christological flavoring: Jesus Christ, in the unity of his hypostasis, becomes both the curse and vindication of humanity. Thus, in the person of Jesus Christ, the "happy exchange" takes place: divinity and election are attributed to humanity, while sin and damnation are borne by divinity. And perhaps most important of all the Confession in the hands of Barth, suggests that there was no inner necessity, no "lurking natural theology,"4 to this event of salvation - God was captive to no external degree. Instead, to the question of cur deus homo?, one is left to confess the great Reformation doctrine of sola gratia,5 or in more Barthian language, the unbounded freedom of God's love. 1 Barth, Karl. The Knowledge of God and the Service of God (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1938), 40. 2 Ibid., 74 3 Purves, Andrew "The Christology of Vicarious Agency in the Scots Confession According to Karl Barth." in Evangelical Calvinism: Essays Resourcing thee Continuing Reformation of the Church, ed. by Myk Habets and Bobby Grow (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2012), 125 4 Ibid., 126 5 Ibid.
One of the implicit assumptions in the above discussion of the Vicarious Agency of Jesus Christ is that of the two - justification and sanctification - the emphasis is very much on justification. The Scot's Confession, much like its other confessional siblings birthed in the Reformation, wants to draw a marked distinction between justification and sanctification, giving sustained and concentrated thought to the former. So though we cannot suggest it absolutely, one is able to surmise that justification is the question to which the doctrine of Vicarious Agency is the answer. And though the Scot's Confession develops no "independent doctrine of human sin"6 that is allowed a life of its own apart from a doctrine of Jesus Christ, the two nevertheless go hand in hand. In what follows, I wish to engage with this particular theme by giving attention to three inter-related issues: first will be the post-modern critique on Barth's theology and the corresponding problem of "otherness;" secondly will be a reconstruction of a Reformed response to the post-modern critique by looking at Calvin's doctrine of the believers' union with Christ; third I will venture to supplement the second section by offering a modest recommendation for a fuller response to the post-modern critique. I. The critique on Barth has received no shortage of eloquent and abled spokespersons, and I suppose that rehashing the scope and nature of the critique might serve as useful way of setting the stage for my "reformed reappraisal." So to the critique: in some ways the issue, along with just about every issue in the post-modern discussion, is one of violence. Ever since Emmanuel Levinas's devastating critique on Heidegger, there has been an aversion within the postmodern milieu of anything with so much as a footprint of a "totalizing" system. Underlying this totalizing system is ultimately what someone like Sarah Coakley suspects to be an "imperialistic impulse"7 that seeks to dominate, control and master one's subject of study; or in Levinasian terms, seeks to preclude and silence the other. The totalizing system's climactic expression is something no less horrendous than the Nazi state; that place where the "other" that was not assimilated into the whole was violently cast out. Of course not every totalizing system has to end in the extreme horrors of the Holocaust, but the fear is there nevertheless. And though we might not be dealing with physical genocides, theologians such as Kevin Hector in his Theology Without Metaphysics, notes the unavoidable violence of conceptual, discursive language - especially in regards to God - by suggesting that all language, to one degree or another, attempts to control the immediacy of phenomenal life.8 "Away with systematics," we overhear such theologians saying, "in with theo-poetics!" 6 Ibid., 121 7 Coakley, Sarah, God, Sexuality, and the Self: An Essay 'on the Trinity' (Cambridge: CUP, 2013), 84. 8 Hector, Kevin. Theology without Metaphysics: God, Language, and the Spirit of Recognition. (New York: Cambridge UP, 2011), 3ff.
So there we have, however inchoately, the post-modern critique. And yet, it still remains to be suggested where the aforementioned touches down with Barth. We need look no further than various modern articulations as laid out in the work of Gregory Walter and John Milbank, both of whom are critiquing Barth - albeit obliquely - by means of anthropological gift language. Walter's critique is laid out quite succinctly about half-way through his very challenging book, Being Promised: Theology, Gift, and Practice.9 A parenthetical word about Walter's title might help to set the stage: one notes that the title is a present participle denoting an on-going action in the past, and yet still holds future consequence (the imperfect tense). This movement/motion that the title captures is in direct tension with a more metaphysically toned title, such as Barth's The Knowledge of God and the Service of God. Walter's title wants to move away from anything that might be static and devoid of motion. He, much like another very prominent contemporary thinker – Caputo, wishes to conceive of God more as an event than as a being.10 It is important to note that Walter is not construing Barth's theology so as to suggest that Barth conceived of God as an Aristotelian ens; what he is critiquing, however, is that Barth conceives of the world rather statically, as something like an inert object of God's eventfulness. According to Walter, as long as the world is an object of God's love, chances are good that this love must act in a violent or coercive manner to achieve its own ends. Or in his "gift" language: "The gift that has no relationship to reciprocity or what is already given cannot interact with what comes before the gift, the field into which the gift is given, in any other way than to erase it, to trump it, to completely overcome and end that economy…The gift that does not interact critically to transform that which is given in creation, the field of existence, leaves the 'unassumed the unhealed.'"11 To sum up Walter's point, one can say that a gift that is "unilateralist" - and not in need of reciprocity – disregards the integrity of the "other," thus committing an act of violence to it. Is that Barth's position? Is that what Reformed theology, at its heart, is forced to maintain? I would like to think not, but before answering the post-modern critique, it would be helpful to look at John Milbank's own work on the "gift" and "reciprocity." John Milbank's seminal work on the "gift" is no better set forth than in his 1995 article, "Can a Gift Be Given? Prologomena to a Future Trinitarian Metaphysic."12 Milbank's critique of the Reformed tradition, although never explicitly surfacing in his writings, runs subterranean through all of his writings
9 Walter, Gregory. Being Promised: Theology, Gift, and Practice. (Minneapolis: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2013). 10 Caputo, John D. The Weakness of God: A Theology of the Event. (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2006) 23-40. 11 Walter, 39-40 12 Milbank, John. "Can A Gift Be Given? Prolegomena To A Future Trinitarian Metaphysic." Modern Theology 11.1 (1995): 119-61.
on the gift.13 Perhaps his issue with Reformed theology comes into clearest focus in his critique of Jean-Luc Marion's notion of donation. Milbank charges Marion of maintaining an unbridgeable "distance" between Creator and created that can only be crossed by the former. In fact, how the Creator crosses this distance is virtually irrelevant, and so too is the actual content of the gift. Instead, Milbank argues, it is only the gesture of generosity that is important for the Giver;14 the kindness and willingness to give that reveals the enormous benevolence of God. But, insofar as reciprocity and relationship is concerned, Milbank suggests that Marion is woefully neglectful.15 If we draw together what Milbank has said of Marion, what might be explicitly said about his unease with Reformed theology? To name it as simply and starkly as possible, Milbank is (albeit through his critique of Marion) suggesting that the God of Reformed theology is indifferent to relationship, and is rather inordinately concerned with a posture of generosity which will thereby secure God's glory. In short, it is putting forth a benevolent, powerful, well-meaning deity, but one that is nevertheless self-sufficient and preoccupied with glory and status. Perhaps this is a harsh re-statement of Milbank's position, but it does in fact seem to be where he is pushing. One final summary point about Walters and Milbank bears mentioning: it appears that what is underlying both of their critiques of Reformed theology is can really be chalked up to taking issue with its tumultuous rendering of the relationship between nature and grace.16 Again, the language that both assume is at issue is the ontological distance that exists between Creator and created. If there is an unbridgeable gulf, is a violent relationship between the two inevitable? And, how must we conceive of God's otherness? Is it an ontological otherness? And further, where this is all headed: what might all this mean for the believers' union with Christ? II. J. Todd Billings has made some considerable headway in responding to Milbank's critique of Reformed Theology. And even more germane to our discussion is that he turns to Calvin's doctrine of the believers union with Christ to tease out his theological reply. So why "union with Christ," why does he go there? For the Reformed tradition, and what Barth wants to suggest in his Gifford Lectures, is that there is nothing whatsoever that exists outside of relationship with Jesus; the entire cosmos is created, redeemed in the person of Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ is the locus, event, and condition of the world's creation and possibility. And therefore, if we want to talk about humanity and its "ability" to enter into relationship with God, we must talk about Jesus Christ. He 13 Billings, Todd. "John Milbank's Theology of the "Gift" and Calvin's Theology of Grace: A Critical Comparison." Modern Theology 21.1 (2005): 88-105. 14 Milbank, 134 15 Ibid., 136-7 16 Walter admits such on 39-40
is the consummation of humanity, the first born from the dead, the aim and goal of creation. Billings seeks to show how the believer's union with Christ does not negate reciprocity, that is, it does not objectify the individual so as to do violence to the other. Yes, he notes, in Calvin the accent is on justification, however, that is only half of the story. Calvin maintains a doctrine of duplex gratia wherein both justification and sanctification are held together in the person of Christ.17 The individual is not left in an infantile dependency upon Jesus Christ, but is instead engrafted in and made a participant in the triune life of God. Again, Billings suggests that Calvin does not do violence to the individual by turning him into a pure passive receiver of grace, as Milbank is prone to think, but rather Billings' reading of Calvin pushes towards a theology of grace that we could talk about as an "activating reception."18Grace awakens, or in traditional parlance – regenerates, the believer that he or she might lead a life of "piety and love through the Spirit."19 One final point from Billings' article before moving on to one of his more recent publications: Billings notes that Milbank is operating within a dichotomy that would be altogether foreign to Calvin. In Billings' estimation, and I think he is dead on here, Milbank is operating within a (modernist?) dichotomy of unilateral and bilateral giving.20 Calvin never knew of such a distinction. Instead for Calvin, both unilateral and bilaterial forms of giving - that is, justification and sanctification - are both held together in the person of Jesus Christ. There is no talk of agency that can be abstracted from him (how could there be?); for St. Paul tells us that it is in Christ that we live and move and derive our being. The question is not, how do we retain our agency in relationship with Jesus?; rather, something headed in a more constructive direction might ask, what kind of agency do I have in my relationship with Christ?. Billings writes, "In Calvin, identities are not 'fixed' in such a way that sharing in another makes us less like ourselves. Rather, it is by living in the Spirit, by participating in Christ, by becoming 'one substance' in Christ that we find our full identity as creatures."21 Billings concludes this great section of his article by referring to the believer's union with Christ as a "differentiated union."22 What I take it that he is suggesting here is that in this Christ-relationship, the believers' identity is not subsumed into Jesus's, but is rather preserved in a differentiated fashion. Thus, just as in the perichoretic relations of Father, Son, and Spirit, the identity of each (hypostasis) is maintained, so too, in the believers union with Christ the believer's identity is never lost. But to reiterate Billings' point raised above, 17 Billings, "John Milbank's Theology of the "Gift" and Calvin's Theology of Grace: A Critical Comparison." 90. 18 Ibid., 91 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid., 92 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid.
the perichoretic nature of our union with Christ does indeed suggest that the "walls" of our identities are porous and amenable to the giving and taking of communication with Jesus Christ. Thus, to conclude this section of Billings' article, we find ourselves agreeing with Paul's great statement in Galatians 2:20: "I have been crucified with Christ and I no longer live, but Christ lives in me;" while all the while able to say that yes, it is me, a true "I," that wills such. As we have seen from Billings, the Reformed tradition is not totally undercut by Milbank's critique, and rather represents a cogent position in light of Calvin's doctrine of the duplex gratia of the believer's union with Christ. And yet, Billing's own articulation of union with Christ stands in need of a constructive assessment if this doctrine is to not only "survive,» but also make a positive contribution to the Church. In his book, Union With Christ, Billings develops some of the seminal thoughts of the previously discussed article. Much of what he does in Union with Christ is framed against the backdrop of what he refers to as Moralistic Therapeutic Deism (MTD). MTD, he avers, is the default religion of North America. Although he thoroughly nuances what he means by MTD, it could come down to a watered down grasp of sin, and an all but neglected understanding of God's holiness.23 MTD, instead, favors a religion where the autonomous self is at the helm of one's own destiny, choosing its own preferred modes and varieties of religious experience. The believer's union with Christ is thus mapped onto this landscape and bid to provide an alternative to such a perspective. Although the disagreement that is to follow may seem subtle, it may suggest a more substantial answer to the post-modern critique raised above. The problem with the way Billings has answered the post-modern critique is that, well, he has not provided a robust enough answer. That is to say, he sets forth his doctrine of the believer's union with Christ against the backdrop of a Reformed doctrine of total depravity, and thus, he proceeds to utilize the doctrine to answer a profoundly forensic question: how does the sinner become right with God? So yes, MTD is lacking in humanity's sinfulness and God's holiness, but it appears that Billings has over accented these features of his own theology to make up for this lack. Perhaps this is nowhere more pronounced than in his treatment of Calvin's use of the Aristotelian categories of "accidence" and "substance."24 Billings interprets Calvin to say that the substance of human nature is good because of its fundamental participation in God, while it is the accidental features of humanity that are targeted in the redemption of Christ. Given such a distinction, Billings is able to read Calvin to say that in our redemption there is no fundamental breach of identity; instead, our nature (substance) is "restored" to its originally blessed created state by dint of the reconstruction of our accidental/sinful features. Thus, there is a radical "continuity between creation 23 Billings, J. Todd. Union with Christ: Reframing Theology and Ministry for the Church (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2011), 22. 24 Ibid., 44
and redemption, and God's grace restores creation rather than replacing it."25 On the surface it appears that the post-modern critique has been answered; Calvin is successfully read so as not to do any violence to the human other. However, above, in Walter's critique, it was noted that the post-modern "problem" was one between grace and nature, not between grace and the accidental features of nature. And thus, it must be considered if we can indeed say more about the believer's union with Christ. In other words, and where the following wants to push, is to talk about union with Christ in an entirely non-forensic way. III. To lay my cards on the table from the outset, the following wants to suggest that the doctrine of the believer's union with Christ must be taken as addressing humanity's "substance" or nature. In other words, union with Christ is not primarily a forensic course of action on God's part in order that God might perceive the otherwise fallen human in a positive light. Of course it is that, but it too must be affirmed that our union with Christ was a part of God's plan for humanity all along. How might the following be suggested? The fundamental difference, it has been maintained, between God and humanity is not one attributable to mankind's sinfulness so much as their createdness. This point is much more recognizable in Eastern theology, but has emerged quite prominently in North America in the theology of such as Kathryn Tanner. In what follows this shift in focus - that is away from "accidence" towards substance, away from sin and more towards finitude and createdness - will be drawn upon as a way to answer (however tentatively) the post-modern critique. First, so much of the difficulty in the above discussion of agency and otherness could be sorted out if the ontological otherness between Uncreated and created were held intact; that is to say, one must constantly hold to the traditional metaphysical claim that God is not an agent alongside other agents in the universe. God is other. And thus, God's will and God's agency are not in rivalry with God's creation. God does not have to worry about getting what God wants, nor does God fulfilling God's own desires come at the cost of another's wishes. God's agency is what Tanner has referred to as fundamentally "non-competitive."26 Competition is the condition of created agents, but not for the Uncreated. It seems that much of Milbank's language of reciprocity and passive agency could be avoided if this distinction were held onto more firmly. In other words, this either/or dichotomy raised by Milbank need not be the case. As Denys Turner as helpfully pointed out in his recent book on St. Thomas, questions concerning human agency and divine agency ought not to be collapsed into an either/or, but rather must be held in a both/and relationship: God is the
25 Ibid., 45 26 Tanner, Kathryn. Jesus, Humanity and the Trinity: A Brief Systematic Theology (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2001), 3.
cause, and humans are entirely free.27 This total cooperation between the divine and human will leads Turner to think of humanity's relationship with God as one between amiable friends.28 To apply Tanner's and Turner's helpful distinction to our doctrine of Union with Christ, we are in a position to say that humanity, in their union with Christ, is not joined to a will that is limited in time and space - and thus a will that is most definitely not in rivalry with their own; Jesus is at the "right hand of the Father:" he actively participates in the Uncreated, non-competitive being of God. All of this is to say that humanity is united to a friend – a friend who is both intimate and radically other. One is reminded of Jesus's words to his disciples in John's gospel: "I do not call you servants any longer, because the servant does not know what the master is doing; but I have called you friends, because I have made known to you everything that I have heard from my Father" (15:15). All of the riches of the Father have been opened up to humanity in and through the Son. New horizons of intimacy are made possible in our friendship with him. So much so that something like a "single will" begins to take shape within this relationship.29 The distinction between friends becomes less and less clear as their deep affection and joy over each other grows. And at this point, we find ourselves beyond the questions of agency because all that exists is sheer delight in the mutual friendship one has with Christ. On to the second point. Our created, finite nature stands in need of being united to Jesus Christ. As Tanner has so astutely developed in her systematic Christology - Christ the Key - humanity was made to participate in the triune life of God; and whereas humanity, by dint of their creation was endowed with this capacity originally, this participation was only to be achieved by humanity's own will - by choosing to draw on the power of the Spirit.30 Looking to Athanasius Tanner writes, "We can be knit into the Word as never before in virtue of the fact that the Word has made our humanity its own in the incarnation. The Word now has us in a new way and that means we can have the Word too in a new way..."31 By healing our nature in the incarnation, the Word has addressed our sinfulness in the process.32 But again, it was not merely our sinfulness that needed Christ; it was our createdness as well. Indeed, we were created for union with Him, and only by participating in the hypostasis of the Son can created matter come to be partakers of the divine nature itself. Tanner finds herself in the great Reformed tradition here: Charles Partee, commenting on Calvin, writes, "[He] believes the distance between the Creator and the creature is so great, a Mediator was always
27 28 29 30 31 32
Turner, Denys. Thomas Aquinas: A Portrait (New Haven: Yale UP, 2013), 159. Ibid., 160 Ibid. Tanner, Kathryn. Christ the Key (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2010), 36. Ibid. Ibid., 76
necessary to draw humankind near to God."33 According to Partee's reading of Calvin, it was not as if the Creator looked down the corridors of time to determine if humanity would need a Mediator to address its sinful condition; no, the Mediation of Christ was knit into the very fabric of material nature. It must be added that what has just been discussed has no intentions of getting into the Protestant/Catholic debate over human nature vs. sinfulness and what happened at and after the "fall." Again, Tanner is quite helpful here to suggest that what happened at the fall did not result in a blemish to our nature but rather affected the "status of divine power within us" and the modes in which our drawing upon it were hindered.34 The problem with the fall, which if we were pressed to say was also the "problem" at creation, was that the human was left to make a choice to receive the divine life through faith, love, and obedience. And thus, humanity stood in need of the Incarnation, stood in need of being held in the divine friendship apart from its own volition – for only then could full humanity be realized. To to sum up the inner logic of the divine descent, we might suggest the following: when humanity's will was flagging and losing interest in God, God's will and interest in humanity became all the more steadfast, so much so that God came to humanity to claim them, irrevocably, as friends God in Jesus Christ has not just reconstructed our nature, nor has God returned it to its pre-lapsed state; rather, God has affirmed it, and has invited it to be transformed in union with Jesus Christ. Humanity has been invited to participate in the hypostasis of the Son: the eternal begotten of the Father whose humanity and divinity are inseparably united in the power of the Spirit. As the above has suggested, to ask if there is any "violence" done in this unity between divinity and humanity through the Son in the power of the Spirit is to ask the wrong question. God is not an agent like other agents in the universe; God is fundamentally other, and, we might add, is friendly beyond all belief.
33 Partee, Charles. The Theology of John Calvin. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2008), 148. 34 Tanner – Christ the Key, 67
BIBLIOGRAPHY Barth, Karl. The Knowledge of God and the Service of God. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1938. Billings, J. Todd. Union with Christ: Reframing Theology and Ministry for the Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2011. Billings, Todd. "John Milbank's Theology of the "Gift" and Calvin's Theology of Grace: A Critical Comparison." Modern Theology 21.1 (2005): 88-105. Caputo, John D. The Weakness of God: A Theology of the Event. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2006. Coakley, Sarah. God, Sexuality, and the Self: An Essay 'on the Trinity' Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2013. Habets, Myk, and Bobby Grow. Evangelical Calvinism: Essays Resourcing the Continuing Reformation of the Church. Eugene, Or.: Pickwick Publications, 2012. Hector, Kevin. Theology without Metaphysics: God, Language, and the Spirit of Recognition. New York: Cambridge UP, 2011. Milbank, John. "Can A Gift Be Given? Prolegomena To A Future Trinitarian Metaphysic." Modern Theology 11.1 (1995): 119-61. Partee, Charles. The Theology of John Calvin. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2008. Tanner, Kathryn. Christ the Key. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2010. Tanner, Kathryn. Jesus, Humanity and the Trinity: A Brief Systematic Theology. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2001. Turner, Denys. Thomas Aquinas: A Portrait. New Haven: Yale UP, 2013. Walter, Gregory. Being Promised: Theology, Gift, and Practice. Minneapolis: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2013.
Matthew Jones Matthew Jones is a graduating senior of Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, class of 2014, Masters of Divinity, and is currently located in Grove City, PA.
The Reasonable Trinitarian Mind: Unpacking Reason and Revelation within T.F. Torrance's Epistemology From where do we get our knowledge of God? T.F. Torrance makes the unequivocal claim that all of our knowledge of God has to come from God. All of our knowledge of God has to come from divine revelation. The upshot of this claim appears to negate any epistemological use for human reason. In my paper, I argue that this is a direction in which Torrance does not want to go. Torrance's epistemology has a special place for human reason. The special place for human reason is under the authority and direction of divine revelation. Reason is ruled by revelation.
The Reasonable Trinitarian Mind Unpacking Reason and Revelation within T.F. Torrance's Epistemology From where do we get our knowledge of anything, be it physics, or literature, or baseball? Most would claim that knowledge comes from some combination of experience and reason. But when the question changes from knowledge of ordinary things to knowledge of God, experience and reason do not seem like enough. From where do we get our knowledge of God? It cannot be just from experience or reason, because a god that could be grasped through experience and human reason alone does not seem like very much of a god to begin with. Posing this question to T.F. Torrance, the answer is clear: we get our knowledge of God from God Himself, through divine revelation. Yet, in saying this, Torrance is careful not to do away completely with human experience and reason. Instead, Torrance develops a theological epistemology in which human reason and experience are bound and governed by God through His divine revelation. Seeing this relationship between divine revelation and human reason, though, is not easy, due to the fact that Torrance unequivocally asserts that all our knowledge of God has to come through divine revelation. He writes in The Christian Doctrine of God, "God being God, all our knowledge of him comes by divine revelation, for it is impossible for us to know God without his willing to be known."1 In The Trinitarian Faith, Torrance says that it is only "on the ground of what God has actually revealed of his own nature in him as his only begotten Son that everything else to be known of God and his relation to the world and human beings is to be understood."2 Making these types of statements, it is hard to see any room for human reason. That being said, Torrance has to be theologically and epistemically committed to this position. This is because, for Torrance, "Concepts and statements…do not have their truth in themselves but in the realities to which they refer."3 Therefore, the truth about all of our concepts and statements about God have to rest in God (the reality to which they refer). If the truth of these kinds of statements rest in God, how can we as mere humans possibly hope to say them on our own? If we tried, we would either find a God that is so beyond human comprehension that a vast list of superlatives cannot come close to 1 Thomas F. Torrance, The Christian Doctrine of God: One Being Three Persons (New York: T & T Clark, 2001), 13. 2 Thomas F. Torrance, The Trinitarian Faith: the evangelical theology of the ancient Catholic Church, (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1993), 3. 3 Torrance, The Christian Doctrine of God, 73.
capturing who God is, or we would find that God is not much of a god because we could completely grasp His truth on our own. From this, it is no wonder that Torrance is committed to saying that all of our knowledge of God has to come from His divine revelation. But such statements seem to leave no epistemic space for human reason. Revelation and reason seem to be set at odds with one another. It does not help that Western culture seems to reinforce this idea that revelation and reason are always opposed, or at least that faith and reason are always opposed, and that there should be a definitive wall of separation in between them. This even derives from within the church! In the early church, Torrance recounts that Origen's "philosophical presuppositions which were not sufficiently subjected to criticism in the face of his commitment to biblical revelation, [therefore] Origen's speculative mind transgressed the rule of piety at a number of crucial points which brought his teaching into conflict with the mind of the Catholic Church."4 While Torrance is clearly pointing out Origen's philosophical presuppositions and biblical revelation were, at their root, incongruous, many people only see that the church considered Origen's philosophy bad, because reason and revelation need to remain separate. Add to this Kant's division between the noumenal and phenomenal realms, and outspoken thinkers like Richard Dawkins publishing books such as The God Delusion, and it seems only natural to think that human reason and divine revelation are and will always be at odds with one another. Yet the divide between divine revelation and human reason cannot be so large. After all, the very theological foundation of the Nicene Creed is the trinity, but the doctrine of the trinity is not explicitly worked out in scripture, and had to be developed by the theologians of that time. These theologians used their human reason to accomplish this task. Despite the fact that Origen and his theology eventually came into conflict with the Catholic Church, "Nevertheless, Origen's combination of scientific investigation of the objective grounds of faith and his insistent deference...in the knowledge of the Holy Trinity had an immense impact upon the Nicene and post-Nicene theologians."5 Part of this impact was that "the Church found it had to transform the very foundations of Graeco-Roman thought, and in so doing it laid the basis for a very different approach to the created universe and eventually for an empirical scientific account of its inherent rational order."6 This task called for "strenuous intellectual activity in the Church during the first six centuries, which has left a permanent mark upon western civilization."7 It is clear that the trinity was developed through the early church fathers' collective human reason. Therefore, there has to be some sort of dynamic relationship between revelation and reason. 4 Torrance, Trinitarian Faith, 41. 5 Ibid. 41. 6 Ibid. 48. 7 Ibid. 28.
The question becomes, within Torrance's theology, how should this relationship between divine revelation and human reason be described? To formulate this description, though, both human reason and divine revelation need to be dealt with on their own, as far as it is possible. In order to see how reason and revelation work with each other, one first needs to see how they will function on their own apart from one another. To handle the problem of human reason in a way apart from revelation, Torrance develops a scientific epistemology. This scientific epistemology is a stratified structure of knowledge built off of the process by which Torrance argues that humans gain scientific knowledge. Torrance argues that "the stratified structure of scientific knowledge usually comprises three levels of thought coordinated with one another."8 The process starts with our everyday experiences and intuitions, then moves to our connecting these intuitions into scientific theories, and then moves to connecting and unifying the scientific theories as best we can. Torrance stops at three levels of knowledge not because there cannot be more, but because three levels are usually all that are needed within human experience. He writes, "Theoretically this process of raising our thought from one level to a higher level is indefinite: it goes on until we reach a level where we can operate with a set of ultimate concepts and relations as few as possible, but with the greatest conceivable unity."9 Usually, though, three levels are enough "to enable us to reach a unified conceptual grasp of the reality in the field of our investigation."10 The first level of knowledge in Torrance's scientific epistemology is our everyday experiences and intuitions. It is noteworthy that Torrance's scientific epistemology does not start with human reason. Instead, Torrance argues that in this first step, "our experiences and cognitions are naturally and inseparably combined together."11 These experiences and cognitions are combined together intuitively and instantly. He writes: "the intuitive mind takes in its first principles at once as a whole, not through analytical and deductive processes of thought, but naturally and tacitly."12 For Torrance, scientific knowledge does not start with reason; rather, it starts with experience and intuition. Taking our experiences and intuitions and drawing logical connections in between them is the second step within Torrance's epistemology. It is here that human reason finally has a part in the process of gaining knowledge. He writes, "we seek to order the basic concepts in our understanding of the real world by connecting them together into an explanatory theory."13 We use our reason to develop this explanatory theory "to enable us to penetrate into the intelligible 8 Torrance, The Christian Doctrine of God, 84. 9 Ibid. 84. 10 Ibid. 84. 11 Ibid. 84. 12 Ibid. 84. 13 Ibid. 84.
connections latent in reality that ground and control our basic experiences and cognitions, and illuminate them for us."14 As we continue to draw these reasonable connections between our different experiences and cognitions, we begin to also draw connections between our differing explanatory theories. In this third step of the process for gaining knowledge, Torrance says that "we seek to deepen and simplify the organization of basic concepts and relations developed at the scientific [the second] level."15 In this step, we continually test these grand overarching theories against our experience. As they relate to our experiences for better or for worse, we continually make sure the theories are "clarified, revised, and simplified accordingly."16 It is at this stage of further testing and revising that we either stop or continue to repeat. It is important to note that within Torrance's scientific epistemology itself, standing apart from any burden of divine revelation, human reason is used as an instrument or vehicle to gain deeper and deeper knowledge, but it is not the foundation of scientific knowledge. Instead, human experience and intuitive cognitions lay the foundation that reason then takes and builds upon. In this way, human reason and divine revelation cannot be at odds over which is to be used as the foundation for knowledge, because human reason was never the foundation of knowledge anyway. This weakens the wall of separation standing between human revelation and divine experience. Divine revelation on its own apart from human reason's stratified structure is much harder to formulate or codify. This is because at the heart of divine revelation is a mystery which we cannot grasp or explain. The mystery, according to Torrance, is this: "God reveals himself to us in such a way as still to be veiled from us in the infinite depths of his ultimate Being, for he does not surrender his transcendence or sovereign freedom but remains the absolute Lord of what he reveals and of our knowing him."17 In other words, divine revelation remains and has to remain a mystery because, in a way, God limits how much He reveals of Himself. It is as if "God reveals himself to us only under the cover of his hand, and only in such a way that we are unable to get behind the back of his revelation to see him face to face in his unveiled glory."18 The mystery of revelation has to be here because God is both the active subject and the object of revelation. This is because revelation, for Torrance, is not a sharing of information about a subject (God revealing information about God), but a giving of one's self. Therefore, divine revelation coming from God "is not the revealing of something about God, but God revealing himself out of 14 15 16 17 18
Ibid. 84. Ibid. 85. Ibid. 85. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 81.
himself in such a way that he who reveals and he who is revealed are one and the same."19 God, the active subject, is the one revealing Himself as the object of revelation. Therefore it should come as no surprise that there will be mystery to the revelation which we, as human, cannot penetrate. The mystery of divine revelation, though, should not be thought of as God arbitrarily setting up boundaries to our knowledge of Him. In the revelation of the incarnation, God did not give us partial and incomplete knowledge of Himself, but instead in Jesus Christ, "the only begotten Son of God become incarnate for us and our salvation…God has once for all communicated his very Self to us."20 God's full self was communicated in Christ. God did not limit His revelation to us in such as way as to keep parts of Himself hidden, but fully revealed Himself in Christ. Instead, Torrance argues, the limitation, the mystery, comes from the fact that "what we may know of [God] through Christ and in the Spirit we cannot master and capture within the brackets of our explicit theological constructs."21 God's divine revelation to us is a mystery because the revelation of God's very self is so vast and great that it explodes our theological concepts and understandings. Put another way, God's revelation to us has two elements: that which we can articulate, and that which we cannot articulate. Torrance writes that "in our knowing God in his self-revelation it is the inarticulate or unspecifiable element that governs what is articulated and specified."22 The inarticulate has to govern the articulate elements because in the revelation of God in Jesus Christ, "we know of him more than we can ever tell."23 It is because we know more of Him than we can ever tell that divine revelation has to be thought of as mystery. The beginnings of how revelation and reason are woven together for Torrance can be seen here. Within revelation itself, the inarticulate governs the articulate. So, within Torrance's theological epistemology, the divine selfrevelation of God is what governs the entire process. Revelation rules reason. This has to be the case because, for Torrance, "concepts and statements…do not have their truth in themselves but in the realities to which they refer."24 In theology, the concepts and statements are referring to God; therefore they only have their truth in God. But God can only be known through divine revelation, because "it is impossible for us to know God without his willing to be known."25 Yet within revelation's ruling of reason, reason still has a place and a function. In fact, Torrance's theological epistemology looks and feels very much like his scientific epistemology in that there is a stratified structure and process for how we gain knowledge. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 73. Ibid. 13.
Torrance cautions us, though, from carrying the similarities between his scientific and theological epistemologies too far: "In theology we are up against the sheer Mystery and Majesty of the living God and his unbeginning uncreated Word, and are summoned to respond to him in a way quite foreign to anything found in natural science."26 Being up against the Mystery and Majesty of the living God "radically affects the way in which we have to think of the different levels and interrelations between them that arise in doctrinal formulation."27 Unlike scientific exploration and examination of the natural world, in theology "God interacts personally and intelligibly with us… [Therefore] there is a two way relation between the different levels that obtain in theoretical knowledge."28 Where in science we pass from one epistemic level to the next through logic and reason, in theology we pass "from one level to another…through a movement of personal response and commitment in worship, obedience and love."29 Despite the radical differences between the scientific and theological epistemologies of Torrance, there is still much overlap between them. The structure for both is basically the same. There are three levels of knowledge: the intuitive cognitions and experiences, the logical connecting of these experiences, and the logical connecting of the previous logical connections. Just as in science, this process of revising and reformulating the overarching theories connecting all the previous concepts as they are tested against real world experience could go on forever in theology. But also just as in science, in practical experience, three levels of knowledge are usually enough. The first level of Torrance's theological epistemology is the "level… of incipient theology."30 In the scientific epistemology, the first level is one's intuitively and tacitly connected experiences and cognitions. It is very similar here; at this first level, Torrance says that "our minds apprehend this evangelical trinity intuitively, and as a whole, without engaging in analytical or logical process of thought."31 We arrive at this intuition through religious experience and worship. Different from scientific experiences though, which much of the time occur privately, religious experience and worship "takes places, not just privately, but within the context of the daily life and activity of the Church."32 Worship is so central here because our revelation or "personal encounter with Jesus Christ within the structures of our historical existence in space and time"33 calls us to respond through worship and obedience. Thus, this level is ruled and bound by divine revelation. We experience Christ, who calls us to worship, 26 Ibid. 87. 27 Ibid. 87. 28 Ibid. 88. 29 Ibid. 88. 30 Ibid. 89. 31 Ibid. 89. 32 Ibid. 88. 33 Ibid. 88.
in which we then repeatedly experience Christ, and in so doing we intuitively apprehend the trinity. The second level, for Torrance, is "the theological level."34 This second level, within the scientific epistemology, is one in which the intuitions, cognitions, and experiences are all reasonably connected into explanatory theories. For theology, Torrance says that at this level we form "appropriate intellectual instruments with which to lay bare the underlying epistemological patterns of thought, and by tracing the chains of connection throughout the coherent body of theological truths, [we] feel [our] way forward to a deeper and more precise knowledge of what God has revealed of himself."35 In so doing, the intuitive understanding of God's revelation as trinity, "is given explicit formulation as the doctrine of the Holy trinity that underlies and gives coherent structure to all Christian dogmatics."36 Human reason plays an important role in this step of the process. Reason is what works out the "intelligible interconnections so that they might be organized into a form to be used as a conceptual instrument enabling us to get a more accurate grasp of the ontological structure underlying the Gospel message of salvation and its teaching about God."37 But reason is still ruled by revelation, in that reason is not allowed to "take off in a speculative movement of thought that leaves behind the primary level of evangelical and doxological experience."38 Still, both divine revelation and human reason are at play in this step, as human reason is allowed to work within the bounds set by God's divine revelation. The third level of Torrance's theological epistemology is, what he calls, "the third or higher theological level."39 Within the scientific epistemology, the third level is one in which one combined, connected, and refined the explanatory theories of the second level, in a process of continually testing these new overarching explanatory theories against the experience of reality. In the scientific epistemology, the third level could possibly be seen as an in-depth repeat of the second level. Yet within Torrance's theological epistemology, there is a stronger difference. In the second level we combined cognitions and intuitions to give formulation to the trinity, but only getting as far as economic Trinitarian relations. In the third theological level, we move "from a level of economic relations, in all that God is toward us…to the level in which we discern the trinitarian relations immanent to God himself."40 In doing this we try to "cut away any mythological projection of ideas of our own devising into God."41 This third level asks, 'Who is God?' rather than just 'Who is God for me?' 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
Ibid. 91. Ibid. 91. Ibid. 92. Ibid. 93. Ibid. 98. Ibid. 98. Ibid. 99. Ibid. 99.
Therefore, the relationship between revelation and reason in this step is much more complicated than the previous step. While human reason is bound in the previous theological step by the previous experiences of God's revelation, the logical connections between intuitions were based mostly on the human side of the experience. Whereas in the higher theological step, revelation is needed to move the question from "who is God for me?" to "who is God?" With no divine revelation, we have no insight into who God is in and of Himself. This is why Torrance argues, "It is in and through [the] Word that we have cognitive access to God and may have real knowledge of him in himself, for the Word precisely as Word as well as Son belongs to the innermost Being of God."42 The revelation of God does not just give human reason the starting experience, revelation gives the upper-level inside information that makes it possible for human reason to move forward. Throughout the entirety of Torrance's theological epistemology, reason is bound and ruled by revelation. Revelation from God provides the personal experiences with God which compels worship (which in turn, provides more personal experiences with God, and so on) and starts building knowledge of God. The experiences of revelation provide grounding for the logical connections made between intuitions and experiences which human reason constructs in the effort of making explanatory theories. Revelation provides the inside information for making the jump from economic understandings of Trinitarian relations (the explanatory theories of the theological level) to the understandings of the Trinitarian relations within the immanent trinity, who God is in Himself. Finally, revelation provides the end goal and object of theology, God Himself, who constantly summons us "to respond to him in committed rational worship and praise through godly ways of thought and speech that are worthy of God."43 In fact, in The Trinitarian Faith, Torrance says that "under the impact of God's self-revelation in Jesus Christ and the creative operation of his Holy Spirit our minds and capacities are opened and our thoughts are expanded far beyond their finite limits until they are made appropriate, in some measure at least, to their divine object."44 Revelation rules reason by both providing the starting and ending point for theological investigation-God-as well as by molding and shaping reason so that it can be used to know God. Human reason, though, still has a place within Torrance's theological epistemology. It is by reason that the explanatory theories in steps two and three are formalized and articulated. Reason is what revelation shapes, forms, and uses to further reveal the innermost workings of God's Trinitarian relations. It is through this relationship between human reason and divine revelation that Torrance is able to say both that "all our knowledge of [God] comes from 42 Ibid. 101. 43 Ibid. 111. 44 Torrance, The Trinitarian Faith, 56.
divine revelation"45 and that "only rational beings are capable of appreciating and responding to divine revelation"46 at the same time. Reason has a place in Torrance's theological epistemology. Reason is subject to the transformative governance of God's divine self-revelation in the incarnation of the Son in Jesus Christ.
45 Torrance, Christian Doctrine of God, 13. 46 Ibid. 90.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Torrance, Thomas F. The Christian Doctrine of God: One Being Three Persons. New York: T & T Clark, 2001. Torrance, Thomas F. The Trinitarian Faith: the evangelical theology of the ancient Catholic Church. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1993.
Nick Stavlund I am currently enrolled in the D.Min in Science and Theology program at PTS; I serve as Executive Pastor at Chaparral Christian Church in Scottsdale, AZ, and as Battalion Chaplain for 1st Battalion, 19th Special Forces Group (Airborne), in the Utah Army National Guard; I am a graduate of Fuller Seminary, husband to Tracy, and father to Eva, Gwen, and Jude.
CHOSEN AND EQUIPPED: THE ELECTION OF HOMINIDS IN EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY AND THEOLOGICAL IMAGINATION Once upon a time, the human species was thought to be less than 10,000 years old. It was thought that humans were created as-is by a Creator, and that the universe was relatively young. Charles Darwin changed all of that when he published his now infamous work On the Origin of Species. In an instant, humanity learned that its story was incredibly longer than they could have imagined, and that their story was inextricably bound up with other creatures. In the century after Darwin, humanity has discovered that it has a shared evolutionary lineage with chimpanzees. We now know, for instance, that the last common ancestor (LCA) for what would eventually become chimpanzees and what would eventually become modern anatomical humans (MCH) lived roughly 7 million years ago. During the last 7 million years, the human species evolved through a process of migration and mating, under the tutelage of natural selection, into our present state. All this points to a simple yet profound conclusion: Modern anatomical humans are incredibly similar to their ancient relative, the chimpanzee. By some accounts, the genetic difference between apes and humans is as small as 1.2%, which means that apes and humans share 98.2% of the same DNA.1 Needless to say, scientific revelations such as these have both challenged and informed theological anthropology and the nature of the image dei in humans. The Genesis accounts of creation clearly show special divine favor being passed on to humans above all other species in the cosmos: Beginning in Genesis 1, where God created man and woman in his image and calls them very good, and then extending to Genesis 2 where God created Adam from the dust of the earth and from his own ruach. Put simply, humans have a special role in God's world, a role that is often discussed theologically with the doctrine of election (God's choosing) and imago dei. This paper will explore, from an evolutionary perspective, the relationship among 1) the historical doctrine of election, 2) the nature of God's image in humanity, and 3) how they relate to evolutionary science and the average Christian in my congregation. The thesis that drives this paper is that roughly 7 million years ago, at the same time that scientists theorize the LCA existed, God elected hominids, who eventually evolved into modern anatomical humans, to serve as God's divine image bearers among a world of other species. To that 1 "DNA: Comparing Humans and Chimps," AMNH, accessed April 21, 2014,
end, this paper will be divided into three parts. Part one will summarize the recent discovery of an ancient hominid known as "Ardi," because this discovery sets the stage for a discussion on humanness and the imago dei. Part two, which will occupy the bulk of this paper, will provide analysis of the "Ardi" discovery as it relates to the doctrine of election, arguing that the image of God in humans is both exegetically and theologically best understood within the framework of divine election. Part three will provide a summary of the significance of these findings for pastoral ministry. I approach this topic with a certain set of presuppositions. I first learned about the theory of evolution in a conservative Christian high school in Auburn Hills Michigan. Creationism was the "science" of choice at that institution, and evolution was not only branded "wrong," but was also considered a threat to Christianity itself. Years later, after I graduated from seminary, I began to see that evolution does not threaten an orthodox reading of the bible. This led me to thirst for more information about evolution, since by learning about evolution I would also learn about how God has acted in ages past. Simply put: Learning about how humans evolved has shaped by theology and driven me into deeper awe of the God who created and sustains the whole cosmos. The Importance of the "Ardi" Discovery In December 1992, scientists made a discovery in northeastern Ethiopia. At first they found mere teeth and bone fragments, but over time they unearthed 100 specimens, including a partial female skeleton.2 The technical name for this skeleton is Ardipithecus ramidus, but for the sake of this paper she will be referred to as "Ardi." Although not nearly as old as Orrorin tugenensis,3 "Adri" is much more widely accepted by the scientific community as a hominid than is Orrorin tugenensis, and thus is considered by some to be the oldest known hominid, since she is dated to around 4.4 million years ago. "Ardi" is presumed to have weighed 50 kg and stood about 120 cm tall.4 Her brain size appears to be as small as modern chimps. Other fossils found alongside "Aridi" suggest that she may have been a woodland forest dweller, which may modify current theories about why hominids became bipedal in the first place. Walking upright has typically been linked to movement onto the savanna, but "Ardi' seems to show that hominids walked upright in the woods 4.4 mya.5 Interestingly, she is the best and oldest view into human history that we have to date.
2 Tim White et al., "Ardipithecus Ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early
Hominids," Science, October 2009. 3 Typically dated between 5 and 6 million years ago. 4 White, Ardipithecus ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids, 64. 5 White, Ardipithecus ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids, 75-7.
At the time "Ardi" was discovered, the most complete hominid skeleton on record was that of "Lucy," who is traditionally dated between 1 and 3 million years ago.6 With "Ardi," we see farther back, inching even closer to one of the biggest moments in history. Scientists generally agree that 7 million years ago, one species split into two distinct species. This is the moment in time when the last common ancestor (LCA) of chimps and humans split off to create separate, independent species that would eventually lead to modern chimps and modern anatomical humans. With the discovery of "Ardi," scientists can once more fill in a gap of the human ancestral tree with a known entity, thereby giving more evidence not only to human evolution in general, but also further filling in the portrait of how modern anatomical humans evolved over time. The discovery of "Ardi" was incredibly important for many reasons. First, the discovery or "Ardi" forced many scientists to rewrite commonly accepted models of human origins. They are now rethinking things like human bipedality and our relationship to the LCA, in addition to rewriting some of the "steps" along the human evolutionary ladder. Scientists are going back to the drawing board, one might say, at least in part due to the discovery of "Ardi." For instance, in 2012, with a grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation, scientists from the University of Zurich published an article about the evolution of bipedality.7 Because knuckle-walking occurs in chimpanzees and gorillas, it has been proposed that knuckle-walking was the mode of locomotion from which human bipedality evolved.8 In other words, the scientific community has largely accepted the notion that humans evolved from knuckle-walking to walking on two legs, bipedality. In contrast, these scientists concluded that a phyletic and functional analysis of the skeleton of Ardipithecus ramidus provided evidence that hominid bipedality might have evolved from a locomotor mode no longer present in extant great apes. Secondly, the discovery of "Ardi" created many questions about anthropology in general, and theological anthropology in particular. The fact that the dating of "Ardi" goes back so far into the past, coupled with some incredible differences and similarities between "Ardi" and modern anatomical humans, means that many scientists, philosophers, and theologians have begun to reexamine their understanding of what makes a human, human. With "Ardi," we have a look at someone who is so clearly human, and yet someone who also bears drastic differences from modern anatomical humans. 6 The technical name for the skeleton referred to as "Lucy" is Australopithecus
afarensis. 7 Naoki Morimoto, Christoph Zollikofer, and Marcia Ponce de Leon, "Shared Human-Chimpanzee Pattern of Perinatal Femoral Shaft Morphology and Its Implications for the Evolution of Hominid Locomotor Adaptations," PLoS One 7, no. 7 (July 2012): 1-3. 8 B G Richmond and D S Strait, "Evidence That Humans Evolved from a Knucklewalking Ancestor," Nature 404, no. 6776 (March 23, 2000): 382.
"Ardi," Election, and the Imago Dei For many contemporary Christians, the doctrine of election is tied to Calvinism, Armenianism, predestination, and God's choosing of Israel in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. The doctrine of election, however, is much bigger than these smaller subtopics. Election is an act of God's choosing throughout history based not on the merit of the ones being chosen, but on the divine grace and favor of God. Election is God's choosing of one for the sake of the world. Unfortunately, classical traditions of Evangelicalism have regarded the doctrine of election as "a special calling with regard to those who are to be saved."9 They are correct to call election a "special calling," because it is indeed a special call from God to a particular people for a particular purpose, but they fall short by tying election to a particular doctrine of salvation. Narrowly defining the doctrine of election in this way limits God's choosing as merely a vehicle for saving the ones being elected. Its says nothing about God's salvific plans for the entire cosmos: That by electing some, God might save all. Defining and discussing election in more narrow terms has allowed debates between Calvinists and Armenians to focus on "the decree concerning the final salvation of individuals present in the mind of God prior to creation (italics mine)."10 Wolfhart Pannenberg calls this the "classical doctrine" of election, which is characterized by a focus on the God's act of choosing in the "undefinable" past. The proper point for theology, however, is not the mysterious and incomprehensible past. Instead, the proper focus of theology should be the historical past and eschatological future. This means that we now have permission, on theological grounds, to examine the doctrine of election against the backdrop of human evolution. In this section, we will explore the historical doctrine of election from an evolutionary perspective. To that end, we will also engage the debate over the nature of the imago dei in humans, in order to thoughtfully engage the idea that our last common ancestor (LCA), who lived roughly 7 million years ago, was chosen by God to be a vehicle for God's purposes in the world and to bear God's image. The term that best suits the type of choosing God performed 7 million years ago is, quite simply, historical election. Let us begin this thoughtful engagement with a discussion on various interpretations of the imago dei. For many centuries, Christian and Jewish thinkers have pondered the exact nature of the imago dei. What part of human nature is stamped with God's image? What is it about humans, over against other creatures, that reflects the imago dei? Roger E. Olson, The Westminster Handbook to Evangelical Theology (Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004), 168. 10 Stanley J. Grenz, Theology for the Community of God (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1994), 452. 9
It has been said that the imago dei is found in the rational mind. Proponents of this interpretation would say that our reason sets us apart from animals, and therefore must reflect the divine Mind of God. While this interpretation may seem attractive at first glance, it woefully discredits humans who, for one reason or another, lack the capacity for rational thought. Moving on from reason and rationality, other theologians and philosophers have said that the imago dei in humans is the immaterial soul, which at one time was thought to live beyond the death of the body. Still others postulate that the imago dei is humanity's ability to uniquely relate to one another and God. All of these discussions on the image of God revolve around human characteristics and human uniqueness. They point to humanity's capacity for self-awareness, self-consciousness, intelligence, and rational decision-making. In similar vein, theologian Karl Rahner describes the human person as the unique point in human evolutionary history where "matter becomes aware and is able to transcend itself through consciousness and freedom."11 Wolfhart Pannenberg similarly develops the doctrine of the imago dei as something that resides in the human being's unique Spirit-driven quality of "being open to the world through freedom, imagination and reason, and human openness to the world." Both Rahner and Pannenberg see the image of God as a quality manifested in human behavior, much like the others already listed. Needless to say, there is a vast array of theological literature devoted to exploring the image of God in humankind, and much of it reflects the same attitude: There is something divinely special about humans. Even though there is disagreement about the exact quality that separates humans from animals, the basic premise is the same throughout. Rahner, Pannenberg, Van Huysteen, Dawkins, and many more all conclude that humans are distinct. Yet, they fall short by simply noting that there is something unique about humans over against higher forms of animals. Their conclusions offer a good starting point, but more work needs to be done. One of the few theologians to disagree with current discussions about God's image in humans is Joshua Moritz, professor of systematic and philosophical theology at Graduate Theological Union. Moritz finds any attempt to tie human uniqueness to the imago dei ill-informed. In his survey of scientists and theologians and their view of the image of God, he concludes that many of them understand human uniqueness to qualitatively divide humans from the rest of the natural world: Dawkins cites human freedom, Pannenberg cites a lack of innate instincts, Van Huysteen cites culture, to name a few. To these, Moritz asks whether science has clearly demonstrated that all of these characteristics are absolutely unique to humans. Of course, his answer is "No," primarily due to the fact that Mortiz defines "humans" too narrowly as Homo sapiens, and does not include hominids such as Neanderthals, "Lucy," "Ardi," and many more. 11 Karl Rahner, Theological Investigations (Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1966),
In a recent article on human uniqueness and "other hominids" - Moritz's way of differentiating between non-human hominids and human hominids Moritz boldly declares an end to a belief in human uniqueness. He heralds the discovery of numerous non-human hominids who, though distinct by genetic lineage, share with humans every behavior, trait, and capacity by which many have sought to define humans as unique. In one sense, Mortiz is correct. Modern anatomical humans share characteristics with ancient hominids going even farther back than "Ardi." Where Moritz is incorrect, however, is in the way he differentiates between human-hominids, and non-human hominids. Homo sapiens, in his view, represent the mark of humanity.12 All other hominids are non-human hominids. They are different from modern humans not just by degree, but by kind. To put this in plain, everyday terms, one could postulate that if "Ardi" showed up in Scottsdale, Arizona in 2014, she would be viewed as less than human, as opposed to an expression of humanity's rich and diverse evolutionary history. This is a critical distinction. Mortiz is effectively coming to two broad conclusions: 1) Home sapiens are "human" and other hominids are not; and 2) the imago dei has nothing to do with qualitative differences between humans and higher forms of animals. Concluding that the image of God has nothing to do with culture, freedom, self-consciousness, relational intimacy, and other qualitatively unique human behaviors is dependent upon his conclusion that homo sapiens are the only true humans. Since there is ample evidence that shows hominids from as far back as "Ardi" had the capacity to use and enjoy tools and even music, Moritz is forced to declare an end to human uniqueness. Put simply: Homo sapiens are not unique if one merely compares them to other ancient hominids. They share many of the same qualitative characteristics. This means that if Moritz chose to include all hominids in his definition of "human," then he would have no need to declare an end to human uniqueness, and Panneberg, Rahner, and many other theologians could still stand correct in their research. Even though Moritz has too narrowly defined humanity as homo sapiens, and has subsequently arrived at the conclusion that humans are no longer unique among God's creation, he has contributed greatly to the field of inquiry surrounding the doctrine of election and human evolutionary history. Since Moritz has ruled out human uniqueness, he has been pushed to explore the imago dei as it relates to the doctrine of election. He believes that God chose homo sapiens as one species from among many species, in the same way he later chose Abraham, Israel, and the Church as one group among many other groups. N.T. Wright has said something similar in a 2011 interview with the Bio Logos 12 Joshua Moritz, "Human Uniqueness, the Other Hominids, and 'Anthropocentrism
of the Gaps' in the Religion and Science Dialogue," Zygon 47:1, 11-13.
foundation.13 Wright, like Moritz, postulates that since we know from Scripture that God has a history of choosing some in order to save all, it is certainly plausible that God could have chosen a group of hominids at some point in human history to bear his image and to be his chosen species among all other species. Wright leaves his remarks rather open ended, while Moritz claims that the group of hominids chosen by God are stricly Homo sapiens. In my view, however, all hominids were chosen to be God's elected representative in the world and to bear God's image to each other, other species, and to the cosmos. Building on Moritz's thesis on election, but also seeking to broaden it, we can now tentatively draw two conclusions of our own: 1) The term "human" should apply to all hominids who split off from the LCA roughly 7 million years ago; and 2) the imago dei in humans is found both in the qualitative characteristics cited by Pannenberg, Rahner, and others, as well as in the theory of "hominid election." In other words, humans bear God's image because we are clearly capable of things that the rest of creation is not, and because of the simple fact that God chose us. The Story of Election and God's Image: From LCA to Abraham Just as Genesis 1 and 2 tell the story of God creating and elevating humans to a special place within the created order, so we can look back about 7mya and see that there was a split in two directions between a group of ancestors that carried the genetic potential for two distinct species: Chimps and humans. I am proposing that God elected the genetic line that has led to modern anatomical humans to bear God's image: Hominid election." God elevated this group above the rest of creation, and in some way initiated a relationship with them that was unlike any relationship between Creator and Created prior to that time. The choosing of humans began in the parables of creation we find in Genesis 1 and 2. God chose humans, above all other creatures, to have dominion over the world as the ones who represent God to the world. From a biblical perspective, then, election began not in Genesis 12 with Abraham, but in Genesis 1 and 2 with the creation of the first humans. In Genesis 1, God created a garden, which resembled the creation of a temple. When God finished creating other species, he created humans and put them in the center of the garden-temple as the image bearers of God. Other ancient Near Eastern creation stories sound a similar theme. G.K. Beale, in his monumental volume on biblical theology, cites nine arguments to support the notion that the Garden of Eden was intended to be understood as a newly created temple.14 If Beale is correct, then, this means that the first humans have the responsibility to act 13 "Adam and Eve with N.T. Wright | BioLogos," BioLogos.org, accessed April
21, 2014, http://biologos.org/resources/multimedia/nt-wright-on-adam-and-eve. 14 G. K. Beale, A New Testament Biblical Theology: The Unfolding of the Old Testament in the New (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2011).
as priests and priestesses in God's temple-world. Furthermore, this means that humans are chosen by God above all other created beings to bear the image of God to the rest of creation, for the sake of creation, in the same way a priest acts as a mediator between God and humans. New Testament scholar Scot McKnight, building on this line of thinking, calls the first humans eikons of God. They are to "govern for God, relate to God, self, and others, and the world in a redemptive way."15 The mission God gave to the first humans in the garden - that is, to govern this world redemptively on God's behalf - is the mission God later gives to Abraham and Israel. Where Abraham and Israel fail, Jesus succeeds. Jesus ultimately becomes the archetype human, who bore the image of God so purely and perfectly that the author of Colossians could conclude that Jesus was "the exact representation" of God's self. In this way, Jesus is the climax to the 7.7 million year old story-problem about humans-as-image-bearers-of-God: Finally, there is a human who truly and perfectly represents God to the world. The argument of this paper is that God began his quest for divine image bearers 7 million years ago when there was an evolutionary split at the LCA. At that point, God elected hominids to do the work described in Genesis 1, 2, 12, and beyond. Humans bear God's image, which is another way of saying that humans bear God's choosing. The imago dei is the electus dei. In summary, the fundamental distinction between humans and other animals rests on God's choosing and equipping us for a special vocation and mission. God's choosing and equipping of humanity, to include all hominids going back to the LCA, is evident in the qualitative differences discussed above between humans and other animals. PASTORAL IMPLICATIONS: ELECTION, EVOLUTION, AND PROVIDENCE Today, over half of American adults believe that the events recorded in the biblical origins accounts are "literally true, meaning it happened that way word-for-word," and nearly 90% of born-again Christians accept this literal interpretation as well.16 However, some born-again Christians do not believe that the events recorded in Genesis 1–3 actually happened, and in particular, they do not accept the existence of Adam and Eve. This minority of believers, which includes a group sometimes called evolutionary creationists, claims that actual history begins roughly around Genesis 12 with God's calling of Abraham to the Promised Land. Unfortunately, in an effort to remove modern historical-scientific interpretations of Genesis 1 and 2, many Christians are left with an enormous question mark concerning God's activity in the world prior to Genesis 12. 15 Scot McKnight, The King Jesus Gospel: The Original Good News Revisited
(Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), 35. 16 Lamoureux, Denis O., I Love Jesus and I Accept Evolution (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2009), 13.
What I hope to convey to Christians in my congregation about evolution and election is that the story of God's interaction with the world did not begin in Genesis 12. If we take Genesis 1-11, like Old Testament scholar Peter Enns, to be primordial history that is not meant to be placed historically, then we still must commit ourselves to do our best to exegete the eternal theological truths of Genesis 1-11.17 It is too tempting for some to simply toss out out the proverbial baby with the bathwater, which is another way of saying that when Christians get rid of a modern historical-scientific understanding of Genesis 1-2 they typically do not know what to do with the theology of Genesis 1-2. They throw out the theology with the history. A simpler way of explaining how to understand Genesis 1-11 is by comparing its interoperation with the interpretation of Jesus' parables. In the same way we interpret timeless theological truths in the parables of Jesus, like the Prodigal Son story for instance, many Christians in my congregation need to be taught to interpret timeless theological truths from Genesis 1-11. One of the timeless theological truths we find in Genesis 1-11 is that God chooses: He chose Adam and Eve from among the rest of the created order, he chose Abel's offering over against Cain's offering, he chose Noah and his family over against the rest of humanity, and so forth. Taking the biblical theological theme of election straight from Genesis 1-11, we can historically and scientifically look back in human history and ask a simple question: Given that God has a tendency in the bible to choose one for the sake of many, is it possible that God acted in and for the world in a similar way that is not recorded in our sacred scriptures? Asking this type of question requires the use of one's imagination. It means asking congregants to imagine the possibility that God acted outside of the biblical record, and yet in the same way as the biblical record. While it may seem far fetched, I suggest that it is quite a normal thing to ask this sort of question. Any time we speak about God's acting in our own lives, we are speaking about something God may have done outside of the recorded biblical canon of scripture. And yet, if someone were to say that God acted in their lives in such a way that contradicted God's nature as revealed in scripture, we could rightfully question whether God would do such a thing. If, on the other hand, one were to speak of how God delivered them from an enemy, or how God seemed to heal them when their medical diagnosis justified no such recovery, we could look back in the bible and conclude that God indeed this is the sort of thing that God does from time to time. Perhaps God really did act today, outside of the recorded biblical canon, in the same manner as revealed in the recorded biblical canon.
Theology itself is born out of what is revealed to us about God in scripture,
17 See: Enns, Peter, The Evolution of Adam: What the Bible Does and Doesn't
Say About Human Origins (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2012).
and is nurtured into maturity in the context of our personal experiences. This merging between God-acting-in-the-bible and God-acting-in-history is the incubator for good theological reflection. If nothing else, I hope to lead the people in my congregation to see this subtle, but powerful point. I hope to give them permission to cultivate a theological imagination.
BIBLIOGRAPHY "Adam and Eve with N.T. Wright | BioLogos." BioLogos.org. Accessed April 21, 2014. http://biologos.org/resources/multimedia/nt-wright-on-adam-and-eve. Beale, G. K. A New Testament Biblical Theology: The Unfolding of the Old Testament in the New. Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic, 2011. "DNA: Comparing Humans and Chimps." AMNH. Accessed April 21, 2014. http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/human-origins/ understanding-our-past/dna-comparing-humans-and-chimps. Enns, Peter. The Evolution of Adam: What the Bible Does and Doesn't Say About Human Origins. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2012. Grenz, Stanley J. Theology for the Community of God. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1994. Lamoureux, Denis O. I Love Jesus and I Accept Evolution. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2009. McKnight, Scot. The King Jesus Gospel: The Original Good News Revisited. Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 2011. Morimoto, Naoki, Christoph Zollikofer, and Marcia Ponce de Leon. "Shared Human-Chimpanzee Pattern of Perinatal Femoral Shaft Morphology and Its Implications for the Evolution of Hominin Locomotor Adaptations." PLoS One 7, no. 7 (July 2012): 1–7. Moritz, Joshua. "Evolution, the End of Human Uniqueness, and the Election of the Imago Dei." Theology and Science 9, no. 3 (2011): 307–39. ———. "Human Uniqueness, the Other Hominids, and 'Anthropocentrism of the Gaps' in the Religion and Science Dialogue." Zygon 47, no. 1 (n.d.). ———. "The Search for Adam Revisited: Evolution, Biblical Literalism, and the Question of Human Uniqueness." Theology and Science 9, no. 4 (2011): 367–77. Olson, Roger E. The Westminster Handbook to Evangelical Theology. Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004. Rahner, Karl. Theological Investigations. Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1966. Richmond, B G, and D S Strait. "Evidence That Humans Evolved from a Knuckle-walking Ancestor." Nature 404, no. 6776 (March 23, 2000): 382– 85. doi:10.1038/35006045. White, Tim, Berhane Asfow, Yonas Beyene, Yohannes Haile-Selassie, C. Own Lovejoy, and Gen Suwa. "Ardipithecus Ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids." Science, October 2009.
Benjamin Phipps Ben Phipps is a second year MDiv student at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary as well as the Associate Pastor at Faith United Methodist Church in Fox Chapel, PA.
The Song of Hannah A critical look at Hannah's song of celebration in 1 Samuel 2. This paper examines the Deuteronomists's use of this song historically and literarily, as well as addressing various textual issues found throughout the passage. It ends by discussing the song's theological significance and contributions.
Translation of 1 Samuel 2:1-10 1a Then Hannah prayed and said, "My heart exults in the Lord, 1b My horn is exalted in the Lord. 1c My mouth derides my enemies, for I have rejoiced in your salvation. 2a There is no one holy like the Lord 2b For there is none except you 2c And there is no Mountain like our God. 3 Do not keep talking so haughtily, he will bring forth arrogance from your mouth. For the Lord, is a God of knowledge, and by him deeds are measured. 4 The bows of warriors are shattered, but those stumbling are girded with might. 5a The satisfied hire themselves out for bread, but those who were hungry are fat with spoil. 5b She who was barren has borne seven, but she who had many children has languished. 6a The Lord kills and preserves life. 6b He brings one down to Sheol and rescues from it. 7a The Lord makes poor and makes rich. 7b He brings low and also exalts. 8a He raises up the poor from the dust, he lifts high the needy from the ash heap; 8b To place them with nobles and to inherit a throne of honor. 8c For the foundations of the earth are the Lord, and he has set them upon the world. 9a He will guard the feet of his faithful, but the wicked will be silent in the darkness. 9b For not by strength does a person prevail. 10a The Lord,! His adversaries will be shattered! 10b The High One thunders in the heavens! 10c The Lord, will judge the ends of the earth! 10d He will give strength to his king and will exalt the horn of his anointed." 1 Samuel 2:1-10 has long been known as a thanksgiving hymn sung by Hannah in response to God answering her prayer for a child. The themes that this song communicates, however, hold true for more than Hannah's story alone. This song praises the incomparable God for exalting the powerless, and it is this theme that runs throughout the books of Samuel as Israel's history unfolds. The song itself follows a complicated textual history. Furthermore, it functions on
multiple levels since the Deuteronomist took the song from its original cultic use and adapted it to be a song of thanksgiving sung by Hannah. All of these issues must be taken into account when grasping the full theological message of the passage. However, reconciling the song's textual history while recognizing its multiple functions does not change the fact that this thanksgiving hymn affirms a timeless truth that God intervenes and transforms the circumstances for those who humbly call on him. Establishing the text of the Song of Hannah becomes complicated when trying to work with the various textual witnesses. The Masoretic Text (MT), the Septuagint (LXX), and the Dead Sea Scrolls (4QSamª), each preserve a different version of the song. The existence of these different versions is most likely explained by multiple revisions and redactions of the original text.1 Hannah's song attests that the histories of texts are more complicated than simply undergoing updated editions; for ancient biblical communities were dynamic, often shifting in theological concerns and priorities.2 Sometimes the text of 4QSama agrees with the LXX, other times it agrees with the MT, and still other times it creates its own "hybrid version,"3 This attests that Hannah's song has undergone a complex development, and identifying which text is superior is complicated for it often fluctuates. Ralph Klein sums up the problem by saying, "one cannot choose mechanically the MT, the LXX, or the Qumran texts, but in each reading decisions must be made among the variants on the basis of standard textual critical canons."4 This paper will be working primarily with the MT, but in heeding Klein's caution, it does not assume the MT is always superior. Additionally, the above translation is based on the MT, even when there are instances where the LXX or 4QSamª appear to be the preferred original. Throughout the paper, the MT, LXX, and 4QSamª will be compared when verses have significant variations. In each instance, a conclusion will be made on which text is most likely the superior, but in doing so I will also conjecture the reasons for why the MT chose what it did. Outlining the song depends heavily on how one identifies the genre, for different kinds of psalms follow different structures. Hannah's song is a particular kind of hymn and consists of a basic introduction, body, and 1 Emanuel Tov, "Different Editions of the Song of Hannah and of Its Narrative Framework," in Tehillah le-Moshe: Biblical and Judaic Studies in Honor of Moshe Greenberg, ed. Mordechai Cogan, Barry L. Eichler, and Jeffrey H. Tigay (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997), 169. 2 Theodore J. Lewis, "The Textual History of the Song of Hannah: 1 Samuel II 1-10," Vetus Testamentum 44, no. 1 1994, 20. 3 Tov, "Different Editions," 169. 4 Ralph W. Klein, "The Song of Hannah," Concordia Theological Monthly 41 no.10, (1970), 676.
conclusion.5 Verses 1-3 serve as the introduction, establishing three main themes that are reiterated throughout the passage –exaltation of the powerless, the supreme incomparability of Yahweh, and a warning not to be proud for it is Yahweh who balances out all human experiences. The body of the song, verses 4-8, then lists examples of how this incomparable God exalts and reverses the fortunes of human circumstances. The closing, verses 9-10, gives theological implications of these themes and ends with utmost praise to the Most High God who conquers his enemies and exalts his chosen king. The first verse of the hymn unfolds a list of nouns with first person pronominal suffixes: my heart, my horn, my mouth, and my enemies. This is the only verse where the speaker is the subject, making it quite personal in nature. Strikingly then, the final clause ends with "your salvation," a direct address to God in the second person, creating a stark contrast to the four previous firstperson statements. The contrast emphasizes a transition which begins with Hannah's joy and then shifts to recognizing God as the source of it all.6 A triad of exclamations dealing with joy and victory are followed by a line that elaborates on them. The verbs are all in the qal and best rendered in the present tense. Additionally, the theme verb ~Wr is introduced, appearing four more times throughout the song. The verb bxr literally means to "stretch wide," but in this sense, it could imply devouring.7 Klein, however, claims this is a metaphor for a strong mocking of one's enemies.8 The NRSV agrees with this implication and chooses to translate the words as, "derides," which I believe to be the best rendering. The phrase "my horn is exalted" is a symbolic idiom reflecting the triumph and victory of an animal lifting its horn in pride.9 The verb, ~Wr, appears with !rq two times in the passage, once each in the first and last verse. This suggests that these words are significant to the theological and literary theme of the passage. ~Wr with !rq are frequently paired throughout the Hebrew Bible, but they can carry either a positive or negative connotation depending on who lifts one's horn – namely, whether it is God or the individual.10 When God exalts or promises horns, it leads to power, victory, or salvation (see Ps 92:10), but "when men exalt their horn, it denotes arrogance" (see Ps 75:4-5).11 Hannah's exaltation is 5 Ibid, 677. 6 Adele Berlin, "Hannah and her Prayers," Scriptura 87, (2004), 231. 7 Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon, (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1906), 931. 8 Ralph W. Klein, 1 Samuel, WBC 10 (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1983), 15. 9 Ibid, 15. 10 Gary V. Smith and Victor Hamilton, "~Wr," in The New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997), 3:1079-80. 11 Leonard J. Coppes, "!rQ," in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer Jr., and Bruce Waltke (Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1980), 2: 816).
God's doing, and thus her horn being raised high is a sign of the triumph he has given. Though !rq literally means "horn," many translations, such as the NRSV, choose to render it as "strength." This does not adequately express what is taking place in this passage. As stated before, the most common allusion of !rq is an animal, particularly a ram, who lifts his head in pride. McCarter, however, explains that !rq, has other connotations often overlooked, yet directly applicable to Hannah's situation. The first is that !rq, implies a "visible sign of success."12 Thus Hannah is singing a public hymn of thanksgiving for all to hear what Yahweh has done. Second, !rq, can also refer to the continuance of a family line (Ps 132:17).13 Therefore, Hannah is publicly rejoicing for both triumph and progeny. Recognizing these other implications of !rq, brings further understanding as to why the king's horn is also raised up in the last verse. The Deuteronomist wants Hannah to sing not only for herself, but also to foreshadow the coming monarchy in which Samuel will play an integral role. Textually, this verse contains multiple variants. The first instance is seen in the opening description where the MT reads, "And Hannah prayed and said" while the LXX reads simply, "And she said." The difference is slight, but it describes whether Hannah is praying the song to God or simply singing the song about God. Most contend that the LXX is superior in this case, since expanding an opening line was common practice.14 Emanuel Tov has claimed that the MT's subtle expansion is based on 1:26 where Hannah claims she was praying fervently in the Lord's presence.15 In elaborating on Tov's theory, I would suggest that the MT is attempting to thematically connect the song with the opening narrative to create a story that is punctuated by prayer: first in 1:10-11, next in 1:26-27, and then culminating with the Song of Hannah where a hymn is beautifully recited as an intimate prayer. This also emphasizes a reversal since the prayer in 1:10 occurs in distress while 2:1-10 occurs in joy. The difference is slight, but significant, because when understanding the hymn as a prayer, the Song of Hannah connects with and parallels the beginning narrative. A few other textual variations must also be dealt with in this verse. First, the MT and 4QSama repeat the phrase "in the Lord" in 1a and 1b. Most modern translations erase the repetition by putting the LXX's, "in my God" in 1b, claiming that the MT's repetition must be "poetically inferior."16 Yet others have commented that this is an instance of "repetitive parallelism" revealing
12 P. Kyle McCarter, 1 Samuel, AB 9 (New York: Doubleday, 1984), 71. 13 McCarter, 1 Samuel, 71-72. 14 Theodore J. Lewis, "The Textual History of the Song of Hannah: 1 Samuel II 1-10," Vetus Testamentum 44, no.1 (1994): 25. 15 Tov, "Different Editions," 157. 16 McCarter, 1 Samuel, 68.
the antiquity of the song.17 I choose to retain the MT's "in the Lord," because the arguments against it seem to be mere poetic preferences. Another textual difference arises in whether the last word should read "your salvation" as in the MT, or "my salvation" as in the LXX. McCarter argues that the final ^ is a scribal error when neglecting to put yk on the following verse.18 Lewis, counters this argument by saying the second person suffix is an instance of lectio difficilior.19 I contend that the MT is correct, for the second person suffix has literary support by showing contrast to the previous list of first person possessive nouns. Furthermore, the LXX's "in my God" and "my salvation" seem to be attempts at making the first verse completely in the first person. For these reasons, I assert that the MT contains the more superior witness. Verse 2 affirms Yahweh's incomparability, for he alone is the one who could have exalted Hannah to her present state. A triad of sentences about God's uniqueness are listed, each beginning with !ya to introduce the clause, affirming that none are equal to Yahweh. The text varies, however, in each of the three major textual witnesses. First, there is disagreement on the proper sequence of each clause; second, there is variation concerning the translation of the divine epithet, rWc. If the MT's sequence is assigned as a, b, c, then the LXX's rendering has the order a, c, b, and still 4QSamª has a x, b' c, where x is an unidentifiable extra line. The simplest solution to this problem begins by recognizing 2b as a theological gloss inserted into the MT, which results in a bicolon that would be more in tune with the structure of the poem.20 The conflated versions in the LXX and 4QSamª were then an attempt to preserve all the various ancient readings.21 The theological gloss, "There is none except you," in the MT was added as a monotheistic statement. Without it, verse 2 becomes monolatrous; thus 2b was added to clarify the verse as monotheistic.22 It seems that this verse reflects the progression and development of Israel's monotheistic theology. The word rWc, commonly translated as "rock," has both a textual problem and a translation debate. The LXX replaces rWc, with "righteous one," while 4QSamª contains both versions. Most all scholars agree that the MT's use of rWc is superior.23 The LXX's version probably emerged to act as further parallelism to the next line which describes the Lord alone to be holy.24 Nonetheless, rWc is most commonly translated as "rock" throughout the Old Testament, but an alternate translation for this word was proposed by Albright. 17 John T. Willis, "Song of Hannah and Psalm 113," Catholic Biblical Quarterly 35 no.2 (1973): 143-44. 18 McCarter, 1 Samuel, 68. 19 Lewis, "Textual History," 26-27. 20 Lewis, "Textual History," 28. 21 Klein, "Song," 675. 22 Lewis, "Textual History," 28. 23 McCarter, 1 Samuel, 68. 24 Lewis, "Textual History," 28.
He claimed "mountain" as a better rendering because rWc was a synonym used for divine beings throughout ancient Canaan, which were understood to be among the mountains.25 Additionally, it is semantically related to the Ugaritic word for mountain.26 Israel thus borrowed the title while leaving behind the polytheistic overtones of the neighboring religions.27 It should be noted that rWc is used throughout the OT as both objects for God's purposes (Ex 17:6), and as titles for the divine (Deut 32:4, 30-31).28 I think translating the epithet as "mountain" creates the ability to distinguish between these two functions, giving further support to Albright's proposal. I therefore agree with Albright that mountain better captures the full essence of rWc in 1 Sam 2:2, for it is acting as a divine epithet to show the uniqueness and incomparability of Israel's God, and furthermore probably reflects a more ancient perception of how Israel understood Yahweh. Verse 3 functions as both a warning to one's enemies and as a transition to the body of the hymn. When the enemy is aware of one's weakness (which in Hannah's case was barrenness), they should not act in pride or arrogance. The reason is because Yahweh is a "God of knowledge." This is the only place in the OT where God is given this specific title.29 The Lord is knowledgeable of arrogant attitudes and he will weigh the actions of those who act on their arrogance.30 The statement that actions are weighed by God introduces the "catalogue of reversals" in verses 4-8.31 Thus as the body of the hymn lists various examples of human experiences, it is the "God of knowledge" who is behind them being balanced out. It should be noted that verse 3 of the MT seems to contain two dittographs and a hearing error. McCarter claims that Wbrt is a corrupted dittograph of the verb, WrBdt.32 This would mean that originally the phrase simply said, "Do not speak," but the dittogragh leads most translations to awkwardly render the phrase "Talk no more so very…"(NRSV) or "Do not keep talking so…"(NIV). McCarter is probably correct here, but I also think that the result of retaining Wbrt simply gives more emphasis to the warning not to speak. Another error is that the repetition of hh*b)G is thought to be a "conflation of…a correct and corrupt form."33 McCarter is again correct here, for this seems to be an odd place 25 William Foxwell Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths, (New York: Doubleday, 1968), 21. 26 Ibid, 21. 27 Ibid, 188-89. 28 Andrew E. Hill, "rWc" in The New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997), 3:793. 29 Lewis, "Textual History," 30. 30 Bruce C. Birch, The First and Second Books of Samuel: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections, NIB 2 (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1998), 981. 31 McCarter, 1 Samuel, 72. 32 Ibid, 69. 33 Ibid, 69.
for another instance of "repetitive parallelism" which Willis claims.34 Lastly, it seems a hearing error occurred where w)lw was incorrectly recorded as alw.35 As mentioned before, these first three verses act as the introduction to this hymn by establishing themes that will be expounded in the body (4-8) and reaffirmed in the conclusion (9-10). Moving next to the body, a series of reversals reveals God as the prime agent in human history, giving multiple examples of how the weak are exalted. The body is divided into three sections. Verses 4-5 comprise the first section, where the subjects are passively acted upon and God is not explicitly identified as the agent.36 The second section, verses 6-8b, contains multiple participles with God as the subject. Lastly, 8c stands alone as the third section which offers a theological basis for God's involvement in the aforementioned reversals. The first reversal is set in the context of war in which mighty warriors find their bows shattered! Klein comments that this reflects a reliance on divine aid in battle, especially against a powerful enemy.37 A pattern is introduced here where first the strong are made weak followed by the weak becoming strong. This pattern is repeated in 5a, but when 5b mentions the barren woman first, the order is reversed. Thus, the pattern of "strong to weak" concludes with "weak to strong." Klein states this is to draw emphasis on "the positive actions for the weak,"38 but I would carry the argument further by recognizing that the emphasized section happens to describe Hannah's situation in the opening narrative. Perhaps the final editor reversed this section to accentuate Hannah's own experience. The verb, ldx, in verse 5 has caused confusion and uncertainty. Typically, ldx means "to cease"39 but there is debate whether ldx has more than one meaning in ancient Hebrew. Problems emerge because the phrase in 2:5 reads, d[ Wldx. There is first confusion to what is being "ceased" and more confusion on how to translate d[. The NIV translates this phrase as "hunger no more" and the KJV renders it, "ceased to hunger." Both of these translations fail at solving the problem because both add a verb, "to hunger" and leave the word d[ untranslated. D. Winton Thomas and P. J. Calderone independently provided a solution by rediscovering a second meaning for ldx.40 Calderone argued that ldx is etymologically related to an Arabic root meaning "to become full" or "to
34 Willis, " Song of Hannah," 145. 35 Klein, "Song," 675-76. 36 Birch, First and Second Samuel, 981. 37 Klein, "Song," 680. 38 Klein, 1 Samuel, 16. 39 Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon, (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1906), 292-93. 40 Klein, "Song," 680.
be fat."41 When the LXX emerged, the more common meaning for ldx drove "the second and apparently poetic word into oblivion."42 With this new meaning for ldx,, the word d[ makes sense when understood as the noun for "prey" or "booty."43 In this context, I think the best rendering for d[ is "spoil." d[ now stands parallel to ~xl and is identified as food captured by the hungry. Some scholars, such as Lewis, have been reluctant to accept this proposal,44 but I think recognizing ldx as "to be fat" in 2:5 is the best solution. Thus a new word, ldxII, being rediscovered, brings clarity to 1 Sam 2:5, which then reads, "Those who were hungry are fat with spoil." Moving to the second section of the body, verses 6-8 identify Yahweh as the one behind these reversals. Verses 6-7 set a pattern where a negative action is performed by God followed by a positive one. The pattern climaxes in verse 8 with a "four-part description of Yahweh's positive action on behalf of the poor."45 The verb ~Wr makes another appearance in verse 7 immediately before the climax of positive actions, perhaps putting this verb in an emphatic location. Verse 6 discusses the extreme opposites of life and death, but it should be noted that the reversal does not mean resurrection from the dead. Klein explains that the verbs, hyxmW and l[yw are implying the concept of preserving life and being rescued from Sheol respectively. His argument is supported and made convincing when verse 6 is compared to Psalm 30:3 which uses the same verbs. Essentially, God's rescue and preservation is akin to when God heals a person with a fatal illness; life is both preserved and rescued since a fatal illness leads to death.46 It should be noted that 8a-b is almost identical to Psalm 113:7-8. McCarter proposes the most convincing explanation that the individual poets drew on "stock phrases" to incorporate into their respective hymns.47 Thus, regardless of which text is older, the phrase was potentially a common poetic line in the authors' community.48 The last phrase of verse 8 identifies Yahweh as the Creator, bringing further justification for his role in reversing the social structures of humanity. As Creator, God cares for his creatures that are poor, weak, and downcast, having every right to intervene on their behalf. It is noteworthy that the description of the created world reveals the ancient cosmology of Israel –a flat world that has been set on top of foundational pillars.49 41 Philip J. Calderone, "CHDL-II in Poetic Texts," Catholic Biblical Quarterly, 23 no.4 (1961), 451. 42 Calderone, "CHDL-II," 459-60. 43 McCarter, 1 Samuel, 72. 44 Theodore J. Lewis, "The Songs of Hannah and Deborah: CHDL-II ('growing plump'), Journal of Biblical Literature, 104 no.1 (1985): 108. 45 Klein, 1 Samuel, 16. 46 Klein, "Song," 681. 47 McCarter, 1 Samuel, 73. 48 Willis, "Song of Hannah," 154. 49 Klein, "Song," 683.
In the hymn's conclusion, 1 Sam 2:9 states the main theological interpretation, "For not by strength does a person prevail."50 The many reversals that God causes are proof that an individual does not succeed on their own power. Birch calls this phrase the "key to all of Hannah's song,"51 for it interprets the major themes that have been expressed throughout the passage – people are exalted not by their own power, but by Yahweh, the incomparable God, who reverses the social realities for the humble, poor, and needy. Verse 10 then erupts in praise to God and concludes by again pairing the words, ~Wr and !rq, echoing the themes introduced in verse 1. However, this time the words refer to the king, God's anointed. Literarily and canonically, this word acts as a foreshadowing of what is to unfold in Israel's history. Textually and historically, this word is a clue to the song's original function. However, the major textual differences of verses 8c-9a, which transition the body to the conclusion need to be discussed before explaining the details of the 2:9-10. Verses 8c-9a transition from the hymn's body to the conclusion, yet they are significantly different in each ancient textual witness. The MT and 4QSamª refer to God as Creator to justify why he controls the many reversals listed in 2:4-8b. The LXX, however, mentions nothing of the sort. Instead, it adds a comment on how God grants promises to those who make vows to him. Interestingly, 4QSamª also includes this. Furthermore, the MT continues with verse 9a, commenting on how God treats both the wicked and faithful; yet again 4QSamª also includes this verse. At first, many scholars assumed that the Qumran contained the only uncorrupted text since it contained all three ideas.52 However, Tov offers the best explanation for these variants. The original song consisted of only 8ab and 9b. First, the MT inserted 8c as a theological gloss to help explain the preceding verses.53 Later on, 9a was inserted as a "theological elaboration on the main theme" of the song.54 The LXX then independently inserted a different phrase, also reinterpreting the song's theme and connecting it to the Hannah narrative. Qumran, aware of both editions, created a "hybrid version."55 Thus, the MT and LXX show two different reinterpretations of the song, and 4QSamª preserved both.56 While verse 9 began the conclusion with a theological explanation, verse 10 concludes the hymn with elaborated praise of Yahweh's power. Numerous variants, however, also exist for verse 10. Essentially, the LXX and 4QSamª insert the phrase, "Yahweh is holy" followed by an insertion of Jeremiah 9:2223. Tov suggests that a scribe's marginal notes were incorrectly incorporated 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
Author's translation. Birch, First and Second Samuel, 982. McCarter, 1 Samuel, 70. Tov, "Different Editions," 169. Ibid, 161. Ibid, 169. Ibid, 163
into the text.57 Furthermore, the Greek versions of Jer 9:22-23 and 1 Sam 2:10 in the LXX differ, suggesting that the LXX was using a Hebrew copy that already had Jer 9 as a theological gloss inserted into it.58 Though I find Tov's theory of a marginal note intriguing, I do not see strong enough evidence to claim this as the reason for the variants. It seems best to say that a theological gloss occurred in a Hebrew edition independent from the MT which the LXX and Qumran preserved. There is also much discussion over the word wl[ in the MT. Most translations render this as "against him" implying that Yahweh will thunder against his adversaries. The LXX complicates the matter by trying to make this into the verb hl[, thus translating, "Yahweh has gone up."59 Many scholars have pointed to the very similar verse in 2 Sam 22:14 which contains the divine epithet !woyl[, and therefore translate this as "the Most High." A divine epithet does make the most sense by creating appropriate parallelism in the verse. Labuschagne observes that yl[ appears to be an archaic synonym for !woyl[. To distinguish between the two in English, they should be translated as "High One" and "Most High" respectively.60 When yl[ is restored as the correct text, it creates parallelism with hwhy. I find Labuschagne's argument convincing and see "High One" as the best rendering of this word. Furthermore, Labuschagne points out that the Deuteronomist most likely chose yl[ because it acted as a pun for Eli the priest whose downfall is described in the following chapter.61 The appearance of $lm in verse 10 leads most to assume that this passage functioned as either a royal or victory hymn during the monarchy, confirming that it is a separate unit inserted by the final editor. As previously stated, this passage is structured like a hymn, but it also shares characteristics of a song of thanksgiving. A hymn's introduction usually contains imperative, jussive, or cohortative verbs with the intent of calling or summoning people to praise Yahweh,62 but 2:1 is more intimate in style, reflecting the personal joy of an individual, which is how a thanksgiving song would begin.63 The body and conclusion of the passage, however, reflect features of a hymn, such as the multiple hiphil participles in verses 4-8.64 Therefore, most scholars recognize that characteristics of both genres are present, but still identify the passage as a thanksgiving hymn that has been placed on the lips of Hannah. It must be remembered though that the Deuteronomist has inserted this passage to act as a thanksgiving hymn. Originally, it probably had a different function. 57 Ibid, 167-68. 58 Klein, "Song," 676. 59 McCarter, 1 Samuel, 70-71. 60 C. J. Labuschagne, "The Divine Title, yl[, 'The High One,' in the Song of Hannah," Vetus Testamentum 58 no. 4-5 (2008): 647. 61 Ibid, 649. 62 Klein, "Song," 677. 63 Birch, First and Second Samuel, 981. 64 Klein, "Song," 677.
Many scholars assume that the original cultic function was a royal hymn celebrating the birth of an heir.65 Others prefer to identify it as a victory hymn sung after defeating an enemy.66 Though intriguing, I think designating it a royal psalm relies too heavily on $lm in verse 10 and overlooks the multiple military metaphors. Klein's assessment that this hymn was originally sung "after a national military victory"67 seems most accurate and uses both the references to a king and the many military metaphors in the passage. The first reversal in verse 4 sets the context of battle. There are also references to enemies, bows, and adversaries (1, 4, 10), and the king, acting as the leader of the triumphant army, would be praised after a victory. A similar suggestion by Willis is that this song is just as archaic as Exodus 15 or Judges 5, and therefore celebrates the defeat of an enemy at the Shiloh sanctuary before the monarchy.68 However, his explanation that the king is a local tribe ruler instead of the monarchy is unconvincing.69 More likely, the mention of the king dates this to the ninth or tenth centuries BCE, early in the United Monarchy.70 However, the hymn was not inserted into the Deuteronomistic History until the seventh century BCE. Many literary themes have been discovered in 1 Samuel 2:1-10, and recognizing them brings greater understanding to its canonical function. Identifying these themes reveals why the Deuteronomist chose to incorporate this particular hymn into the history of Israel. It appears to function literarily on two different levels – one beings its connection to the Hannah narrative and the other its connection to the rest of Israel's history in 1-2 Samuel. Childs observes that the Song of Hannah acts as a key to interpret the rest of the book.71 That is, 1 Samuel 2:1-10 is much more than merely an inserted hymn that fits well with Hannah's story. Though the reference to the king certainly gives a clue to the song's original function, it also acts as a theological foreshadow to what is about to take place in the book by anticipating what God is going to do with the Davidic monarchy. Using this method, other scholars have recognized themes in Hannah's song that continually unfold throughout the book. For example, Martin identifies a theme of "barrenness reversed to fertility for the obedient."72 Hannah's story literally acts out the theme and then her song theologically expresses it. Childs shows that David's song in 2 Sam 22 also gives a theological explanation, but being at the end of the book, it refers to all that has taken place. 65 See both Lewis, "Textual History," 46, and McCarter, 1 Samuel, 73. 66 Klein, "Song," 679. 67 Ibid, 679. 68 Willis, "Song of Hannah," 142, 151. 69 Ibid, 149. 70 McCarter, 1 Samuel, 76. 71 Brevard Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1979), 273. 72 John A. Martin, "Studies in 1 and 2 Samuel, part 1: The Structure of 1 and 2 Samuel," Bibliotheca Sacra 141, no.561 (1984): 32.
Several thematic connections between the songs73 further show that Hannah and David's songs intentionally and theologically frame the stories between them of how God reverses the situations of David and ultimately Israel by exalting them to "inherit a throne of honor."74 In essence, the Songs of Hannah and David offer a "theologizing of history,"75 by introducing and describing the God of Israel and how he controls and intervenes into history for his people. Randall Bailey makes some critical observations that I think deserve attention. His conclusions are applicable to far more than just the historical narratives in the books. He observes that though the themes most scholars identify in Hannah's song are true, they apply only to Israel's history. However, the main subject of 1 Samuel 2:1-10 is not Israel, but Yahweh. The question should then be, what does Hannah's song say about the God who is in control of history?76 A second astute point is that Yahweh does not always seem to rescue or exalt the powerless throughout 1-2 Samuel. Certainly, David came from humble beginnings, but why does Yahweh not rescue or reverse the situations of Uriah or Tamar?77 Are they not in just as much need as Hannah, if not more so? His conclusion recognizes that the Deuteronomist was most likely writing with the exile in mind, thus he chose the Song of Hannah to "present an orthodox view of Yhwh."78 In other words, many Israelites would be questioning Yahweh's true character after Jerusalem was conquered and Israel was forced into exile. Why is Yahweh not intervening and reversing the situation? For Bailey, the Song of Hannah is almost like a theodicy, affirming Yahweh's holiness even if he does not seem to "raise up the poor from the dust."79 The Deuteronomist is essentially saying, "Life may be like the narratives, but hope has to be grounded in the God characterized in the hymns."80 The mastery of the Deuteronomist is realized in that the Song of Hannah operates on all of these literary levels. It is a victory hymn praising God for triumph over one's enemies, a prayer of thanksgiving sung by a new mother, an explanation of how the exalted God balances out human experiences, an "interpretive key"81 to theologically understand Israel's history, and a challenge to hope in God despite life's unthinkable difficulties. To address these multiple and interconnected levels, the Deuteronomist inserted a hymn that readers often overlook as secondary. To do so is to miss the literary brilliance of the Deuteronomist. 73 Compare 2:1 with 22:2-3, 2:2 with 22:32, and 2:10 with 22:14 74 Author's translation of 1 Sam 2:8b 75 Childs, Introduction, 278. 76 Randall C. Bailey, "The Redemption of YHWH: A Literary Critical Function of the Songs of Hannah and David," Biblical Interpretation 3 (1995): 217. 77 Bailey, "Redemption," 218. 78 Ibid, 219. 79 Author's translation of 1 Sam 2:8a 80 Bailey, "Redemption,"231. 81 Childs, Introduction, 273.
Recognizing these multiple levels is what makes the Song of Hannah continually relevant. As a whole, the message of 1Sam 2:1-10 is succinctly stated in verse 9: "For not by strength does a person prevail." We as humans, do not climb the career or financial ladder on our own power. It the power of the one and only incomparable God who intervenes, transforms, and ultimately reverses the misfortunes of the oppressed; thus silencing, warning, and judging those proud and arrogant. Hannah's horn is exalted only because God, the High One, chose to exalt it. This God, who created the universe, also balances out human experience so that none can claim that success is because of their own ability. Hannah's song teaches us that there is no room for arrogance when aware of the one true God. Indeed, those that oppose this truth become enemies of God and will be ridiculed, silenced, and ultimately shattered. Furthermore, this song announces a hopeful message to the poor and powerless, telling of a God who brings low those rich and proud while inverting the social order. Acting on behalf of the oppressed is "the basis of Yahweh's incomparable holiness."82 It is important to note that God does not raise the poor alongside the rich, but completely reverses their situations. The Deuteronomist intended these truths to ring true for Israel, for as the history unfolds, we learn of a king and people whose horns are exalted and situations reversed by God to a place of power. This song does not tell of a God who occasionally involves himself in some general history.83 Rather, it sings of a specific God who directly cares for his people, interacting and guiding the historical process by inverting social realities. Today, we must realize that those in high recognition are there because God allows them to be. This should speak to us not only as individuals but as a nation. God can intervene into the social structures of our day and totally reverse our circumstances. This should instill utmost humility to those who have been exalted, and offer hope to those of poor estate. This song shows us that nothing is impossible with God. Barren women are bountifully given children but only by the power of God. The weak overcome the mighty in battle, but only because of the power of God. Those consumed by death are rescued and brought to life but yet again – only because of God. Hopelessness does not exist when under the care of the High One. There is no such thing as impossibility. Our circumstances can literally be reversed when the incomparable God intervenes. The Deuteronomist wants to remind us that this is true not only for individuals but also for communities, and nations. For as Hannah sings of God's transformative power, she also sings of the transformative power about to unfold for the whole of Israel. 82 Gail O'Day, "Singing Woman's Song: A Hermeneutic of Liberation," Currents in Theology and Mission, 12 no.4 (1985): 205. 83 O'day, "Singing," 204.
This famous prayer was familiar to the Gospel writer who incorporated it as part of the Magnificat.84 In these parallel passages, both tell of women whose lives are now changed in light of a newborn son. Both are humble women of low status whose children lead to a new kingdom. Luke's application of this song declares that the themes introduced by the Deuteronomist continue, not only throughout the history of the monarchy, but forevermore –telling of how the incomparable Most High God intervenes and transforms the lives of his people. When Luke chooses to use this song, he tells a story of how the horn of the true anointed one is ultimately exalted. Luke describes how the Most High God of reversals came "to bring good news to the poor."85 When we read the Magnificat in Luke with Hannah's song on our minds, the themes of 1 Sam 2:1-10 should utterly astound us in light of what is being told in Luke's Gospel. The God who exalts the powerless to sit as places of honor leaves his throne of glory to come to earth as a mere infant. The Most High God, reverses his situation and descends into death. Yet just as Hannah's song ends with utmost praise and glory to the incomparable God, so also does Luke's story end with praise and glory forevermore. Luke has recognizes that the themes in Hannah's song are continually being told through the power of Christ. We as Christians must join and sing that song.
84 See Luke 1:46-55 85 Luke 4:18 (NRSV).
BIBLIOGRAPHY Albright, William Foxwell. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths. New York: Doubleday, 1968. Auld, A. Graeme. I &II Samuel: A Commentary. OTL. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011. Bailey, Randall C. "The Redemption of YHWH: A Literary Critical Function of the Songs of Hannah and David." Biblical Interpretation 3, no.2 (1995): 213-231. Berlin, Adele. "Hannah and Her Prayers," Scriptura 87 (2004): 227-232. Birch, Bruce C. The First and Second Books of Samuel: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections. NIB 2. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1998. Brown, Francis, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1906. Brueggemann, Walter. First and Second Samuel. Interpretation. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1990. Calderone, Philip J. "HDL-II in Poetic Texts," Catholic Biblical Quarterly 23 no.4 (1961): 451-460. Childs, Brevard. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1979. Coppes, Leonard J. "!rQ," in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testamen, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer Jr., and Bruce Waltke, 2: 81-82. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1980. Hertzberg, Hans Wilhelm. I &II Samuel: A Commentary. OTL. Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press, 1964. Hill, Andrew E. "rWc" in The New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren, 3:793. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997. Klein, Ralph W. 1 Samuel. WBC 10. Waco, TX: Word Books, 1983. Klein, Ralph W. "The Song of Hannah," Concordia Theological Monthly 41 no. 10 (1970): 674-687. Labuschagne, C.J. "The Divine Title yl[, 'The High One," in The Song of Hannah," Vetus Testamentum 58, no.4-5 (2008): 644-649.
Lewis, Theodore J. "The Textual History of the Song of Hannah: 1 Samuel II 1-10," Vetus Testamentum 44, no.1 (1994): 18-46. Lewis, Theodore J. "The Songs of Hannah and Deborah: CHDL-II ('growing plump')," Journal of Biblical Literature 104 no.1 (1985): 105-108. Martin, John A. "Studies in 1 and 2 Samuel, part 1: The Structure of 1 and 2 Samuel," Bibliotheca Sacra 141, no.561 (1984): 28-42. McCarter, P. Kyle. 1 Samuel. AB 9. New York: Doubleday, 1984. O'Day, Gail. "Singing Woman's Song: A Hermeneutic of Liberation." Currents in Theology and Mission 12 no.4 (1985): 203-210. Smith, Gary V. and Victor Hamilton. "~Wr," in The New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren, 3:1079. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997. Tov, Emanuel. "Different Editions of the Song of Hannah and of Its Narrative Framework," In Tehillah le-Moshe: Biblical and Judaic Studies in Honor of Moshe Greenberg. ed. Mordechai Cogan, Barry L. Eichler, and Jeffrey H. Tigay, 149-70. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997. Willis, John T. "Song of Hannah and Psalm 113." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 35 no.2 (1973): 139-154.
K.J. Norris-Wilke K.J. Norris-Wilke is a graduating M.Div. senior; she is a member of Open Door Church and a candidate in the PC(U.S.A).
Philippians 2:6-11: Encomium to the Lord Jesus Christ for the Roman Colony of Philippi From looking anew at the context of the Letter to the Philippians as addressed to the church in the Roman Colony of Philippi, this article considers the form of Philippians 2:6-11 to be an encomium and then considers challenging points of translation through comparison to other encomia written around the same time period. This piece was written in the winter of 2013-14, under the supervision of Dr. Edith Humphrey.
Philippians 2:6-11: Encomium to the Lord Jesus Christ for the Roman Colony of Philippi Raymond Brown, in his Introduction to the New Testament calls Philippians 2:6-11, "the most famous passage in Philippians (and indeed among the most memorable lines ever penned by the apostle)."1 These lines are indeed memorable, and they are also some of the most debated and discussed words in the New Testament. Recent scholarship based on archeology, an understanding of the Roman colony Philippi, and Greco-Roman literary style and vocabulary help bring clarity to this beautiful and challenging passage of Scripture. Context: Philippi, The Roman Colony To understand Philippians as a whole and the encomium in particular, one must become familiar with the community Paul addresses and the type of writing he uses with this audience. To create a detailed description of the ancient city of Philippi for his book Christ Identity, Sergio Rosell Nebreda researched archeological finds, ancient texts by Roman historians, and the Biblical text. Although inhabited earlier, the ancient city Philippi was claimed and built up by the Greeks circa 360 BCE. Then in 168 BCE, the Greek city was conquered by the Roman empire.2 An important turning point came in the Roman city in 42 BCE when Mark Antony and Octavian (later Augustus Caesar) defeated the assassins of Julius Caesar. Nebreda explains, "The battles involved large numbers of legions that needed to be fed and kept there for some time after."3 In fact, after the victory, Antony extended the boundary of the city and settled many of the veterans of the war in Philippi.4 In Reconstructing Honor in Roman Philippi, Joseph Hellerman describes this time period in Philippi's history saying, "The changes brought about through the refounding of Philippi under Augustus can hardly be over emphasized...evidence for the refounding of the colony a little more than a decade later explicitly identifies Philippi with a new world order."5 The number of people resettled, including veterans and their families, is hard to estimate and could have been as few as 500 or as many as 3000,6 but by the end, Roman colonists numbered to at least ¼ of the population.7 1 Raymond Edward Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament, The Anchor Bible Reference Library (New York: Doubleday, 1997), 491. 2 Sergio Rosell Nebreda, Christ Identity: a Social-Scientific Reading of Philippians 2.5-11 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011), 119-122. 3 Ibid., 123. 4 Ibid., 124. 5 Joseph H. Hellerman, Reconstructing Honor in Roman Philippi: Carmen Christi as Cursus Pudorum (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 67. 6 Ibid., 69. 7 Ibid., 70.
Nebreda suggests that in the city, Romans became the majority.8 Regardless of the number, the resettlement totally transformed the population of Philippi and the Roman populace became extremely dominant. "Colonization meant dispossession of the land at the hands of the new landowners;"9 in other words, the Greek majority was displaced from their land and homes to make way for the Romans. Generally, the displaced people moved into the urban centers during this period. In addition, the Roman citizens controlled the way of life in Philippi, dominating in "issues of honor, status, and social values."10 During this period, the imperial cult took on a "position of prominence at the very center of the settlement's religious and social life."11 In his commentary on Philippians, John Reumann states, "Philippi was almost unique among cities Paul addressed in his letters: it differed from other places he evangelized because of its 'Romanness' and lack of a Jewish community."12 Nebreda affirms the fact that the Jewish community was largely absent from the Roman colony of Philippi stating, "there is no archeological evidence for Jewish settlements."13 This understanding is also upheld by the Biblical evidence presented in Acts. In Chapter 16, the author describes Paul's first missionary journey to Philippi. Here, Paul does not preach in the synagogue (presumably because there is no synagogue), and instead the author reports, "On the Sabbath day we went outside the gate by the river, where we supposed there was a place of prayer; and we sat down and spoke to the women who had gathered there" (Acts 16:13, NRSV). According to Gordon Fee's Commentary on Philippians, Lydia, the "worshiper of God" named in this passage, has a distinctively Greek name, as do Euodia and Syntyche, who are mentioned as co-workers of Paul in Philippians 4:2-3; according to Fee, "Clement" also mentioned in these verses is a distinctively Roman name.14 This historical background and Biblical evidence leads to the realization that when considering the audience of the letter sent to Philippi, the recipients of the letter should be understood primarily to include Greek converts to Christianity who were living in a Roman-occupied colony. This context is extremely important for understanding Philippians as a whole and the pericope of Philippians 2:6-11 in particular. In Gordon Fee's opening comments on Philippians, he explains that there is a two-fold "driving force" behind Paul's letter to the Philippians, "(1) suffering because of current opposition in Philippi, and (2) internal unrest of some sort."15 8 Nebreda, 125. 9 Ibid, 127. 10 Hellerman, 71. 11 Ibid., 80. 12 John Henry Paul Reumann, The Anchor Yale Bible, vol. v. 33B, Philippians: a New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 3. 13 Nebreda, 130. 14 Ibid., 26. 15 Ibid., 29.
What was the cause of the suffering of early Christians in Philippi? Most likely, it was the tension between the mostly poor, landless Greek Christians and the wealthy, ruling Romans who generally followed the imperial cult. When considering the imperial cult, it is important to note two distinctive features. One, as the name suggests, the imperial cult was in many ways a religious expression of devotion. As Fee explains, by the time Philippians was written, "the primary titles for the emperor were ku,rioj and swth,r,"16 lord and savior. The emperor was honored in a way which elevated his status to almost a godlike state. Although some scholars have shown that the emperor himself was not usually worshiped directly (sacrifices were made on behalf of the emperor more than to the emperor),17 archeological evidence shows a strong synchronization between traditional gods and goddesses and the emperor. For instance, in the article on "Identity in Philippians 2.6-11," Robert Brawley shows a Roman coin created during the rein of Claudius. On it, Emperor Augustus is standing on a pedestal next to a female deity known in Philippi.18 This shows the great respect given to the emperor who was seen as one close to the gods. Furthermore, as David Seeley shows in his article, "The Background of the Philippians Hymn (2:6-11)," some individuals took the desire to be worshipped further than others. The Roman Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, known by his popular name, Caligula (37-41 CE), wanted to present himself as having the form of a god. He dressed himself "in elaborate costumes as various gods and goddesses" and even ordered famous statues of gods to be brought to Greece where their heads were removed and his own likeness was placed on top.19 Therefore, the imperial cult, though it may not have worshipped the emperor, certainly showed a kind of reverence for the emperor which went far and above general respect. One can see how this kind of reverence could be problematic for Christians who believed "their allegiance was to another ku,rioj,"20 as Fee states. The second characteristic of note for the imperial cult was its highly social and political aspect. As Hellerman explains, unlike religion today in America which emphasizes the private nature of faith, in the first century, religion was "decidedly public and collective in nature."21 The whole city would have been expected to attend festivals which honored the emperor. Nebreda quotes Oakes when explaining, "to reject participation in the cult was to a larger extent rebellion against the status quo. 'To dishonour the imperial god was, of course, to dishonour 16 Ibid., 31. 17 Nebreda, 136. 18 Robert Brawley, "From Reflex to Reflection? Identity in Philippians 2.6-11 and Its Context," Reading Paul in Context: Explorations in Identity Formation, ed. Kathy Ehrensperger and J. Brian Tucker (London: T & T Clark International, 2010), 143. 19 David Seeley, "The Background of the Philippians Hymn (2: 6-11)", Institute for Higher Critical Studies (Fall 1994): 55. 20 Fee, 31. 21 Hellerman, 81.
the emperor.'"22 Showing this kind of open disrespect in the Roman colony of Philippi would certainly create an environment ripe for persecution. Furthermore, in this Greco-Roman society, there was a complex relationship between the weak and the powerful. As Holly Hearon explains in her paper on "Power and Privilege In James," under Roman rule "there was nothing that resembled what we would call a 'middle class.'"23 Instead, there was a strict division between the rich and the poor, who were often living on the edge of poverty. The poor generally depended upon the rich through a system of patronage wherein the rich served as patrons who "provided material assistance, social connections, protection, and honor by association."24 Social relationships, therefore, were crucial for the life and wellbeing of the poor. Nebreda shows from archeological evidence that many Greeks hoped to move into positions of power and even citizenship; Latin inscriptions found in Greek regions reveal "efforts to flatter the Roman government in the hope that Roman citizenship might be achieved."25 This was especially common during the reign of Claudius (41-54 CE) who reportedly granted citizenship to many non-Romans.26 Therefore, within Paul's audience, there were most likely Greeks who were dependent upon Roman citizens for their livelihoods, some of whom may have wanted to gain Roman citizenship themselves. There may have been some Roman converts as well, as in Clement, mentioned above. Context: The Hellenistic Letter It is into this historical context that Paul sends a letter. As one would now expect, Paul writes a thoroughly Greek letter for this audience. Although it has been argued that this letter is not actually one letter at all, but two or three letters assimilated into one by a later redactor (see Reumann, 1, 6-8), this article will stand with the majority of scholars in considering Philippians to be all one letter, following the introductory textbooks of Raymond Brown27 as well as Marshall, Travis, and Paul.28 As explained in Social-Science Commentary: Letters of Paul, most Hellenistic letters follow the basic structure of superscription, thanksgiving, body, and conclusion.29 Philippians fits this basic structure and closes with an additional word of thanksgiving at the end.30 Gordon Fee argues 22 Nebreda, 139. 23 Holly E. Hearon, "But Be Doers Of The Word: Power And Privilege In James." Encounter 72.1 (2011): 82. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 5 Feb. 2014. 24 Ibid., 82. 25 Nebreda, 164. 26 Ibid., 167. 27 R. Brown, 498. 28 I. Howard Marshall, Steven Travis, and Ian Paul, Exploring the New Testament (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 139. 29 Bruce J. Malina and John J. Pilch, Social-Science Commentary On the Letters of Paul (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2006), 366. 30 Ibid., 295-6.
that Philippians is a specific kind of Hellenistic letter known as a "Letter of Friendship,"31 and describes in detail types of "friends" in the Greco-Roman world.32 Perhaps, the most important idea coming from this argument is the understanding that Paul saw the recipients of this letter as partners. As Fee says, "there has been a 'participation/partnership' in the gospel from the very beginning, a partnership that involved the Philippians themselves in evangelism and in furthering the gospel through their 'benefactions' to Paul."33 In other words, Paul writes this letter to those whom he considers co-workers in ministry. It seems that there is little to no agreement among scholars to a central theme within Philippians, but looking at the variety of proposals sheds light on several key motifs. The writers of Exploring the New Testament highlight two main themes: "first, the work of the gospel in which he and the readers share...and second, the spiritual growth of the readers in love."34 Fee takes a different approach and highlights the main motif as, "Paul's repeated emphasis on the believer's sure future with its eschatological triumph;"35 he emphasizes this motif against the background of suffering and friendship highlighted above. Reumann notes eight different "purposes" for Philippians. Among his purposes are "1. to express joy over the mutual relationship of Paul and the Philippians...6. help clarify ethical matters including the problem of suffering...8. promote mission, progress of the gospel."36 Finally, Seeley, who is primarily looking at Philippians 2:6-11, emphasizes the theme of the sovereignty of God, in the context of the Roman imperial cult.37 This article acknowledges the above mentioned themes as being the fertile soil in which Philippians 2:611 is planted and which will help bring growth to a firm understanding of the passage in question. Also based holistically on the work of Brawley, Hellerman, Malina/Pilch, and a thorough reading of the text, the theme of citizenship under the Lord Jesus Christ stands out as a major motif in Philippians. One last note about the Philippians generally before looking specifically at Philippians 2:6-11: Gordon Fee gives textual notes on the words in Philippians. He says, "There are 1633 words in Philippians, with a vocabulary of 438."38 Out of these 438, 34 are words that Paul only uses here. In other words, 8% of the words used in Philippians are words Paul never uses in any of his other letters. Fee continues to show that many of these 34 are specific to the context of Philippi being a Roman colony. For instance, the NRSV translates the beginning of Phil 1:27, as "Only, live your life in a manner worthy of the 31 Fee, 2. 32 Ibid., 4-14. 33 Ibid., 6. 34 Marshall, Travis and Paul, 137. 35 Fee, 30. 36 Reumann, 77. 37 Seeley, 50. 38 Fee, 18.
gospel of Christ." However, the verb used here is politeu,omai usually defined "to be a citizen."39 Perhaps a more literal translation would be 'Only, live your citizenship in a manner worthy of the gospel of Christ.' Fee takes note of this verb, as well as other terms like the "'Praetorian Guard' (1:13) [and] 'Caesar's household' (4:22)."40 This unique vocabulary again highlights the uniqueness of audience to whom this letter was addressed. Literary Form of Philippians 2:6-11: Encomium Scholarship has long recognized that Philippians 2:6-11 is different from the surrounding text, but a debate has been raging for a century over what kind of writing is found in these verses. Modern scholarship on the topic generally begins with Ernest Lohmeyer's 1928 work which led many after him to refer to this text as a 'hymn'.41 Colin Brown gives careful analysis of Lohmeyer's work as a "memorial tribute" to Lohmeyer in Martin/Dodd's collection of essays entitled Where Christology Began. Colin Brown shows how Lohmeyer divided the six verses in to six stanzas, each with three lines, reprinted here for discussion and reference:42 (1) ὃς ἐν μορφῇ θεοῦ ὑπάρχων οὐχ ἁρπαγμὸν ἡγήσατο τὸ εἶναι ἴσα θεῷ (2) ἀλλὰ ἑαυτὸν ἐκένωσεν μορφὴν δούλου λαβών, ἐν ὁμοιώματι ἀνθρώπων γενόμενος· (3) καὶ σχήματι εὑρεθεὶς ὡς ἄνθρωπος ἐταπείνωσεν ἑαυτὸν γενόμενος ὑπήκοος μέχρι θανάτου, θανάτου δὲ σταυροῦ (4) διὸ καὶ ὁ θεὸς αὐτὸν ὑπερύψωσεν
καὶ ἐχαρίσατο αὐτῷ τὸ ὄνομα τὸ ὑπὲρ πᾶν ὄνομα,
39 BDAG, 846. 40 Fee, 19. 41 Nebreda, 288. 42 Collin Brown, "Ernest Lohmeyer's Kyrio Jesus," Where Christology Began: Essays On Philippians 2, ed. Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), 8.
(5) ἵνα ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι Ἰησοῦ πᾶν γόνυ κάμψῃ ἐπουρανίων καὶ ἐπιγείων καὶ καταχθονίων (6) καὶ πᾶσα γλῶσσα ἐξομολογήσηται ὅτι κύριος Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς εἰς δόξαν θεοῦ πατρός. Although the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament does not clearly demarcate the six stanzas as Lohmeyer proposed, the editors do follow the same line breaks.43 Most scholars in fact accept Lohmeyer's groundbreaking literary format of this passage, but as Fee notes, not all do. According to Fee, "There are at least five other basic proposals, with modifications in several of them."44 Though, with that said, Lohmeyer's schema has many literary qualities which make it a highly reasonable proposal. As summarized by Colin Brown, notice that each stanza is approximately of the same length and contains only one predicate.45 Each stanza has three lines with the exception of (3) which contains θανάτου δὲ σταυροῦ, "death on the cross"46 which is a clarifying echo of the line above. Lohmeyer believed this line was added by Paul to this 'hymn.'47 Observe that each additional stanza begins with some kind of connecting word (avlla., kai., dio. kai., i`,na, kai.) translated 'but, and, and therefore, so that, and,' respectively.48 Finally, notice that this structure follows the natural thematic break in the text, referencing a lowering of position in the first three stanzas and a raising of position in the final three, with the strong dio. kai., 'and therefore,' breaking the work into halves.49 It was this linguistic quality which led Lohmeyer to believe "that the passage was no ordinary piece of letter writing or even rhetorical prose, but a carefully crafted poem."50 In addition to the form evidence above, R. P. Martin in his 1960 work An Early Christian Confession, points out "the presence of rare words and phrases" within these verses.51 Above, this paper noted that all of Philippians has unusual words, ones which can generally be tied to the context of the recipients as people 43 Eberhard Nestle et al., Greek-English New Testament, 27th rev. ed. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1994), 518. 44 Fee, 42. 45 C. Brown, 8. 46 Ibid., 9. 47 Ibid., 9. 48 Ibid., 7. 49 Ibid., 9. 50 Ibid., 9. 51 Ralph P. Martin, An Early Christian Confession: Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship. (London: Tyndale Pr, 1960), 9.
living in a Roman colony. However, as Nebreda observes, within these six verses there is a large collection of words which appear no where else in Paul's letters nor anywhere else in the New Testament.52 Additional support for the idea that these six verses are identifiable as a specific literary subset is found within the theme of the verses set in contrast to the general direction of the letter. Taking a cursory look at Philippians Chapter 2, it is easy to observe that Paul is directly addressing the Philippians, admonishing them in unity and love in vv 1-5. Then, the writing shifts to a specific description of the Lord Jesus Christ. Following verse 11 comes `,Wste, a strong conjunction used for "introducing independent clauses" and generally translated "for this reason, therefore"53 as explained in A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. Then the passage picks up with more admonishment of the Philippian Christians. Martin summarizes these observations, saying that "[t]he 'Hymn' of verses 5-11 clearly interrupts the flow of the hortatory theme, and points to the fact that the section has been inserted at this juncture as a citation by the apostle of what would be to him the appropriate quotation to support his admonition to the Philippians."54 Therefore, the literary style exhibited by Lohmeyer, the high concentration of unusual words, and the interruption of a consistent message in the beginning of Chapter 2 led scholars to believe Philippians 2:6-11 is a specific poetic subsection within the text. But the question remains: What kind of poetry is this? The general consensus is that Philippians 2:6-11 is a hymn. Hymns, by definition, are "sung in praise of the gods" and are used "primarily in cultic contexts."55 Many biblical hymns are discernible by a context given by the author. For instance, in Revelation 4, the author sets a context of worship describing elders who "fall before the one who is seated on the throne and worship" (Rev. 4:10a) before giving the words of the hymn in 4:11. Although there is no introduction of this sort in Philippians 2, it is certainly possible that vv 6-11 could have been used in a worship context. As Bailey and Vander Broek say in their book, Literary Forms in the New Testament, "It is not hard to imagine this poem being sung or chanted in the early church."56 Indeed, many have imagined that this section of the letter was used in worship and then inserted here by Paul as an example.57 However, given the fact that no context is explicitly stated by the author, other forms of poetry should be considered as well. To answer the question, "what kind poetry is this?" it is very helpful to look again at the historical context of the recipients of the letter. 52 Nebreda, 290. 53 BDAG, 1107. 54 Martin, 11. 55 David Edward Aune, The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003), 222. 56 James L. Bailey and Lyle D. Vander Broek, Literary Forms in the New Testament: A Handbook (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992), 80. 57 R. Brown, 491.
It has been shown that Philippians is a thoroughly Greek letter, written to a thoroughly Greek audience who live in a Roman colony. Therefore, it is fitting to look at other forms of Greek prose when considering what kind of writing Philippians 2:6-11 might be. One common form of writing from this period was an encomium, which is "a transliteration of the Latin form of the Greek word ("praise"), one of the three main types of *epideictic rhetoric,"58 as defined by the Oxford Classical Dictionary. In the book Portraits of Paul, the authors explain that we know about Greek literary forms not only by interacting with the forms themselves, but also from reading progymnasmata, Greek writings which were used in antiquity to teach students how to write.59 From studying progymnasmata, the authors learned that encomia contain four basic elements summarized with the following opening words: "1. Origin and birth 2. Nurture and training 3. Accomplishments 4. Comparison."60 The authors go on to give detailed descriptions of the four parts as well as examples of encomia from Greek texts as well as from Biblical texts. In their examples, they do not list Philippians 2:6-11 as an encomium itself. In fact, they do refer to and even quote the passage in question, but the authors do so to make a point about the encomium Paul writes about himself in Philippians 3:2-11.61 Nevertheless, based on the evidence they present for an encomium, Philippians 2:6-11 fits the schema of an encomium. To notice that Philippians 2:6-11 fits the qualification of an encomium, the NRSV translation of these verses will be used. After verifying the form, care will be taken with the specific translation of the Greek text. First, notice that vv. 6-11 fit the definition of an encomium by being a text which gives praise to an individual. Next, note that it begins with the individual's "origin and birth," stating that Christ Jesus was "in the form of God" (v. 6). Then, the text goes on to list Christ's "nurture and training:" he "emptied himself, taking the form of a slave, being born in human likeness: (v. 7). Fitting the third expected part of an encomium, a listing of "accomplishments," the biblical text gives, "he humbled himself and became obedient to the point of death" (v. 8). Some may say that obedience to the point of death is difficult to see as an 'accomplishment;' however, when one looks at the Greek understanding of an ideal ruler as presented by the ancient Greek historian and philosopher Dio Chrysostom, as expressed in Seeley's paper,62 accomplishment through humility seems fitting within the encomium form. And finally, this passage ends with a "comparison" section; Christ is compared to others when the text says, "at the name of Jesus every knee should bend" (v. 10). 58 The Oxford Classical Dictionary, fourth ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 145. 59 Bruce J. Malina and Jerome H. Neyrey, Portraits of Paul: An Archaeology of Ancient Personality (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996), 22. 60 Ibid., 23-24. 61 Ibid., 51-52. 62 Seeley, 56.
Therefore, the thematic structure of Philippians 2:6-11 suggests that this writing is an encomium. It is interesting to note that Bailey and Vander Broek, cited above as saying that Philippians 2:6-11 is a hymn, never consider encomia as a literary form used in the New Testament. Likewise the exhaustive Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, which has a four-page article on hymns, does not even list encomia as a form.63 It is possible that encomia may simply have been overlooked as an important literary style for letters like Philippians which have a thoroughly Greek audience. If one accepts that Philippians 2:6-11 is indeed an encomium, then instead of seeing the work in the context of worship, one might understand these verses in the context of evangelism. It is generally understood that Paul saw himself first and foremost as an evangelist who became a Jew to the Jews and a Greek to the Greeks (1 Cor 9:19-23) and who used Greek and Roman beliefs and ideas as a place to start evangelistic conversation (see Acts 17:16ff, for example). It is certainly possible that Paul is using an encomium, a hero poem used for evangelism in Philippi, to make a broader point when writing this letter to the Philippian church. Furthermore, it is highly possible that the Philippian Christians would have known and used this encomium, for they were not just converts themselves, but true partners in the evangelistic work of the Church, as described above.64 Reumann in the Yale Anchor Commentary Series upholds this view. He expresses his "working theory" of the literary style and purpose of these verses saying, "Paul employs in vv 6-11 an encomium the Philippians had worked out to use in mission proclamation about Christ and God in their GrecoRoman world."65 Reumann makes this claim by referring to the study done by Malina and Neyrey described above as well as studies in German by K. Berger written between 1980-1984. Therefore, there is enough historical and literary evidence to make the claim that Philippians is a Hellenistic letter which includes Philippians 2:6-11 as an encomium—an evangelistic poem about the Lord Jesus Christ which reveals Christ's origin, nurture, and accomplishments and compares him to others. This is important because if Philippians 2:6-11 is an encomium, it can be compared to other encomia within a similar time period in the Greco-Roman world. It can be very helpful for interpreting the passage as a whole to see how difficult words in this pericope are translated in other encomia and Greco-Roman literature during this time period.
63 Gerald F. Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin, Dictionary of Paul and His Letters (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1993). 64 R. Brown, 484-485. 65 Reumann, 333.
Translation: The Language of the Encomium It has already been acknowledged that the Greek text of Philippians 2:6-11 is difficult to translate because many words within it are found nowhere else in Pauline letters, nor in the New Testament as a whole. Therefore, to translate the encomium, comparisons must be made within the context of Greco-Roman literature. David Seeley, in his article for the Institute for Higher Critical Studies, does just this for many of the highly debated terms. Again utilizing Lohmeyer's textual breaks, the first stanza of the text reads:
ὃς ἐν μορφῇ θεοῦ ὑπάρχων οὐχ ἁρπαγμὸν ἡγήσατο τὸ εἶναι ἴσα θεῷ
The first unusual term encountered has the lexical form morfh, and is found here in the dative singular. The Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament shows that morfh, is only used in three places: here in the first stanza, then in the second stanza in the accusative singular, and then again in the dative singular case in Mark 16:12. In Mark it is used to describe Jesus' appearance after the resurrection. A basic definition of morfh, is given as "form, outward appearance, shape,"66 but much ink has been spilled debating over the connotation of morfh,. Does this mean that Christ is God and was pre-existent in the very "form" of God? If Christ was in the "form" of God, is this referring to a specific aspect of God like God's glory? Why does the writer of this encomium use a term that is generally used for appearance rather than substance? Is this term meaningful to the audience in Philippi? The proposed options are too numerous to summarize here, but for a collection of options and scholarly references, one can read John Reumann's summary on pages 341-344 of the Anchor Yale Commentary. For our purposes, let us simply consider how seeing morfh, in Greco-Roman literature can give clarity to the context in which this term was often used. As previously noted, Philippians is written to an audience living in a Roman colony wherein the imperial cult was dominant. As reported by Philo and Josephus, during the reign of Caligula, the emperor presented himself as having the form morfh, of god. David Seeley summarizes Philo's Legatio ad Gaium saying, "Philo ridicules his donning of such regalia, stating that 'a divine form (qeou/ morfh|/) cannot be counterfeited as a coin can be.'"67 It seems likely that the encomium is standing in direct contrast to the imperial cult, stating that while the emperor may like to dress himself up like a god, Jesus Christ was preexistent in the very form of God. This contrast would not have been missed by Paul's original recipients.
Another word which is difficult to translate and has produced volumes
66 BDAG, 659. 67 Seeley, 55.
of literature is found in the second line of the first stanza. a`rpagmo,j is found only here in the biblical text and the Greek-English Lexicon states that it is rare in non-biblical Greek as well68 and then lists several different ways in which the term could be translated including "1. robbery 2. something claimed 2.a. booty, (a) grab 2.b. a piece of good fortune, windfall, prize, gain 3. rapture."69 The best summary for this scholarly debate is found in N. T. Wright's The Climax of the Covenant. All of Chapter 4 focuses on this one term; page 81 gives an impressive table listing 18 different ways in which a`rpagmo,j has been analyzed.70 The main questions surround whether the text is saying that Jesus already possessed all equality with God and did not try to hold on to it or whether he did not yet have all equality with God and could gain it without suffering but chose instead to empty himself, even to the point of death on the cross. Wright offers a solution based on seeing Jesus metaphorically as the new Adam, as Paul explains in Romans 5:12-21.71 Seeing an intertexual echo here from Genesis 3 has become a popular way to read this passage,72 but it can be problematic. First, textual support that this is what the encomium has in mind is weak. Although James Dunn in his chapter titled "Christ, Adam, and Pre-existence" tries to make a case between morfh|/ qeou/, 'form of God' in Phil 2:6 and eivko,na qeou/, 'image of God,' as a description of how humankind is formed in the Septuagint translation of Gen 1:27,73 there is no direct quote from Genesis 1-3 anywhere in this text.74 Reumann asserts, "vv 6-7b provide no overt evidence for such overtones [of a contrast to Adam]."75 In addition, Wright himself acknowledges that creating a strong parallel between Jesus and Adam here lends itself naturally to an argument against Christ's pre-existence.76 Wright ultimately rejects this premise and tries to show that this passage can teach a pre-existent Christ even within an Adam-christology framework,77 but perhaps there is another way of addressing the difficulty of a`rpagmo,j which relies on a more defendable contextual reading. Yet again, understanding the encomium in its given context in the Roman colony yields a helpful comparison. As noted above, the first key component of an encomium is to express the person's origin. Generally, this is done by showing both a location or nation of an individual's birth and a family from 68 BDAG, 133. 69 Ibid., 133-134. 70 N T. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992), 81. 71 Ibid., 57. 72 See James Dunn as well as Lincoln Hurst in Where Christology Began, to name a few. 73 James Dunn, "Christ, Adam, and Preexistence," Where Christology Began: Essays On Philippians 2, ed. Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), 76-77. 74 Wright, 72. 75 Reumann, 368. 76 Wright, 91. 77 Ibid., 95.
which the individual is born. In Portraits of Paul authors Malina and Neyrey quote from the Loeb Classical Library's translation of Aristotle's Rhetorica which says, "Noble birth, in the case of a nation or State, means that its members or inhabitants are sprung from the soil, and or long standing; that its first members were famous leaders, and that many of their descendants have been famous for qualities that are highly esteemed."78 Clearly, Christ's origin as morfh|/ qeou/ shows both a place and an odd sort of "lineage of nobility," that is, a pre-existence which has no lineage. But encomia sometimes did more than simply state an individual's background. Malina and Neyrey go on to quote from the Greek rhetorician Menander Rhetor's progymnasmata which says, "You must take a few features from the nation...[arguing] that he stands out among all his praiseworthy compatriots."79 In other words, it was quite common for the first part of an encomium to include traits of a person which showed that the individual was worthy of praise. Using a`rpagmo,j in the Greco-Roman context of Philippi meets this criteria if understood through comparative texts, as follows. David Seeley looks at several of first century CE Greek philosopher Dio Chrysostom's teachings on kingship. Multiple times the word a`rpagmo,j is used within these texts.80 Of particular notice is a conversation Dio Chrysostom records between Alexander the Great and Diogenes of Sinope about what characteristics make an ideal king and what characteristics "ought to be firmly rejected."81 Describing traits to be rejected, Seeley explains, quoting Dio Chrysostom, "First among them is avarice; he who possesses it has 'the soul of a worthless cur, that snatches up (a`rpagmo,j) things.'"82 In other words, it was thought in the Greco-Roman world that true leaders would avoid a`rpagmo,j more than any other trait. The encomium shows that Jesus avoids a`rpagmo,j. His origin is such that he is in the very form of God and his characteristics are also ruler-like because he chooses to avoid a`rpagmo,j as great leaders should. This trait would be of particular importance to those in the city of Philippi who would have heard this encomium preached in evangelistic contexts. As explained previously, many in Philippi were victims of land seizure and cruel rules who often snatched as they saw fit. This encomium makes clear that Jesus is a great ruler, one who already has all things for he is the very God and has no need of a`rpagmo,j but instead chooses humility. Therefore, it can be said that the encomium is not comparing Jesus to Adam, but instead, Jesus to the imperial cult.83 Those receiving this evangelistic message may not be familiar with Hebrew allusions to Adam, but they 78 79 80 81 82 83
Aristotle, Rhetorica, as quoted in Malina and Neyrey, 25. Menander Rhetor, Progymnasmata, as quoted in Malina and Neyrey, 26. Seeley, 57. Ibid., 57. Ibid., 57. See also Reumann, 368-369.
certainly would understand and be drawn towards a great Lord who showed characteristics which counter the negative traits of rulers of the day who had no true power, but instead had to snatch it from others. Instead Jesus, one who is the very form of God, has no need of snatching and chooses humility. The encomium presents Jesus as one who does not have traits which would make him rejected as king but honored in this society of oppressed people. One final section of the encomium which should be discussed because of its difficulty is found in the first line of the fourth stanza: dio. kai. o` qeo.j auvto.n u`peru,ywsen. The difficulty here is the verb u`peru,ywsen, an aorist active indicative 3rd singular verb with the lexical form u`peruyo,w. Again, according to the Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, this verb is only found here in the New Testament.84 Most of the debate revolves around the question why u`peruyo,w is used instead of the more simple form of the verb, u`yo,w, "lift up, rise high."85 The added prefix u`per usually shows a "marker of a degree beyond that of a compared scale of extent, in the sense of excelling, surpassing, over and above, beyond, more than."86 Because of this added prefix, a variety of proposals have been made about Jesus's status before the incarnation and after the incarnation. Reumann includes helpful diagrams for understanding the range of possible understandings, many of which show Jesus being exalted higher after his incarnation and death than what he was in a pre-existent state.87 However, once again a contextual understanding of this text as an encomium helps shed light on the way in which the author understands Jesus' u`peruyo,w. As explained previously, the final aspect of an encomium is to compare the individual being praised to others.88 Jesus's post-incarnation state is not being compared to his pre-existent state; this is not how encomia work. Instead, he is being compared to other lords, namely, those who are held in high esteem in the imperial cult. The encomium recognizes that Jesus is not simply u`yo,w, "lift up, rise high;" he is lifted higher than all others. This is a very powerful expression. As Seeley states, "To say that a name possessed by Jesus Christ was above that of anyone else constituted an assertion whose boldness could not have been missed by citizens of the Empire."89 The encomium will go on to directly quote Isaiah from the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Old Testament, saying that every knee will bow to ku,rioj vIhsou/j Cristo.j, the Lord Jesus Christ. Although space does not allow for a full treatment of this statement, it should be noted that this quotation is fitting with the above teaching of Christ's pre-existence and exultation. In 84 85 86 87 88 89
BDAG, 1034. BDAG, 1045. Ibid., 1031. Reumann, 335. Malina and Neyrey, 24. Seeley, 58.
addition, although the audience is thoroughly Greek, this does not mean that one should expect a direct quote from the Septuagint would be missed by Paul's audience. As Dunn explains in his chapter within New Testament Theology in Light of the Church's Mission, Gentile Christians "were familiar with the Septuagint."90 While it is difficult to defend that a weak allusion to Adam would have been understood by Greco-Roman Christians, a direct quote from the Greek Scriptures could have been clear. Christians trained by Paul would have known and understood the context of this quote from Isaiah pointing to the one true God above all. This quote serves to end the encomium by comparing Jesus to others. It asserts that there is no other lord, even those recognized by the imperial cult, who compares to the Lord Jesus Christ for Christ is the very God YHWH,91 who is the unique God above all gods.92 Understanding Paul's use of the ku,rioj vIhsou/j Cristo.j Encomium for the Roman Colony Philippi After examining the historical context of the letter to the Philippians, the literary techniques used in the Roman-Greco world, and defining rare biblical terms used in the encomium based within their original context, conclusions can be drawn about Philippians 2:6-11. It can be said that Philippians 2:6-11 is a beautifully crafted encomium to ku,rioj vIhsou/j Cristo.j, the Lord Jesus Christ, which highlights in six stanzas Christ's origin, nurture, accomplishments, and compares him to others who were seen as lords by the imperial cult. The encomium shows that Christ was pre-existent in the very form of God, in contrast to Roman emperors who wanted to look like they were gods. It shows that Jesus fit the values of a true ruler who would not and had no need of snatching but chose the way of humility instead. And the encomium teaches an audience who may have been looking for power and prestige through citizenship in the Roman empire that there is only one true Lord, the very God of all gods, to whom every other knee will bow.
90 Dunn, James. "Methodology of Evangelism in the New Testament: Some Preliminary Reflections," New Testament Theology in Light of the Church's Mission: Essays in Honor of I. Howard Marshall, ed. Jon C. Laansma, Grant Osborne, and Ray Van Neste (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2011), 28. 91 Richard Bauckham, "The Worship of Jesus in Philippians 2:9-11," Where Christology Began: Essays On Philippians 2, ed. Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), 133. 92 For a helpful treatment of this theme, see Richard Bauckham in Where Christology Began as well as David Seeley's article "The Background of the Philippians Hymn (2:6-11)."
BIBLIOGRAPHY Aune, David Edward. The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003. Bailey, James L., and Lyle D. Vander Broek. Literary Forms in the New Testament: A Handbook. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992. Bauer, Walter, Frederick William Danker, William F. Arndt, and F.W. Gingrich (BDAG). A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd Edition. 3rd ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 2000. Bauckham, Richard "The Worship of Jesus in Philippians 2:9-11," Where Christology Began: Essays On Philippians 2. Edited by Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998. Brawley, Robert. "From Reflex to Reflection? Identity in Philippians 2.6-11 and Its Context," Reading Paul in Context: Explorations in Identity Formation. Edited by Kathy Ehrensperger and J. Brian Tucker. London: T & T Clark International, 2010. Brown, Collin. "Ernest Lohmeyer's Kyrios Jesus," Where Christology Began: Essays On Philippians 2. Edited by Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998. Brown, Raymond Edward. An Introduction to the New Testament. The Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1997. Dunn, James. "Christ, Adam, and Preexistence," Where Christology Began: Essays On Philippians 2, ed. Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998. Dunn, James. "Methodology of Evangelism in the New Testament: Some Preliminary Reflections," New Testament Theology in Light of the Church's Mission: Essays in Honor of I. Howard Marshall, ed. Jon C. Laansma, Grant Osborne, and Ray Van Neste. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2011. Fee, Gordon D. Paul's Letter to the Philippians. The New International Commentary On the New Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1995. Hawthorne, Gerald F., and Ralph P. Martin. Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1993.
Hearon, Holly E. "But Be Doers Of The Word": Power And Privilege In James." Encounter 72.1 (2011): 81-90. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 5 Feb. 2014. Hellerman, Joseph H. Reconstructing Honor in Roman Philippi: Carmen Christi as Cursus Pudorum. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Malina, Bruce J., and Jerome H. Neyrey. Portraits of Paul: An Archaeology of Ancient Personality. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996. Malina, Bruce J., and John J. Pilch. Social-Science Commentary On the Letters of Paul. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2006. Marshall, I. Howard, Steven Travis, and Ian Paul. Exploring the New Testament. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002. Martin, Ralph P. An Early Christian Confession: Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship. London: Tyndale Pr, 1960. Nebreda, Sergio Rosell. Christ Identity: a Social-Scientific Reading of Philippians 2.5-11. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011. Nestle, Eberhard, Erwin Nestle, Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland. Greek-English New Testament. 27th rev. ed. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1994. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Reumann, John Henry Paul. The Anchor Yale Bible. Vol. v. 33B, Philippians: a New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. Seeley, David. "The Background of the Philippians Hymn (2: 6-11)." Institute for Higher Critical Studies (Fall 1994): 49-72. Wright, N T. The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992.
Kathy Anderson Kathy Anderson is a 2004 MA graduate of PTS and is currently an Administrative Assistant to the Faculty.
The Christ Hymn in Paul's Letter to the Philippians (Philippians 2:6-11) This study is a contextual analysis of the distinct literary unit Philippians 2:6-11, often referred to as "The Christ Hymn." The study explores Paul's relationship with the Philippian church, the purpose of the letter, and how Paul's use of the hymn within the letter may have helped to achieve that purpose.
The Christ Hymn in Paul's Letter to the Philippians (Philippians 2:6-11) The christological hymn contained in Philippians 2:6-11 has been the subject of an impressive amount of intense scrutiny and debate among biblical scholars, and the mountain of scholarly publications relating to this passage is astonishingly large. The study of these six verses leads through a labyrinth of complex issues including the conceptual backgrounds of the hymn; its origin and authorship; its form and structure; the interpretation of the passage; the possible liturgical uses of the hymn in first century Christian worship; and the meaning of the hymn in the context of Paul's letter to the Christians at Philippi. Working through the maze of differing scholarly opinions on these issues is a formidable task that can be somewhat bewildering. However, most scholars do agree that this passage constitutes an early Christian hymn that would have been familiar to both Paul and the Philippians.1 Although the hymn has frequently been separated from Paul's message and studied as a distinct literary unit, it is the purpose of this study to discuss Paul's use of the hymn in the context of his letter to the Philippians.2 What did Paul wish to accomplish in the letter? How did the hymn assist Paul in achieving the goals of the letter? What effect might the hymn have had on the Philippians when they heard the letter read to them? Paul and the Philippians The mutual affection between Paul and the Philippians is evident throughout the letter. Paul does not assert his apostolic authority as he does in much of his other correspondence (e.g., Corinthians and Galatians). Here, Paul is writing to dear friends who have faithfully supported him and shared in the gospel "from the first day until now" (1:5). He thinks of the Philippians as "brothers and sisters, whom I love and long for, my joy and crown..." (4:1). Paul is writing to 1 A notable exception is Gordon Fee, who states "Although it is often set out in English translation as a hymn, there is no historical evidence that it was ever a hymn in the liturgical sense of having been sung in Christian churches..." Gordon D. Fee, Philippians (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999), 90. See also Peter Oakes, Philippians: From People to Letter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 210. "[T]he most likely view about the nature of the passage is that it was composed especially for the people at Philippi and, more specifically, for the letter written to their church." 2 Although scholars are divided on the issue of the unity and integrity of the letter, for the purposes of this study, I am assuming that it is one letter. Some have identified three different letters contained within canonical Philippians. See, e.g., Jerome MurphyO'Connor, Paul: A Critical Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 211-230. For a useful discussion of the issues involved and an argument for the unity of the letter, see David E. Garland, "The Composition and Unity of Philippians," Novum Testamentum 27/2 (1985): 141-173.
them from prison,3 yet the general tone of the letter is surprisingly joyful and indicates a special fondness and concern for the Philippians. The Philippians have sent Epaphroditus to Paul with a gift of support. Epaphroditus undoubtedly has also brought news about the situation in the church at Philippi. During his stay with Paul, Epaphroditus became gravely ill, even to the point of death (2:27). As Paul writes his letter, Epaphroditus has recovered and Paul is sending him home to Philippi carrying Paul's letter to the Philippians. From the letter we can gather some clues as to the situation of both Paul and the Philippians. Paul writes that his imprisonment has actually helped to spread the gospel. Because of his imprisonment for Christ, others have come forward to "speak the word with greater boldness and without fear" (1:14). He mentions that there are those who "proclaim Christ from envy and rivalry" (1:15) and "out of selfish ambition, not sincerely but intending to increase my suffering in my imprisonment" (1:17). Yet, Paul rejoices that Christ is proclaimed, whatever the motives. The possibility that Paul will be condemned to death by the Roman authorities is very real, and Paul contemplates the possible outcome of his trial. He remains joyful and confident as he weighs his desire to "depart and be with Christ" against the necessity for him to "remain in the flesh" in order to "continue with all of you for your progress and joy in faith" (1:20-25). The situation of the Christian community in Philippi can only be inferred from the letter. The Philippians have also suffered for their faith (1:29-30). As Christians living in a Roman imperial city, they would have been ostracized from the mainstream of the religious and cultural life of the larger surrounding community. Paul repeatedly urges them to be united, to be "of one mind" (2:2), to "stand firm in one spirit" (1:27). Unity in the face of persecution and marginalization by the majority culture would have been a necessity for the survival of the nascent Christian community in Philippi. One could infer from Paul's exhortations toward unity that perhaps there has been division within the church. Obviously there has been some sort of falling out between two prominent women of the church, Euodia and Syntyche, and Paul urges them to be "of the same mind in the Lord" (4:2). Perhaps the difficulties that are dividing the Philippians are related to the issues of pride, envy, self-aggrandizement, or personal ambition. Paul urges the Philippians to "in humility regard others as better than yourselves" (2:3) and "look not to your own interests, but to the interests of others" (2:4). He also speaks of their obedience and asks them to "do all things without murmuring and arguing" (2:14), and to "let your gentleness be known to everyone" (4:5). Paul is trying to tell the Philippians that humility, obedience, gentleness, and acting in regard 3 Paul does not say where he is imprisoned. Possible sites include Rome, Ephesus, or Caesarea.
for others without selfish motives are behaviors and attitudes consistent with their Christian faith. Whether Paul is addressing specific problems at Philippi, or whether he is obliquely referring to those who are preaching the gospel near his place of imprisonment (1:15, 17), Paul is defining for the Philippians what it means to live "in a manner worthy of the gospel of Christ" (1:27). Introducing the Hymn (2:5)
"Let the same mind be in you that was in Christ Jesus" (2:5).
The interpretation of verse 5 is key to any contextual understanding of the hymn itself and has been a topic of considerable debate among scholars. The function of the verse is essentially transitional in that it serves as both a conclusion to verses 2:1-4 and as an introduction to the hymn of 2:6-11.4 The traditional "ethical interpretation" sees verse 5 as calling on the Philippians to imitate the humble, obedient, and selfless behavior of Jesus Christ as described in the hymn which follows. In this interpretation, Christ is the supreme example of the conduct Paul has been urging the Philippians to adopt in 2:2-4, and verse 5 connects the hymn to the entire paraenetic portion of the letter. Many scholars have rejected this interpretation and have suggested that verse 5 is not asking the Philippians to imitate Christ, but rather "to conduct themselves toward one another as is fitting within the realm of Christ."5 In this view, the hymn has a kerygmatic purpose and sets forth the drama of salvation, serving as a reminder to the Philippians of how they came to be "in Christ." Ralph Martin summarizes this understanding of verse 5 as follows: "The Apostolic summons is not: Follow Jesus by doing as He did -- an impossible feat in any case . . . rather: Become in your conduct and church relationships the type of persons who, by that kenosis, death and exaltation of the Lord of glory, have a place in His body, the Church."6
4 Jean-François Collange, L'Epitre de Saint Paul aux Philippiens (Neuchâtel: Delachaux & Niestlé, 1973), 86. Cf. Fee, Philippians, 91-92 and Peter T. O'Brien, The Epistle to the Philippians (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1991), 205. However, scholars who deny that the hymn presents Jesus as an example to be imitated (e.g. Ernst Käsemann, Ralph Martin, and others) reject the notion of any link with the preceding paraenesis. Others have concluded that verse 5 cannot be understood as the introduction to a new section, and therefore cannot be considered as the prelude to the hymn, but rather must be considered as the conclusion to vv. 1-4. I agree with O'Brien that "to drive a wedge between vv. 4 and 5. . . is incorrect. At the same time to separate vv. 1-5 from what follows is also incorrect. Instead, v. 5 is an important transitional piece linking the exhortations to the hymn..." (205). 5 Ernst Käsemann, "A Critical Analysis of Philippians 2:5-11," in God and Christ: Existence and Province. Journal for Theology and the Church, 5 (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 84. 6 Ralph Martin, Carmen Christi: Philippians ii.5-11 in Recent Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), 290-91.
Modern commentators have presented arguments for and against both of these views and have suggested several variations and alternatives to these two interpretations. These issues will be more fully explored following a brief discussion of the hymn itself. The Hymn The hymn naturally falls into two distinct parts: verses 6 - 8 tell the story of Jesus' humiliation by his own actions, and verses 9 - 11 tell of his exaltation by the action of God.7 The hymn begins by asserting that in his preexistence, being "in the form of God,"8 Jesus did not consider being equal with God "something to be exploited."9 On the contrary, verse 7 tells of the incarnation and Christ's selflessness and humility expressed by "emptying" himself, "taking the form of a slave,10 being born in human likeness." Verse 8 goes on to trace Christ's selfgiving humility and obedience in his human form. He was obedient even to the most humiliating and shameful death -- death by crucifixion.11
7 The humiliation-exaltation motif is common in the Bible and in much of the literature of antiquity. Traditional sayings of Jesus, such as Matt 23:12/ Lk 14:11; 18:14, are in the future tense - "all who humble themselves will be exalted" and indicate that Jesus is speaking of the final judgment. See, Dale C. Allison, Jr., Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1998), 131-34. In the hymn, as a result of Jesus' humiliation, the exaltation of Jesus has already happened. The hymn therefore gives eschatological hope to those who are "in Christ" that they too will be raised to participate in Christ's glory. See also the discussion herein of the hymn's links to 3:20ff. 8 The phrase "in the form of God" has been interpreted in various ways. One view equates morfhvv (form) with eivko,n (image) and interprets this phrase as an allusion to Genesis 1:26-27. The entire hymn is thus interpreted in terms of an Adam-Christ contrast. In this interpretation, Jesus does the opposite of what Adam did in Gen. 3. Adam disobediently sought to be like God and was therefore humbled, whereas Jesus humbled himself in obedience and was therefore highly exalted. Some of those who argue for an Adam-Christ analogy would also deny that preexistence is intended in the hymn. See, e.g., James D. G. Dunn, Christology in the Making, 2nd Edition (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1996), 113-121. 9 A significant amount of scholarly attention has been given to the translation of "a`rpagmo,j" (literally, something to be "snatched", but often translated in the more passive sense of something to be "exploited"). For a full discussion of this issue, see N. T. Wright, "a`rpagmo,j" and the Meaning of Philippians 2:5-11," Journal of Theological Studies, NS 37/2 (1986), 321-352, and Roy William Hoover, "The Term 'a`rpagmo,j' in Philippians 2:6 -- A Contribution to the Study of the Sources of Early Christian Language and Theology" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1968), 231-243. 10 "Form of a slave" is a direct contrast to "form of God" in v. 6. For a discussion of the expression "form of a slave," and whether it is intended to reflect the "suffering servant" in Isaiah 53, see O'Brien, 218-24. See also, Paul S. Minear, "Singing and Suffering in Philippi," in The Conversation Continues: Studies in Paul & John In Honor of J. Louis Martyn, ed. Robert T. Fortna and Beverly R. Gaventa (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1990), 213. 11 The phrase "even death on a cross" in v. 8 is thought by many scholars to be a Pauline gloss on the original text of the hymn.
The second half of the hymn, which deals with Christ's exaltation, is introduced by the word "therefore," indicating that it is because of his obedience and willingness to humble himself in the service of others that God has "highly exalted him" and has given Jesus "the name that is above every name" (v.9) so that at his name "every knee should bend," (v.10) and "every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father" (v. 11).12 God's exaltation of Christ in vv. 9-11 demonstrates that Jesus' actions in 2:6-8 have received divine vindication and approval.13 The hymn as a whole presents the story of Jesus Christ from his preexistence through incarnation, death, and glorification. It depicts the entirety of the Christ event in terms of Jesus' self-surrendering humility. And, as a consequence of his selflessness, God has given Jesus Christ the name and place of highest honor. The Hymn and the Letter Paul inserts the hymn at the center of the paraenetic portion of the letter (1:27-2:18). It is at the heart of Paul's admonitions to the Philippians to be unified in humility, obedience, and selflessness. Scholars have traditionally interpreted Philippians 2:5-11 as an ethical exhortation to follow Christ's example, and most modern interpreters agree that Paul quotes the hymn in order to present the Philippians with an example that is relevant to their situation. In the context of the letter, Paul uses the hymn to issue a challenge to the Philippians to abandon their selfish and prideful behavior, and "to end their discord and live more in accordance with the character of their Lord."14 After the publication of Ernst Käsemann's influential article, "A Critical Analysis of Philippians 2:5-11" in 1950, many scholars were attracted to his view that the hymn is a soteriological drama which tells how the realm of Christ was established.15 According to Käsemann, the function of the hymn within the letter is to remind the Philippians of how they came to be in Christ, and to urge them to behave towards one another as is proper to those who acknowledge Christ's Lordship. In other words, since the Philippians are in Christ's realm, and since Christ, the Lord of the cosmos, is their Lord, they must therefore be obedient to Christ, and they must live as those who are "in Christ."16 12 "Every knee should bend ... and every tongue should confess" of verses 10 and 11 is clearly a reference to Isaiah 45:23, "To me every knee shall bow, every tongue shall swear." 13 L. W. Hurtado, "Jesus as Lordly Example in Philippians 2:5-11," in From Jesus to Paul: Studies in Honour of Francis Wright Beare, ed. Peter Richardson and John C. Hurd (Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1984), 125. 14 Larry J. Kreitzer, "'When He at Last is First!' - Philippians 2:9-11 and the Exaltation of the Lord," in Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2, ed. Ralph P. Martin, Brian J. Dodd (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), 113-14. 15 Käsemann, "A Critical Analysis," 65. 16 Ibid., 83-88.
Käsemann rejected the idea that the hymn presents Christ as an example to be imitated. His objections to the notion of Christ as a model of ethical behavior are many, but his primary concern seems to be that an ethical interpretation of the hymn tends to reduce Christ to a mere "representative of a valid norm" of conduct, an example that lowliness and service will be rewarded.17 Käsemann's theological concern is that in an ethical interpretation, the soteriological significance of Christ's work is lost, and the Christian message becomes nothing more than a moral exhortation.18 Käsemann and those who have followed his challenge to traditional ethical interpretations have suggested that Jesus Christ cannot be imitated because he is unique. As Ralph Martin puts it, "Who can be a 'second Christ' who quits His heavenly glory and dies in shame and is taken up into the throne of the universe?"19 Another argument against the ethical interpretation is that it implies a "works righteousness" and minimizes the importance of God's grace. Some have also argued that an emphasis on imitation is inconsistent with Paul's ethics. Ralph Martin asserts that Paul never(!) uses the earthly life of Jesus as an example to be imitated.20 According to Martin, "The controlling motive of Pauline ethics is not imitation, but death and resurrection."21 Perhaps the strongest argument against the idea of Christ as a model to be imitated is that verses 9 - 11 seem to be superfluous to Paul's point.22 It would be impossible for human beings to imitate the elevation of Christ to rulership of the universe. Why then does Paul include verses 9 - 11 if his purpose in invoking the hymn is to provide the Philippians with an example to emulate? Ralph Martin states that in the traditional ethical interpretation, "verses 9 - 11 have no relevance to Paul's ethical admonition."23 It is possible that Paul is merely quoting the hymn in its entirety for the sake of completeness, but, as Jean-François Collange correctly asserts, any analysis of one part of the hymn that does not do justice to the other is misleading.24 17 Ibid., 50, 57. 18 Hurtado, "Jesus as Lordly Example," 115. 19 Martin, Carmen Christi, 289f-90. 20 Morna Hooker agrees that it is true that Paul does not normally appeal to his readers to imitate Jesus Christ, but she notes that II Cor. 8-9 is parallel to our passage, and does present Christ as an example. "For you know the generous act of our Lord Jesus Christ, that though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor, so that by his poverty you might become rich." Paul is using the example of Jesus in this passage to urge the Corinthians to be generous in giving to the poor. She points out that this example is, of course, not that of the earthly Jesus. Morna D. Hooker, "Philippians 2:6-11," in Jesus und Paulus: Festschrift für Werner Georg Kümmel zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. E. Earle Ellis and Erich Grässer (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975), 154-55. See also, Michael Thompson, Clothed with Christ: The Example and Teaching of Jesus in Romans 12:1-15:35. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 59 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991). 21 Martin, Carmen Christi, 288. 22 Kreitzer, "'When he at Last is First!,'" 114. 23 Martin, Carmen Christi, 289. 24 "Nous disons donc que toute interprétation d'une partie de l'hymne qui ne fait pas justice â l'autre est dangereuse." Collange, L'Epitre de Saint Paul aux Philippiens,76.
Many recent commentators have argued that verses 9 - 11 can be adequately accounted for without denying that Jesus' actions in vv. 6-8 are exemplary and thus suitable to Paul's paraenetic purposes in the letter. Larry Hurtado has stated that verses 9 - 11 are the climax of the hymn in that the exaltation of Christ in these verses shows God's approving evaluation and vindication of the humble and obedient behavior described in vv. 6-8. Therefore, vv. 9-11 demonstrate that Jesus' actions have "not just exemplary but also fully authoritative significance."25 Morna Hooker answers many of Käsemann's (and Martin's) arguments against any ethical interpretation of the hymn. She notes that "an unnecessary antithesis has been set up by interpreters, between a rather superficial interpretation of Pauline ethics on the one hand -- an interpretation implying that Christian behavior is simply a case of following Jesus -- and on the other hand the conviction that the passage is to be understood only as a recital of saving acts, to which the Church responds in adoration. What in fact we have is a typically Pauline fusion of these two themes."26 In Hooker's view it would be ludicrous to suggest that Paul considered Christian ethics to be only a simple matter of imitating Christ's example. And of course Paul understands the importance of the saving events of the gospel and their relationship to conduct befitting those who are "in Christ." But, as Hooker points out, the model for a life "in Christ" is, of course, the character of Jesus himself. The pattern of the Christian life is naturally exemplified by the life of Jesus. Hooker does not speak of "imitation," but prefers the word "conformity." Living in accordance with the pattern as seen in Jesus Christ is "conformity to the true existence which belongs to those who are in Christ." 27 According to Hooker, not only is the hymn an important part of the paraenesis (1:27ff), it is also linked to Paul's teaching in verses 3:20-21. In these verses Paul spells out what will happen to Christians at the Parousia. The body of our humiliation will be transformed and conformed to his glorious body, and the Lord Jesus Christ will do this through the "power that also enables him to make all things subject to himself" (3:21). Hooker argues that there is an extended parallel here to other Pauline passages where he uses the idea of "interchange" (e.g. II Cor 8:9; 5:21; Gal 3:13). Christ becomes what we are, thus enabling us to become what he is. Verses 6-8 of the hymn tell us of Christ becoming what we are, verses 9-11 describe what Christ now is, and 3:20-21 tell us that by the power given to him, "he will transform us into conformity with him: we shall become like him."28 25 26 27 28
Hurtado, "Jesus as Lordly Example," 125 (italics added). Hooker, in Jesus und Paulus, 156. Ibid., 154. Ibid., 155-56.
Hooker points out that this is not imitation, but conformity. Of course both Paul and the Philippians were well aware of the uniqueness of Jesus Christ, and they knew that he could not be imitated in all respects. "What Paul is urging the Philippians to do is to be conformed to what they ought to be in Christ, because of what has happened through his life, death and resurrection; what they ought to be -- and what they can become in Christ -- results from what Christ is and did; one cannot separate the Christian character from the character of Christ himself."29 The hymn presents Christ as the supreme example of humility, selflessness, and obedience, but throughout the entire letter Paul cites several other examples, both positive and negative, which show a relationship to the hymn. In 2:1415 Paul warns the Philippians against grumbling and arguing, and alludes to Israel's journey through the wilderness and the complaining and squabbling that provoked Moses' condemnation of them as a "perverse and crooked generation" (Deut. 32:5). 30 This is a negative example for the Philippians, and Paul urges them to avoid this behavior so that they may be "blameless and innocent, children of God without blemish" and "shine like stars in the world" (2:15). In 2:19-30, Paul holds up Timothy and Epaphroditus as models of Christian behavior. He praises Timothy in v. 20 by saying "I have no one like him who will be genuinely concerned for your welfare." In the next verse he refers to others who "are seeking their own interests, not those of Jesus Christ."31 This can be directly related to Paul's admonition to the Philippians in 2:4: "Let each of you look not to your own interests, but to the interests of others." In 2:20-21, Paul gives the Philippians both a positive example (Timothy) and a negative contrasting example of those he cannot send to them because they have only their own interests at heart.32 In 2:22 Paul speaks of how Timothy has served with him in the work of the Gospel, and indeed Timothy is a co-sender of the letter and, along with Paul, is referred to in 1:1 as a "servant of Christ Jesus." Epaphroditus, a representative from the Philippians' own congregation, is another example of one who has put aside his own concerns and even "came close to death for the work of Christ"(2:30). Paul tells the Philippians to "honor such people" (2:29). Both Timothy and Epaphroditus are positive examples of the selfless attitude that Paul is urging the Philippians to adopt. Paul lifts them up in order to 29 Ibid., 156. 30 Cf. Garland, "The Composition and Unity of Philippians," 163. (Also, see 1 Cor. 10:10). 31 We do not know exactly to whom Paul is referring here, but perhaps it is the same people referred to in 1:15, 1:17 who "proclaim Christ from envy and rivalry" and "out of selfish ambition." 32 Cf. Garland, "The Composition and Unity of Philippians," 163. See also R. Alan Culpepper, "Co-Workers in Suffering: Philippians 2:19-30," Revue and Expositor 77 (1980): 354, 355.
illustrate for the Philippians what it means to live worthily of the gospel in its service (1:27).33 The examples of Timothy and Epaphroditus, as well as the example provided by Paul's personal story as set forth in 3:4-10, are in contrast to the negative example of those whom Paul warns the Philippians against in 3:2 and 3:18-19. Unlike Paul, the advocates of circumcision (the "dogs" and "evil workers," "those who mutilate the flesh" [3:2]) place their confidence in their own earlier achievements of righteousness under the law instead of the righteousness "that comes through faith in Jesus Christ, the righteousness from God based on faith" (cf. 3:9). They are interested in exercising authority over other believers, and they continue to value the glory inherent in their former status as Jews. The "enemies of the cross of Christ" (3:18) do not accept suffering for Christ as a gift from God (cf. 1:29). They do not view selfhumiliation, obedience, and service to others as characteristics of Christian behavior. "These enemies are unwilling to become like Christ in his death, which, as 2:8 emphasizes, was a death on the cross. Their theology can only accommodate the exalted Christ of 2:9-11 . . . They are bound to an earthly mindset, which presumably has no place for suffering in its theology."34 Because they are unwilling to share in Christ's sufferings, they will not share in Christ's glory, or, as Paul puts it, "Their end is destruction . . . and their glory is in their shame" (3:19). Paul urges the Philippians to guard against the attitudes of these opponents and to "join in imitating me, and observe those who live according to the example you have in us" (3:17). The example of Paul himself counters the negative examples in Chapter 3, and provides the Philippians with another positive model for their behavior. Paul's self-references are found throughout the letter and can be closely correlated to the hymn. As has been noted by G. F. Hawthorne, Philippians is one of Paul's most personal letters and uses the words "I," "me," and "my" more than 50 times.35 The question may well be asked if Paul's use of himself as a model of Christian behavior is entirely consistent with the concept of Christian humility. Indeed, Robert Fortna has interpreted Philippians as "Paul's most egocentric letter," labeling Paul's self-references as "self-absorbed," "arrogant," 33 Peter T. O'Brien, "The Gospel and Godly Models in Philippians," in Worship, Theology and Ministry in the Early Church: Essays in Honor of Ralph P. Martin, ed. Michael J. Wilkins and Terence Paige. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 87 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992), 278. Also, see Brian Dodd, Paul's Paradigmatic 'I': Personal Example as Literary Strategy, Journal for the Study of the New Testament Suplement Series, 177 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 190. 34 Stephen E. Fowl, The Story of Christ in the Ethics of Paul: An Analysis of the Function of the Hymnic Material in the Pauline Corpus, Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 36 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990), 100. 35 G. F. Hawthorne, Philippians, Word Biblical Commentary 43 (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1983), 3.
and "grandiose."36 Brian Dodd and others have rejected Fortna's interpretation,37 and while Dodd does associate Paul's use of himself as an example with the paraentic purposes of the letter, he does not think that Paul presents himself as a reflection of Christ's example as set forth in the hymn.38 According to Dodd, Paul's ethical example is grounded in the soteriological implications of the hymn. "Paul is not simply lining up 'like behaviors': Christ models the Christian life, Paul mirrors Christ's example, and the Philippians are to follow suit."39 Rather, Dodd suggests that Paul presents himself as a person whose life has been transformed as a result of what Christ has done, and Paul, by his teaching and by his behavior, models for the Philippians what is possible for those who are also in Christ. Dodd prefers to describe the relationship of Paul's example to Christ's as an "analogy" or "correspondence." Christ is the "archetype" for both Paul and the Philippians, while Paul is their "type" because they are all "in Christ."40 Whether Paul was aware of the analogy or not, the letter reveals a correlation between the story of Christ as set forth in the hymn and Paul's understanding of his own vocation as disclosed in the self-references found throughout the letter. At the very outset of the letter, Paul refers to himself as a servant (or slave) of Christ (1:1). As previously noted herein, Paul omits any reference to himself as an apostle and makes no claim to authority except as a servant of Christ. Paul speaks of the possibility of his own death and his willingness to be "poured out as a libation over the sacrifice and the offering of your faith" (2:17). In the brief autobiographical sketch of 3:4-10, Paul describes the advantages of his earlier life: "confidence in the flesh . . .a member of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew born of Hebrews . . . as to righteousness under the law, blameless" (3:4-6). Yet, Paul's life has undergone a radical change because of Christ, and he now regards as "loss" the very things that he had previously thought to be "gains." All of his past privileges and anything else in which he may have put his confidence in the past he now considers to be "rubbish" because of the "surpassing value of knowing Christ Jesus." Paul has voluntarily "suffered the loss of all things" so that he may "gain Christ and be found in him" (3:7-9). Paul's goal is "to know Christ and the power of his resurrection," and to share in his sufferings "by becoming like him in his death" (3:10). 36 Robert T. Fortna, "Philippians: Paul's Most Egocentric Letter," in The Conversation Continues: Studies in Paul & John In Honor of J. Louis Martyn, ed. Robert T. Fortna and Beverly R. Gaventa (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1990), 220-230. 37 Dodd, Paul's Paradigmatic 'I', 176. Cf. O'Brien, "The Gospel and Godly Models," 278-280. 38 Dodd, Paul's Paradigmatic 'I', 193ff. See also, Brian J. Dodd, "The Story of Christ and the Imitation of Paul in Philippians 2-3," in Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2, ed. Ralph P. Martin, Brian J. Dodd (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), 154ff. 39 Dodd, "The Story of Christ and the Imitation of Paul," 160. 40 Dodd, Paul's Paradigmatic 'I', 194.
Although Paul does not explicitly equate his own example with Christ's, one can easily see comparisons between Paul's depiction of himself and the presentation of Christ contained in vv. 2:6-11. Both Paul and Christ have divested themselves of the prerogatives that were theirs by virtue of a former privileged status. Both Paul and Christ have voluntarily humbled themselves in obedient service, and both have suffered. Christ has already died, and God has vindicated his humble and obedient actions by exalting him to the highest possible status. Paul has not yet died, but he presses on toward his goal of knowing Christ "and the power of his resurrection" (3:10) with the confidence that he too will be raised and will be conformed to the body of Christ's glory (3:21). Paul's description of himself echoes the description of Christ in the hymn, and this echo surely must have resonated with the Philippians when they heard the letter read aloud. Conclusion The six verses of the hymn at the heart of the Philippian letter have engendered so much scholarly debate and such intensive investigation that it is easy to get lost in the details of the intellectual arguments and miss the overall message of Paul's letter. Humility, service that seeks no reward, gentle regard for others, confidence in Christ's redeeming love, and a joyful heart that looks forward to "the heavenly call of God in Christ Jesus" (3:14) -- these are the attitudes and behaviors that characterize the Christian life. Paul uses the hymn to set forth for the Philippians the supreme example of conduct consistent with a life "worthy of the gospel of Christ" (1:27), and he provides other examples, both positive and negative, to reinforce his message that the Philippians should strive to exhibit humble, obedient, and selfless behavior in their daily lives. Paul also employs the hymn to stress the soteriological significance of what Christ has done, and to remind the Philippians that as Christians they have the eschatological hope of knowing the power of the resurrection and being transformed from their humiliation to participate in his glory. In addition to these reasons for Paul's use of the hymn, I would like to suggest another way in which Paul uses the hymn to support his exhortations to the Philippians to end their discord and "be of the same mind, having the same love, being in full accord and of one mind" (2:2). If, as many scholars believe, the hymn was familiar to both Paul and the Philippians prior to the time the letter was written, then perhaps at some earlier time Paul and the Philippians had sung (or chanted) the hymn together in community worship.41 It may even be 41 References to Christians singing "psalms and hymns and spiritual songs" can be found in other Pauline letters (cf. Col. 3:16; Eph. 5:19), and Acts 16:25 reports that when Paul and Silas were in prison in Philippi, they were singing hymns when the earthquake that freed them struck. The letter of Pliny to Trajan (ca. 110) describes Christians meeting before dawn and singing "a hymn to Christ as a God." Cf. Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997), 489, n. 15.
possible that Paul taught the hymn to the Philippians at the time of the founding of their church.42 There is no explicit evidence in the letter to support this speculation, but if it is true that they all knew the hymn and had participated in the singing of the hymn as part of a common worship experience, then hearing the words of the hymn read out to them in the context of the letter would very likely have recalled for the Philippians many positive shared memories and affections -- memories and affections that might have been of some help to them in overcoming their recent discord. By citing the hymn, Paul may have been subtly calling on the Philippians to remember a time when they had been a more loving and unified community -- a time when their current divisions had not yet appeared. In invoking the mysterious power of song and memory, perhaps Paul was implicitly attempting to focus the Philippian church on the unity, harmony, and love that had been a part of their communal life from the beginning. And perhaps the musical memory combined with the message contained in the poetry of the hymn would have had the power to touch the Philippians at a deep, non-verbal level -- a level beyond the reach of argument or analysis.
42 Ibid., 491.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Allison, Dale C., Jr. Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1998. Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1997. Collange, Jean-François. L'Epitre de Saint Paul aux Philippiens. Neuchâtel: Delachaux & Niestlé, 1973. Culpepper, R. Alan. "Co-Workers in Suffering: Philippians 2:19-30," Revue and Expositor 77 (1980): 349-358. Dodd, Brian J. Paul's Paradigmatic 'I': Personal Example as Literary Strategy. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 177. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999. _____. "The Story of Christ and the Imitation of Paul in Philippians 2-3," in Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2, ed. Ralph P. Martin, Brian J. Dodd, 154-161. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998. Dunn, James D. G. Christology in the Making. 2nd Edition. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1996. Fee, Gordon D. Philippians. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999. Fortna, Robert T. "Philippians: Paul's Most Egocentric Letter," in The Conversation Continues: Studies in Paul & John In Honor of J. Louis Martyn, ed. Robert T. Fortna and Beverly R. Gaventa, 220-234. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1990. Fowl, Stephen E. The Story of Christ in the Ethics of Paul: An Analysis of the Function of the Hymnic Material in the Pauline Corpus. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 36. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990. Garland, David E. "The Composition and Unity of Philippians." Novum Testamentum 27/2 (1985): 141-173. Hawthorne, G. F. Philippians. Word Bible Commentary 43. Waco, TX: Word Books, 1983. Hooker, Morna D. "Philippians 2:6-11," in Jesus und Paulus: Festschrift für Werner Georg Kümmel zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. E. Earle Ellis and Erich Grässer, 151-164. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975.
Hoover, Roy William. "The Term a&rpagmov" in Philippians 2:6 -- A Contribution to the Study of the Sources of Early Christian Language and Theology." Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1968. Hurtado, L. W. "Jesus as Lordly Example in Philippians 2:5-11," in From Jesus to Paul: Studies in Honour of Francis Wright Beare, ed. Peter Richardson and John C. Hurd, 113-126. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1984. Käsemann, Ernst. "A Critical Analysis of Philippians 2:5-11," in God and Christ: Existence and Province. Journal for Theology and the Church, 5, 45-88. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. Kreitzer, Larry J. "'When He at Last is First!' - Philippians 2:9-11 and the Exaltation of the Lord," in Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2, ed. Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd, 111-127. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998. Martin, Ralph. Carmen Christi: Philippians ii.5-11 in Recent Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967. Minear, Paul S. "Singing and Suffering in Philippi," in The Conversation Continues: Studies in Paul & John In Honor of J. Louis Martyn, ed. Robert T. Fortna and Beverly R. Gaventa, 202-219. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1990. Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. Paul: A Critical Life. New York: Oxford University Press, 1966. Oakes, Peter. Philippians: From People to Letter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. O'Brien, Peter T. The Epistle to the Philippians. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1991. _____. "The Gospel and Godly Models in Philippians," in Worship, Theology and Ministry in the Early Church: Essays in Honor of Ralph P. Martin, ed. Michael J. Wilkins and Terence Paige, 273-284. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 87. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992. Thompson, Michael. Clothed with Christ: The Example and Teaching of Jesus in Romans 12:1-15:35. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 59. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991. Wright, N.T. "'a`rpagmo,j' and the Meaning of Philippians 2:5-11," Journal of Theological Studies 37/ 2 (1986): 321-352.
Pittsburgh Theological Journal SPRING 2014
Charissa Clark Howe Charissa Clark Howe, from Pittsburgh's Mosaic Community Church, is an M-div senior graduating with the PTS class of 2014 and is currently seeking a call in the PC(USA). Charissa was the 2013 recipient of the The Walter P. and Anna L. McConkey Award in homiletics.
Stop Trying So Hard This sermon was preached at Bellevue United Presbyterian Church on Sunday, March 16, 2014. The lectionary passages that morning were Psalm 121, Genesis 12: 1-4a, and Romans 4:1-5, 13-17. All too often, we proclaim that we are justified by faith with our mouths, while acting as though it is in fact our works that make us worthy of salvation. We cannot fully experience the freedom of God's love when living as though we can earn it.
Stop Trying So Hard Close your eyes for a moment and think about a time you felt close to God. A time you knew that God was in control and that you felt fully reliant on God's grace and love. Perhaps it was when you first heard the good news of the Gospel. Perhaps it was when you started an exciting new job. Maybe it was when you took a leap of faith and made a bold life change because you just knew that God had something great or important in store for you. It might have been earlier this morning or it might have been years ago. For some, it may be a good time, for others a difficult one. Maybe you can't bring a time like that to mind at all. The day that always comes first to my mind when thinking about being close to God is the day that we had our first ultrasound when I was pregnant with Levi. That day my husband and I were told our son was likely to die before he was born. It was the most gut-wrenching day I can remember. It was also the day that I felt more connected to God than I'd ever felt before. I know that Tim remembers that day as vividly as I do. It was actually a beautiful day in late June. For some reason, I remember the sun streaming though our windows all day. We came home from the hospital and sat down together in our bedroom in that warm sunlight and spent the rest of the day in prayer. We didn't have a choice. If we didn't rely on God in that moment, we'd have fallen apart. That day launched us into several months of keen awareness of our total reliance on God for the next step. We had to keep our eyes on God because one glance in another direction could have cost us our son, our marriage, or our faith. That's how it is sometimes. There are times we feel close to God because the blessings in our lives are apparent to us. And there are times we feel close to God because we have no choice but to admit the world is out of our control and we can't navigate it alone. During that scary time when we still weren't sure our son would make it or not, an old friend of mine asked her husband, "Why them? Tim and Charissa are good people. They don't deserve this." And her husband simply said, "Who says it's about what anyone deserves?" We're so conditioned in today's culture to think that we always get what we deserve. . . or perhaps the more culturally appropriate word here is "earn." If something good happens, it's because we worked hard and earned it. If something bad happens, it's because we messed up and earned the consequence. Success is generally equated with moral character and being hard on your luck is often seen as being less wholesome.
Actions certainly do have consequences. This is a lesson I spend much of my time trying to communicate to my children. Levi had to learn the hard way last winter that when you jump off of your sister's dresser and try to fly like Buzz Lightyear by bouncing off the bed. . . the result is stitches. Lexi recently got a great score on a test in a subject she'd been lagging in at school because she spent extra time and effort preparing for it and the effort paid off. Those are good lessons. We can't forget that there are consequences to our actions. The problem is that in a society that so highly values pulling oneself up by the bootstraps and earning the way to the top, we have to be careful that we're not subconsciously applying those economics to God. Our Western brains have trouble getting around the idea that God loves us no matter what and that sometimes "blessings" aren't what we expect. There's nothing we can do or not do to earn God's love. It's already been given in spite of everything else. Even if we know this academically. . . it's really hard to internalize the idea that we are loved without condition. The author of Psalm 121 which we sang earlier seems to be embarking on a journey of some sort and it acts as a reminder of God's provision in that journey. There are plenty of theories and debates about where exactly the Psalmist was headed, but it really doesn't matter. Most of us can relate readily to the idea of setting off into the unknown. Abram (back before he was renamed Abraham) was asked by God to set off on a long journey to a new land and God promised to bless him. And Genesis 12:4 says very simply that he went. Imagine that. I've always been astounded by that move. God told Abraham to leave everything he knew. He was to take only his immediate family and a nephew he took care of and go off far away to a new land. I get wigged out when I have to sit in a different chair in class because someone took my normal seat, and here Abraham gets up and just goes! Just like that! Abraham's journey was never an easy one. It was rough. I imagine there were many many times he thought, "Where are these blessings God promised?" I wonder if Abraham got to thinking sometimes it couldn't possibly be worth it. God told Abraham he would be "blessed," but Abraham struggled just like we do. He was sent to a new land where he knew no one. More than once he lied about who his wife was in an attempt to save his own skin. He and his wife struggled with infertility. God asked Abraham to sacrifice his beloved son. When we reach further into Genesis, Abraham isn't always what we would call "blessed" by today's standards. Our passage from Romans gives us important insight into Abraham's faith and righteousness. He didn't go because he was super good at following the rules and doing as he was told. Abram wasn't counted as righteous because he left his home country when God said to go. Abram left his home country when God said to go because he had already been counted as righteous.
But what about this "blessed" business? We should consider what "blessed" means. It's not the same thing as "perfect" or "charmed" or "successful." I recently read an article that asked Christians to stop using the words, "I'm blessed" as the catch all to mean, "I am happy with how things are going" or to connote success. We aren't blessed just because we have a good job or a nice car or a pretty family. Those things are nice to have and they aren't inherently evil, but to define blessing by listing those things does a disservice to the faithful Christians around the world who have none of those things. Aren't they blessed to? Isn't blessing more than success and privilege or power and possessions? Abraham did not lead a charmed life. But he led a blessed life. He was made righteous in God's sight because God made him righteous and he acted in obedience as a result of that. Things weren't perfect for Abraham after that, but God's blessing on his life was apparent. And while Abraham didn't live to see all his many promised descendants, the greatest blessing on Abraham's life was the blessing he became to the nations. You may or may not know this about me, but I used to teach knitting and crochet professionally. I know, it's a strange career, but I like to keep people guessing. Out of all my students, the only ones I had who couldn't learn were the two (only two) who walked in and said, "I can't do this." Before even trying. Sometimes, I would get students who were re-learning after some years or who were just quick learners and they would pick it up lickety split like it was nothing. The most common, though were the "tight knitters." I knew what was happening just by seeing the look on their face. They were concentrating SO HARD on what they were doing and on getting it JUST RIGHT that they would knit or crochet these teeny tiny little stitches that were so tight, you could hear their needles squeak as they tried to get them through the sweaty loops. They were knitting, but it was painful. These students would have to stop every row and shake out their hands from the cramps they were causing. It was exhausting just watching them. Meanwhile, just to make a point, I would walk around the classroom with a small bag of yarn slung over my shoulder, knitting as I watched them and talked with them. Inevitably, a student would say, " THIS IS KILLING ME! And there you are just walking around like it's nothing!"
And I'd say, "So stop trying so hard."
"You're thinking about it too much. Just knit."
And ever so gradually, they would start to loosen up and I could almost see the light bulbs going on above their heads as it clicked. The trick to knitting and crochet – as with many art forms – is to stop trying so hard. You can't be creative when you're trying too hard to be perfect!
You cannot fully appreciate the love of God while you're still trying to earn it.
Stop trying so hard!
If you're here to earn God's good graces. . . knock it off! You have already been made righteous. You are already loved by God and God will NEVER stop loving you. Now go live like it! Don't worship just because it's your duty, worship because God has offered for each of us far more than we could ever earn! Don't do good deeds because they'll get you brownie points with God – do them because God loves the people around you as unconditionally as God loves you. Stop living like someone who has to prove their worth to God who loved you so much God sent Jesus – God's own Son – so that we don't have to get everything perfect! We don't have to get the steps to the dance all right before we're allowed to dance for joy and praise! It's not about what we're doing, it's about who we're doing it for. We haven't earned anything – we can't. All we can do is respond in faith. We are freed to be a joyful reflection of God in the world before we have it all together. To be blessed isn't just about individual success or earning anything from God. The joy and blessing that come from knowing you are unconditionally loved by God are contagious and we can't help ourselves but be the light to everyone we come across.
Stop trying so hard.
Abraham didn't leave his homeland because he was trying to earn anything. Abraham left because he had been made righteous by God and he was blessed for his obedience.
God loves you. Period. No if or but. God loves you.
Jesus came to earth as a human being because God loves you. No matter what. Not the person you think you should be. Not even the person the world thinks you should be. You can set off on the journey – whatever it is – with your eyes on God who takes care of you. "The Lord will keep your going out and your coming in from this time on and forevermore." Amen
Rebecca Dix Rebecca Dix is a storyteller artist who's currently a middler student at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary.
So This is Love This sermon was preached on June 2013 at Verona Presbyterian Church.
So This is Love No matter how familiar you are with Disney's animated version of the Cinderella story, we all to some degree know what happens. Beautiful girl overcomes insurmountable odds in order to meet the boy. In it there is a moment, that moment, when Cinderella and the prince do meet for the first time and start dancing, because that's what people do in Disney movies when they first meet, and start falling in love, and in that moment they are singing a song naming the significance of this moment, that goes something like this: So this is love, mhmhm, so this is love, so this is what makes life divine. I'm all aglow, mmmm, and now I know, the key to all heaven in mine. My heart has wings, mmmm, and I can fly. I'll touch every star in the sky. So this is the miracle that I've been dreaming of. So this is love. Love. Poets, storytellers, and playwrights have chased this over pages upon pages of parchment across the span of time. There is something about trying to define what love is that keeps the linguistic and literary hounds unleashed. One of my writing professors in undergrad confessed to our class once that all his poems seemed to be about the same thing - love. He talked about how there was something in its mystery and elusiveness in being confined that kept him attempting to make tangible and utterable this thing we call love. Just as Cinderella and the prince had a moment they could pin down and articulate to some degree that "THIS is love," something they had never before felt or seen, we all have things in life in which we see signs of love, in various shapes and sizes. It can be seen in hugs and kisses, but also in handshakes and eye contact, smiles and conversation, letters or moments of time shared. One way my mother shows signs of her love to me and my family is to cook for us, to offer food that says "I care about your health and your body." One way my father shows a sign of his love to me is in a simple squeeze of my shoulder as he walks past me. There are many more, but the point is that we all have ways of seeing and knowing the existence of love between one another in our lives. Markers and signs that we point to and say, "This is love." With that in mind, I couldn't help wondering if the woman in the gospel lesson for today had moments or things in her daily life that were the physical representation of the elemental truth that she is loved. Though we can't know for certain, I would imagine she did not. What exactly her sin is isn't mentioned but her status as a sinner seems established and she would have been viewed as unclean until she took the proper steps to address her uncleanliness. And the community as a whole would have been aware of it and would have acted accordingly. This is why the Pharisee questions Jesus' status of prophet because of her touching him - for an unclean person touching a clean person would then make that person unclean, drastically altering both their lives. In the
Holiness Code, the maintenance of cleanliness was especially crucial to those of the priest and prophet status. I think this is a point that gets lost so often in this story, that not only did this woman come to Christ completely vulnerable and broken and desperate for love, but Jesus allowed her to touch him. He knew what she was going to do and willingly took her unclean status unto himself, and forgave her, wiping the slate of her debit clean. I can imagine that might not have been what she expected when she entered the house. I can imagine that she was expecting rejection, because that is what being loved had looked like to her at the time. Instead, she got a moment that she could carry with her as reassurance, a moment she could point to and say, "This is love". But it doesn't stop there. Love is not confined to just there, to that place or that moment, but is found in the entire life of Christ. God the Father loved us so much, that He sent the Son, fully manifest in flesh while still being fully divine, so we all could better know and understand this love that has been proclaimed over and over again in the Old Testament, a love that took all our brokenness and sin upon himself and gave us new life, through which we could have hope. There's another level to this, for not only now are we able to know what this true love is having encountered it in Jesus Christ, but we also are able to know to love, and how to love others. I went on a mission trip to Southeast Asia hosted through the World Mission Initiative. One woman we met shared her story. When she converted to be a follower of Christ, her family and friends severely beat her, and she and her husband were cast to the outskirts of the village. As we were leaving, we asked her if she gets angry at how her neighbors and family treat her. She said, "No." She said, "They don't know any better because they don't know Christ." Christ came as the perfect manifestation of Love so that we might know love, and in being transformed by that love, in receiving life from that love, so we might then be extensions of that love to others. Christ came not only that people would be able to know we are Christians by our love, but also that we might have glimpses of what Love really means, what Love really looks like. For how will the people of the world know what the love of Christ looks like if they are not shown, and how can the world be shown in we do not show them? I have a good friend who lives in the margins of sorts. For years she craved having a church, but believed through experiences in her life which informed her, that she would not be welcome. She believed in Jesus and loved God, sought to live a life pleasing to him, but slowly began to think that perhaps God did not, could not, and would not love her. One day she decided to try one more time. She walked in expecting to be ignored and rejected, because to her that is
what true Christians did. But what she received was not what she expected. She was welcomed and loved and cherished, and she remembered the magnitude of God's love for her. She told me it was like finally coming home. There is a poem by Maya Angelou titled "Touched by an Angel", that speaks beautifully to this moment. We, unaccustomed to courage exiles from delight live coiled in shells of loneliness until love leaves its high holy temple and comes into our sight to liberate us into life.
Love arrives and in its train come ecstasies old memories of pleasure ancient histories of pain. Yet if we are bold, love strikes away the chains of fear from our souls.
We are weaned from our timidity In the flush of love's light we dare be brave And suddenly we see that love costs all we are and will ever be. Yet it is only love which sets us free.
Moments like these that set us free serve as reminders. It is not a bad thing to need reminders that we are loved, because I think it makes us dependent on something, someone other than ourselves. Being dependent is not a sign of weakness, as long as we know that the expressions of love aren't what we are dependent on, but rather the source of Love, who gives us life through that love. Love is proclaimed in Christ's life, death on the cross, and resurrection, Love that now lives in me, in you, in all of us, and everyday then becomes a marker to which we can point and say, "So this is love".
Lisa Franklin-Robinson Lisa Franklin-Robinson serves as president of the Student Association and is a senior in the Masters of Divinity Program at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary
Cutting Up the Concubine
This was Mrs. Franklin-Robinson's initial sermon, preached in the Spring of 2013 before her church family at Bible Center Church, Homewood, Pennsylvania.
Cutting Up the Concubine A Levite and His Concubine 19 In those days, when there was no king in Israel, a certain Levite (say Levite) was sojourning in the remote parts of the hill country of Ephraim, who took to himself a concubine from Bethlehem in Judah. 2 And his concubine was unfaithful to[a] him, and she went away from him to her father's house at Bethlehem in Judah, and was there some four months. 3 Then her husband arose and went after her, to speak kindly to her and bring her back. He had with him his servant and a couple of donkeys. And she brought him into her father's house. And when the girl's father saw him, he came with joy to meet him. 4 And his father-in-law, the girl's father, made him stay, and he remained with him three days. So they ate and drank and spent the night there. 5 And on the fourth day they arose early in the morning, and he prepared to go, but the girl's father said to his son-in-law, "Strengthen your heart with a morsel of bread, and after that you may go." 6 So the two of them sat and ate and drank together. And the girl's father said to the man, "Be pleased to spend the night, and let your heart be merry." 7 And when the man rose up to go, his father-in-law pressed him, till he spent the night there again. 8 And on the fifth day (say fifth day) he arose early in the morning to depart. And the girl's father said, "Strengthen your heart and wait until the day declines." So they ate, both of them. 9 And when the man and his concubine and his servant rose up to depart, his father-in-law, the girl's father, said to him, "Behold, now the day has waned toward evening. Please, spend the night. Behold, the day draws to its close. Lodge here and let your heart be merry, and tomorrow you shall arise early in the morning for your journey, and go home." But the man would not spend the night. He rose up and departed and arrived opposite Jebus (that is, Jerusalem). He had with him a couple of saddled donkeys, and his concubine was with him. 11 When they were near Jebus, the day was nearly over, and the servant said to his master, "Come now, let us turn aside to this city of the Jebusites and spend the night in it." 12 And his master said to him, "We will not turn aside into the city of foreigners, who do not belong to the people of Israel, but we will pass on to Gibeah." 13 And he said to his young man, "Come and let us draw near to one of these places and spend the night at Gibeah or at Ramah." 14 So they passed on and went their way. And the sun went down on them near Gibeah, which belongs to Benjamin, 15 and they turned aside there, to go in and spend the night at Gibeah. And he went in and sat down in the open square of the city, for no one (say no one) took them into his house to spend the night. 10
And behold, an old man was coming from his work in the field at evening. The man was from the hill country of Ephraim, and he was sojourning in Gibeah. The men of the place were Benjaminites. 17 And he lifted up his eyes and saw the traveler in the open square of the city. And the old man said, "Where are you going? And where do you come from?" 18 And he said to him, "We are passing from Bethlehem in Judah to the remote parts of the hill country of Ephraim, from which I come. I went to Bethlehem in Judah, and I am going to the house of the Lord,[b] but no one has taken me into his house. 19 We have straw and feed for our donkeys, with bread and wine for me and your female servant and the young man with your servants. There is no lack of anything." 20 And the old man said, "Peace be to you; I will care for all your wants. Only, do not spend the night in the square." 21 So he brought him into his house and gave the donkeys feed. And they washed their feet, and ate and drank.
Gibeah's Crime As they were making their hearts merry, behold, the men of the city, worthless fellows, surrounded the house, beating on the door. And they said to the old man, the master of the house, "Bring out the man who came into your house, that we may know him." 23 And the man, the master of the house, went out to them and said to them, "No, my brothers, do not act so wickedly; since this man has come into my house, do not do this vile thing. 24 Behold, here are my virgin daughter and his concubine. Let me bring them out now. Violate them and do with them what seems good to you, but against this man do not do this outrageous thing." 25 But the men would not listen to him. So the man seized (say seized) his concubine and made her go out to them. And they raped her and abused her all night until the morning. And as the dawn began to break, they let her go. 26 And as morning appeared, the woman came and fell down at the door of the man's house where her master was, until it was light. 22
And her master rose up in the morning, and when he opened the doors of the house and went out to go on his way, behold, there was his concubine lying at the door of the house, with her hands on the threshold. 28 He said to her, "Get up, let us be going." But there was no answer. Then he put her on the donkey, and the man rose up and went away to his home. 29 And when he entered his house, he took a knife, and taking hold (say taking hold) of his concubine he divided her, limb by limb, into twelve pieces, and sent her throughout all the territory of Israel. 30 And all who saw it said, "Such a thing has never happened or been seen from the day that the people of Israel came up out of the land of Egypt until this day; consider it, take counsel, and speak."
How many of you have read this text before? This is a shocking text and for me, one that I find to be very difficult to preach…for several reasons…but perhaps not for the reasons that you think. Oh yes, the text is horrific; it has
been referred to by some as a "text of terror", and it is dreadful; the senseless rape and brutalization of a nameless, faceless woman rattles and distresses the very core of most of the members of society. Perhaps the fact that she is nameless, faceless, and voiceless in the text, and then sacrificed is horrifying to many women. Perhaps the fact that her husband went to her father's house, with the expressed intent of using kind words to bring her back home, and yet spoke not a word to her kind or otherwise, is frustrating. Perhaps, that she is given less attention than the donkey that her master rode upon is shameful. Her words are not found in the text. Her thoughts are not mentioned. Her needs, wants, and safety are not considered. She is seized, raped, abused, disregarded, dismembered, and distributed to the twelve tribes of Israel. But these facts, as mortifying as they are, were not shocking to me. Perhaps I watch too much Law and Order SVU! What shocked me was that I saw myself in the text, but not as the woman; not as the victim. The horrifying notion that seized me as I read was that I saw myself as the culprit. I saw myself as the one who disregarded, dismembered and distributed the concubine. I was the one who ignored her. I was the one who was self serving. I was the abuser and the rapist. You may be asking yourselves, "How did she come to this conclusion? Perhaps there are many things that we don't know about Lisa!" Perhaps you're right! But I would like to offer you an explanation through a re-examining of the text. The writer of the book of Judges asks us to consider it, take counsel, and speak! I will use this instruction as a guide to show you how I found myself in the text in the role of the villain: every villain. The text says "consider it" (say consider it). Ok what do we have in the text? Let's look at the characters. We have a Levite from the hill country of Ephraim: a man of God. Levities were the ones entrusted in Israel, with teaching the provisions of the covenant. They live lives dedicated to the Lord and rely on the hospitality and generosity of others because they have no land of their own. We have his concubine who left him and returned home to her father's house. She is called concubine; one who is of lower status than a wife. She leaves him and her leaving him could be viewed as an adulterous act, but perhaps the fact that he expressed the desire to go to her father's house to speak kindly to her, may imply that he was in the wrong. We have a father-in-law who lives in Judah and likes to party, an old man in Gibeah (land of the Benjaminites) who comes from the same area as the Levite. There is a group of worthless, mindless, and wicked fellows from Gibeah, who desire to violate the Levite sexually. There is a servant who suggests that they stay the night in a foreign land, but the Levite wants to press on and stay among his own people of Israel. Let's not leave out the two donkeys and perhaps the most important fact: There was no king in Israel.
There are also some things that we must consider that are not in this text. The book of Judges tells us throughout this period of Israel's history, that there was no king in Israel and the people did what was right in their own eyes. They were all mixed up. They worshipped the Baals, they gave their daughters and sons in marriage to pagans and they disobeyed God. They did what was right in their own eyes. Consider the circumstances. This story is set in a society that does not follow the precepts of God; that does not put God first and that does what is right in its own eyes. This is a chaotic society, where violence, reckless behavior, all manner of evil, and godless acts, like rape, are prevalent. All, of the members of this society are affected by this state of godlessness; even Israel, God's chosen people…even the godly…even the Levite. When people do what is right in their own eyes all behavior is self-serving and justified. The will of the individual governs the behavior of the individual and anything goes. Every action is justified…even rape where the will of one, to impose their power, authority, abuse, and sexual desire, overpowers the will of the other, who has said no. The will of the individual rules and in its imposition, rape is visited upon others in many forms: physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual. It would be easy for me to direct my words towards our society today. A society, where Christ is not exalted, reverenced and worshipped as God. But we are the people of God. We are the Christ followers. We are his representatives on the Earth and to bash those who don't know him is pointless. Their irreverent acts toward God should be an expected behavior. But the rape of this concubine took place in a "godly" town by men who were members of the tribe of Benjamin; a tribe of Israel, God's chosen people. These were men of a godly tradition influenced by the surrounding pagan nations! What about our behavior? What about when we as believers fail to put God first in our thoughts and actions? What about us, when we go about our day without prayer and yielding ourselves in service to God? What about us, when we apply for jobs, school, and entertain other "good" ideas but fail to check in with God to see if it is a God idea? What about us when we offer advice, guidance and sometimes even spiritual direction without consulting the Lord? What about us, when we ask God if we should move forward, for example, towards a job, or a relationship, and God tells us no, but we proceed anyway, doing what is right in our own eyes in violation of his will? What about when we violate the will of God? Are we rapists of God? Of others? Consider this. When the Israelites stated, "Such a thing has never happened or been seen from the day that the people of Israel came up out of the land of Egypt until this day", of what were they speaking? I contend that it was the actions of the Levite, the man of God, keeper of the covenant. To protect
himself, he seized the woman and put her outside to be raped and abused. He was the one who left her outside all night. He was the one who approached her so coldly in the morning as she lie with outstretched arms below the door. He was the one who subjected her to the rough ride home on the back of the donkey. He was the one who cut her flesh and bone and ligaments into twelve pieces parceling her off to the twelve tribes of Israel. And if you read on into chapter 20, you will see that he is the one who lied to the tribes about the incident in the hopes of inciting them to avenge him! He was the one, who did not pray and seek God first, but did what was right in his own eyes! This man of God who was entrusted with the keeping and the teaching of the covenant of Israel! Are we as believers not the keepers of the covenant? Has God not entrusted us with these treasurs in jars of clay? Do we not know Jesus, the way, the truth and the life? I, who had leaned to my own understanding, and did what was right in my own eyes, was the Levite. I, who ignored God's will that said no, and did what I wanted to do to protect myself, was the Levite who seized the concubine and sent her outside. I, when I overruled the will of God by my actions, was the rapist who despite the cries of the Holy Spirit that said "no" and "stop", forcibly imposed my yes! I was the one who, left in the aftermath of my disobedience, cut up the concubine! The text says, "take counsel" (say take counsel). It would be easy to dismiss this sermon as being too harsh or one that you might think, "this message doesn't apply to me". But if you think that you are standing take heed lest your fall! We, as believers, are more than capable of doing what is right in our own eyes and forgetting God in the process. We are capable of disobedience. Those of us in ministry must remember to be intentional in seeking God's direction before we take action or give counsel. It is easy for us to speak out of passages we know or previous events where we have seen God act, and then apply that knowledge (without consulting the Lord) on whether or not that godly advice is to be applied to the immediate circumstance. Remember to check in with God before speaking into another's state of affairs. Check in with God through the reading of scripture and through prayer…Jesus did. Trust and acknowledge God in all that you do and he will guide you. In seeking God first, we can avoid an outbreak of chaos, violence and evil among God's people. The end of the text says, "Speak"(say speak). It asks for an answer and pleads, "Please tell us what to do!" Well I have already done that. Repent! Stop doing what is right in your own eyes and leaving chaos and carnage in your wake. Put God first. Acknowledge and consult him in all that you say and do. Pray and fast often for his guidance and direction. He will not cast you aside. There, I have said it again. But there is one more thing that I want you to remember.
When I was convicted by this passage, and my heart sank deep within me, I was reminded that in the midst of Israel's disobedience, chaos, violence and despair, God was with them. He kept reaching for them, calling to them, fighting for them. He even sent his son to die for them. In spite of their disobedience, he never left them. In spite of their faithlessness, he remained faithful. In spite of their lawlessness, he remained loving. And when they acted like a foe, he extended grace and mercy like a true friend. That is good news for us! God will keep drawing us to himself, in spite of ourselves. Yes, even when we have cut up the concubine! Christ is a friend that sticks closer than a brother and even in the midst of our rogue and reckless behavior, he will be there to turn us around, cleanse us, and use us for his purposes. Consider that, rest assured, and offer Him Praise!
Susan A. Blank Susan Blank is a Middler MDiv student, and a candidate for ministry in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.).
Identity Crisis This sermon was developed for a worship service presented by the Big Story Chapel Team as we considered the sixth day of creation alongside Colossians 1:15-20. God saw everything that was made and pronounced it "very good.� Yet since that time, humankind has suffered an identity crisis. How do we understand being made in the image of God? Presented in Pittsburgh Theological Seminary Chapel on April 1, 2014
Identity Crisis Old Testament Reading: Genesis 1:24-31 Gospel Reading: Colossians 1:15-20 Which Disney Princess are you? Which Batman villain or Superhero are you? Which Dr. Who are you? Or if you prefer, which medieval theologian are you, or Biblical heroine, or Kardashian? Or my all-time favorite quiz, "Which kind of person who takes on-line personality quizzes are you?" These personality quizzes from Buzzfeed and other sites clutter my Facebook newsfeed every day. They promise to tell you and 368 of your closest friends just, well, who you are. Especially my friend Pam. Pam loves these quizzes. I think Pam is having an identity crisis. Every week Pam is another favorite children's book or Star Trek Captain or flavor of pie. These identity crises are nothing new. We have long searched for ways to express our identity. What's your sign? Are you a middle child? Are you a Nittany Lion, a Panther or maybe a Spartan? Or a favorite among seminarians and pastors who have had their psych evaluation, "Are you, too, an INFP?" Me? I'm Sue or Susan, Mom, Nana, Elder Blank, and for a time, Madame Moderator. Our reading today from Genesis tells us "So God created humankind in God's image; in the image of God he created them." And with no more descriptor than that, God pronounces creation "very good." We are left wondering. What is this image of God? Is it a physical resemblance, an ideal, a pattern or plan? Whatever form it may take, using another word from the same root, it is the way that God imagined us into being, put together for God's will and purposes and pronounced "very good." But sin entered the world, and I only need to turn one page in my Bible to see the identity crisis begin. Adam and Eve: are they obedient stewards of Eden, or by eating the fruit of the tree can they become like God? Cain and Abel: does God honor the one who offers grain or red meat? When Moses intercedes for the Israelites: Lord, unless you go with us, how will it be known that I have found favor in your sight? How shall we be distinct, I and your people, from every people on the face of the earth: an identity crisis of epic proportions. And Peter: can he walk on water or will doubt pull him under? Is Peter the first public confessor of Christ, or will he deny Christ three times? And the disciples, huddled together from that Friday afternoon until Easter morn, wondering, "Who are we apart from the Messiah?" The early Christians? Are we followers of Apollos or Cephas or Paul? What is our identity? What does it mean that we are made in the image of God, and pronounced good? The paradox is this: that we were all created in God's image, yet none of us are alike.
There is none like me. There are other Presbyterians here, and surely other INFPs. There are other Southwestern Pennsylvanians who say slippy and red up, but is there anyone else that is all those things and can walk on stilts, raise a steer, and who throws the bat when she plays baseball? There is none like me and none like you, and yet, we are all created in the image of God. But as humans, and even sometimes as Christians, we cause harm when we define ourselves by putting up fences of inclusion, which become walls of exclusion. In the image of God he created them, male and female he created them. So far, so good; we're all in. But what does image include? Certainly not the color of our hair or eyes or skin, or that great biblical word "countenance," for then some would be the image, and others would be, "other." It is not our abilities, because what then of our disabilities? If we are burdened or abused or oppressed or oppressor, we cry foul; surely God did not intend me to be this! If the image of God is our character, or our purpose in the order of creation, we all fall short. But when we set our Genesis text alongside the letter to the Colossians the new creation becomes clear. Christ is the image of the invisible God. In him and through him and for him all things were created. In him all things hold together. He is the head of the body, the church, and in him all the fullness of God was pleased to dwell. And through him, God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, on earth or in heaven, through the blood of the cross. By his resurrection, heaven and earth are brought back to their divinely created and determined order. Christ is Lord in creation, and in the re-creation of all things. And we are presented holy and blameless and irreproachable. Our identity: holy, blameless and irreproachable. The good news for us is this: we are not defined by our sins and our shortcomings. We are not defined by our abilities or our disabilities. We are not defined by our inclusion or "otherness" or power or victimization. We are not defined by those things any more than we are defined by which Disney Princess or Superhero we are. We are accepted and loved, forgiven and redeemed. Through the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ we are being re-made into the image of God, the very way in which God imagined us into being.
Pittsburgh Theological Journal SPRING 2014
Brian Lays Brian Lays is masters of divinity student at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
The Rebirth of the Church: Applying Paul's Vision for Ministry in Our Post-Christian World This book review was originally submitted for possible publication in Evangelical Missions Quarterly (EMQ) and is reprinted here with permission. Gibbs, Eddie. Baker Academic Baker Publishing Group 6030 East Fulton Road Ada, MI 49301 272 pages, 2013, $20.99.
The Rebirth of the Church: Applying Paul's Vision for Ministry in Our Post-Christian World There is little doubt that the Western Church is in an epoch of major transition. The long age of Christendom, in which the Church enjoyed considerable social, political, and cultural influence, is waning. As Western culture becomes more secularized, the Church faces rising indifference, obscurity, and hostility. In order to respond to such challenges, the Church must reevaluate its leadership to ensure its capacity to engage Western culture remains intact. Eddie Gibbs approaches this reevaluation by engaging Paul's approach to mission as recorded in Acts and the Pauline epistles. Gibbs' initial two chapters outline the basic characteristics of our modern context and Paul's first century context, offering preliminary comparisons and making the case that the Church, not government entities, must strive to transform Western cultures. From this foundation, he considers the strategic importance of cities, where social networks can serve as conduits for evangelism. Chapters four through six assess birthing, caring, and growing churches, as Gibbs argues for the Church's need to be reproducible, wellconnected, and transformational, capacities Paul always sought to foster. After discussing church growth, Gibbs reaffirms the need to maintain the integrity of the Gospel in all missional endeavors. The temptation to compromise the teachings of the New Testament to appease a particular audience befalls the Church, from within and without, and must be resisted with bold humility. The book concludes with a strong exhortation to community; relationships within the Church can serve as a powerful witness to the rest of society. When a Church community is unified in its commitment to the core values of the Gospel, it can mobilize its ministry for the sake of God's mission to the world. The book remains general in its approach, and doesn't derive much from specific case studies or extensive analysis. Yet Gibbs' succinct, direct style is comfortable and engaging. His extensive, careful research is evident as he draws upon several contemporary missiologists and theologians on nearly every page. Each section is relevant to the larger discussion as Gibbs' passion for Evangelicalism and mission emerge. Throughout the book, Gibbs is careful to affirm that the Church cannot solve its current dilemmas by simply reproducing the attributes and approaches of the fledgling first century Church. A degree of application is required of each principle Gibbs expounds. Through careful exegesis and attentive practical evaluation, Gibbs offers hope that God's mission for the Church can bear fruit in the post-Christian world.
Check These Titles Gehring, Roger W. House Church and Mission: The Importance of Household Structure in Early Christianity. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2004. Hirsh, Alan, and Debra Hirsch. Untamed: Reactivating a Missional Form of Discipleship. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2010. Van Gelder, Craig, and Dwight J. Zscheile. The Missional Church in Perspective: Mapping Trends and Shaping the Conversation. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011.
Pittsburgh Theological Journal SPRING 2014
Rev. Charlie Hamill The Rev. Charlie Hamill is a 2012 graduate of PTS; he is a priest in the Episcopal Church, serves as Assistant Rector at Christ Episcopal Church, and lives in Pittsburgh with his wife Bethany Kronz.
YHWH The poem YHWH derives from a weekly poetry group called Poetry Machine that I am involved in, where we are given a random phrase to incorporate into a poem. The phrase was "the meaning of your name,� and there is only one name I want to know and pray in Hebrew, nature and in my own walk of faith...God, YHWH.
YHWH The unspoken word in Hebrew Could not be contained In the vibrations Of human voice. The magnitude of created space Evolving into measured song, Cannot spell the blinding light That is The meaning of your name. I can call you two thousand things, But you remain one note, Invading the interiority Of my broken being. I became, through you; My name exists, through yours; May my prayer Be a piece of your unending puzzle.
Jeffrey D. Bergeson Jeff Bergeson is a Senior, Master of Divinity student at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary in Pittsburgh, PA and a Candidate for ordination within the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.).
Shepherd This is a poem written from the perspective of Jesus to his Church, calling us to faithfully, obediently, and selflessly follow him for the sake of the Gospel and the world.
Shepherd It breaks my heart to hear you say, "We love you, Lord, and will obey," But when I say, "Come, follow me," you just stand still for all to see. Or even worse you turn around and wander off of solid ground. Don't think the world can't recognize the love or hate shown in your eyes. The world will know you by your love, because it comes from God above. Care for the sick, sinner, and whore, and preach the Good News to the poor. Cleanse the leper, and raise the dead; love God with your heart, soul, and head. So follow me and do not stray, I am the life, truth, and the way. You will find life if you will seek; give up your self and turn your cheek. So that the world my love can see pick up your cross and follow me.
Rebecca Cole-Turner Rebecca Cole-Turner, Ph.D. is a Senior, M.Div. student at PTS, a Spiritual director, a retreat leader, and a PC (U.S.A) Elder.
Pneuma Before time began You were. Ruach – out of the Eternal into the great Cosmos hovering over the deep waters, sweeping above, around and within the green New Earth. Born out of the great goodness of the blessed Creation, You were in the first breaths that Adam and Eve drew in and breathed out in Eden's garden Paradise. Holy Spirit – You still give us life, surrounding us, indwelling us, compelling us to love as You would have us love, to live as You would have us live, to live and move and have our being in You alone, to know Your grace-filled Wisdom every new day.
Pneuma – You are air in motion, breath, wind, and fire, Spirit of all life and in all life. Invisible Incomprehensible Mystery, we hear You – in the sweet laughter of children, in the sighs of our elders, and out of the Whirlwind we see You swirling and leaping up in the tongues of living fire, dancing over saints' heads in blessing at the first Pentecost. Sweet, fragrant Spirit of the Living God, fall afresh on us, stir us up, Untamed Beloved, blow where You will, wild, Holy Wind, renewing us, day in, day out, breathing in, breathing out, become our very breath, fill our earthly vessels and make us instruments always beautiful for You illumined with Your pure Uncreated Light.
Submission Information General Guidelines: Entry: Send all submissions to firstname.lastname@example.com as an attachment using Microsoft Word file format. Attach images and graphs, charts and lists as separate .jpg or .pdf files. Title page: Be sure to include a title page with the following information: name, title of article, abstract (50-100 words), e-mail address, and phone number. Give a one sentence autobiography including (but not limited to) your name, academic title or position, institutional affiliation and location. Originality: All work must be original and not previously published.
Formatting Principles: •
Adhere to the guidelines of the Kate L. Turabian's Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (6th rev. ed., 1996). See the PTS Student Handbook for details.
Include both footnotes and a bibliography.
For biblical languages, use fonts provided by the Society of Biblical Literature only.
Page format: 1 inch margins, double-spaced, Times New Roman, font size 12.
Use gender inclusive language.
Do not include your name anywhere other than on the title page.
Do not exceed the maximum word count as defined below.
Selection Process: All pieces will be judged by a student editorial board. Editors may require minor changes before publication. No submission is guaranteed publication. Individuals may submit up to three unique pieces, but generally only one submission per person is accepted.
Types of Submissions: •
Research Articles can be up to 8000 words in length. Areas of special interest include archaeology and history of antiquity, biblical studies, church history, ethics, missiology, pastoral care, and theology.
Pastoral and educational reflections can be up to 5000 words in length. Pastors and educators contemplate the theory, practice, and experience of their work.
Sermons can be up to 3500 words in length. Include the date and location where the sermon was preached.
Dissertation and Thesis Abstracts can be up to 1000 words in length. Include the name of faculty member(s) overseeing the dissertation.
Book Reviews can be up to 1000 words in length. Include the title, author, and purchase price, and ISBN.
Poetry can be up to 100 lines.
Artwork should be submitted with a summary of the background, purpose, and reason for the piece, under 200 words.
Recent Publications See http://www.pts.edu/Pittsburgh_Theological_Journal for recent editions of the Journal.
Through the Pittsburgh Theological Journal, students, faculty and alumni contribute to the development of pastortheologians by promoting theological reflection, intellectual integrity, and practical wisdom in ministry. The Journal publishes research articles, dissertation abstracts, book reviews, sermons, and reflections on pastoral and educational ministry. It exists for the benefit of the extended community of Pittsburgh Theological Seminary.
Pittsburgh Theological Journal is a student-run publication that takes submissions from PTS faculty, staff, students, and alums.