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ISTANBUL (AFP) – A banned radical Turkish Marxist group has retracted its claim for a suicide bombing in the heart of Istanbul's tourist district, saying it did not carry out the attack that killed the bomber and one policeman.
Reports earlier this week suggested Tuesday's attack was carried out by a Russian woman from the Muslim Caucasus region of Dagestan, and not the female bomber that the far-left militant group initially said had executed the strike.
"The attack on January 6 in Sultanahmet… was not carried out by our organisation," the Marxist Revolutionary People's Liberation Party-Front (DHKP-C) said in a statement on its website.
"We therefore withdraw our claim for the action. We apologise to our people and our supporters," it said.
It said that the error was down to a "technical problem" that had arisen due to the need to keep internal communications to a minimum while living under "fascist conditions".
Without giving further details, the group said that it had been preparing an action which would have coincided with the Sultanahmet attack.
Doubts were first raised when the mother of the suicide bomber named by the DHKP-C – Elif Sultan Kalsen – was taken to identify the corpse and said it was not her daughter.
Turkish private news agency DHA, without giving its sources, then said the bomber had been named as Russian citizen Diana Ramazanova (initially given as Ramazova) from the Russian region of Dagestan.


text: Save This Event For Later Tyler Bicycle Club Annual Membership Tyler, TX, Wed Dec 31, 2014 Registration Page | Who's Registered? | Event Website | Google Calendar Start line address: P.O. Box 6734, Tyler, TX 75711 Presented by Tyler Bicycle Club Contact Event Send an email to Tyler Bicycle Club Annual Membership Promoter FROM: * * * send a copy of this email to me *SUBJECT: *MESSAGE: Event Phone Number: (903) 372-5441 Event Website: http://www.tylerbicycleclub.com

subset: commoncrawl


text:
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Join The Sims 3 Showtime Chat This Thursday
The Showtime Expansion pack is taking the stage during this week's The Sims 3 live chat. Join us at 10:00 a.m. PST on Thursday, January 26 as Senior Game Designer Aaron Conners demos three new and different ways for your Sims to rise to fame.Read More
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Breaking Into The Industry: Charles Graf
Join us this week as we speak with Charles Graf, a Game Capture Artist for The Sims video team. We'll discuss his move from Ohio to the tech-steeped Bay, his current life as a student and full-time artist, and what goes into the creation of an official EA game trailer.Read More
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These translucent candy-colored rainbow recorders are real instruments, not toys. They are made from the same ABS resin material as our regular recorders, and offer the same superior tuning, the same beautiful tone, and the same great durability. Plus, with 100% BPA-free plastic, you know these are safe for anyone to play. They play effortlessly with a rich, full sound, and with their colorful look they make even routine practice fun!
Available in three colors
Pick from pink, blue or green and make playing fun!
Available in three colors
Pick from pink, blue or green and make playing fun!
Playing characteristics
Easy to play with precise, uniform intonation for players of all levels, perfect for the beginning musician.
Baroque fingering
Recorders using the Baroque fingering system are the most commonly used in the United States, making this ideal for schools and beginning music programs.
ABS resin plastic
A very durable plastic ideal for student recorders. Plus, it's completely free of both BPA and latex for your peace of mind.
The three-piece construction of this recorder makes tuning and cleaning easier. In addition, Yamaha uses a technique known as ultrasonic welding to assemble these instruments, which means no glues or adhesives are necessary.
Audio & Video
|Key of
|Soprano in C
|Double holes
|ABS resin plastic, BPA-free
|Available translucent colors
|Cotton candy blue (YRS-20BB); sour apple green (YRS-20BG); and bubble gum pink (YRS-20BP).
Optional Accessories
What's the difference between the "German" system and the "Baroque" system?
What's the difference between the straight windway and the arched windway?
What are the different playing characteristics of a wooden recorder with the different wood materials?
Online Help
Reviewed by 1 customer
- Deserves A Cloth Bag
Best Uses
Comments about Yamaha yrs-20b:
Same true ABS material as YRS-24B model. No other brand translucent soprano recorder matches construction build or sound quality of YRS-20 series (3-piece) recorder by Yamaha. Precision fit joints + density of ABS material itself, tops all others I have played.
I do own all 3 translucent color options currently available plus the 24B ivory model from Yamaha. Yet I still personally favor the cool Blue between them all. Appearance yes, but also instrument just seems to project brighter to me overall. Pitch & sound detonation when playing up to & thru distortion point suits my total playing style. I am able to create & play punchy hooks or charming melodies as I choose on the YRS-20BB.
Maybe I am compltely wrong about its reason for being there. But every single one of my translucent recorders have a common, odd feature aspect. Might be purposely done in the molding process to signify a genuine Yamaha made instrument. As you hold & bring recorder to your mouth, look inside center area of mouthpiece. You will see an air bubble formation suspended inside....kinda cool that's all. Never know it was there otherwise, on a solid opaque color. Doesn't seem to affect sound quality as far as I can tell.
Avoid leaving recorder outdoors in direct sunlight to dry after cleaning....if you want to keep its full color depth.
- Was this a gift?:
- No


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7 Secular Pieces - Score
7 Secular Pieces - Score composed by Josquin des Prez (1440-1521). For ATTB viols or ATTB recorders. String Quartets, Quintets etc., Recorder Quartets. Art of the Netherlands Collection. Score. Published by London Pro Musica (MM.LPMAN06).
A little volume that explores the lighter side of this central figure of Renaissance music. Suitable for recorders, viols, and several other types of instruments. Includes text with translations, performance and editorial comments.


text: Michael Buckner, Getty Images Entertainment [ Glen Campbell Born, 'It's Your Love' Wins 4 ACMs-Today In Country History By Kevin Richards April 22, 2011 The Music and Memories of April 22 Read More Category: Music News Tags: george strait, Glen Campbell, it's your love, rhinestone cowboy Send to a friend! Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Pin it! Reddit This! Share on Tumblr!


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Unwelcome Invitation
The telephone rings. The telephone rings.
The telephone rings, and finally Diane reaches blearily from the comfort of the bed to answer.
"Mmmm-Hello?" She yawns, not yet awake.
"Diane, it's your mother speaking. Are you still in bed? Shame on you for being so slovenly! I always said that allowing you to live -" At this, Diane removes the receiver from her ear and sighs.
Her mother is not a welcome wake up call at seven-thirty in the morning, or ever. She resumes listening and her mother is in mid-scold.
"-not a way for a Brenneman to behave!" Diane rubs at her tired face and stretches.
"It's good to hear from you too Mom." Diane's mother gives a mirthless laugh.
"It is never good to hear from me in your mind! I know you resent me!" Not in a mood for confrontation or attack, Diane rolls her eyes and debates hanging up.
"Diane!" Her mother snaps, endowed with a second sense for insult. "Stop rolling your ungrateful little eyes and listen to me! I have invited a young man to come to dinner tonight, a rich young man worthy of our family name.
"You are to be here at six PM. Wear something suitable - your new Givenchy dress perhaps - and do your hair. And Diane, for heaven's sake girl, do not speak about war, politics, or women in the workforce! It simply isn't suitable." There is a long silence on the end of the receiver.
"No Mother, I won't. I'm not coming." She says, trying to sound resolute.
"You listen Diane!" Mother Brenneman shrills, "The house you live in is MY summer home, and if you disrespect me, I will send you out! BE HERE AT SIX!" The phone line goes dead.
For a few disbelieving seconds, Diane stares at the receiver in her hand, angry beyond words. This house is mine, it was a birthday present! She thinks, fuming.
Diane hurls the phone as far across the room as hard as she possibly can - receiver, cradle, wires and all.


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BRIEF-Elysian at Harmony says raises $15.5 million in equity financing
* Elysian at Harmony LP says raises $15.5 million in equity financing - SEC filing Source text: (http://bit.ly/2rHDrWQ)
The following were the top stories in The Wall Street Journal on Wednesday. Reuters has not verified these stories and does not vouch for their accuracy.
* The European Central Bank (ECB) made key concessions over its holdings of Greece's bonds, which will smooth the path toward a new Greek bailout, said people briefed on Greece's debt-restructuring negotiations.
* Goldman Sachs Group Inc and Morgan Stanley clarified for the first time that managers are also on the line when firms seek to recover pay under "clawback" policies.
* U.S. companies are adding capacity at home, replacing aging equipment and even moving production back from overseas.
* Large shareholders of Xstrata came out against the company's plan to merge with Glencore International, highlighting what could be a difficult task selling the giant deal to shareholders and regulators.
* Yahoo said Chairman Roy Bostock and three other directors have volunteered not to stand for re-election to the company's board. The company named two new outside directors.
* Hawker Beechcraft, which announced Tuesday it has hired a restructuring veteran as its chief executive, has also hired bankruptcy and restructuring lawyers, said people familiar with the matter.
* General Motors Co is preparing to disclose "horrendous" fourth quarter losses out of its European Opel/Vauxhall unit and is demanding deep cuts from labor unions there, a GM official said on Tuesday.
* U.S. banks have been dogged in recent years by tougher regulation and sluggish loan growth. But Citigroup Inc believes things will turn around for its U.S. retail-banking operations. By 2014, "people will really see a difference" in improved customer service and product sales at Citibank branches, said the bank's U.S. retail and commercial banking chief, Cecilia Stewart, in recent interviews.
* Caesars Entertainment Corp priced 1.81 million shares of its stock at $9 a share to raise around $16.3 million, a small amount but one that opens the door for some investors to cash out. The company is selling a tiny portion of itself -- just 1.4 percent -- in what is one of the smallest IPOs in recent history.
* Elysian at Harmony LP says raises $15.5 million in equity financing - SEC filing Source text: (http://bit.ly/2rHDrWQ)
* Synlogic Inc says raises $42 million in equity financing - SEC filing Source text: (http://bit.ly/2rHsKU9)
NEW YORK, May 26 "Sell in May and go away" is perhaps the oldest saw on Wall Street, but it appears there's no shortage of U.S. mutual funds doing exactly that this year.


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PORT GIBSON — The contents of an Old South mansion in Port Gibson are going up for sale.
An estate tag sale is set for Feb. 1-3 at the historic Oak Square home.
The Clarion-Ledger reports Oak Square was once the town home of a cotton planter. It was later divided into apartments. More recently it was restored as a bed and breakfast inn.
Cartwright Estate Liquidations is handling the estate tag sale, which is the first of three on the site. Second and third estate sales, which will include the contents of adjoining properties and Oak Square's extensive attic, will be held in March and April.
A Gothic house stood on the site originally, probably 1850, and burned in 1905. It was salvaged and rebuilt in 1906 (a historic marker notes the dual date).
Bill and Martha Lum, each with family roots in the area stretching back to the late 1700s, bought Oak Square in 1976 as a retirement occupation, restoring it as a B&B that welcomed tourists through its heyday in the 1980s and 1990s.
"When my father died (in 1995), things took a different direction," said their son, Doug Lum. The inn continued to operate until 2011; the customer base trended more toward extended stay, with guests housed in the other buildings on the grounds. The main house hasn't been used as a bed-and-breakfast since the mid-1990s. It's been locked up and preserved since.
The main house has passed to Martha Lum's late daughter's children; Martha Lum, now 88, has moved and is downsizing with the help of her son and his wife. Her surviving daughter lives in Ridgeland; grandchildren are spread from Texas to Washington, D.C.
"Many things have gone to children and grandchildren, but there's just so much," said Doug Lum, a local architect, who lives in a restored historic home with his family of six.
Such estates and collections demand resources. "It just takes everything. Mother was of another generation. And they were willing to do it," Doug Lum said. "I'm raising children. We've got cars and gas and basketball and the things that we do."


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Want to be on TV?
I've been contacted by a TV production company who are looking for mums from all walks of life to take part in a documentary about motherhood for the BBC. If you're interested in finding out more, contact email@example.com.
written by Liz Jarvis
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« Booking your summer holiday? Read this first! I want these shoes! »


text:
Head coach Jim Tressel typically takes his team downtown to the Ohio Statehouse on Veterans Day, when the university cancels classes, but this year he made a change. Although the Buckeyes still went downtown, they went across the street from the capital building to the Rhodes tower and visited a memorial to the Lima Company that lost 23 members during a 2005 deployment to Iraq.
Earlier in the week, Tressel and Bob Tucker, the team's director of military appreciation, received the Patrick Henry award from the Ohio National Guard. Tucker arranged for the players to meet with Anita Miller, the artist who designed the memorial.
"She requested that it had meant to much for the families to meet our kids for them to be able to express to our kids that what they were doing at Ohio State was important to their sons and daughters who were overseas serving us," Tressel said. "It was a special thing. We got to meet the parents of the Lima Company who were lost, and it's heart-wrenching."
This afternoon, the Buckeyes will get back on the practice field and resume preparations for Saturday's home contest with Penn State (3:30, ABC). When they do, Tressel confirmed that linebackers Ross Homan and Dorian Bell will be back in action.
Homan had missed two games with a sprained foot while Bell had been out for three games after suffering his second concussion of the season.
"Ross is good and Dorian is good," the coach said. "They practiced fine and are good to go."
The Buckeyes had time to recover last weekend as they experienced an open week, and that appears to have been a benefit to at least one other player as well. Junior right tackle J.B. Shugarts has been battling an undisclosed foot problem that has prematurely forced him to the sidelines in a number of contests this season, but Tressel said this has been a positive week for him.
"He's had his best week from a comfort standpoint," the coach said. "Last game I think he went the same length as the rest of the first group did."
Tressel also downplayed a rumor that freshman defensive back Christian Bryant could be back in time for the Michigan game Nov. 27. Bryant suffered an infection in his foot that required surgery and is expected to miss the rest of the regular season.
"I don't think (he'll be back so soon) but I wouldn't discount anything," Tressel said. "I think he's still in a (walking) boot. Being out of a boot and back on the practice field and ready to compete are two different things, but that's great thinking."
Tressel said the medical staff has told him it is a legitimate hope that Bryant will be able to return in time for the team's bowl game.
At 8-1 overall and ranked ninth in the nation, OSU enters the game pegged as a heavy favorite with some oddsmakers picking the Nittany Lions as 17-point underdogs. With starting quarterback Matt McGloin telling reporters that the team perceived that as an insult, Tressel said it could add more fuel to PSU's fire.
"I think anything that is paid attention to outside of what needs to be can have an effect," he said. "If our guys are paying attention to a moment where some prognosticates that they're a favorite, they're thinking about the wrong things."
The coach said he had not heard junior quarterback Terrelle Pryor saying he plans to return for his senior season. Asked if he had discussed the situation at any point with Pryor, Tressel said, "Not really. We just go day to day and try to progress the best we can. I'm sure in my mind that that's probably been his thinking all along."
OSU's underclassmen generally file paperwork with the NFL to get a read on their draft status as an aid for determining whether or not they should leave school early. Tressel said he would not handle Pryor's situation any differently than he would other players in his situation.
"What we always do for our underclassmen is if you'd like to do it, we're behind you," Tressel said. "If you'd rather not and don't want to waste your time and spend $10 for a transcript to send to the NFL and all that stuff then don't bother. It certainly will be open to all of our third-year guys."


text:
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text:
Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev attended an opening of a bus depot and a training center of Bakubus LLC for the first European Games, SIA informs.
President cut the ribbon symbolizing the opening of the bus depot and the training center.
Then Azerbaijani Minister of Finance Samir Sharifov informed head of state about the work carried out here. It was noted that an administrative building and four service buildings were constructed here.
The Azerbaijani president reviewed the conditions created in the administrative building, Driver Training Center and a bus park, and viewed buses.


text:
MSN Web Messenger is shut off on June 30
Microsoft changes the instant messenger service: The web based version of the MSN Messenger will be shut off on June 30 and integrated into Hotmail.
On June 30, 2009 Microsoft will discontinue the MSN Web Messenger. The Redmond company integrated the service into the Hotmail interface some time ago. In the future this will be the only access of the web based Instant Massaging.
In Microsoft's opinion the advantage for the users is that contact are also shown as online if they are checking mails while being on the move. Up to now one had to log in on MSN Web Messenger additionally.
The desktop version with an installed client application is not affected though. The windows Live Messenger can still be used as usual.


text:
So I'm over in Amsterdam right now on the Teched Europe 2005 pre-conference day. As much as I'd want to listen to some of the great full-day sessions today, including John Craddock talking about Active Directory Internals, Mark Russinovich talking about Advanced Windows Troubleshooting or a day in the company of Steve and Jesper talking security (my brain might fry before that one was over) to name but three, I've unfortunately got internal meetings over here most of the day. What's more unfortunate is that the pre-conference days aren't recorded.
Between you and me, I'll have to sneak out of the internal meetings, but please don't tell my boss ;-!!! I'm not speaking until Thursday and Friday, so I should get a chance tomorrow to listen in to the keynote and some of the other sessions. Just got to choose which ones now. I'll post up anything blog-worthy (which there's bound to be loads of).
BTW – my remote webmail and VPN connectivity back to home is working a treat from here – that is really cool. The VPN back to Microsoft CorpNet also works, but that isn't quite so cool as a) it means I can do some work and b) I didn't set it up


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Man Overboard(1936)
(Cold-Blooded Murder)
(Book 15 in the Inspector French series)
A novel by Freeman Wills Crofts
In the course of a ship's passage from Belfast to Liverpool a man disappears. His body is picked up by Irish fishermen. Although the coroner's verdict is suicide, murder is suspected. Inspector French co-operates with Superintendent Rainey and Sergeant McClung once more to determine the truth.
Genre: Mystery
Genre: Mystery
Similar Books by other authors...
Used availability for Freeman Wills Crofts's Man Overboard
See all available used copies of this book at Abebooks UK or Abebooks US
Hardback Editions
October 1973 : UK Hardback
|Title: Man Overboard
Author(s): Freeman Wills Crofts
ISBN: 0-00-231533-5 / 978-0-00-231533-3 (UK edition)
Publisher: HarperCollins Distribution Services
Availability: Amazon Amazon UK Amazon CA
Paperback Editions
October 2000 : UK Paperback
|Title: Man Overboard
Author(s): Freeman Wills Crofts
ISBN: 1-84232-403-9 / 978-1-84232-403-5 (UK edition)
Publisher: House of Stratus
Availability: Amazon Amazon UK Amazon CA
Genre Pages


text:
UGC 5119: A galaxy with a stellar polar ring?
- Received:
- Cite this article as:
- Yakovleva, V.A. & Karataeva, G.M. Astron. Lett. (2004) 30: 519. doi:10.1134/1.1784493
- Citations
- 12 Downloads
We present our photometric BV Rc observations of UGC 5119, a candidate polar-ring galaxy. We have determined its absolute magnitude, \(M_{0,B} = - 20\mathop m\limits_. 3\), and total color indices, \((B - V)_t^0 = + 0\mathop m\limits_. 73 \pm 0\mathop m\limits_. 10\) and \((V - R_c )_t^0 = + 0\mathop m\limits_. 54 \pm 0\mathop m\limits_. 10\). A Fourier analysis of the shape of its isophotes shows that UGC 5119 is most likely an elliptical galaxy with a disk component in the central part and a "boxy" feature on the periphery. At distances larger than 8″, the galaxy exhibits a turn of its major axis and a change in the phase of the fourth harmonic. Assuming the position angle of the major axis to be constant, a stellar ringlike structure is distinguished in the galaxy. The age of the ring stars is the same as that of the stars in the host galaxy. The distinguished ringlike structure cannot be attributed to typical polar rings rich in gas and in young stars.


text:
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives.
Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their primary use as window panes. Glass will transmit, reflect and refract light; these qualities can be enhanced by cutting and polishing to make optical lenses, prisms, fine glassware, and optical fibers for high speed data transmission by light. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels. These qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures. Because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels: bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also been used for paperweights, marbles, and beads. When extruded as glass fiber and matted as glass wool in a way to trap air, it becomes a thermal insulating material, and when these glass fibers are embedded into an organic polymer plastic, they are a key structural reinforcement part of the composite material fiberglass. Some objects historically were so commonly made of silicate glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses and reading glasses.
Scientifically, the term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that possesses a non-crystalline (that is, amorphous) structure at the atomic-scale and that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses. These sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica: metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative than traditional glass.
- 1 Silicate glass
- 2 Physical properties
- 3 Contemporary production
- 4 History of silicate glass
- 5 Other types
- 6 Coatings
- 7 Structure
- 8 Gallery
- 9 See also
- 10 References
- 11 Further reading
- 12 External links
Silicate glass
Silica (the chemical compound SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass.[1] In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurite.[2]
Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2 (silica). It has excellent resistance to thermal shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with.[3] Normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, "soda"), which lowers the glass transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (calcium oxide [CaO], generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass.[4] Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.[5][6]
Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses.[7] Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths.[8]
The following is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses, and their ingredients, properties, and applications:
- Fused quartz,[9] also called fused silica glass[10], vitreous silica glass: silica (SiO2) in vitreous or glass form (i.e., its molecules are disordered and random, without crystalline structure). It has very low thermal expansion, is very hard, and resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C). It is also the most resistant against weathering (caused in other glasses by alkali ions leaching out of the glass, while staining it). Fused quartz is used for high temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc.[11]
- Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass:[12] silica + sodium oxide (Na2O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al2O3).[13][14] Is transparent, easily formed and most suitable for window glass (see flat glass). It has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat (500–600 °C). It is used for windows, some low temperature incandescent light bulbs, and tableware. Container glass is a soda-lime glass that is a slight variation on flat glass, which uses more alumina and calcium, and less sodium and magnesium which are more water-soluble. This makes it less susceptible to water erosion.
- Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica + boron trioxide (B2O3) + soda (Na2O) + alumina (Al2O3).[15] Stands heat expansion much better than window glass.[10] Used for chemical glassware, cooking glass, car head lamps, etc. Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex, Duran) have as main constituents silica and boron trioxide. They have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE is 3.25×10–6/°C[16] as compared to about 9×10−6/°C for a typical soda-lime glass[17]), making them more dimensionally stable. The lower coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) also makes them less subject to stress caused by thermal expansion, thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock. They are commonly used for reagent bottles, optical components and household cookware.
- Lead-oxide glass, crystal glass[11], lead glass:[18] silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K2O) + soda (Na2O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina. Because of its high density (resulting in a high electron density) it has a high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant (called "crystal", though of course it is a glass and not a crystal). It also has a high elasticity, making glassware "ring". It is also more workable in the factory, but cannot stand heating very well.[11] This kind of glass is also more fragile than other glasses.[19]
- Aluminosilicate glass: silica + alumina + lime + magnesia[20] + barium oxide (BaO)[11] + boric oxide (B2O3).[20] Extensively used for fiberglass,[20] used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.) and for halogen bulb glass.[11] Aluminosilicate glasses are also resistant to weathering and water erosion.[21]
- Germanium oxide glass: alumina + germanium dioxide (GeO2). Extremely clear glass, used for fiber-optic waveguides in communication networks.[22] Light loses only 5% of its intensity through 1 km of glass fiber.[11]
Another common glass ingredient is crushed alkali glass or "cullet" ready for recycled glass. The recycled glass saves on raw materials and energy. Impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment failure. Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide may be added to reduce the number of air bubbles in the glass mixture.[4] Glass batch calculation is the method by which the correct raw material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.[23]
Quartz sand (silica) is the main raw material in commercial glass production
Trinitite, a glass made by the Trinity nuclear weapon test
Lead glass a glass made by adding lead oxide to glass
A borosilicate glass container.
Physical properties
Optical properties
Glass is in widespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that are transparent to visible light. In contrast, polycrystalline materials do not generally transmit visible light.[24] The individual crystallites may be transparent, but their facets (grain boundaries) reflect or scatter light resulting in diffuse reflection. Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated with grain boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline material. The surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the supercooled liquid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follow surface tension, which imposes a microscopically smooth surface. These properties, which give glass its clearness, can be retained even if glass is partially light-absorbing—i.e., colored.[25]
Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics, without scattering it.[citation needed] It is used in the manufacture of lenses and windows.[26] Common glass has a refraction index around 1.5.[27] This may be modified by adding low-density materials such as boron, which lowers the index of refraction (see crown glass), or increased (to as much as 1.8) with high-density materials such as (classically) lead oxide (see flint glass and lead glass), or in modern uses, less toxic oxides of zirconium, titanium, or barium. These high-index glasses (inaccurately known as "crystal" when used in glass vessels) cause more chromatic dispersion of light, and are prized for their diamond-like optical properties.
According to Fresnel equations, the reflectivity of a sheet of glass is about 4% per surface (at normal incidence in air),[28] and the transmissivity of one element (two surfaces) is about 90%.[29] Glass with high germanium oxide content also finds application in optoelectronics—e.g., for light-transmitting optical fibers.[citation needed]
A wine glass
Simple optical device: the magnifying glass
Glass petri dish
A glass cup
Other properties
In the process of manufacture, silicate glass can be poured, formed, extruded and molded into forms ranging from flat sheets to highly intricate shapes.[30] The finished product is brittle[31] and will fracture, unless laminated or specially treated, but is extremely durable under most conditions. It erodes very slowly[32] and can withstand the action of water.[citation needed] It is resistant to chemical attack[33] and is an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals.[citation needed]
Although glass is highly corrosion resistant, it still can be corroded.[34][34][35] Glass containing a high proportion of alkalis is less corrosion resistant than other glasses.[36]
Contemporary production
Following the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda-lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units. Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks.[4] After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish.[37] Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance. Further glass forming techniques are summarized in the table Glass forming techniques.
Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses and to increase the glass's hardness and durability.[38] Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields), or optical properties (insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating).[citation needed]
Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers) that are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses).[39] Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities of up to 0.1 wt%[40] produce a green tint, which can be viewed in thick pieces or with the aid of scientific instruments. Further FeO and Cr2O3 additions may be used for the production of green bottles. Sulfur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black.[41] A glass melt can also acquire an amber color from a reducing combustion atmosphere. Manganese dioxide can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(II) oxide. When used in art glass or studio glass is colored using closely guarded recipes that involve specific combinations of metal oxides, melting temperatures and "cook" times. Most colored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors who serve this market, although there are some glassmakers with the ability to make their own color from raw materials.
History of silicate glass
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Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt.[42] The earliest known glass objects, of the mid third millennium BCE, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.[43]
Glass remained a luxury material, and the disasters that overtook Late Bronze Age civilizations seem to have brought glass-making to a halt. Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BCE.[44] In ancient China, though, glassmaking seems to have a late start, compared to ceramics and metal work. The term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking center at Trier, now in modern Germany, that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent, lustrous substance.[45] Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman empire[46] in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts.[citation needed] Examples of Roman glass have also been found outside of the former Roman Empire in China,[47] the Baltics, the Middle East and India.[48]
Glass was used extensively during the Middle Ages. Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites.[49] Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was also used in jewelry. From the 10th-century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals, with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint Denis. By the 14th-century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, (1203–1248)[50] and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral.[51] Stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th-century. With the Renaissance, and a change in architectural style, the use of large stained glass windows became less prevalent. The use of domestic stained glass increased until most substantial houses had glass windows. These were initially small panes leaded together, but with the changes in technology, glass could be manufactured relatively cheaply in increasingly larger sheets. This led to larger window panes, and, in the 20th-century, to much larger windows in ordinary domestic and commercial buildings.
In the 20th century, new types of glass such as laminated glass, reinforced glass and glass bricks have increased the use of glass as a building material and resulted in new applications of glass. Multi-story buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass. Similarly, laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens. While glass containers have always been used for storage and are valued for their hygienic properties, glass has been utilized increasingly in industry. Optical glass for spectacles has been used since the late Middle Ages. The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers as well as having other application in medicine and science. Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy systems.
From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy producing colored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using luster techniques. Louis Comfort Tiffany in America specialized in stained glass, both secular and religious, and his famous lamps. The early 20th-century saw the large-scale factory production of glass art by firms such as Waterford and Lalique. From about 1960 onwards there have been an increasing number of small studios hand-producing glass artworks, and glass artists began to class themselves as in effect sculptors working in glass, and their works as part fine arts.
In the 21st century, scientists observing the properties of ancient stained glass windows, in which suspended nanoparticles prevent UV light from causing chemical reactions that change image colors, are developing photographic techniques that use similar stained glass to capture true color images of Mars for the 2019 ESA Mars Rover mission.[52]
Chronology of advances in architectural glass
- 1226: "Broad Sheet" first produced in Sussex.
- 1330: "Crown glass" for art work and vessels first produced in Rouen, France. "Broad Sheet" also produced. Both were also supplied for export.
- 1500s: A method of making mirrors out of plate glass was developed by Venetian glassmakers on the island of Murano, who covered the back of the glass with a mercury-tin amalgam, obtaining near-perfect and undistorted reflection.
- 1620: "Blown plate" first produced in London. Used for mirrors and coach plates.
- 1678: "Crown glass" first produced in London. This process dominated until the 19th century.
- 1843: An early form of "float glass" invented by Henry Bessemer, pouring glass onto liquid tin. Expensive and not a commercial success.
- 1874: Tempered glass is developed by Francois Barthelemy Alfred Royer de la Bastie (1830–1901) of Paris, France by quenching almost molten glass in a heated bath of oil or grease.
- 1888: Machine-rolled glass introduced, allowing patterns.
- 1898: Wired-cast glass invented by Pilkington for use where safety or security was an issue.[citation needed]
- 1959: Float glass launched in UK. Invented by Sir Alastair Pilkington.[53]
Mouth-blown window-glass in Sweden Kosta Glasbruk, (1742) with a pontil mark from the glassblower's pipe
A building in Canterbury, England, which displays its long history in different building styles and glazing of every century from the 16th to the 20th included.
Windows in the choir of the Basilica of Saint Denis, one of the earliest uses of extensive areas of glass. (early 13th-century architecture with restored glass of the 19th century)
"Hardwick Hall, more glass than wall". (late 16th century)
Other types
New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).[54] Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.[54][55]
To make glass from materials with poor glass forming tendencies, novel techniques are used to increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers. Examples of these techniques include aerodynamic levitation (cooling the melt whilst it floats on a gas stream), splat quenching (pressing the melt between two metal anvils) and roller quenching (pouring the melt through rollers).
Fiberglass (also called glass-reinforced-plastic[56][57]) is a composite material made up of glass fibers (also called fiberglass[58] or glass friller[59]) embedded in a plastic resin.[60][61] It is made by melting glass and stretching the glass into fibers. These fibers are woven together into a cloth and left to set in a plastic resin.[62]
Fiberglass filaments are made through a pultrusion process in which the raw materials (sand, limestone, kaolin clay, fluorspar, colemanite, dolomite and other minerals) are melted in a large furnace into a liquid which is extruded through very small orifices.[63]
Fiberglass has the properties of being lightweight and corrosion resistant.[64][65] Fiberglass is also a good insulator,[66] allowing it to be used to insulate buildings.[67] Most fiberglasses are not alkali resistant.[68] Fiberglass also has the property of becoming stronger as the glass ages.[69]
Network glasses
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Some glasses that do not include silica as a major constituent may have physico-chemical properties useful for their application in fiber optics and other specialized technical applications. These include fluoride glasses, aluminosilicates, phosphate glasses, borate glasses, and chalcogenide glasses.
There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition. The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium, potassium) alter the network structure; they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby non-bridging oxygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass network and holding one negative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby. Some elements can play multiple roles; e.g. lead can act both as a network former (Pb4+ replacing Si4+), or as a modifier.
The presence of non-bridging oxygens lowers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and disrupts the network, decreasing the viscosity of the melt and lowering the melting temperature.
The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two positive charges and requirement for two non-bridging oxygen ions to compensate for their charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis. The most common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usually sodium and calcium), for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance.[71] Corrosion resistance of glass can be achieved by dealkalization, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface by reaction with e.g. sulfur or fluorine compounds. Presence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass, and to its electrical resistance; glasses for electronics (sealing, vacuum tubes, lamps ...) have to take this in account.
Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders. The high ionic radius of the Pb2+ ion renders it highly immobile in the matrix and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda-lime glass (108.5 vs 106.5 Ohm·cm, DC at 250 °C). For more details, see lead glass.[72]
Addition of fluorine lowers the dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and attracts the electrons in the lattice, lowering the polarizability of the material. Such silicon dioxide-fluoride is used in manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. High levels of fluorine doping lead to formation of volatile SiF2O and such glass is then thermally unstable. Stable layers were achieved with dielectric constant down to about 3.5–3.7.[73]
Amorphous metals
In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the order of millions of degrees per second is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic atoms become "locked into" a glassy state. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk. More recently a number of alloys have been produced in layers with thickness exceeding 1 millimeter. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sell a number of zirconium-based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.[74][75][76]
In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase", to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a first-order transition. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images show that the q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles, which grow spherically with a uniform growth rate in all directions. The diffraction pattern shows it to be an isotropic glassy phase. Yet there is a nucleation barrier, which implies an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and the melt.[77][78]
Electrolytes or molten salts are mixtures of different ions. In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that the liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass. The best-studied example is Ca0.4K0.6(NO3)1.4. Glass electrolytes in the form of Ba-doped Li-glass and Ba-doped Na-glass have been proposed as solutions to problems identified with organic liquid electrolytes used in modern lithium-ion battery cells.[79]
Aqueous solutions
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Some aqueous solutions can be supercooled into a glassy state,[80] for instance LiCl:RH2O in the composition range 4<R<8.
Molecular liquids
A molecular liquid is composed of molecules that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds. Many molecular liquids can be supercooled into a glass; some are excellent glass formers that normally do not crystallize.
A widely known example is sugar glass.
Under extremes of pressure and temperature solids may exhibit large structural and physical changes that can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions.[81] In 2006 Italian scientists created an amorphous phase of carbon dioxide using extreme pressure. The substance was named amorphous carbonia(a-CO2) and exhibits an atomic structure resembling that of silica.[82]
Important polymer glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased when it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition. Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms.[83]
Colloidal glasses
Concentrated colloidal suspensions may exhibit a distinct glass transition as function of particle concentration or density.[84][85][86]
In cell biology there is recent evidence suggesting that the cytoplasm behaves like a colloidal glass approaching the liquid-glass transition.[87][88] During periods of low metabolic activity, as in dormancy, the cytoplasm vitrifies and prohibits the movement to larger cytoplasmic particles while allowing the diffusion of smaller ones throughout the cell.[87]
Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. Crystalline grains are often embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries. When applied to whiteware ceramics, vitreous means the material has an extremely low permeability to liquids, often but not always water, when determined by a specified test regime.[89][90]
The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C.[89][90]
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Glass can be coated with materials to make it water repellent[91] or sandwiched between layers of Polyvinyl butyral (PVB) to make the glass stronger.[92]
As in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks the long-range periodicity observed in crystalline solids. Due to chemical bonding characteristics glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra.[93]
Formation from a supercooled liquid
In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching,[94][95][96][97][98] although the term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. For melt quenching, if the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg. The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory.[99] Generally, a glass exists in a structurally metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase.[100]
Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition[101][102] where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous.[95] Nonetheless, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids.[97][98]
Glass is an amorphous solid. It exhibits an atomic structure close to that observed in the supercooled liquid phase but displays all the mechanical properties of a solid.[101][103] The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity of amorphous materials). Laboratory measurements of room temperature glass flow do show a motion consistent with a material viscosity on the order of 1017–1018 Pa s.[104]
Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature.[105] A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instantly if a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in active degrees of freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, whereas rotational and translational motion is arrested. This helps to explain why both crystalline and non-crystalline solids exhibit rigidity on most experimental time scales.
|Unsolved problem in physics :
What is the nature of the transition between a fluid or regular solid and a glassy phase? "The deepest and most interesting unsolved problem in solid state theory is probably the theory of the nature of glass and the glass transition." —P.W. Anderson[106]
(more unsolved problems in physics )
Behavior of antique glass
The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another.[107] This assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window.[108] Occasionally such glass has been found installed with the thicker side at the top, left or right.[109]
Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness, typically with the location of the pour centered in one of the panes (known as "bull's-eyes") for decorative effect. Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness.
Several other points can be considered that contradict the "cathedral glass flow" theory:
- Writing in the American Journal of Physics, the materials engineer Edgar D. Zanotto states "... the predicted relaxation time for GeO2 at room temperature is 1032 years. Hence, the relaxation period (characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even longer."[110] (1032 years is many times longer than the estimated age of the universe.)
- If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and Egyptian objects should have flowed proportionately more—but this is not observed. Similarly, prehistoric obsidian blades should have lost their edge; this is not observed either (although obsidian may have a different viscosity from window glass).[101]
- If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye after centuries, then the effect should be noticeable in antique telescopes. Any slight deformation in the antique telescopic lenses would lead to a dramatic decrease in optical performance, a phenomenon that is not observed.[101]
Ear stud, ca. 1390–1353 B.C.E., 48.66.30, Brooklyn Museum. The shafts of these brightly colored studs were inserted through a hole in the earlobe to display the studs' circular heads.
Siphon bottle for seltzer water, 1922
Perfume set from Soviet Union, ca. 1965
The Rotunda, or main entrance, of the Victoria and Albert Museum now sports a 30 ft high, blown glass chandelier by Dale Chihuly
The using of glass dials in this "mystery watch" creates the illusion the hands move without movement
Testing flatness with an optical flat. The smooth surface of glass is used for measurements much smaller than the wavelength of the light by creating a pattern of light and dark fringes.
See also
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- ^ Gardner, Irvine Clifton; Hahner, Clarence H. (1949). Research and Development in Applied Optics and Optical Glass at the National Bureau of Standards: A Review and Bibliography. U.S. Government Printing Office.
- ^ a b Bengisu, M. (2013-06-29). Engineering Ceramics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-662-04350-9.
- ^ Ahmed, Arshad; Sturges, John (2014-11-20). Materials Science In Construction: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-13841-7.
- ^ Batchelor, Andrew W.; Loh, Nee Lam; Chandrasekaran, Margam (2011-03-24). Materials Degradation and Its Control by Surface Engineering. World Scientific. ISBN 978-1-908978-14-1.
- ^ "PFG Glass". Pfg.co.za. Archived from the original on 6 November 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
- ^ Richling, Jeffrey (2017-01-17). Scratching the Surface - An Introduction to Photonics - Part 1 Optics, Thin Films, Lasers and Crystals. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-312-65170-8.
- ^ Vogel, Werner (1994). Glass Chemistry (2 ed.). Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K. ISBN 3-540-57572-3.
- ^ Thomas P. Seward, ed. (2005). High temperature glass melt property database for process modeling. Westerville, Ohio: American Ceramic Society. ISBN 1-57498-225-7.
- ^ David M Issitt. Substances Used in the Making of Coloured Glass 1st.glassman.com.
- ^ "Glass Online: The History of Glass". Archived from the original on 24 October 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2007.
- ^ True glazing over a ceramic body was not used until many centuries after the production of the first glass.
- ^ Gowlett, J.A.J. (1997). High Definition Archaeology: Threads Through the Past. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18429-0.
- ^ Douglas, R. W. (1972). A history of glassmaking. Henley-on-Thames: G T Foulis & Co Ltd. ISBN 0-85429-117-2.
- ^ Whitehouse, David; Glass, Corning Museum of (2003-01-01). Roman Glass in the Corning Museum of Glass. Hudson Hills. ISBN 978-0-87290-155-1.
- ^ Dien, Albert E. (2007-01-01). Six Dynasties Civilization. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07404-2.
- ^ Silberman, Neil Asher; Bauer, Alexander A. (2012-01-01). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973578-5.
- ^ Stachurski, Zbigniew H. (2015-01-30). Fundamentals of Amorphous Solids: Structure and Properties. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9783527682195.
- ^ Rene Hughe, Byzantine and Medieval Art, Paul Hamlyn, (1963)
- ^ John Harvey, English Cathedrals, Batsford, (1961)
- ^ Zolfagharifard, Ellie (15 October 2013). "How medieval stained-glass is creating the ultimate SPACE camera: Nanoparticles used in church windows will help scientists see Mars' true colours under extreme UV light". Daily Mail. London.
- ^ History of Glass Manufacture: London Crown Glass co.
- ^ a b "Glass melting, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory". Depts.washington.edu. Archived from the original on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
- ^ Fluegel, Alexander. "Glass melting in the laboratory". Glassproperties.com. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
- ^ Woodhouse, Philip (2013-12-16). Sea Kayaking: A Guide for Sea Canoeists. BalboaPress. ISBN 978-1-4525-0849-8.
- ^ Burrill, Daniel; Zurschmeide, Jeffery (2012-01-01). How to Fabricate Automotive Fiberglass & Carbon Fiber Parts. CarTech Inc. ISBN 978-1-934709-98-6.
- ^ Bradt, R. C.; Tressler, R. E. (2013-11-11). Fractography of Glass. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4899-1325-8.
- ^ Bryce, Douglas M. (1997-01-01). Plastic Injection Molding: Material Selection and Product Design Fundamentals. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. ISBN 978-0-87263-488-6.
- ^ Kamen, Gary (2001-01-01). Foundations of Exercise Science. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-683-04498-0.
- ^ The Complete Guide to Auto Body Repair. MotorBooks International. ISBN 978-1-61059-206-2.
- ^ "Properties of Matter Reading Selection: Perfect Teamwork". www.propertiesofmatter.si.edu. Retrieved 2017-04-25.
- ^ Bhatnagar, Ashok (2016-04-19). Lightweight Ballistic Composites: Military and Law-Enforcement Applications. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-0-08-100425-8.
- ^ Certain Steel Grating from China, Invs. 701-TA-465 and 731-TA-1161 (Preliminary). DIANE Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4578-1677-2.
- ^ User, Super. "Fiberglass and Composite Material Design Guide". www.performancecomposites.com. Retrieved 2017-04-26.
- ^ Jain, Ravi; Lee, Luke (2012-01-02). Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Infrastructure Applications: Focusing on Innovation, Technology Implementation and Sustainability. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-94-007-2356-6.
- ^ Kaviany, Massoud (2002). Principles of Heat Transfer. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-43463-4.
- ^ Kogel, Jessica Elzea (2006-01-01). Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses. SME. ISBN 978-0-87335-233-8.
- ^ Canning, Captain Wayne (2017-08-15). Fiberglass Boat Restoration: The Project Planning Guide. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-1-944824-27-3.
- ^ Greer, A. Lindsay; Mathur, N (2005). "Materials science: Changing Face of the Chameleon". Nature. 437 (7063): 1246–1247. Bibcode:2005Natur.437.1246G. doi:10.1038/4371246a. PMID 16251941.
- ^ Bourhis, Eric Le (2007). Glass: Mechanics and Technology. Wiley-VCH. p. 74. ISBN 3-527-31549-7.
- ^ Shackelford, James F.; Doremus, Robert H. (2008). Ceramic and Glass Materials: Structure, Properties and Processing. Springer. p. 158. ISBN 0-387-73361-2.
- ^ Doering, Robert; Nishi, Yoshio (2007). Handbook of semiconductor manufacturing technology. CRC Press. pp. 12–3. ISBN 1-57444-675-4.
- ^ Klement, Jr., W.; Willens, R. H.; Duwez, Pol (1960). "Non-crystalline Structure in Solidified Gold-Silicon Alloys". Nature. 187 (4740): 869. Bibcode:1960Natur.187..869K. doi:10.1038/187869b0.
- ^ Liebermann, H.; Graham, C. (1976). "Production of Amorphous Alloy Ribbons and Effects of Apparatus Parameters on Ribbon Dimensions". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics. 12 (6): 921. Bibcode:1976ITM....12..921L. doi:10.1109/TMAG.1976.1059201.
- ^ Ponnambalam, V.; Poon, S. Joseph; Shiflet, Gary J. (2004). "Fe-based bulk metallic glasses with diameter thickness larger than one centimeter". Journal of Materials Research. 19 (5): 1320. Bibcode:2004JMatR..19.1320P. doi:10.1557/JMR.2004.0176.
- ^ "Metallurgy Division Publications". NIST Interagency Report 7127.
- ^ Mendelev, M. I.; Schmalian, J.; Wang, C. Z.; Morris, J. R.; K. M. Ho (2006). "Interface Mobility and the Liquid-Glass Transition in a One-Component System". Physical Review B. 74 (10). Bibcode:2006PhRvB..74j4206M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.74.104206.
- ^ "Lithium-Ion Pioneer Introduces New Battery That's Three Times Better". Fortune. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
- ^ Gruverman, Irwin J. (2013-03-09). Mössbauer Effect Methodology: Volume 6 Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on Mössbauer Effect Methodology New York City, January 25, 1970. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4684-3159-9.
- ^ McMillan, P. F. (2004). "Polyamorphic Transformations in Liquids and Glasses". Journal of Materials Chemistry. 14 (10): 1506–1512. doi:10.1039/b401308p.
- ^ Carbon dioxide glass created in the lab. NewScientist. 15 June 2006.
- ^ Understanding polymer glasses
- ^ Pusey, P. N.; Megen, W. van (1987). "Observation of a glass transition in suspensions of spherical colloidal particles". Physical Review Letters. 59 (18): 2083–2086. Bibcode:1987PhRvL..59.2083P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.2083. PMID 10035413.
- ^ Megen, W. Van; Underwood, S. (1993). "Dynamic-light-scattering study of glasses of hard colloidal spheres". Physical Review E. 47: 248. Bibcode:1993PhRvE..47..248V. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.47.248.
- ^ Löwen, H. (1996). A. K. Arora; B. V. R. Tata, eds. "Dynamics of charged colloidal suspensions across the freezing and glass transition" (PDF). Ordering and Phase Transitions in Charged Colloids. VCH Series of Textbooks on "Complex Fluids and Fluid Microstructures". New York: 207–234.
- ^ a b http://www.cell.com/abstract/S0092-8674%2813%2901479-7
- ^ Munguira, Ignacio (9 February 2016). "Glasslike Membrane Protein Diffusion in a Crowded Membrane". ACS Nano. doi:10.1021/acsnano.5b07595. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
- ^ a b Kingery, W.D.; Uhlmann, H.K. Bowen, D.R. (1976). Introduction to ceramics (2 ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-47860-7.
- ^ a b Richerson, David W. (1992). Modern ceramic engineering : properties, processing and use in design (2 ed.). New York, NY: Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-8634-3.
- ^ Sakka, Sumio (2005-01-01). Handbook of sol-gel science and technology. 3. Applications of sol-gel technology. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-7968-9.
- ^ Block, Valerie L. (2002-01-01). The Use of Glass in Buildings. ASTM International. ISBN 978-0-8031-3458-4.
- ^ Salmon, P. S. (2002). "Order within disorder". Nature Materials. 1 (2): 87–8. doi:10.1038/nmat737. PMID 12618817.
- ^ ASTM definition of glass from 1945; also: DIN 1259, Glas – Begriffe für Glasarten und Glasgruppen, September 1986
- ^ a b Zallen, R. (1983). The Physics of Amorphous Solids. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0-471-01968-2.
- ^ Cusack, N. E. (1987). The physics of structurally disordered matter: an introduction. Adam Hilger in association with the University of Sussex press. ISBN 0-85274-829-9.
- ^ a b Elliot, S. R. (1984). Physics of Amorphous Materials. Longman group ltd.
- ^ a b Scholze, Horst (1991). Glass – Nature, Structure, and Properties. Springer. ISBN 0-387-97396-6.
- ^ Phillips, J.C. (1979). "Topology of covalent non-crystalline solids I: Short-range order in chalcogenide alloys". Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids. 34 (2): 153. Bibcode:1979JNCS...34..153P. doi:10.1016/0022-3093(79)90033-4.
- ^ Folmer, J. C. W.; Franzen, Stefan (2003). "Study of polymer glasses by modulated differential scanning calorimetry in the undergraduate physical chemistry laboratory". Journal of Chemical Education. 80 (7): 813. Bibcode:2003JChEd..80..813F. doi:10.1021/ed080p813.
- ^ a b c d Gibbs, Philip. "Is glass liquid or solid?". Retrieved 21 March 2007.
- ^ Loy, Jim. "Glass Is A Liquid?". Archived from the original on 14 March 2007. Retrieved 21 March 2007.
- ^ "Philip Gibbs" Glass Worldwide, (May/June 2007), pp. 14–18
- ^ Vannoni, M.; Sordini, A.; Molesini, G. (2011). "Relaxation time and viscosity of fused silica glass at room temperature". Eur. Phys. J. E. 34: 9–14. doi:10.1140/epje/i2011-11092-9.
- ^ Neumann, Florin. "Glass: Liquid or Solid – Science vs. an Urban Legend". Archived from the original on 9 April 2007. Retrieved 8 April 2007.
- ^ Anderson, P. W. (1995). "Through the Glass Lightly". Science. 267 (5204): 1615. doi:10.1126/science.267.5204.1615-e.
- ^ Kenneth Chang (29 July 2008). "The Nature of Glass Remains Anything but Clear". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ "Dr Karl's Homework: Glass Flows". Australia: ABC. 26 January 2000. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
- ^ Halem, H. "Does Glass Flow". Retrieved 2 September 2010.
- ^ Zanotto, Edgar Dutra (1998). "Do Cathedral Glasses Flow?". American Journal of Physics. 66 (5): 392–396. Bibcode:1998AmJPh..66..392Z. doi:10.1119/1.19026.
Further reading
- Stefano, Carboni,; David, Whitehouse, (2001). Glass of the Sultans. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-986-9.
- Ghosh, Amalananda (1990). An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-09262-5.
- Gowlett, J. A. J. (1997). High Definition Archaeology: Threads Through the Past. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18429-0.
- Noel C. Stokes; The Glass and Glazing Handbook; Standards Australia; SAA HB125–1998
- staff (2 November 2011). "Robot speeds up glass development" (press release). Fraunhofer Institute. Retrieved 10 December 2011. (reprinted by R&D Magazine)
- Stookey, S. Donald. Explorations in Glass: An Autobiography. Wiley, 2000. ISBN 978-1-57498-124-7
- Vogel, Werner. Chemistry of Glass. Wiley, 1985. ISBN 978-0-916094-73-7
External links
- "Glass". Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). 1911.
- The Story of Glass Making in Canada from The Canadian Museum of Civilization.
- "How Your Glass Ware Is Made" by George W. Waltz, February 1951, Popular Science.
- All About Glass from the Corning Museum of Glass: a collection of articles, multimedia, and virtual books all about glass, including the Glass Dictionary.
- Glass Encyclopedia from 20th Century Glass: a comprehensive guide to all types of antique and collectible glass, with information, pictures and references.
- National Glass Association the largest trade association representing the flat (architectural), auto glass, and window & door industries


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"Further action" is being considered against Nigel Farage after he failed to declare £205,000 of donations over the past decade relating to the the rent-free use of a constituency office.
The belated disclosure of the donation from party supporter John Longhurst, which dates back to 2001, could result in the leader receiving a fine or at worst a jail sentence.
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Details of the West Sussex converted grain store was news to the Electoral Commission, the independent politics watchdog, which undertook its own investigations.
Under the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000, Mr Farage was required to report party donations to the Electoral Commission within 30 days of receiving them.
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Notes from Underground
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Beschreibung(Book Jacket Status: Jacketed)Dostoevsky's most revolutionary novel, "Notes from Underground" marks the dividing line between nineteenth- and twentieth-century fiction, and between the visions of self each century embodied. One of the most remarkable characters in literature, the unnamed narrator is a former official who has defiantly withdrawn into an underground existence. In full retreat from society, he scrawls a passionate, obsessive, self-contradictory narrative that serves as a devastating attack on social utopianism and an assertion of man's essentially irrational nature.Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky, whose Dostoevsky translations have become the standard, give us a brilliantly faithful edition of this classic novel, conveying all the tragedy and tormented comedy of the original.
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Eksploruj powiązane tematy
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Eating is one of our family bonding moments. I cook simple dishes at home, but I make sure they're healthy and something my family loves. We also love to try different dishes whenever we eat out. This blog chronicles our family food adventures inside and outside our home. It provides an honest review of the dining places we've been to and showcases our food discoveries and food experiments.
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Maggs Bros. Ltd: Rare books and manuscripts, since 1853
Maggs Bros. currently operates from No. 46 Curzon Street, at the northern end of Shepherd Market, with an additional larger premises in Bloomsbury due to open in the coming months. Customers are welcome to visit and browse a representative range of stock from each of our departments, but please be aware that appointments are recommended if you wish to view any specific items or meet with an individual member of staff.
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Chapter 5-Strings
With his hands in mine and my eyes shut tightly, I focused my mind on one thing only. Concentrating my form so that others could see me. Looking inside myself, I knew just where to find this power. Everything came from within my heart, where all of my memories lie. Memories of my friends, my old home, Derek, my old boyfriend, and my parents. My parents- who wouldn't have wished this fate on us in more than a million years. Never, because they loved us and cared about us, even in death. And now sitting here with my brother and pure nature with me I could feel that.
I felt the burning sensation in my chest. My mouth parted only to whisper to Alex,
"Can you feel it?" With sincere intrest in his voice he replied "yes" and I opened my eyes, still holding his hands. His eyes were open too, and there was color in his cheeks. A small sparkle in his eyes. I knew we were alive again. I felt the grass beneath my black converse, the wind playing with my hair. Alex's soft hands squeezing mine in sweet triumph.
A single tear rolled down my cheek.
"Are you timing it?" I glanced down at Alex's watch on his left wrist. He nodded and followed my eyes.
"I set it before we started. It's been five minutes." I smiled. Record time.
"Oh, Alex! I knew things would go well today, I just knew it! Let's keep going!" His eyes grew wide.
"Keep going? But we've never-"
"I know, I know. But I really think we can do it this time!" I wanted to try and connect with the other side. The afterlife. The two of us didn't deserve this life. I wanted to be with my parents. I didn't have anything left in this godforsaken place. And if we could connect, which we had never done before, then we could pass. It was all very simple and painless. We would be in control the entire time.
"Come on Alex. Please try? For me?" He sighed and I saw him give up the fight in his eyes.
"Fine. Okay. Go." I closed my eyes again and thought of everything I would gain by passing. I would see my mother and father. My grandparents, even. Our old family dog that had gotten run over by a car. No pain and suffering. Free from all human bonds. I felt the energy being passed between Alex and I, and soon we were all that was left of the forest. There was no more ground beneath my feet, no wind, no trees. No life. there was, though, a great golden gate approaching us. The lock shifted open, and the brass rungs flew open. I could almost make out two figures of a woman and a man, their arms held open for me...
"Jade, I'm losing it." My eyes popped open. Alex mirrored me, guilt obvious in his expression. The spark was draining from his eyes.
"Why?!" I exclaimed, infuriated and frustrated. Just when we were about to do something great he had to go sour on me!
"I can't- It's-" And then I realized it. Alex was sinking, falling farther away from me. But I held onto his hands.
"Alex, you can't have any bonds! We can't go if you haven't finished what you need to on Earth!" I yelled, one hand slipping off. He was dangling now and I couldn't move my other arm. My subconcious knew I wanted to leave, and badly. But there was something holding Alex back. My mind was telling me to forget him, to go with my parents. But my heart couldn't let go.
"It's Sarah, I'm sorry. I can't leave her. You have to understand!" he pleaded with me. I was horrified. He was blowing this for the both of us.
"Alex, if you don't go I cannot go! Why can't you get that through your head?"
"I can't leave her Jade. It's just like you and Derek. You miss him too, you know you do. You are only lying to yourself!" he shouted at me and the sound shook his body, causing a finger to slip. His words cut through me like a piece of glass. Derek, of course I hadn't forgotten Derek. I couldn't forget him. I was just to good at lying to myself and hiding my feelings. But when Alex said his name his face took up my entire mind. I couldn't get him out of my head.
The tears started pouring down my face, the saltiness leaking into my mouth. I tried one last time, thoug I knew it wouldn't do any good.
"Please, Alex. Please," I choked on tears. His eyes bore into mine and I knew I couldn't continue. Taking one last yearning look at my family waiting for me, I fell back down, holding my brother's hand.


text:
"Rampage" outpoints Jardine!
By Brady Crytzer at the Octagonside
In the main event of UFC 96 Quinton "Rampage" Jackson outpointed "The Dean of Mean" Keith Jardine over three exciting rounds to become the #1 contender for world light heavyweight title held by Rashad Evans. All three rounds were competitive but Jackson landed the more telling blows as he knocked down Jardine in both round two and three with hard punches. Jackson spent much of the fight pressuring Jardine who used crafty footwork to confuse the former champion. The scorecards read 29-28, 29-28 and 30-27 in favor of Jackson.
In an unofficial heavyweight title eliminator 6'4, 260 pound Shane "The Monster" Carwin scored a devastating first round, one punch knockout over former title challenger Gabriel "Napao" Gonzaga. The official time was 1:09.
Matt "The Immortal" Brown demolished Pete "Drago" Sell scoring a first round TKO at 1:32.
In one of the surprises of the night, Matt "The Hammer" Hamill knocked out fellow wrestler Mark Munoz with a brutal headkick at 3:53 of round one.
Gray "The Bully" Maynard showed well rounded striking skills as he battered Jim Miller with punches en route to a unanimous decision. Scorecards read 30-27.
Former middleweight winner of The Ultimate Fighter Kendall "Da Spyder" Grove knocked out Jason "Dooms" Day with a single right cross at 1:32 of the first round.
Light heavyweight Jason Brilz continued his six-year unbeaten streak by defeating Tim Boetsch by unanimous decision. The scorecards read all read the same at 29-28.
Light heavyweight Brandon "The Truth" Vera picked apart Mike Patt with surgically precise leg kicks en route to earning a second round TKO victory at 1:27.
BJ Penn protégé "Sugar" Shane Nelson needed just :44 seconds to stop Aaron Riley in the opening lightweight bout of the evening. Nelson dropped Riley with an overhand right, and though Riley seemed alright, the fight was waved off.
Welterweight Tamdan "The Barncat" McCrory stopped UFC newcomer Ryan Madigan with strikes in the first round. The official time was 3:35.