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415 Pleasant Street, Ionia 48846
See more homes for sale in Ionia, MI
This property has been Sold!
05/12/2016 at $86,000
Spacious, open floor in the City of Ionia. Walk to all the amenities of city living. Offering three bedrooms and two full baths (one on each floor). Huge master bedroom on 2nd floor with walk in closet. Main floor laundry. Kitchen with oak cabinetry and cathedral wood ceilings. All appliances included. Nice deck off back of home with two levels, big back yard and a 2+ stall garage. Central air. Large covered front porch for enjoying the outdoors. Vinyl siding for no maintenance.
Property Information
- Status
- Sold
- Address
- 415 Pleasant Street
- City
- Ionia
- Zip
- 48846
- County
- Ionia
- Township
- Ionia City
- Possession
- 30 dac
- Zoning
- Res
- Total Finished SqFt
- 2,000
- Above Grade SqFt
- 2,000
- Garage Desc.
- 2, Detached
- Water
- Public
- Sewer
- Public
- Year Built
- 1850
- Taxes
- $1,436
Rooms and Land
- MasterBedroom
- 2nd Floor
- Bedroom2
- 2nd Floor
- Bedroom3
- 1st Floor
- FormalDining
- 1st Floor
- Kitchen
- 1st Floor
- Laundry
- 1st Floor
- Living
- 1st Floor
- Basement
- Michigan Basement
- Heating
- Forced Air, Natural Gas
- Acreage
- 0.2
- Lot Dimensions
- 66 x 170
- Appliances
- Dishwasher, Microwave, Range, Refrigerator
- Features
- All Window Treatments, Ceiling Fans, Laminate Floor, Water Softener/Rented
- Exterior Materials
- Vinyl
- Exterior Features
- Deck(s)
Listing Video for 415 Pleasant Street, Ionia MI 48846
Mortgage Calculator
Listing Broker
Listing Courtesy of Real Estate One
Office Address 1750 Grand Ridge Ct., Suite 200
Listing Agent Julie Dodge
Listings last updated: . Some properties that appear for sale on this web site may subsequently have been sold and may no longer be available.
Our Michigan real estate agents can answer all of your questions about 415 Pleasant Street, Ionia MI 48846. Real Estate One, Max Broock Realtors, and J&J Realtors are part of the Real Estate One Family of Companies and dominate the Ionia, Michigan real estate market. To sell or buy a home in Ionia, Michigan, contact our real estate agents as we know the Ionia, Michigan real estate market better than anyone with over 100 years of experience in Ionia, Michigan real estate for sale.
The data relating to real estate for sale on this web site appears in part from the IDX programs of our Multiple Listing Services. Real Estate listings held by brokerage firms other than Real Estate One includes the name and address of the listing broker where available.
IDX information is provided exclusively for consumers personal, non-commercial use and may not be used for any purpose other than to identify prospective properties consumers may be interested in purchasing.
All information deemed materially reliable but not guaranteed. Interested parties are encouraged to verify all information. Copyright© 2017 MichRIC LLC, All rights reserved.


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302 results for
I've been using penn reels my entire life. Using them inshore, from the surf, and in the ocean. They are extremely corrosion resistant and are sealed pretty well. My only complaint is that water can get into the drag and other components at times. Fortunately they are very easy to service at home. All of the features are great and the new model handles braid very well. Can't beat this reels reliability in saltwater for the price! Will continue to buy these reels for my boat. [This review was ... collected as part of a promotion.]
I have the 6500 and I love it so far. It cast really far on my 6 foot rod and handled a 5 foot gar with ease.
I have 3 ABU Reels, But this is my favorie, I handles Cobia which is my test of a good reel, I fish NC Offshore waters and own 36 Outfits, I Hesitated to buy this reel because of the affordable price, but boy was I surprised, don't hesitate to buy, I spooled mine with 20lb mono and I would fell comfortable fighting any saltwater fish I know of, 50 yrs on the water and I Love this reel.
I have been using a set of these reels for years now with zero issues. I use them primarily for bass fishing, but they have seen some light saltwater fishing usage as well. I always maintain them by disassembling them and lubing them anytime they are submerged and at least once a season. They hold ample amount of heavy braid and have a solid, consistent drag. They are easy to cast and almost indestructible. I can not recommend any reel any higher than these, and I have been an avid fisherman for ... over 30 years seeing the water over 100x per year.
I have been useing c3 c4 and record reels for over 30 years. They are great durable and depedable reels . Very well built and the best part for me is the line guide moving when you cast, you get better and longer casts and better line lay. They work great with either mono or braid. And the 4601 is a great crank bait reel the perfect gear ratio for crankbaits and slow rolling spinnerbaits. I use them for bass, pike, catfish , muskie and have never had a problem with them. I tried a revo sx and ... didn't like it at all its going on craigs list can cast just as far with my c3 4601 or my c4 4601 and 5601.
i have 2 of these reel models for many many years. i have no problems with them at all. i use them at least 4-5 time a week with out failure. i have tried a lot of different brands and most have failed in one way or another. these are the best i have found and they have a very reasonable price to go with them. these are very high quality reels. i am hooked on these reels for sure. i have caught hundreds upon hundreds of fish on these reels and look forward to the next hundreds upon hundreds to ... be caught. thanks for a quality reel.
I have purchased and used baitcasting reels from about every manufacturer out there since 1976. Every time a manufacturer would come out with the "best, smoothest reeling or furthest casting" reel, I would have to get one. But once I really used the reels in tournament conditions day in a day out, I found out that there were big differences in quality and craftsmanship. I have yet to find a reel manufacturer that can even come close to the feel and finish of a Swedish made Abu Garcia ... Ambassaduer. I have sold all of my other low profile reels and have acquired eight 4600 C3 and CL3 reels. In my opinion, they are the best ever built, easy to service and the ones most sought after by serious fisherman and collectors. They will be around and in use long after the others are history!!
I have used these reel for years for saltwater inshore fishing and highly recommend them. I would like to see more info on the care and maintenance. I also would like to see an easy accessible oil and grease port on the reel.
These reels are smooth casting and easily adjusted. The new cast controls on the Gen 3 reels makes these the easiest reels to fine tune without magnetic cast controls.
I own two AG reels. Revo MGX and Revo S baitcast Reels. They are my " go to reels." I have kept my Steez spinning reel and gave away all of my other high end reels. My two favorites for all purpose fishing is my Revo S and MGX reels. Dependable, strong light weight and they cast a mile.
I normally catfish with heavy duty bait cast reels but was in the market for something a little easier to cast in shallow water timber areas using slip bobbers and light weights. This reel was the ticket; 1st cast into timber and reeled in an 8.3 pound channel cat. Cast and retrieve are smooth as silk and what a HOSS of a reel in a small package. 12 whisker kitty's in less than 30 minutes with smallest being 4 pounds and not one glitch out of this reel. I will be purchasing additional for my arsenal.
Got it used on a couple snapper trips works great I have to spooled with 50lbs braided got this on sale for $25 in store
I loved this reel. But the free line 20lb....was really bad. Tied a knot to hook they slipped off. Every time. A friend of mine was also stymied by this. No knot would hold. I'll get the line refilled with another brand. I am a novice fisher but the other guy wasn't...he said it was a very nice reel. I liked the free spool.
Casts light lures very well which is a quality that's hard to find. Superb ergonomics and cast quality. Magnetic brakes are nice and strong and have a very linear adjustable range from weakest to strongest. May be the best sub $100 BC reel out there.
I bought this reel two months ago very smooth reel great drag well worth the money reel with the same features sell for $200- $300
Smooth, Strong, and good looking. For only $99 this was a great buy.
I have used h2o mettle reels for years so this was not hard to go out on a limb to try. I build custom rods and am adamant about pushing for h2o reels
My wife bought me this for my birthday. I am very pleased. Smooth drag and smooth reel
I own several of these reels. Very smooth action and very dependable. They are better than other much more expensive reels that I have owned.
The name says it all lighter faster stronger......
Had it for 2 years teamed up with a vengeance rod. Can't even begin to say how many fish I have caught with it! Good price good quality! Can't get much better than that
I had tried several budget baitcaster reels from other company's and could not learn to use them. Continuously frustrated with backlashes, I sold the ones I had and swore to never use them again. After being urged by a friend to just try a few casts with his upper end baitcaster, I decided to give it another try. Still looking for a budget baitcaster, I went with the Abu Garcia Pro Max. WOW!!!! I have to admit I will never leave the baitcaster again. These reels are amazingly smooth and easy to ... cast with light or heavy baits. I have since bought two more and couldn't be happier!!
i bought this reel to do some snapper and troll fishing out in the gulf it did great for both the jacks didnt stand a chance
Works great! Performs flawlessly. Works perfect with braided line.
I've been fishing Daiwa since the TD-X came out in the mid 2000's and I felt it was time to update my reels and after doing some intensive research I bought two Tatula HS, one Tatula CT, and a JDM RYOGA. The RYOGA is a $500 reel, but I feel that the Tatula is just as smooth and of the highest quality. You will never regret the purphase.
This reel is awesome the smoothest reel I have ever owned, casting is great even with 40lb test braid.The drag system is very good just the power and smoothness alone is worth buying it. Feels good in the hand due to the low profile and the first time out with it put a 5&6 lb bass in the boat plus a state record bowfin 17lb 36in. in the boat. This reel handled it no problem for the price excellent choice thanks daiwa and academy sports.
Bought this reel for my son-in-law for Christmas When I went to my local store in Foley Al. they were sold out. Bought it on line, free shipping, and great price!!!!!
great ergonomics, and smooth as silk when reeling.
I have had reels in the same price category from several other companies in the industry. This blows the competition out of the water! Performs just as well as the $200+ reels that I own!
I have three of these reels now, they are the smoothest reels I have ever used, great castability and distance.
Bought two of these reels for Christmas to myself. I own three already. Great reel for the price.
I've had mine for four years used it a lot work good want to go another one also have the 20 an 30 little bit bigger they work really good too
Abu Garcia period is the best reels I've ever used won't own anything else
my go to reels are the ambassadors 4600 thru.6500 I use these reels from spinner baits to Halibut baits Just can not beat them for durability & ease of use. I have had 3 - 6 of these reels around all the time .I love them
For the fisher just starting, easy-to-use reels make a great gift and teaching tool. Spincast reels are great for fishing for small to medium fish and guiding a new fisher into his or her own. Convertible spincast reels offer additional adjustments to fit whatever you're trying to catch. Spinning reels can often be the next step up, providing a longer casting range and allowing for more finessed fishing techniques. Try out several types of fishing reels and see what fits the user's own personal preference best. Different styles of fishing appeal to different people, so explore several options to find the best fit.
Our reel fishing selection also includes the best fishing reels for more advanced fishers looking to take in a big haul. Baitcast reels and saltwater conventional reels are available for taking on big fish out in open water. Smooth-operation fly reels in our selection feature dependable fishing reel parts for experienced fly fishers. Look at the type of fishing you plan on doing and decide which reels to get based on what fits the fishing type best. Once you've decided, make sure you pair it with the right fishing rod to maximize effectiveness.
When it comes to fishing reels, all of the high-quality brands you've come to expect from all around the world, such as the Japanese company, Daiwa, or Pflueger, who produced their first reel in Akron, Ohio in 1916. Browse through our selection of fishing reels made by Shimano, another Japanese company that originally began as a bicycle company, but has since used their knowledge of gears to specialize in off-shore fishing equipment. Don't forget to take a look at our stock of Lew's spinning and baitcasting reels. This American company developed the tear-shaped Lew's Speed Spool baitcaster in 1973, which quickly became a popular choice for anglers in the States. Whether you're searching for freshwater or saltwater reels, browse Academy.com to find exactly what you need.
For the average angler or family who enjoys fishing and camping for fun, there are brands like H2O Express and Shakespeare, while companies like B 'n' M and South Bend offer a selection of fly fishing reels for those looking to don a pair of fishing waders before casting their line. Penn Fishing Tackle Manufacturing Company makes saltwater fishing reels that have been used to set hundreds of world records, so the stats alone let you know you're investing in an excellent product. Abu Garcia fishing reels offer something for everyone, with reels to suit beginners and other to accommodate seasoned anglers. The Swedish founder of this company originally worked in a watchmaking factory, where he gained an interest in precision engineering, which translated well to the gears in reels. No matter what brand you go with, you're sure to find something to suit your style in our assortment of top-brand fishing gear.

subset: commoncrawl


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"They are still quarrelling over a piece of land. They are saying that the last time there was a conflict, the Usumutong people inflicted so much casualties on them, so they were looking for an opportunity to strike back and did so on Friday. It was a revenge attack.
"The people of Usumutong who suffered the attack are planning a counterattack from what I am hearing because it is like today (Monday) is the market day of the Ediba people. It is actually a sad situation because the two communities are brothers and sister. There is no difference between them and they are just killing themselves like that. It is just animalistic. In this age of civilisation people are still doing such."


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The Viva Wyndham Maya is a lush 480 room resort with a fun atmosphere with a variety of activities and the chance to explore the culture and history of Mexico. In the area are the ruins of Tulum and Chichen Itza, the natural wonders of Xcaret and Xel-Ha and a multitude of local attractions. Evenings are full of entertainment with live musical productions and cabaret shows performed by the resort`s talented, international staff. The hotels all inclusive programme includes daily activities, pool and beach games with prizes, theme nights, live music, Caribbean dance classes, yoga and meditation lessons, gym with trainer, cocktail lessons, cookery lessons, kids club, mini disco, hand craft market, some watersports, introductory dive lesson and land based activities and sports.
The Viva Wyndham Maya hotel is located in the Riviera Maya, in the Playacar development, 1 mile from the town of Playa del Carmen and 45 minutes from Cancun.
The hotel offers a swimming pool with a paddling pool, a Jacuzzi, a poolside snack bar, as well as a sauna with a massage service and a gym. Sports options include table tennis, tennis, bocce, volleyball, and archery. On the beach, sun loungers and parasols are available and various water sports are on offer, such as diving or sailing. Furthermore, the international hotel team provides plenty of shows with live music.
All the rooms come with 2 king-size beds, air conditioning, satellite/ cable TV, a direct dial telephone, a hire safe, ironing equipment, and an en suite bathroom with a bath and shower. The rooms are located right on the beach.
Distance from Airport:
25 miles
All have * bathroom/shower * WC * TV * air conditioning * telephone * hairdryer * safe * balcony/terrace * (certain amenities may be payable locally)
Transfer time:
50 minutes
Location and Resort:
Each room features colonial inspired decoration and furnishings. Playacar is a peaceful resort and makes an ideal base for exploring. The resort is modern and shares the beach with Playa del Carmen, both resorts are opposite the tax free snorkeling and diving paradise of Cozumel. Cancun is a 40 minute drive away. Playa del Carmen provides the evening entertainment away from the hotel with plenty of lively bars and a laid back atmosphere. As well as the hotel`s extensive all inclusive facilities there is also the opportunity to try snorkelling, fishing, horse riding, golf and the dive centre - all locally available at extra charge.
Eating and Drinking:
The hotel has 4 restaurants and 3 bars with something to cater for all tastes including Caribbean, Mexican and European influences with plenty of American specialties. In addition to mealtime dining, light snacks and drinks are available throughout the day at the resort`s cocktail lounge and beach bar. There is an international buffet style restaurant open for breakfast, lunch and dinner, a Mexican restaurant open for a la carte dinner only, a Mediterranean restaurant also a la carte for dinner only and an a la carte pizza and pasta restaurant also open for dinner only. In addition, guests can enjoy the Italian Restaurant and Oriental Restaurant, both a la carte and for dinner only, at the sister property Viva Wyndham Azteca. Reservations are required at some of the restaurants. The all inclusive package includes Breakfast, Lunch and Dinner, unlimited drinks, cocktails, wine etc international brands included, 24 hour snacks, fruit and drink service on the beach and by the pool twice daily, welcome cocktail, low fat food corner and tea time. *CHRISTMAS EVE AND NEW YEARS EVE GALA MEALS INCLUDED*
Please note: Visits to the a la carte restaurants are limited and extra visits are payable locally.
Swimming pools:
The hotel has 1 freshwater swimming pool and a children`s pool.
Right choice:
This hotel will appeal to couples and families looking beachfront all inclusive accommodation close to some of the historical places Mexico is famed for.
Suitable for:
Couples and Families
Hotel 24 Hour Reception
Hotel A La Carte restaurant
Hotel Air Conditioning Public Areas
Hotel Babysitting
Hotel Bar
Hotel Beach Volleyball
Hotel Beautician
Hotel Buffet Restaurant
Hotel Cafe/Snack Bar
Hotel Couples
Hotel Currency Exchange
Hotel Daytime Entertainment
Hotel Evening Entertainment
Hotel Families
Hotel Football
Hotel Games Room
Hotel Hair Salon
Hotel Jacuzzi
Hotel Laundry Service
Hotel mini market
Hotel Nightclub
Hotel Parking
Hotel Pool Bar
Hotel Porter
Hotel Sailing
Hotel Sauna
Hotel Spa Treatments
Hotel steam bath /turkish bath
Hotel Swimming Pool
Hotel Tennis
Room Air Conditioning Room
Room Bath
Room Iron/trouser press
Room Safe
Room Satellite TV
Room Shower


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Home > Computing > Networking > Wi-Fi Range Extenders
Bar Code: 6935364092399Part Number: RE450Brand: TP-Link
No stock, delayed despatch
The TP-LINK RE450 AC1750 Universal WiFi Range Extender can eliminate your wi-fi dead zones wirelessly - strengthening and expanding the signal into hard to reach areas.
Fantastic kit really boosted the signal to some previously hard to get areas of the house. Quick delivery too.
Was this helpful to you? Yes / No
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Customer services information
Copyright © 2017 PicStop. All Rights Reserved.Card payments are processed by Pay360 secure servers.
PicStop, York House, Wetherby Road, Long Marston, York, YO26 7NHVAT Number: 001 8906 03


text:
At 1:00 in this video, Guthrie talks about the Koko Boost. He says, "That's really good for overdriven but not ridiculously overdriven amps...If you're going to run your signal through lots of other pedals, that kind of gives you strength so that your signal comes out like it came in your pedalboard."more
The Koko boost is one of her favourite pedals that she uses. She uses it as a clean boost to make parts jump out more and to even out the other guitars with different pick ups.more
Pete Thorn's pedalboard can be seen in this photo, on [this page](http://www.strymon.net/2014/07/07/waiting-pictures-pedalboard-feature-pete-thorn/) of Strymon's website, and on it is a Suhr Koko boost.more
ON his pedalboard from 2015.more
Tried a few boost pedals. This is the one you need. Freq switch set to the left, boost on 9 O'clock. Done.


text:
ED Magedson – Founder
Ripoff Report
International Satelite Communicationswww.internationalsatellitecom.com San Ysidro, California U.S.A.
Does your business have a bad reputation?
Fix it the right way.
Corporate Advocacy Program™
This report was posted on Ripoff Report on 07/30/2009 11:31 AM and is a permanent record located here: http://www.ripoffreport.com/reports/international-satelite-communications/san-ysidro-california-92173/international-satellite-communications-scam-masters-ridiculous-charges-for-phone-ca-474947. The posting time indicated is Arizona local time. Arizona does not observe daylight savings so the post time may be Mountain or Pacific depending on the time of year.
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text:
Chapter Two
"Hello Korbin," said the doctor. Moving to his desk, he sat down in the old green chair behind it. "Why are you here? Did something happen?"
"Its the old house in New Orleans. I think its been found, the walls must have been breached. I had this dream, I saw the house, so i went there," said Korbin
"Dream? what happened in it?" asked the doctor, thinking of his dream from the night before.
"Well I saw the house, her in the rocking chair, then I saw you, and woke up."
"I had the same dream, but i wasnt there, only you, but she was there."
"I visited the house this morning, the gate was open, so was the arch," this brought a look of surprise and alarm to the doctor's face. Jumping up he ran to the small wardrobe in the corner, pushing it out of the way. The other side revealed a thin arch, etched into the wall, about five feet tall, outlining just the regular wall, like a space reserved for a mural that hasnt been painted yet.
"Well come on," said the doctor, as he stepped into the archway, disappearing into the wall behind him. Korbin followed him into the darkness, and after stepping through he found himself on a country road, with a dark mansion ahead.


text: Kant's Theory of Biology By Ina Goy, Eric Watkins 2014 | 322 Pages | ISBN: 3110225786 | PDF | 3 MB Kant's theory of biology has emerged as an important field of study within Kant scholarship. The volume contains 15 essays by leading international Kant scholars and philosophers of biology. Topics discussed include 17th- and 18th-century biological theories, the development of Kant's views on biology, the teleology of nature in the Critique of the Power of Judgement and new perspectives on Kant's contributions to biology. Buy Premium From My Links To Get Resumable Support,Max Speed & Support Me Code: Download ( NitroFlare ) http://nitroflare.com/view/DB28C98E8EB424B/khlkj.K.T.o.B.rar Oboom https://www.xxxxxxxx/RHWUZW6R/khlkj.K.T.o.B.rar


text:
Barrington DPW shreds tons of paper
Barrington residents brought tons of stuff to the Department of Public Works on Saturday.
The department's community paper shred event once again proved popular. The day allows local residents the chance to drop off any paper they wish to be rid of. While these products can be recycled any week in normal trash collection, the Shred-It event (as the name implies) helps dispose of personally sensitive information such as medical and financial records in a safe way.
It's also free, and the combination of these two factors might be why DPW Superintendent Joe Piccerelli found a line of cars waiting at 8:15 that morning, about an hour before the event officially began.
By the time 9 a.m. rolled around, the line of people looking to see their documents turned to confetti stretched out of the yard onto Upland Way.
The DPW hosts the event about every 18 months. The last time it was held was May 2011, when residents dropped off about 2.13 tons of paper.
This year, between 8,000 and 9,000 pounds had been shredded just before the event wrapped up.


text:
Kanye West has a pretty healthy ego but even he could be forgiven for feeling a little bit insecure over the backlash following the news that he would headline at Glastonbury Festival this year – and while the petition to change that has now reached 90,000 online signatures, there is one girl who thinks he more than deserves his place there.
We are thrilled to let you know we have the one and only Kanye West headlining Saturday night on the Pyramid stage!
— Emily Eavis (@emilyeavis) March 16, 2015
Emily Eavis, who is a festival booker, took to her blog on The Guardian website and made it very clear she felt West's inclusion at the famous festival was something to be celebrated and people shout do a little bit less criticizing and a little bit more appreciating the musical genius – or so he likes to think.
Both Emily and her dad have thrown their full support behind Kanye and claimed:
'We think the story this year should not be: 'Why is Kanye coming?' but: 'How amazing is it that Kanye is coming?'
Given the petition is now taking on a life of its own, we don't think her sentiments will be that successful but Kanye will probably appreciate them at the very least.
[via NME News]


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text: Hair removal has always been an unenjoyable topic for me. Traditional depilation has never been my thing, while laser and IPL treatments always have seemed to me as quite unhealthy. Well, it turned out this was only a prejudice. Or as far as home IPL epilators are concerned. On one … Continue Reading


text:
How New Caledonian crows solve novel foraging problems and what it means for cumulative culture
New Caledonian crows make and use tools, and tool types vary over geographic landscapes. Social learning may explain the variation in tool design, but it is unknown to what degree social learning accounts for the maintenance of these designs. Indeed, little is known about the mechanisms these crows use to obtain information from others, despite the question's importance in understanding whether tool behavior is transmitted via social, genetic, or environmental means. For social transmission to account for tool-type variation, copying must utilize a mechanism that is action specific (e.g., pushing left vs. right) as well as context specific (e.g., pushing a particular object vs. any object). To determine whether crows can copy a demonstrator's actions as well as the contexts in which they occur, we conducted a diffusion experiment using a novel foraging task. We used a nontool task to eliminate any confounds introduced by individual differences in their prior tool experience. Two groups had demonstrators (trained in isolation on different options of a four-option task, including a two-action option) and one group did not. We found that crows socially learn about context: After observers see a demonstrator interact with the task, they are more likely to interact with the same parts of the task. In contrast, observers did not copy the demonstrator's specific actions. Our results suggest it is unlikely that observing tool-making behavior transmits tool types. We suggest it is possible that tool types are transmitted when crows copy the physical form of the tools they encounter.
KeywordsNew Caledonian crow Social learning Learning mechanisms Information transmission Cumulative technological culture
New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) are one of the few species that make and use tools in the wild (Hunt, 1996; Hunt & Gray, 2004). Tool types differ across the crows' geographic range. For example, crows cut the edges off of Pandanus plant leaves to make narrow, wide, and stepped tools for digging into holes in logs to fish out grubs (Hunt & Gray, 2003, 2004). What causes and maintains tool-type variation is unknown. One possibility is that tool designs are socially transmitted within groups through social learning, and changes in tool designs accumulate across generations (cumulative technological culture hypothesis; Hunt & Gray, 2003). This would constitute a case of nonhuman animal "culture" (Allen, Weinrich, Hoppitt, & Rendell, 2013; Aplin et al., 2015; Hunt & Gray, 2003; Laland & Hoppitt, 2003). A second possibility is that differences in behavior might solely be a result of different genetic predispositions in each group; for example, some isolated hand-raised juvenile New Caledonian crows make and use tools without observing the behavior of demonstrators (Hunt, Lambert & Gray 2007; Kenward, Weir, Rutz, & Kacelnik, 2005). However, other New Caledonian crows do not automatically make and use tools, and additional experiments indicate that inherited abilities and social learning likely interact to produce the complex tool manufacture and use observed in the wild (Kenward et al., 2005; Kenward, Rutz, Weir, & Kacelnik, 2006). A third possibility is that each group's local ecology shapes its behavior in different ways via asocial learning (Laland & Janik, 2006). For example, in another tool-making and tool-using bird species, the woodpecker finch of the Galapagos, individuals living in more unpredictable environments develop tool-use behavior regardless of whether they observe others using tools (Tebbich, Taborsky, Fessl, & Blomqvist, 2001; Tebbich, Taborsky, Fessl, & Dvorak, 2002). Taken together, these results illustrate that the social transmission of tool designs and asocial learning about what makes a more functional tool remain key unexplored factors that could explain variation in New Caledonian crow tool types.
Obtaining direct evidence for the cumulative technological culture hypothesis is difficult: Ideally, to rule out the genetic and ecological alternatives, translocation experiments would be required, which are impractical and ethically questionable for New Caledonian crows (Laland & Hoppitt, 2003). An alternative approach comes from the suggestion by Kenward and colleagues (2006), who posit that imitation or emulation is required to explain the crows' regional variation in tool types. If this is the case, then studies that assess whether New Caledonian crows are capable of social learning by using mechanisms that could support the social transmission of different tool designs could provide indirect evidence for the cumulative technological culture hypothesis. Imitation involves copying the motor pattern required to make a specific tool and thus could explain the social transmission of specific tool designs (Hoppitt & Laland, 2013). Emulation generally refers to cases when an observer attempts to recreate the results of a demonstrator's behavior rather than copying the behavior directly (Holzhaider, Hunt, & Gray, 2010b; Hoppitt & Laland, 2008, 2013; Tomasello, 1990), though emulation could take a number of specific forms (Whiten, Horner, Litchfield, & Marshall-Pescini, 2004; see Discussion). In addition to these mechanisms, local (Thorpe, 1956) and stimulus (Spence, 1937) enhancement could also be used. Local enhancement is where one individual's behavior attracts an observer to a specific location and leads the observer to learn about objects at that location. Stimulus enhancement occurs when one individual's behavior attracts an observer's attention to a specific type of stimulus, making the observer more likely to respond to, or interact with, stimuli of that type in the future.
Many other mechanisms have been postulated to play a role in social learning, often with subtle distinctions between alternative mechanisms, making them difficult to distinguish empirically (Hoppitt & Laland, 2013). To resolve this issue, Hoppitt and Laland (2013) suggest that mechanisms underlying learning by observation can be usefully divided using three key features that are relatively easy to detect empirically: (1) the mechanism allows copying that is action specific: The specific actions used by the demonstrator are transmitted (like imitation and emulation); (2) the mechanism is context specific: It can result in transmission of behavior that is only performed in a specific context, such as at a specific location (like local enhancement) or in response to a particular class of stimuli (like stimulus enhancement); and (3) the mechanism is sensitive to the outcome of the demonstrator's actions (e.g., rewarded behavior is more likely to be transmitted than unrewarded behavior). Further subdivisions may then be made, such as whether context specificity is specific to a location (e.g., local enhancement) or to a particular class of stimuli (e.g. stimulus enhancement). However, Hoppitt and Laland (2013) argue that the key features used in their classification characterize the conditions most commonly presented in experimental studies of social learning mechanisms.
Hoppitt and Laland's (2013) simplified system suits our purposes well, since the first two features capture the necessary properties a social learning mechanism must have to support variation in tool form: The mechanism must be both context specific and action specific. A mechanism that is only context specific (e.g., local or stimulus enhancement) could facilitate tool-making behavior by attracting crows to Pandanus leaves and making them more likely to interact with the leaves. However, mechanisms that are only context specific cannot account for the transmission of specific tool types among birds. This is because different tool types are constructed from the same materials: It is the actions used to process these materials that determines a tool type, so the mechanism must be action specific for the tool type to be transmitted (Kenward et al., 2006, make a similar point).
In this study, we assessed whether New Caledonian crows use social learning mechanisms that could support the social transmission of different tool designs. We presented a novel, nontool foraging task to three groups of wild-caught crows in an open group diffusion experiment. By analyzing the spread of different task solution behaviors through each group, we determined whether the social learning mechanisms used were action specific (e.g., imitation or emulation) as well as context specific (e.g., location or stimulus specific). We also assessed whether the mechanism was sensitive to the outcome of the demonstrator's actions (e.g., whether rewarded behavior was more likely to be transmitted than unrewarded behavior). Translated to a tool-using context, individuals that observe others obtain food with tools might be more likely to attend to the actions performed by the demonstrator, thereby facilitating the transmission of tool types. Individuals were free to interact with one another and the task, a situation that more closely reflects social learning opportunities in the wild than a dyadic demonstrator–observer experiment in which the experimenter tightly controls the observational experience of the subjects (Hoppitt & Laland, 2013; Whiten & Mesoudi, 2008). We recorded who observed whom interacting with which option on the apparatus, for how long, whether they successfully obtained the food, the latency to interact with each access option, the duration of interaction, and whether food was obtained. Our dynamic analytical method allowed us to investigate the degree to which multiple social and asocial learning mechanisms act and interact (c.f. Hoppitt, Samson, Laland, & Thornton, 2012), and thus quantify the relative importance of each in how crows solve this novel foraging task.
We modified a commonly used two-action social learning apparatus to understand which learning mechanisms the crows used. Often, two-action apparatuses have only one locus with, for example, a door that can be pushed to the left or right (e.g., Aplin, Sheldon, & Morand-Ferron. 2013; Aplin et al., 2015; Fawcett, Skinner, & Goldsmith, 2002; Zentall, Sutton, & Sherburne, 1996). However, without at least one additional locus in a separate location on the apparatus (e.g., Heyes & Saggerson, 2002) and at least two replicates of the same apparatus (e.g., Hoppitt et al., 2012), one cannot distinguish among a greater number of learning mechanisms. We made two additional loci on our apparatus, which allowed us to distinguish local enhancement (observers attend to the general area of the apparatus) from imitation/emulation (observers attend to the demonstrator's actions at the two-action locus). We also placed two replicates of the same apparatus on the testing table to distinguish between stimulus enhancement (observers attend to the stimulus they observed the demonstrator interact with, regardless of which apparatus the demonstrator was at) and local enhancement (observers attend to any stimulus on the apparatus the demonstrator interacted with).
Fourteen New Caledonian crows were caught in the wild in May and June 2013 and temporarily housed in outdoor aviaries on Grand Terre, New Caledonia (Electronic Supplementary Material [ESM] 1). Aviaries and testing rooms were 2.5 m wide by 3 m high by 4-5 m long, mostly covered in shade cloth, with the top partially covered by a metal roof. Birds were fed dog food, papaya, and meat, and had ad libitum access to water at all times.
Task design
Pattern of generalization assumed for the social effects in the Cox model. Context specific (CS) mechanisms (e.g., stimulus enhancement) would result in the pattern of generalization represented by all shaded cells (gray and black), whereas action specific (AS) mechanisms (e.g., imitation) would be specific to each option (black cells only). See data at the KNB Data Repository for a description of task options
Diffusion experiment
There were two experimental groups, each with a demonstrator trained in isolation to solve a particular option (demonstrators demonstrated different options) on either of the two identical apparatuses, and a third group (the control group) that had no trained demonstrator. The demonstrator was then released into a group aviary where the experiments were conducted. The first group consisted of four adults (two mated pairs): B and G, YR and OO. In this group (hereafter the B group), the demonstrator (B) was trained over the course of 3 days to solve the Vflap option at Locus 1; however, this demonstrator ended up demonstrating the Hside option at Locus 3 when the experiment began. To ensure demonstrations of both the horizontal and vertical sections of the apparatus occurred in our experiment, the demonstrator (WO) in the second group (hereafter the WO group) was trained over the course of 4 days to solve the Vflap option at Locus 1. WO demonstrated the option she was trained on. The WO group consisted of one adult (W) and five juveniles (WO, WR, BO, WLB, and WB). The control group (hereafter C group) had no trained demonstrator and consisted of a mated pair (R and RG) and their two offspring (Y and YG). The last four sessions did not include R because he died. Additionally, any individual that was observed interacting with the apparatus during an experiment was considered a demonstrator, and this experience was accounted for in the analysis. To allow for our lack of control over individual observational experience, we used a statistical modeling approach where each individual's interactions and/or successes with the task were modeled as a function of their prior experience observing other individuals, allowing us to quantify the influence, if any, of each social learning mechanism.
Demonstrator training sessions were carried out in a testing aviary where the demonstrators were visually isolated from other crows and trained on Vflap by closing all other options on the apparatus with tape and taping the flap open to show the food. As the bird became comfortable putting its head in the hole, the flap tape was removed so the bird could learn how to move the flap to access the food. After birds began accessing the food on their own, they were required to successfully access the food on five consecutive trials and then pass a 1-trial field test in which all tape was removed such that all options were available. The two apparatuses were placed on the table, and the bird had to demonstrate the food-access method they were trained on.
Eight experimental sessions were conducted in the testing aviary for each of three groups, spaced 12 to 72 hours apart, ranging from 11 to 45 minutes in duration per session (B group = 206 min total, WO group = 360 min total, control group = 164 min total; see a video of the experiment at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6oVF11SLwHs). Sessions were carried out in a testing room with two identical foraging-task apparatuses oriented in opposite directions, spaced 30 cm apart on a table (153 × 61 × 75 cm), and recorded with a Nikon D5100 camera (see Fig. 1). Birds in each group were placed in a testing room together. Sessions ended after 45 minutes or when there was no bird on the table for 60 to 70 seconds (unless they were actively looking for material to bring to the table to solve the task).
Birds that interacted with the apparatus and the birds that observed these interactions were recorded by watching the videos in QuickTime Player v. 10.3 and entering the data in iWork'09 Numbers v. 3.2. Interactions were coded by the locus and option chosen (Locus 1: Vflap or Vrubber, Locus 2: Hflap, Locus 3: Hside), including the start and stop times of the interaction, whether observers saw the demonstrator obtain food or interact with the apparatus without obtaining food, and which apparatus was interacted with (left or right; see Table 1). A bird was considered to have observed another interacting with an apparatus if it was at or above the height of the table in the testing room or located on the ground far enough away from the table such that they could see the apparatuses on top.
Dominance behavior (displacements, threats, and conflicts) that occurred on the experimental table was coded for the first four sessions per group to determine the rank order. However, in the case of the control group, which consisted of one family with already established dominance relationships, there were so few aggressive interactions that aggression across all eight sessions was included in the analysis. The dominance rank of each individual within its group was calculated as the total number of aggressive interactions initiated divided by the total number of aggressive interactions engaged in (initiated + received).
Statistical analysis
where λ0, j(t) is an unspecified baseline function assumed to be the same for all of group j across all options; Okl is a parameter allowing for differences in difficulty between the four options, with O11 = 0 set as baseline; φij is a linear predictor containing individual-level variables representing sex, age (adult vs. juvenile), dominance rank, and a random effect allowing for multiple events from the same individual. LSijk(t) (location-specific learning) is a binary variable allowing for the fact that having attempted one method at Locus 1 might affect the rate at which the other method is first attempted, either due to generalization of learning between methods at the same location, or in case knowledge of one method inhibits learning the other. We also included a similar effect, LGij(t), that generalized across all four options: Learning one option might promote or inhibit learning of the other three. βX are fitted parameters, each giving the effect of a variable X; zijkl(t) takes the value 1 if i has previously interacted with locus k using method l, or if i was a seeded demonstrator for that option, and is 0 otherwise. The (1−zijkl(t)) thus ensures that the model only models the rate of first interaction using each option. The remaining terms model social influences on learning, which we now define.
We initially included continuous variables representing a context-specific effect (CSijkl(t), henceforth "CS") and an action-specific effect (ASijkl(t), henceforth "AS"), such as imitation or emulation. The AS variable was the number of successful interactions using method l at locus k observed by individual i prior to t, so modeled a social learning effect that was specific to an option. The CS variable was a similar effect that generalized between actions directed toward the same stimulus (i.e., the same specific locus on the apparatus). Since Vflap and Vrubber were directed to the same locus on the apparatus, we assumed a CS effect would generalize between them, whereas Hflap and Hside were directed to distinct loci, so we assumed that a CS effect would distinguish between them (see Table 1 for a diagrammatic representation of the modeled social effects).
CS and AS assumed a social effect in which each successive observation of another crow interacting with the task had the same (multiplicative) effect on the rate of interaction. However, it could be that a single observation is sufficient for a sizeable effect on behavior. For example, a single observation of another crow interacting with the vertical loci may be enough to attract an observer to that location, with later observations having relatively little influence. To allow for this possibility, we considered two corresponding binary variables, ĆS, and ÁS (i.e., ĆS = 1 when CS > 0 and 0 otherwise, etc.). Use of the binary variables resulted in an improved model fit (see ESM2, Section B1). Consequently, in the results we report an analysis including the binary ĆS, and ÁS variables (see ESM2, Section B1, for full model specification).
We also wished to test whether the social learning mechanisms in operation were sensitive to the outcome of the demonstrator's actions (i.e., did an observer need to see an interaction that resulted in successful extraction of food, or was an unsuccessful interaction sufficient for an effect to occur?). Consequently, we also fitted models in which ĆS and ÁS = 1 when a successful interaction at the relevant locus had been observed, and was 0 otherwise (i.e., both when no interactions had been observed and when only unsuccessful interactions had been observed), and compared the fit with models in which an unsuccessful manipulation was sufficient for the effect to occur.
For all analyses we used a model averaging approach using Akaike's Information Criterion corrected for sample size (AICc; Burnham & Anderson, 2002), allowing us to extract Akaike weights quantifying the total support for each variable, model-averaged estimates of effect size, and confidence intervals that allowed for model-selection uncertainty. We ran an equivalent analysis looking for social influences on the rate at which crows solved the task using each option once they had first attempted that option (see ESM2, Section B3). Analyses were conducted in the R Statistical Environment v. 3.1.0 (R Core Team, 2014) using the coxme (Therneau, 2012), lme4 (Bates, Maechler, Bolker, & Walker, 2014) and MuMIn (Bartoń, 2014) packages.
Data availability
Data used in the analyses and a description of the behavior at each locus is available at the KNB Data Repository (Logan & Hoppitt, 2015).
Ethics statement
This research was carried out in accordance with the University of Auckland's Animal Ethics Committee (permit number R602).
There were dominance hierarchies within each group, with two exceptions: WB's rank was unknown because he sat on the side throughout testing, and therefore we ranked him last in the group; R's rank was also unknown because he did not participate in aggressive interactions even though he was an active member of the group, and therefore we ranked him in the middle to minimize the influence this data had on the model fit (see ESM1, Table A1).
Summary analysis of effects on the rate of interaction using each option
Support (total Akaike weight)
Back-transformed multiplicative effect (95 % unconditional confidence interval)
Context-specific observation effect (e.g., stimulus enhancement)
86 %
5.3x (1.25 – 22.3).
Action-specific observation effect (e.g., imitation/emulation)
38 %
2.19x (0.36 – 13.4)
97 %
Relative to Hflap:
Hside: 1.35x (0.5 – 3.60)
Vflap: 0.57x (0.22 – 1.48)
Vrubber: 0.23x (0.07 – 0.69)
Locus-specific asocial effect
20 %
0.94x (0.34 – 2.55)
Locus-general asocial effect
25 %
0.35x (0.06 – 2.24)
Sex (males–females)
74 %
5.8x (0.99 – 33.6)
Age (adults–juveniles)
22 %
0.96x (0.27 – 3.42)
64 %
1.70x (0.99 – 2.90) per rank position
There was strong evidence of an underlying difference in interaction rate among the four options (total support = 97 %; see Table 2) and little evidence that learning to interact with the task using one method at Locus 1 generalized to or inhibited interaction using the other method at that locus (total support = 20 %). Likewise, there was little evidence that learning to interact using one option had an effect on the other three options (total support = 25 %). There was some evidence of an effect of sex (support = 74 %) with males being an estimated 5.8 times faster to attempt each option, 95 % CI [0.99, 33.6], and of rank (support = 64 %) with higher ranked individuals being faster to attempt each option: An estimated effect of 1.7 times per rank position, 95 % CI [0.99, 2.9]. There was little evidence for an effect of age (support = 22 %). However, the confidence intervals are broad for these variables, being based on a small sample for comparing individuals (n = 14; see Table 2).
We also could not accurately estimate the difference in the (binary) stimulus enhancement effect between adults and juveniles. This effect is estimated to be 1.13 times stronger in juveniles, but with 95 % UCI [0.25, 5.22]: so a sizeable difference in either direction remains plausible. However, we can clearly conclude that the stimulus enhancement effect is not restricted to juveniles or to adults. When we constrain the effect to be zero for adults in the best model, AICc increased by 6.7, corresponding to 29.1 times more support for a model where adults are affected by observing others. Likewise, when we constrain the effect to be zero for juveniles, AICc increased by 5.5, corresponding to 15.5 times more support for a model where juveniles are affected by observing others. We have clear evidence that the stimulus enhancement effect operates on both adults and juveniles, but we are unable to say with confidence which age class is affected more strongly.
We found weak evidence that the CS effect was sensitive to the outcome of the observed individuals' actions, since models in which observation of an unsuccessful interaction with locus k was sufficient for the CS effect to occur had slightly less support (0.62 times) than models where observation of a successful interaction was required (see ESM2, Section B2). However, we found no evidence that the choice of apparatus was influenced by the apparatus at which the interactions of others were observed, suggesting the CS effect generalized between apparatuses, as expected if stimulus enhancement was operating, and was not specific to a location, as expected if local enhancement was operating (see Fig. 3 and ESM2, Section B2).
There was no evidence that observation had any influence on how quickly the crows solved the task using a specific option once they first interacted with that option (support < 23 % in all cases). It therefore appears that social learning acts to attract crows to specific stimuli associated with the task (the loci), but there is no evidence that they socially learn anything about how to successfully manipulate the apparatus to obtain food. There was weak evidence that lower ranked crows were faster to solve the task using a particular option once they started using that option (support = 56 %), with an estimated increase of 1.47 times per unit decrease in rank, 95 % UCI [0.95, 2.27]. All other variables in the model had little support (<42 %).
We found strong evidence that wild-caught juvenile and adult New Caledonian crows used a social learning mechanism that is context specific, but not action specific, to acquire information about a novel foraging task, and then used trial and error learning to solve the task. Observers who saw a demonstrator succeed in obtaining food at a particular locus had an increased likelihood of attempting to solve the task using that locus relative to other loci. However, the effect generalized between different actions for solving the task that were directed to the same locus, therefore they did not use the same actions they observed others using to solve that locus. Furthermore, after their first attempt to solve the task using a specific option, observations of others attempting or succeeding using that option did not decrease their latency to success using that option. This suggests that they used trial and error learning to converge on the actions required to solve the task at each locus, rather than copying the actions they observed others using.
The context-specific effect we detected is consistent with both stimulus enhancement and observational conditioning since both result in the same pattern of generalization between options. Stimulus enhancement predicts that observing another crow's interactions with a particular locus draws the observer's attention to that locus, and thus makes them more likely to interact with it (potentially on both apparatuses). Alternatively, it could be that observation resulted in crows learning an association between a particular locus and food when they observed a conspecific extracting food from that locus (observational conditioning; sensu Heyes, 1994), thus causing the observer to interact with that locus sooner (again, potentially on both apparatuses). Observational conditioning of this kind would be sensitive to the outcome of the demonstrator's actions, as we and others (Akins & Zentall, 1998) have found, since an association is only likely to form if the demonstrator is successful in extracting food from the locus in question. However, it is also possible that a successful interaction is simply more effective at attracting an observer's attention to a stimulus. In contrast, a small-scale local-enhancement effect, whereby observation of an interaction with a locus on a specific apparatus would attract observers to that specific location, is unlikely to account for our results. We found no evidence that the choice of apparatus was influenced by the apparatus at which the interactions of others were observed suggesting the context specific effect generalized between apparatuses, as would be expected by stimulus enhancement, but not local enhancement (see ESM2, Section B2). Whilst the task did not involve tool making, we assume that any social learning mechanism found to play a role in the acquisition of novel foraging behavior is also likely to play a role in the acquisition of tool-making behavior.
Since action-specific social learning mechanisms (e.g., imitation or emulation) would be required to account for the documented pattern of variation in New Caledonian crow tool types, that we found no action-specific effect in our diffusion experiment suggests that social learning resulting from observing another's tool-making activity is unlikely to explain tool type variation. It is possible that New Caledonian crows are capable of action-specific social learning, but that they only use it to copy tool-making behavior and not foraging behavior in general. While this seems unlikely, further experiments will be required to rule out this possibility.
There are a number of documented cases of social learning via the products or artifacts of another individual's behaviour (e.g., Terkel, 1996; Thornton & McAuliffe, 2006), though, as Fragaszy and colleagues (2013) argue, the role artifacts play in the maintenance of technical traditions, such as tool use, in nonhuman animals, has been largely overlooked. In most cases, it is likely that artifacts indirectly influence the behavior of another in a manner that leads to their learning a skill by attracting their attention to a relevant location (local enhancement) or by providing the opportunity to practice that skill (Caro & Hauser, 1992; Hoppitt et al., 2008). A recent experiment investigated tool behavior in Goffin's cockatoos, who are not reported to use tools in the wild, finding that they learned to make and use tools by emulating the results of the demonstrator's actions rather than the demonstrator's action sequence (Auersperg et al., 2014). This suggests that result emulation might be a more dominant learning mechanism than previously thought. In contrast, the tool template-matching hypothesis states that New Caledonian crows can directly copy the products they encounter, something that, to our knowledge, has not been demonstrated in nonhuman animals, and may require specialized cognitive abilities. Consequently, testing the hypothesis seems a promising route for further research into the factors influencing the emergence of cumulative culture.
Although the context specific mechanisms we found in operation cannot account for the transmission of specific tool types, we suggest it is plausible that these mechanisms play a role in the acquisition of tool-related behavior in the wild. Juveniles often observe parents using Pandanus tools, giving abundant opportunities to draw their attention to the tool itself by context specific mechanisms like stimulus enhancement (Holzhaider et al., 2010b). Furthermore, parents often leave their tools in cavities and juveniles pick them up and try to use them (Holzhaider et al., 2010b). However, young crows rarely observe their parents making tools, suggesting that opportunities to imitate or emulate the actions used to make the tool are limited (Gray, personal observation). Furthermore, tool template matching by itself, if it occurs, is unlikely to be very effective at encouraging the learning of tool-related behaviors because juveniles may be unlikely to encounter and recognize discarded tools and/or counterparts without having their attention attracted to those objects by another crow's manipulations of those objects. However, their strong propensity for context-specific social learning suggests that, after observing others obtain food with tools, observers will be more likely to seek out and interact with discarded tools that visually resemble those they saw others using.
Our finding that both juveniles and adults were socially influenced by observing others leads us to question previous assumptions that (1) there is a sensitive period during which learning about foraging occurs, and (2) learning is restricted to vertical transmission (e.g., parents to offspring). It has been proposed that juveniles may make tool shapes more similar to their parents' than to other conspecifics by paying more attention to their parents than to others (Holzhaider et al., 2011). However, given our results, this effect could simply be a result of juveniles being exposed to their parent's tool shapes much more than to other tool shapes, thus biasing what tool shape they copy. Therefore, social dynamics in the wild could constrain crows' learning. Indeed, New Caledonian crows live in extended family groups (St Clair et al., 2015; Holzhaider et al., 2011) and there is evidence that they come into close proximity with neighboring groups when resources are abundant, though the nature of these interactions is unknown (Rutz et al., 2012; St Clair et al., 2015). The context specific effect we identify in our experiment could also play a role in maintaining family specific tool "lineages": though family groups can interact, crows are likely to form a template of tools and/or counterparts they have had more exposure to (i.e., the tools of those with whom they most frequently interact).
In conclusion, our new evidence weighs against the hypothesis that imitation or emulation following observation of tool-making behavior explains the pattern of variation in tool form observed in New Caledonian crows. Assessment of the alternative tool template-matching hypothesis requires further experiments directly evaluating the evidence that exposure to a specific tool form, under the appropriate social conditions, strongly influences the probability that a crow will learn to make tools of the same form. If such evidence is found, the case for cumulative culture in New Caledonian crows would be greatly strengthened, and cast doubt on the notion that imitation and teaching are necessary for cumulative culture to evolve.
We thank Dieter Lukas and Kevin Laland for discussions; Joe Jablonski for apparatus design ideas and for co-constructing the social learning apparatus; Christin Palmstrom for the photos and videos demonstrating the apparatus option actions; and Alecia Carter, Neeltje Boogert, Hannah Rowland, and two anonymous reviewers for manuscript feedback. We are grateful to our funders: the SAGE Center for the Study of the Mind at the University of California Santa Barbara and the National Geographic Society/Waitt Grants Program (CJL), a Rutherford Discovery Fellowship from the Royal Society of New Zealand (AHT), the Marsden Fund (RG), and a BBSRC grant (WH; BB/I007997/1).
Data accessibility
Data on the study subjects is in ESM1; the data set on which the models were run is available at the KNB Data Repository (Logan & Hoppitt 2015: https://knb.ecoinformatics.org/#view/doi:10.5063/F1JH3J44), a video demonstrating the apparatus options is available at figshare.com (http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.1480629), and a video showing the experiment is at YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6oVF11SLwHs).


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New Delhi, Dec 24: BJP veteran LK Advani on Wednesday became emotional as he hailed the announcement of Bharat Ratna for Atal Bihari Vajpayee with whom he has shared over five decades of close relationship.
He regretted that the former UPA government had not honoured Vajpayee with the highest civilian award as he recalled that he had written to the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in this regard in 2008.
"I wholeheartedly welcome the decision of the government to honour two outstanding patriots with Bharat Ratna," he told PTI soon after an official announcement was made.
The Deputy Prime Minister in the Vajpayee government turned emotional as he spoke of the honour for his close associate of over five decades. Vajpayee and Advani, founding members of BJP, worked in tandem to assiduously steer the party into the mainstream of Indian politics and then propelled it to power in 90s.
Vajpayee has lately faded away from active public life due to illness.
"If I was to think of all persons who had been Prime Minister and draw up a balance sheet of their achievements and shortcomings, I would think that Vajpayee was the only one with a longish tenure whose entire term was without any blemish and shortcomings," Advani said.


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The Neighborhoods Favorite
Its a popular misconception that South Miamis SW 59th Avenue is actually called Deli Lane. The cute cobblestone street (within walking distance from the Shops at Sunset Place) has become the epicenter of the neighborhoods hip and happening bar and restaurant scene. But Deli Lane isnt a street; its a well-loved café and tavern that has successfully anchored the districts nightlife for twenty years. South Miami has always had a little downtown business area, but it was a very sleepy place when we opened. There were only six or seven other restaurants at the time, and now theres over 40! declares Deli Lane co-owner Jan Kirchoff. She credits its longevity to dedication, hands-on hard work, and passion.
To celebrate twenty years of yummy, Deli Lane is hosting a fabulous anniversary party tonight. Guests can partake in free samples of roughly half the items on the enormous 80-item menu, as well as enjoy wine, live music by the Rudolfo Cuniga Quintet, and raffle prizes including salon services and Pilates classes. Its all happening from 5:00 to 9:00 p.m. at Deli Lane. sign up for the mailing list at www.delilane.com.
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Preparation Time: 10 minutes
Cooking Time: 2 minutes
You can use good quality bottled orange juice instead of fresh.
Couscous can be made ahead and stored in the fridge. Reheat in a microwave before adding yogurt and fruit.
Get kids involved by chopping up the dried fruit with kitchen scissors and stirring the ingredients together.
© 2015 Dairy Australia


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|Message view
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|Jesse Stockall <je...@cryptocard.com>
|Re: ant xdocs! it ran!
|Sat, 15 Feb 2003 15:18:55 GMT
On Saturday, February 15, 2003, at 05:18 AM, Erik Hatcher wrote: > > It would be easy enough to tag the simple tasks with @ant.attribute > require="true" (or we could shorten it to @ant.required even). But it > gets more complex than that. Think about the <property> task. Its so > overloaded with location/value/file/refid/environment that you have to > pick exactly one of them, but none of them are required by themselves. > How would we designate this? > > Its a non-trivial issue. > > And given that tasks can implement validation their own way, with even > default values being pretty loose and perhaps dynamic, we should opt > for the simplest approaches to this. I'm very open to suggestions on > how we do this, although this could get real complicated real fast. > For the sake of discussion, how would we denote what we see here: > > http://ant.apache.org/manual/CoreTasks/property.html > > So whether name is used or not there are two different sets of > possibilities, and also a text description is being used, not just > true/false/yes/no flags. While it seems sort of nice that our current > documentation is looser and more free-form, I'm not sure its necessary > to retain that style completely. Being more formal and rigid for a > task reference seems fine to me. I'm not proposing we lose > information, but rather that it be noted in a different way. Complex > validation requirements for attributes perhaps should just be noted in > the task long description, or in the examples where a task-specific > table could be created. > > Thoughts? What about having 'attribute groups' for each task. Each attribute would have something like @ant.requirement.group="optional" or @ant.requirement.group="required". This would work well for simple tasks. For something like <property> the attributes could have something like this @ant.requirement.group="group-name" and @ant.requirement.group="group-no-name". An the top of the class there would be a tag called @ant.requires.all="required" and one called @ant.requires.one.of="group-name, group-no-name". To get it exactly like the current <property> documentation you would also need an optional tag called @ant.requirement.group.description.group-name="One of these when using the name attribute" Noting the validation requirements in the description could supplement the information in the table, but I really like being able to look at the table to determine the attribute requirements. > There is some issue with the Gump runs not picking up the merge for > some (very odd) reason, but if you run proposal/xdocs/build.xml using > the docs-from-scratch target you'll get them pulled in. I've attached > a JPG of what it looks like locally for me (update: attachment didn't > go through, so I've removed it and retrying - run locally and you'll > see the examples pulled in for javac and a couple of others). Here's > how it works: <!-- snip --> > > The {0} is the fully qualified package name of the class being > processed, turned into a file system path. In proposal/xdocs/src > there are a few sample XML files out there. How we refer to sample > files is up for discussion too, and whether they live alongside the > source code or in a separate "samples" directory is of no consequence > to this process. Hmmm, I have run it locally, and I only get the html embedded in the javadocs. The output line for [antdoclet] says 'Generating output for 'org.apache.tools.ant.taskdefs.Javac' using template file 'jar:file:/home/jesse/source/ant/proposal/xdocs/lib/xdoclet-apache- module-1.2b2.jar!/xdoclet/modules/apache/ant/resources/task_xml.xdt'.' It doesn't show the merge file being used, should it? Jesse Stockall - email@example.com CRYPTOCard Corp.
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text:
Free knitting pattern- Deer Bean Bag/
I love this little guy! He's a bona fide bean bag but also a little deer. He is very well camouflaged in the fallen leaves in my backyard.
He is just the right size for little hands to play with.
It only took me about an hour to knit his little body and another hour to make his antlers and ears and put him together, a super-quick knit, great for a gift.
I loved the idea of making a whole menagerie of bean bags so I made a bunch of friends for the little deer-
The frog, rabbit and bird will all be available in our new ebook- Handwork for the Holidays which is now available for pre-order! Please do check it out and let me know what you think! We've been working away on all these fun new projects and it's great to finally be able to share them. The book has 8 knitting patterns, 3 sewing patterns and 3 papercraft projects and you can pre-order it for a limited time to receive a 25% discount. We'll be running a contest to help promote the book, but meanwhile, if you are a craft blogger who would like to review the ebook for your readers, please contact us.
On to the free pattern- click here to download the Deer Bean Bag knitting pattern.
This is the last week of the series of free knitting patterns, (see here for all of them) and it's been so fun to see how much everyone enjoys the projects. Thanks for all your enthusiasm! We are cooking up another series of free tutorials, stay tuned!!


text:
Friendly Fire.
Using Toby's grip around her wrist as support, Kat sprang up wrapping her legs tightly around his waist. She slammed him across the face with her elbows. Toby stumbled back. Kat sprang up, her feet landing on his hips. She leaned back as far as she could go. Toby released her arms and she fell to the floor. Kat broke her fall with her hands but she was still winded.
Toby caught her foot. Hoisting herself up on her arms Kat swung over and kicked Toby in the face with her free foot. Toby sprang away from her. Kat scrambled to her feet.
"You happy?" Toby demanded, spitting out blood.
"Far from it." Kat hissed. "Now leave me the hell alone!"
"The hell I will your reckless!"
"What does it matter to you?! you don't know me!"
" if you go through with this it'll mean more than simply your death."
Kat took a step back and to the side. Toby watched her closely not yet following her in this dance.
"Then stop me." She sprang sideways. She rolled, landing next to her swords she pulled them from their sheath. Toby rushed behind her. He was quick. She tried to spin around but he caught her around the arms. He dragged her to her feet. Kat struggled against his hold. Squashing her against his chest with one arm he slide the other down her right arm. His hand closed around hers and he began to twist it painfully. Kat cried out in pain as her grip around the blade slipped.
"For once think of someone other than yourself." He said his voice annoyingly even. He showed no sign of exerting any energy to maintain his hold.
With the last bit of control she had left she tossed the sword to her free hand. She brought it up and slammed Toby on the side of the head with the hilt. He staggered back, the freshly healed cut opened on the left side of his face. Blood rolled down his check.
Kat pointed her sword at him.
"I'm not doing this for myself! I'm doing this for my father!" She cried her arms shaking with a rage she couldn't control.
Toby gave her pitying look that suggested she was in denial. Toby took a slow step towards her, his hands raised up in surrender. Kat took a step back, tightening her gripping around the hilt. Toby continued to approach.
"Leave me alone!" She spat.
Toby's chest came into contact with the tip of the sword. He positioned himself so that the point of the sword was over his heart.
"Go ahead." He urged. "Prove it! you said you weren't afraid to kill for what you want! so go ahead let me be first. Allow me to prove your similarity to the lord Stratagus." He spread his arms.
"That's not what I meant and you know it." Kat snapped, taking a step back. Toby advanced until the blade was at his heart again.
"You go on this way you put a sword in me, Skipper, Emmlia and Gword. You'll kill all the people who care about you. Is that what you want? It's what you'll get!"
"Shut up!" Kat screamed, the blade shaking in her hand.
"No, that was for you to do." Toby said, reaching forward. His hand closed around her hold on the sword. Before she could react he spun her around wrapping her arms her and locking them against her chest. He pinned her to his side. Kat struggled, wriggling and kicking haphazardly. Toby twisted the blade free of Kat's hand.
He began to lower them to the ground, forcing Kat's legs under her in an uncomfortable seating position. Kat bit back a cry of pain, trying to mask her defeat with silence.
"You've shut up and we're sitting. Are you listening?" Toby asked, his voice a little winded.
Kat shook her head defiantly, unable to hold back an fresh onslaught of tears. They were not for her loss but for what she was about to lose. As easily as she had lost to Toby she was losing her father to whatever cruel tyrant called themselves fate.
"What's the use." She muttered, through her tears her body falling limp in Toby's arms. Toby released her slowly, when she didn't strike him he released her completely and rose to his feet.
"I see why they call you Kat." He chuckled softly, massaging his shoulder. "You got some claws."
Kat looked away from him curling into a miserable ball.
"Oh please, you give up that easy?!" Toby demanded.
Kat turned her back to him, holding her aching body close to herself.
"You call that a fight? that was a tantrum. I didn't even through a punch and your already crying?!"
Kat glowered at him over her shoulder.
"That's cute Kat. I can see it now the stare that kills everyone Kat Parker murdered her opponent with one look." The mockery was obvious. Each word stung at her pride. They bothered her more than her wounds more than the defeat. But she remained on the floor. She wouldn't give him the satisfaction to knock her down again. He wouldn't have the power to anger her…despite the fact he had already upset her.
"So that's your plan? Curl into a ball until I leave?" He demanded.
For now. Kat concluded silently. It was what she had always done. Her family hid and they were good at it. They hid and they ran...only he gave up. Her eyes close against a backdrop of tear. Despite her attempts not to her mind traveled back to the memory of that night when the dragons attacked.


text:
A Bag Full of SunshineMature
June 1st 2015
My brain was hazy and my insides felt like they were ablaze when I woke up. The area around my nostrils was crusted with an orange dust and mucus. I heaved silently, retching on some unseen force attempting to force itself from my stomach. I felt a weight on my back and felt with my hands to find Michael's greedy hands laid out all over me. Once again there was no clothing to keep our skin from intimacy.
I tried to move but but between his weight and the pain in my insides all I could manage to do was struggle and whimper when I wasn't able to get up. My head was pounding like waves were crashing against the inside of my skull with brutal force.
"Dude, fucking get off him," A voice sounded, and I felt Michael's weight shift off of me, "There Austin, you might actually be able to breathe without that pig on you."
I flipped over slowly to see Chet standing above the bed with an amused look. I remembered my nakedness and fumbled for my clothes on the floor, when I couldn't find them there I looked up to see my boxers hanging from his index finger.
"Oh calm down," Chet mused, "I've seen plenty of dicks, I'm on the football team remember? We all shower together? Nothing you have that I haven't already seen."
I nodded slowly and took my boxers from him, easing them on and wincing as I felt the marks and bruises between my thighs. I stumbled off the bed and to my feet, with Chet catching my arm for support and helping me stand before giving me the rest of my clothes.
Michael didn't stir but continued to snore loudly as I rushed into my clothing, Chet looking away so I could keep my decency. I finally put everything back on and the pain began to slowly subside inside of me, while the pain on the surface still stung and pangs of short agony were still prevalent.
"Everyone else left," Chet said, leading me out of the room, "I'll make you breakfast and we can hang out until Michael wakes up."
I nodded, feeling slightly uneasy with being alone with someone I hardly even knew. I shuddered a little as I thought about him walking in like that, even though he didn't feel interested, and he helped get Michael off of me, it still felt weird… We continued down the hall where I had apparently carried after blacking out. We passed the living room and any evidence of a party, be it smell or the hookah, was completely gone.
"You like scrambled eggs Austin?" Chet asked as we entered the kitchen.
I nodded without a word as he got to work, opening the fridge and getting the eggs, letting the pan warm up and then cracking and stirring them. When he poured them down onto the pan it made a very satisfied hissing sound.
"So," I said awkwardly, "How long have you and Michael known each other?"
"Since we were babies essentially," Chet said, flipping a gold strand out of his face, "We were born in the same hospital, lived on the same street for the longest, his dad and my dad are best friends."
"Cool," I paused for a minute, fighting to get words out, "What's his dad like?"
Chet turned off the skillet and threw the eggs on a plate and poured some salt and pepper on them. He held it out to me and motioned for me to sit down at the table across from him. His eyes had suddenly gotten darker, as if he was remembering something unpleasant.
"His dad is an asshole honestly," Chet said, his voice void of any emotion, "He's always been a drinker, used to bring whores home when he was drunk and fuck so loud Michael could hear them from downstairs."
"He and Michael's mom are always fighting," He continued, "God, I would be scared shitless every time I was over there with Michael and they'd start up. Mikey's dad has a voice that'd make any man scared for his life."
"Has he ever hit either of them?" I asked, taking a bite of egg.
"His mother no," Chet said, "Michael, yes. He's come home drunk a couple times and starts in with the stereotypical emotional abuse. Michael never takes it though, he'll scream back at him until they're in each other's faces and on a few occasions his mother and I had to pull them apart."
"Oh," I said, half to myself, "I heard them on the phone the other night. The man seems like an asshole, they were screaming so loud I could hear them through the walls."
"Yup," Chet mouthed as he bit into his egg, "That's them. Mike is a good guy but he knows how to be loud as hell, and he never takes any shit."
"But hey," Chet said, shrugging, "We all have our demons. He usually keeps his under control though, every now and then he needs a little help, but that's where I can provide."
"What do you mean?" I asked, putting my fork down.
"Oh Austin," Chet laughed, shaking his head, "Drugs. That's what I mean. They can cure anything. You hear all that bullshit from the CDFY but they're biased. Drugs can help with a lot of things, sometimes it's all that keeps one's demons in check."
"Yeah…" I murmured. He regarded me for a moment, his blue eyes raked me over like open soil, and then he smiled.
"Tell you what?" He said, getting up and rummaging through a cabinet, "Mikey has told me all about your problems with your dad, so I'll help you keep your demon on a leash."
He pulled out a compact bag and handed it to me. I opened it to see several dozen pills, and a small bag of powder in the middle. I looked at him in disbelief and set it on the table.
"Why?..." I asked, but no words were able to form.
"I like you Austin," Chet said, reaching across and placing a chilled hand on my shoulder, "So I'm gonna help you out, that should last you a while, feel free to share with Michael of course, he really enjoys the powder especially, he'll know what to do with it."
I was about to pass the bag back to him, tell him no thanks, one of those nights was enough. When I felt my phone buzzing in my jeans. I picked it up and immediately my heart dropped like a stone down a well.
Dad really wants you to come with us next time. He's at the house now, talking about what you were like when you were little. It's a bit mushy for me, but he's really pushing the whole "I want all of my boys back" thing. -Zach
Instead of throwing the pills back at Chet, like I should've, I opened the bag up, grabbed a handful of the adderall and shoved them down my throat, and numbed myself back into happiness.


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Xingjuan Chen
I glanced tiredly at my watch...7:30...finally, time to get out of school. I could go home and crash on my bed...I would do the rest of my homework in the morning, I was just too tired.
I walked slowly home and avoided dad as I went into the tiny two-room house where my family lived. I went directly to bed and didn't even bother changing. The day had been so full with all the earthquakes and even the threat of a possible tsunami, and still they had school! Due to the long day I fell asleep almost instantly.
"Xingjuan!" I woke up immediately. It was still dark outside. Groaning lightly I heaved myself out of bed. My limbs felt like rubber and my eyes were all gritty but I moved toward the sound of my father's call. He had probably just gotten home. "Xingjuan! Where is that useless girl!"
"I'm here father!" I said as I hurried through the door from the kitchen/bedroom into the living room where father stood. He was still in his work clothes and started at me angrily.
"What took you so long!" he demanded. "If I had had a boy he would have responded immediately! Now go and make me my dinner!" He demanded.
I bowed and moved back into the kitchen as father sat down on our one sofa. I quickly put some rice in a pan and fried it with some soy sauce then transfered it to a bowl. Then I poured some saki into another, smaller, bowl before heading back to the forward room. I quickly handed them to father before bowing politely out as he began to eat. I retired once more to bed.
I woke the next morning and found that no one else was at home. As was usuall, mother and father both had to get up early to be at work on time so I was always the last to leave. Just as I was about to leave a strange girl walked into the house. "Come with me," she ordered, reaching for my hand.
I screamed. She was a very strange girl with white skin and huge purple eyes. The girl didn't seem to care however and just grabbed my arm. For a little bit I felt very uncomfortable, like the air was being squeezed out of my lungs and I couldn't breathe. When everything cleared I was in a strange airport surrounded by a group of strange teens. I immediately shrunk back and pressed myself against the wall...where was I? What was happening? Was I even in China anymore?


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(On the preseason coming to an end)
"It's definitely gone by really fast. It seems like just yesterday we were out here for rookie minicamp. Now we're through that, we're through OTAs, we're through preseason practice. We have one more preseason game and then the regular season is here. It's really flown by."
(On if his goal for Thursday is to repeat what he did in New England)
"Obviously. Any time you step on the field, you want to play well, you want to help your team win. I felt like I did that last week. Going into this game, it's no different. I want to do the same thing. When I'm out there with this offense, I want to do everything I can to get the ball in the end zone and help this team win."
(On what his performance against the Patriots did for his confidence)
"It definitely helped it. Obviously the first two games, I said it in the media, I felt like I was in the right place with the ball. I struggled to get some completions at times, but to go out there and have a game like I did last week definitely helped. It seemed like things finally started to slow down a little bit and felt really good out there."
(On how he's gauged how much confidence his teammates have in him)
"I think a little bit. I know after last week I had a couple guys come up to me and say a couple things about how I handled the situation, the way I acted in the huddle, the way I carried myself on the field. They were all positive. I think that's something that I can take away from that game and continue to get better at, but anytime I hear things like that from vets, it's really encouraging."
(On feeling butterflies as his first home start approaches Thursday)
"I think I'll always have butterflies. I think the day the butterflies go away there's something wrong. I always get nervous before I go out there. The first start in St. Louis, obviously it's exciting, but any time I get an opportunity to start and an opportunity to help this team win, it's really exciting for me."
(On if he feels like he's becoming more of a leader)
"I think I'm getting better in that category each week. Am I there yet? No. I think that's a ways down the road, but I feel like I am making improvement. I feel like I am going in the right direction, and I feel like the guys have really responded to the way that I've handled the past couple weeks."
(On what he'd like to improve on this week)
"There's a million things. Footwork, footwork in the run game. I can get better on play fakes. I can always make quicker decisions. The list really goes on and on. There are so many things I can get better at. I'm just going to try to go out there Thursday, try to have fun and have a good game."
(On how much he's benefitted from taking all the first-team reps the last two weeks)
"It's definitely helped being in there with those guys. Just being in the huddle with them more, being on the field, getting reps with the same guys at receiver, it just helps. I'm really kind of starting to jell with those guys out there a little bit. Any time I can get more reps, it just makes me feel more comfortable with those guys."
(On how many receivers at Oklahoma had to get stitches because of his passes)
"I don't know if any ever had to get stitches back home."
(On if Danny Amendola gave him a hard time about the throw that caused Amendola to need stitches)
"No, although it did look pretty nasty. He showed it to me after the game."
(On if he's trying to put last week's performance behind him)
"I think when we came in here and watched the film, I think you learn from the things that you can learn from, the positives and the negatives, but as soon as that game's over it was on to Baltimore. You put that game behind you, but I'm looking to go out and have another strong performance on Thursday."


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April Cornell is a store that specializes in women's clothing as well as home decor and linens. This company is based in Canada and the United States. Currently this store does not offer its own store credit card.
To easily compare credit cards today, take advantage of the credit card chaser tool.
Even though the April Cornell store does not offer a store credit card of their own, there are many stores that do. Before getting a store credit card, it is very important to understand how they work and how they can affect your credit score as a whole. To look into this more in depth visit http://smartmoney.com
The Benefits of a Store Credit Card
There can be many benefits to having a store credit card. Typically, when someone opens an account at the store they are offered an initial discount off their entire purchase. These store credit cards also tend to offer no interest or annual fee when the account is first opened.
The best store credit cards come from stores that offer continuous discounts or a rewards program. Certain stores offer a discount to their cardholders whenever they use it to make a purchase in the store; these discounts are typically 5 to 10 percent. Stores that have a rewards program usually give extra discounts or gift certificates once the cardholder earns a certain amount of rewards points.
The Drawbacks to a Store Credit Card
The most obvious drawback to a store credit card is the high interest rate. It is not uncommon for a store credit card with an interest rate to range between 17 and 24 percent. That is why it is important not to accept credit cards from just any store that offers one.
It is also very easy to spend more than intended with a store credit card. People do not often think about the bill while they are shopping in their favorite store. Even though it can seem a bit like a mini shopping spree with borrowed money it is very important to keep the budget in mind when using a store credit card.
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