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Free-living flatworms under the knife: past and present
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DOI: 10.1007/s00427-006-0120-5
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- Egger, B., Gschwentner, R. & Rieger, R. Dev Genes Evol (2007) 217: 89. doi:10.1007/s00427-006-0120-5
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Traditionally, regeneration research has been closely tied to flatworm research, as flatworms (Plathelminthes) were among the first animals where the phenomenon of regeneration was discovered. Since then, the main focus of flatworm regeneration research was on triclads, for which various phenomena were observed and a number of theories developed. However, free-living flatworms encompass a number of other taxa where regeneration was found to be possible. This review aims to display and to compare regeneration in all major free-living flatworm taxa, with special focus on a new player in the field of regeneration, Macrostomum lignano (Macrostomorpha). Findings on the regeneration capacity of this organism provide clues for links between regeneration and (post-)embryonic development, starvation, and asexual reproduction. The role of the nervous system and especially the brain for regeneration is discussed, and similarities as well as particularities in regeneration among free-living flatworms are pointed out.
KeywordsPlatyhelminthes Planarian Acoela Rhabditophora Catenulida
Regeneration research in flatworms has a long standing history, but was focussed on triclads since its beginning in 1774, when Pallas (Pallas 1774) described the regeneration of the triclads Dendrocoelum lacteum and Bdellocephala punctata (from Brøndsted 1969). Since then, a vast amount of studies about regeneration in flatworms has appeared (for recent reviews, see Agata and Watanabe 1999; Sánchez Alvarado 2000, 2003, 2004, 2006; Saló and Baguñà 2002; Newmark and Sánchez Alvarado 2002; Agata 2003; Agata et al. 2003; Reddien and Sánchez Alvarado 2004; Reuter and Kreshchenko 2004; Sánchez Alvarado and Kang 2005; Saló 2006), but many of the old questions and many of the most intriguing phenomena that have been discovered cannot be explained today. Why can some animals regenerate, while others cannot? How is the duplication of heads or tails (heteromorphoses) possible in adult organisms? What conditions are sufficient and what are necessary for successful regeneration? Is regeneration a side-product of asexual reproduction, or the other way round? Is regeneration recapitulating pathways used in embryonic and postembryonic development? How are stem cells controlled and directed in regeneration? Are stem cells in adult flatworms totipotent, and can they be likened to embryonic blastomeres? This review provides a brief synopsis on what is known about the regeneration capacity in free-living flatworms, and addresses open questions about regeneration, with special emphasis on an emerging model organism, Macrostomum lignano (Egger et al. 2006a,b).
A comparison of the regeneration capacity of the macrostomorph flatworm M. lignano with other free-living flatworms necessarily involves a look at their phylogenetic relationship. The Macrostomorpha belong to the largest taxon Rhabditophora, which also encompasses the Polycladida, Lecithoepitheliata, Prolecithophora, Proseriata, Bothrioplanida, Tricladida, Rhabdocoela, and the parasitic Neodermata (Ehlers 1985; Rieger 1996; Tyler et al. 2006). Macrostomorpha are considered to be the most basal taxon within the Rhabditophora due to a simple pharynx, entolecithal eggs, and the lack of vitellaria (Ehlers 1985). Referring to their small size (millimeter range), macrostomorphans are members of the "microturbellarians", a nonsystematic denomination. Polyclads and triclads are the only taxa belonging to the "macroturbellaria", with forms generally in the centimeter range. Triclads, as more derived rhabditophorans, have vitellaria, a rather complicated embryonic development (e.g., Cardona et al. 2005) and an often very pronounced regeneration capacity (see Brøndsted 1969).
The status of the acoels
While many molecular (e.g., Baguñà and Riutort 2004a,b) and also some morphological studies (e.g., Reuter et al. 2001, summed up in Egger and Ishida 2005) have placed the acoels outside the Plathelminthes, a number of characteristics (apomorphies) speak in favor of acoels being flatworms (Ehlers 1985), most notably the stem cell system and the special mode of epidermal replacement (Smith et al. 1986; Tyler and Hooge 2004). In this review, acoels and nemertodermatids are considered members of the Plathelminthes.
What is a planarian?
In flatworm regeneration research, other groups than triclads are often neglected and can easily be overlooked. This may in part be due to an ambiguous use of the term "planarian", which is most often referring merely to triclads (more specifically, to paludicolans, e.g., Agata 2003; Reddien and Sánchez Alvarado 2004), but is also commonly used as a synonym for all free-living flatworms (e.g., Baguñà 1998; Saló and Baguñà 2002) or even used interchangeably for free-living flatworms and triclads alike (e.g., Newmark and Sánchez Alvarado 2001). The term "freshwater planarian", while somewhat more specific, is still ambiguous, as a number of nontriclad flatworms, e.g., Stenostomum and Microstomum, are freshwater dwellers as well. In publications dealing with several flatworm taxa, it is often unclear what the term planarian signifies.
It seems therefore desirable to agree on using less ambiguous denominations in scientific contexts, such as unequivocal scientific names, and to get rid of the term planarian.
Overview of regeneration capacity in free-living flatworm groups
The regeneration capacity of two catenulid genera, namely, Stenostomum and Catenula, has been extensively investigated. Probably linked with asexual reproduction (paratomy), excellent regeneration capacity has been reported after artificial amputation (Ritter and Congdon 1900; Child 1903a,b; Ruhl 1927a; van Cleave 1929; and Palmberg 1990 for Stenostomum; Moraczewski 1977 for Catenula). Regeneration from the so-called organ primordia was found to be possible for all organ systems.
Based on experiments mainly with Polychoerus caudatus (Stevens and Boring 1905; Child 1907; Keil 1929) and Paramecynostomum diversicolor (Peebles 1913), Hyman notes that acoels "have limited powers of regeneration" (Hyman 1951, p 182). The studied species were not able to regenerate ganglia (brain) or the statocyst. Later studies with Amphiscolops langerhansi (Steinböck 1954, 1955, 1963a,b) and Hofstenia giselae (Steinböck 1966, 1967) illustrated a substantial regeneration capacity in these acoels, where H. giselae was found to even regenerate the statocyst after amputation (Steinböck 1966). Several species can regenerate their eyes (Hanson 1967 for A. langerhansi and Pseudohaplogonaria sutcliffei, Yamasu 1991 for Praesagittifera naikaiensis, and Åkesson et al. 2001 for Convolutriloba longifissura).
Acoels are now known to show all main modes of asexual reproduction, that is architomy (e.g., C. longifissura, Åkesson et al. 2001), paratomy (e.g., Paratomella unichaeta, Ax and Schulz 1959), and budding (e.g., C. retrogemma, Hendelberg and Åkesson 1988). Architomy is characterized by fission before formation of new organs, paratomy by formation of new organs before fission. Budding refers to a special case of paratomy, where the axis of the new piece is not corresponding to the axis of the old piece—in C. retrogemma, the axis of the buds is tilted by 180° in relation to the main animal (Hendelberg and Åkesson 1988, 1991).
No account of regeneration potential or asexual reproduction has been given for animals from this taxon.
As already observed in catenulids and acoels, the regeneration capacity of macrostomorphans is closely associated with the mode of reproduction. Thus, in the asexually reproducing taxa Microstomum lineare and Alaurina (paratomy), the regeneration capacity is most pronounced and all organs can be regenerated (von Graff 1908; Ruhl 1927a; Palmberg 1986, 1990, 1991). Regeneration research with the exclusive sexually reproducing genus Macrostomum started with Ruhl (1927a), who found that Macrostomum tuba cannot regenerate the head (brain, eyes, and pharynx) and requires at least a quarter of the gut in the anterior piece to be able to regenerate posterior parts, including copulatory organs. More recently, Ladurner et al. (1997) noted that in Macrostomum hystricinum marinum and Macrostomum pusillum the anterior part can fully regenerate the posterior part, while the posterior part cannot regenerate the anterior part. Similar findings were reported for M. lignano: cut in midbody, only the anterior part was found to regenerate the missing part (Rieger et al. 1999). Salvenmoser et al. (2001) described the regeneration of the musculature in M. lignano after the removal of the posterior end. Using the same species, Egger et al. (2006a,b) characterized the regeneration capacity at various cutting levels. Anterior regeneration is possible if the animals are cut in front of the brain; posterior regeneration can be successful from cutting levels starting with the posterior end of the pharynx. A distinct regeneration blastema occurs in M. lignano, but not in M. lineare, where organ primordia are formed without conspicuous accumulation of neoblasts at the wound site (Palmberg 1986).
The best-studied polyclad genus regarding regeneration is Leptoplana. Leptoplana alcynoe (now Letoplana alcinoi) and Leptoplana velutinus, as well as Thysanozoon brocchi and Cryptocelis alba, were shown to regenerate posterior parts by Monti (1900a). Using Leptoplana atomata, Schultz (1901, 1902) observed the regeneration of the posterior part, including gonads and copulatory organs, whereas head and pharynx were not regenerated. Similar results were obtained with Leptoplana tremellaris and L. alcinoi, although the pharynx was found to regenerate here (Child 1904a–c, 1905a; von Levetzow 1939). L. tremellaris can regenerate both anterior and posterior parts if only about half the brain is removed by transversal amputation. At amputation levels posterior of the brain, no complete anterior regeneration is possible (Child 1904a–c). Notoplana humilis shows a comparable regeneration capacity (Ishida 1998). Besides more posterior parts, T. brocchi is also able to regenerate the main tentacles, gut, and pharynx (Monti 1900a; von Levetzow 1939). Studying regeneration in Leptoplana saxicola, Pucelis litoricola, and Planocera californica, Olmsted (1922a) reports that these species follow the "polyclad rule for regeneration", that is, regeneration of all amputated parts (including eyes) is possible if the brain remains intact. Several studies were dedicated to find out whether polyclads can regenerate the brain (Morgan 1905 for Leptoplana littoralis and von Levetzow 1939 for T. brocchi), and how the behavior changes after excision of the brain (Morgan 1905; Olmsted 1922b; von Levetzow 1939; Koopowitz et al. 1975, 1976) or after severance of the main lateral nerve cords (Olmsted 1922b; Koopowitz et al. 1975, 1976). Severed nerve cords and brain halves can fuse and resume their functions (Olmsted 1922b; Faisst et al. 1980), but the brain is not regenerated. Full anterior regeneration, including the brain, after complete removal of the brain was only observed in Cestoplana, provided the amputation level is a short distance behind the brain (Child 1905b). All mentioned species, except T. brocchi, are members of the taxon Acotylea (Tyler et al. 2006). From what is known, both Cotylea and Acotylea seem to share a comparable regeneration capacity.
Only scarce reports about regeneration are available for this neoophoran taxon. For Prorhynchus stagnalis, Ruhl (1927a) remarks that no regeneration capacity whatsoever could be detected at anterior, posterior, and midbody cutting levels. The posterior pieces survived for 30 days. When cutting Geocentrophora baltica a short distance behind the pharynx, no regeneration could be observed (Steinböck 1927). All pieces died at the latest after 17 days. A closer examination of the regeneration capacity of Geocentrophora sphyrocephala revealed that these animals can approximately rebuild the mouth opening anteriorly in 3–5 weeks but cannot regenerate the brain. Both parts die after 40 days if the animals are cut just behind the pharynx. Cut in midbody or more posteriorly, the anterior part can regenerate the tail with adhesive organs in 2–3 weeks, although the animals were never observed to reach the original body length. The posterior part dies without regeneration after 1 day (Hagleithner 1946).
von Graff (1882) describes amputation experiments with Monocelis fusca, where posterior pieces resumed movement after 3–5 days. In M. fusca, Monocelis lineata and other monocelidids (Coelogynopora, Archilopsis), and also in otoplanids (Itaspiella, Bothriomolus), Giesa (1966) observed posterior regeneration of parts containing the brain in 3–4 days. Even pieces amputated just behind the brain can regenerate. The brain does not regenerate, though. In Otomesostoma auditivum, Pechlaner (1957) found promising regeneration potential, severely limited by a short life span of 9–10 months and low living temperatures (about 4°C). Gut, part of the gonads, and sensory organs can regenerate. First signs of pharynx, eye, and brain regeneration were observed after 9–15 weeks, but the animals died before regeneration was complete. The statocyst was not regenerated.
While no extensive regeneration studies have been undertaken, Sekera (1911) found that Bothrioplana semperi is able to regenerate the pharynx posteriorly.
Dalyell (1814) noted that Planaria nigra (today: Polycelis nigra) could "almost be called immortal under the edge of the knife" (in Brøndsted 1969). However, not all triclad species are equally powerful regarding regeneration. Ŝivickis (1930) distinguished five groups of triclads according to their ability to regenerate a head. This classification was subsequently refined into eight types by Teshirogi et al. (1977). For the Phagocata velata type, the Dugesia dorotocephala type, the Polycelis auriculata type, and the Dendrocoelopsis lactea type 2 (Sapporo population), regeneration of a head is possible from any part of the body, but with varying probability of success. Animals of the Dendrocoelopsis lactea type 1 (Kuroishi population) fail to regenerate a head from tail pieces up to the male gonopore. The Dendrocoelopsis ezensis type and the Dendrocoelum lacteum type 1 are very similar in that they are generally only able to regenerate a head if amputated anterior to the pharynx, whereas the Bdelloura type (e.g., Bdelloura candida) completely lacks the ability to regenerate a head. While a vast amount of literature on regeneration in triclads is available, recent publications are not so much concerned with studying the regeneration capacities of different triclads, but more with unraveling cellular and molecular mechanisms of regeneration in only a few model triclads, such as Dugesia japonica and Schmidtea mediterranea.
The typhloplanoid flatworm Mesostoma ehrenbergi cannot regenerate any organs, only approximately restore the original shape posteriorly (Steinmann and Bresslau 1913). Regeneration experiments with Mesostoma productum, Mesostoma lingua, and Mesostoma punctatum revealed that anterior regeneration of parts in front of the brain is possible, although often done imperfectly. The tail can regenerate; the more posterior the cut is made, the better is the regeneration. Brain and pharynx cannot be regenerated (Fulinski 1922). In Phaenocora unipunctata and Phaenocora megalops (also typhloplanoids), no regeneration capacity was found (Fulinski 1922). For the the dalyelliid Dalyellia millportiana and the kalyptorhynch Gyratrix hermaphroditus, Ruhl (1927a) remarks curtly that all animals died within 1 day after amputation and no regeneration being observable. Dalyellia viridis and Typhloplana viridata survive the amputation of the caudal-most part of the tail, but show no signs of regeneration, not even of the adhesive organs. In Rhynchomesostoma rostratum, another typhloplanoid, the amputated tail tip is regenerated, or at least a tail-like shape is restored (Hein 1928).
Comparison of the regeneration capacity between free-living flatworm taxa
While the experimental evidence for some groups is still patchy, we find three main types of regeneration capacity in free-living flatworms. Some taxa cannot regenerate at all, such as most rhabdocoels and some lecithoepitheliates. On the other end of the scope are species that can regenerate all organs, such as the acoel Convolutriloba, the catenulid Stenostomum, the macrostomorphan Microstomum, the polyclad Cestoplana, and many triclads. Most taxa however lie in between these extremes, lacking the ability to regenerate brain, eyes, pharynx, or statocyst (many acoels), but are able to regenerate gonads, copulatory organs, sucker, duo-gland adhesive systems, gut, and the anterior-most part in front of the brain.
The regeneration capacity of M. lignano can be likened most closely to triclads of the Bdelloura group, which cannot regenerate a head (brain or eyes). Most polyclads, although often able to regenerate a pharynx, are also roughly comparable to Macrostomum regarding their regeneration capacity. Members of other diverse taxa like lecithoepitheliates and rhabdocoels are bearing resemblance with regeneration in Macrostomum as well. Such similarities can be found crossing the boundaries of the major flatworm taxa, making the regeneration capacity a feature of no immediate phylogenetic value. Close relatives like Microstomum and Alaurina (both macrostomids) surpass Macrostomum's regeneration capacity by far.
Asexual reproduction and regeneration
Not surprisingly, the ability to regenerate is often linked to asexual reproduction (Fig. 1, Brøndsted 1969; Sánchez Alvarado 2000). In taxa lacking asexual reproduction, the regeneration capacity is generally less pronounced than in taxa with asexual reproduction, where regeneration is necessarily involved (Brøndsted 1969; Reuter and Kreshchenko 2004). As described in the section "Acoela", in architomy, regeneration events follow fission, while in paratomy and budding, the term "pregeneration" seems to be more accurate, as organs are duplicated in the presence of the old organs in the new animal (zooid) before fission occurs. The notable difference between regeneration and pregeneration is the presence of a brain in the latter, which is regarded as a decisive organ for regeneration in many species (Henley 1974; Kreshchenko et al. 2001). It is interesting to note that the catenulid Stenostomum leucops, reproducing asexually by paratomy, often fails to regenerate a head if amputated artificially (van Cleave 1929). This finding hints at an actual difference between paratomy and architomy regarding the influence on regeneration capacity.
Asexual reproduction in flatworms occurs in more basal taxa (Acoela, Catenulida, and Macrostomorpha) as well as in more derived taxa (Tricladida and Neodermata). Triclads, like acoels, show paratomy (Dugesia fissipara and Dugesia paramensis, Hyman 1951) as well as architomy (e.g., Dugesia tahitiensis, Peter et al. 2001). Just like regeneration capacity, asexual reproduction is too dispersed among diverse taxa to provide insight into phylogenetic relationships.
Why can some flatworm species regenerate while others cannot?
If a profound regeneration capacity is a plesiomorphic feature, there might have been a selection pressure against regeneration during evolution (Goss 1991; in Sánchez Alvarado 2000). Why would such a useful feature be reduced or abolished? Because regeneration is dangerous, as a plethora of evidence of double-headed or double-tailed flatworms testify. Such aberrant forms are easily produced in species that can regenerate (see section "Heteromorphoses"), but are not known from flatworms lacking regeneration capabilities. Other than as a side effect of asexual reproduction, the ability to regenerate is seemingly not useful enough to outweigh the inherent dangers. What are the chances that a predator spares a tail fragment that can regenerate to a complete animal in a couple of days if left alone? What are the chances that a disease only affects a part of the animal, but spares the rest to readily regenerate the damaged organs? A totipotent stem cell system out of control might be too high a risk for comparably little reward. This could be the reason why regeneration capabilities decreased in species that no longer propagate through asexual reproduction.
In this light, it seems more likely that in evolutionary terms, asexual reproduction is a primitive and not a derived feature (Rieger 1986; Gremigni 1992; Reuter and Kreshchenko 2004), and that regeneration capability results from asexual reproduction as an added bonus. Regeneration can be seen as a form of asexual reproduction, only triggered by different stimuli.
It is interesting to note that double-headed specimens of M. lignano can sometimes be observed in untreated culture dishes. These aberrant forms might rather be the result of twin embryos (Fig. 2a) that have grown together during embryonic development, than adults that were accidentally incised longitudinally (Sekera 1911; Steinmann and Bresslau 1913; Seilern-Aspang 1958).
Ovaries restricting regeneration?
The possible evolutionary origin and function of regeneration aside, what genetical, physiological, developmental, or environmental factors are responsible to determine to what extent an organism can regenerate? Even close relatives may differ vastly in regeneration capacity (e.g., Microstomum–Macrostomum), and also the same species in different developmental stages. Stenostomum alternates seasonally between asexual and sexual reproduction (protandric hermaphroditism). Asexual and male specimens of Stenostomum grande can regenerate all organs, but lose the ability to regenerate a head after the appearance of ovaries (van Cleave 1929). While the presence of ovaries and the loss of regeneration capacity might be coincidental, it appears possible that in S. grande ovaries are producing substances that inhibit regeneration. Could sexualization be directly affecting a general decrease of regeneration potential? At present, the molecular nature of such an inhibitory substance remains unclear. Vasa-related genes are expressed strongly both in gonads and in the early blastema in D. japonica and in M. lignano (Shibata et al. 1999; Pfister and Ladurner 2005), making an inhibitory function of vasa during regeneration improbable, at least in these two species. Also, contrary to the findings in Stenostomum, several triclads are known to regenerate all organs in the presence of gonads (e.g., S. mediterranea, Sánchez Alvarado 2003). Two possibilities may explain differences in the regeneration capacity in the presence of ovaries: either the ovaries in Stenostomum are producing a unique inhibitory substance that is not synthesized in Schmidtea, or Schmidtea is able to counteract the effects of such an inhibitory agent.
Regeneration in juveniles
If gonads, specifically ovaries, are indeed hindering regeneration in some species, then sexually immature juveniles could possibly be more potent regenerates than adults. In the rhabdocoel Mesostoma, young animals (the author does not specify their age) are reported to regenerate better than adults (Fulinski 1922). Contrastingly, in the acoel species H. giselae, no regeneration even of large juveniles (2.5 mm long) takes place (Steinböck 1967).
In most cases, however, juveniles regenerate as well (or bad) as adults. An explanation is that gene expression for the building of gonads is already occurring in immature animals, thus diminishing possible differences in the regeneration capacity between juveniles and adults. Regeneration in juvenile triclads has been studied in B. punctata by Brøndsted, who found that animals recently hatched from cocoons were able to regenerate the head at the same rate as mature adults (Brøndsted 1942, 1969). Pechlaner (1957) studied the regeneration of freshly hatched animals, juveniles and mature adults in the proseriate O. auditivum. He did not observe significant differences in the regeneration capacity between these age groups. Neither juvenile nor adult dalyellids were found to regenerate (Hein 1928). In the lecithoepitheliate G. sphyrocephala, the regeneration capacity of juveniles corresponds to that of adults (Hagleithner 1946). The results for M. lignano support these findings and show that even very young animals (1 day after hatching) are capable of regeneration, indicating that the neoblast stem cell system is already present and functional as found in adults. Accordingly, BrdU labeling of 1-day-old hatchlings revealed a similar pattern of S-phase cell distribution as in adults, with the majority of labeled cells along the sides of the animal, and no labeled cells in the rostrum. Just like adults, juveniles were not able to regenerate a head (Egger et al. 2006a,b).
Similarities between postembryonic development and regeneration
A fountain-of-youth effect through starvation was shown to occur in triclads (Haranghy and Balázs 1964), but was not yet proven for M. lignano (Fig. 4).
Embryonic development and regeneration
Early blastomere ablation in polyclads has revealed a determinative development as in other spiralians (Boyer 1986), the fate of blastomeres depending on micromere–macromere interaction (Boyer 1989). Polyclads do not have an invariant cell lineage, however (Boyer 1992). Polyclad embryos can be obtained devoid of an eggshell (Fig. 5a) and still develop normally in a culture dish treated with antibiotics. Regeneration experiments with polyclad embryos may thus be relatively easy to carry out and could provide additional clues about the requirements for regeneration in flatworm embryos. Also, the regeneration capacity of polyclad larvae, as compared to hatchlings of directly developing polyclads, would be interesting to know. A connection between regulation in early embryonic development and regeneration capacity does not seem to exist. This notion is supported by regeneration experiments with embryos of the triclad P. nigra. Regeneration does not take place before organ systems, such as the nervous system, reach a certain degree of differentiation in the embryo, so that stage five embryos are unable to regenerate, while stage six embryos with a more differentiated nervous system readily regenerate lost parts (Le Moigne 1966). This author held that the nervous system plays a critical role in the formation of a blastema during regeneration.
Nervous system and role of the brain for regeneration
In M. hystricinum marinum and M. pusillum, large clusters of serotonergic cells have been found besides the posterior part of the pharynx (Ladurner et al. 1997). These results were corroborated for M. lignano by staining of the serotonergic and the GYIRFamidergic nervous system (Fig. 6). Amputees cut in the middle of the pharynx lose this cluster of nerve cells, as well as a large part of the pharynx, which is known to be a critical structure for regeneration in some triclads (Brøndsted 1969) and polyclads (Ishida 1998). Ladurner et al. (1997) held that the distribution of serotonergic nerve cells is correlated with the regeneration capacity. In species where serotonergic neurons are restricted to the head area, the posterior part of the animals cannot regenerate the head. In the asexually reproducing species M. lineare and S. leucops, serotonergic nerve cells are found over the whole length of the main nerve cords.
The inability of M. lignano to regenerate eyes after transversal amputation or oblique amputation between the eyes, is possibly linked with a severe brain damage caused by these amputations, and the loss of strongly immunoreactive cells in front of the eyes (Fig. 6c). In two cases of longitudinal incisions, lost eyes were regenerated or supernumerary eyes were built—but in these cases, the brain was only slightly injured. In a series of experiments, Lender (1950, 1951a–c) and Wolff and Lender (1950a,b) stress the importance of the head ganglia for the regeneration of eyes in P. nigra. If the brain was repeatedly excised or X-irradiated, no regeneration of eyes took place: an intact brain was obviously required to induce eye regeneration. These results were corroborated for Dugesia (now Schmidtea) lugubris by Török (1958). However, L. littoralis, L. saxicola, and P. litoricola can regenerate eyes even if the brain was excised (Morgan 1905; Olmsted 1922a).
Vannini (1965) observed in S. lugubris and P. nigra that the testes do not regenerate in the absence of a brain. Ghirardelli (1965) found that if a two-headed Dugesia was decapitated on one side, the testes on the same side degenerated. Contrastingly, the gonads in M. lignano are viable for an extended period of time after decapitation or oblique amputation between the eyes, and are only reduced if the pharynx is lost as well, causing malnourishment and starvation (Egger et al. 2006a,b). This may be an indication that the building of the gonads is not under the primary control of the brain in M. lignano, just like the tail plate can be built without the presence of a head. The regeneration of a tail in headless regenerates is possible in M. lignano as well as in triclads of the Dendrocoelum group (Brøndsted 1939, 1969), in the polyclads L. littoralis, L. saxicola, and P. litoricola (Morgan 1905; Olmsted 1922a), and also in the rhabdocoel Mesostoma (Fulinski 1922). Therefore, the head in all of these organisms is not required to control the regeneration of the tail. In Cestoplana and T. brocchi, the pharynx can regenerate in the absence of the brain (Child 1905c; von Levetzow 1939); in Cestoplana often a secondary pharynx is built in the presence of the old pharynx (Child 1905c). Also, the regulation of tissue breakdown (e.g., gonads) and body size reduction during starvation is possible in decapitated pieces, so the brain is not responsible for this regulation as well. Headless M. lignano with intact pharynx are able to feed, in accordance with the polyclads Notoplana acticola and Planocera gilchristi (Koopowitz et al. 1976). These animals are able to identify and devour food in the absence of a brain, while Enchiridium punctatum, a polyclad possessing a tubular instead of a plicate pharynx, cannot feed without the brain (Koopowitz et al. 1976). Similarly, some triclads, also equipped with a tubular pharynx, are not able to feed if the brain was amputated (Hyman 1951). Brainless M. ehrenbergi cannot feed but can move normally (Steinmann and Bresslau 1913), whereas brainless Phaenocera is reported to behave similarly to normal animals (Fulinski 1922). G. sphyrocephala, different to M. lignano, cannot adhere to the substrate after decerebration (Hagleithner 1946).
The main function of the brain in M. lignano is probably to be found in directed motion (e.g., light avoidance, predator avoidance; see also Koopowitz et al. 1976 and literature therein), satiation reflex (Koopowitz et al. 1976), mating behavior (Scharer et al. 2004), and chemical analyzation of the medium.
The totipotency of neoblasts
Pharynx-level regenerates of M. lignano have shown that the regeneration of gonads is possible after removal of all gonadal tissue. The viability of the regenerated gonads has been demonstrated by breeding experiments with fully regenerated animals. Besides the gonads, also the gut and the copulatory organs have been rebuilt de novo in pharynx-level regenerates (Egger et al. 2006a,b). In similar experiments, Morgan (1902) removed all gonads in Schmidtea lugubris, and the animals regenerated to fully functional sexual organisms. It is still possible that the remaining neoblasts in the amputee are only pluripotent and not totipotent, different types of neoblasts being competent for different (groups of) tissues. A convincing experiment to prove the totipotency of neoblasts would be the injection of a single neoblast into a lethally X-irradiated animal that is to be amputated some weeks after the injection. In case the animal survives, and is able to restore all removed organs, then either redifferentiation of cells would have taken place, or (at least some) adult neoblasts would be totipotent. A similar experiment, with the injection of 20,000–24,000 cells enriched in neoblasts (30–88% neoblasts) into X-irradiated S. mediterranea, was performed by Baguñà et al. (1989). This experiment was not replicated in the literature, but the results made highly probable that neoblasts as a whole are totipotent in routine cell turnover, leaving open the questions if this holds also true for regeneration and if this totipotency applies to one single cell type or to several different types of stem cells.
Are neoblasts in species with limited regeneration potential not totipotent, or are they just not receiving the right stimulus or guidance for regeneration? Supporting the latter notion is the ability of Macrostomum to duplicate heads after longitudinal incision (Fig. 2d and Egger et al. 2006a,b), while decapitated animals were never observed to regenerate a head (Egger et al. 2006a,b). In this species, it seems that stimuli from the brain are required to duplicate or regenerate the brain. Is there a specific subset of predetermined "brain" neoblasts in species that cannot regenerate a brain? These neoblasts could be located in the vicinity of the brain and therefore lost by amputation of the brain. Brain excision experiments in polyclads, where only the encapsuled brain was removed (von Levetzow 1939; Koopowitz et al. 1976), do not support the existence of such brain-specific neoblasts, as these animals were not able to regenerate the brain. Also, amputation experiments in M. lignano, where only brain and the neoblast-free rostrum were amputated, showed no brain regeneration (Egger et al. 2006a,b). While neoblasts are required for regeneration in general, they do not determine whether a species is able to regenerate a specific organ such as the head, as was found with grafting experiments in triclads (Brøndsted 1969).
Can a single neoblast from an adult develop to a whole organism in an adequate environment, just like a zygote? For the parasitic flatworm Taenia crassiceps, it was shown that single cells of trypsinated cysticerci are able to produce complete cysticerci in the mouse host (Toledo et al. 1997). So in these cestodes, a single totipotent cell, other than a zygote, is able to recover a whole animal. No such experiment is known for free-living flatworms. Besides the difficulty in providing a suitable culture medium, distinct differences between a single neoblast and a zygote are yolk content or surrounding yolk cells and maternal determinants that are present in eggs, but not in neoblasts. Do (all or some) neoblasts have embryonic characteristics, as some authors held (e.g., Keller 1894)? When and where do neoblasts origin in the embryo? Polyclads with their clear and traceable embryonic development appear to be suitable flatworms for investigating these questions.
Hetermorphoses, i.e., the occurrence of supernumerary heads or tails, in species that cannot regenerate an amputated head, have shown that the regeneration potential of neoblasts is not to be equated with the regeneration capacity of the species. Heteromorphoses are also a placative warning sign for the dangers coming with the ability to regenerate (all) organs. Last but not the least, hetermorphoses in free-living flatworms show that the duplication of axes is not only possible during embryonic development (Fig. 2b, siamese twins), but also in adults, even after comparably minor surgery. The M. lignano specimen depicted in Fig. 2c,d shows that a longitudinal incision in the anterior part of the animal can establish a second anteroposterior body axis parallel to the original axis. The new anteroposterior axis reaches from the rostrum tip to the caudal tip and duplicates all organs including head, pharynx, female genital opening, and male copulatory organ. Even the breadth of the animal approximates that of two single specimens. Over time, however, the animal degenerated in both halves losing all eyes, and was not able to recover to a viable state (Egger et al. 2006a,b). A decreased viability in animals with heteromorphoses was also observed in Macrostomumappendiculatum and Bothrioplana bohemica (Sekera 1911), as well as in S. leucops (Ruhl 1927b).
In triclads, duplicated or even multiple heads (e.g., 10-headed D. lacteum, Lus 1924) and tails have been generated and studied by a great number of researchers (see Brøndsted 1969). Randolph (1897) made longitudinal and lateral incisions in Planaria maculata [today: Dugesia (Girardia) tigrina] leading to additional eyes and pharynges. It was found that when a duplicated head or tail was amputated close enough to the second main axis, regeneration was inhibited by the presence of the remaining head or tail (Rand and Mildred 1926). In the polyclad Leptoplana, double-heads and double-tails were experimentally produced by longitudinal incision (Child 1905a). With the same method, tails, but not heads, could be duplicated in the rhabdocoel Mesostoma (Fulinski 1922) and in the acoel P. caudatus (Keil 1929). Constrastingly, heads, but not tails could be duplicated by incision in the catenulid S. leucops (Ruhl 1927b).
Another type of heteromorphoses is created by provoking a body axis reversed to the original body axis. This was found in M. lignano after longitudinal incision in the head, that induced the creation of a tail plate appendage in the anterior body region (Egger et al. 2006a,b). Agata et al. (2003) suggested that one of the main functions of a blastema in triclads is producing positional signals and inducing intercalary regeneration between stump and blastema. An incision may cause the building of a very small blastema at the wound site, which provides anterior or posterior positional signals. Depending on the signal the blastema produces, either a head or a tail plate is subsequently formed.
Incisions may also have a long-range effect, as was observed by Randolph (1897) in triclads, where outgrowths appeared at body regions not affected by incision. A similar phenomenon as in M. lignano was observed by Steinböck (1967) in H. giselae, where an animal was divided into 10 pieces, one of which developed a tail-like structure at the anterior end besides the head. Just as was observed in M. lignano (Egger et al. 2006a,b), the anterior tail in H. giselae was gradually moving along the side of the animal towards the posterior end, when after 36 days the additional tail was located at the posterior tip of the animal.
A pronounced regeneration capacity and the existence of possibly totipotent stem cells in adults are two key features of many flatworms not found in this combination in any other bilaterian taxa. It could be shown that regeneration follows similar principles in many different taxa of free-living flatworms, even if the regeneration capacity can vastly differ. Such comparisons make it possible to recognize unique patterns, and also to form general ideas how, why, and when regeneration works. For this reason, it appears to be valuable to establish several flatworm model organisms from various taxa, to address old and upcoming questions regarding regeneration and the neoblast stem cell system. One of these comparably new model flatworms is M. lignano, a small but versatile worm that facilitates regeneration studies on the cellular and molecular level.
David Halton and Angela Mousley are to be thanked for the kind gift of a GYIRFamid antibody. Sachiko Ishida and her lab members introduced me to the embryonic development of polyclads. Roland Peter gave clues to literature, and Peter Ladurner alerted me to an interesting animal. Bernd Pelster and Lukas Schärer kindly provided additional equipment. Many thanks to librarians around the world, without whom this work would not have been possible. This work was supported by FWF projects 16618 and 19232.


text:
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text:
I agree with you but one thing to keep in mind is that they did what they did to the #1 offense in the league. So in reality, every team can think they same way we are in that we have a long way to go.
But the reality is that there is so much parity in today's NFL, that there's no reason to not be optimistic. Granted, the way this organization is run doesn't give much hope but there's no guarantee that Seattle will be what they were this year.
With that being said, it's already being discussed that the Cowboys and Seahawks will be the season opener for 2014...
No thank you, dont want ANY part of that as a football fan i would want to see them play San Fran opening week.


text: ARMONK, N.Y., Aug. 25, 2014 /PRNewswire/ -- IBM (NYSE: IBM) today announced the results of a global study that revealed 80 percent of leading enterprises are forming new partnerships with "citizen developers," industry professionals operating outside the scope of enterprise IT. These citizen developers help to close the skills gap for application development to drive greater collaboration and innovation across cloud, analytics, mobile and social technologies." Raising the Game: The IBM Business Tech Trends Report" was conducted by the IBM Center for Applied Insights and is based on responses from more than 1,400 IT and business decision makers in 15 industries across five continents. The survey found that 40 percent of all organizations still report moderate-to-major skills gaps across cloud, analytics, mobile and social technologies, despite these technologies being recognized as the drivers for key innovations. The study examined common traits of "pacesetters," leading organizations that are achieving tangible business results from cloud, analytics, mobile and social technologies. Pacesetters are finding creative new ways to narrow the skills gaps in their organization, including gaps in general IT skills, application development or data analytics. One way pacesetters are filling these gaps is via partnerships with citizen developers, an emerging group of industry professionals who create new business applications and help with IT decisions as a side venture -- outside of their regular work responsibilities. In addition to turning to citizen developers, these pacesetter organizations are twice as likely to turn to academia for product development and 70 percent are more likely to engage with start-ups for execution. Tapping the Power of the Crowd Organizations that actively crowdsource ideas and technology assets with customers, partners and academia drive deeper engagement for positive results, according to the survey findings. For example, Esri, an IBM Business Partner and a leading developer of geographic information systems (GIS) software, regularly uses sites such as Github, a repository for open source code, to share and build apps for cloud, analytics, mobile and social technologies. In regard to its own product roadmap, Esri also conducts hackathons and application challenges that drive creativity and product feedback.


text:
Alternatives to IVF
posted on
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In vitro fertilization (IVF) continues to be the most popular form of assisted reproductive technologies but there several attractive alternatives to IVF to consider. You can increase your chances of success with fertility treatments with methods that mimic the natural conception process. Many couples are enjoying great success with some of today's leading alternatives to IVF. Talk to an IVF infertility specialist in your area to find out if you might be a good candidate for alternatives to IVF.
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The three most popular alternatives to IVF include:
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- Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT) – unlike IVF, the fertilized eggs are placed back into the fallopian tubes instead of in the uterus. Women must have healthy fallopian tubes in order to enjoy success with this IVF alternative.
- Tubal Embryo Transfer (TET) – this IVF alternative is almost identical to the ZIFT procedure, but the embryos are transferred back to the woman at a much later stage of development.
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- May offer higher success rates than traditional IVF procedures
- Some can mimic the natural conception process
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- Physician select only the best embryos
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Find an IVF Alternatives Specialist in Your Area
Talk to a fertility specialist in your area to discuss the different alternatives to IVF and to find out if you and your partner may be good candidates for assisted reproductive technologies. Infertility doctors can discuss the pros and cons of various IVF alternatives, and recommend a treatment plan that will increase your chances of pregnancy.


text:
Redesign of the Bakersfield Californian is critiqued pro and con at Newsdesigners.com, and apparently has begun to move the needle on circulation.
More by Kevin Roderick:Ralph Lawler of the Clippers and the age of Aquarius
Riding the Expo Line to USC 'just magical'
Last bastion of free parking? Loyola Marymount to charge students
Matt Kemp, Dodgers and Kings start big weekend the right way
LA Times writers revisit their '92 riots observations
Recent Newspapers stories on LA Observed:Register replaces one interim publisher with another
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text:
Epilogue (Part 2)
I decided to watch The Simpsons with him which was running on channel five, the usual Friday night time-slot. His tears dried away, turning into laughter as he pointed at the screen.
Ever since Adam had come around, not only had I taken on the more responsible big sister role but so had Lea. With a baby around, she couldn't be her usual crazy self and she'd decided to help mom around the house more as much as she could (when she wasn't away helping Jet manage his band and all). We'd all started to see the change in her as she begun maturing into a more civilized young woman who knew her responsibilities and didn't fool around as much. But Lea was still Lea at heart.
The doorbell rang, jolting me out of my thoughts. Looking over, I noticed the bulky silhouette of someone behind the front door. The head was rather rectangular looking, and the person had what looked like a baseball bat in hand. Adam tugged at my hair, getting my attention. Oh, he wanted to know who it was alright; with much more interest than I did.
Taking a deep breath, I calmed myself down and held Adam tightly to my chest as he rested his head on my shoulder, continuing to pull at my hair like it was the most fascinating toy on the planet.I blamed my imagination running out on me like that on Lea.
Lea had warned me about a killer on the loose during her 'you can do it' pep-talk. So much for inspiration. My nerves were on edge as I reached for the doorknob. I paused, thought better of it and grabbed the small flower vase from the table on the right. A baby in one hand, and in the other, a glass weapon. Worst case scenario: throw both and run for my life.


text:
The New Directions in Taiwan Studies program fosters new researches on and conducts scholarly exchanges with Taiwan. The program has established the UCLA Center for Chinese Studies as a forum for advanced discussions of political, social, and cultural developments in Taiwan; and benefits UCLA faculty and doctoral students by funding travel for research, conferences, and lectures.
The UCLA Center for Chinese Studies announces the awarding of research grants in Taiwan Studies for 2010-11. Congratulations to awardees IRENA CRONIN (Department of Asian Languages and Cultures) and ANTHONY ESTES (Department of Anthropology). learn more »
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text:
Just for sanity's sake, let's suppose your modA has two configurations,
default and test. As a practical matter, it's going to be highly unusual for
you to want to leave out the conf attribute of the dependency element. The
ivy.xml for modA might have a dependency:
You're starting from default, rather than from both default and test.
The above example makes modA's default depend on modB's conf1, conf2, and
conf3. Or you might want to say that modA's default only depends on modB's
I'm sure there's some good use case for letting a dependency default to
conf="*->*", but in a more typical case you want to have more precise
control over your own project's (in this case modA's) per-configuration
On Wed, Dec 3, 2008 at 5:47 AM, wrote:
> Hi,
> In the Ivy documentation (reference page for the "dependency" tag), it is
> mentioned that when no defaultconfigmapping nor conf attribute is
> specified,
> the ivy interpretation will be "*->*".
> Should I really interprete both asterisks as wildcards ? Or is it more a
> "*->#"
> dependency ? I ask this, because I was more expecting the latter mapping as
> default behaviour.
> For example suppose I have modA which has a dependency upon modB. modA has
> two
> configurations conf1 and conf2, and modB has three configurations conf1,
> conf2
> and conf3.
> From what I understand from the doc, Ivy will retrieve than by default both
> conf1, conf2 and conf3 of modB ?
> Thanks,
> Marc


text:
girl with the dragonfly tattoo
my palm feels sweaty in yours,
fingers knotted a little too tight,
the blood pumping from my heart
is caught, clogging my veins,
clotting my words like wads of tissues
in my throat.
You shrug your shoulders in your simple way,
and tuck a stray blonde strand behind an ear.
You look at me, blue eyes, eyebrows raised
in mocking surprise.
In this life, there are three kinds of people:
those who believe we have the willpower to fly,
those who say gravity is something we can't defy,
and then there's you, who points to the planes in the sky,
and say "look, we already do."
You were like water,
the type of person I could never hold on to.
You lay naked in my bed,
and I traced the outline of your dragonfly tattoo,
my entire soul aching, all for the love of you.
But I know tomorrow you'll be tangled up with another guy;
I'm just your Friday night.
And so, as you pull your hand from mine,
I close my eyes,
imagining the way you'd look
if you turned, and ran back to me.
Golden mane streaming out like sun-rayed ribbons,
tears upon your cheeks.
I feel your fragile body connect with mine,
I taste the salty bitterness that stains your face.
I hold you, protect you, keep you safe,
and your heart's rapid beating calms its pace,
until I realize its the just forgotten echos
of your footsteps
walking away.


text:
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Design software solutions based on customer Requirements
Implement software solutions as per design (coding)
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How to Apply:
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text:
Ostinatto Hostel
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text:
Oliver walked back to Mirko's room with him, a tall, silent, brooding presence like a shadow made concrete. Mirko, like many druids his age, had a room in a long-hall. There were several such long-halls throughout the forest, each housing twenty to thirty young druids. They were made by planting two long rows of trees and encouraging them to grow inwards and upwards until their branches met and wove together forming a strong, living roof. The gaps between tree trunks were filled with thin, laminated bark and smaller shrubs and ivies encouraged to grow over it, holding them in place and insulating further. Occasional gaps were left as windows but these were few; young druids living in the houses were expected to be cultivating their forest sense by which they could feel what was happening outside without needing to see it. The interior of the long-houses were partitioned by thin bark screens that were light enough to lift up and reposition as the number of druids living there needed.
Mirko went in alone, Oliver standing outside as immobile as a statue, his face grim and unreadable. Inside the light was tinged green, filtering through the leafy canopy of the roof, and there was a warm scent of red-ivy blossom and mown grass. The inside of the long-house was always slightly warmer than the outside, and today it was humid too. Mirko shivered slightly at the change in temperature and was glad that he wasn't staying now; the long-house suited him better when it was colder.
He pulled a chest out from underneath his bed; apart from them the only other things in his room were a small clothes chest next to the bed, a hand-copied Almanac under his pillow and a spare pair of shoes set side-by-side at the door. The chest wasn't locked and opened quietly to reveal a pack, and beneath that a tin plate, a waterskin and a handful of acorns. He stared at the acorns, bemused, for several seconds. He knew he hadn't put them in there, and couldn't think of anyone who would have thought it funny to do so. He pushed the plate and the waterskin into the pack, slung it over his shoulder and pushed the chest back under the bed. At the door he paused again and put the spare pair of shoes into his pack as well, reasoning that they might come in handy. Then he rejoined Oliver outside.
"You'll need this as well," said Oliver holding out a rolled-up scroll. Mirko took it and put it into his pack without looking at it.
"It's the rite of reconsecration," said Oliver as though Mirko had asked about it. "Emenda copied it herself from Mecta's original. It will be a good one."
"Has it been used before?"
"Three times that I know of," said Oliver, his words slowing and sadness creeping into his speech. He started walking, past the long-house and into the deeper forest. "The last two were reclaiming forgotten shrines, much as this time will be. The time before that... the time before that a woman had been murdered in the mistletoe grove."
Mirko was shocked. His step faltered slightly and then picked up again as he realised that Oliver wasn't stopping. Beneath them the grass was fast vanishing as the old trees sucked all the life from the earth and guarded it jealously, heavy branches lifting heavenwards to drain in all the light.
"She was... we thought she was probably only sixteen. Her blood had been daubed on every tree; it was clear that the intent was to deprive us of mistletoe. I was much younger then, I was all set to hunt down the murderer and make him pay for his actions. But the elder, at that time it was Vannadra, said that there was no time for that. There were eighteen of us to perform the rite, and it lasted for hours. When we finished the sun had long since set and the murderer long fled. It still took the grove over a year to recover its strength."
Oliver fell silent again, still leading the way through the now-ancient forest heart, treading silently over ground littered with old, dry branches and cracklesome leaf litter. Mirko's steps were noisy in comparison, yet of ten branches he stepped on only one broke.
"Eighteen druids?" said Mirko. One druid was generally sufficient to consecrate ground, so eighteen was almost beyond comprehension.
"Eighteen druids; maybe eight hours."
"I didn't know it was possible to link that many peo--"
"There's much you don't know," said Oliver, interrupting by shouting over Mirko. "I hope you'll learn some more on your little journey. You should be setting a better example."
"Wha--?" Mirko's words died in his mouth as Oliver stopped and looked back at him.
"Carry on west from here," he said. "And don't come back if you don't manage to reconsecrate the shrine. That's not the kind of example I will tolerate."


text:
Rollie Free
150 mph-1948
Vincent Black Lightning
The Machines and the Men who raced them
Cycle Cult is a social network for gearheads that ride and have an insatiable appetite for vintage motorcycling. Retracing the history of two wheeled motorsport is our obsession. We are gritty oil soaked pickers of motorcycle culture from all counties. Ownership of an antique motorcycle is not required. Artifacts of the past are discovered and shared for the simple pleasure of enjoying our rich history on two wheels.
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Cycle Cult is an international community of riders intent on preserving the past so it can be appreciated by future generations. The membership is free, there are no rules, no supreme leader only a desire to be a part of this brotherhood that is united by a common interest in all things related to the Men and Machines that make life worth living. If this sounds like you then please click the "join the cult" button below to receive our latest blog posts in your email feed or the Facebook and Twitter links to be part of the discovery and discussion that is Cycle Cult. Welcome home.


text:
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text:
Nov 07,2008
Watch Role Models Full Movie Download 720p, 1080p Bluray HD.
Danny and Wheeler, very much into their 30s, need something: Danny feels stuck; he's acrid and has headed out his spectacular sweetheart. Wheeler pursues any skirt he sees for vacant sex. When they get in a battle with a tow-truck driver, they pick group administration over prison and are alloted to be enormous siblings - Danny to Augie, a nerd who loves to LARP (Live Action Role Play), and Wheeler to Ronnie, a small indecent child. After a rough begin, things begin to go well until both Danny and Wheeler commit huge errors. Will the two men make sense of how to change enough to be good examples to the young men?
for more details check help for how to watch and download.
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text:
Carlos Tévez will be revealed as the newest Juventus player on Thursday, after passing the first part of his medical and putting pen to paper on a three-year deal on Wednesday. The deal is worth €9m, but the forward is also eligible for €6m in bonuses over the next three seasons.
Tévez joined Manchester City from Manchester United in the summer of 2009. The Argentine had 107 appearances in his four seasons with City, scoring 58 goals with the club. Last season, he made 28 league starts and scored 11 goals. Of course, he also had his share of problems while with Manchester City, refusing to come on as a substitute, being suspended by the club, demanding a transfer and hiding out in Argentina for awhile.
Juventus seem confident, however, that the player has put his rocky past behind him. For his part, Tévez appears thrilled to be joining the bianconeri, and happy to don the coveted #10 shirt.
Follow @SBNationSoccer on Twitter | Like SB Nation Soccer on Facebook
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• Spain vs. Italy: Tactical preview
• On the economics of transfers
• Transfer rumours from SB Nation and our team blogs
Official: Carlos Tévez signs for Juventus
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Elazig Mayd Hotel is located in Elazığ. Free WiFi access is available throughout. Each room here will provide you with a TV, air conditioning and a minibar. Featuring a shower, private bathroom also comes with a hairdryer and free toiletries. Extras include a seating area and satellite channels. At Elazig Mayd Hotel you will find a 24-hour front desk, providing rooms ervice. Other facilities offered at the property include a ticket service and luggage storage. Elazığ Airport is 6.8 miles away.


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In My Dreams: Receiving a Gift
Gold Soul Theory by The Underachievers. The Gift of the Gold Soul.
Gold Soul Theory, though there are many instances of inappropriate language and several drug references (I DO NOT CONDONE), it brings out a provocative statement, "Free your soul." If this song does anything, it lets you know that you should be free, and that's a gift all in itself. Oddly enough, chapter 6 of my story Memories in Shadows took inspiration from that line. I won't say what happened if you didn't read it, but you should (insert shameless plug here). Anyways, this is personal my favorite rap that answers the theme Receiving a Gift.


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Day 3
... have organised sherpers who move kit from b&b's to another or organised campsites, " now they tell us " never mind,dropping into a b&b tomorrow, even the sheep are getting offended by the way we smell. On another note morale is good after our 21 miles ...
Day 2
To went to cook breakfast, it was to wet to light up the burners, Frosties bar it is then. Relentless rain all day, the weight of the packs are testing and getting heavier with the rain, 20 miles covered, no blisters, really pleased I invested in good boots, as these are imperative, really need ...
Day 1
It's 04.00 and I cannot sleep, I'm I still in Canada time, probably not !! Do I admit that nerves may be settling in. !!!.
Day 1 commences, it's rained all day, not a good start, really think I could do with a pack horse, found one but he looks in worse shape than me, it's 1800 and we are camping down for the night after covering 19 miles ...
We made it!
... in the morning with a sandwich and a piece of fruit from the B&B lady, walked over the big hill for the day and found a spot to rest and eat, then onwards until a cream tea opportunity arose at a quaint little cafe in the middle of a forest, walked some more, found an ice cream shop, and then with enough rewards to keep us going, set off to finish the last leg.
We arrived here around four ...
115. Hardmoors 26.2 Saltburn trail marathon
... over. Andy took some cake to work to raise funds for our Kilimanjaro trip.
When the last people finished Sadie pulled lucky number 49, Joanne Goldsmith, as the winner of the Sue Ryder Complete Hardmoors Race package. We raised �110.65.
www.virginmoneygiving.com/SarahBooth69< br>


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Soft acrylic construction and a character motif make this winter accessories set a heroic addition to his winter look. Includes:
Customer with a shipping address in eligible NY Metro areascan choose
at checkout, to get their order delivered on the same business day.
Just place your order by 9AM and choose "Same-Day Delivery".Orders placed after 9AM or on a weekend/holiday will be delivered the next business day.


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Calverton, New York
Calverton Links
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149 Edwards Ave
Calverton, NY 11933-1602, United States
The standard weekdays rate here is $41/walking and $55 with a cart. Carts are mandatory on weekends until 1:00 p.m. ET; that rate is $65. Twilight and 9-hole discounts are available.
Course Details
Average Hole Difficulty
Loretta8 - 6/8/13
Interesting course that was shockingly empty on a beautiful Saturday afternoon in June. It's in excellent condition, short but challenging with lots of fairway bunkers and patches of nearly unplayable fescue rough. The 12th hole is a great uphill par 4 with nice views from the green.
My two complaints are that the 15th hole is a gimmick par 5 like something out of a Golden Tee course, the fairway narrows dramatically with trees on both sides at about 160 yards, and then the green has an upper level on the left that's literally 10-12 feet above the lower right portion of the green. Really a stupid hole. Also there are no yardage markers on the tee boxes for the par threes, so you're completely guessing on the distance when hitting over water. Local knowledge is probably worth at least 3 or 4 strokes.
Bossman72 - 10/21/11
Score early...... Back nine longer and harder
chucksteak77 - 7/18/11
Short course, but with half of the par 4s being drivable it is very fun. Never feels like a short course because the layout continuously changes. A lot of different looks. And Cheap!
russrock - 6/2/11
romane78 - 8/27/09
hchoi28 - 7/6/09
m_ascher24 - 6/16/09
ffpo562 - 6/12/09
mfrail19 - 5/10/09
macl - 4/19/09
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Best Score: 72
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*9-holes played
Nearby Courses
Swan Lake Golf Club
Manorville, NY (3 miles)
Baiting Hollow Club
Baiting Hollow, NY (3 miles)
Friar's Head
Riverhead, NY (4 miles)
Sandy Pond Golf Course
Riverhead, NY (4 miles)
The Vineyards Golf Club
Riverhead, NY (4 miles)


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Cecchi e Cecchi
Harris Throw
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Editor's notes
In a sophisticated herringbone knit, the gorgeous Cecchi e Cecchi Harris Throw is a luxurious addition to a bed, armchair or settee. Tasselled edges and a sumptuously soft wool cashmere silk blend combine to create this homely and delightful throw. Team with coordinated cushions for a put-together approach to home accessorising.
Product features
- Herringbone knit
- Tasseled edges
- Dry clean only
50% Virgin wool; 35% Cashmere; 25% Silk
173cm x 152cm
About Cecchi E Cecchi
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UK Delivery
We offer a range of UK delivery options including standard delivery, next day delivery and various weekend options. The available delivery options and prices will vary depending on the delivery location you share with us when checking out.
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We deliver to a number of International countries, our full list of countries is available during checkout. You can change your delivery country at any time using the country selector located in the footer of our site.
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Our Click & Collect Service is quick and simple. Choose collect my items from one UK location during checkout and we'll email you when your order has been processed, it will be ready for collection within 3 working days.
If you are not completely satisfied with your item you may return it within 28 days for a full refund. You can return the item online using our simple service or bring it back to our flagship store in Regent St.


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139 total
unable to obtain breathalizer reading on scene, i have a clean criminal background, decent driving record (no major violations and very few),
North Carolina is not in the habit of reducing DWIs to a lesser offense, but from the brief explanation it sounds like you may have some other issues to litigate which could result in a dismissal if successful. Contact an attorney to discuss your case and possible defenses.See question
Im 14 and was caught with possession of 3 grams of marijuana and a pipe in school. This is my first offense ever. Anything i can do to help me?
Based on your age you will proceed in Juvenile Court and you will have an opportunity to keep a clean record, though it will take some effort on your part. Contact an attorney with your parents before your first court date to discuss the case.See question
Received a ticket Driving while license revoked. Got my license went to court pled guilty waived my right to council and I am going to represent myself since I have my license.
If you entered a plea of guilty to DWLR then the case is disposed of and you may be facing an additional 1-year suspension as a result of a conviction for a moving violation that occurred during a period of suspension. An attorney may be able to re-open the matter by Motion for Appropriate Relief and resolve the case in a different way that does not result in a suspension. Contact a local attorney to discuss the matter.See question
I received a ticket for improperly wearing my seatbelt. I had it on but had it tucked underneath my arm. I was driving my husbands truck and I am short -- the seatbelt cuts across my throat. It was choking me so I put my arm over it. Is it wor...
If you have the time to attend court multiple times waiting for a trial you could contest the ticket, but not properly wearing the seatbelt is a violation so your chances of being found not guilty are low. A conviction for 20-135.2A does not carry driver license points or insurance points.See question
I have successfully completed half of my probation period for a sex offense. I have successfully completed the treatment program required by the court. I have not had any more problems with the law and a very good relationship with my PO. I have b...
Hire an attorney to look into modifying probation. Certain offenses do not allow unsupervised probation. Assuming unsupervised probation is appropriate given the class offense, whether the modification is granted will depend on factors such as the underlying crime/conviction, whether the DA will consent, and whether the judge will approve the modification. With a sex offense this will be a sensitive issue and you will want an attorney to negotiate the process.See question
I have a Soldier that received a citation for expired tags, she was directed to report before the court on a certain date, she took care of the inspection, sent the information to the clerk of court with a copy of her Military orders and asked for...
There are a few ways to end/lift the DMV suspension and resolve the underlying citation. Each has its own merits and depends on the client's needs (i.e. as quick as possible or keeping the driving record clear). If this is in Wake County an attorney could handle for her without her having to appear and quickly.See question
First DWI or DUI offense. Underage. Intoxication level at a .11
It will come up but will not necessarily keep you out. How you turned the mistake into a positive learning experience is important. Consider consulting with an attorney who practices in the area of professional licensing defense to help you draft an explanation of the event for your applications. I find that being open with a thorough explanation is well received.
If the dwi is pending and you have not already retained an attorney for the charge, you should do that as well.See question
First offense DWI 22 y.o. female, no accident or other charges. I blew 0.19. Can I go to treatment for alcohol/depression? Can I get my court date changed?
You should hire an attorney, and our attorney should be able to handle the court date in your absence for such good cause. Don't just skip the court date, hire an attorney to appear on your behalf.See question
no background
You will be called and failed and an order for your arrest will be issued. You should contact a defense attorney to discuss representation. If this is your first offense you have several ways to keep your record cleanSee question
I was arrested for a DWI and, although I repeatedly requested to speak to one, the police would not let me contact an attorney. I was also never read my Miranda Rights during the process. Will this have any impact on my litigation? I have a profes...
Access to an attorney or a witness at certain times during the process can give rise to certain challenges or defenses. Contact an attorney and discuss the specific facts with them. Failure to read Miranda rights may keep certain statements out of court but otherwise will not bar the State from proceeding in most cases.See question


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Snoop Dogg's Leafs By Snoop Logo Not Sitting Well With Maple Leafs Owner
The company that owns the Toronto Maple Leafs isn't too happy with the logo for a marijuana brand from Snoop Dogg.
TSN reports the rapper submitted an application to the U.S. Trademark and Patent Office last year to trademark Leafs By Snoop, a brand name for a line of pot products sold in Colorado.
Snoop said he planned to use the logo, which features a seven-point gold leaf, on lighters.
Snoop Dogg launched his Leafs by Snoop brand in November. (Photo: Merry Jane/YouTube)
On June 8, Maple Leafs Sports and Entertainment filed an opposition to the logo. The company, which also owns the Toronto Raptors, said it needed more time to provide more specifics on its objection.
Some of the marijuana strains sold under the Leafs by Snoop brand include "Northern Lights" and "Cali Kush." The business also offers edibles.
Snoop Dogg partnered up with Canadian pot producer Tweed Inc. earlier in 2016. (Photo: Ollie Millington/Redferns/Getty Images)
The rapper and marijuana entrepreneur outlined on his website that the selected strains are some of his favourites.
"Leafs by Snoop is my way of sharing the experience I have with the finest quality cannabis one could imagine," he said. "Let's medicate, elevate, and put it in the air!"
Snoop, whose love of marijuana has become a fixture in his music and public persona, has partnered with several companies diving into the realm of legalized marijuana.
Earlier this year, he signed a deal with Canadian pot producer Tweed Inc. Under the agreement, the company can use certain content and brands owned by the rapper's company, LBC Holdings.
With files from The Canadian Press
Also On HuffPost:
"It makes me feel the way I need to feel."
"I went to Vietnam, and I was there for a long time. [Using marijuana] made the difference between staying human or, as Michael Douglas said, becoming a beast."
"Kush rolled, glass full... I prefer the better things!"
"Smoking helped put me in touch with the realm of the senses."
"You know you're a stoner when your friends make you a Bob Marley cake."
"Pot always just made me sleepy."
"Robert Downey Jr. said he started smoking weed at age 8."
"It [my behavior on the show in 1994] wasn't because I was excited about you [David Letterman]. I think it may have had something to do with the joint I smoked before I came on."
"I'm not a great pothead or anything like that… but weed is much, much less dangerous than alcohol."
In 1975 he wrote "Maverick," a memoir about his days playing in the NBA. Among other things, Jackson spoke frankly about marijuana use. -- Salon
"Bieber both confirmed that he'd been caught smoking weed and apologized for it." -- Huffington Post
"Angelou settled into a job as a waitress and began smoking marijuana with abandon."
"The first time I smoked was at home with my mother and step-father."
"I've tried pot, but it doesn't do much for me."
"Cocaine didn't interest me. Not at all. I'm way way back in the early pot…"
"The blogger and commentator Andrew Sullivan was busted in July for possessing a small amount of marijuana within the Cape Cod National Seashore."
"As I've already been open about in the past -- and as I assume many would expect -- I made personal choices when I was younger that I neither support nor condone for others and certainly wouldn't encourage through public policy."
"I don't smoke much pot anymore."
"Of course I know how to roll a joint."
"… the one that has the worst effect for me was pot. I felt silly and giggly - I hate feeling like that."
"Never give up the ganja."
"I went through one period when I smoked a surprising, a really breath-taking, amount of grass almost every night."
"I enjoy it once in a while. There is nothing wrong with that. Everything in moderation. I wouldn't call myself a pot-head."
"[Phelps] firmly denies that he takes drugs, suggesting that the notorious photo of him smoking from a bong was a one-time lapse of judgment."
"…what I did was experiment with a little marijuana like a lot of other people and walked away…"
"CNN anchor Gwen Scott claimed it is common knowledge that Turner sits in his office and smokes marijuana."
"I was hiding out from the celebrity thing, I was smoking way too much [marijuana]."
"I smoke a lot of pot when I write music."
"The owner of a local cannabis café told reporters George Clooney was no stranger there."
"I wouldn't have been able to make it through hundreds of shows if it weren't for the benefits of medical marijuana"
"James also revealed he and his teammates smoked marijuana one night after getting access to a hotel room in Akron."
"I have tried it."
"According to this woman, who requested anonymity because of her current job as a clinical psychologist, "He and Randy came to my house, they knocked on my door, and then they blindfolded me, tied me up, and put me in their car. They took me to their apartment and tried to force me to take bong hits. They'd been smoking pot."
"I did experiment with marijuana when I was a youth."
"I wouldn't answer the marijuana questions. You know why? Because I don't want some little kid doing what I tried."
"As for drugs – well, Gates was certainly not unusual there. Marijuana was the pharmaceutical of choice…"
"Look, I have never made a secret of the fact that I have tried marijuana... About 50,000 times."
"He said he had tried marijuana, enjoyed it, 'but it did not become a habit and I have not tasted it in many years.'"
"Yes." [In response to the question: "Which of you are ready to admit to having used marijuana in the past?"]
"I smoked some weed, and that's how I finished 'Izzo.'"
"Do you know how many movies I wrote when I was high?"
"First, [in high school], I smoked a lot of pot...and that's how I got to know the people 'half in' the society of my high school and we waved at each other over the bong. Then I got to know people by making jokes."
"The White House said today that Judge Clarence Thomas, President Bush's Supreme Court nominee, had smoked marijuana while in college."
"I experimented with marijuana a time or two."
"To kick things off, [television show host Andy Cohen] asked the last time Winfrey had smoked marijuana. 'Uh … 1982,' Winfrey replied. 'Let's hang out after the show,' Cohen joked. 'Okay,' Winfrey laughed. 'I hear it's gotten better.'"
"When I was a kid, I inhaled frequently. That was the point."


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A well-maintained furnace is a better means of keeping warm than cuddling with a camp stove or flooding the den with chicken soup. Raise the Fahrenheit with this Groupon.
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Discovered someone who ticks all the boxes? Send them a message or just a wink and see if they're interested. With a little luck you'll be on your way to discovering the love of your life.
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1999 Sonicor Aqueous Ultrasonic CPS4-2024 series automatic cleaning system with RCT auto transport. #2476$55,000 - Connecticut, United States
- Manufacturer: Sonicor
asset description notes: sonicor aqueous ultrasonic cps4-2024-wsrr automatic cleaning system. 4 stage system with dryer station. stations: ultrasonic wash, spray immersion rinse, spray immersion ri...
2009 Sonic SDC500‐28E Drill Rig #12794No price - Mifflinburg, PA, USA
- Manufacturer: sonisch
sonic sdc500‐28e drill rig power source: skid mounted, caterpillar diesel engine model 3126b, rated at 250 hp @ 1850 rpm, epa/carb tier ii, hydraulic oil cooler, engine management system (ems) pane...
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Tough PVC coated Hi-Vis 1/2" Fiberglass Tape Measure Refill provide maximum durability and are completely safe when used around electrical hazards. Tape Measure Refills show minimal stretch under tension (0.00111 per ft. per lb. of tension over 4.5 lb.) and return to original accuracy when load is released. Feature black and red graduations on a yellow background, printed on one side only. Heavy-duty end hook folds down when not in use. 1/2"W.Complete Tape sold separately.
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CAGE Code: 3ZEL7 | DUNS: 18-854-1176
Reference Number: WB0000


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The Vita Compact is a neat and stylish radiator. Available in standard white, this radiator provides a crisp, clean finish to any room. The Vita Compact range boasts a comforting heating output at an economical price. Compatible with any central heating system, it can be mounted to either floor or wall with the brackets available. Compliant with all EN 442 Certification Data and CETIAT tested in accordance with BS EN 442, this radiator also comes complete with a 10year guarantee.
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Social Media Is Catalyzing Change for Women in Science
The hashtag #distractinglysexy gave women in science all around the world a voice that has never existed before, on this scale or in this form.
Social media is a powerful tool that can be used to bring about positive change for women in science. Two recent events involving senior, highly-regarded scientists demonstrate the growing importance of social media as a catalyst for change in science.
In May, Science Careers, the online careers section of the prestigious scientific journal Science, posted an advice column by well-respected molecular biologist Dr. Alice Huang in response to a postdoctoral researcher "Bothered." The latter was seeking advice on how to handle her adviser who was repeatedly "looking down her shirt" during their meetings. Huang advised, "As long as your adviser does not move on to other advances, I suggest you put up with it, with good humour if you can."
I became aware of the article through Twitter. I was appalled by the advice in the column. Nobody should have to work in an environment that is anything less than respectful. The behaviour is an act of casual sexism, which is a pervasive problem in science. Although I was attending a conference at the time, I took a few minutes between talks to write an e-mail to the American Academy for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and Science Careers expressing my dismay and offering alternative constructive advice. I shared a snapshot of my email on Twitter, where it was quickly re-tweeted and endorsed by individuals around the world.
The speed at which social media connected scientists and mobilized them to support my advice was breathtaking. The hashtag #DontAskAlice picked up as did the entertaining and sarcastic #CrapScienceCareersAdvice. Science Careers quickly removed the advice column and subsequently posted crowdsourced and much better advice for "Bothered," including my two cents. I realized the power of speaking up on Twitter when the Washington Post contacted me for my comments on the issue.
Another week, another debacle. Earlier this month, Nobel-prize winner Dr. Tim Hunt made extraordinary and highly-offensive remarks about women in science, which were reported by Pulitzer-winning journalist Deborah Blum in a manner that was careful to ensure accuracy and the opportunity for correction.
Hunt's comments and the outrage that ensued quickly reverberated around the globe. Scientists, both women and men, took to Twitter to protest Hunt's comments using the hashtag #distractinglysexy, making fun of his comments that female scientists are distracting in labs. It is worth noting that Hunt is much closer to the tail end of a remarkably successful career than the beginning. I have no doubt of the authenticity of his confusion and pain but we should all be subject to consequences when making completely unacceptable statements in a public venue, just as the supervisor of "Bothered" should face consequences for his unacceptable behaviour. This is the standard that we, women and men in science, now expect of each other, as colleagues. The Tim Hunt incident also demonstrates how important it is for scientists to fully understand and embrace the power and role of media, particularly social media.
The subsequent backlash against the on-line responses to Hunt's comments, including claims of an on-line "witch-hunt," confirmed that misogyny and sexism were still a problem in science. But as we have learned in the past few weeks, the world is changing -- and there are many clever and funny women doing great science, who may or may not be #distractinglysexy, but who are treated as valued colleagues by other women and men in science alike.
Perhaps it is time for the media to pay more attention to those scientists, who happen to be women, and who are woefully under and mis-represented in all media. The spontaneous appearance of hashtags #DontAskAlice and #HuntGate can lead to discussions and promote constructive debate on what equity, diversity and inclusion really mean in science.
Women in science all around the world have found a common voice that has never existed before, on this scale or in this form. Voices of many, who feel silenced or unheard, are now heard, encouraged, supported and cheered on-line by a significant like-minded community. As a woman in science, I find this meaningful and profound.
As science and culture writer Philip Ball points out, the time of the Tim Hunts and Alice Huangs of science is passing. The new normal is the world of the witty and clever #distractinglysexy #WomeninScience who are more than #GirlswithToys and who, along with their supportive male colleagues, #DontAskAlice but rather work together for real #STEM change. This is the power of social media for positive change in science and it won't be stopped.
Sneak in a lesson about gravity while creating beautiful art with pendulum painting. Suspend a broomstick in between two chairs and hang a plastic cup with some string in between. Put some paint in the cup, then poke a hole in the bottom. Set the cup to swinging to get some lovely designs. (Then you can talk about why the pendulum keeps swinging back and forth, gradually creating smaller and smaller circles.) Get the details: Hand Made Kids Art
You may know the recipe for homemade slime, but have you ever made magnetic slime? This incredibly cool experiment involves a bit of parental help and supervision, but it's well worth it! Get the details: Frugal Fun For Boys
Whip up a little kitchen chemistry to teach your kids about colour changes and chemical reactions. Red cabbage juice turns blue when mixed with a base (baking soda) and red when combined with an acid (vinegar). Combine both to get bubbles! Get the details: One Time Through
The maker movement has done a lot to get people of all ages interested in DIY technology. The MaKey MaKey kit helps kids take everyday objects and turn them into keyboards! Think playing piano with a banana or playing a videogame with Play-Doh. For a demonstration of what a MaKey MaKey kit can do, check this out. Get the details: MaKey MaKey
This one's called "$7 and a Screwdriver," because Leah at Socks & Shoes Not Required spent $7 on an old VCR at a thrift store. She explained to her kids how it worked, then gave them a screwdriver and let them go to town. Older kids could even try to put it back together. Brilliant! Get the details: Socks & Shoes Not Required
Wanna check out something cool? This neat experiment involves piping drops of water (carefully) onto coins. Your kids will be amazed that the water doesn't spill over the side! It's a lesson in surface tension, and your child can measure the amount of drops each type of coin can handle until it overflows. Get the details: The Science Kiddo
LEGO and STEM go hand-in-hand, and you can use your child's favourite multi-coloured building toys to teach many science, math and engineering concepts. Here, you can tackle density with some oil, water and a brick. (More ideas on the site below.) Get the details: Science Sparks
Anyone with a child and a smartphone knows that kids love taking photos. Send your school age children on a scavenger hunt to photograph items in nature, like flowers, seeds, birds, insects or tree bark. Great for an outdoor birthday party! Get the details: Betsy's Photography
If you glue popsicles together in a particular way, they will pop apart when you drop them. This lesson in tension is a fun one, and you can even set up the "bombs" next to each other for a chain reaction (a la the domino effect). Get the details: Frugal Fun For Boys
Forget boring old regular Bingo. Teach your child about fractions in a fun way with this Fractions Bingo game. She rolls the dice to figure out what fraction she's looking for, then fills it in once she finds it. First to get five in a row wins! Get the details: School Time Snippets
Kids don't learn about simple machines until grade school, but you can introduce the important concept of levers at an early age with this fun and colourful project. Your child can investigate which lever sends the cube flying the furthest. Get the details: Munchkins & Moms
Your child will learn about kinetics, the study of forces acting on mechanisms, while creating some little funny pals to play with. Turning the wooden dowel makes the googly heads spin, as you can see here. Get the details: Left Brain Craft Brain
Get your preschooler interested in number recognition and counting by utilizing the landscape of Dr. Seuss favourite, The Lorax. Older kids can work on adding and subtraction. Get the details: Inspiration Laboratories
If you REALLY want to bring the outdoors in, why not grow mushrooms with your children? This mom of quadruplets taught her four little ones a new x-word by growing xylophagous fungi on a log in their house (in this case shiitake and oyster mushrooms). The kids cared for the mushrooms by misting them each day until finally, mom made them into a casserole. Get the details: Capri + 3
Ever heard of ichnology? It's the study of the traces of organismal behaviour, like burrows or footprints. Introduce your child to this fascinating study with some air dry clay and plastic animal figurines. Check the website for more ideas involving paint (to make animal footprints on paper). Get the details: Suzy Homeschooler
A simple mixture of oil, water and food colouring creates a colourful light show in a jar. It also teaches kids about density. (ICYDK, the food colouring is denser than the oil, so it sinks through the oil layer and starts to dissolve in the water). Get the details: I Can Teach My Child
Even preschoolers can get in on the action with this cute apple-picking counting game. Kids pick up "mini-apples" with child tweezers and place enough on each corresponding number. Get the details: Fun-a-day!
Magna Tiles are awesome building toys. But you can also get kids excited about multiplication with these colourful, versatile squares. Here, this child is demonstrating 10 x 2. Get the details: And Next Comes L
Your little ones probably love to look at the sky at night. Bring that magic into the daytime by letting them try their hand at creating each of the planets. A great introduction to astronomy for even the youngest kids! Get the details: A Little Pinch of Perfect
Set out containers of varying sizes and shapes, then have your scientists-in-training guess whether they think a full scoop of coloured rice will fit inside or overflow. You can explore volume with liquids as well. Get the details: Little Bins For Little Hands
Explore "pirate science" by freezing small bits of treasure in a baking soda, Jell-O and water solution. Your kids can "dig" for treasure by using vinegar to excavate the goods. Get the details: Fun-A-Day!
Follow Dr. Imogen Coe on Twitter: www.twitter.com/RySciDean