text:
Cognitive & Behavioural Therapies: High Intensity TrainingMSc
Aimed at experienced mental health professionals with experience of working in an IAPT service who wish to become accredited cognitive behavioural psychotherapists.
Course overview
Our course is fully accredited by the British Association of Behavioural & Cognitive Psychotherapies (BABCP) as a Level 2 IAPT course.
Why Study Cognitive & Behavioural Therapies: High Intensity Training with us?
Cognitive & Behavioural Therapies: High Intensity Training is a rigorous, challenging and highly rewarding clinical skills training course.
You will be trained in the use of empirically supported treatments, observe expert clinical demonstrations, and receive constructive feedback on your developing clinical competence.
You will also develop the research competences required to ensure that your clinical interventions are based upon the best available scientific evidence.
Upon successful completion of the course, you will have satisfied the requirements of BABCP minimum training standards, and be eligible to apply for BABCP accreditation.


text:
ED Magedson – Founder
Ripoff Report
California Grills & Spas - Xtreme Outdoor Litchens & Spas(alex Rodriguez)1900 Nw 95 Ave Doral, Florida U.S.A.
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This report was posted on Ripoff Report on 12/11/2008 08:58 PM and is a permanent record located here: http://www.ripoffreport.com/reports/california-grills-spas-xtreme-outdoor-litchens-spasalex-rodriguez/doral-florida-33172/california-grills-spas-xtreme-outdoor-litchens-spas-un-grillls-en-el-patio-doral-flo-400526. The posting time indicated is Arizona local time. Arizona does not observe daylight savings so the post time may be Mountain or Pacific depending on the time of year.
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The Under Armour Raid Graphic men's fitted t-shirt is made of ultrasoft and smooth HeatGear® fabric for extreme comfort with very little weight. It features the Microthread technology in the fabric helping to dry faster. The back mesh inserts, four-way stretch fabrication and anti-odour treatment will add another level of comfort to your workout.
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I-Supplier.com is a 1 year old domain.
It was registered by Privacy protection service - whoisproxy.ru , who can be reached at . The site is owned by Privacy protection service - whoisproxy.ru. Registration details show that it was registered on 05 Jan 2016 through regional network information center, jsc dba ru-center and will expire on 05 Jan 2017.
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text:
"I got an offer from BYU last Monday," said Fonua. "I'm just really excited knowing that I have the chance to play football and get my education paid for at the college level. It's been a long ride for me so far and I'm just excited. It's been dreamy."
Fonua had a busy week last week.
"First I went down to BYU's Junior Day on Friday, but I had to just say hi and bye because I was going down to the Nike camp in Oregon," Fonua said. "I scored one of the highest SPARQ ratings at the Nike camp up at Oregon State. I got MVP for defensive back at the camp too. We did drills and one-on-ones and things like that. That was for my performance and for my SPARQ score at the camp. I scored 119 at the Nike Camp in Oregon, but the one where I scored among the highest in the nation was at the Texas Nike camp where I scored a 123.3. I think it stands nationally, but I'm like 13th overall in the top ratings.
"I did really well and was named the MVP of the Nike combine. When I came back, and right after my flight, I spoke to BYU and set up a meeting with them on Monday. Then they offered me on Monday."
Sitting in Coach Mendenhall's office, Fonua answered a few questions from BYU's head coach. After some candid discourse, Coach Mendenhall handed Fonua a piece of paper to read.
"He first was pounding me with questions like, 'What are you looking for in a school?' or 'What would you like to have in a school?' What I ended up saying was, 'BYU is the place to go.' It was really good. He then made me read this paper that said that I was receiving an offer from BYU.
"It was wild! It was really different for me because it all finally paid off. I was really excited about the offer and just happy that it all worked out in the end after trying so hard."
After attending Junior Day and camp activities over the past years, as well as taking unofficial visits to BYU over spring camp and attending various other football camps, Fonua's efforts have finally paid off.
"It means a lot to me," Fonua said about his offer. "It's exciting and at the same time it's a humbling experience to know that they want me to play football for them."
Mendenhall told Fonua to spend some time before deciding whether to commit to BYU.
"After we got all done talking he said, 'I don't want you to commit right now since your dad isn't here. I want you to talk things over with your parents before you call me back and want to commit to BYU.'"
So, Fonua will be doing just that.
"I'm going to talk things over with my parents, so I want to wait a little bit longer," Fonua said. "I don't want to jump the gun or anything, and I just want to see if it's right or not."
BYU currently has a couple of offers out. One is for Alijah Holder of Oceanside High School, while another is for Josh Schlueter of Notre Dame High School. It's hard to say how many safeties BYU will take in this class given the amount of scholarships available.
"I'm just taking my time and I'm not sure when I'll make a final decision," Fonua said. "I'm going to go up to Utah's camp and then to the All-Poly Camp. After that I'll then go to BYU's camp and then be done with everything. I'll probably make a decision sometime after that."
After graduating next year from Syracuse, Fonua will take a two-year hiatus from football.
"Yeah, I plan on going on a mission, then coming back to play football," said Fonua. "I'm just really excited and this is a great opportunity for me."


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Claudie Pierlot
Granite Shell Parka Coat, Women's, Dark Blue/Gold
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Contemporary Parisian label Claudie Pierlot 's Granite parka coat will keep you stylistically covered whatever the weather. This outerwear staple isn't just the lynchpin of your AW16 edit, it's the hero piece of the entire season, capturing the current utilitarian trend. Featuring an optional faux fur trimmed hood, drawstring waist and ribbed trims, it's finished with multiple pockets to stow away all your on the go essentials.Claudie Pierlot shell parka coatConcealed popper and exposed zip fastenings at frontStand collar, detachable drawstring hood with faux fur trim, long sleeves, ribbed cuffs, two popper fastened pockets at front, two zip pockets at front, drawstring elasticated waist, fully lined64% cotton, 36% nylon; lining 100% polyester; padding 100% feather; rib 85% cotton, 12% polyester, 3% elastane; hoodie 100% acrylicMachine washTrue to sizeSize 8: Length 34"Model is 5ft 10" and wears a size 8 Size: 12. Color: Marine. Gender: Female. Age Group: Adult.. Granite shell parka coat, Women's, Size: 12, Dark Blue/Gold


text: Pascale Ferran (French: [fɛʁɑ̃]; born 17 April 1960) is a French film director and screenwriter. In 2007 her film Lady Chatterley won five César Awards including Best Film, Best Cinematography and Best Adaptation. Her 2014 film Bird People was selected to compete in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival.


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6570 S 1710 E Cottonwood Heights, UT 84121
Hi, Blueroof .com.
My name is
and I have a question about 6570 S 1710 E Cottonwood Heights
You can respond by either emailing me at
or call during
My Question Is:
Estimated Monthly Payment$5,051
- Photos
- Location
- Questions
- Share
- Virtual Tour
- Mortgage Calculator
- Status: Pending
Listing courtesy of Realtypath LLC
Price Reduction! 2 story Condo, very well cared for and gorgeous. 3 bedrooms 3.5 baths, huge family room down for your big gatherings w/ wood stove and decorated window wells. Plantation shutters, crown moldings and clean! Tiled patio w/ 2 car garage and 2 laundrys. This one is the Hartford model. Brookstone is a great place to live. Come take a look! This could be your new home. Brookstone is now FHA approved.
Interior Features Include:
Bath: Master, Den/Office, Dishwasher: Built-In, Disposal, Gas Log, Intercom, Jetted Tub, Granite Countertops
Basement Full
Fireplaces 1
Air Cond: Central Air: Electric
Heating: Forced Air, Wood Burning
Floor Type: Carpet, Tile
Exterior Features Include:
Double Pane Windows, Outdoor Lighting, Storm Doors, Patio: Open
Acreage: 0.0100 Acres
Lot: Fenced: Full, Road: Paved, Sprinkler: Auto-Full, Terrain: Flat, View: Mountain
Landscape Landscaping: Full, Mature Trees, Pines
Roof: Asphalt Shingles, Pitched
Exterior: Brick, Cedar/Redwood
Patio/Deck: 1 Patio 0 Deck
Garage/Parking: 2 Car Deep (Tandem), Attached, Opener
Driveway Asphalt
Garage Capacity: 2
Other Features Include:
Subdivision: BROOKSTONE
Inclusions: Ceiling Fan, Dryer, Microwave, Range, Range Hood, Refrigerator, Tv Antenna, Washer, Water Softener: Own, Wood Stove
Amenities: Cable Tv Wired, Clubhouse, Electric Dryer Hookup, Exercise Room, Swimming Pool, Tennis Court
Water: Culinary
Pool: Concrete/Gunite, Fenced, Heated, In Ground
Utilities Gas: Connected, Power: Connected, Sewer: Connected, Water: Connected
Accessibility Grab Bars, Ground Level, Single Level Living
Storage See Remarks, Garage, Basement
Taxes 1700
School District: Granite
Information deemed reliable but not guaranteed accurate. Buyer to verify all information.The multiple listing information is provided by Wasatch Front Regional Multiple Listing Service, Inc. from a copyrighted compilation of listings. The compilation of listings and each individual listing are © 2014 Wasatch Front Regional Multiple Listing Service, Inc., All Rights Reserved. The information provided is for consumers, personal, non-commercial use and may not be used for any purpose other than to identify prospective properties consumers may be interested in purchasing.


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Posted on - Tags: ppt background designs, free education powerpoint templates, junk food ppt template free, background untuk power point energi
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text:
Large marine protected areas (MPAs) have recently been established throughout the world at an unprecedented pace, yet the value of these reserves for mobile species conservation remains unclear. Reef shark populations continue to decline even within some of the largest MPAs, fueling unresolved debates over the ability of protected areas to aid mobile species that transit beyond MPA boundaries.
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AudioSlides are short, 5-minute presentations in which the author explains their paper in their own words.
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text:
Early Childhood Environment May Explain Why People Spend Or Save
Drawing on life history theory, Vladas Griskevicius of the University of Minnesota's Carlson School of Management and colleagues hypothesized that the strategy a person takes when times are tight may be determined, at least in part, by features of their childhood environment.
The researchers hypothesized that people who grew up unpredictable, harsh conditions (e.g., poverty), would take a "fast" strategy, focusing on immediate gains and ignoring long-term consequences. People who grew up in more predictable, comfortable conditions, however, would take a "slow" strategy, delaying immediate gratification in an effort to increase future payoffs.
In two experiments, the researchers primed half of the participants to think about economic recession. All of the participants then completed tasks related to risk-taking and impulsive decision-making.
Participants who grew up in poorer homes responded to recession cues with riskier, more impulsive responses than participants in the control group, consistent with a "fast" strategy. They were also faster to approach luxury good temptations. Participants who grew up in wealthier homes, on the other hand, responded to recession cues by showing less risky, less impulsive responses than participants in the control group, consistent with a "slow" strategy. They were also slower to approach the luxury goods.
In a third experiment, Griskevicius and colleagues found evidence that these different life history strategies may manifest as oxidative stress as detected in urine, a physiological indicator of cellular damage that can be accelerated by environmental stressors (such as those associated with poverty).
"These experiments show that our early childhood environment can program our life history strategy for the rest of our lives," says Griskevicius. "During good times, the tendencies associated with fast versus slow strategies can be dormant, but they emerge under duress."
Importantly, these tendencies can influence our responses in automatic and non-deliberative ways - showing up even at the physiological level.
The trade-offs we make in times of scarcity have important consequences, but the researchers emphasize that neither strategy is inherently good or bad.
"Lots of research assumes that delay of gratification is always a good thing, but the current research suggests that it's sometimes smart to be impulsive," Griskevicius explains. "For people who expect to live in a harsh and unpredictable environment, it's more adaptive to be impulsive and maximize present resources and opportunities."
Association for Psychological Science
Source: EurekAlert!, the online, global news service operated by AAAS, the science society
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Please use one of the following formats to cite this article in your essay, paper or report:
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28 May. 2017. <http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/254950.php>
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text:
Indielist Radio
A Work In Progress
Indielist Radio
Recommended Stations
Daily Schedule
TuneIn does not have lineup information for this date. Try visiting the station's website for more information.
- United States
- English
- Visit the station website Email the station
More informationTrying to live the big dream! Failing most of the time. So it goes.
Live shows, special guests, any performances, or events will be announced through Twitter.
Otherwise, a great selection of "Indie" music from the commonplace to the latest releases from unknown Bandcamp gems!


text:
Hoolie 3 Tent 3 Person, 3 Season
The Hoolie 3 tent offers a great deal of space for its relative weight and pack size. The porch area is larger than similar tents on the market, making it ideal for group use and cycle touring. It's tunnel design makes it quick and easy to pitch. The inner tent is attached to the flysheet, so it goes up 'as one' which makes it ideal in wet weather! Plusthe poles are colour coded which helps for simplified speed pitching. This is an ideal tent for Duke of Edinburgh, enabling a fast pitch at the end of a long day, with plenty of room to store boots, rucksacks etc.This 3 man tent includes plenty of ventilation, with vents under the hoods at each end front vent can be adjusted. It uses reliable lightweight Superflex alloy poles and tried and tested Wild Country, high performance flysheet and groundsheet fabrics. Fully waterproof and taped fly and groundsheets provide great protection from the elements.Groundsheet protectors footprints to prolong the life of the tent and help keep it clean can be purchased separately.
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text:
The International Monetary Fund is expected to raise its estimate of growth in the UK economy tomorrow, in figures that will be seized upon by George Osborne, the Chancellor.
Reports were circulating last night that the IMF will upgrade its estimate of GDP growth in 2014 to 2.4 per cent, having estimated in its October round of forecasts that growth will come in at just 1.9 per cent.
Such an upgrade would put the IMF in line with the most recent estimate from the Treasury's Office for Budget Responsibility, and reflect the fact that a host of economic indicators have significantly exceeded expectations over the past four months since its last outlook.
The Office for National Statistics reports that the economy grew by 0.8 per cent in the third quarter of the financial year, after expanding at the same rate in the second quarter. Most forecasters anticipate a similar expansion again in the final quarter. That would take full year growth for 2013 to around 1.4 per cent, the fastest registered since 2010.
However, 2.4 per cent growth in 2014 would still be lower than the 2.7 per cent average forecast from private sector analysts.
The British Chambers of Commerce is expecting GDP to grow by 2.8 per cent in 2014, while the Ernst & Young Item Club predicted full year growth yesterday of 2.7 per cent.
An upgrade from the IMF would be seen by the Chancellor as a vindication, since the Fund last year joined those calling for the Government to slow down its planned spending cuts.
The IMF's chief economist, Olivier Blanchard, warned Mr Osborne that he was "playing with fire" by sticking to his austerity policies at a time when the economy seemed to be on the verge of a triple-dip recession.
In October the IMF estimated that the global economy would grow by 3.6 per cent in 2014. That is also expected to be upgraded slightly, following better news recently from the US.
- More about:
- Chambers Of Commerce
- International Monetary Fund
- Office Of National Statistics
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text:
Stockard Channing to Guest Star in THE GOOD WIFE Season 4
by BWW News Desk - Sep 26, 2012
According to Entertainment Weekly, Stockard Channing will play Julianna Marguiles' character Alicia's 'mercurial' mother in CBS's The Good Wife, season four. Channing will appear in at least one episode. (more...)
Bello Nock 'The Ultimate Daredevil' To Complete Series Of Death-Defying Acts Throughout 'The Summer Of Bello,' Culminating In #TheUltimate
by BWW News Desk - Jun 3, 2014
NEW YORK, June 3, 2014 /PRNewswire/ Today, high above New York's Times Square, balanced on a high-wire for eight consecutive hours, Bello Nock, 'The Ultimate Daredevil,' announced that he will up the ante in a high-risk, end of summer event. In partnership with Mandt Bros. Productions and Major League Baseball Advanced Media, the stunt will be seen around the world in a live streaming pay-per-view experience on August 30. Bello will attempt to perform no less than 15 death-defying stunts in less than 15 minutes or die trying. (more...)
OUTSIDE MULLINGAR Comes to Saint Michael's Playhouse, 7/15-25
by BWW News Desk - Jul 8, 2015
Producing Artistic Director Chuck Tobin today announced the opening of the area premiere of John Patrick Shanley's new Irish comedy Outside Mullingar, which had its world premiere on Broadway last year. (more...)
OUTSIDE MULLINGAR Comes to Saint Michael's Playhouse Tonight
by BWW News Desk - Jul 15, 2015
Producing Artistic Director Chuck Tobin recently announced the area premiere of John Patrick Shanley's new Irish comedy Outside Mullingar, which had its world premiere on Broadway last year. (more...)
STAGE TUBE: Toronto Theatre Launches Kickstarter for Reimagined Production of THE LAST FIVE YEARS
by Stage Tube - Jan 30, 2015
THE LAST FIVE YEARSDaemon Theatre, based in Toronto, Canada, and created by Carl Puci, a fourth-year Theatre Production student at Ryerson University, is presenting a reimagined production of Jason Robert Brown's THE LAST FIVE YEARS. The company just launched a Kickstarter campaign to raise funds for the show, and you can check out their teaser video below! (more...)
BWW Interviews: Actor and Author Arthur Wooten
by Gregory G. Allen - Dec 3, 2012
Actor and author Arthur Wooten has penned a fictional memoir of a Broadway actress struck by a mysterious disease in his new novel DIZZY. (more...)
SOUND OFF Special Review: THE NEW NORMAL On NBC
by Pat Cerasaro - Aug 31, 2012
A gay gallimaufry, Ryan Murphy and Ali Adler's new NBC half-hour comedy THE NEW NORMAL more than merely delivers on the premise of a meta-MODERN FAMILY complete with all the requisite Murphy touches - and much, much more. After all, Murphy is the man behind POPULAR and GLEE, two of the most genre-bending and outrageous TV comedies of the 21st century (in addition to the just 17-time nominated new FX horror series AMERICAN HORROR STORY), so THE NEW NORMAL provides him with a mainstream, mainstage, network series in which he can explore the lighter side of life while also imparting a serious, progressive and all-too-apropos message along the way: A family is a family is a family. Gay, straight or otherwise, a family is founded upon love and only love as its basis and the overriding theme of the series is exactly that. While this all may sound a bit ooey gooey and pat, it is anything but in its style, presentation and attitude. (more...)


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VG Greek is a our special WordPress and WooCommerce Theme. Comes with 6 Predefined Home Page Layouts, 16 Background Color, 31 Background Images and 4 Presets Options, VG Greek will be a perfect choice for online fashion store, men store, women store, handbags store, cosmetics shop, luxury jewelry and accessories store!
Aside from just looking beautifully polished and clean design, it comes packed with many features and options. The most powerful and trendy features such asProduct Quick View, Product Tabs Slider, Product Compare, Ajax Wishlist, VG WooCarousel (save $17), Ajax Shopping Cart,Visual Composer (save $34), Latest Posts Carousel, Slider Revolution (save $19) and Mega menu with many columns under each product categories takes customers to everywhere in your online shops with much more features.


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Total Carbohydrates - 4.5g
Sugars - 0mg
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text: iPad 3G is now available Yesterday was a big day in the Great Tablet War. Both Microsoft's Courier and HP's Slate went down in defeat. Google, the only major player left has yet to join the battle. As such, we can call Apple's iPad as the victor in the first major engagement. And now their forces grow with the iPad3G.… Read More


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Super 8 Show Low
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A Perfect Ending
... us and some of it was very close. We just got a few sprinkles, though. We finally got to Big Lake and pulled in to take a closer look at it. There were a few campgrounds along the main road to the lake and we saw quite a few people there. Most of them were in tents and we commented that they were some hardy souls. I checked the thermometer and it was 58 degrees. That was colder than I expected.
We pulled in to see if there was a place where ...
Mountain Living
... good and beats any restaurant breakfast, hands down. Thanks Marsha.
After breakfast we took off to take a look at another house that some other friends we know from Temecula own. They had it built in 2010 and although the husband has been retired for a number of years, she is still working. I understand she plans to retire this year and they may make this their primary residence. The home is a big one, at over 3,000 square feet and is ...
Deuce of Clubs
... in Show Low. Traffic was light and the weather was quite nice, with virtually no wind to deal with.
About 25 miles into our trip we crossed into Arizona. We got to set our clocks back another hour since Arizona does not observe Daylight Savings Time. This would be our last time change of the trip.
When we got to the town of Holbrook, we headed south on the 77 and passed the towns of Snowflake and Taylor. There isn't ...
Relaxing in the Pines
... Of course, I had to pick the card that said "taking a number 2"! Who thinks of this stuff??
We watched some artistic log carving at one of our favorite places to tourist shop and when Roy brought Aubrey into the shop, she latched onto a little stuffed beagle puppy with what he called a "death grip". There was no choice but to buy it for her and Madi picked out the cutest husky puppy for ...
At the Fishin' Hole
... we would be tired after being out all day, I got up early and made meatballs and sauce. Alle threw a nice salad together and we had an awesome dinner followed by a nice evening on the porch.
Roy is off to the golf course today, so we're going to hang out here and maybe do a little shopping later. Aubrey has had another growth spirt in the last week and none of her shoes fit!! Love that ...


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2017 Jeep® Wrangler, Wrangler Unlimited
October 4, 2016
The iconic 2017 Jeep® Wrangler – the most capable and recognized vehicle in the world – features a standard eight-speaker audio system and an optional Premium Alpine Audio Package that includes nine Alpine speakers, a subwoofer and a 552-watt amplifier. The 2017 Jeep Wrangler delivers unmatched off-road capability with legendary four-wheel drive and is produced with more than seven decades of 4×4 engineering experience. Wrangler continues to offer a body-on-frame design, front and rear five-link suspension system, live axles, electronic lockers, and is one of the few mid-size SUVs that offer a six-speed manual transmission, in addition to its five-speed automatic.
- Wrangler's 3.6-liter Pentastar V-6 engine delivers 285 horsepower and 260 lb.-ft. of torque and is engineered to provide a broad torque band with a focus on low-end torque
- Jeep Wrangler is available with several axle gear ratios allowing customers to optimize fuel economy and vehicle capability. Wrangler is available with 3.21, 3.73 or 4.10 ratios depending on model. Also, Wrangler offers towing capability up to 3,500 pounds
- A best-in-class approach angle of 42.2 degrees, breakover angle of 25.8 degrees and departure angle of 32.3 degrees helps the Jeep Wrangler scale the toughest terrain
- The capable driveline of the Sport and Sahara models include a Dana 30 front axle and Dana 44 rear axle. The Command-Trac NV241, part-time, two-speed transfer case, features a 2.72:1 low-range gear ratio. In addition, an optional Trac-Lok limited-slip rear differential provides extra torque and grip in low-traction environments such as sand, mud or snow
- The Wrangler Rubicon model features heavy-duty Dana 44 front and rear axles and the Rock-Trac NV241 two-speed transfer case with a 4.0:1 low-range gear ratio. Rubicon also includes electric front and rear locking differentials, disconnecting front sway bar and 32-inch tires, taking the Wrangler to the highest level of capability
- The Jeep Wrangler's signature features include: classic round headlamps, seven-slot grille, trapezoid wheel flares, removable doors, exposed hinges, a fold-down windshield and innovative removable tops and half doors that allow the Wrangler to retain the brand's iconic appearance and function
- Standard electronic stability control (ESC), electronic roll mitigation, trailer-sway control, Hill-start Assist and brake traction control are among two dozen available safety and security features
"Our commitment to improving safety is unwavering," says Mike Dahl, Head of Vehicle Safety and Regulatory Compliance. "We are continually exploring the use of new materials and components that will boost the performance of our vehicles, for the benefit of our customers."
The debut of LED headlamps in the FCA US lineup further reflects the Company's staunch pursuit of technologies that improve the driving experience. The 2017 Jeep Wrangler's headlamps generate high-beam light output that is 90 percent greater than the halogen lamps in prior models; low-beam output also jumps 63 percent.
"Such lighting helps afford the driver a better view of the road ahead, the benefits of which are literally plain to see," Dahl says.
Despite their increased output, the new Wrangler's headlamps draw 67 percent less power than comparable halogen lamps.
Model Lineup
For 2017, the Jeep Wrangler lineup consists of four models:
- Sport
- Sport S
- Sahara
- Rubicon
Also new for 2017, Chief, Acid Yellow and Gobi join a wide palette of exterior colors, which includes Billet Silver, Black, Bright White, Firecracker Red, Granite Crystal and Rhino. Plus, Xtreme Purple is now available across entire lineup. Meanwhile, three interior color combinations area available: Black, Black/Dark Saddle Brown, and Black/Dark Olive.


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Find the Rules governing impartiality of the grant allocation process here.


text:
This book is based on the author's lectures at the University of Southern California. It is intended to provide students and professionals with an understanding of how aberrations arise in optical systems and how they affect imaging based on both geometrical and physical optics. Optical Imaging and Aberrations is written in two parts: Part I covers ray geometrical optics, while Part II is on wave diffraction optics.
A special emphasis is placed on understanding the primary aberrations of simple optical systems, as a foundation for the design of more complex and high image-quality systems.
The emphasis of the book is on concepts, physical insight, and mathematical simplicity. Figures and drawings are used wherever appropriate to illustrate concepts, and problems are provided to facilitate understanding. It is suitable as a textbook or professional reference book in optical imaging, design, and applications.
The material presented here has been gathered from my lectures at the Electrical Engineering-Electrophysics Department of the University of Southern California, where I have been teaching a graduate course on optical imaging and aberrations since 1984. My objective for this course has been to provide the students with an understanding of how aberrations arise in optical systems and how they affect optical wave propagation and imaging based on both geometrical and physical optics. This book has been written with the same objective in mind. The emphasis of the text is on concepts, physical insight, and mathematical simplicity. Figures and drawings are given wherever appropriate to facilitate understanding and make the book reader friendly. An abbreviated version called Aberration Theory Made Simple was published by the SPIE Press in 1991 in their Tutorial Text Series (Vol. TT6). The current detailed version is divided into two parts just like the abbreviated one. In Part I of this text, which contains the first seven chapters, ray geometrical optics is discussed. In Part II, wave diffraction optics is discussed.
In Part I, Chapter 1 begins with the foundations of geometrical optics. Fermat's principle, the laws of geometrical optics, the Malus-Dupin theorem, and Hamilton's point characteristic function are described. Starting with a brief outline of the sign convention for object and image distances, heights, and ray angles, Gaussian imaging by a spherical refracting surface, a thin lens, an afocal system, and a spherical reflecting surface (mirror) is discussed. The cardinal points of an imaging system are defined and a paraxial ray-tracing procedure to determine them is described. It is emphasized that the results for a reflecting surface can be obtained from those for a refracting surface by substituting the refractive index associated with the reflected rays equal to the negative of the refractive index associated with the incident rays. A two-lens system, a two-mirror system, and a catadioptric system consisting of a lens and a mirror are considered as examples of imaging systems for which the focal length is explicitly determined using the ray-tracing equations. Since the ray-tracing equations in Guassian optics are linear in ray heights and slopes, the whole imaging process can be represented by a 2 Ã 2 matrix. This is discussed in detail, especially for electrical engineers who seem to have a preference for the matrix approach.
The sign convention used throughout the book is the Cartesian sign convention of analytical geometry. It is different from the one used in the author's Aberration Theory Made Simple in some respects, which should be noted when making comparisons with the equations given there. A good understanding of Chapter 1 is essential for performing Gaussian (or first-order) design and analysis of an optical imaging system. Given the radii of curvature and the positions of the surfaces of an optical system, and the refractive indices of the media around them, one can determine its cardinal points, and, in turn, the position and size of the image for any position and size of the object. However, there is no discussion in this chapter on the intensity of the image of a point object in terms of the object intensity, or the irradiance distribution of the image of an extended object in terms of the object radiance distribution.
The concepts of aperture stop, entrance and exit pupils, chief and marginal rays, sizes of imaging elements, and vignetting of rays are introduced in Chapter 2. Radiometry of point and extended sources, and of point and extended object imaging, is discussed next. The origins and limitations of the cosine-cube law of image intensity for point objects, and the cosine-fourth law of image irradiance for extended objects, are discussed in detail. It is pointed out that because of pupil distortion, integration must be performed across the aperture stop to calculate the total flux entering the system from an object element. For integrating across a pupil, its distortions determined by detailed ray tracing must be taken into account. A brief discussion of photometry, which is a branch of radiometry involving the spectral response of the human eye, is also included.
Besides the position, size, and intensity or irradiance of an image, its quality, which depends on the aberrations of the system, is of paramount importance. In Chapter 3, the wave and ray aberrations are defined and a relationship between them is derived. Relationships between defocus wave aberration and longitudinal defocus, and wavefront tilt aberration and wavefront tilt angle, are described. The form of the aberration function of a rotationally symmetric system is derived, and its expansions in terms of a power series and Zernike circle polynomials are discussed. The relationships between the coefficients of the two expansions are given. It is shown that up to the fourth order in object and pupil coordinates, any system with an axis of rotational symmetry can have no more than five primary aberration terms, called Seidel aberrations. The form of the secondary (or Schwarzschild) and tertiary aberrations is discussed. How an aberration may be observed is described by discussing the interference patterns of the primary aberrations. The conditions under which an imaging system may form an aberration-free image are considered. In particular, the sine condition for coma-free imaging is discussed. It is not essential to understand all of the material in this chapter to understand the material in Chapters 5, 6, and 7, though it would be useful to read the first four sections and to know the form of the five primary aberrations of a rotationally symmetric system from Section 188.8.131.52.
In Chapter 4, the relationship between the ray and wave aberrations is utilized to discuss the geometrical point-spread functions and the ray spot diagrams for each of the five primary aberrations. The circle of least confusion is discussed for both spherical aberration and astigmatism, thereby introducing the concept of aberration balancing. The centroid, encircled power, and the standard deviation or sigma of an aberrated image spot are also discussed. The traditional examples of the image of a spoked wheel in the presence of astigmatism, and the image of a square grid in the presence of distortion, are explained. Thus, given the aberrations of a system, the quality of the image of a point object in terms of its size or the ray distribution can be determined using the material given in this chapter. Aberration tolerances can be obtained from the tolerable image spot sizes.
In order to determine the quality of an image formed by a certain system, its aberrations must be known. The remainder of Part I discusses how to calculate the aberrations of an optical system given the radii of curvature and positions of its surfaces, and the refractive indices of the media surrounding them. Of course, the task of a lens designer is to choose these parameters in a way that is practical yet meets his/her image quality objectives. Chapter 5 describes an approach for calculating the primary aberrations of a multisurface optical system with an axis of rotational symmetry. The theory is developed by starting with the simplest problem, namely, the aberrations of a spherical refracting surface with its aperture stop located at the surface. An on-axis point object is considered first, so that the only aberration that arises is spherical aberration. An off-axis point object is considered next, and expressions for field aberrations (coma, astigmatism, field curvature, and distortion) are obtained with respect to the Petzval image point. These are generalized next to obtain the aberrations with respect to the Gaussian image point. Only field curvature and distortion terms change as the image point is changed from Petzval to Gaussian. This completes the derivation of primary aberrations of a spherical refracting surface. The Gaussian imaging equations are obtained as a by-product of this derivation. The primary aberrations of a spherical refracting surface with an arbitrary location of the aperture stop are considered next and its aplanatic points are determined. The aberrations of a conic refracting surface and finally a general aspheric surface are obtained. Instead of starting with a derivation for the most complex case, namely, a general aspheric surface with a remote aperture stop, a step-by-step derivation of increasing complexity is given so that physical insight on the differences between different steps is not lost.
How the results given for a single refracting surface can be extended to obtain the aberrations of a multisurface system is described. The changes in the aberration function as a result of a change in the position of the aperture stop are discussed next. The stop-shift equations relating the aberration coefficients for one position of the aperture stop to those for another are derived. The aberration function is also considered in terms of Seidel sums and Seidel coefficients of an optical system. As applications of the theory, the aberrations of a thin lens and a plane-parallel plate are derived and discussed. The aplanatic and field-flattening lenses are also considered. Next, the chromatic aberrations of a refracting system are discussed in terms of the wavelength dependence of the position and magnification of an image formed by it. Finally, pupil aberrations are considered and conjugate-shift equations are obtained that relate the aberrations of the image of one object in terms of those of another.
The primary aberrations of reflecting and catadioptric systems are discussed in Chapter 6. As in the case of imaging relations, the aberration expressions for a reflecting surface may be obtained from those for a corresponding refracting surface by substituting the refractive index associated with the reflected rays equal to the negative of the refractive index associated with the incident rays. As examples of reflecting systems, expressions are obtained for the primary aberrations of a spherical mirror, paraboloidal mirror, a beam expander consisting of two confocal paraboloidal mirrors, and two-mirror astronomical telescopes. Schmidt and Bouwers-Maksutov cameras and telescopes with aspheric plates are discussed as examples of catadioptric systems.
Even if a practical design of a system has been chosen, its elements must be fabricated and assembled into a system. In Chapter 7, the last chapter of Part I of the book, the primary aberrations due to perturbations such as a decenter, a tilt, or a despace of the surface of a system are considered. When one or more of the imaging elements is decentered and/or tilted, a system loses its rotational symmetry. Hence, new aberrations arise which have different dependence on the object height but the same dependence on pupil coordinates as the aberrations of the unperturbed system. The expressions derived for the primary aberrations produced when a perturbation is introduced into the system are used to obtain the aberrations of misaligned two-mirror telescopes. Finally, the relationships between the fabrication errors of the surfaces and the corresponding aberrations or wavefront errors introduced by them are derived for both the refracting and reflecting surfaces. The determination of system errors from fabrication or deformation errors and allocation of error tolerance are also described briefly.
Throughout the book, the primary aberrations of a system are emphasized since they are often the dominant aberrations in the early stages of the design of an optical system. Although expressions for higher-order aberrations have been given in the literature, their value in designing or analyzing optical systems has not been fully exploited or realized, mainly perhaps because of their complexity. The expressions for the primary aberrations of even simple systems such as a thin lens (made up of two surfaces with negligible thickness between them) or a two-mirror astronomical telescope are complex indeed. With the advent of computers and commercially available computerized ray-tracing and image-analysis programs (e.g., ZEMAX or CODE V), it is a simple matter to determine the aberrations of a system fully, not just its primary or secondary aberrations. However, it is this author's belief that it is essential to understand the primary aberrations of simple systems in order to be able to design systems that are more complex and provide high image quality. It is for this reason that full derivations and discussion of the expressions for the primary aberrations of simple systems are given. Key equations representing fundamental results are highlighted by putting a box around them. It is hoped that they will provide the reader with certain basic tools to develop new designs without endless surfing in a sea of potential designs.
Each chapter ends with a set of problems. These problems have been crafted carefully either as an extension of the theory given in the text, or, more often, as applications of the theory. They are an essential part of the book since only by working through such problems can the students appreciate the theory and validate their understanding of it.
In Part II, published by SPIE in 2001, imaging based on diffraction is discussed. It starts with an introduction of the diffraction point-spread function and optical transfer function of a general imaging system. An understanding of diffraction effects is essential since geometrical point-spread functions in terms of the spot diagrams give at best a qualitative understanding of the image quality aspects of an imaging system, especially for high-quality systems. Optical systems with circular, annular, and Gaussian pupils are considered and aberration-free as well as aberrated images are discussed. Aberration tolerances based on the Strehl and Hopkins ratios of an image are obtained. The effect of random aberrations such as those introduced by atmospheric turbulence or the fabrication errors on the image formed by a system is also discussed.
Virendra N. Mahajan
El Segundo, California
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text:
Decide to go to Mr Ollie's toy shop
You open the door and jump on your bike. You grab your backpack, and stuff the mini version of you inside it, at the very bottom, so no-one can see it.
Ow! You feel a sharp pain in your back, like a book is pressing on it. You decide to ignore it, and ride to Mr Ollie's toy shop.
On the window, there is a sign which says: MR OLLIE'S TOY SHOP. SPECIALISES IN MAKING VOODOO DOLLS. JUST BRING IN A PICTURE AND WE'LL MAKE IT!
Hang on, you think. Voodoo Dolls? Wouldn't that mean ... you quickly grab your backpack and throw out all the books. There, at the very bottom, was your voodoo doll ...


text:
Kris Aquino to Interview President Duterte This November via TV5, PTV-4
Kris Aquino is set to interview no less than President Rodrigo Duterte soon this month. According to a promo ad now being shared on social media, the no holds-barred Kris-Duterte interview will be aired this Friday, November 11 at TV5 at 4:30pm, and also at PTV-4 (People's Television Network), the Philippine government's official TV station.
Apparently, the said ad promo was first posted by Kris Aquino herself on her official Instagram account this Sunday, November 6. Dubbed as 'Kris at Duterte,' the Queen of All Media wrote as caption on the photo, "7 months of not hosting on TV. I promised myself, babalik ako for a once in a lifetime, one on one interview #Davao #11112016"
In a series of Instagram posts last September, Kris Aquino announced lthat she finally left ABS-CBN, after working with the Kapamilya network for more than 20 years. At the same time, she revealed that she is set to do a project with APT Entertainment, Inc., the producer of EAT Bulaga and is noted to be close with GMA-7, ABS-CBN's closest rival.
Last March 23, Kris made a very emotional goodbye during the final episode of her daily morning show "Kris TV." She noted that among the factors that made her decision is to lessen the stress on her brother, then-President Benigno 'Noynoy' Aquino III, the predecessor of President Duterte. She said she also wants to focus on her two sons.
Among the ABS-CBN shows hosted by Kris Aquino include "Morning Girls With Kris and Korina" (2002-2004) with veteran broadcaster Korina Sanchez (wife of losing presidentiable Mar Roxas), showbiz talk shows such as Boy & Kris, Showbiz News Ngayon, and 'The Buzz' with friend Boy Abunda; and variety shows like Kapamilya, Deal or No Deal.
Must Watch: * Mayor Rody Duterte Jokes, Sings, Dances at GGV with Vice Ganda (Video)
Meawhile, the upcoming Kris and Duterte interview is expected to be exciting and controversial, especially that the president is obviously not satisfied with the performance of the past administration. And because we also know how President Duterte speaks, we have an interesting question – Will he curse in front of Kris? If so, how will she react?


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Well, the "Ruby Parts" implementation is slowly taking shape. If you haven't read the first article you probably should before you read on.
An export is an object that a part will hand to the outside world to fulfil a contract. Sometimes, this is the part itself. Other times, the part will expose a property or a method as an export.
MEF requires us to publish the information about what exports are available (our ComposablePartDefinition) before any object that provides the export has been created.
We can achieve this in Ruby because class definitions are executed. The export* methods can run arbitrary code and have access to the class definition that they're running within.
Without any syntactic sugar, a part definition that exports the 'answer' contract looks like:
Other parts that import the 'answer' contract will get the integer value 42.
Our technique is:
- Keep a global table of 'part definitions' that can be updated as a Ruby script executes
- When a static export* method executes, create a function that can retrieve the export from a part instance (the 'export accessor')
- Store the export accessor along with the part's class in the table of part definitions
Each part definition ends up mapping a Ruby class to a table of contract name/function pairs.
When an export is requested from our part, the value returned is the result of executing the function that we stored for that export in the part definition.
The function can return either the object itself, an attribute, or a Proc object representing a method, which seems like a good generic foundation to build our different kinds of exports on top of.
Because self or a Proc can be returned from a property, we'll implement property exports first.
In the example, to get things started the export accessor function is explicitly specified in a block argument to the export_attr method.
The export_attr Method
This method is defined as a class method on PartDefinition.
So, while the MyPart class is being defined in the Ruby runtime, export_attr will create an export accessor that runs the provided block in the context of the part instance.
The meat of the add_export method creates or finds a RubyPartDefinition instance and adds an export definition to it.
The mysterious MefPartsCollection variable that appears in the above code is a named instance provided by the MEF RubyCatalog to the IronRuby runtime.
public class RubyCatalog : ComposablePartCatalog { readonly ScriptRuntime _runtime; readonly ScriptEngine _ruby; readonly IQueryable<ComposablePartDefinition> _parts; public RubyCatalog(string script) { if (script == null) throw new ArgumentNullException("script"); var rubySetup = new LanguageSetup(typeof(RubyContext).AssemblyQualifiedName); rubySetup.FileExtensions.Add("rb"); rubySetup.Names.Add("IronRuby"); var setup = new ScriptRuntimeSetup(); setup.LanguageSetups.Add(rubySetup); _runtime = new ScriptRuntime(setup); _runtime.LoadAssembly(typeof(RubyPartDefinition).Assembly); _runtime.LoadAssembly(typeof(ExportDefinition).Assembly); _runtime.LoadAssembly(typeof(IEnumerable<int>).Assembly); _ruby = _runtime.GetEngine("IronRuby"); var parts = new Hashtable(); _runtime.Globals.SetVariable("MefPartsCollection", parts); _ruby.Execute(Script.PartDefinition); _ruby.Execute(script); _parts = parts.Values.Cast<ComposablePartDefinition>().AsQueryable(); } public override IQueryable<ComposablePartDefinition> Parts { get { return _parts; } } }
You can see how the "MefPartsCollection" variable is being set to a Hashtable before the script executes, and afterwards the values are retrieved as a list of ComposablePartDefinition instances.
The DLR setup in the catalog is a bit tentative. We'll refactor and extend it to be a little more user-friendly in the future.
(This catalog design assumes a single catalog per IronRuby runtime. This probably isn't going to be the best outcome for pure-Ruby applications, but for C# applications hosting Ruby parts this will work for now.)
Ruby Programming Model
The items in the MefPartsCollection are instances of the RubyPartDefinition class, indexed by Ruby part class.
RubyPartDefinition collaborates with RubyPart, RubyExportDefinition and RubyImportDefinition to create what MEF terms a 'programming model'.
I've implemented the programming model classes in C#, but they should be able to be implemented equally well in Ruby. Porting them might be an interesting exercise for the reader 🙂
Imports are defined using a similar technique. You can see how they work in the example code.
The Unit Tests
The solution you'll find attached to this article doesn't include an application – just a meagre selection of unit tests for the catalog.
The most interesting is this one:
[TestMethod] public void ImportsValues() { var script = @" class MyPart < PartDefinition import 'input_value' do |input| @input_value = input end export_attr 'output_value' do @input_value.get_exported_object end end "; ComposablePart part = CreateMyPart(script).CreatePart(); Assert.AreEqual(1, part.ImportDefinitions.Count()); var inputImport = part.ImportDefinitions.Single( i => ((ContractBasedImportDefinition)i).ContractName == "input_value"); Assert.AreEqual(1, part.ExportDefinitions.Count()); var outputExport = part.ExportDefinitions.Single(); var testValue = "Hello, world"; part.SetImport(inputImport, new[] { new Export( new ExportDefinition("input_value", null), () => testValue)}); var output = part.GetExportedObject(outputExport); Assert.AreEqual(testValue, output); }
Here you can see a complete roundtrip from import to export. Not groundbreaking, but I think this puts us on the right track.
Coming up…
We'll implement the basics of metadata, tidy up the syntax (I'm considering Dave's post a challenge ;)), and start to look at a hybrid application. Stay tuned!


text:
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Farewell to the Sea(1986)
(The third book in the Pentagonia series)
A novel by Reinaldo Arenas
In this brilliant, apocalyptic vision of Castro's Cuba, we meet a young couple who leave the dreariness of Havana and spend six days at a small seaside retreat, where they hope to recapture the desire and carefree spirit that once united them. In a stunning juxtaposition of narrative voices, the wife recounts the grim reality of her marriage, the demands of motherhood, and her loss of freedom, innocence, and hope; while her husband, a disillusioned poet and disenchanted revolutionary, recalls his political struggles and laments the artistic and homosexual freedom that has been denied him. Rich in hallucination, myth and fantasy, Farewell to the Sea is a fierce and unforgettable work that speaks for the entire human condition.
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Hardback Editions
December 1985 : USA Hardback
|Title: Farewell To The Sea
Author(s): Reinaldo Arenas
ISBN: 0-670-52960-5 / 978-0-670-52960-5 (USA edition)
Publisher: Viking USA
Availability: Amazon UK Amazon CA
Paperback Editions
July 1987 : UK Paperback
|Title: Farewell to the Sea (Pentagonia)
Author(s): Reinaldo Arenas
ISBN: 0-14-006636-5 / 978-0-14-006636-4 (UK edition)
Publisher: Penguin Books Ltd
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Genre Pages


text: Networking Cognitive Radios • Interaction Problem • Role of Policy • Techniques for designing network • Commercial standards 1 The Interaction Problem Outside World • Outside world is determined by the interaction of numerous cognitive radios 2/67 • Adaptations spawn adaptations Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Dynamic Spectrum Access Pitfall • Suppose – g31>g21; g12>g32 ; g23>g13 2 • Without loss of generality – g31, g12, g23 = 1 – g21, g32, g13 = 0.5 • Infinite Loop! 3 1 – 4,5,1,3,2,6,4,… Interference Characterization Chan. Interf. (0,0,0) (0,0,1) (0,1,0) (0,1,1) (1,0,0) (1,0,1) (1,1,0) (1,1,1) (1.5,1.5,1.5) (0.5,1,0) (1,0,0.5) (0,0.5,1) (0,0.5,1) (1,0,0.5) (0.5,1,0) (1.5,1.5,1.5) 3/67 0 1 2 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 3 4 5 6 7 Implications • In one out every four deployments, the example system will enter into an infinite loop • As network scales, probability of entering an infinite loop goes to 1: C – 2 channels p loop 1 3 / 4 – k channels p loop 1 1 2 k 1 C • Even for apparently simple algorithms, ensuring convergence and stability will be nontrivial n 3 n k 1 4/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Locally optimal decisions that lead to globally undesirable networks • Scenario: Distributed SINR maximizing power control in a single cluster • For each link, it is desirable to increase transmit power in response to increased interference • Steady state of network is all nodes transmitting at maximum power Power SINR Insufficient to consider only a single link, must consider 5/67 interaction Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 (Radio 2's available actions) Network Analysis Objectives 1. Steady state characterization 2. Steady state performance 3. Convergence 4. Stability/Noise 5. Scalability NE3 NE3 a2 NE2 NE1 NE1 a1 a1 (Radio 1's available actions) a3 Scalability Convergence Stability/Noise Performance Steady State Characterization As Are How these donumber initial system outcomes of variations/noise devices desirable? impact increases, the impact system the system? steady state? Is itthe possible toconditions predict behavior in the system? What Do these How processes steady is outcomes thestates system will outcomes maximize lead change impacted? to steady with the system statevariations/noise? conditions? target parameters? Howthe many different are small possible? How Is convergence Do long previously does itaffected take optimal to by reach steady system thestates steady variations/noise? remain state?optimal?6/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Cognitive Radio Network Modeling Summary • Radios • Actions for each radio • Observed Outcome Space • Goals • Decision Rules • Timing • i,j N, |N| = n • A=A1A2An • O • uj:O (uj:A) • dj:OAi (dj:A Ai) • T=T1T2Tn 7/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Comments on Timing • When decisions are made also matters and different radios will likely make decisions at different time • Tj – when radio j makes its adaptations – Generally assumed to be an infinite set – Assumed to occur at discrete time • Consistent with DSP implementation • T=T1T2Tn • tT Decision timing classes • Synchronous – All at once • Round-robin – One at a time in order – Used in a lot of analysis • Random – One at a time in no order • Asynchronous – Random subset at a time – Least overhead for a network 8/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Variety of game models • Normal Form Game <N,A,{ui}> – Synchronous play – T is a singleton – Perfect knowledge of action space, other players' goals (called utility functions) • Repeated Game <N,A,{ui},{di}> – Repeated synchronous play of a normal form game – T may be finite or infinite – Perfect knowledge of action space, other players' goals (called utility functions) – Players may consider actions in future stages and current stages • Strategies (modified di) • Asynchronous myopic repeated game <N,A,{ui},{di},T> – Repeated play of a normal form game under various timings – Radios react to most recent stage, decision rule is "intelligent" • Many others in the literature and in the dissertation 9/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Cognitive radios are naturally modeled as players in a game Infer from Context Utility function Arguments Infer from Radio Model Establish Priority Normal Immediate Observe Outcome Space Outside World Utility Function Orient Autonomous Goal Plan Normal Urgent Learn New States Decide States Act \ Decision Rules Allocate Resources Initiate Processes Action Negotiate Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Sets 10/67 Adapted From Mitola, "Cognitive Radio for Flexible Mobile Multimedia Communications ", IEEE Mobile Multimedia Conference, 1999, pp 3-10. Interaction is naturally modeled as a game Radio 1 Radio 2 Actions Decision Rules u1 Actions Decision Rules Action Space Informed by Communications Theory u 1 ˆ1 f :AO Outcome Space ˆ1 , ˆ 2 u 2 ˆ 2 u2 11/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Some differences between game models and cognitive radio network model • Assuming numerous iterations, normal form game only has a single stage. – Useful for compactly capturing modeling components at a single stage – Normal form game properties will be exploited in the analysis of other games • Repeated games are explicitly used as the basis for cognitive radio algorithm design (e.g., Srivastava, MacKenzie) – Not however, focus of work – Not the most commonly encountered implementation Player Cognitive Radio Knowledge Knows A Can learn O (may know or learn A) f : A O Invertible Constant Known Not invertible (noise) May change over time (though relatively fixed for short periods) Has to learn Preferences Ordinal Cardinal (goals) Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 12/67 Cognitive Radios' Dilemma • Two radios have two signals to choose between {n,w} and {N,W} • n and N do not overlap • Higher throughput from operating as a high power wideband signal when other is narrowband 13/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Potential Problems with Networked Cognitive Radios Distributed • • • • • Centralized Infinite recursions Instability (chaos) Vicious cycles Adaptation collisions Equitable distribution of resources • Byzantine failure • Information distribution • • • • Signaling Overhead Complexity Responsiveness Single point of failure 14/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Price of Anarchy (Factor) Performance of Centralized Algorithm Solution Performance of Distributed Algorithm Solution 1 • Centralized solution always at least as good as distributed solution – Like ASIC is always at least as good as DSP • Ignores costs of implementing algorithms – Sometimes centralized is infeasible (e.g., routing the Internet) – Distributed can sometimes (but not generally) be more costly than centralized Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 9.6 7 15/67 Implications • Best of All Possible Worlds – Low complexity distributed algorithms with low anarchy factors • Reality implies mix of methods – Hodgepodge of mixed solutions • Policy – bounds the price of anarchy • Utility adjustments – align distributed solution with centralized solution • Market methods – sometimes distributed, sometimes centralized • Punishment – sometimes centralized, sometimes distributed, sometimes both • Radio environment maps –"centralized" information for distributed decision processes – Fully distributed • Potential game design – really, the panglossian solution, but only applies to particular problems 16/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 The Role of Policy How does policy impact network performance? 17 Policy • Concept: Constrain the available actions so the worst cases of distributed decision making can be avoided • Not a new concept – – Policy has been used since there's been an FCC • What's new is assuming decision makers are the radios instead of the people controlling the radios 18/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Policy applied to radios instead of humans mask • Need a language to convey policy – Learn what it is – Expand upon policy later frequency Policies • How do radios interpret policy – Policy engine? • Need an enforcement mechanism – Might need to tie in to humans • Need a source for policy – Who sets it? – Who resolves disputes? • Logical extreme can be quite complex, but logical extreme may not be necessary. Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 19/67 Example Policies from WNAN • No harmful interference to non-WNaN systems – • Interference Limitation: Maintain ≤ 3dB of SNR at a Protected Receiver. – – • Perhaps not practical (then again, only a "principle") More practical, though perhaps not measurable Possible to estimate with built in environment models Abandon Time: Abandon a Frequency ≤ 500 ms – – – Easily measured Depending on precise policy, easily implemented too Probably should be augmented with detection 20/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 802.22 Example Policies • Detection – Digital TV: -116 dBm over a 6 MHz channel – Analog TV: -94 dBm at the peak of the NTSC (National Television System Committee) picture carrier – Wireless microphone: -107 dBm in a 200 kHz bandwidth. • Transmitted Signal – 4 W Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) – Specific spectral masks – Channel vacation times 21/67 C. Cordeiro, L. Challapali, D. Birru, S. Shankar, "IEEE 802.22: The First Worldwide Wireless Standard based on Cognitive Radios," Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 IEEE DySPAN2005, Nov 8-11, 2005 Baltimore, MD. Designing Well-Behaved Cognitive Radio Networks Repeated Games, Potential Games, Markets 22 Repeated Games • Same game is repeated S ta g e 1 – Indefinitely – Finitely • Players consider discounted payoffs across multiple stages – Stage k ui a k ui a k k – Expected value over all future stages ui a k k 0 k S ta g e 2 ui a k S ta g e k Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 23/67 Impact of Strategies • Rather than merely reacting to the state of the network, radios can choose their actions to influence the actions of other radios • Threaten to act in a way that minimizes another radio's performance unless it implements the desired actions • Common strategies – Tit-for-tat – Grim trigger – Generous tit-for-tat • Play can be forced to any "feasible" payoff vector with proper selection of punishment strategy. 24/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Impact of Communication on Strategies • Players agree to play in a certain manner • Threats can force play to almost any state – Breaks down for finite number of stages Nada C N nada 0,0 -5,5 -100,0 c 5,-5 -1,1 -100,-1 n 0,-100 -1,-100 -100,-100 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 25/67 Improvement from Punishment • Throughput/unit power gains be enforcing a common received power level at a base station • Punishment by jamming • Without benefit to deviating, players can operate at lower power level and achieve same throughput A. MacKenzie and S. Wicker, "Game Theory in Communications:26/67 Motivation, Explanation, and Application to Power Control," Globecom2001, Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 pp. 821-825. Instability in Punishment • Issues arise when radios aren't directly observing actions and are punishing with their actions without announcing punishment • Eventually, a deviation will be falsely detected, punished and without signaling, this leads to a cascade of problems V. Srivastava, L. DaSilva, "Equilibria for Node Participation in Ad Hoc Networks – An Imperfect Monitoring Approach," ICC 06, June 2006, vol 8, pp. 3850-3855 27/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Comments on Punishment • Works best with a common controller to announce • Problems in fully distributed system – Need to elect a controller – Otherwise competing punishments, without knowing other players' utilities can spiral out of control • Problems when actions cannot be directly observed – Leads to Byzantine problem • No single best strategy exists – Strategy flexibility is important – Significant problems with jammers (they nominally receive higher utility when "punished" • Generally better to implement centralized controller – Operating point has to be announced anyways 28/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Cost Adjustments • Concept: Centralized unit dynamically adjusts costs in radios' objective functions to ensure radios operate on desired point u i a u i a ci a • Example: Add -12 to use of wideband waveform 29/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Comments on Cost Adjustments • Permits more flexibility than policy – If a radio really needs to deviate, then it can • Easy to turn off and on as a policy tool – Example: protected user shows up in a channel, cost to use that channel goes up – Example: prioritized user requests channel, other users' cost to use prioritized user's channel goes up (down if when done) 30/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Global Altruism: distributed, but more costly • Concept: All radios distributed all relevant information to all other radios and then each independently computes jointly optimal solution – Proposed for spreading code allocation in Popescu04, Sung03 • • • • C = cost of computation I = cost of information transfer from node to node n = number of nodes Distributed – nC + n(n-1)I/2 • Centralized (election) – C + 2(n-1)I • Price of anarchy = 1 • May differ if I is asymmetric 31/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Improving Global Altruism • Global altruism is clearly inferior to a centralized solution for a single problem. • However, suppose radios reported information to and used information from a common database – n(n-1)I/2 => 2nI • And suppose different radios are concerned with different problems with costs C1,…,Cn • Centralized – Resources = 2(n-1)I + sum(C1,…,Cn) – Time = 2(n-1)I + sum(C1,…,Cn) • Distributed – Resources = 2nI + sum(C1,…,Cn) – Time = 2I + max (C1,…,Cn) 32/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Example Application: • Overlay network of secondary users (SU) free to adapt power, transmit time, and channel • Without REM: – Decisions solely based on link SINR • With REM – Radios effectively know everything Upshot: A little gain for the secondary users; big gain for primary users 33/67 From: Y. Zhao, J. Gaeddert, Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 K. Bae, J. Reed, "Radio Environment Map Enabled SituationAware Cognitive Radio Learning Algorithms," SDR Forum Technical Conference 2006. Comments on Radio Environment Map • Local altruism also possible – Less information transfer • Like policy, effectively needs a common language • Nominally could be centralized or distributed database 34/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Potential Games • Existence of a function (called the potential function, V), that reflects the change in utility seen by a unilaterally deviating player. • Cognitive radio interpretation: () – Every time a cognitive radio unilaterally adapts in a way that furthers its own goal, some realvalued function increases. 35/67 time Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Exact Potential Game Forms • Many exact potential games can be recognized by the form of the utility function 36/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Implications of Monotonicity • Monotonicity implies – Existence of steady-states (maximizers of V) – Convergence to maximizers of V for numerous combinations of decision timings decision rules – all self-interested adaptations • Does not mean that that we get good performance – Only if V is a function we want to maximize 37/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Interference Reducing Networks • Concept – Cognitive radio network is a potential game with a potential function that is negation of observed network interference • Definition I i i N • Implementation: () – A network of cognitive radios where each adaptation decreases the sum of each radio's observed interference is an IRN time – Design DFS algorithms such that network is a potential game 38/67 with -V Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Bilateral Symmetric Interference • Two cognitive radios, j,kN, exhibit bilateral symmetric interference if g jk p j j , k g kj p k k , • k – waveform of radio k • pk - the transmission power of radio k's waveform • gkj - link gain from the transmission source of radio k's signal to the point where radio j measures its interference, • k , j - the fraction of radio k's signal that radio j cannot exclude via processing (perhaps via filtering, despreading, or MUD techniques). j j j , k k What's good for the goose, is good for the gander… Source: http://radio.weblogs.com/0120124/Graphics/geese2.jpg Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 39/67 Bilateral Symmetric Interference Implies an Interference Reducing Network • Cognitive Radio Goal: u I g • By bilateral symmetric interference i i ji p j i , j j N \ i g ki p k k , i g ik p i i , k b ki k , i bik i , k • Rewrite goal ui bik i , k kN \i • Therefore a BSI game (Si =0) V i 1 g ki p k k , i i N k 1 • Interference Function 2V • Therefore profitable unilateral deviations increase V and decrease () – an IRN 40/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 An IRN 802.11 DFS Algorithm • Suppose each access node measures the received signal power and frequency of the RTS/CTS (or BSSID) messages sent by observable access nodes in the network. • Assumed out-of-channel interference is negligible and RTS/CTS transmitted at same S ta rt power ui f Ii f g ki p k L iste n o n C hannel LC R T S /C T S e n e rg y d e te c te d ? y n fi , fk N o te a d d re ss o f a cce ss node, a P ick ch a n n e l to liste n o n , L C U p d a te in te rfe re n c e ta b le fi , fk kN \i 1 0 n fi fk fi fk g jk p j f j , f k g kj p k f k , f j M e a su re p o w e r o f a cce ss n o d e in m e ssa g e , p Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 T im e fo r d e cisio n ? y U se 8 0 2 .1 1 h to sig n a l ch a n g e in O C to clie n ts A p p ly d e c isio n crite ria fo r n e w o p e ra tin g ch a n n e l, O C 41/67 Statistics Reduction in Net Interference 70 60 • R educ tion in N et Interferenc e (dB ) 30 cognitive access nodes in European UNII bands • Choose channel with lowest interference • Random timing • n=3 • Random initial channels • Randomly distributed positions over 1 km2 Asynchronous Round-robin Legacy Devices 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 N um ber of A c c es s N odes Reduction in Net Interference 42/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Ad-hoc Network • Possible to adjust previous algorithm to not favor access nodes over clients • Suitable for ad-hoc networks 43/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Comments on Potential Games • All networks for which there is not a better response interaction loop is a potential game • Before implementing fully distributed GA, SA, or most CBR decision rules, important to show that goals and action satisfy potential game model • Sum of exact potential games is itself an exact potential game – Permits (with a little work) scaling up of algorithms that adjust single parameters to multiple parameters • Possible to combine with other techniques – Policy restricts action space, but subset of action space remains a potential game (see J. Neel, J. Reed, "Performance of Distributed Dynamic Frequency Selection Schemes for Interference Reducing Networks," Milcom 2006) – As a self-interested additive cost function is also a potential game, easy to combine with additive cost approaches (see J. Neel, J. Reed, R. Gilles, "The Role of Game Theory in the Analysis of Software Radio Networks," SDR Forum02) • More on potential games: – Chapter 5 in Dissertation of J. Neel, Available at http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-12082006-141855/ Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 44/67 Token Economies • Pairs of cognitive radios exchange tokens for services rendered or bandwidth rented • Example: – Primary users leasing spectrum to secondary users • D. Grandblaise, K. Moessner, G. Vivier and R. Tafazolli, "Credit Token based Rental Protocol for Dynamic Channel Allocation," CrownCom06. – Node participation in peer-to-peer networks • T. Moreton, "Trading in Trust, Tokens, and Stamps," Workshop on the Economics of Peer-to-Peer Systems, Berkeley, CA June 2003. • Why it works – it's a potential game when there's no externality to the trade 45/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Comments on Network Options • Approaches can be combined – Policy + potential – Punishment + cost adjustment – Cost adjustment + token economies • Mix of centralized and distributed • Potential game approach has lowest complexity, but cannot be extended to every problem • Token economies requires strong property rights to ensure • Punishment can also be implemented at a choke point in the network 46/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Commercial Cognitive Radio Standards 802.11h,y, 802.16h, 802.22 47 802.11j – Policy Based Radio 2.4 GHz • Explicitly opened up Japanese spectrum for 5 GHz operation • Part of larger effort to force equipment to operate based on geographic region, i.e., the local policy Lower Upper U.S. 2.402 2.48 Europe 2.402 2.48 Japan 2.473 2.495 Spain 2.447 2.473 France 2.448 2.482 5 GHz US UNII Low 5.15 – 5.25 (4) 50 mW UNII Middle 5.25 – 5.35 (4) 250 mW UNII Upper 5.725-5.825 (4) 1 W 5.47 – 5.725 GHz released in Nov 2003 Europe 5.15-5.35 200 mW 5.47-5.725 1 W Japan 4.9-5.091 48/67 5.15-5.25 (10 mW/MHz) unlicensed Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 802.11e – Almost Cognitive • Enhances QoS for Voice over Wireless IP (aka Voice over WiFi ) and streaming multimedia • Changes – Enhanced Distributed Coordination Function (EDCF) • Shorter random backoffs for higher priority traffic – Hybrid coordination function (orientation) • • • Defines traffic classes In contention free periods, access point controls medium access (observation) Stations report to access info on queue size. (Distributed sensing) 49/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 802.11h – Unintentionally Cognitive • Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) – Avoid radars • – • Listens and discontinues use of a channel if a radar is present Uniform channel utilization Transmit Power Control (TPC) – – – – Interference reduction Range control Power consumption Savings Bounded by local regulatory conditions Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 50/67 802.11h: A simple cognitive radio Observe – – Must estimate channel characteristics (TPC) Must measure spectrum (DFS) Orientation Orient a) Radar present? b) In band with satellite?? c) Bad channel? d) Other WLANs? Observe Decision – – – Implement decision Learn – Learn Change frequency Change power Nothing Action Decide Act Outside World Not in standard, but most implementations should learn the environment to address intermittent signals 51/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 IEEE 802.22 • Wireless Regional Area Networks (WRAN) – Aimed at bringing broadband access in rural and remote areas – Takes advantage of better propagation characteristics at VHF and low-UHF – Takes advantage of unused TV channels that exist in these sparsely populated areas • 802.22 is to define: – Physical layer specifications – Policies and procedures for operation in the VHF/UHF TV Bands between 54 MHz and 862 MHz – Cognitive Wireless RAN Medium Access Control 52/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 802.22 Status and Objectives Objectives Status • Specify PHY and MAC • 10 proposals merged for fixed point-tomultipoint wireless into 1 draft proposal at regional area networks March Plenary (March operating in the VHF/UHF TV broadcast 5-10, Denver CO) bands between 54 MHz and 862 MHz. • Still working on • Strict non-interference bringing to ballot with incumbent licensed services. • Aimed at bringing broadband access in rural and remote areas 53/67 PAR: http://www.ieee802.org/22/802-22_PAR.pdf Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 802.22 Deployment Scenario • Devices – Base Station (BS) – Customer Premise Equipment (CPE) • Master/Slave relation – BS is master – CPE slave • Max Transmit CPE 4W 54/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Figure from: IEEE 802.22-06/0005r1 Proposed PHY Features of 802.22 • • • • Data Rates 5 Mbps – 70 Mbps Point-to-multipoint TDD/FDD DFS, TPC Adaptive Modulation – QPSK, 16, 64-QAM, Spread QPSK • • • • • OFDMA on uplink and downlink Use multiple contiguous TV channels when available Fractional channels (adapting around microphones) Space Time Block Codes Beam Forming – No feedback for TDD (assumes channel reciprocity) • 802.16-like ranging 55/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Possible MAC Features of 802.22 • 802.16 MAC plus the following – Multiple channel support – Coexistence • Incumbents • BS synchronization • Dynamic resource sharing – Clustering support – Signal detection/classification routines • Security based on 802.16e security 56/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Cognitive Aspects of 802.22 • Observation – – – – Signal strength and feature detection Aided by distributed sensing (CPEs return data to BS) Digital TV: -116 dBm over a 6 MHz channel Analog TV: -94 dBm at the peak of the NTSC (National Television System Committee) picture carrier – Wireless microphone: -107 dBm in a 200 kHz bandwidth. – Possibly aided by spectrum usage tables • Orientation – Infer type of signals that are present • Decision – Frequencies, modulations, power levels, antenna choice (omni and directional) • Policies – 4 W Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) – Spectral masks, channel vacation times 57/67 C. Cordeiro, L. Challapali, D. Birru, S. Shankar, "IEEE 802.22: The First Worldwide Wireless Standard based on Cognitive Radios," Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 IEEE DySPAN2005, Nov 8-11, 2005 Baltimore, MD. Sensing Aspects of 802.22 • Region based sensing C P E N um ber = 400, IT N um ber = 4 100 – Remote aided sensing 90 • Algorithm: 80 G rid Index Y – Partition cell into disjoint regions – For each region assign a remote (Customer Premise Equipment) • Example considered squares with 500 m sides 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 – CPE feeds back what it finds • Number of incumbents • Occupied bands Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 G rid Index X Source: IEEE 802.22-06/0048r0 58/67 802.16h • Draft to ballot Oct 06, 67% approve, resolving comments) • Improved Coexistence Mechanisms for LicenseExempt Operation Basically, a cognitive radio standard Incorporates many of the hot topics in cognitive radio • • – – – – • Token based negotiation Interference avoidance Network collaboration RRM databases Coexistence with non 802.16h systems – Regular quiet times for other systems to transmit From: M. Goldhamer, "Main concepts of IEEE P802.16h / D1," Document Number: IEEE C802.16h-06/121r1, November 13-16, 2006. 59/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 General Cognitive Radio Policies in 802.16h • Must detect and avoid radar and other higher priority systems • All BS synchronized to a GPS clock • All BS maintain a radio environment map (not their name) • BS form an interference community to resolve interference differences • All BS attempt to find unoccupied channels first before negotiating for free spectrum – Separation in frequency, then separation in time 60/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 DFS in 802.16h • Adds a generic algorithm for performing Dynamic Frequency Selection in license exempt bands • Moves systems onto unoccupied channels based on observations Generic DFS Operation Figure h1 61/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 (fuzziness in original) Adaptive Channel Selection • Used when BS turns on • First – attempt to find a vacant channel – Passive scan – Candidate Channel Determination – Messaging with Neighbors • Second – attempt to coordinate for an exclusive channel • If unable to find an empty channel, then BS attempts to join the interference community on the channel it detected the least interference Figure h37: IEEE 802.16h-06/010 Draft IEEE Standard for Local and metropolitan area networks Part 16: Air Interface for Fixed Broadband 62/67 Wireless Access Systems Amendment for Improved Coexistence Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 Mechanisms for License-Exempt Operation, 2006-03-29 Collaboration • BS can request interfering systems to back off transmit power • Master BS can assign transmit timings – Intended to support up to 3 systems (Goldhammer) • Slave BS in an interference community can "bid" for interference free times via tokens. • Master BS can advertise spectrum for "rent" to other Master BS • Collaboration supported via Base Station Identification Servers, messages, and RRM databases • Interferer identification by finding power, angle of arrival, and spectral density of OFDM/OFDMA preambles • Every BS maintains a database or RRM information which can be queried by other BS – This can also be hosted remotely – Bid by tokens 63/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 802.16h • • • Improved Coexistence Mechanisms for License-Exempt Operation Explicitly, a cognitive radio standard Incorporates many of the hot topics in cognitive radio – Token based negotiation – Interference avoidance – Network collaboration – RRM databases • Coexistence with non 802.16h systems – Regular quiet times for other systems to transmit From: M. Goldhamer, "Main concepts of IEEE P802.16h / D1," Document Number: IEEE C802.16h-06/121r1, November 13-16, 2006. 64/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 802.11y • Ports 802.11a to 3.65 GHz – 3.7 GHz (US Only) – – • • FCC opened up band in July 2005 Ready 2008 Intended to provide rural broadband access Incumbents – Band previously reserved for fixed satellite service (FSS) and radar installations – including offshore – Must protect 3650 MHz (radar) – Not permitted within 80km of inband government radar – Specialized requirements near Mexico/Canada and other incumbent users • Leverages other amendments – Adds 5,10 MHz channelization (802.11j) – DFS for signaling for radar avoidance (802.11h) • • Working to improve channel announcement signaling Database of existing devices – Access nodes register at http://wireless.fcc.gov/uls – Must check for existing devices at same site Cognitive Radio Technologies, Source: 2007 IEEE 65/67 802.11-06/0YYYr0 802.11s • Modify 802.11 MAC to create dynamic self-configuring network of access points (AP) called and Extended Service Set (ESS) Mesh • Status – Standard out in 2008 – Numerous mesh products available now – Involvement from Mitre, NRL IP or Ethernet • Features – Automatic topology learning, dynamic path selection – Single administrator for 802.11i (authentication) – Support higher layer connections – Allow alternate path selection metrics – Extend network merely by introducing access point and configuring SSID Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007 66/67 Networking Summary • Many different solutions – Inferring context to select appropriate solution is important • Centralized solutions always present the option of the optimal solution, but may not find the solution in a useful amount of time or may be overly complex • Distributed solutions (generally) find solutions faster and with less complexity but may be suboptimal • Techniques for designing cognitive networks rapidly migrating into commercial standards – REMs – 802.11y, 802.16h – Token economy – 802.22 – Policy – 802.16h, 802.11, 802.22 67/67 Cognitive Radio Technologies, 2007


text:
Question:

Did My Cat Give Me Toxoplasmosis and Cause My Miscarriage?

Once upon a time, doctors used to routinely advise pregnant women to avoid cats -- leading many women to give up their cats or to worry over even the tiniest cat scratch during pregnancy. But do cats really increase the risk of miscarriage?

Answer:

It is true that cats can be carriers of the microorganism known as (also known as T. gondii), the cause of the disease toxoplasmosis. It is also true that toxoplasmosis is one of several infections that can cause miscarriage, a pregnancy that ends on its own within the first 20 weeks of gestation (usually in the first trimester).

However, this does not mean that having a cat automatically puts you at higher risk of miscarriage. In fact, the riskiness of owning a cat while pregnant is sometimes rather exaggerated. For instance, one 2000 study actually found that the largest risk of toxoplasmosis in pregnancy was from eating undercooked meat, and that cat ownership was rarely a problem.

Reasons Why Cats Rarely Transmit Toxoplasmosis to Pregnant Women

First of all, cats are not usually chronic carriers of T. gondii. They tend to acquire it, and then they develop antibodies and no longer transmit T. gondii. So, in order for a house cat to pass toxoplasmosis to its owner, a cat:

must have had recent exposure to T. gondii

has not yet developed circulating antibodies against the infection

Secondly, outdoor cats tend to be exposed to T. gondii far more frequently than indoor cats; toxoplasmosis in indoor cats is rare. T. gondii is most commonly found in rodents and raw meat, so a cat who lives only indoors is unlikely to be exposed to it unless the owner regularly feeds the cat raw meat.

Finally, the means of transmission from cat to owner would most likely be through the owner's exposure to cat feces. The pregnant woman would have to change the cat litter box, touch the feces, and then somehow put the T. gondii into her mouth -- and it's safe to say that most people would probably wash their hands in between changing cat litter and touching their mouths!

Sensible Precautions for Cat Owners

All in all, the risk of a pregnant woman acquiring toxoplasmosis from a house cat is rather low. That being said, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention suggests following these precautions to almost entirely eliminate your risk of cat-borne toxoplasmosis:

Get someone else to change the cat litter if you can. And if you can't, wear gloves while changing it and wash your hands carefully with soap and hot water afterward.

Change the cat litter daily. The microorganism is infectious between one and five days after the cat defecates.

Do not feed your cat raw meat.

Keep your cat indoors.

Be careful around stray cats and kittens, and avoid getting a new cat while pregnant.

Keep outdoor sandboxes covered, and wear gloves when gardening in case an outdoor cat has defecated in your garden.

Sources:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "Toxoplasmosis - Pregnant Women." 11 Jan 2008. Accessed 7 Feb 2008.

Cook, A.J.C., R.E. Gilbert, W. Buffolano, J. Zuffery, P.A. Jenum, W. Foulon, A.E. Semprini, and D.T. Dunn, "Sources of toxoplasma infection in pregnant women: European multicentre case-control study. British Medical Journal 2000. Accessed 7 Feb 2008.

Humane Society of the US, Pet Care. Accessed 7 Feb 2008.