text:
Albanian language
|This article's lead section may not adequately summarize key points of its contents. (January 2017)
Albanian (shqip [ʃcip] or gjuha shqipe [ˈɟuha ˈʃcipɛ], meaning Albanian language) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, spoken by over five million people,[2] primarily in Albania, Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, and Greece,[1] but also in other areas of Southeastern Europe in which there is an Albanian population, including Montenegro and the Preševo Valley of Serbia.[a] Centuries-old communities speaking Albanian-based dialects can be found scattered in Greece, Southern Italy,[4] Sicily, and Ukraine.[5] Due to the large Albanian diaspora, the total number of speakers is much higher than the native speakers in Southeast Europe.[6]
|Shqip, Gjuha shqipe
|Native to
|Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Greece[1] and Albanian diaspora
Native speakers
|5.4 million (ca. 2011)[2]
|Latin (Albanian alphabet)
Albanian Braille
|Official status
Official language in
| Albania
Recognised minority
language in
|Regulated by
|Officially by the Social Sciences and Albanological Section of the Academy of Sciences of Albania
|Language codes
alb (B)
sqi (T)
sqi – inclusive code
Individual codes:
aae – Arbëresh
aat – Arvanitika
aln – Gheg
als – Tosk
55-AAA-aaa to 55-AAA-ahe (25 varieties)
The first written mention of the Albanian language was on 14 July 1284 in Dubrovnik (modern-day Croatia), when a certain Matthew, witness of a crime, stated "I heard a voice shouting on the mountainside in the Albanian tongue" (Latin: Audivi unam vocem, clamantem in monte in lingua albanesca).[7][8] The first audio recording of Albanian was made by Norbert Jokl on 4 April 1914 in Vienna.[9] During the five-century period of the Ottoman presence in Albania, the language was not officially recognized until 1909, when the Congress of Dibra decided that Albanian schools would finally be allowed.[10]
Linguistic affinitiesEdit
The Albanian language is part of the Indo-European language group. It is considered to have evolved from one of the Paleo-Balkan languages of antiquity,[11][12][13] although there is a disagreement which one language can be linked with Albanian as well as what place in the Balkans this population lived.[14] In general there is insufficient evidence to connect Albanian with one of those languages: whether one of the Illyrian languages or Thracian and Dacian.[15]
Albanian is now considered an isolate within Indo-European; no extant language shares the same branch. The only other languages that are the sole surviving member of a branch of Indo-European are Armenian and Greek.
Although Albanian shares lexical isoglosses with Greek, Balto-Slavic, and Germanic languages, the vocabulary of Albanian is quite distinct. In 1995, Ann Taylor, Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow described as "surprising" their finding, using quantitative linguistic techniques, that Albanian appears to comprise a "subgroup with Germanic".[16] This theory is reinforced by subsequent research by the same authors.[17]
However, this hypothetical subgroup is no longer "significant" to the modern descendant languages, according to Taylor, Ringe and Tarnow, because "Albanian has lost so much of its original vocabulary and morphology".[16] Albanian also shares two features with Balto-Slavic languages: a lengthening of syllabic consonants before voiced obstruents and a distinct treatment of long syllables ending in a sonorant.[18] Other conservative features of Albanian include the retention of the distinction between active and middle voice, present tense and aorist. In another but uncommon hypothesis, Albanian is grouped with both Balto-Slavic and Germanic based on the merger of Proto-Indo-European *ǒ and *ǎ into *ǎ in a supposed "northern group".[19] However, this vowel shift is now regarded as only part of a larger push chain that affected all long vowels.[20]
Linguistic influencesEdit
The earliest loanwords attested in Albanian come from Doric Greek,[21] whereas the strongest influence came from Latin. According to Matthew C. Curtis, the loanwords do not necessarily indicate the geographical location of the ancestor of Albanian language.[22] However, according to other linguists, the borrowed words can help to get an idea about the place of origin and the evolution of the Albanian language.[23][24] According to another group of linguists, Albanian originates from an area that's located east of its present geographic spread due to the several common lexical items found between the Albanian and Romanian language.[25]
The period during which Proto-Albanian and Latin interacted was protracted and drawn out roughly from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD.[26] This is borne out into roughly three layers of borrowings, the largest number belonging to the second layer. The first, with the fewest borrowings, was a time of less important interaction. The final period, probably preceding the Slavic or Germanic invasions, also has a notably smaller number of borrowings. Each layer is characterized by a different treatment of most vowels, the first layer having several that follow the evolution of Early Proto-Albanian into Albanian; later layers reflect vowel changes endemic to Late Latin and presumably Proto-Romance. Other formative changes include the syncretism of several noun case endings, especially in the plural, as well as a large-scale palatalization.
A brief period followed, between the 7th and the 9th centuries, that was marked by heavy borrowings from Southern Slavic, some of which predate the "o-a" shift common to the modern forms of this language group. Starting in the latter 9th century, there was a period characterized by protracted contact with the Proto-Romanians, or Vlachs, though lexical borrowing seems to have been mostly one sided—from Albanian into Romanian. Such borrowing indicates that the Romanians migrated from an area where the majority was Slavic (i.e. Middle Bulgarian) to an area with a majority of Albanian speakers (i.e. Dardania, where Vlachs are recorded in the 10th century).[citation needed] Their movement is probably related to the expansion of the Bulgarian Empire into Albania around that time.
Latin influenceEdit
Jernej Kopitar (1780–1844) was the first to note Latin's influence on Albanian and claimed "the Latin loanwords in the Albanian language had the pronunciation of the time of Emperor Augustus".[27] Kopitar gave examples such as Albanian qiqer from Latin cicer (meaning chickpeas), qytet from civitas (meaning city), peshk from piscis (meaning fish) and shigjetë from sagitta (meaning arrow). The hard pronunciations of Latin ⟨c⟩ and ⟨g⟩ are retained as palatal and velar stops in the Albanian loanwords. Gustav Meyer (1888)[28] and Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke (1914)[29] later corroborated this. Meyer noted the similarity between the Albanian verbs shqipoj and shqiptoj (both meaning to enunciate) and the Latin word excipio (meaning to welcome). Therefore, he believed that the word Shqiptar (meaning Albanian) was derived from shqipoj, which in turn was derived from the Latin word excipio. Johann Georg von Hahn, an Austrian linguist, had proposed the same theory in 1854.[30]
Eqrem Çabej also noticed, among other things, the archaic Latin elements in Albanian:[31]
- Latin /au/ becomes Albanian /a/ in the earliest borrowings: aurum → ar ; gaudium → gaz ; laurus → lar. Latin /au/ is retained in later borrowings, but is altered in a way similar to Greek: causa → kafshë ; laud → lavd.
- Latin /ō/ becomes Albanian /e/ in the oldest Latin borrowings: pōmum → pemë ; hōra → herë. An analogous mutation occurred from Proto-Indo-European to Albanian; PIE *nōs became Albanian ne, PIE *oḱtō + suffix -ti- became Albanian tetë etc.
- Latin unstressed internal and initial syllables become lost in Albanian: cubitus → kub ; medicus → mjek ; paludem > V. Latin padule → pyll. An analogous mutation occurred from Proto-Indo-European to Albanian. In contrast, in later Latin borrowings, the internal syllable is retained: paganus → pagan ; plaga → plagë etc.
- Latin /tj/, /dj/, /kj/ palatalized to Albanian /s/, /z/, /c/: vitius → ves ; ratio → arsye ; radius → rreze ; facies → faqe ; socius → shoq etc. In turn, Latin /s/ was altered to /ʃ/ in Albanian.
Haralambie Mihăescu demonstrated that:
- Some 85 Latin words have survived in Albanian but not (as inherited) in any Romance language. A few examples include bubulcus → bujk, hibernalia → mërrajë, sarcinarius → shelqëror, trifurcus → tërfurk, accipiter → skifter, chersydrus → kuçedër, spleneticum → shpretkë, solanum → shullë.[32]
- 151 Albanian words of Latin origin were not inherited in Romanian. A few examples include Albanian mik from Latin amicus, or armik from inimicus, arsye from rationem, bekoj from benedicere, qelq from calix (calicis), kështjellë from castellum, qind from centum, gjel from gallus, gjymtyrë from iunctura, mjek from medicus, rrjetë from rete, shpresoj from sperare, vullnet from voluntas (voluntatis).[33]
- Some Albanian church terminology have phonetic features which demonstrate their very early borrowing from Latin. A few examples include Albanian altar from Latin altare, engjëll from angelus, bekoj from benedicere, i krishterë from christianus, kryq from crux (crucis), kishë from ecclesia, ipeshkv from episcopus, ungjill from evangelium, mallkoj from maledicere, meshë from missa, murg from monacus, pagan from paganus.[34]
Other authors[35] have detected Latin loanwords in Albanian with an ancient sound pattern from the 1st century BC,[clarification needed] for example, Albanian qingëlë from Latin cingula and Albanian e vjetër from Latin vetus/veteris. The Romance languages inherited these words from Vulgar Latin: Vulgar *cingla became N. Romanian chinga, meaning "belly band, saddle girth", and Vulgar veteran became N. Romanian bătrân, meaning "old".
Albanian, Basque, and the surviving Celtic languages such as Breton and Welsh, are the non-Romance languages today that have this sort of extensive Latin element dating from ancient Roman times, which have undergone the sound changes associated with the languages. Other languages in or near the former Roman area either came on the scene later (Turkish, the Slavic languages, Arabic) or borrowed little from Latin despite coexisting with it (Greek, German), although German does have a few such ancient Latin borrowings (Fenster, Käse, Köln).
Historical presence and locationEdit
The place and the time where the Albanian language was formed is uncertain. American linguist Eric Hamp stated that during an unknown chronological period a pre-Albanian population (termed as "Albanoid" by Hamp) inhabited areas stretching from Poland to southwestern Balkans.[36] Further analysis has suggested that it was in a mountainous region rather than on a plain or seacoast:[37] while the words for plants and animals characteristic of mountainous regions are entirely original, the names for fish and for agricultural activities (such as ploughing) are borrowed from other languages.[38] A deeper analysis of the vocabulary, however, shows that this could be a consequence of the prolonged Latin domination of the coastal and plain areas of the country, rather than evidence of the original environment where the Albanian language was formed. For example, the word for 'fish' is borrowed from Latin, but not the word for 'gills', which is native. Indigenous are also the words for 'ship', 'raft', 'navigation', 'sea shelves' and a few names of fish kinds, but not the words for 'sail', 'row' and 'harbor'—objects pertaining to navigation itself and a large part of sea fauna. This rather shows that Proto-Albanians were pushed away from coastal areas in early times (probably after the Latin conquest of the region) thus losing large parts (or the majority) of sea environment lexicon. A similar phenomenon could be observed with agricultural terms. While the words for 'arable land', 'corn', 'wheat', 'cereals', 'vineyard', 'yoke', 'harvesting', 'cattle breeding', etc. are native, the words for 'ploughing', 'farm' and 'farmer', agricultural practices, and some harvesting tools are foreign. This, again, points to intense contact with other languages and people, rather than providing evidence of a possible Urheimat.
The centre of Albanian settlement remained the Mat river. In 1079, they were recorded farther south in the valley of the Shkumbin river.[39] The Shkumbin, a seasonal stream that lies near the old Via Egnatia, is approximately the boundary of the primary dialect division for Albanian, Tosk-Gheg. The characteristics of Tosk and Gheg in the treatment of the native and loanwords from other languages are evidence that the dialectal split preceded the Slavic migration to the Balkans,[40][41][26] which means that in that period (the 5th to 6th centuries AD), Albanians were occupying nearly the same area around the Shkumbin river, which straddled the Jireček Line.[42][37]
References to the existence of Albanian as a distinct language survive from the 14th century, but they failed to cite specific words. The oldest surviving documents written in Albanian are the "formula e pagëzimit" (Baptismal formula), Un'te paghesont' pr'emenit t'Atit e t'Birit e t'Spertit Senit. ("I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit") recorded by Pal Engjelli, Bishop of Durrës in 1462 in the Gheg dialect, and some New Testament verses from that period.
The oldest known Albanian printed book, Meshari, or "missal", was written in 1555 by Gjon Buzuku, a Roman Catholic cleric. In 1635, Frang Bardhi wrote the first Latin–Albanian dictionary. The first Albanian school is believed to have been opened by Franciscans in 1638 in Pdhanë.
One of the earliest dictionaries of Albanian language was written in 1693 which was an Italian language manuscript authored by Montenegrin sea captain Julije Balović Pratichae Schrivaneschae and includes a multilingual dictionary of hundreds of the most often used words in everyday life in the Italian, Slavo-Illirico, Greek, Albanian and Turkish languages.[43]
Albanian was demonstrated to be an Indo-European language in 1854 by the philologist Franz Bopp. The Albanian language constitutes its own branch of the Indo-European language family.[44]
Albanian was formerly compared by some Indo-Europeanists with Balto-Slavic and Germanic,[45] both of which share a number of isoglosses with Albanian. Moreover, Albanian has undergone a vowel shift in which stressed, long o has fallen to a, much like in the former and opposite the latter. Likewise, Albanian has taken the old relative jos and innovatively used it exclusively to qualify adjectives, much in the way Balto-Slavic has used this word to provide the definite ending of adjectives. Other linguists link Albanian with Greek and Armenian, while placing Germanic and Balto-Slavic in another branch of Indo-European.[46][47][48] Nakhleh, Ringe, and Warnow argued that Albanian can be placed at a variety of points within the Indo-European tree with equally good fit; determining its correct placement is hampered by the loss of much of its former diagnostic inflectional morphology and vocabulary.[49]
Modern linguists have challenged the Illyrian origin of the Albanian language.[50] Alternative theories maintain that it derives from Dacian or Thracian.[51] (Illyrian, Dacian, and Thracian, however, may have formed a subgroup or a Sprachbund; see Thraco-Illyrian.)
(Old) AlbanianEdit
According to the central hypothesis of a project undertaken by the Austrian Science Fund FWF, Old Albanian had a significant influence on the development of many Balkan languages. Intensive research now aims to confirm this theory. This little-known language is being researched using all available texts before a comparison with other Balkan languages is carried out. The outcome of this work will include the compilation of a lexicon providing an overview of all Old Albanian verbs.[52][needs update]
As project leader Dr. Schumacher explains, the research is already bearing fruit: "So far, our work has shown that Old Albanian contained numerous modal levels that allowed the speaker to express a particular stance to what was being said. Compared to the existing knowledge and literature, these modal levels are actually more extensive and more nuanced than previously thought. We have also discovered a great many verbal forms that are now obsolete or have been lost through restructuring — until now, these forms have barely even been recognized or, at best, have been classified incorrectly." These verbal forms are crucial to explaining the linguistic history of Albanian and its internal usage. However, they can also shed light on the reciprocal relationship between Albanian and its neighbouring languages. The researchers are following various leads which suggest that Albanian played a key role in the Balkan Sprachbund. For example, it is likely that Albanian is the source of the suffixed definite article in Romanian, Bulgarian and Macedonian, as this has been a feature of Albanian since ancient times.[52]
Proto-IE featuresEdit
Although sometimes Albanian has been referred to as the "weird sister" for several words that do not correspond to IE cognates, it has retained many proto-IE features: for example, the demonstrative pronoun **ḱo- is ancestral to Albanian ky/kjo and English he but not to English this or to Russian etot.
Albanian is compared to other Indo-European languages below, but note that Albanian has exhibited some notable instances of semantic drift (such as motër meaning "sister" rather than "mother" or the Latin loans gjelbër and verdhë having become switched in meaning).
|āter, Niger
|Old Church Slavonic
|три, триѥ
tri, trije
|Ancient Greek
Albanian–PIE phonological correspondencesEdit
Phonologically Albanian is not so conservative. Like many IE stocks it has merged the two series of voiced stops (e.g. both *d and *dʰ became d). In addition the voiced stops tend to disappear in between vowels. There is almost complete loss of final syllables and very widespread loss of other unstressed syllables (e.g. mik, "friend" from Lat. amicus). PIE *o appears as a (also as e if a high front vowel i follows), while *ē and *ā become o, and PIE *ō appears as e. The palatals, velars, and labiovelars all remain distinct before front vowels, a conservation found otherwise in Luvian and related Anatolian languages. Thus PIE *ḱ, *k, and *kʷ become th, q, and s, respectively (before back vowels *ḱ becomes th, while *k and *kʷ merge as k).[citation needed] Another remarkable retention is the preservation of initial *h4 as Alb. h (all other laryngeals disappear completely).[53][dubious ]
|pjek "to cook, roast, bake"
|*sorbéi̯e/o—"drink, slurp"
|gjerb "to drink"
|bathë "broad bean"
|ti "you (singular)"
|ditë "day"
|dh[* 1]
|pjerdh "to fart"
|gjatë "long" (Tosk dial. glatë)
|djeg "to burn"
|dh[* 1]
|gardh "fence"
|*ḱéh₁mi—"I say"
|them "I say"
|s[* 1]
|sutë "doe"
|k[* 2]
|krah "arm"
|ç/c[* 3]
|*ḱentro—"to stick"
|çandër "prop"
|*ǵómbʰos—"tooth, peg"
|dhëmb "tooth"
|d[* 4]
|*ǵēusnō—"to enjoy"
|dua "to love, want"
|*ǵʰedi̯e/o—"to defecate"
|dhjes "to defecate"
|d[* 4]
|*ǵʰr̥sdʰi—"grain, barley"
|drithë "grain"
- ^ Before u̯/u or i̯/i
- ^ Before sonorant
- ^ Archaic relic
- ^ a b Syllable-initial and followed by sibilant
|*kágʰmi—"I catch, grasp"
|kam "I have"
|*klau-ei̯e/o—"to weep"
|qaj "to weep, cry" (Gheg qanj, Salamis kla)
|ligë "bad"
|*h₁reuge—"to retch"
|regj "to tan hides"
|gardh "fence"
|gjej "to find" (Gheg gjêj)
|kollë "cough"
|sjell "to fetch, bring"
|që "that"
|gur "stone"
|zor "heaviness; trouble"
|*dʰégʷʰe/o—"to burn"
|djeg "to burn"
|*h1en-dʰogʷʰéi̯e/o—"to ignite"
|ndez "to kindle, turn on"
|gj[* 1]
|gjashtë "six"
|h[* 2]
|*nosōm—"us" (gen.)
|nahe "us" (dat.)
|sh[* 3]
|breshër "hail"
|th[* 4]
|gjeth "leaf"
|h[* 5]
|hije "shadow"
|f[* 6]
|fjalë "word"
|sht[* 7]
|*h₂osti "bone"
|asht "bone"
|th[* 8]
|thi "boar"
|jam "to be"
- ^ Initial
- ^ Between vowels
- ^ Between vowels and after u̯/i̯/r/k (ruki law)
- ^ Cluster -sd-
- ^ Cluster -sḱ-
- ^ Cluster -sp-
- ^ Cluster -st-
- ^ Dissimilation with following vowel
|gj[* 1]
|*i̯ése/o—"to ferment"
|gjesh "to knead"
|j[* 2]
|*i̯uHs—"you" (nom.)
|ju "you (plural)"
|∅[* 3]
|*bʰéri̯ō—"bear, carry"
|bie(r) "to bring"
|h[* 4]
|strohë "kennel"
|*u̯oséi̯e/o—"to dress"
|vesh "to wear, dress"
|motër "sister"
|*nōs—"we" (acc.)
|ne "we"
|*eni-h₁ói-no—"that one"
|një "one" (Gheg njâ, njo)
|pesë, Gheg pês "five"
|dimër "winter" (Gheg dimën)
|ligë "bad"
|sjell "to fetch, bring"
|rjep "peel"
|rrunjë "yearling lamb"
|emër "name"
|(një)zet "twenty"
|ujk "wolf" (Chamian ulk)
|ri, ir
|*ǵʰr̥sdom—"grain, barley"
|drithë "grain"
|jam "to be"
|ari "bear"
|ëndërr "dream"
|herdhe "testicle"
|gji "bosom, breast"
|degë "branch"
|ditë "day"
|pesë "five" (Gheg pês)
|*u̯étos—"year" (loc.)
|vjet "last year"
|dorë "hand"
|*bʰaḱeh₂- "bean"
|bathë "bean"
|elb "barley"
|gardh "fence"
|tetë "eight"
|gjumë "sleep"
|gjysh "grandfather"
|mi "mouse"
Albanian is divided into two major dialects: Gheg, Tosk, and a transitional dialect zone between them.[54] The Shkumbin river is roughly the dividing line, with Gheg spoken north of the Shkumbin and Tosk south of it.[55] There are also other dialects like Arbëresh and Arvanitika, which are mixtures between Gheg and Tosk with some archaic features of Albanian. They are spoken in some areas of Italy and Greece.
Standard AlbanianEdit
Since World War II, standard Albanian used in Albania has been based on the Tosk dialect. Kosovo and other areas where Albanian is official adopted the Tosk standard in 1969.[56]
Elbasan-based standardEdit
Until the early 20th century, Albanian writing developed in three main literary traditions: Gheg, Tosk, and Arbëreshë. Throughout this time, an intermediate subdialect spoken around Elbasan served as lingua franca among the Albanians, but was less prevalent in writing. The Congress of Manastir of Albanian writers held in 1908 recommended the use of the Elbasan subdialect for literary purposes and as a basis of a unified national language. While technically classified as a southern Gheg variety, the Elbasan speech is closer to Tosk in phonology and practically a hybrid between other Gheg subdialects and literary Tosk.[56]
Between 1916 and 1918, the Albanian Literary Commission met in Shkodër under the leadership of Luigj Gurakuqi with the purpose of establishing a unified orthography for the language. The Commission, made up of representatives from the north and south of Albania, reaffirmed the Elbasan subdialect as the basis of a national tongue. The rules published in 1917 defined spelling for the Elbasan variety for official purposes. The Commission did not, however, discourage publications in one of the dialects, but rather laid a foundation for Gheg and Tosk to gradually converge into one.[56]
When the Congress of Lushnje met in the aftermath of World War I to form a new Albanian government, the 1917 decisions of the Literary Commission were upheld. The Elbasan subdialect remained in use for administrative purposes and many new writers embraced for creative writing. Gheg and Tosk continued to develop freely and interaction between the two dialects increased.
Tosk standardEdit
At the end of World War II, however, the new communist regime radically imposed the use of the Tosk dialect in all facets of life: administration, education, and literature. Most Communist leaders were Tosks from the south.[56] Standardization was directed by the Albanian Institute of Linguistics and Literature of the Academy of Sciences of Albania.[57] Two dictionaries were published in 1954: an Albanian language dictionary and a Russian–Albanian dictionary. New orthography rules were eventually published in 1967[57] and 1973 Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe (Orthography of the Albanian Language).[58]
More recent dictionaries from the Albanian government are Fjalori Drejtshkrimor i Gjuhës Shqipe (1976) (Orthographic Dictionary of the Albanian Language)[59] and Dictionary of Today's Albanian language (Fjalori Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe) (1980).[57][60] Prior to World War II, dictionaries consulted by developers of the standard have included Lexikon tis Alvanikis glossis (Albanian: Fjalori i Gjuhës Shqipe (Kostandin Kristoforidhi, 1904),[61] Fjalori i Bashkimit (1908),[61] and Fjalori i Gazullit (1941).[62]
Calls for reformEdit
Since the fall of the communist regime, Albanian orthography has stirred heated debate among scholars, writers, and public opinion in Albania and Kosovo, with hardliners opposed to any changes in the orthography, moderates supporting varying degrees of reform, and radicals calling for a return to the Elbasan dialect. Criticism of Standard Albanian has centred on the exclusion of the 'me+' infinitive and the Gheg lexicon. Critics say that Standard Albanian disenfranchises and stigmatizes Gheg speakers, affecting the quality of writing and impairing effective public communication. Supporters of the Tosk standard contend view the 1972 Congress as a milestone achievement in Albanian history and dismiss calls for reform as efforts to "divide the nation" or "create two languages." Moderates, who are especially prevalent in Kosovo, generally stress the need for a unified Albanian language, but believe that the 'me+' infinitive and Gheg words should be included. Proponents of the Elbasan dialect have been vocal, but have gathered little support in the public opinion. In general, those involved in the language debate come from diverse backgrounds and there is no significant correlation between one's political views, geographic origin, and position on Standard Albanian.
Many writers have continued to write in the Elbasan dialect, which is somewhat erroneously referred to as Gheg (other Gheg variants have found much more limited use in literature). But most publications adhere to a strict policy of not accepting submissions that are not written in Tosk. Some print media even translate direct speech, replacing the 'me+' infinitive with other verb forms and making other changes in grammar and word choice. Even authors who have published in the Elbasan dialect will frequently write in the Tosk standard.
In the recent years, a group of academics for Albania and Kosovo have proposed minor changes in the orthography. Hardline academics boycotted the initiative, while other reformers have viewed it as superficial. Media such as Rrokum and Java have offered content that is almost exclusively in the Elbasan dialect. Meanwhile, author and linguist Agim Morina has promoted a reformed version of the Tosk standard that aims at reflecting the natural development of the language among all Albanians. Morina's variant incorporates the 'me+' infinitive, accommodates for Gheg features, and provides for simpler and dialect-neutral rules.
Albanian is the medium of instruction in most Albanian schools. The literacy rate in Albania for the total population, age 9 or older, is about 99%. Elementary education is compulsory (grades 1–9), but most students continue at least until a secondary education. Students must pass graduation exams at the end of the 9th grade and at the end of the 12th grade in order to continue their education.
Geographic distributionEdit
Albanian is spoken by approximately 5.4 million people,[2] mainly in Albania, Kosovo, Turkey, the Republic of Macedonia, Greece and Italy (Arbereshe) and by immigrant communities in many other countries, notably the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.
Standard Albanian, based on the Tosk dialect of southern Albania, is the official language of Albania and Kosovo and is also official in municipalities of the Republic of Macedonia where ethnic Albanians form more than 25% of the municipal population.[63] It is also an official language of Montenegro, where it is spoken in municipalities with ethnic Albanian populations.
Standard Albanian has 7 vowels and 29 consonants. Gheg uses long and nasal vowels, which are absent in Tosk, and the mid-central vowel ë is lost at the end of the word. The stress is fixed mainly on the last syllable. Gheg n (femën: compare English feminine) changes to r by rhotacism in Tosk (femër).
- The contrast between flapped r and trilled rr is the same as in Spanish or Armenian. In most of the dialects, as also in standard Albanian, the single "r" changes from an alveolar flap /ɾ/ into a retroflex flap [ɽ], or even an alveolar approximant [ɹ] when it is at the end of a word.
- The palatal nasal /ɲ/ corresponds to the Spanish ñ and the French and Italian gn. It is pronounced as one sound, not a nasal plus a glide.
- The ll sound is a velarised lateral, close to English dark L.
- The letter ç is sometimes written ch due to technical limitations because of its use in English sound and its analogy to the other digraphs xh, sh, and zh. Usually it is written simply c or more rarely q with context resolving any ambiguities.
- Many speakers merge the palatal sounds q and gj into the palatoalveolar sounds ç and xh. This is especially common in Northern Gheg, but is increasingly the case in Tosk as well.[64]
|Written as
|Pronounced as in
|Close front unrounded vowel
|Open-mid front unrounded vowel
|Open central unrounded vowel
|father, Spanish casa
|about, the
|Open-mid back rounded vowel
|Close front rounded vowel
|French tu, German über
|Close back rounded vowel
Although the Indo-European schwa (ə or -h2-) was preserved in Albanian, in some cases it was lost, possibly when a stressed syllable preceded it.[65] Until the standardization of the modern Albanian alphabet, in which the schwa is spelled as ë, as in the work of Gjon Buzuku in the 16th century, various vowels and gliding vowels were employed, including ae by Lekë Matrënga and é by Pjetër Bogdani in the late 16th and early 17th century.[66][67] The schwa in Albanian has a great degree of variability from extreme back to extreme front articulation.[68] Within the borders of Albania, the phoneme is pronounced about the same in both the Tosk and the Gheg dialect due to the influence of standard Albanian. However, in the Gheg dialects spoken in the neighbouring Albanian-speaking areas of Kosovo and Macedonia, the phoneme is still pronounced as back and rounded.[68]
Albanian has a canonical word order of SVO (subject–verb–object) like English and many other Indo-European languages.[69] Albanian nouns are inflected by gender (masculine, feminine and neuter) and number (singular and plural). There are five declensions with six cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, and vocative), although the vocative only occurs with a limited number of words, and the forms of the genitive and dative are identical (a genitive is produced when the prepositions i/e/të/së are used with the dative). Some dialects also retain a locative case, which is not present in standard Albanian. The cases apply to both definite and indefinite nouns, and there are numerous cases of syncretism.
The following shows the declension of mal (mountain), a masculine noun which takes "i" in the definite singular:
|Indefinite singular
|Indefinite plural
|Definite singular
|Definite plural
|një mal (a mountain)
|male (mountains)
|mali (the mountain)
|malet (the mountains)
|një mal
|i/e/të/së një mali
|i/e/të/së maleve
|i/e/të/së malit
|i/e/të/së maleve
|një mali
|(prej) një mali
|(prej) malesh
|(prej) malit
|(prej) maleve
The following shows the declension of the masculine noun zog (bird), a masculine noun which takes "u" in the definite singular:
|Indefinite singular
|Indefinite plural
|Definite singular
|Definite plural
|një zog (a bird)
|zogj (birds)
|zogu (the bird)
|zogjtë (the birds)
|një zog
|i/e/të/së një zogu
|i/e/të/së zogjve
|i/e/të/së zogut
|i/e/të/së zogjve
|një zogu
|(prej) një zogu
|(prej) zogjsh
|(prej) zogut
|(prej) zogjve
The following table shows the declension of the feminine noun vajzë (girl):
|Indefinite singular
|Indefinite plural
|Definite singular
|Definite plural
|një vajzë (a girl)
|vajza (girls)
|vajza (the girl)
|vajzat (the girls)
|një vajzë
|i/e/të/së një vajze
|i/e/të/së vajzave
|i/e/të/së vajzës
|i/e/të/së vajzave
|një vajze
|(prej) një vajze
|(prej) vajzash
|(prej) vajzës
|(prej) vajzave
The definite article is placed after the noun as in many other Balkan languages, like in Romanian, Macedonian and Bulgarian.
- The definite article can be in the form of noun suffixes, which vary with gender and case.
- For example, in singular nominative, masculine nouns add -i, or those ending in -g/-k/-h take -u (to avoid palatalization):
- mal (mountain) / mali (the mountain);
- libër (book) / libri (the book);
- zog (bird) / zogu (the bird).
- Feminine nouns take the suffix -(i/j)a:
- veturë (car) / vetura (the car);
- shtëpi (house) / shtëpia (the house);
- lule (flower) / lulja (the flower).
- For example, in singular nominative, masculine nouns add -i, or those ending in -g/-k/-h take -u (to avoid palatalization):
- Neuter nouns take -t.
Albanian has developed an analytical verbal structure in place of the earlier synthetic system, inherited from Proto-Indo-European. Its complex system of moods (six types) and tenses (three simple and five complex constructions) is distinctive among Balkan languages. There are two general types of conjugations.
Albanian verbs, like those of other Balkan languages, have an "admirative" mood (mënyra habitore) that is used to indicate surprise on the part of the speaker or to imply that an event is known to the speaker by report and not by direct observation. In some contexts, this mood can be translated using English "apparently".
- Ti flet shqip. "You speak Albanian." (indicative)
- Ti fliske shqip! "You (surprisingly) speak Albanian!" (admirative)
- Rruga është e mbyllur. "The street is closed." (indicative)
- Rruga qenka e mbyllur. "(Apparently,) The street is closed." (admirative)
For more information on verb conjugation and on inflection of other parts of speech, see Albanian morphology.
Word orderEdit
Albanian word order is relatively free.[70] However, the most common order is subject–verb–object, and negation is expressed by the particles nuk or s' in front of the verb, for example:
- Toni nuk flet anglisht "Tony does not speak English";
- Toni s'flet anglisht "Tony doesn't speak English";
- Nuk e di "I do not know";
- S'e di "I don't know".
However, the verb can optionally occur in sentence-initial position, especially with verbs in the non-active form (forma joveprore):
- Parashikohet një ndërprerje "An interruption is anticipated".
In imperative sentences, the particle mos is used:
- Mos harro "do not forget!".
- SVO: Agimi i hëngri të gjithë portokallët.
- SOV: Agimi të gjithë portokallët i hëngri.
- OVS: Të gjithë portokallët i hëngri Agimi.
- OSV: Të gjithë portokallët Agimi i hëngri.
- VSO: I hëngri Agimi të gjithë portokallët.
The Albanian language has been written using many different alphabets since the earliest records from the 15th century. The history of Albanian language orthography is closely related to the cultural orientation and knowledge of certain foreign languages among Albanian writers.[62] The earliest written Albanian records come from the Gheg area in makeshift spellings based on Italian or Greek and sometimes in Arabic characters. Originally, the Tosk dialect was written in the Greek alphabet and the Gheg dialect was written in the Latin script. Both dialects had also been written in the Ottoman Turkish version of the Arabic script, Cyrillic, and some local alphabets (Elbasan, Büthakukye/Vithkuqi, Todhri, Veso Bey, Jan Vellara and others, see original Albanian alphabets). More specifically, the writers from northern Albania and under the influence of the Catholic Church used Latin letters, those in southern Albania and under the influence of the Greek Orthodox church used Greek letters, while others throughout Albania and under the influence of Islam used Arabic letters. There were initial attempts to create an original Albanian alphabet during the 1750–1850 period. These attempts intensified after the League of Prizren and culminated with the Congress of Manastir held by Albanian intellectuals from 14 to 22 November 1908, in Manastir (present day Bitola), which decided on which alphabet to use, and what the standardized spelling would be for standard Albanian. This is how the literary language remains. The alphabet is the Latin alphabet with the addition of the letters <ë>, <ç>, and nine digraphs.
Literary traditionEdit
Earliest undisputed textsEdit
The earliest known texts in Albanian:
- [71] The work is a manuscript decorated with golden miniatures and colored initials, divided in three parts. Pages 1–97 deal with theology, 98–146 with philosophy, and pages 147–208 with a history of the known world from AD 153 to 1209. On the final page of the manuscript we find a note by the author "With the assistance and great love of the blessed Lord, I finished this in the year 1210 on the 9th day of March."
- the "formula e pagëzimit" (Baptismal Formula), which dates back to 1462 and was authored by Pal Engjëlli (or Paulus Angelus) (c. 1417 – 1470), Archbishop of Durrës. Engjëlli was a close friend and counsellor of Skanderbeg.[72] It was written in a pastoral letter for a synod at the Holy Trinity in Mat and read in Latin characters as follows: Unte paghesont premenit Atit et Birit et Spertit Senit (standard Albanian: "Unë të pagëzoj në emër të Atit, të Birit e të Shpirtit të Shenjtë"; English: "I baptize you in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit"). It was discovered and published in 1915 by Nicolae Iorga.[73]
- the Fjalori i Arnold von Harfit (Arnold Ritter von Harff's lexicon), a short list of Albanian phrases with German glosses, dated 1496.[74]
- a song, recorded in the Greek alphabet, retrieved from an old codex that was written in Greek. The document is also called "Perikopeja e Ungjillit të Pashkëve" or "Perikopeja e Ungjillit të Shën Mateut" ("The Song of the Easter Gospel, or "The Song of Saint Matthew's Gospel"). Although the codex is dated to during the 14th century, the song, written in Albanian by an anonymous writer, seems to be a 16th-century writing. The document was found by Arbëreshë people who had emigrated to Italy in the 15th century.[75]
- The first book in Albanian is the Meshari ("The Missal"), written by Gjon Buzuku between 20 March 1554 and 5 January 1555. The book was written in the Gheg dialect in the Latin script with some Slavic letters adapted for Albanian vowels. The book was discovered in 1740 by Gjon Nikollë Kazazi, the Albanian archbishop of Skopje. It contains the liturgies of the main holidays. There are also texts of prayers and rituals and catechetical texts. The grammar and the vocabulary are more archaic than those in the Gheg texts from the 17th century. The 188 pages of the book comprise about 154,000 words with a total vocabulary of c. 1,500 different words. The text is archaic yet easily interpreted because it is mainly a translation of known texts, in particular portions of the Bible. The book also contains passages from the Psalms, the Book of Isaiah, the Book of Jeremiah, the Letters to the Corinthians, and many illustrations. The uniformity of spelling seems to indicate an earlier tradition of writing. The only known copy of the Meshari is held by the Apostolic Library.[76] In 1968 the book was published with transliterations and comments by linguists.
Disputed earlier textEdit
In 1967 two scholars claimed to have found a brief text in Albanian inserted into the Bellifortis text, a book written in Latin dating to 1402–1405.[77]
"A star has fallen in a place in the woods, distinguish the star, distinguish it.
Distinguish the star from the others, they are ours, they are.
Do you see where the great voice has resounded? Stand beside it
That thunder. It did not fall. It did not fall for you, the one which would do it.
Like the ears, you should not believe ... that the moon fell when ...
Try to encompass that which spurts far ...
Call the light when the moon falls and no longer exists ..."
Dr. Robert Elsie, a specialist in Albanian studies, considers that "The Todericiu/Polena Romanian translation of the non-Latin lines, although it may offer some clues if the text is indeed Albanian, is fanciful and based, among other things, on a false reading of the manuscript, including the exclusion of a whole line."[78]
Ottoman periodEdit
In 1635, Frang Bardhi (1606–1643) published in Rome his Dictionarum latinum-epiroticum, the first known Latin-Albanian dictionary. Other scholars who studied the language during the 17th century include Andrea Bogdani (1600–1685), author of the first Latin-Albanian grammar book, Nilo Katalanos (1637–1694) and others.[79]
Cognates with IllyrianEdit
- Andena/Andes/Andio/Antis — personal Illyrian names based on a root-word and- or ant-, found in both the southern and the Dalmatian-Pannonian (including modern Bosnia and Herzegovina) onomastic provinces; cf. Alb. andë (northern Albanian dialect, or Gheg) and ëndë (southern Albanian dialect or Tosk) "appetite, pleasure, desire, wish"; Andi proper name, Andizetes, an Illyrian people inhabiting the Roman province of Panonia.[80]
- aran "field"; cf. Alb. arë; plural ara[81]
- Ardiaioi/Ardiaei, name of an Illyrian people, cf. Alb. ardhja "arrival" or "descent", connected to hardhi "vine-branch, grape-vine", with a sense development similar to Germanic *stamniz, meaning both stem, tree stalk and tribe, lineage. However, the insufficiency of this theory is that so far there is no certainty as to the historical or etymological development of either ardhja/hardhi or Ardiaioi, as with many other words.[80]
- Bilia "daughter"; cf. Alb. bijë, dial. bilë[82]
- Bindo/Bindus, an Illyrian deity from Bihać, Bosnia and Herzegovina; cf. Alb. bind "to convince" or "to make believe", përbindësh "monster".[83]
- bounon, "hutt, cottage"; cf. Alb bun[84]
- brisa, "husk of grapes"; cf. Alb bërsí "lees, dregs; mash" ( < PA *brutiā)[85]
- Barba- "swamp", a toponym from Metubarbis; possibly related to Alb. bërrakë "swampy soil"[85]
- can- "dog"; related to Alb. qen[85]
- Daesitiates, a name of an Illyrian people, cf. Alb. dash "ram", corresponding contextually with south Slavonic dasa "ace", which might represent a borrowing and adaptation from Illyrian (or some other ancient language).[80]
- mal, "mountain"; cf. Alb mal[86]
- bardi, "white"; cf. Alb bardhë[87]
- drakoina "supper"; cf. Alb. darke, dreke[88]
- drenis, "deer"; cf. Alb dre, dreni[84]
- delme "sheep"; cf. Alb dele, Gheg dialect delme[89]
- dard, "pear"; cf. Alb dardhë[90]
- Hyllus (the name of an Illyrian king); cf. Alb. yll (hyll in some northern dialects) "star", also Alb. hyj "god", Ylli proper name.[88]
- sīca, "dagger"; cf. Alb thikë or thika "knife"[91]
- Ulc-, "wolf" (pln. Ulcinium); cf. Alb ujk "wolf", ulk (Northern Dialect)[92]
- loúgeon, "pool"; cf. Alb lag, legen "to wet, soak, bathe, wash" ( < PA *lauga), lëgatë "pool" ( < PA *leugatâ), lakshte "dew" ( < PA laugista)[93]
- mag- "great"; cf. Alb. i madh "big , great"[85]
- mantía "bramblebush"; Old and dial. Alb mandë "berry, mulberry" (mod. Alb mën, man)[citation needed]
- rhinos, "fog, mist"; cf. Old Alb ren "cloud" (mod. Alb re, rê) ( < PA *rina)[94]
- Vendum "place"; cf. Proto-Alb. wen-ta (Mod. Alb. vend)[88]
Early Greek loansEdit
There are some 30 Ancient Greek loanwords in Albanian.[95] Many of these reflect a dialect which voiced its aspirants, as did the Macedonian dialect. Other loanwords are Doric; these words mainly refer to commodity items and trade goods and probably came through trade with a now-extinct intermediary.[21]
- bletë; "hive, bee" < Attic mélitta "bee" (vs. Ionic mélissa).[96]
- drapër; "sickle" < (NW) drápanon[97]
- kumbull; "plum" < kokkúmelon[97]
- lakër; "cabbage, green vegetables" < láchanon "green; vegetable"[98]
- lëpjetë; "orach, dock" < lápathon[99]
- leva (lyej); "to smear, oil" < *liwenj < *elaiwā < Gk elai(w)ṓn "oil"[clarification needed]
- mokër; "millstone" < (NW) māchaná "device, instrument"[95]
- mollë; "apple" < mēlon "fruit"[100]
- pjepër; "melon" < pépōn
- presh; "leek" < práson[98]
- shpellë; "cave" < spḗlaion
- trumzë; "thyme" < (NW) thýmbrā, thrýmbrē[97]
Gothic loansEdit
Some Gothic loanwords were borrowed through Late Latin, while others came from the Ostrogothic expansion into parts of Praevalitana around Nakšić and the Gulf of Kotor in Montenegro.
- fat; "groom, husband" < Goth brūþfaþs "bridegroom"[101]
- horr; "scoundrel", horrë; "hussy, whore" < Goth hors "adulterer", *hora "whore"[citation needed]
- shkulkë; "boundary marker for pastures made of branches" < Late Latin sculca < Goth skulka "guardian"[citation needed]
- shkumë; "foam" < Late Latin < Goth skūma[citation needed]
- tirq; "trousers" < Late Latin tubrucus < Goth *þiobrok "knee-britches"; cf. OHG dioh-bruoh, Eng thigh, breeches[citation needed]
Other loansEdit
It is assumed[by whom?] that Greek and Balkan Latin (which was the ancestor of Romanian and other Balkan Romance languages) had exerted a great influence on Albanian. Examples of words borrowed from Latin: qytet < civitas (city), qiell < caelum (sky), mik < amicus (friend).
After the Slavs arrived in the Balkans, the Slavic languages became an additional source of loanwords. The rise of the Ottoman Empire meant an influx of Turkish words; this also entailed the borrowing of Persian and Arabic words through Turkish. Many Albanian names (such as Enver Hoxha) are of Turkish origin. Some loanwords from Modern Greek also exist especially in the south of Albania. A lot of the borrowed words have been re-substituted from Albanian rooted words or modern Latinized (international) words.
See alsoEdit
- Arbëresh language
- Arvanitika
- Dacian language
- Gheg Albanian
- Illyrian languages
- IPA for Albanian
- List of Romanian words of possible Dacian origin – occasional correspondence in Albanian
- Thraco-Illyrian
- Tosk Albanian
- ^ Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute between the Republic of Kosovo and the Republic of Serbia. The Republic of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence on 17 February 2008, but Serbia continues to claim it as part of its own sovereign territory. The two governments began to normalise relations in 2013, as part of the Brussels Agreement. Kosovo has received formal recognition as an independent state from 111 out of 193 United Nations member states.
- ^* This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo Declaration of Independence.
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- Ylli, Xhelal; Sobolev, Andrej N. Albanskii gegskii govor sela Muhurr. Muenchen: Biblion Verlag, 2003. ISBN 3-932331-36-2
- ^ a b Euromosaic project (2006). "L'arvanite/albanais en Grèce" (in French). Brussels: European Commission. Retrieved 2016-12-05.
- ^ a b c Albanian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Arbëresh at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Arvanitika at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Gheg at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Tosk at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Albanian". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "Robert Elsie". The Albanian Language. 1972-11-25. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Fatjona Mejdini (2013-05-03). "Albania Aims to Register its Huge Diaspora". Balkan Insight. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond (1976). Migrations and invasions in Greece and adjacent areas. Noyes Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-8155-5047-1. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
- ^ Zeitschrift für Balkanologie. R. Trofenik. 1990. p. 102. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
- ^ Robert Elsie (2010). Historical Dictionary of Albania. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-8108-6188-6. Retrieved 30 September 2013.
- ^ Torte, Rexhep (2009-08-04). "Përfundoi shënimi i 100-vjetorit të Kongresit të Dibrës". Albaniapress.
- ^ Fine, JA. The Early medieval Balkans. University of Michigan Press, 1991. p.11. Google Books
- ^ In his latest book, Eric Hamp supports the thesis that the Illyrian language belongs to the Northwestern group, that the Albanian language is descended from Illyrian, and that Albanian is related to Messapic which is an earlier Illyrian dialect (Comparative Studies on Albanian, 2007).
- ^ The ancient languages of Europe - Roger D. Woodard "The modern Albanian language, it has been conjectured, is descendent directly from ancient illyrian..."
- ^ Curtis, Matthew Cowan. "Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence". ProQuest LLC. p. 16. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
It is generally accepted that Albanians continue one of the ancient languages of the Balkans, although scholars disagree on which language they spoke and what area of the Balkans they occupied before the Slavs' migration to the Balkans..line feed character in
|quote=at position 6 (help)
- ^ Curtis, Matthew Cowan. "Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence". ProQuest LLC. p. 18. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
So while linguists may debate about the ties between Albanian and older languages of the Balkans, and while most Albanians may take the genealogical connection to Illyrian as incontrovertible, the fact remains that there is simply insufficient evidence to connect Illyrian, Thracian, or Dacian with any language, including Albanian
- ^ a b Ann Taylor, Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow, 2000, "Character Based Reconstruction of a Linguistic Cladogram", in (eds) John Charles Smith, Delia Bentley Historical Linguistics 1995: Volume 1: General issues and non-Germanic Languages. Selected papers from the 12th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Manchester, August 1995, Amsterdam, John Benjamins Publishing, p. 400.
- ^ "CPHL: Computational Phylogenetics In Historical Linguistics], an ongoing collaborative project that has involved Don Ringe, Tandy Warnow, Luay Nakhleh & Steven N. Evans since 2004". Cs.rice.edu. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Hamp 1994, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Watkins 1998, p. 38.
- ^ Labov 1994, p. 42.
- ^ a b Huld, Martin E. (1986). "Accentual Stratification of Ancient Greek Loanwords in Albanian". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung (99.2): 245–253.
- ^ Curtis, Matthew Cowan. "Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence". ProQuest LLC. p. 16.
The number of loanwords is not necessarily a compelling argument for geographical placement, as loanwords may be replaced in subsequent developments of the language (especially considering the copious borrowing that Albanian later did from Latin and Slavic before any lexicon of Albanian was ever compiled)... homeland of the Albanians.
- ^ Douglas Q. Adams (January 1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
The loan words from Greek and Latin date back to before the Christian era and suggest that the ancestors of the Albanians must have occupied Albania by then to have absorbed such loans from their historical neighbors. As the Illyrians occupied the Albanian territory at this time, they are the most likely recipients of such loans.
- ^ Vladimir Orel (2000). A concise historical grammar of the Albanian language: reconstruction of Proto-Albanian. BRILL. p. 23. ISBN 978-90-04-11647-4.
Latin loanwords are of extreme importance for the history of Albanian phonology, especially its vocalism. The duration of the borrowing was so long that loanwords reflect several distinct chronological stages.
- ^ Curtis, Matthew Cowan. "Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence". ProQuest LLC. p. 17.
One other point that some scholars make is the fact that Albanian and Romanian share many lexical items; this has led some to believe that Albanian originated east of its present geographical spread (Georgiev 1957; Hamp 1994).
- ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 9.
- ^ Kopitar 1829, p. 254.
- ^ Meyer 1888, p. 805.
- ^ Meyer-Lübke 1914, p. 32.
- ^ Bardhyl Demiraj (2010). Wir sind die Deinen. Studien zur albanischen Sprache, Literatur und Kulturgeschichte, dem Gedenken an Martin Camaj (1925–1992) gewidmet. Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-06221-3.
- ^ Çabej 1962, pp. 13–51.
- ^ Mihaescu 1966, pp. 1, 30.
- ^ Mihaescu 1966, pp. 1, 21.
- ^ Mihaescu 1966, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Rosetti 1986, pp. 195–197.
- ^ Curtis, Matthew Cowan. "Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence". ProQuest LLC. p. 17.
for example, argues that from some indeterminate time a pre-Albanian (in Hamp's terms, Albanoid) population inhabited areas stretching from Poland to the current area
- ^ a b Hamp 1963.
- ^ Fine 1991, p. 10.
- ^ Kazhdan 1991, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Brown & Ogilvie 2008, p. 23.
- ^ Fortson 2004, p. 392.
- ^ Demiraj 1999.
- ^ Pantić, Miroslav (1990). Književnost na tlu Crne Gore i Boke Kotorske od XVI do XVIII veka. Srpska književna zadruga. p. 98.
- ^ Fortson, Benjamin W (2004). Indo-European language and culture: an introduction. Blackwell Publishing. p. 390. ISBN 1-4051-0315-9. Retrieved 28 May 2010. Albanian forms its own separate branch of Indo-European; it is the last branch to appear in written records
- ^ Watkins, Calvert. "Proto-Indo-European: Comparison and Reconstruction", in The Indo-European Languages, Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat, eds. London: Routledge, 1998.
- ^ Google Books, Mallory, J. P. and Adams, D. Q.: The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World
- ^ JHholm.de, Holm, Hans J.: The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages. In: Christine Preisach, Hans Burkhardt, Lars Schmidt-Thieme, Reinhold Decker (eds.): Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications. Proc. of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, 7–9 March 2007. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg-Berlin
- ^ HJholm.de A possible Homeland of the Indo-European Languages And their Migrations in the Light of the Separation Level Recovery (SLRD) Method – Hans J. Holm
- ^ "Perfect Phylogenetic Networks: A New Methodology for Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Natural Languages, pg. 396" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 November 2010. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
- ^ Fine, JA. The Early medieval Balkans. University of Michigan Press, 1991. p.10. Google Books: "Recently the Albanian-Illyrian identification has come under more serious challenge from linguists"
- ^ Fine, JA. The Early medieval Balkans. University of Michigan Press, 1991. p.11. Google Books
- ^ a b "FWF Austrian Science Fund – Press – (Old) Albanian – Living legacy of a dead language?". Fwf.ac.at. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture By J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams Edition: illustrated Published by Taylor & Francis, 1997 ISBN 1-884964-98-2, ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5
- ^ Gjinari, Jorgji. Dialektologjia shqiptare
- ^ Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World By Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie Contributor Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie Edition: illustrated Published by Elsevier, 2008 ISBN 0-08-087774-5, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7
- ^ a b c d Agim Morina, "Udhërrëfyes i shkurtë i historisë së standardizimit të shqipes," DodonaPress (2015-02-21), also in Plisi.org (2015-02-24).
- ^ a b c Lloshi, p. 10.
- ^ Kostallari, Androkli (1973). Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe. "Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë" ( in "Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë", today "Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë"),.
- ^ Kostallari, Androkli (1976). Fjalori drejtshkrimor i gjuhës shqipe. "Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë" (in "Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë", today "Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë"),.
- ^ "Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë", today "Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë" , "Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë" (Albania). (1980). Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe. Tirana: Academy of Sciences of Albania. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
- ^ a b Lloshi, p. 9.
- ^ a b Lloshi, p. 12.
- ^ "Basic Facts". President.gov.mk. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Kolgjini, Julie M. (2004). Palatalization in albanian : an acoustic investigation of stops and affricates. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Texas at Arlington. ISBN 0496859366.
- ^ Orel, Vladimir (2000). A concise historical grammar of the Albanian language: reconstruction of Proto-Albanian. BRILL. p. 3. ISBN 978-90-04-11647-4. Retrieved 15 December 2010
- ^ de Vaan, Michiel. "PIE *e in Albanian" (PDF). p. 72. Retrieved 16 December 2010.
- ^ Elsie, Robert; (London, Centre for Albanian Studies; England) (2005). Albanian literature: a short history. I.B.Tauris. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-84511-031-4. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
- ^ a b Granser, Thedor; Moosmüller, Sylvia. "The schwa in Albanian" (PDF). Institute of Acoustics of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
- ^ Maxwell, Daniel Newhall. (1979). A Crosslinguistic Correlation between Word Order and Casemarking institution. Bloomington: Indiana University Pub.
- ^ Aida Kurani; Anisa Trifoni. "Syntactic Similarities and Differences between Albanian and English". Eujournal.org. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Robert Elsie (2005). Albanian Literature: A Short History. I.B.Tauris. pp. 5–. ISBN 978-1-84511-031-4.
- ^ Prifti 1982, p. 3.
- ^ Iorga & 1s971, p. 102.
- ^ Anamali 2002, p. 311.
- ^ Lloshi 2008, p. 97.
- ^ "Meshari". National Library of Albania. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
- ^ Todericiu 1967.
- ^ Elsie 1986, p. 158–162.
- ^ Marmullaku 1975, p. 17.
- ^ a b c "Cultural Treasure of Bosnia and Herzegovina edition-Prehistoric and Ancient Period- Book 2- Illyrian Bosnia and Herzegovina-an Overview of a Cultural Legacy/ Ancient Illyrians of Bosnia and Herzegovina | Ardian Adžanela Adzanela Axhanela". Academia.edu. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Suart E. Mann (1977). An Albanian Historical Grammar. Buske. ISBN 978-3-87118-262-4.
- ^ Sborník prací Filozofické fakulty brněnské univerzity : Řada klasická. Books.google.com. 2008-06-03. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Ushaku, Ruzhdi, Hulumtime etnoliguistike, chapter: The continuation of Illyrian Bind in Albanian Mythology and Language, Fakulteti filologjise, Prishtine, 2000, p. 46-48
- ^ a b Mayani, Zĕchariă (1962). The Etruscans begin to speak. Souvenir Press. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ a b c d "Illyrian Glossary". bizland.com.
- ^ Stipčević, Aleksandar (1977). The Illyrians: history and culture. Noyes Press. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ Linguistic Society of America (1964). Language, Volumes 1–3. Linguistic Society of America. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ a b c Orel, Vladimir; Albanian Etymological Dictionary, Brill, 1998 ISBN 90 04 11024 0
- ^ Diokletian und die Tetrarchie: Aspekte einer Zeitenwende. Millennium Studies. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ Homeric whispers: intimations of orthodoxy in the Iliad and Odyssey. Books.google.com. p. 72. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ Albanien: Schätze aus dem Land der Skipetaren. Books.google.com. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ Ancient Indo-European dialects: proceedings, Volume 1963. Millennium Studies. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ An Albanian historical grammar. Books.google.com. 1977. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
- ^ Indo-european language and culture: an introduction Blackwell textbooks in linguistics Author Benjamin W. Fortson Edition 2, illustrated, reprint Publisher John Wiley and Sons, 2009 ISBN 1-4051-8896-0, ISBN 978-1-4051-8896-8 p.465
- ^ a b The Field of Linguistics, Volume 2 Volume 1 of World of linguistics Authors Bernd Kortmann, Johan Van Der Auwera Editors Bernd Kortmann, Johan Van Der Auwera Publisher Walter de Gruyter, 2010 ISBN 3-11-022025-3, ISBN 978-3-11-022025-4 p.412
- ^ Vladimir Orel (2000) postulates a Vulgar Latin intermediary for no good reason. Mallory & Adams (1997) erroneously give the word as native, from *melítiā, the protoform underlying Greek mélissa; however, this protoform gave Albanian mjalcë "bee", which is a natural derivative of Proto-Albanian *melita "honey" (mod. mjaltë).
- ^ a b c Ancient Indo-European dialects: proceedings, Volume 1963 Ancient Indo-European Dialects: Proceedings, University of California, Los Angeles. Center for Research in Languages and Linguistics Authors Henrik Birnbaum, Jaan Puhvel, University of California, Los Angeles. Center for Research in Languages and Linguistics Editors Henrik Birnbaum, Jaan Puhvel Publisher University of California Press, 1966 p.102
- ^ a b A concise historical grammar of the Albanian language: reconstruction of Proto-Albanian Author Vladimir Ė. Orel Publisher BRILL, 2000 ISBN 90-04-11647-8, ISBN 978-90-04-11647-4 p.23
- ^ A concise historical grammar of the Albanian language: reconstruction of Proto-Albanian Author Vladimir Ė. Orel Publisher BRILL, 2000 ISBN 90-04-11647-8, ISBN 978-90-04-11647-4 p.102
- ^ Guillaum Bonnet, Les mots latins de l'albanais (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1998), 324.
- ^ The word fat has both the meaning of "fate, luck" and "groom, husband". This may indicate two separate words that are homophones, one derived from Gothic and the other from Latin fātum; although, Orel (2000) sees them as the same word. Similarly, compare Albanian shortë "fate; spouse, wife" which mirrors the dichotomy in meaning of fat but is considered to stem from one single source—Latin sortem "fate".
- ^ Saggio di grammatologia comparata sulla lingua albanese. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Demetrio Camarda. Appendice al saggio de Grammatologia comparata sulla lingua albanese. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ a b Anna Giacalone Ramat; Paolo Ramat. The Indo-European Languages. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Benjamin W. Fortson, IV. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Paul Kretschmer. Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Gustav Meyer. Albanesische Studien. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Vladimir Ė Orel. A Concise Historical Grammar of the Albanian Language: Reconstruction of ... Books.google.com. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
- ^ Untersuchungen όber die Geschichte der φstlichen europδischen Vφlker. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2017-01-17.
External linksEdit
|Albanian edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Albanian language
|For a list of words relating to Albanian language, see the Albanian language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Albanian language.
|Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Albanian.
- Albanian Lessons (free online through the Linguistics Research Center at UT Austin)
- Albanian Translation
- Albanian Dictionary
- Albanian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
- Albanian basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
- Doctor John Bassett Trumper discussing the classification of Albanian within Indo-European on YouTube
- The emblematic figure of the Albanian linguist, Pr. Eqrem ÇABEJ (1908–1980, by Prof. Remzi Përnaska on the cultural website Albania (fr), (sh), (en)
- Dictionaries
- Albanian Online Dictionary (40 000 lemmas)
- English – Albanian / Albanian – English
- Dictionary on Western Barbarisms and Albanian Responsible Words entry on the National Library of Albania (Hysenbegasi, Arion. Fjalor i barbarizmave perëndimore në gjuhën shqipe dhe fjalëve përgjegjëse shqipe. Ombra GVG, Tirana, 2011)


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text:
Jay-Z: I'd Be Willing To Pay More Taxes For 'The Things That Mattered'
Warren Buffet, the investment wizard who is also one of the world's wealthiest men, has long advocated for higher taxes on the superrich. Now Jay-Z, Buffett's pal and himself a member of the upper tier of the 1 percent, is joining him.
"Me, personally, I wouldn't mind paying more in taxes if it went to the things that really mattered," he said to CNN. "If it went to education, to people in poverty, I wouldn't mind."
Added Hov, "I think most people with a conscience, with some integrity and moral fiber wouldn't have any problem paying more taxes."
Last month, Jay-Z came under fire when his clothing label, Rocawear, began selling t-shirts which read "Occupy All Streets." But revenue from the shirts's sales were not going to support the Occupy protesters, and critics said the rap superstar was cynically profiting from the movement.


text:
- Details
fabric surface "broken through", out of 100% polyamide, folded in half
- Description
As a real classic among deco materials deco-tulle has never had to play second fiddle to any passing fad. No other material is able to nonchalantly bedazzle a room quite like this "filigree textile". Deco-tulle is delivered folded in half, that is, folded lengthwise before being wound together.


text:
|Message view
|« Date » · « Thread »
|« Date » · « Thread »
|Thorsten Scherler <thors...@apache.org>
|Re: dispatcher project contracts
|Sun, 26 Feb 2006 14:54:04 GMT
El sáb, 25-02-2006 a las 19:16 -0500, Tim Williams escribió: > Is anyone having trouble creating a project contract? I've created my > .ft contract and placed it in > projectHOME/resources/themes/common/html/mycontract.ft I referenced > it in my fv file, refreshed... nothing. Did you restart forrest run? http://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/FOR-711 Like I often said you need to restart forrest if you add a contract/structurer to a new location. That is the caching issue I have found many times with the lm. Let me explain which problem I faced while my presentation in Malaga. I started a fresh seed with the dispatcher plugins activated. In the fresh site we did not add a default structurer in the resources/themes dir. BTW I would not recommend to add one till we settled a wee bit the current development on the dispatcher. Anyhow, if no theme definition can be found in the project then the default plugins structurer will be returned. Good as gold till here. Now I added a new structurer to my project in a location that has priority over the "last" fallback. As described in earlier mails the locationmap returns the cached location. You need to restart forrest to clear the locationmap cache. > Look in > localhost:8888/ls.contracts.project.source(or whatever it is)... It is http://localhost:8888/ls.contracts.project.html for project contracts and http://localhost:8888/ls.contracts.html for plugin contracts > nothing listed. As far as I can tell so far there's might be > something weird going on wherein {project:resources} in > dispatcher/locationmap.xml sees the project==o.a.p.i.dispatcher. > Anyway, it could very well be a problem on my end but thought I'd ask > and see if it's broke for anyone else before I spend time on it. > Try the restart. ;) > > Thanks, > --tim -- thorsten "Together we stand, divided we fall!" Hey you (Pink Floyd)
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text:
Land – for living, Sale, Malacky, Slovakia
104.000,00 €
incl. commissions, mortgage possible
Land – for living, Sale, Pernek, Num. ZR-PB-115
We sell a beautiful building plot 1874 m2 in the village Pernek - Malacky. The property is located under the trees in a quiet neighborhood built in the village in the direction of Pezinok. IS the plot is 220 / 380V electricity, municipal water on the boundary + (dug well) and gas. Land has the shape of a rectangle about 32 x 52 meters and has a building permission for the construction of gender. house. The plot leads asphalt access road and is fenced. The land is sloping, oriented to the south side with a nice view. On the property are two small brick buildings 23 m2 and 54 m2.
more information
Listing summary
1874 m²
water well and public water-supply
Real Estate Agency 66 offers
CREDITORS s. r. o.
Laskomerského 6
Bratislava 831 03
0948 522 268
Real Estate Agent 49 offers
realitná kancelária CREDITORS
0948 522 367
Your Listing seems interesting, please contact me.
You might also be interested in
Land – for living, Sale, Malacky, Slovakia
166.850,00 €
127727x Listing appeared in search results
2740x Listing viewed detailed
167x The offer was shown this month


text:
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text:
I am for lack of a better word,disapointed with my life right now.Everything has less and less flavor and i seem to be more and more aquainted with failure.
Sleep brings very little reprive from mundane shores and daily work,I am lost.
I find no way out for the moment.


text:
Change has always been inevitably and drastic and usually expected.
It has become part of life, affecting businesses greatly in an attempt of each business trying to outdo each other through competition. The old days when businesses held knowledge independently are gone as currently each emerging trend is always at each business's disposal. Let's take a look at the forces expected to influence small business marketing significantly this year.
Content Marketing
Traditional advertising is no longer sufficient enough to capture consumers attention. So, many businesses are adapting content marketing, a creative way of attracting prospects and enticing them to join your list and eventually be converted into customers. This marketing strategy requires posting guides, uploading how-to videos, expert interviews, case studies, contests where audience nominate winners. This type of has been proven to be efficient enough to spawn new business.
The key is authentic and unique content that will keeps visitors entertained. Once a business understands how its marketing strategies are received by the market, it can opt for direct marketing rather than creating content that is not straight to the point.
Data Analysis
Data analysis has been in use for a long time and is increasingly important for small business owners to analyze and forecast various changes in trend relating to their industry. By analyzing data, business owners are able to understand their customers, market trends and various business elements. Data analysis as a marketing strategy needs to be used wisely since at times data can be misleading if not critically analyzed.
Mobile Marketing
Smartphones remain an important part of technology with over 6.8 billion users and growing. If that is the case, you would think most companies were fine tuning their marketing strategies to include mobile marketing. Not so! This will change as we progress in 2014. Companies will find innovative ways to market to consumers who are either shopping online or offline, browsing products attributes or socializing via mobile devices. You will see an increase in marketing oriented Apps and innovative ways consumers are being be tracked. For example:
- Location Based Marketing will allow companies to track specific products consumers are buying in real time thus they can market at that time.
- Multimedia Messaging Service is on the rise according to leading marketers. These experts have seen 40% annual growth over the past few years.
Social Media Marketing & Measurement Tools
Every social platform has analytical results measuring its performance. For instance, Facebook offers in depth analysis from the number of people reading posts, new likes, to the amount of traffic at any given time. The statics are then coupled together to provide meaningful data of how your business is performing. This allows you to make adjustments to your overall marketing strategy.
Short Storytelling
Storytelling is a powerful tool just like music with the ability to soothe and draw attention. Most businesses have taken this concept and are highly marketing their brands through short stories as brief as six seconds while others might be relatively long. Using this innovative marketing trend, you must be able to tell a short story that speaks convincingly about yourself or the impact your product or service had on your customers.
In conclusion, business success and growth heavily depends on its marketing strategy and the ability to penetrate more markets than competitors, thus increasing the market share. With these five marketing trends expected to have great impact on businesses this year, a lot more changes are expected in future.


text:
In Lunn Poly we were shown a self-catering flat in the Aparthotel Columbus in Playa de las Americas, Tenerife. Two weeks in July would cost £1,482 for two adults and a child, including £258 sale discount.
Flying by night would cost £1,152. At First Choice we were offered two weeks in the Aparthotel Panorama in the same resort for £1,240. We pointed out Lunn Poly's cheaper quote - which they matched with the same deal at the Columbus.
But, we asked, why should we book with First Choice rather than their rivals? A breezy manageress intervened: "We only make £100 on that booking - 10 per cent - but I could give you another £50 off..."
- More about:
- Canary Islands
- Tenerife


text:
Jockeys are often asked to give tips in private boxes at the races, and both negative and positive tips are a familiar part of British racing since the advent of betting exchanges, a jury at the Old Bailey heard yesterday in the trial of six-time champion jockey Kieren Fallon and five other men on a charge of conspiracy to defraud.
Seeking to establish that "negative" tips are now commonplace, John Kelsey-Fry QC, for Fallon, asked David O'Reilly, Betfair's legal advisor, if he was aware of Barry "The Bismark" Dennis, "who appears on Channel 4 Racing."
"He will nominate a short-priced favourite usually," Kelsey-Fry said, "that he proposes to field. What he is saying is that the favourite has much less chance of winning than the market would suggest."
O'Reilly confirmed this to be the case, and also that it is common for exchange punters to try to identify "false favourites". He was also asked to explain the difference between a punter's liability on a bet, and the profit he or she stands to make.
In particular, Peter Kelson QC, for Miles Rodgers, who is charged along with Fallon, sought to establish that, in O'Reilly's opinion, this difference must have been clear to the police officers whose investigation led to the current trial. This followed evidence earlier in the case that Rodgers had liabilities of £2m on the races in question. "You have no reason whatsoever to think," Kelson asked him, "that those officers were sent away from your office thinking that Mr Rodgers might have profited to the tune of £2m?"
O'Reilly answered: "I don't think that would have been possible."
Later, William Nunnelley of the British Horseracing Authority gave evidence about the workings of British stewards. The prosecution is to call Australian racing expert Ray Murrihy to give evidence that he would have called inquiries into a number of the races in the case.
Nunnelley was asked whether he was aware that Malcolm Wallace, the BHA's director of regulation, had expressed "surprise that Mr Murrihy felt able" to offer evidence to the trial. "I was not aware of that," Nunnelley said.
The trial continues.


text:
The best things in life happens when you least expect it
To my partner in crime, Clare.
Clare closes her eyes against the memories these words bring back. Their primary school teachers had dubbed them 'partners in crime' because they often managed to smuggle notes through classrooms in a masterly fashion.
I am so sorry for doing this.
I'm sure it will be a big shock to you. I tried my best to hide this terrible darkness inside of me from you, and I hope I succeeded. Maybe you'll have the brains to figure it all out by the time you graduate.
I just want to tell you that this is not your fault. I simply cannot keep living with what I know. I have no control over what is happening. I hope that you will understand someday.
"Well, that day still hasn't arrived!" Clare mutters, furiously trying to stem the tears streaming down her cheeks with a sleeve.
I'm sure you remember our pact to go on a great adventure after graduation. I want you to go, even though I won't be with you. I know you are going to change the world. You just need to see a bit of it before you start.
My mother has the file with all the details you'll need. You didn't think I'd send you on a trip without planning it properly, did you? I've been saving for years, as you know. I want you to use the money for the trip. I know you might otherwise not go, and it is important that you do. Remember, the best things in life happen when you least expect it! I'm convinced that what I've got planned for you will change your life –and eventually the world.
I will be with you every step of your journey.
I will always love you.
Your bestie,
Clare's thoughts are racing. She was planning on languidly going through summer before starting university.
Now she's going on an adventure. According to Lauren's plans, the trip of a lifetime.
With a deep breath she joins her parents and Mrs Hatfield in the kitchen. It seems that Mrs Hatfield has brought her parents up to speed. They smile at her encouragingly, her father's arm wrapped around her mom's shoulder, like it always is whenever there are difficult decisions to make.
Wordlessly, Mrs Hatfield hands her a thick file.
The sheer weight of its significance almost takes her breath away. Her best friend must have been working on this for months while she contemplated her own demise.
Her heart is racing. What possibilities lie within the file? If she didn't even suspect that Lauren planned on committing suicide, how could she possibly guess what she had planned for her?
Squaring her shoulders, she opens the neatly covered file.


text:
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text:
Wichita Wildcat Classic tickets going fast
Tickets are going fast for Kansas State's men's basketball game on Saturday against No. 21/15 Gonzaga in the Wichita Wildcat Classic at Intrust Bank Arena.
Fans can still purchase tickets for the matchup for $12 for upper-level ends of the arena, while there remain options for lower-level ends and upper-level midcourt for $35 and upper-level corners for $20. These tickets are available through the game's website — www.PaintWichitaPurple.com — as well as all Select-A-Seat locations at www.SelectASeat.com or by calling (855) 755-7328.
The game will be televised nationally on ESPN2 at 2:30 p.m. with Carter Blackburn and Sean Farnham on the call.


text:
Here is just some of the news that made the news in the Kankakee Valley this week:
Oregon-Davis School Superintendent Steve Disney said the school year has started off on a high note, after seeing improved ISTEP scores in the 2010-2011 school year.
Billy Coldiron and Clarence Norem were arrested recently in North Judson. Coldiron is charged with five counts of Possession of a Firearm by a Serious Violent Felon, Dealing Methamphetamine, Possession of Methamphetamine, and Possession of Precursors. Norem is charged with Possession of a Firearm by a Serious Violent Felon.
The Marshall County Coroner released the preliminary autopsy finds in the case of Brian Lehiy, an employee of an auto salvage facility, who was accidentally crushed when a car fell on him. His injuries were consistent with positional traumatic asphyxiation.
Pulaski County 4-H Fair Queen Stacy Gudas was the third runner up in the State Fair Queen Pageant over the weekend. Erika Elaine Burghardt of Tippecanoe County topped 87 other contestants to earn the title of Miss Indiana State Fair. Lauren Jernas of Starke County also competed in the pageant.
The Hamlet candidates have been set for the November General Election races. In a Republican Town Convention held on Sunday, Dave Kesvormas defeated Todd Lienbach 20-19 in the Town Council 2 Race, and Deb Goble defeated Jill Hovarter 23-16 in the Clerk-Treasurer's race.
Under a new Indiana law, names of unopposed candidates will not be shown on the General Election ballot in November. The only contested Knox race that will appear will be the Knox City Council seat that will feature Democrat candidates Don Kring and Thom Morin.
Reagent Chemical and Research, Inc., in Knox, announced a $1,000,000 expansion this week through the Starke County Economic Development Foundation office. A 10,600 sq. foot facility will be constructed to house a general truck maintenance operation. Construction is expected to take about six months.
Sabre Manufacturing in Knox is planning to expand its business. The Knox City Council approved their newly purchased property as an Economic Revitalization Area.
Starke County officials are in Colorado this week to attend the National Institute of Corrections Conference. The course focuses on the critical elements of planning a new facility including collecting and using data, pre-architectural programming, site evaluation, project management and determining staff needs.
During a gas pricing forum in Knox Thursday night, Scott Imus said that the commodity market is mainly to blame for the price of fuel. He said that most of the time, gas stations are selling gas at a loss because of credit card fees and taxes.
The Knox City Council is considering dissolving the Knox City Court due to funding issues.
Vandals have taken to the Monterey Elementary School and daily checks of the building are being conducted to keep the building maintained as much as possible. Any suspicious activity is to be reported to the Pulaski County Sheriff's Department.
Knox City Police Department officers recovered a vehicle this week that was reported stolen from the Cambe Dealership in Knox in November. The truck was found to be in the possession of Cheyenne Allen and he said he allegedly purchased it from two subjects. Allen was arrested an charged with Auto Theft.
And that is just some of the news that made the news in the Kankakee Valley this week.


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text:
People helping people transition from incarceration to the community.
Promote safer communities through successful transition.
Circles of Support will…
- Foster an environment of acceptance for the individual's return to the community
- Promote positive social interaction and responsibility
- Focus on the future rather than the past
- Focus on the individual's strengths and struggles
- Plan for success
- Support and recognize individual accomplishments
- Mobilize community resources
Stay up-to-date with us!
- Click here for a March 23, 2017 story from The Post-Crescent about the value of volunteering for Circles of Support.
- Click here for a July 17, 2016 story from the Oshkosh Northwestern on our group's visit to a Timber Rattlers game.
- Click here to see a June 2, 2016 Eye On Oshkosh video interview with Circles of Support regional director Anne Strauch.
- Click here for an Oct. 31, 2015 story from The Post-Crescent about Sandra Sweney, a longtime volunteer for Circles of Support.
- Click here for an Oct. 29, 2015 column by Alison Dirr of The Post-Crescent (Appleton/Fox Cities) on Circles of Support.
- Click here for a May 10, 2015 Green Bay Press-Gazette story on how Circles of Support changes lives.
- Follow us on Facebook!


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This content has been marked as final. Show 3 replies
1. Re: jndi lookup of remote EJB, using weblogic.xmlJay SenSharma MiddlewareMagic Jun 30, 2010 3:30 PM (in response to 782282)Hi,
Lookup in the JNDI tree...by default doesnt requires any Authentication. It means without using the Username & Password Informations u should be able to lookup your EJBs even if it is Located in a Remote Server. You need to pass the Credentials inside the Hashtable ....Only if your have secure the JNDI lookup of your EJBs....Which generally we dont do.
NOTE: Securing JNDI tree for Lookup is not related to EJBs....EJB Layer Security is different from JNDI level security....So using Deployment descriptor Tags <ejb-reference-description> You cannot make your EJB secure , You can just refer to it....For Lookup and access a JNDI tree u need to have Security implemented at JNDI layer...so naturally the JNDI Access/Authentication will be limited to JNDI lookup layer only.....
<font color=red>
Even there is NO mapping (Tag) available inside deployment descriptor as part of Tag <ejb-reference-description> ..which can be used.
*<ejb-reference-description>* can be used to refer to an EJB which is deployed on the Same Server...*u CANNOT even use it to access (reference) and EJB which is deployed on a Remote Server.*
</font>... Still if you want to authenticate a User ...before he looks up to the remote EJB ..then u need to provide authentication at the Web Layer.
Jay SenSharma
http://weblogic-wonders.com/weblogic (WebLogic Wonders Are Here)
2. Re: jndi lookup of remote EJB, using weblogic.xml782282 Jun 30, 2010 3:05 PM (in response to Jay SenSharma MiddlewareMagic)Thanks Jay ... that's the information I was missing.
3. Re: jndi lookup of remote EJB, using weblogic.xmldvohra21 Jul 1, 2010 12:41 AM (in response to 782282)Use the mapped name for session bean. The format of the global JNDI name is mappedName#qualified_name_of_businessInterface.
<remote_interface> beanRemote = (<remote_interface>) context.lookup("mappedName#qualified_name_of_businessInterface");


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Category:Alvin R. Dyer
English: Alvin R. Dyerwas an Assistant to the Quorum of the Twelve Apostle (1958-1967 & 1970-1976) and counselor in the First Presidency (1967 -1970) of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).
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Teddy Bear Motel & Restaurant
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Our last stop has been Gatlinburg, TN. We enjoyed our visit to the Dixie Stampede and Dollywood. Jim looked all over the place, high and low but never saw Dolly! We ran into the Compton's from Lexington who happened to be here too. We enjoyed having dinner together with Ben, Suzanne, Charlie and Nancy. It was nice to have friends to enjoy a meal with again.
It will be wonderful to be back in South Carolina even though there will be lots of changes from ...
Las Vegas of Tennessee
... just watching traffic go by. WHAT? That is positively bizarre behaviour! And if that isn't enough punishment, Jude and I treat ourselves to some more! We spy a diner, stop and gather our courage, and head in to explore options. It is rather late by this time so it is a little late thus we both decide to go puddings. I figure I can walk it off afterwards. I was not exactly prepared to receive what came out of the kitchen! That being said, ...
Massive Waterfalls
... difficult the last time I was here. It appeared that another tree had fallen and it was now near impossible to get through the mess of branches and logs. Instead, we climbed onto some rocks before the trees and were able to climb under them from river level. Now, we could see Big Falls. This certainly was a day for massive waterfalls. I ate the rest of my Subway and then we waded across the river and climbed onto the big ...
Aug 18th - 20th - Great Smoky Mountains
... br> Kaitlin made friends with a family who
had a girl either side of her in age so they swam together. We were
going to get together round the fire pit but it rained so they
watched a movie in the club house instead. Had a good chat to the dad
about travel and life. He had a tramping friend who had been to New
Zealand earlier this year and told them they had to go visit NZ at
some stage. Well, of course, everyone should!
North Carolina Continued
... Skyway was cancelled as it's very bleak and cold when it's raining due to its altitude, so we went in the other direction, we had not gone far before we had to stop to put water proofs on but Tom had left his wife's rain gear behind so we had to wait while he went back to get them but by the time he had got back ...