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Follow Raj Giri on Twitter at @RajGiri_303. Got a news tip or correction? Send it to us by clicking here.
Follow Raj Giri on Twitter at @RajGiri_303. Got a news tip or correction? Send it to us by clicking here.
Please see the Comments FAQ and make sure that you agree to our rules before posting.comments powered by Disqus
Asuka "Undefeated" Shirt (Photo), WWE RAW Star Turns 32, Extreme Rules Lethal Weapons (Video)
AJ Styles Vs. Shinsuke Nakamura Full Match, NJPW Best Of The Super Juniors (Night 10), Dominion
John Cena On What He Wants To Do With WWE After Wrestling, His Favorite WWE Moment, Greatest Match
Finn Balor On His Jack The Ripper Entrance At "NXT Takeover: London", Why The Night Was So Special
Eric Bischoff On Hulk Hogan Having Difficulty Being A Heel, Great Muta In The NWO
UFC Fight Night 109 Results: Alexander Gustafsson Shines Bright From Sweden
John Cena Teasing WWE Return, Seth Rollins NXT Debut (Video), Fans On Most Dangerous Weapon
Sound Off Reactions On Who Will Win The Fatal 5-Way Extreme Rules Match
Former WWE Diva Talks About Her Release From The Company, What Led Up To It
WWE Reportedly Asks "World Of Sport" Wrestler To Be In Women's Tournament
Justin Roberts Talks Triple H Blowing Him Off, JBL Changing After Being Punched By Joey Styles, More
Shinsuke Nakamura Getting WWE Title Shot, TV CEO Says WWE Needs "More Sami Zayns", Ric Flair (Video)
Road Warrior Animal On Why The Dudley Boyz Aren't A Legendary Tag Team, His Favorite Tag Teams, More
Flashback Video: The Undertaker Breaks Character To Celebrate Eddie Guerrero's Birthday
Jim Ross Speaks About His Drug Addiction, Breaking The Habit
Indie Wrestlers Mock Randy Orton (Video), Braun Strowman - Chipotle, Booker T Staying On Commentary


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Like a Hurricane
I loved his hair when it got too long,
and the way he looked bald when he got it cut.
I loved the way he looked, cycling on his too-small bike.
I loved the bass in his musical voice, the way he'd say my name, and
the way he loved music more than anything else.
I loved the way he accepted me, and everything else, with a smile and
a laugh.
But most of all, I loved his blind optimism, and the way his eyes
would crinkle when he was happy and in love with the world.
But tragedy swept through his life like a hurricane,
leaving him to walk alone through the destruction
of his beautiful world.
His eyes do not crinkle anymore.

subset: commoncrawl


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José Alejandro Guzmán,
The New York Symphonic Arts Ensemble has honored Maestro Guzmán as conductor laureate in recognition of his dedication and contributions since 1988.
Eric Kramer,
The New York Symphonic Arts Ensemble is excited to announce the appointment of Eric Kramer as its new music director. Mr. Kramer, who conducted last season's February 14 concert, made his first appearance as music director and conductor on our May 22 concert.
Join us for our May 21 concert!
Late Romantic Folk Melodies


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1285 MacArthur Boulevard
Commute to Downtown Oakland
Some errands can be accomplished on foot.
Many nearby public transportation options.
Mostly flat, good bike lanes.
About your score
1285 MacArthur Boulevard has a Walk Score of 67 out of 100. This location is Somewhat Walkable so some errands can be accomplished on foot.
This location is in the Lynn neighborhood in Oakland. Nearby parks include Live Oak Memorial Pool, Bella Vista Park and Sunnyhills & Paramount corner Park.
Explore how far you can travel by car, bus, bike and foot from 1285 MacArthur Boulevard.
1285 MacArthur Boulevard has good transit which means many nearby public transportation options. Car sharing is available from Getaround, RelayRides, Zipcar and City CarShare.
Bus lines:
NX1 San Francisco - East Oakland
0.0 mi
805 OWL-Dtn. Oakland - Oakland Airport
0.0 mi
57 San Pablo Ave to Foothill Sq
0.0 mi
NX East Oakland - San Francisco
0.1 mi
58L Eastmont T.C. - Oakland Amtrak
0.1 mi
NL San Francisco - Eastmont T.C.
0.1 mi
18 San Pablo & Monroe - Moraga & Mountain
0.1 mi
V San Francisco - Montclair
0.2 mi
62 West Oakland - Fruitvale Bart
0.2 mi
11 Piedmont - Fruitvale Ave.
0.2 mi
Car shares:
1285 MacArthur Boulevard compared to all of Oakland.
Lower crime area.
Average crime area.
How do you feel walking near 1285 MacArthur Boulevard?
Thanks for your feedback!
1285 MacArthur Boulevard is in the Lynn neighborhood. Lynn is the 64th most walkable neighborhood in Oakland with a neighborhood Walk Score of 73.
Moving to Oakland from another city? View our moving to Oakland guide.


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Trustworthy Computing: Lessons Learned from Five Years of Building More Secure Software
Five years ago, Bill Gates issued a directive to enhance security across the board. Since then, many valuable lessons have been learned about building more secure software.
Michael Howard - November 2007
Secure Habits: 8 Simple Rules For Developing More Secure Code
Never trust data, model threats against your code, and other good advice from a security expert.
Michael Howard - November 2006
How Do They Do It?: A Look Inside the Security Development Lifecycle at Microsoft
In this article, Microsoft security expert Michael Howard outlines how to apply the Security Development Lifecycle to your own software development processes. He explains how you can take some of the lessons learned at Microsoft when implementing SDL and use them in your own development process.
Michael Howard - November 2005
Attack Surface: Mitigate Security Risks by Minimizing the Code You Expose to Untrusted Users
In this article, Microsoft security expert Michael Howard discusses the cardinal rules of attack surface reduction. His rules - reduce the amount of code executing by default, reduce the volume of code that is accessible to untrusted users by default, and limit the damage if the code is exploited - are explained along with the techniques to apply the rules to your code.
Michael Howard - November 2004
Review It: Expert Tips for Finding Security Defects in Your Code
Reviewing code for security defects is a key ingredient in the software creation process, ranking alongside planning, design, and testing. Here the author reflects over his years of code security reviews to identify patterns and best practices that all developers can follow when tracking down potential security loopholes. The process begins by examining the environment the code runs in, considering the roles of the users who will run it, and studying the history of any security issues the code may have had. After gaining an understanding of these background issues, specific vulnerabilities can be hunted down, including SQL injection attacks, cross-site scripting, and buffer overruns. In addition, certain red flags, such as variable names like "password", "secret," and other obvious but common security blunders, can be searched for and remedied.
Michael Howard - November 2003
Security Tips: Defend Your Code with Top Ten Security Tips Every Developer Must Know
There are many ways to get into trouble when it comes to security. You can trust all code that runs on your network, give any user access to important files, and never bother to check that code on your machine has not changed. You can run without virus protection software, not build security into your own code, and give too many privileges to too many accounts. You can even use a number of built-in functions carelessly enough to allow break-ins, and you can leave server ports open and unmonitored. Obviously, the list continues to grow. What are some of the really important issues, the biggest mistakes you should watch out for right now so that you don't compromise your data or your system? Security experts Michael Howard and Keith Brown present 10 tips to keep you out of hot water.
Michael Howard and Keith Brown - September 2002
Security Briefs: Protecting Your Code with Visual C++ Defenses
Michael Howard outlines some of the buffer overrun defenses available in Visual C++ 2005 and beyond.
Michael Howard - March 2008
Security Quiz: Test Your Security IQ
Our security experts present 10 vulnerable pieces of code. Your mission is to find the holes (a.k.a. bad security practices) in the code.
Michael Howard and Bryan Sullivan - November 2008
Security Briefs: Threat Models Improve Your Security Process
Using threat models to drive your security engineering process helps prioritize the code review, fuzz testing, and attack surface analysis tasks.
Michael Howard - November 2008
Security Briefs: A Conversation About Threat Modeling
Listen in on a chat between a developer and security pro that delves into some of the major Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) requirements we impose on product teams here at Microsoft
Michael Howard - May 2009
Security Briefs: A Follow-on Conversation about Threat Modeling
This article explores the use of threat modeling to address security concerns in your applications.
Michael Howard - September 2009 2009


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Once, people recorded music videos from Top of the Pops or MTV onto VHS tapes to keep them. The modern equivalent would presumably be ripping YouTube videos. Or, perhaps, 3D printing?
The latter may be considerably less affordable, but for fans with access to a 3D printer, every single frame of Australian band Cut Copy's new music video is printable.
The band and video directors Masa Kawamura, Qanta Shimizu and Aramique Krauthammer have partnered with technology company BitTorrent to distribute the video and 3D-printable files for its figurine characters to fans.
It's the latest "BitTorrent Bundle" giveaway in a series that has included music and videos from artists including Moby, Pretty Lights, Public Enemy, Kaskade and Pixies.
The video for We Are Explorers – taken from the band's most recent album Free Your Mind – stars a pair of small 3D-printed characters running through a city, filmed entirely using stop-motion technology.
"The idea started with 'What if we 3D-printed a music video?' Both Masa and I have done different kinds of stop-motion and we had been discussing the possibility of creating a narrative where every frame of movement was 3D-printed and shot in the street," Krauthammer explained on BitTorrent's blog.
"Once we had all the figurines printed, we realized the music video was only the beginning. We wanted to find a way to give the fans access to the 3D files so they can print them and use them to create their own narratives of exploration."
The directors are hoping that fans will shoot their own videos using the figurines. "Hopefully people print the figurines, play with them, shoot them, make new storylines we didn't think of, take them to places we couldn't, and share whatever they do with everyone so we can enjoy the process together."
Cut Copy aren't the first musicians to experiment with 3D printing. Bloc Party's Kele Okereke released a 3D-printed record in November 2013, as part of a fundraising campaign for music charity Nordoff Robbins. Meanwhile, Will.i.am was enlisted by 3D printing firm 3D Systems as its "chief creative officer" in January 2014.


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Sukhdev Pehlwan was found guilty by the trail court on Jul 6. Pehlwan is accused of abduction and destruction of evidence in the murder case.
Nitish Katara, a business executive in Delhi fell in love with Bharti Yadav, daughter of DP Yadav, "unrivalled don of western Uttar Pradesh". Though they were an established couple in a stable relationship, the Yadav family never approved the relationship between the two, and Katara received threat several times.
On 17 Feb 2002, the couple attended a friend's wedding, where Yadav's brother Vikas and a cousin were present as well. From there, Vikas Yadav and Vishal Yadav took Katara for a drive and never returned. Three days later, Katara's body was found beside the highway; he had been battered to death with a hammer, diesel poured on him, and set aflame. He was beaten up so badly that his "digestive system had fallen out". The case was termed as "Honour Killing".
Initially the Yadav brothers were taken into custody by the cops and awarded rigorous life imprisonment by the trial court for their role in the murder. Sukhdev Pahelwan, who was allegedly hired by prime accused Vikas and Vishal Yadav to kill Katara, who also disposed off the body, did not join the probe in 2002 and was declared a proclaimed offender. He had absconded after the incident and was arrested in 2005.
OneIndia News


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Home » Termites » Termite Bait Systems » Advance Termite Bait Stations (TBS) - 10 stations » All Reviews
Displaying 1 to 4 (of 4 reviews)
7 of 22 people found this review helpful:
By Joe on 04/03/2012
Verified Purchase
with no active ingredient to kill termites able to be sold in NY. This product has become a waste of time and money.
7 of 10 people found this review helpful:
Easy to use
By Ruslan on 08/04/2012
Verified Purchase
I like this DYI kit... it was easy to install. Video was very helpful.
6 of 9 people found this review helpful:
Best service ever!
By on 06/21/2013
Verified Purchase
We buy all our supplies here now. Fast shipping, great prices and very dependable. Advance is the best.
4 of 9 people found this review helpful:
Owner/ CEO
By Jean on 02/25/2012
Verified Purchase
It's always a pleasure and no stress to complete my orders and worry free for it to arrive ON TIME..


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Hello Castaways!
Castaway Island is a brand new 18 hole Adventure Golf Course offering a fantastic miniature golf experience!
The adventures and struggles of life as a castaway life as you venture through our desert island themed miniture golf course. Putt your way through caves, over footbridges, and under cascading waterfalls, all amidst a fun-filled atmosphere and tropical landscaping.
Suitable for Castaways of All Ages


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Libra: First Day
I sighed. School. Well this is going fun. I skipped to my closet, better pretend I'm happy about this. Mum's been through enough this year let alone me being a pain.
I grabbed my favourite black skinny jeans, my shirt and dark green hoody from my closet, comfy and stylish. Right up my street, I smiled to myself in the mirror. This is gunna be a good day today Lilly. Jesus I'm talking to myself again. I grabbed my awesome black heels and whistled down the stairs.
"Wow! Your happy this morning." I smiled and hugged my mother. She looked awful, big bags under her eyes. "and girl you are looking fine!" I laughed.
"Mum, please don't do that again!" now it was her turn to laugh. I loved it when I made her happy.
"Right then. What shall we have for breakfast?"
"Umm, I think I'll just grab a muffin, you know, for the butterflies."
"Oh hunny! Your going to be fine. I promise."
"Ok well I think I'm gunna go." She hugged me again and shooed me off.
"Go on! Go on!" I grabbed my bag and walked to the door.
"Bye!" I walked out slamming he door. "Sorry!"
I walked down the street tying my long dirty blond hair up trying to fill myself with positive energy. "it's going to be a good day today" I muttered. Note to self: Stop talking to self out loud.
I walked up to the gates. No-bodies staring yet. Good sign. I tried to make myself look confident and walked up to the main office.
"Ah! You must be new." The secretary exclaimed.
"Umm, yeah. I'm here to get my schedule."
"That's fine. There's a load of new kids this term so you should fit in just great."
"Really?! Thanks." I walked out and looked at the schedule. English first, not too bad. I walked to a quiet corner and closed my eyes looking for somebody that might be walking past the English block so I can make my own way there.
That's my power. 'Seeing' people's thoughts sometimes I can even hear them and see there future. But there always kind of blurry, I guess I haven't practiced enough. It all started when I was 12, I started answering peoples thoughts. But I guess it's kind of cool to keep up with the latest fashions.
"Bingo." I muttered once I found someone nearby and headed off to the English block.


text:
Local News
Asthma study about children in Regina still chugging alongAsthma rates run higher in Regina children at 1 in 5 than the rest of the province with new data on the reason behind that to be released this fall.
Tips for healthy spring cleaning from designer Robin WilsonSpring has finally sprung. And for many people, that means it's time for spring cleaning. Instead of just sprucing up your home, this year, why not focus on making it ...
Tips to help eliminate the wheezes and sneezes of winterCheck out these simple ways to make your home cleaner and safer, which will help reduce asthma attacks and allergies in the winter and year round.


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UPDATE: Williams Financial Group Downgrades KB Homes to Sell; Not Capitalizing on Opportunities
Williams Financial Group reduced its rating on KB Homes (NYSE: KBH) from Hold to Sell with a reiterated $11 price target.
Williams Financial Group noted, "Following another disappointing performance in orders, margins, community count and deliveries, we are downgrading shares of KBH to a Sell from a Hold rating. While ASP trends have seen the sharpest rise among the companies we follow, we are disappointed that pricing has not yet meaningfully benefitted gross margins. Construction inflation added about $5K to build costs while ASP's moved up $25k q/q. Although some of the pricing movement can be attributed to geographic mix, we would have expected at least a moderate level of organic price increases to flow through to gross margin."
KB Home closed at $15.60 on Thursday.
Latest Ratings for KBH
|May 2017
|Initiates Coverage On
|Apr 2017
|Raymond James
|Market Perform
|Mar 2017
|JMP Securities
|Market Outperform
|Market Perform
View More Analyst Ratings for KBH
View the Latest Analyst Ratings
Posted-In: Williams Financial GroupAnalyst Color Downgrades Pre-Market Outlook Analyst Ratings
© 2017 Benzinga.com. Benzinga does not provide investment advice. All rights reserved.


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I've had acne for about 6 years. I used home remedies to cure it but there are still many scars. Can scars be removed? (photos)
i really want to consult a dermatologist but i'm shy. i want to ask if i can undergo a dermabrassion process even if there are many pimples and acne scars in my face. your answer will really help me a lot. thank yo very much.
Doctor Answers 4
Thank you for your question. Dermabrasion is a controlled surgical scraping of the skin's top layers to help soften sharp edges and to correct any irregularities. Both dermabrasion and chemical peel are effective options in removing acne scarring, although, dermabrasion is curently most often used to improve scars after prior reconstructive procedures. I suggest that you consult with a single or double board certified facial plastic surgeon to determine which approach is most suitable for you.Best wishes,
Web reference: http://www.drclevens.com/face
Acne scarring
Thank you for your question.The first step is getting the acne under control. Once that is under control and you aren't having the breakouts, you could do dermabrasion. The dermabrasion will help to smooth the skin, you will always have some irregularity to the skin but it will be much improved. Good luck.
I've had acne for about 6 years. I used home remedies to cure it but there are still many scars. Can scars be removed?
Acne scars can be much improved with dermabrasion, but not necessarily completely removed. See a board certified dermatologist or plastic surgeon for an honest evaluation of the improvement you may expect. That said, it is a wonderful means of improving your facial appearance. Best of luck.
You might also like...
These answers are for educational purposes and should not be relied upon as a substitute for medical advice you may receive from your physician. If you have a medical emergency, please call 911. These answers do not constitute or initiate a patient/doctor relationship.


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I can not get the menu to save. I went to appearance -> themes – > customize selected the menus in the navigation area. The correct menus appear. I then save and publish and refresh and it is gone. I appreciate any assistance.
Did you save the menus in the correct location (Top left of menu in page in admin?)
I created 2 menus in Appearance -> Menus. 1 named main and the other named top menu. I select main under the main navigation menu and top menu under top navigation menu and save it. Each time I visit that setting again the drop downs are empty.
Strange – best bet is to email the author and ask them. they will know best. Good luck
Thank you. I am new to this so I am not sure if there is a bug in the theme or if I am doing it incorrectly. I have just posted in the Good Layers forum.
There is actually a common cause for that I've seen several buyers run into. —There is this classic mistake people do when installing it a theme from ThemeForest where they install the entire ZIP package they downloaded as the theme. Usually this happens, but on some servers, it will actually allow the theme to install and seemingly work.
So, a common side effect of this is the issue under Appearance > Menus that you're describing; it happens because style.css is not in the root directory of the theme. Is it possible when you installed the theme you did not upload the correct folder of files? Your style.css file should be located like this on your server where you have WordPress installed:
Also, sometimes people upload the their correct theme.zip file and unzip it with cPanel or some other online file manager and inadvertently end up with:
This would also cause a similar issue in many cases.


text: 12/08/10 12/08/10 POPSUGAR Celebrity Halle Berry Pictures of Halle Berry Tree Shopping December 8, 2010 by Lauren Turner 0 Shares Chat with us on Facebook Messenger. Learn what's trending across POPSUGAR. View on One Page Photo 1 of 11 ADVERTISEMENT () Share This Link Copy ← Use Arrows Keys → 1 Pictures of Halle Berry Tree Shopping Previous Next Share this post HolidayHalle Berry


text:
2002 Chevrolet Cavalier - Consumer Review
Build Quality
Reliability Value
Build Quality
Reliability Value
A good city driver
By cav_rider666 on
Vehicle2002 Chevrolet Cavalier 4dr Sedan (2.2L 4cyl 5M)
ReviewThe Cavalier may not be the most exiting compact sedan out there but its definitely worth taking a closer look at this value filled sedan. The 2.2L OHV engine design offers acceptable power, great fuel economy and offers one of the best automatic transmissions in its class. The Cavalier's timeless yet elegant lines make it pleasant to look at and its poor resell value makes it a great used buy. The interior is roomy, somewhat comfortable on long trips and offers ample cargo and storage space while still being able to comfortably accomodate 5 adults.
Best FeaturesEquiped with 4 wheel ABS brakes, advanced traction control, A/C, power door locks with remote entry and a factory CD player the Cavalier offers a great deal of equipment for the price. However the factory CD player is cheaply built and costs a fortune to replace.
Worst FeaturesOverall the Cavalier is a litle like a C+ student; all the base elements are there to make it great however GM chose not to invest much into there "J" Cars; the interior fit in finish is terrible; the plastics are verry cheap and the seating materials are terrible Reliability is not its finest point
Recommend (0) (0)
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text:
Pico Small Cell
Pico small cell is a «mini» version of full-functional LTE base station.
A comprehensive solution to provide stable indoor mobile network coverage with high capacity.
High capacity and wide coverage capabilities of Pico small cell allow to provide mobile services in lots of buildings of any size.


text:
Definition of 'Nonne's syndrome'
another name for cerebellar syndrome
Collins English Dictionary. Copyright © HarperCollins Publishers
Definition of Nonne's syndrome from the Collins English Dictionary
Log in to comment on this word.
We take a look at the etymology behind the word 'election' on the run up to the UK General Election in June
Language expert Ian Brookes looks at the word 'election' and its origins.
Read more
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text:
MSF : Misuse of our recent information about Syria
September 2, 2013
We are aware that misconstrued and misused information on MSF in Syria is
circulating on the web and social media.
We reiterate what we stated in our press release on the 24th of August
· MSF does not have the capacity to identify the cause of the neurotoxic symptoms of patients reported by three clinics supplied by MSF in Damascus governorate, where MSF was and is not directly present.
· MSF does not possess the capacity or ability to determine or assign responsibility for the event
We ask you to please continue checking MSF official websites for all
correct information on MSF communications and activities in Syria.


text:
When it comes to customer service, we like to employ a Total Satisfaction Guarantee.
You can reach us at
(416) 512-8186 or
toll free 1-866-216-0860
The integrated resort
Mobile market - Let's stop talking about Millennials already!
G2E 2016 - E-sports, soup nazis and the video-gamification of casinos
Deja Vu all over again
Single event sports betting Groundhog Day, AKA the Super Bowl, has come and gone again, with the single largest amount of needlessly illegal betting activity taking place in Canada, estimated to be as much as $450 million.
Read more >
Bally Technologies' Prizeball Playboy, Prizeball Ballyhoo, and Prizeball Dragon are a trio of promising companion games that harken back to Bally's pinball roots.
Also offered on Bally's ALPHA 2 Pro V22 with Digital Tower, these titles are a lofty presence on any floor. Each deliers a Free Games Bonus and the Prizeball Bonus, which means tons of pinball-style action without the tilt!
With a progressive jackpot available at max bet and three great themes to choose from, Prizeball is one that will attract players at any casino.
Does your casino foodservice appeal to Millennials and Boomers?
Food and beverage is important in casinos. An Ipsos Reid study completed in 2013 for the Canadian Gaming Association showed that one-third of casino patrons dine in the casino's restaurant(s) on a regular basis—and it's not just complimentary food and beverage.
Read more >
Casino de Montréal: The art of entertainment
The Casino de Montréal first opened its doors to the public on October 9, 1993. Housed in the former Expo 67 World's Fair Pavillon de la France, the current Casino de Montréal has undergone numerous expansion projects over the years, adding the former Pavillon du Québec to the complex in 1996.
Read more >


text:
Download document:
A return to local time - .PDF file.
By Paul Tucker QC and Martin Carter
Behind the oft-trumpeted façade of the Localism Agenda, the government has introduced a quiet but seemingly highly successful revolution in the preparation of development plans, just at the time that the National Planning Policy Framework provides a clear incentive for local authorities to rapidly adopt development plan documents (DPDs).
The headline was the revocation of regional spatial strategies and the supposed devolving of power back to local planning authorities to shape their districts. But behind it, the government has made it much easier to prepare development plans as a result of the introduction of the Town and Country Planning (Local Planning) (England) Regulations 2012 (SI 2012 No. 767).
The 2012 regulations have quietly introduced two important reforms that have facilitated the current upsurge in development plan preparation…
If you are registered and logged in to the site, click on the link below to read the rest of the Kings Chambers briefing. If not, please register or sign in with your details below.


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|Home | About | Journals | Submit | Contact Us | Français
The human striatum has been previously implicated in the processing of positive reinforcement, but less is known about its role in processing negative reinforcement. In this experiment, participants learn specific approach or avoid responses, mediated by positive and negative reinforcers respectively, to investigate how affective learning and associated neural activity are influenced by the motivational context in which learning occurs. The paradigm was divided into two discrete sessions, where participants could either earn monetary rewards (Approach sessions) or avoid monetary losses (Avoid sessions) based on successful learning. Specifically, a conditioned cue predicted the chance to win or avoid losing money contingent on a correct button press (Pre-learning trials), which upon learning led to the delivery of rewards or termination of losses (post-learning trials). Skin conductance responses (SCRs) and subjective ratings confirmed a learning effect (greater SCRs pre vs. post-learning) irrespective of reinforcer valence. Concurrently, activity in the ventral striatum was characterized by a similar learning effect, with greater responses during pre-learning. Interestingly, such learning effect was enhanced in the presence of a negative reinforcer, as suggested by an interaction between learning phase and session, highlighting the influence negative reinforcers can have on striatal circuits involved in learning and motivated behavior.
Across human development, learning is often motivated by a variety of reinforcers ranging from stimuli necessary for survival (e.g., food) to more abstract stimuli in the environment (e.g., social approval). A common goal of these reinforcers is to increase the frequency of a behavior, although the context in which this occurs can be either positive or negative (Skinner, 1938). For instance, an increase in a student's study habits could be due to the desire to earn a good grade and praise from parents, both which serve as examples of positive reinforcers. Alternatively, the boosted study time could be attributed to a desire to avoid the negative feelings associated with a failing grade and parental disapproval, serving as negative reinforcers in this context. In both cases, the behavioral output is similar; however, the context in which learning occurs is different and could lead to long-term consequences in future goal-directed behaviors (e.g., excessive approach or avoidance responses). Thus, it is important to understand the influence positive and negative reinforcers can have on behaviors and in turn how they can modulate associated neural mechanisms that are typically involved in reinforcement learning.
One brain region that has been repeatedly implicated in reward processing is the striatum, the input unit of the basal ganglia, and a region that makes important connections with various cortical inputs to influence motor, cognitive and motivated behavior (Alexander, et al., 1986; Haber and Knutson, 2010; Middleton and Strick, 2000). This is illustrated by an elegant animal literature which highlights, for example, that lesions in the ventral striatum of rodents lead to deficits in approach behaviors (for review see Robbins and Everitt, 1996), while neuronal recordings from this same region in non-human primates respond to conditioned stimuli that predict potential rewards (Cromwell and Schultz, 2003; Hassani, et al., 2001). In humans, the striatum has been associated with reward-related learning in a variety of paradigms, with positively valenced conditioned cues eliciting approach-like behavior during instrumental learning (for review see Delgado, 2007; Montague and Berns, 2002; O'Doherty, 2004; Rangel, et al., 2008).
The striatum has also been posited as a key component of models of motivated behavior throughout development (Casey, et al., 2008; Ernst, et al., 2006). Such models suggest that prefrontal cortical control centers known to be involved in regulating emotional responses (Ochsner and Gross, 2005) are slower to develop through adolescence in comparison to more subcortical structures such as the striatum (Casey, et al., 2008; Ernst, et al., 2006). As a result, activation of the striatum in response to rewarding stimuli tends to be exaggerated in adolescence (e.g., Bjork, et al., 2004; Ernst, et al., 2005; Galvan, et al., 2005; May, et al., 2004) and linked to increased propensity for risky decision-making often observed during this period of development (e.g, Reyna, et al., 2011; Van Leijenhorst, et al., 2010).
More recently, the human striatum has also been linked with learning in a negative context, such as learning to avoid a mild shock (Delgado, et al., 2009; Jensen, et al., 2003). However, activation of the striatum during anticipation of aversive events is not always observed (e.g., Breiter, et al., 2001; Gottfried, et al., 2002; Yacubian, et al., 2006), with some reports suggesting that the ventral striatum is primarily involved in reward-related processing, and not responsive when the context of action-learning is more negative, such as the avoidance of monetary loss (e.g., Knutson, et al., 2001). Further, the amygdala is the structure most often associated with aversive learning, as evidenced by animal models of fear conditioning (for review see Phelps and LeDoux, 2005) and neuropsychological investigations of fear learning in patients with amygdala lesions (Bechara, et al., 1995; LaBar, et al., 1995). The amygdala has also been hypothesized in some models to mediate avoidance behaviors during development (Ernst, et al., 2006). Thus, more research is necessary to clarify influence of negative reinforcers on motivated learning in striatal circuits that are more typically associated with reward processing.
In this experiment, we take advantage of the fact that monetary incentives represent a common reinforcer that can be either positive (gains) or negative (losses). Specifically, we adapted the paradigm from Delgado et al. (2009) to include both approach and avoidance learning sessions and allow for within subjects comparisons of learning by positive and negative reinforcers respectively. Before each learning session, participants played a simple gambling game (adapted from Delgado, et al., 2000) in order to endow them with an experimental monetary bank. Their goal for the approach learning sessions was to build upon this bank by learning, through trial and error, the appropriate action that led to a positive outcome. The goal of the avoidance learning sessions was to keep from losing the money they just earned in the gambling session by learning the appropriate action that avoided a monetary loss. Aside from visual characteristics of the conditioned stimuli (i.e., color) and the valence of the reinforcement (i.e., positive or negative), the approach and avoidance learning sessions were comparable, in turn allowing for a direct comparison of striatal learning systems under positive or negative contexts.
Given the previously described role of the human striatum in affective learning, we hypothesized that the striatum would be involved in learning with both positive and negative reinforcers. Furthermore, we predicted that despite overlapping neural circuitry when approaching or avoiding an affective stimulus, negative reinforcers would lead to greater influences on striatum responses involved in mediating reinforcing effects on behavior. This prediction is consistent with the observation that losses loom larger than gains (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979) and decisions made under negative, compared to positive, contexts can have a greater impact on behavior and striatal BOLD signals (Delgado, et al., 2008). These results would suggest that neural mechanisms underlying the acquisition of adaptive behavioral responses to attain goals can be shaped by the motivational context in which they are learned.
Twenty-five participants were recruited from the population of students at Rutgers University – Newark. From this subset, four participants were excluded due to failure to comply with experimental requirements (e.g., poor understanding of instructions), while two more were excluded because of scanner malfunction. Thus, nineteen participants comprised the final analysis (10 Females, mean age 22 ± 4.5 years). Participants were prescreened for contraindications to MRI, for right-handedness, and had normal or corrected vision. All participants gave informed consent according to the Internal Review Board of Rutgers University Newark and the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey approved the experiment.
The main goal of the experiment for participants was to learn the appropriate action that either led to a positive reinforcer (Approach learning session) or turned off a negative reinforcer (Avoidance learning session). To accomplish this, there were two main types of scan sessions. During approach learning sessions, participants were asked to learn associations through positive reinforcement, where the outcomes represented gain or no gain of money. In contrast, avoidance learning sessions required participants to learn by negative reinforcement, where they could only lose or not lose money (adapted from Delgado, et al., 2009). Each session was preceded by a simple gambling game designed to provide an experimental bank for participants (adapted from Delgado, et al., 2000; Delgado, et al., 2006). Throughout the experiment, participants played four counterbalanced sessions, two approach and two avoidance, each with its own gambling game and own independent pot of money (Fig. 1a). Participants made right hand responses using a 4-button MRI-compatible button box.
During the approach learning session, participants were presented with three colored squares that predicted a monetary outcome and required a motor response. Two squares were fully predictable and led to either a monetary gain (conditioned stimulus or CS+) or no monetary gain (CS-). Such stimuli required a motor response that did not influence the outcome and are henceforth referred to as certain stimuli as they predicted an outcome with 100% certainty. The third square (the approach stimulus or AP) predicted a monetary gain contingent on an appropriate motor response (i.e., a button press), thus referred to as an uncertain stimulus. Once the correct response was learned, repeated actions led to monetary rewards. The structure of the avoidance learning session was identical to the approach session for direct comparison purposes, except for the different color of the stimuli and the negative context of the session. During the avoidance learning session, participants learned through negative instead of positive reinforcement. That is, the uncertain square in this session, known as the avoidable or AV stimulus, resulted in monetary loss until the participant learned the appropriate motor response. After this point, the participant could avoid losing money. The CS+ within this session predicted monetary loss with 100% certainty, while the CS- predicted no monetary loss. Thus, each session was comprised of 3 colored squares consisting of two fully predictable conditioned stimuli (certain stimuli) and one stimulus whose outcome value was contingent on an appropriate motor response (uncertain stimulus). Overall, there were 12 certain (6 CS+; 6 CS-) and 12 uncertain (AV /AP) trials per session. The color of the squares and the order of the sessions were counterbalanced across participants.
Participants were told that the correct answer to the AV and AP stimuli was one of twelve possible choices. Since the button box used to collect participants' right-hand responses only had 4 buttons, they were informed that the correct choice could be the first, second, or third time they pressed a button – yielding twelve possible choices. Unbeknownst to the participant, he or she determined the correct answer for the AV and AP stimuli with the response to the sixth (out of 12) presentation of that stimulus. Prior to the sixth presentation of the uncertain stimuli, any participant response would lead to a monetary loss (Avoid session) or no monetary gain (Approach session). This predetermined schedule of reinforcement ensured that all participants experienced the same number of pre and post learning trials over the course of the experiment (e.g., 6 AV+, 6 AV-). Learning, therefore, was operationally defined as the transition between a period of exploration for the appropriate answer (pre-learning trials) to the expression of the learned response (post-learning trials). Any participant that missed the sixth trial, or failed to use the learned response in subsequent trials was excluded from further analysis due to a lack of post-learning phase. Such participants (n= 4) typically reported not paying attention or losing focus on the goal of the experiment.
Every trial of a learning session began with a presentation of a colored square (cue phase; 4-6 second) which predicted a potential outcome (i.e., CS+, CS- or uncertain stimulus). A question mark then appeared serving as an indicator for participants to choose one of four buttons to respond (response phase; 2-4 seconds). The outcome phase immediately followed (1 second) and co-terminated with the CS. Three potential symbols were presented in the outcome phase: a dollar sign symbolizing a monetary gain, a crossed out dollar sign depicting a monetary loss, and a pound sign representing no outcome. The trial concluded with a jittered inter-trial interval (11-13 seconds) [See Fig. 1b]. The primary phase of interest was the cue phase as it served as the initial representation of the conditioned stimulus without being affected by motor responses. At the end of each scanning session, participants rated the stimuli they had just seen using a Likert scale from 1 to 7. Results from these ratings questions were used to confirm that participants were paying attention and that they understood the contingencies presented. Specifically, participants rated how much they liked or disliked each conditioned stimulus and also how emotionally arousing each stimulus was.
Prior to every learning session, participants engaged in a simple gambling task (adapted from Delgado, et al., 2000; Delgado, et al., 2006). There were two important goals for the gambling session. First, it served to provide participants with an experimental bank which could either be added to (approach session) or subtracted from (avoid session). Second, the gambling session served as an independent way to define reward circuitry regions of interest (ROIs) as previously shown in experiments using this task (see Delgado, 2007 for review). In the gambling session, participants were told to guess whether the presented card had a value higher (e.g., 6, 7, 8, 9) or lower (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4) than 5. At the onset of the trial, participants were presented with a question mark prompting them to enter their response (i.e., high or low) within 2 seconds. The question mark was then replaced by the actual value of the card and an outcome symbol for 2 seconds that indicated whether the participant was correct (a monetary reward depicted by a green check mark) or incorrect (a monetary loss depicted by a red "X"). A jittered 10-12 second inter-trial interval followed each trial for a total of 14-16 seconds per trial. The amount of times they won and lost was predetermined (9 reward trials, 6 loss trials, randomized) so that they would end each gambling session with a net gain of money. Over the course of the four gambling sessions, the participant experienced 60 trials (36 reward, 24 loss) trials.
In this experiment, the actual monetary value of a single trial in any of the sessions was ambiguous until the end of the experiment. The goal of this procedure was to ensure that the only thing that mattered for participants was the occurrence (or non-occurrence) of a reinforcer. That is, participants considered the ultimate valence of the outcome of a trial (i.e., positive or negative) rather than its magnitude or absolute value. Specifically, participants were instructed that they would spin a wheel with 8 values ranging from $1.50 to $5.00 increasing in $0.50 increments at the end of the experiment. The value the wheel landed on would be applied to every gain and loss in the experiment. Thus, participants are made aware that the monetary incentives are real, but that they need only focus on the affective components of the outcomes during the task. Participants' final compensation was comprised of an experimental rate ($25/hour) and any monetary incentives earned during the experiment (total of $55).
The experimental paradigm was programmed using E-PRIME software, v2.0 (PST, Pittsburgh, PA). Stimuli were set against a black background and projected onto a screen, which was visible inside the scanner using a mirror attached to the head coil. At the end of the experimental session, participants were debriefed and compensated.
The schedule of reinforcement was programmed in such a way that all participants learn the correct answer to AV/AP stimuli after 6 trials. Therefore, differences in accuracy were not expected, and failure to stick with the correct answer resulted in exclusion. The main behavioral measure was reaction time (RT), which has been previously used to show differences in motivation between stimuli in similar paradigms (e.g., Delgado, et al., 2009). In particular, stimuli that allowed participants the opportunity to avoid a punishment elicited faster reaction times and as such were considered more motivating than those that were uncontrollable. Reaction time was tested using a 2×2 repeated measures ANOVA with session (approach and avoidance learning session) and stimulus type (certain and uncertain) as within-subjects factors. Specifically, this analysis tested the prediction that uncertain stimuli (e.g., AV+/AV-) would be more motivating and thus elicit faster responses than responses recorded during certain trials (CS+/CS-). Finally, subjective ratings were acquired at the end of each of the four learning sessions and served as manipulation checks. These ratings probed both the valence ("How much did you like this stimulus?") and the intensity ("How much emotion of any kind did you feel when you saw this stimulus?") associated with each conditioned stimulus using a Likert scale from 1-7. A 2×3 repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with session (approach and avoidance learning session) by stimulus type (AV/AP, CS+, CS-) as within-subjects factors was conducted to probe subjective ratings of valence and intensity.
Throughout the experiment, skin conductance responses (SCRs) were gathered from the first and second fingers of the participant's left hand using BIOPAC systems skin conductance module. Data acquired through shielded Ag–AgCl electrodes, which were grounded through an RF filter panel, was transmitted to a data collection station within the control room at the scanning facility. ACQKNOWLEDGE software facilitated the analysis of SCR waveforms. Each response was scored using a 0.5-4.5s window after the onset of the stimulus. A minimum base to peak difference of 0.02 mS (micro Siemens) for each response was used as a criterion, with lower responses scored as 0. Given this criteria, data for 5 participants were not included in the final analysis due to low amount of responses. The square root of the SCR was taken prior to statistical analysis to reduce skewness (LaBar, et al., 1998). SCRs across the four learning sessions were averaged per participant and per type of trial focusing on the cue phase. The main analysis of interest consisted of a 2×2 session (approach and avoidance learning sessions) by learning phase (AV+/AP+ i.e., pre-learning, and AV-/AP- i.e., post-learning) repeated measures ANOVA, comparing affective measures of arousal during approach and avoidance learning. A second 2×2 repeated measures ANOVA was also conducted using type of session (approach and avoidance) and certain stimulus type (CS+, CS-).
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data was acquired using a 3T Siemens Allegra head-only scanner and a Siemens standard head coil at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey's Advanced Imaging Center. A T1-weighted protocol (256 × 256 matrix, 176 1-mm sagittal slices) was used to gather high-resolution anatomical images. Functional images were acquired using a single-shot gradient echo EPI sequence (TR = 2000 ms, TE = 25 ms, FOV = 192 cm, flip angle = 80°, bandwith = 2604 Hz/px, echo spacing = 0.29 ms). Thirty-five contiguous oblique-axial slices (3 × 3 × 3 mm voxels) parallel to the anterior commissure-posterior commissure (AC-PC) line were obtained.
The Brain Voyager statistical analysis package (Brain Innovation, Maastricht, The Netherlands; v2.2) was used to analyze the imaging data. Motion correction (using a threshold of 3 mm or less), and slice scan time correction using Trilinear/sinc interpolation was applied to the data to correct for movement and to align data to a single time point. Further, spatial smoothing was performed using a three-dimensional gaussian filter (4-mm FWHM), along with voxel-wise linear detrending and high-pass filtering of frequencies (3 cycles per time course). Structural and functional data of each participant was then transformed to standard Talairach stereotaxic space (Talairach and Tournoux, 1988).
A random-effects general linear model (GLM) was used to analyze the data of the 19 final participants. The gambling sessions were modeled using two regressors representing reward and loss trials. The learning sessions contained four regressors at the cue phases of the uncertain AV and AP stimuli across pre and post learning (AV+, AV-, AP+, AP-) and four regressors modeled for the certain stimuli (CS+, CS-, in each session respectively). There were also eight regressors of no interest used to model the response and outcome phase, along with six regressors for motion and one for missed trials.
There were three analyses performed to investigate the neural correlates underlying approach and avoidance learning in this paradigm. The primary analysis involved functionally defining independent ROIs implicated in reward processing (see Delgado, 2007 for review). This was done by contrasting reward and loss trials within the gambling task. These functionally defined ROIs then served as task-independent regions to compare approach and avoidance learning. We then extracted mean parameter estimates (i.e., beta weights) from these ROIs during the learning sessions. The resulting data was input into a 2×2 repeated measures ANOVA to investigate the effect of session and learning phase (pre-learning, post-learning). The statistical parametric map (SPM) for the gambling session analysis was corrected at a False Discovery Rate (FDR) < 0.005.
The other two analyses involved separate whole-brain 2×2 ANOVAS to examine the main effects and interactions of a) session and learning phase (pre vs. post) and b) session and certain stimuli (CS+ and CS-). Statistical Parametric Maps (SPMs) were thresholded at p < 0.001 and then corrected using a voxel cluster method. Specifically, a voxel cluster threshold of 4 contiguous voxels (mm3) yielded a corrected alpha < 0.05 for this analysis according to Brain Voyager's Cluster Thresholding Plugin (Forman, et al., 1995; Goebel, et al., 2006). This level of statistical correction was used for each main effect and interaction SPM defined by these two ANOVAs. Mean parameter estimates were then extracted from regions surviving these criteria for further analysis, and post hoc two-tailed paired sample t-tests were used to investigate the differences between regressors.
Ratings were acquired after each session (gambling and learning) as a manipulation check to ensure participants were engaged in the task. In the gambling sessions, participants showed a preference for stimuli associated with winning money over those associated with losing money [t(19) = 14.9, p < 0.001)]. In the learning sessions, two subjective rating measures were acquired: ratings of perceived valence and intensity of the stimulus. A 2×3 session by stimulus repeated measures ANOVA probing ratings of intensity revealed a main effect of session (F(1, 18) = 10.3, p < 0.005), stimulus type (F(2,36) = 22.12, p < 0.001), and a session by condition interaction (F(2, 36) = 14.675, p < 0.001) [Fig. 2a]. In the approach learning sessions, the AP stimulus was ranked as more emotionally arousing than both the CS+ and the CS- stimulus [t(18) = 2.67, p < 0.015 and t(18) = 5.93, p < 0.001, respectively]. The CS+ was also ranked more emotionally arousing than the CS- [t(18) = 3.54, p < 0.002]. In the negative reinforcement sessions, the AV stimulus was ranked more emotionally arousing than the CS+ and CS- [t(18) = 6.02, p < 0.001 and t(18) = 2.87, p < 0.01, respectively], and the CS- was ranked as more emotionally arousing than the CS+ [t(18) = 3.15, p < 0.006]. When comparing the AP and AV stimuli, pair-samples two-tailed t-tests showed the AP stimuli being ranked as more emotionally arousing than the AV stimuli [t(18) = 3.07, p < 0.007]. Similar results were observed for the ANOVA investigating subjective ratings of valence, with the exception of the difference between AP and AV stimuli, which was merely a trend [t(18) = 1.94, p = 0.068].
A 2×2 repeated measures ANOVA revealed no effect of session or interaction, but did show a main effect of stimulus type (certain and uncertain stimuli; F(1, 18) = 14.09, p < 0.001] as hypothesized (Fig. 2b). Post hoc paired samples two-tailed t-tests revealed that uncertain stimuli elicited faster reaction times than certain stimuli [t(18) = 3.917, p = 0.001]. Because of a priori hypotheses that negative reinforcers would lead to greater influences on striatum signals and behavioral responses, we conducted an exploratory post hoc paired samples t-test probing the differences between uncertain and certain stimuli in both avoidance and approach session separately. We found a significant difference between uncertain and certain stimuli during avoidance [t(18) = 3.07, p < 0.01], but not approach [t(18) = 1.44, p < 0.17] learning sessions. However, it should be noted that this result is exploratory since no interaction was observed.
A 2×2 repeated measures ANOVA on the SCR cue phase data investigating session by learning phase revealed no effect of session [F(1, 13) = 0.417, p > 0.05], but a trending main effect of learning phase [F(1, 13) = 4.64, p = 0.051]. Within this factor, each pre-learning phase elicited a slightly higher SCR response than the post-learning phase. Importantly, no interaction between session and stimulus type was observed [F(1, 13) = 0.909, p > 0.05], suggesting that participants' physiological level of arousal was not different across approach and avoid learning sessions. Within the certain stimuli, a 2×2 session by stimulus repeated measures ANOVA also revealed a significant main effect of stimulus [F(1, 13) = 5.79, p < 0.03], driven by greater responses in the CS- compared to CS+ trials, but no effect of session [F(1, 13) = 0.395, p > 0.05] or interaction [F(1, 13) = 0.001, p > 0.05].
Our primary analysis used the functionally defined ventral striatum ROIs generated by the contrast of reward and loss trials during the gambling session (Table 1; Fig. 3a). Mean parameter estimates were extracted from these independent ROIs for each subject using the model of the learning sessions for further analysis. In the right ventral striatum ROI (x, y, z = 17, 7, -6; Fig 3b), a 2×2 repeated measures ANOVA with session (approach and avoidance learning) by learning phase (pre and post-learning of uncertain stimuli) as factors revealed a main effect of session [F(1, 18) = 9.01, p < 0.008] and a main effect of learning phase [F(1, 18) = 11.82, p < 0.003], characterized by greater blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) responses to pre- compared to post-learning trials [t(18) = 3.44, p < 0.003]. An interaction between session and learning phase [F(1, 18) = 4.426, p < 0.05] suggested that striatal signals during motivated learning were modulated by the context in which learning occurred (i.e., negative reinforcer).
In the left ventral striatal ROI (x, y, z = -19, 4, -6), a 2×2 session by learning phase repeated measures ANOVA revealed a main effect of session [F(1, 18) = 6.474, p < 0.02], a main effect of learning phase [F(1, 18) = 16.17, p < 0.001], and no significant interaction [F(1, 18) = 2.71, p = 0.12]. This ROI was large enough to contain two distinct peaks of activation (Fig 3a), thus as an exploratory analysis, we performed the same ANOVA in both the medial (x, y, z = -10, 4, -6) and lateral (x, y, z = -19, 4, -6) peaks to examine potential interactions between session and learning phase. No interaction was observed in the more medial peak of the left ventral striatum [F(1, 18) = 1.94, p = 0.18]. In contrast, the more lateral peak of the ventral striatum ROI resembled the right striatal ROI both in terms of location and pattern of activity, showing an interaction between session and learning phase [F(1,18) = 4.55, p < 0.05].
An additional analysis was conducted in each ROI to investigate any effects of certain stimuli across sessions. In the right ventral striatum ROI, a 2×2 repeated measures ANOVA between session and type of certain stimulus (CS+, CS-) revealed a main effect of type of stimulus [F(1, 18) = 8.15, p < 0.01], driven by greater BOLD responses to CS-compared to CS+ trials [t(18) = 2.09, p < 0.05], but no effect of session or interaction. Within the left ventral striatum ROI, there were no effects with respect to the certain stimulus observed.
In order to explore other regions involved in approach and avoid learning in this specific paradigm, two whole-brain analyses were performed within the learning sessions. First, a 2×2 session by learning phase repeated measures ANOVA was conducted (Table 2; Fig. 4a). A main effect of learning phase was revealed in regions such as the striatum bilaterally, cingulate gyrus, and insula each showing greater responses during the pre, compared to post, learning phase (e.g., Fig. 4b and 4c for cingulate gyrus and right striatum respectively). Within this analysis, no voxels were identified showing a greater response for post- compared to pre-learning stimuli. Voxels showing a main effect of session were identified in a different region within the cingulate gyrus (x, y, z = -22, -23, 36). This region displayed a greater BOLD response during avoidance compared to the approach learning sessions [t(18) = 3.99, p < 0.001]. No voxels corresponding to an interaction of session and learning phase were identified.
Second, a 2×2 session by CS type repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to investigate the effect of the CS+ and CS- stimuli. A main effect of CS type revealed two distinct regions in the middle frontal gyrus (BA 6 and BA 10) and one region in the right amygdala (Table 3). Akin to the SCR analysis, post hoc paired samples t-tests showed the CS- eliciting higher BOLD responses than the CS+ in the amygdala [t(18) = 5.38, p < 0.001] and the middle frontal gyrus [BA 6; t(18) = 6.34, p < 0.001]. Conversely, the more anterior ROI in the middle frontal gyrus (BA 10) showed a higher BOLD response in CS+ compared to CS- trials [BA 10; t(18) = 5.79, p < 0.001]. A main effect of session revealed an ROI in the post-central gyrus, where paired sample two-tailed t-tests showed the approach learning session eliciting higher BOLD activity than the avoidance learning session [t(18) = 7.37, p < 0.001]. No voxels corresponding to an interaction of CS type and session were identified.
The goal of this study was to use fMRI to investigate neural circuits involved in learning via positive and negative reinforcers. Specifically, this experiment probed how the human striatum, a structure typically implicated in reward-related processes, was modulated during learning when the motivational context is driven by the presence of a negative reinforcer. Participants acquired an adaptive behavioral response (i.e., a correct button press) via positive (approach learning) or negative (avoidance learning) reinforcers separately, in a within-subjects design that allowed direct comparisons when learning occurred under each motivational context. Participants showed greater subjective and physiological responses across learning (pre vs. post-learning), particularly when presented with trials that afforded the opportunity to either attain a monetary reward or avoid a monetary loss, compared to trials where the positive or negative outcome was fully predictable. Increased motivated behavior was also observed during approach and avoidance learning trials overall, as indexed by faster responses than those recorded during trials with certain outcomes. Activity within an independently defined ROI in the ventral striatum revealed an interaction between type of session (approach and avoidance) and type of learning phase (pre and post), highlighted by greater responses during the acquisition of a behavior aimed at avoiding a negative outcome. These results suggest that despite overlapping neural circuitry when approaching or avoiding a conditioned stimulus, negative reinforcers can lead to greater influences on ventral striatum signals involved in mediating reinforcing effects on behavior.
The striatum is a multi-faceted structure with several anatomical connections that facilitate goal-directed behavior (for review see Haber and Knutson, 2010). Across species, the striatum has been found to be important for affective learning, particularly in the context of predicting potential rewards (for review see Delgado, 2007; Montague and Berns, 2002; O'Doherty, 2004; Rangel, et al., 2008; Robbins and Everitt, 1996). For instance, signals corresponding to prediction errors, or the mismatch between expected and experienced rewards, are often correlated with BOLD signals in dorsal and ventral striatum (O'Doherty, et al., 2003; O'Doherty, 2004; van den Bos, et al., 2009) with greater correlations suggestive of increased behavioral performance during reward-learning tasks (Schonberg, et al., 2007). Further, striatum signals are found to be important particularly during the acquisition of reward contingencies, showing a decrement as associations become fully predictable (Delgado, et al., 2005; Haruno, et al., 2004; Pasupathy and Miller, 2005). Our findings are consistent with this literature, as striatum BOLD responses show main effect of learning phase during approach learning sessions, with greater responses during the initial acquisition of a behavioral action to attain a reward.
More recently, neuroimaging experiments have also implicated the human striatum in aversive learning. For instance, aversive prediction errors have been found to correlate with striatum BOLD signals during classical conditioning paradigms (Delgado, et al., 2008; Seymour, et al., 2004; Seymour, et al., 2007), with striatum activity correlating with predictions of potentially negative outcomes regardless if an opportunity to avoid it existed or not (Jensen, et al., 2003). Furthermore, studies using active avoidance of negative outcomes have found striatal activation during the initial acquisition of avoidance contingencies (Delgado, et al., 2009) and expression of learned avoidance (Schlund and Cataldo, 2010; Schlund, et al., 2010). Taken together, these studies support a role for the striatum in learning with negative reinforcers, which is also echoed in the current study.
Our study has two distinct features that helps advance the understanding of the role of the striatum in affective learning and processing of monetary incentives. First, it is one of the few studies where learning can take place in both a positive and a negative context using the same reinforcer (money), thus ensuring a within-subject comparison of the contribution of the striatum across affective learning with both reinforcers. Second, it presents a new way of comparing positive with negative contexts using monetary reinforcers that attempt to control for issues typically associated with this type of comparison. With respect to the first feature, it was observed that BOLD signals within an independent functionally defined ventral striatum ROI showed an interaction between type of session and learning phase, which suggested that learning signals within the striatum were greater when learning via negative, compared to positive reinforcers. One plausible explanation for this finding is the idea that the saliency of a stimulus can drive activity in the striatum (Zink, et al., 2004), which can be exaggerated in a negative context using primary reinforcers such as shock (Jensen, et al., 2007). However, increases in striatum activity are not always modulated by the occurrence of salient events such as monetary loss (Delgado, et al., 2000), a gamble signifying loss (Tom, et al., 2007) or even shock itself (Seymour, et al., 2004). In the current study, the certain stimuli are examples of potentially salient stimuli as they fully predict positive (approach CS+) or negative (avoidance CS+) outcomes. Previous studies have used CS+ stimuli to signal an outcome (e.g., Delgado, et al., 2009; Jensen, et al., 2003; Jensen, et al., 2007), and have seen robust neural responding to such stimuli, but many of these studies either had participants learn the nature of the CS (for a review see Phelps and LeDoux, 2005), or used primary reinforcers (Delgado, et al., 2009; Jensen, et al., 2003; Jensen, et al., 2007). In our experiment, little to no activity was observed in the striatum in response to these stimuli, potentially because they were fully predictable, which has shown to be less dependent on striatal responses (Berns, et al., 2001; Delgado, et al., 2005) and participants had no control over their outcome (Tricomi, et al., 2004).
Another potential explanation for differences in striatum signals between avoidance and approach learning could be due to our choice of reinforcer (money). Specifically, when participants are presented with the avoidance learning sessions, they may be displaying behavioral tendencies akin to loss aversion, or a preference for avoiding losses rather than acquiring gains (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979). Within this idea, neural signals in the ventral striatum have been found to correlate with individual differences in loss aversion (Tom, et al., 2007) and value computations related to changes with respect to a reference point (Breiter, et al., 2001; De Martino, et al., 2009).
In the current paradigm, participants also acquire an experimental bank via a gambling task before each approach and avoidance learning session. This bank is essential for participants to feel like they are actually losing something that has been earned and thus creates an endowment that may enhance the subjective value of accrued losses during the avoidance learning sessions (Delgado, et al., 2006; Tom, et al., 2007). In this experiment, the experimental banks are equated across approach and avoidance to allow for a direct comparison during learning sessions, but one could conjure up a scenario where gambling sessions are created to present a context in which avoidance sessions start with either more or less than what was earned in the approach sessions. This contextual manipulation with respect to endowment size is an interesting manipulation for future studies.
A second distinct feature of our paradigm is the use of secondary reinforcers, such as monetary incentives, as a common reinforcer that can be either positive (reward) or negative (loss), unlike primary reinforcers such as shock or food which are more difficult to equate. To adopt this type of incentive, we used a spinner procedure, described in detail in the methods, which kept the actual monetary value of a single trial ambiguous until the end of the experiment. The goal of this procedure was to ensure that the only thing that mattered for participants was the occurrence (or non-occurrence) of a reinforcer. Indeed, this was important, as the concept of marginal utility (value of gains decreases based on individual's asset) is known to influence reward-related circuitry, particularly the striatum (Tobler, et al., 2007). While others have elegantly tried to take absolute value out of the equation and primarily examine questions related to the magnitude of the incentive (Galvan, et al., 2005), our procedure allowed participants to treat positive and negative outcomes as just that, without any influence of actual value or magnitude. This procedure is promising for studies across development that use monetary incentives as a potential tool for isolating the affective meaning, rather than value of the presented incentives.
In this paradigm, the absolute value gained or lost is unknown, thus participants presumably calculate the value of their actions based on internal tendencies associated with positive and negative reinforcers. For instance, people are more likely to avoid social situations where they can be evaluated than approach them, despite the possibility of forming rewarding relationships (Beck and Clark, 2009), while striatum responses to losses, but not monetary rewards, correlate with increased behavioral choices in some contexts such as social competitions (Delgado, et al., 2008). The current study was limited by simple choices (i.e., find appropriate response), thus investigating the influence of negative contexts on complex behavioral choices therefore becomes another interesting future investigation.
Within the striatum, we observed greater influences of negative reinforcers on more lateral regions of the ventral striatum. In contrast, more ventromedial striatum regions including ventral caudate nucleus showed a main effect of learning phase, irrespective of type of reinforcer. Further studies are necessary to fully understand this potential dissociation within the striatum, although given the vast connectivity in this structure (see Haber and Knutson, 2010 for review) it is not surprising that different regions within the striatum would express sensitivity to different task factors. Interestingly, no amygdala activation was observed during either approach or avoidance learning cues. Amygdala activity was apparent in the certain stimuli contrast, but not during the learning trials. The lack of amygdala activity is in contrast with animal studies implicating this structure in avoidance learning (see Cain and Ledoux, 2008), and human neuroimaging studies of avoidance learning using primary reinforcers (Delgado, et al., 2009) or in contexts in which participants acquired stable avoidance responding prior to scanning (Schlund and Cataldo, 2010; Schlund, et al., 2010). Our design, on the other hand, used secondary reinforcers and had participants acquire the avoidance response during scanning, potentially creating a quick response coping mechanism which can be driven primarily by the striatum (for review see LeDoux and Gorman, 2001). Importantly, it is difficult to interpret a null result in neuroimaging, so the lack of amygdala activity during learning trials in this paradigm should be treated with caution.
Our paradigm and findings have implications for developmental studies of affective processing. First, as already discussed, the paradigm presents an opportunity to compare the influence of positive and negative reinforcers across development while attempting to control for valuation of monetary reinforcers (also see Galvan, et al., 2005). Second, our results present an interesting complement to the influential triadic model of motivated behavior during adolescence (Ernst, et al., 2006; Ernst and Fudge, 2009). Briefly, this model suggests that increased reward responses (ventral striatum), decreased avoidance responses (amygdala) and poor regulation (prefrontal cortex) contribute to aberrant behavior seen in adolescents. In the current experiment, young adults show a propensity to learn from both positive and negative reinforcers, engaging the striatum irrespective of motivational context, but not the amygdala. Interestingly, behaviorally inhibited adolescents show an augmented response to both positive and negative outcomes of increasing value in both the striatum and amygdala (Guyer, et al., 2006). While our discussion of the amygdala is limited due to it being a null finding, our study does raise questions about a role, if any, of the striatum during negative motivational contexts across development.
In conclusion, this study extends the growing literature implicating the striatum in learning from both positive and negative reinforcers. Our results further suggest that specific regions in the lateral ventral striatum are modulated in particular by learning from negative reinforcers. The results provide a direct comparison between the influence of positive and negative reinforcers on acquisition of behaviors and the human striatum, setting up future studies that further probe similarities and differences across development which can translate to clinical studies focusing on acquisition and extinction of maladaptive behaviors (e.g., drug use) reinforced by positive or negative outcomes.
This study was funded by a National Institute on Drug Abuse grant to M.R.D. (DA027764).
Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
PubMed Central Canada is a service of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) working in partnership with the National Research Council's national science library in cooperation with the National Center for Biotechnology Information at the U.S. National Library of Medicine(NCBI/NLM). It includes content provided to the PubMed Central International archive by participating publishers.


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Job Vacancy PT Bank BRISyariah -Jogjakarta Area – Customer Service/Teller, Marketing
PT Bank BRISyariah performing in sharia banking business and officialy operated since 2008. The Company is a part direct subsidiary of PT Bank Rakyat Indonesia (Persero) Tbk and headquartered in Jakarta. As December 2011, the Company operates 101 branch offices, including 8 main branch offices, 27 branch offices, 55 sub branch offices and 11 cash offices across Indonesia. The Banks also supported 171 ATM BRISyariah networks. Based on PT Bank BRI Syariah Annual Report 2011, BRI Syariah had showed significant operational results in 2011 marked by achieved total assets of Rp11.26 trillion for the end of December 2011.
PT Bank BRISyariah are now seeking to recruit high caliber and dynamic individuals for the following challenging positions as :
- Frontliner (Customer Service/Teller)
- Account Officer (Marketing)
General Requirements
- Male/Female with max age 25 years old for Frontliner and 30 years old for Marketing
- Min D3/S1 from all majors
- Good looking and communicative
- Atractive and able to work in a team
- Willing to be placed in all DIY area
- Placements : KCP Wonosari, KCP Godean, Gedongkuning, and Prambanan
For further detail information, please refer official source from PT Bank BRISyariah on following link below. Should you are interested, please send your application, CV, copy of academic certificate and transcripts, latest color photograph not later than 15 February 2013 to below address. Competitive salary and benefits will be offered to the right candidate. All applications will be treated as strictly confidential. Only qualified candidate match with the above mentioned qualifications will be notified for further selection.
HR Rep. Bank BRISyariah
KC Yogyakarta – Jl Yos Sudarso No 1 Kota Baru Yogyakarta


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am i legally obligated to inform her of this? because if i wanna prove harassment then she wouldnt be harassing me if she knew
I would direct that question to a criminal law attorney. On the other hand, wouldn't this be a great way to make her stop harassing you? And, note Ms. Straus' response.
thanks i think i have your po
int, thank you sir


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47325 Agate Ct., Indian Wells, CA 92210
- $1,250,000
- 1+ Years on site
- Est: $4,631/month
Estimate Your Monthly Payment
Data provided by Informa Research Services. Payments do not include amounts for taxes and insurance premiums. The actual payment obligation will be greater if taxes and insurance are included. Click here for more information on rates and product details.
- Mortgage Center
- Beds: n/a
- Baths: n/a
- Building Lot
Design and build the desert retreat of your dreams on one of the few remaining undeveloped lots in Eldorado. One of two adjoining lots located at the end of a quiet cul-de-sac, looking out to a gentle stream, the 17th fairway, and majestic views of the surrounding Cove Mountains. Offered separately, but may be joined together for one spacious home-site. Click here to learn more about this listing.
- Year Built: n/a
- 1+ Years on site
- Building Lot
- Beds: n/a
- Baths: n/a
Listing Details
- Lot Features
- Mountain View
- Lot Size
- Approximately 17424 Square Feet
- Assessed Taxable Amount
- $1,080,937
- Tax Amount
- $13,348
- Last Transaction Date
- 05/06/2004
- Last Transaction Purchase Price
- $1,800,000
- Property Type
- Vacant
- Lot Size (Sqft)
- 17,424
- Lot Size (Acres)
- 0.40
- View Type
- Fairway
Public Facts: As provided by County Assessor and Recorder offices. May not reflect recent additions or improvements. If you see any errors, the best way to get the records updated is to contact your local county records office. If any of the information in this section conflicts with property information provided by a listing agent or broker, agent-provided information should be deemed more reliable.
Local Info
| Median Household Income
| Median Years In Residence
| Median Homeowner Age
| Households with Children
| Percent of Homes Rented
Nearby Elementary Schools
- Gerald R. Ford Elementary School
- 44210 Warner Trl
- George Washington Charter
- 45768 Portola Ave
- Sacred Heart School
- 43775 Deep Canyon Rd
Nearby Middle Schools
- Sacred Heart School
- 43775 Deep Canyon Rd
- Palm Desert Charter Middle School
- 74200 Rutledge Way
- Colonel Mitchell Paige Middle School
- 43495 Palm Royale Dr
Nearby High Schools
- Palm Desert High School
- 74910 Aztec Rd
- Summit High (Continuation)
- 43330 Palm Royale Dr
- Horizon
- 43330 Palm Royale Dr
These are the closest schools to your requested location. Proximity does not guarantee enrollment eligibility. Please consult your real estate agent or school district to confirm the schools you are zoned to attend.
Mortgage Rates
Data provided by Informa Research Services. Payments do not include amounts for taxes and insurance premiums. The actual payment obligation will be greater if taxes and insurance are included. Click here for more information on rates and product details.
Property Contact Info
Need More Information?
Please fill out this form to request more photos or more information regarding this property.


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News By Tag
* Hair Accessories
* Boutique
* Mompreneur
* Wahm
* High-end
* Handmade
* Latina
* Spanish
* Latina Moms
* Home Business Owners
* More Tags...
Industry News
News By Location
Industry News
Cabecitas Lindas Wins Top Honors in Mom Business Competition!
StartupNation.com Honors Nation's Leading Moms in Business
Millions of votes have been cast in the annual competition, and this year's flurry of popular support of the 2011 contestants was no exception. America has once again demonstrated its immense interest and supportiveness for moms building businesses as they also tend to their families.
"With startup rates at an all-time high, these leading moms are leading the pack in startup rates," says Rich Sloan, chief startupologist and co-founder of StartupNation. "They're going after their business opportunities and developing their innovative products and services with fervor," Sloan adds.
"As a Bronx based business and a Latina working mother of 3, I am thrilled to have received this recognition for all the hard work and dedication I have put into my growing business and so proud that my Spanish named company is so well received", says Aida Dujarric. The winner's profile for Cabecitas Lindas can be found at http://www.startupnation.com/
The 2011 Leading Moms in Business ranking highlights some of the dominant trends, motivations and attributes among moms in business. They include:
• A great eye for providing attractive discounts, coupons, savings and value, all especially important to consumer moms of the recession era.
• Likelihood to come up with innovative products and solutions to address the challenging maze of motherhood. It's an environment that demands resourcefulness.
• Conscience-
• The attraction of being your own boss looms large for moms wanting to take control they just can't find in a day job.
• Sustainable solutions and responsible business practices are increasingly paramount.
• Making the most of social media for business benefit is seemingly a birthright for the socially adept moms.
The full results of the 2011 Leading Moms in Business ranking are available on StartupNation'
About StartupNation
StartupNation (www.startupnation.com)
For more information, press only:
For StartupNation, contact Rich Sloan via email at rich at StartupNation dot com or by phone at 248-430-1002.
For Cabecitas Lindas contact Aida Dujarric at aida at cabecitaslindas dot com or by phone at 877-208-6182
# # #
Cabecitas Lindas means pretty little heads in Spanish, we specialize in creating unique couture hair accessories for ladies of all ages. Each piece is handmade to perfection giving little ones style and grace.
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The National Center for Women and Information Technology has produced a great report called Women in IT: the facts. The summary slides set out a crystal clear business case for boosting the number of women in tech.
Jargon-buster guide to GDPR
The 10 most important things you need to know about GDPR, and a jargon-buster explanation for some of the key terminology.
By submitting your personal information, you agree that TechTarget and its partners may contact you regarding relevant content, products and special offers.
You also agree that your personal information may be transferred and processed in the United States, and that you have read and agree to the Terms of Use and the Privacy Policy.
What's clear is that you can't just "decide to employ more women". That won't work. The whole problem is there are no women to employ – they're all busy feeling alienated and going into PR.
This report shows just how important it is to take a big-picture view of the issue. Going into schools to speak to girls about why technology is fun is a better plan than trying to increase the number of women on your team, and getting downhearted if and when it doesn't happen. It's taken a long time for us to slide into a position of there being so few women interested in tech and science, and it's going to take a long time to climb back out.
The report is US focussed, so the numbers aren't accurate for UK or Europe. But the pattern and the issues are the same across these countries, so it makes interesting reading. I found it through the Girls in Tech blog.


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|Message view
|« Date » · « Thread »
|« Date » · « Thread »
|Tom Miller <tmil...@kdsi.net>
|Re: How to use Jikes to compile JSPs
|Thu, 14 Sep 2000 06:07:07 GMT
I found this on email@example.com, thanks to Pierre Delisle at Sun. "It is possible to configure the java compiler used by the JSP engine in Tomcat via the 'jspCompilerPlugin' init parameter. Check the web.xml file in the conf directory of Tomcat. <!-- uncomment the following to use Jikes for JSP compilation <init-param> <param-name>jspCompilerPlugin</param-name> <param-value>org.apache.jasper.compiler.JikesJavaCompiler</param-value> </init-param> -->" I did as shown, but my compile times have not improved. It is taking me over a minute to compile JSPs. I know something must be wrong, but don't know where to start looking. I'm using Tomcat 3.2 beta 3. Any suggestions very welcome. thanks Tom Rick Horowitz wrote: > Hi, > > I'm a new Tomcat user...looks great so far. > > I'm running Tomcat in the JBuilder 3.5 debugger using jdk 1.3. I'm > trying to figure out how to configure Tomcat to use jikes to compile > JSPs in this environment. I'm moving from JRun3.0, which uses jikes; > it's so much faster than jdk 1.3 to compile jsps. > > Please, someone explain how I can configure Tomcat with JBuilder to use > jikes to compile my jsps... > > TIA, > > Rick Horowitz
|View raw message


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Goose Creek is a mid-sized city located in Berkeley County, South Carolina. The city government of Goose Creek utilizes around 200 network nodes along with 12 separate servers, all constantly being accessed by their staff of 250 employees. "The reason I chose Unitrends is the technology. I was very interested once I saw the demo. It looked very clean, very precise, and like it could do what they said it was going to do, " Ryan Byrd, IT Director said. Unitrends user interface makes it easy to see the technology at work with the capability to manage all protected systems in one single view. This allows for proactive monitoring to view retention and backup capacity, but more importantly it's easy to use for the unexpected occurrences."Thank you for your interest in Goose Creek, SC Local Government
Last Updated: 12/19/2016
Categories: Success Stories Recovery-Series Government Backup & Recovery


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Our 1975 holiday in Beaumaris included myself, husband, two daughters, mother and father. We ate most nights in the Cottage Café where early in the week I spotted a large white horse ornament in a cabinet half-way up the stairs but it was not for sale. My father evidently spoke every night to the owner (the name Gwen springs to mind) trying to persuade her to let him buy the horse for me as a surprise. By the end of the week he must have worn her down because he presented me with the horse which I still have and love. My father died the following year so Beaumaris is a special place for me with a special memory.
Starting a conversation is a great way to share, and get involved!
Post some feedback, your own recollections, or questions below.
You must be signed-in to your Frith account to post a comment.
Not sure what to write? It's easy - just think of an important place in your life and ask yourself:
Some of the places you've shared memories of this week:
...and hundreds more! Enjoy browsing more recent contributions now.


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The Dessy Bridesmaid style 2894 is not only stunning but comfortable as well. Your bridal party will love you for selecting a drop dead gorgeous bridesmaid dress like this. The full length gown adds glamour. The v-neck sleeveless bridesmaid dress is made of soft lux chiffon that moves elegantly with every step. The dress features draped detail at neckline which is figure flattering. The slight shirring at front and back skirt at comfort and ease, especially with the sexy slit at front skirt. Your bridal party will have a great time on the dance floor wearing this dress. There's no need to worry about the dress slipping with it's comfortable wide straps.
Add The Katheryn Necklace and Earring Set for a complete look. Oh, let's not forget a pair of stunning strappy metallic high heels. Need to see a color or fabric? No problem, order a swatch. The Dessy line is our couture dress line that offers upscale and modern designs. Dessy dresses are designed with immaculate designer detailing and specialty fabrics.
Sizes available: 00-30W, and 00-30W Extra Length. Optional spaghetti straps included.
Available in 88 colors
Coupon Code: MODEL10
This coupon code can only be used ONCE per customer.


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This category of reports provides you with information about the origin of your traffic.
These reports can help you understand the following:
The following screen shot represents the overview report which acts like a default home page from this category of reports.
You will see that it represents a quick summary of important stats such as top traffic sources and top keywords which sent most of the traffic to your website.
As shown in the above screen shot the Traffic Sources Overview report has the following main elements:
Direct Traffic refers to those visitors who come directly to your site either by typing your web address or by selecting your site from their favorites menu.
The following screen shot shows a standard Direct Traffic report.
The Search report is an excellent way to tell how well your organic ranking efforts are working and how effective your paid listings are. This group of report includes an Overview Report, and then reports to break down your organic traffic and paid traffic, repspectively.
The following screen shot is an example of the Organic report, specifically looking at sources. In this example, you can see that Google is sending the most traffic to this website.
The keywords traffic report is an excellent source for identifying brand association and evaluating the effectiveness of your search engine optimization efforts.
The following screen shot is an example of the Keywords report, found within the Organic report. You will notice that most of the traffic is from "not-provided." Unfortunately, Google has recently added in a new secure browsing feature. So, anyone logged into any Google propety (Gmail, YouTube, Blogger, etc.). Anyone who is not logged in, will still show their search terms. In the screen shot below, you'll notice "Webucator" is the most popular known keyword used.


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Here's a few ways to get a jump on those college costs—and still have a great summer!
If you are planning to attend college in the fall, you have likely received your financial aid award letter and may have already made a final decision on where to attend. Now is a good time to start thinking about college expenses and how to pay for those not covered by the financial aid you've been offered. If you are going to be living on campus, consider expenses beyond tuition, fees and books—expenses such as rent and utilities (if you aren't in a dorm), food, notebooks, clothes and other items to start coming up with a realistic idea of costs.
Now consider how you will pay for everything. A student loan might be part of your financial aid package and could be a worthwhile investment, but taking on a student loan, or adding another loan to what you already have, should be your last option, not your first! Recognize that whatever you take out, you are going to have to pay back—with interest—so never borrow more than you need for your education. Learn about student loans and how to budget with the SALT™ Money tool available through the ISAC Student Portal.
Here are some other options to explore to cover expenses:
Take a look at your college's website to see if there are institutional scholarships for which you might be eligible. Your college might not automatically consider you for these scholarships; you might have to apply for them. And check out College Greenlight™ on the ISAC Student Portal, which allows you to search through a huge database of billions of dollars in local and national scholarships to find the ones for which you might be eligible.
A job can also help you to cover costs. Your financial aid award letter will have indicated whether you are eligible to get a campus job through federal work study. If not, there are usually campus job boards to assist you in finding non-work study positions on or off campus. And you can jumpstart your savings for fall with a job this summer. Check out the new Internship/Summer Job Board on the ISAC Student Portal, where you will find over 3000 job listings throughout Illinois that are updated daily.
Need some one-on-one help? The ISACorps is always on hand to answer your college and financial aid questions. Enjoy your summer and get a jump on fall!


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Chef & Sommelier Reveal 'Up Intense Stemmed Glass 55cl Set of 6
Product Code: CF0037
Contemporary stemmed wine glass from Chef & Sommelier.
Impress wine connoisseurs at your next stylish soiree with the Chef & Sommelier Reveal 'Up Intense Stemmed Glass 55cl Set of 6.
Strong yet delicate, this designer wine glass is the perfect complement for the host with the most.
Mouth-blown by Italian glass artisans, the characteristic angle on the bowl of each glass creates a natural gauge allowing you to pour the perfect measure of wine.
Specifically developed to enhance the aeration process and flavour when enjoying fine wine, the aesthetic is complete with an elegantly formed slender stem and rounded base.
Features include:
Touch - Thin drinking rim offering perfect balance.
Sight - Unique design to achieve a contemporary table setting.
Smell - Includes chimney for reducing alcohol perception.
Taste - Aromatic chamber to enhance experience of tasting fine wine.
Capacity 55cl.
About The Brand
A designer glassware extension of the Arc International brand, Chef and Sommelier has seeked guidance and taken chic style cues from its parent company's wealth of experience in the wine industry. Celebrating the unique joie de vivre of wine drinking, a discerning designer wine glass from the Chef and Sommelier collection will enhance the aromas and taste of drinking fine wine.
Why shop with Houseology
Houseology is not only the UK's premier online interior design store - it is an emporium of design ideas, advice & inspiration and a platform of tools & technology designed to make your interior design decisions and calculations easy.


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Distances are calculated in a straight line and may not reflect actual travel distance.
It is important to note that this mortgage calculator is for guidance purposes only. Mortgage lenders have their own affordability criteria therefore it is important you speak to one of our Mortgage Advisers for further information and a more accurate indication of what products may be available to you and what your monthly mortgage payments are likely to be.
The property is located in the popular village of Chorleywood with easy access to the village centre and Metropolitan/Main Line station. Internally a welcoming entrance hall provides access to a cloakroom, utility room the principal reception rooms and stairs to the first floor landing. The ground floor accommodation affords wonderful reception space with an open sitting/dining room which leads to a conservatory overlooking the rear garden. A further front aspect reception room/bedroom four is currently used as a Study. The kitchen/breakfast room opens onto the rear garden and completes the ground floor accommodation. The first floor accommodation has a refurbished family bathroom servicing the three bedrooms. All the bedrooms have the benefit from built in cupboards.
The property is highly desirable being in a semi-rural setting of Whitelands Avenue, yet under a mile from the lively centre of Chorleywood, which has a good selection of local suppliers, such as a butcher, baker, bookshop and newsagent, combined with a variety of cafes and restaurants. The mainline station is within the town centre and usefully serves both the Chiltern mainline and Metropolitan underground. Nearby schooling is of a high calibre, with the 'Good' local primary school half a mile away, in addition to Clement Danes school, Merchant Taylors School for Boys, the Royal Masonic School for Girls and the Watford Grammar Schools. Chorleywood Common is worthy of special mention, encompassing 200 acres of wooded common land. Chorleywood golf course maintains a nine hole course on the common as is the Chorleywood Cricket club for seniors and juniors. Moor Park golf course and The Grove, one of South East England's top Country Clubs and golf courses, are a short drive away.
To the front of the property is off street parking for several cars and side access to the rear. The rear garden has a lower and upper terrace patio area overlooking the garden. The well maintained rear garden is mainly laid to lawn with mature hedges and shrubs to all sides.
Additional Information
Local Authority: Three Rivers District Council.
Entrance Hall
Sitting Room
Dining Room
Study/Bedroom four
Kitchen/Breakfast Room
Three Bedrooms
Family Bathroom
Contact branch for relevant Energy Performance Certificate
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