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by George Dubpernell
A review article originally printed as Plating & Surface Finishing, 71 (6), 84-91 (1984) on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the founding of the American Electroplaters Society.
Recollections of the early days, business transactions, the development of trivalent solutions and thin deposits are among the highlights of this historical account.
At the time of the founding of the AES in 1909, George J. Sargent (Fig. 1), a pioneer of chromium deposition, earned his M.A. degree at New Hampshire University and continued graduate study at Cornell University until 1914.1,2 From 1911 to 1914 he worked on chromium deposition under Bancroft, trying to produce a 10-lb. batch of electrolytic chromium in a single continuous run. This he failed to do, but he did receive the Ph.D. degree in 1912 for his chromium work up to that point. The publication of his paper in 1920 and that of Schwartz in 1923 attracted considerable attention (including that of the writer), and led to the development of a commercial process by Fink and Eldridge by May 1924 at Columbia University.2
Figure 1 - George J. Sargent (1885-1965) about 1920.
The two original companies, the Chemical Treatment Company and the Chromium Products Corporation, a subsidiary of Metal and Thermit Corporation, plated many sample jobs and advertised their processes energetically from June 1925 through 1926 (Fig. 2). Almost overnight, "chromium plated" became a byword for a pleasing, bright, non-tarnishing finish of great durability.
Figure 2 - Half of a large electrotype chromium plated by the Chemical Treatment Co. in 1926 and tested on a long run [From High D. McLeese (1899-1980)].
The merger of the first two companies as "the first step in the simplification of the patent situation"3 was announced July 22, 1926.4 By that time the Chemical Treatment Company was operating an additional plant in Waterbury, CT.5 The new corporation was called the Chromium Corporation of America, and operated a number of job shops in large cities until recently.
The advertising and other overhead costs grew so great without promise of rapid return on the investment that Mr. Pratt decided to withdraw from active management in December 1926 and gave an elaborate farewell dinner at the Metropolitan Club of New York on Fifth Avenue that was long remembered by participants. Unfortunately, Mr. Pratt died June 17, 1927.6 He was an excellent sponsor to the infant industry of chromium plating.
Mr. Eldridge left a few months later to go with a new firm, the General Chromium Corporation in Detroit. This firm was based mainly upon [Marvin] Udy's patent applications owned by the Electro-metallurgical Company of Union Carbide. Other interests such as the Vacuum Can Company of Chicago and Fred J. Fisher of Detroit7 were also included.
As soon as the Fink Patent issued April 20, 1926, Udy copied Fink's claims on his applications, thus forcing the patent office to declare an interference. After July 1926, the Fink patent was owned by the Chromium Corporation of America. In order to dissolve the interferences, the General Chromium Corporation and the Chromium Corporation of America formed a new company, United Chromium, Incorporated,8 in September 1927. The patent counsel of both firms deliberated at great length and finally decided that Udy should sign concessions of priority to Fink in both interferences in February 1928.
The practice in hard chromium plating was to calculate the exact surface area of the part to be plated and to apply sufficient current to get the required current density for good plating at a known speed. Udy took great pleasure often times in starting a discussion by announcing in a loud tone of voice, "All chromium plating should be done at 4.2 volts and the current to the individual piece disregarded." This brought on vigorous discussion as intended, but all were unable to discourage Mr. Udy. He and Phil Hale built a huge composite bus bar about 12 or 15 feet long, so that a number of parts to be plated could be attached to the cathode bar and a number of lead anodes to the anode bar, and the whole operated at a single voltage (Fig. 4).
Figure 4 - Hale-Udy composite bus bar resting on top of chromium tank, as published by Udy.11
A great deal of work was done with this assemblage, but in Udy's final report dated November 22, 1929, his results were tabulated in the form of the current density produced at 45°C with a given voltage and electrode spacing. His conclusion was in part, "Voltage operation is very convenient and, after experience has been obtained, it can be used almost entirely. By this I mean that if you have a definite known electrode spacing and apply a constant voltage, the current density will be constant."
Udy's employment with Electrometallurgical Company was terminated in 1931, and he did not return to plating work. Phil Hale filed a patent on the composite bus bar January 7, 1932.12 A successor, Clarence H. Peger calls it the "Reversible Rack 2 Bus Bar System" and makes a good contribution to chromium plating technology based upon its use.
Chromic acid, 15 g/L
Potassium hydroxide, 60 g/L
Chromium oxalate, 180 g/L
Chromic acid was found to be beneficial to this oxalate solution, but more than about 10-20 g/L tended to oxidize the oxalate radical. It becomes something of a moot question whether this is a trivalent or a dilute hexavalent solution. The good color of the deposits obtained tends to favor the concept of deposition from the small amount of chromic acid present.
Webersinn no doubt got a good deal of his inspiration from the publications of Mazzucchelli,24,25 who found that ammonium chromium oxalate, Cr(C2O4NH4)3∙H2O gave a much better solution than any other trivalent salt. However, he did not get as good results as those obtained in the commercially used hexavalent solutions in Italy. Nevertheless, Mazzucchelli prepared his crystalline ammonium chromium oxalate by pouring 2 molar chromic acid solution into 6 molar oxalic acid and heating until crystallization occurred. He used a two-compartment cell, but frequently found Cr+6 in the catholyte.
At the same time, Britton and Westcott found better results with oxalate than with acetate or tartrate.26 Charles Kasper of the Bureau of Standards published an outstanding review in 1933 on deposition from both chromic and chromous solutions.27 The writer's reviews in 1963 and 1974 give some references to the use of chromium ammonium oxalate in brush plating.16,17
S. Eguchi in Japan has also, to some extent, confirmed Webersinn's work with oxalate, but again the distinction between hexavalent and trivalent solutions tends to become blurred or lost and quantitative investigation increasingly difficult.28-32 The language barrier is enough of a problem, but for some unaccountable reason, Chemical Abstracts will not refer to the Journal of the Metal Finishing Society of Japan as such, but insists on calling it Kinzoku Hyomen Gijutsu - a constant handicap. Eguchi typically may use 200 g/L chromic acid solution to which he adds 75 g/L (NH4)2SO4 and 500 g/L oxalic acid (H2C2O4∙2H2O) and lets this mixture stand overnight at room temperature to get a solution with a major part of the chromic acid converted to trivalent chromium, but about 24 to 76 g/L of chromic acid remaining.32
A brief paper in 1938 cast the shadow of some things to come. Wade and Yntema33 found best results from a solution of 0.5M chromic sulfate containing 4 moles of ammonium sulfate and 0.1 mole/L of ammonium oxalate. Citric acid also had beneficial effects. Organic acids and ammonium sulfate raised the pH at which basic chromium salts precipitated, and thus widened the plating range.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines began a long-range investigation of the electrowinning of chromium metal in 1939, primarily to utilize low-grade domestic chromium ore, but also to study the properties of high-purity chromium metal. This investigation has already been referenced in the last three editions of Modern Electroplating.15-17 At the same time, approximately, the Electro Metallurgical Company division of Union Carbide Corporation made a detailed study of the methods and procedures developed by the Bureau of Mines and added what appeared to be the best of them to its own conceptions and developments. The confluence of these two powerful streams of investigation broke down many stubborn obstacles and was rewarded with the creation of an outstandingly fortunate and successful development.
A report34 on the electrolysis of chromic sulfate solutions cited an efficiency of 45 percent for the reduction of Cr+3 and was followed by pilot-plant operations claiming an efficiency of 60 percent.35 Electrolyte modifications and improved cell design were discussed in a third report.36 Subsequent papers37-40 addressed developments leading to a commercial plant designed to produce up to 6 million lb./year of chromium. It went on stream in 1954 with an average plant efficiency of 45 percent. Good descriptions of this were given by F.E. Bacon.41-43 Electrodeposition of chromium from trivalent solutions was also reported in Japan44-49 and Russia.50
Jangg and Burger51 studied chromium deposition on mercury cathodes, and obtained as high as 68 percent efficiency from a 6 g/L solution of Cr+3 sulfate containing 50 g/L ammonium sulfate at 30°C by raising the pH to 3.2. With 4.0 g/L chromium as Cr+3 chloride at 30°C and pH 1.5, they obtained 70 percent current efficiency at the higher current densities. The importance of black, spongy deposits of low overvoltage in their work is discussed elsewhere.52
In 1969, Bharucha and Ward of the British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association (BNFMRA) published information on a trivalent chromium plating process using an unusual solution with 50 percent by volume dimethylformamide (DMF) as the solvent for chromic chloride.53 The research was also sponsored by the International Lead Zinc Research Organization (ILZRO), New York, NY, and the results were patented.54 The remarkable feature was that efficiencies in the range of 40 to 50 percent were obtained. These efficiencies were confirmed in two articles published in 1971.55,56 The second article is particularly helpful, and discloses that some Cr+3 is reduced to Cr+2, which remains in the solution until re-oxidized and is not further reduced to metal. This creates a reducing condition in the solution that makes metal contamination much less of a problem. The final concentration of DMF selected was 400 g/L, or about 40 percent by volume.
The BNFMRA made an agreement with Albright and Wilson Ltd. in 1970 for the joint development and commercial exploitation of the DMF process.57 Difficulties and production experiences do not seem to have been publicized. Outdoor corrosion tests were reported in 1973 in which directly plated zinc-die-cast parts failed by dulling more rapidly than the same parts plated with conventional Cr+6 baths.58 On the other hand, much later tests in 1977 with both chloride and sulfate DMF baths gave better results in obtaining inclusions of Al2O3 and Cr3C2 particles in the Cr+3 deposits than in deposits from Cr+6 baths.59
J.E. Bride was employed at Battelle Memorial Institute from 1948-56 and did some work on Cr+3 plating in this period. Then from 1956-72 he worked at Diamond Alkali Company, later Diamond Shamrock Corporation, the latter part of this period being devoted to developments in Cr+3 plating. In 1972 he went with E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc., and it took over the dossier of patents he had developed with some collaborators and added them to some of its own.60-74
At the end of 1972 he published a comprehensive article.75 DuPont offered these patented procedures to the trade but it is not clear just what they may have contributed to Cr+3 technology. Presumably they became part of the effort of Albright and Wilson Ltd. to establish the process, perhaps with formate or glycollate as a complexing agent for Cr+3.
In mid-1975 and 1976 a new process, Alecra 3, was introduced, and in the process of doing this, Crowther and Renton76 and Chalkley, Crowther and Renton77 published some discussion of past failures and problems. There was burning at high current densities, and inability to plate into recessed areas. The coverage at low current densities was unacceptable, and compared unfavorably with that of existing hexavalent electrolytes. After a limited time the formation of a little hexavalent chromium caused the plating speed to fall off slowly to zero, and the solution could not be restored by sulfur dioxide treatment. In a later process78 it was found possible to reduce hexavalent chromium to Cr+3 by adding hydrogen peroxide and removing excess peroxide by heating. This, of course, would oxidize any Cr+2 present. The same would probably also be true of any hypophosphite present, the use of which was mentioned in several patents.79-80 It appears that ferrocyanide was added to these baths to remove trace metal contaminants.81 An important patent basic to this process should also be listed.82 It covers the use of formate or acetate together with a bromide and other useful constituents.
The Harshaw Chemical Company entered into an agreement with Albright & Wilson Ltd. in 1976 to distribute the new process in North America.83 The process is also sold by Waldberg SA in France. No doubt there are many other international sales arrangements.
The properties of trivalent chromium deposits are distinctly different from those from Cr+6 solutions. They generally have a darker color due to impurities and resemble the appearance of stainless steel. The deposits are intensely microporous with more than 1 million pores per cm2.78 At thicknesses of more than 2.5 μm (0.0001 in.) they become dull, and over 15 μm (0.0006 in.) powdery. The structure is weak and friable, and somewhat lacking in adhesion in greater thicknesses, and is consequently not considered for wear resistance.
While there is better coverage around holes and on underneath surfaces in practice, many recesses were more difficult to cover than expected, and doubts were raised as to the validity of Hull Cell work.76-77 However, the charts that were frequently drawn of plating rate vs. current density contained an element of sophistry and were a little misleading. Thus the plating rate could not remain constant while the current density increased unless there was a substantial decrease in current efficiency at the same time. The writer published some current efficiency/ current density curves from Huba and Bride's patent67 to show the lack of reproducibility of supposedly identical solutions, presumably due to impurities.
This difference was shown by Roubal,84 indicating the failure of chromium to deposit at a lower current density from Cr+3 solutions than from Cr+6. Again, Moritz indicates plating to a lower current density with Cr+6 than with Cr+3 by means of a current efficiency/current density chart.85
A further paper by Barnes, Ward and Carter86 reports good results for even thin deposits of decorative trivalent chromium plate for outdoor corrosion resistance directly on zinc. If the very small pores in trivalent chromium plate are plugged with dried and insoluble corrosion products the performance is good. On the other hand, in accelerated tests with continuous wetting with a highly conducting electrolyte, corrosion may continue unchecked and cause undercutting of the chromium.
Another report on corrosion characteristics was published by Snyder.87 Gianelos contributed three reviews of recent experience.88-90
Roubal84 reported a careful investigation of the Gyllenspetz and Renton patent.82 This was extended by throwing-power measurements with the now-old-fashioned Haring-Blum cell. An extensive study of trivalent chromium publications was reported by J. Datta91 from a dissertation submitted to TH-Aachen in Germany. Unfortunately, a more detailed publication has not appeared. A preliminary report is given on a citrate bath developed by Datta.
Schloetter obtained an early patent92 in which he added ammonium thiocyanate to chromic chloride baths. He thought chromium anodes could be used and dissolved directly in the form of chromic salt, but in the writer's experience this never occurs and chromium anodes only dissolve directly as chromic acid. Levy and Mornyer93-94 also used thiocyanate to get better chromium deposition from trivalent baths.
Another new Cr+3 process was developed in England by IBM United Kingdom Laboratories Ltd. and is being sold by W. Canning Materials Ltd. It has a base of thiocyanate complexant and a number of patents have been obtained. A two-compartment cell is used; two articles95-96 describe the working and advantages.
Still another new process is described by Tomaszewski and Fischer of Udylite.97 Professor Tajima remarked in the discussion that Cr+3 is not as corrosion resistant as Cr+6 and is grayer in color. The Toyota Company set up a pilot plant for the trivalent system but did not adopt it for production. Trivalent chromium is not now in use in Japan on either automobiles or cameras.98
In 1948 Morisset published a little-known paperback book of 220 pages reviewing industrial applications of hard chromium. In 1952, he published an excellent general textbook of 477 pages on chromium plating. This was translated into English and supplemented by Oswald, Draper and Pinner to make a 611-page book that appeared in 1954. This latter book became something of a "bible" that can be found in the hands of many older chromium platers, but is otherwise not very well known. It is said to have been translated into Russian and Japanese, but, unfortunately, the English edition went out of print in a few years.
Morisset published a handsome, 895-page, bound book, Chromage dur et decoratif, in 1961, but again it was not translated into English. Thus, by a sequence of events, we lack a high-grade, well-documented, comprehensive text of chromium plating technology in English. The second edition of the German book by Weiner in 1974 appeared in English translation by A. Walmsley in 1980, but this is a somewhat modest, albeit well-organized, text of 224 pages.
The only other text with a good bibliographical background is the eighth edition of Gmelin's Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry (in German, with English notes), System No. 52, "Chromium," Part A, Section 2, p. 473-622 (1963). This gives numerous references on specific subjects but is already 20 years out of date [in 1984 - Ed.]. It seems the only possibility of a good, up-to-date reference text on chromium deposition in English would be a multi-author effort of some kind.
Chromium-plated tin cans
If we go into a supermarket today and examine the tops of tin cans, we find that they fall into two classes - those with the bright, white metallic appearance of reflowed tin plate, and those with a clean, bluish, steely look. The two finishes are used interchangeably, sometimes on parts of a can, sometimes on complete cans. The amount of each finish is about half of the total number of cans. The cans that give the appearance of clean, bare steel are chromium plated by special procedures.
This is a revolution in can-making that was started in Japan about 20 years ago by H. Uchida and co-workers at the Fuji Iron and Steel Company Ltd. under the name Cansuper.99,100 The process was promptly adopted by American can makers, and beverage cans made in this manner were introduced on a large scale in 1967. A review was given elsewhere.17 The product has been dubbed tin-free steel (TFS) in view of its major function of replacing the scarce and expensive metal tin (Fig. 10). The chromium coating is extremely thin, less than 0.000002 in., or 0.05 μm, and is applied to the rapidly moving steel strip in a few seconds or even fractions of a second. It serves to promote adhesion of the coating of baked lacquer that follows, and to prevent filiform or underfilm rusting.
We have here an example where a thin coating is better than a thick coating. This is beyond the ken of practically all platers, who spend their lives being told to "put on a thicker coating." A μm is about 10,000 Angstroms (0.000040 in.), and if we take one-tenth of this, or 1000 Angstroms, as an upper coating thickness, we are dealing in coatings about 300 or 400 atoms thick at the most. Films thinner than this can be called "thin films" and are common in electronic work. Our contact with electronic work has to do with "thick films" such as plating through-holes of printed circuits, mostly for contact purposes. Since electroplating by its very nature has to start with thin films only a few atoms thick, it is an ideal way to produce thin films of all sorts that have properties different from those of bulk material. It might pay to study books such as those of Chopra.101,102 On page 266 of the recent book for example, we learn that extremely thin films of indium or tool steel have a lower coefficient of friction than ordinary thicknesses.
Chromium unpopular?
It has been said that beauty is in the eye of the beholder, but when automotive designers ask the public to gasp in admiration over black bumpers on a black car, we suspect the presence of quite a few individuals with tongue in cheek. A good technical review of the current situation was given by Pegram under the title "Bright Chrome Is Dead - Long Live Bright Chrome!"105 After discussing such subjects as alternative finishes, the genuine alternative, the genuine article, and nickel is so expensive, Pegram concludes: "Re-birth or no re-birth, long live bright chrome!"
When nickel plating was introduced in 1869-70, good quality was maintained on the whole, and it quickly had a surge of popularity bringing with it the introduction of dc generators around 1875-76 to displace batteries as the source of power. When the New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railway was built in 1881-82 from Buffalo to Cleveland, Chicago and St. Louis, it became known as the The Nickel Plate Road in the Cleveland and especially the Sandusky, Ohio, area. An account of many of the 32 ways that were suggested as the source of this name in a history of the railroad106 gave as the best one that "the company had the cash on hand to pay as the road was built, the term being borrowed from the barkeepers' slang, that the fellow who paid for his drinks on delivery and never had his score chalked, was a nickel-plated fellow."
The early popularity of "chromium plated" as synonymous with "durable, long-lasting, untarnishable" and so on was mentioned in discussion of the early days. More recently, an author discussing restored antique automobiles called them "Chrome Dreams,"107 and a 1980 account108 of General Motors as the equivalent of the 14th largest nation in the world is called "Chrome Colossus." One cannot consider the adjective "chrome" as anything but a flattering one.
2. G. Dubpernell, Plating, 47, 35 (1960).
3. Metal Industry, (NY) 24, 332 (1926).
4. Automotive Industries, 55, 155 (July 22, 1926).
5. Metal Industry, (NY) 24, 349 (1926).
6. Metal Industry, (NY) 25, 309 (1927); Brass World, 23, 248 (1927).
7. Metal Industry, (NY) 25, 267 (1927); Brass World, 23, 211 (1927).
8. Metal Industry, (NY) 25, 25 (Sept. 1927); Brass World, 23, 7 (Sept. 1927).
9. Metal Industry, (NY) 27, 57 (Jan. 1929)
10. Metal Industry, (NY) 27, 250 (May, 1929); Brass World, 25, 156 (June 1929).
11. M.J. Udy, Metal Progress, 21, 23 (June 1932).
12. P.P. Hale, U.S. Patent 1,963,363 (1934).
13. E.M. Baker and W.L. Pinner, SAE Journal, 22, 331 (1928).
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15. A.G. Gray, ed., Modern Electroplating, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1953; p. 159.
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19. E.M. Baker, U.S. Patent 1,504,206 (1924).
20. J.F.K. McCullough and B.W. Gilchrist, U.S. Patent 1,781,789 (1930).
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23. J.F.K. McCullough, U.S. Patent 1,863,868 (1932).
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31 S. Eguchi, et al., J. Metal Fin. Soc. Japan, 33, 4,136 (1982); see C.A. 97, 81682 (1982).
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47. T. Yoshida, U.S. Patent 2,766,196 (1956).
48 T. Yoshida, U.S. Patent 2,988,492 (1961).
49. "Denki Kagaku" (electrochemistry) News Letter, 1, 4, 9 (1967).
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51. G. Jangg and E. Burger, Electrochemica Acta, 17, 1883 (1972).
52. G. Dubpernell, Plating and Surface Finishing, 62, 574 (1975).
53. N.R. Bharucha and J.J.B. Ward, Products Finishing, 33, 64 (January 1969).
54. N.R. Bharucha and J.J.B. Ward, British Patent 1,144,913 (1969).
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57. Electroplating, 23, 5, 59 (1970).
58. V.E. Carter and I.R.A. Christie, Trans. Institute of Metal Finishing, 51, 2, 41 (1973).
59. C.A. Addison and E.G. Kedward, Trans. Institute of Metal Finishing, 55, 2, 41 (1977).
60. A.J. Deyrup, U.S. Patent 3,006,823 (1961).
61. T. Berzins, U.S. Patent 3,021,267 (1962).
62. J.E. Bride, U.S. Patent 3,706,636 (1972).
63. J.E. Bride, U.S. Patent 3,706.637 (1972).
64. J.E. Bride. U.S. Patent 3.706,638 (1972).
65. J.E. Bride and F. Huba, U.S. Patent 3,706,639 (1972).
66. J.R. Brannan, U.S. Patent 3,706,640 (1972).
67. F. Huba and J.E. Bride, U.S. Patent 3,706,641 (1972).
68. J.R. Brannan, U.S. Patent 3,706,642 (1972).
69. F. Huba, U.S. Patent 3,706,643 (1972).
70. J.E. Bride, U.S. Patent 3,725,214 (1973).
71. J.E. Bride, U.S. Patent 3,729,392 (1973).
72. J.E. Bride, U.S. Patent 3,732,270 (1973).
73. J.E. Bride, U.S. Patent 3,733,346 (1973).
74. J.E. Bride, U.S. Patent 3,733,347 (1973).
75. J.E. Bride, Plating, 59, 11, 1027 (1972).
76. J.C. Crowther and S. Renton, Electroplating and Metal Finishing, 28, 5, p. 6 (1975).
77. B. Chalkley, J.C. Crowther and S. Renton, paper presented at AES meeting in Denver, CO, June 30, 1976.
78. C. Barnes, J.J.B. Ward and J.R. House, Trans. Institute of Metal Finishing, 55, 2, 73 (1977).
79. J.T. Jordan, J.J.B. Ward and C. Barnes, U.S. Patent 3,917,517(1975).
80. J.J.B. Ward and C. Barnes, U.S. Patent 4,157,945 (1979).
81. J.C. Crowther and S. Renton, U.S. Patent 4,038.160 (1977).
82. J. Gyllenspetz and S. Renton, U.S. Patent 3,954,574 (1976).
83. Products Finishing, 41, 17 (October 1976).
84. J. Roubal, Galvanotechnik, 69, 4, 301 (1978).
85. G. Moritz, Galvano Teknisk Tidskrift, 25, 3, 4 (1982).
86. C. Barnes, J.J.B. Ward and V.E. Carter, Trans. Institute of Metal Finishing, 59, 1, 1 (1981).
87. D.L. Snyder, Plating and Surface Finishing, 66, 60 (June 1979).
88. L. Gianelos, Plating and Surface Finishing, 66, 56 (May 1979).
89. L. Gianelos, Products Finishing Directory, 1981, p. 104
90. L. Gianelos, Plating and Surface Finishing, 69, 30 (March 1982).
91. J. Datta, Galvanotechnik, 73, 2, 106 (1982).
92. M. Schloetter, U.S. Patent 2,088,615 (1937).
93. D.J. Levy and W.R, Momyer, Plating, 57, 11, 1125 (1970).
94. D.J. Levy and W.R. Momyer, J. Electrochem. Soc., 118, 10, 1563 (1971).
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96. D. Smart, I.E. Such and S.J. Wake, Trans. Institute of Metal Finishing, 61, 3, 105 (1983).
97. T.W. Tomaszewski and R.E. Fischer, paper presented at AES Indianapolis Meeting, I-3 (1983).
98. S. Tajima, Metal Finishing, 81, 10, 96 (1983).
99. H. Uchida and O. Yanabu, U.S. Patent 3,113,845 (1963).
100. H. Uchida, O. Yanabu, A. Horiguchi and H. Sato, Trans. Institute of Metal Finishing, 42, 138 (1964).
101. K.L. Chopra, Thin Film Phenomena, reprint available from Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., P.O. Box 9542, Melbourne, FL 32901. First published 1969, 845 pages.
102. K.L. Chopra and L. Kaur, Thin Film Device Applications, Plenum Press, New York, NY, 1983; 300 pages.
103. S.M. Arnold, Proc. AES, 43, p. 30 (1956).
104. R.C. Bourgoin, U.S. Patent 4,325,795 (1982).
105. W.E. Pegram, Product Finishing (London), 34, 11, 56 (1981).
106. T. Hampton, The Nickel Plate Road, The World Publishing Co., Cleveland, OH, 1947; p. 68.
107. P.C. Wilson, "Chrome Dreams-Automotive Styling Since 1893," Chilton Book Co., Radnor, PA (1976).
108. Ed Cray, "Chrome Colossus - General Motors and Its Times," McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY, 1980.
109. G. Dubpernell, Electrodeposition of Chromium-Free Chromic Acid Solutions, Pergamon Press, New York, NY, 1977; p. 25.


text:
Julian Treasure:
Why architects need to use their ears
Because of poor acoustics, students in classrooms miss 50 percent of what their teachers say and patients in hospitals have trouble sleeping because they continually feel stressed. Julian Treasure sounds a call to action for designers to pay attention to the "invisible architecture" of sound.
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- Senses
- Architecture
- Design
- Sound
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Hey guys,
I modelled the helmets for the Senate Commandos this morning. They appear in The Clone Wars episode, "Cloak of Darkness".
There are two types that we saw in that episode, the open face Captain Argyus helmet and the Closed/visor helmet.
I don't have enough time now but I plan to build one of these soon using the card/fibreglass method. These models will be unfolded the same way I usually do to make 2D templates to build them from.
Hope you like 'em!!


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Units of Study
JCTC6920 - Treatise Part 1
Semester 1, 2012 | Credit Points: 12
Coordinator: Suzanne Rutland
Candidates undertake a treatise on an approved topic in the field under the supervision of an academic member of staff. The treatise is normally 20-25,000 words in length and is completed over two semesters. Treatise to be completed in JCTC6921.
Research and writing toward a treatise of 20-25,000 words (100%)
A timetable is not available for this session.
Please refer to the list of Units of Study on the left-hand menu to view the units on offer for the relevant academic year.
The information displayed above is indicative only as online information is subject to change without notice. The Faculty Handbook and the University of Sydney Calendar are the official legal source of information relating to study at the University of Sydney


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Shamonie is usually a name that refers to a female who might turn into a tigress when C2H5OH is added to her. Generally seen with lacy bras and known to attract swedish men (greater than or equal to 5) Shes also known to be a buddy.
Oh my gawd! Hes messing with a 'Shamonie'!! Does he not care for his life?
by coolio98765432 November 07, 2008
The vengeful act of crapping on a lover's chest while they sleep.Buy the plush


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Beastly Bits #25
Pow pow, it's Friday! And to top it off, most of us [in the big people grown-up world] have a 3-day weekend, with Monday off to celebrate some dead President's. Thanks for your service, dudes.
You know what else? I can service you with some cool music news. Onward, shall we?
The Bell House is hosting a night dubbed, Troop Beverly Hills: The Experience, this Tuesday February 16. Love Shelley Long? Love Jenny Lewis in a featured role? Then grab a ticket here!
If you're not going to the Ed Banger party tonight at Terminal 5, featuring your favorite French DJ's, Justice, then swing by Webster Hall later on for the after party. Basically, the entire label will be in attendance...with what is being billed as hosting "special guest DJs". Go figure. Details here.
The White Stripes will be premiering footage of their song, Dead Leaves And The Dirty Ground, from the band's 10th Anniversary show over on Spinner today. Go there at 11am to catch the debut!
Immuzikation dropped by last night with a rad blend in an awesome Sweden vs France mix. Check out One Thousand Nineteen Hundred and One Folks for free below, which pits Phoenix against Peter, Bjorn and John.
The latest Bacardi B-Live mix comes in the form of Edu K's Flutesnoot (Mixhell's B-Live Mix). I'd be lying if I said this tune wasn't anything but massive, and also if it wasn't free. The truth is yours below.
mp3: Edu K - Flutesnoot (Mixhells B-Live Mix)
mp3: Phoenix, Peter, Bjorn, John And Victoria - One Thousand Nine Hundred And One Folks (Immuzikation Blend)


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Steve Madden Carrson Block Heel Sandal
$69.30 - $99.00 Original Price $99.00
- 4-in. heel
- Buckle strap closure
- Open toe
- Leather, faux leather
- Imported
Shipping your purchase is easy on belk.com. Depending on the destination of your package, you can expect it to arrive within 4-7 business days. Shipping Information
Returns are easy on belk.com. Easy returns
Steve Madden is easily one of America's hottest footwear and lifestyle brands. The vision to give young fashion-forward men and women a unique way to express their individuality through style resulted in millions of customers worldwide. Steve Madden's expertise in trend forecasting has propelled him to the top of his field. Steve Madden continues to create designs that are innovative, fun, sometimes wild and always spot-on-chic. The Steve Madden brand embraces fashion, while still maintaining that funky independence that first defined the brand 23 years ago.


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What Does Pride Mean to You?
October 7, 2013
During PRIDE in DC I walked around asking people just one question. What does Pride mean to them?
Read Justin's blog Justin's HIV Journal.
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Inviting apartment for 2 in Marais
尺寸34 平方米
Floor No.3
- 厨房
- 电视机
- 毛巾
- 互联网/无线网路
Accommodation summary
|rue du Forez, 75003 Paris, 法国
The inviting apartment offers a warmly colored double bedroom with storage space, and a combined living/dining area with a sofa bed. The kitchen is fully equipped and the bathroom boasts a rainforest shower, a heated towel rack and a hairdryer.
Bastille Square is a 20-minute walk from the apartment. There are 2 metro stations within 5 minutes' walking distance, providing direct access to popular tourist destinations including the Eiffel Tower and Les Invalides Museum.
The Picasso Museum is within walking distance of the apartment, containing over 3000 pieces of work by Picasso, in all forms.
住宿规定Bed linen and towels are provided for bookings of less than 1 month
Respect the neighbors and keep noise to a minimum.
For any arrival on Sunday please ask first if it is possible. Do not send a firm request for any arrival on Sunday please because it is rarely possible.
|3 月
|Check-in before
Merci Alex pour tout votre assistance et votre aide. Nous avons passe quelques jours tres agreable. L'appartement etait ideal pour nous et vous avez vite regle quelques petits soucis. Merci et a bientot j'espere.
Thanks Alex for all your help. We had a fantastic time in Paris. The apartment was just what we were looking for and you were quick to answer and resolve a few minor problems we encountered. Thanks again and I hope to be back soon!
Nice apartment in a quiet neighborhood. Not far from Place de Bastille/ metro station. Suitable for 4 people / small family. I recommend contact with Alex - very nice and helpful to others. It was very nice stay.
The Marais is the perfect central location in Paris. Close to the river, Metro stops and many main sites, but still in a small, quiet neighborhood with great restaurants and shops. Alex's apt. was a comfortable haven for a week of exploring Paris. Roomy and contained all the helpful elements from a hair dryer and great shower to a complete kitchen. Historically old with beamed ceilings, but modernly outfitted - the perfect combination. Surrounded by two courtyards, it was very quiet, but with two brasseries steps away and - importantly - a patisserie a few steps further. Fresh croissants every morning. A very safe neighborhood and the apartment - behind three locked doors - felt extremely safe. Alex accommodated our early arrival by allowing the cleaning lady to let us in so we never actually met him, but he was friendly and helpful on the phone. We would certainly return to this or other of his apartments. My one quibble would be that there were no English instructions. All notes were in French. It would have been very helpful to have more information on how things worked in English.
It's a nice, very quiet, actually one room apartment, efficiently furnished, although the kitchen equipment could be better (add tea towels, bread knife and chopping board) and the cleaner should be instructed how to clean/dust a room properly. We stayed 6 nights and it was OK for the two of us. I don't think the space is suited for three persons. The apartment is situated on the third floor at the far end of the building. From the main entrance to the apartment is quite a walk through a long, narrow passage leading to the three staircases. That's not a problem, but what struck me - and somehow worried me a bit - was that there were no smoke detectors to be seen. There is one fire extinguisher on the second floor, but in my opinion that's not enough. The neighbourhood is very lively with shops, restaurants, markets, metro, etc. We enjoyed our stay very much.
All was really fine. Alex is very friendly, we arrived late due to constant traffic jams between San Sebastian and Paris (mainly the Bordeaux ring and the entrance to Paris), and we had no cell phone or Internet in France, and all the time he was worried and watching us. The floor very well placed in Paris, near the Place de la Bastille, with many local and environment in all its streets. We could park our car in their garage, and moved to Paris by Metro, and even we went to Disneyland from the Place de la Bastille by train. The wifi of the apartment works great and is fast. The apartment is reflecting the pictures on the web.
It was a really nice appartment. Nearby the Metro and the Bastille with all nice restaurants and cafe's.
Thank you Alex.
We had a lovely stay in Paris and I can recommend the appartment to everyone.
Very nice appartment. I can recommend this appartment to everyone.
I chose this appartment for the location near my friend home, but I have to say that I found a great appartment!
Located near 2 stop of metro station (Bastille and Ledru-Rollin), therefore easy to access and good point for starting your Paris visit. The appartment is also located near spots of Paris nightlife.
The appartament is very new, has a full furnished american kitchen with dishwasher, oven and washing machine, 3 sofa (one of this is a double sofabed) in the living room, one confortable double bed in the bedroom. The bathroom has separete toilet and shower room, so you can speed up when you are more than 2. It provide wifi access, linen and towel.
The only negative points are that the appartment is on ground floor so if you open the window: you are on the street (but no one pass in that street). Pillows aren't confortable. Bathroom hasn't a window and the air extractor isn't enough!
Wifi access is free and they give us even a key for a public access so we was on line even in Paris: lucky!
Very nice flat, very confortable, clean and close to underground. Alex has been an host very kind. I hope, for the next time when i'll coming back to Paris to book again this flat
I've been there with my wife and my two daughters. Simply perfect! The apartment is equipped with all one need, it's very quiet even if it's located in a very lively district. There's a large wardrobe. It takes only few minutes to get to Paris downtown. Last but not least, Alex has been very kind and helpful.
- 住宿品质保证
- 屋主通过电话验证


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The Critics' Week Grand Prize goes to Makala
Cannes 2017 Funding
Cine-Regio stresses the importance of regional film funds
Cannes 2017 ACID
Coby: The long road to self
Cannes 2017 Industry
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Industry Europe/Africa
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Cannes 2017 Directors' Fortnight
Nothingwood: A crackpot who makes films in Afghanistan
Cannes 2017 Competition
A Gentle Creature: "The union between prison and the people"
Cannes 2017 Market/France
French sellers rack up deal after deal at Cannes
Cannes 2017 Critics' Week
La Familia: "You'd be an idiot not to be scared"
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Cannes 2017 Un Certain Regard
Until the Birds Return: Three trips to Algeria for the price of one
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Cannes 2017 Special screenings
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Cannes focuses on the new growth of opportunities in Chinese arthouse film
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Lucky: One woman, one destiny
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text:
Help! Has anyone any experience buying tickets from the French site hosting the TROPHEE ERIC BOMPARD event?
Before I commit to putting any monetary information on line it would be nice if I could hear from someone who has done it before.
I thought it would be nice if I could see Yu-Na skate just once in my lifetime but it is a long way to go to find out I missed something vital.
Any info would be greatly appreciated.


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Microsoft's next accessory (or necessity) for their newest gaming console, Xbox One (ton). It can recognize your voice (probably as good as Windows voice recognition can), Skype someone (while you're trying to watch a movie), and detect your movements so you can play games or navigate with it! (Probably really crappy games and an even crappier Windows 8 styled User Interface) It will probably become the NSA's new mastuerbation machine.
Kinect 2.0? Hmm...I should consider getting a job at the NSA.
by Microsoft H8R October 13, 2013


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Stay connected with us to get the latest health and fitness news, innovative workouts, healthy recipes and wellness tips.
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Starting Position: Stand holding dumbbells at your sides, elbows relaxed, palms facing your body and thumbs wrapped around the dumbbell handles. Your feet slightly wider than hip-width apart or in a split-stance position to help stabilize your body.
Brace your torso by contracting your abdominal and core muscles. Pull your shoulder blades down and back. Keep these engagements throughout the exercise. Your head should be aligned with your spine.
Upward Phase: Exhale and slowly raise the dumbbells up and out to your sides. Your elbows and upper arms should rise together and lead the movement ahead of the forearms and dumbbells. As your arms near shoulder level, turn your thumbs slightly upward. Continue raising the dumbbells until your arms are level with your shoulders and approximately parallel with the floor. Keep your torso erect. Do not allow the back to arch or the torso to rock. Keep the wrists in neutral position. Do not allow the wrists to bend.
Downward Phase: Inhale and gently lower the dumbbells back to your starting position. Keep your elbows almost straight, maintaining the neutral grip position. While lowering the dumbbells rotate the thumbs back to start position (slightly downward). Your foot, torso, shoulder and wrist positions are maintained throughout the exercise.
As this exercise traditionally positions the arms into internal rotation during the lift, the slight external (upward) rotation initiated at the 60-70 degree mark may reduce potential impingement in the shoulder joint.


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Brenda Hoddinott
Posted Feb.5th, 2013, viewed 127 times
Hi Aleksey!This graduation looks great. I suspect the tooth of the paper is contributing to my not being able to see the hatching lines very well. Even so, as a relatively smooth graduation, the values flow nicely. :o)PASSPlease make some time to practice this type of graduation a few more times. I suspect that the tooth of the paper won't be a problem if you draw the graduation larger. I have attached a high resolution Jpeg of my finished graduation for you to use as a reference. I suspect some details get lost in the translation of a jpeg to a PDF file. Please compare this image to your graduation to get a better idea of the differences. I promise - nailing this skill is well worth the extra time perfecting it! :o)I am very happy to review more of your drawings of this skill if you would like to upload them. :o)Please see imageBrenda
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In the Name of Allah, The Most Gracious, Ever Merciful.
Love for All, Hatred for None.
Album: Before Khilafat
Syedna Tahir Number
Published in Alfazl Rabwah, December 27, 2003
Hadhrat Mirza Tahir Ahmad, Khalifatul Masih IV (1928 - 2003)
Some members of Pakistan Delegation to 1985 Jalsa Salana UK with Hadhrat Khalifatul Masih (IV) in London
First address after becoming Caliph
Hadhrat Mirza Tahir Ahmad soon after becoming Caliph
In a Question/Answer session on MTA
At Aqsa Mosque Qadian (1991)
Copyright © by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. All rights reserved.


text:
MAVENEL, N.J. — MIZCO International has introduced an entire line of universal tablet accessories under the company's DIGIPOWER, iEssentials, and Travelocity brands. All of the new accessories, according to MIZCO president and CEO Albert Mizrahi, are designed to work with both the Apple iPad as well as Android based tablets.
"The market for both Apple and Android based tablets continues to grow and expand at a dramatic rate and so too does the demand for the accessories that complement these tablets," Mizrahi said. "At the same time, our retailers are being very careful with their inventory management programs. Our new line of Universal Tablet Accessories dramatically simplifies their ordering and inventory management, enabling them to carry one or more brands of universal tablet accessories that work with both tablet platforms."
The iEssentials Universal Neoprene Tablet Cases are available in a zipper model and a sleeve model. The Universal Neoprene Tablet Zipper Case features a zipper pocket for storage of cables and other accessories, and the Universal Neoprene Tablet Sleeve Case features a fold-over closure, and is reversible. Both models are available in 7" and 10" sizes, for $9.99 and $14.99 respectively.
The Travelocity "Travel Tablet Case Series" features travel friendly, form-fitted neoprene cases in SKUs designed to fit all 7-8" and 9-10" models of tablets and provide complete protection against damage. Featuring heavy-duty zippers and closed-seam construction for security, form-fitting neoprene and a cushioned interior for extra durability and added protection, these cases are slim and small enough to fit inside another travel bag to keep tablet devices scratch-free and protected while on the go. Available in Black, Blue, Navy, Red, Purple, Pink, Blue Plaid, Red Plaid, White Polka-dot, Houndstooth, Pink Polka-dot, Red Hearts, Cheetah, Zebra, and Color Hearts.
Additionally, the Travelocity "Waterproof Series" includes a universal tablet case, featuring watertight closures, control access through clear window, an adjustable neck or shoulder strap, and built-in UV protection.
The DIGIPOWER Cross-Brand Tablet Charger features a simple three-position Smart Switch that allows it to optimally charge USB-powered tablets from major manufacturers such as Apple, Samsung, HTC and BlackBerry. Providing up to 2.1 amps of power, the Cross-Brand Tablet Charger is capable of rapidly charging any portable USB device a consumer may have, and its super compact design features a convenient flip-up power plug making it ideal for use on-the-go. The ultra-compact charger is available immediately at retailers and online stores with an MSRP of just $29.99. The charger features over-voltage, over-current and short circuit protection, ensuring long life and successful charging every time.


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I am considering beekeeping, but I live in an urban area? Is it possible to do this? How do I get started? How much does it cost? Thanks.
I am considering beekeeping, but I live in an urban area? Is it possible to do this? How do I get started? How much does it cost? Thanks.
Go for it. I started last year with just 1 hive in my backyard. I live in a city and have lots of people around me. I *DO* have a privacy fence that forces the bees to fly above people's heads as they leave my yard. It was such a successful year that I'm putting in a second hive. I'm using Buckfast bees and got 2 supers of honey out of my hive last year (their installation year) so they worked pretty hard for me. It was a very wet spring and summer so I had lots of clover nearby for them to work on. Hope it works good for you.
gpjohns -
I'd be interested to know how you started your first hive. Did you start with a nuc or packaged bees and queen? I always encourage startup beekeepers to start with packaged bees on new foundation even if it's a little riskier. There's nothing like watching the progress of 3 pounds of bees on sheets of wax, turn it into comb and fill it with pollen, honey and brood. It's a great way to see the whole process from the very start, just as it would be for a new swarm. I learned so much my first year by looking into the hive every chance I could and follow the changes taking place. Inspite of my intrusions, the colony grew and was in great shape heading into winter. The other advantage by going this route is you won't end up inheriting another beekeepers diseases that could be on the frames from the nuc.
Yes I had a 3 lb. package w/queen. Everything was new...brood supers, frames, foundation...the works. A good friend gave me the hive kit as a Xmas present and got me started down the slippery slope.
I was very fortunate in having a good year for bees here in Oklahoma. It really helped me to give my hive a good start. The only blip in the process happened the first week after installing the package. My friend had given me foundation without crimp wires and no edge banding. Just a plastic sheet with foundation imprints. When I installed the package half of the foundations failed and fell down from the top bar. But I didn't find out until I got into the hive the next week. The bees had already started their own comb and I had to remove all foundation and start over again. Fortunately I had another brood super and Duragilt foundation ready to go right away. After switching everything the bees took off and never looked back.
I estimate I got around 60-70 lbs of honey my first year. It has been a very enjoyable hobby so far. I'm glad my friend got me started in it!
Anothr suggestion on "getting started" is to
join a local organization composed of experienced BeeKeepers, as immaterial of how many books you read on the subject,I have found that there is no substitute from learning from someone who has been through it all.
By all means do it! You'll love it once you get started. I would advise you to get a few cheap books though. They will, at the very least, get you familiar with the terminology in the business. Once you get started and see the wonderful little creatures are you'll be hooked! I got started with the help of another beekeeper. He set me up with an old hive and I put it on my roof (in a protected sunny area). Don't discount the fact that you'r in an urban area, it's a plus! The bees will have everyones fruit trees, yard flowers and vegitables to pollinate year round. My urban roof top hive makes hundreds of pounds of honey every year in So Cal where I live.
My advice is- Read up, get a hive, and experiment. Don't be afraid to get in the hive and dig come spring time. Observation will teach you as much as reading.
Enjoy and God bless! firstname.lastname@example.com
You can keep bees most ANYWHERE - but sometimes it's best not to let your neighbors see your hives everyday. Your bees will suddenly become the reason why they were stung 2 miles away, and why the kids won't go outside. Before you beekeep, plan the site and build privacy fences. Make the bees fly up (6'-8') before they go out and your whole neighborhood will stay 'quiet'.
We had fifteen hives on a downtown (still relatively rural community here in Castle Rock, CO) property and was forced to move them off. The neighboring carwash owner saw the hives once my trees (15-20' row) lost their leaves. He never saw a single bee, but wanted to force the issue. Now I have to fight town hall to return them.
Matthew Westall
....//....Earthling Bees
.>8(())))-...."Take me
....\\....to your feeder"
..........Castle Rock, CO


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|Product #: LER3044
Snap It Up! Addition/Subtraction Gr. 1+
This exciting, fast-paced card game provides kids with hard-hitting practice math skills! Players pick and pass cards as fast as they can to make math equations. It's fast! It's crazy! And it's so much fun, kids will want to snap it up again and again! Each game includes 90 cards. Ages 6 to 9
Customer Reviews:
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Now, in a far more controlled and peaceful (not to mention legal) environment, you, too, can see what it's like to drive a tank and even crush a car. In Kasota, Minn., some 70 miles southwest of Minneapolis, Tony Borglum has created "Drive a Tank," a 30-acre site where, for about $400 on up, you can pilot a tank or an armored personnel carrier or another military vehicle and see what it's like to thump over hill and dale in a vehicle weighing 62 tons (that's the size of the Chieftain Mark 10, a British main battle tank Borglum has in his stable.)
Borglum, a member of a family that owns a construction business, says he got the idea for a tank park when visiting England about eight years ago. Always interested in military vehicles, Borglum happened upon a place where, for a fee, civilians could come drive a tank. He found out there were at least a dozen similar venues in England and thought, "wait a minute. If the U.K. can support all these operations, why not the U.S.?"
One thing led to another and "I now have 38 vehicles. Two Chieftains – a Mark 10 and a Mark 11 – and a T-55 Soviet tank and a Swiss Centurion" and a bunch of other combat vehicles.
He says that among the 1,500 or so people who come very year to visit the park, he gets many veterans.
"We just had a World War II vet who was with the 99th Infantry Division," Borglum said. "We also had a guy who was on an M48 (tank) in Korea."
The cars they use as crushing exemplars come from local businesses that have no use for them – the cars were likely headed for the wrecking yard anyway.
As for what it's like to have a fling at driving a tank over a car, "we tell people it's like stepping on a (soda) can," says Drive a Tank's managing director, Ben Lundsten. "All the windows burst and the car's basically flattened. It's pretty great."


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Speaking Event: Next Stop - Justice
On the heels of the powerful campaign for Free Muni for Youth, we invite you to a SPECIAL RELEASE EVENT for "Next Stop: Justice -Race and Environment
at the Center of Transit Planning"
- Sunyoung Yang from the Bus Riders Union in Los Angeles
- Miho Kim from the Data Center
- Bob Allen from Urban Habitat
- Youth and Community Leaders from POWER's Transit to the People Campaign
Food, beer, wine –and strategizing!
*The event is wheelchair accessible and free!
Childcare and Spanish/English translation also provided
Next Stop: Justice offers a cutting edge, comprehensive analysis of public transit in San Francisco, with a vision for a new transit policy that puts race and the environment at the center. With ten case studies of core transit lines in Southeast San Francisco and survey data from more than 700 grassroots MUNI riders, Next Stop: Justice shows how transit solutions that benefit youth, elders, communities of color and immigrant communities can best serve the city as a whole, fueling economic development and contributing to a healthier planet.


text: 16 May 2016 Celebrity-owned hotels Previous slide Next slide 1 of 19 View All Skip Ad The Wellington Hotel, London Owned by: Robert De Niro, actor Robert De Niro has been given the green light to build a new luxury, boutique hotel in London's Covent Garden, across a block of six buildings. The proposed 83-room hotel will have spa facilities, two restaurants and a deli/café, built around a central courtyard conservatory. It will also include its own members' club, a growing trend in the capital. • The best hotels in Covent Garden Back to image


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Discussion in 'Member Garages' started by Scooter, Jan 17, 2013.
Slacker :: 2006 Chevy Silverado (2013-01-17 17:51:40)
I like the look of that bumper. Who made it?
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Love what you have done with the truck!!!! It's always one of my favorites on the site!!
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Charah, Inc. Opens Regional Office In Charlotte, North Carolina
According to the company this new office, located in the Chamber of Commerce Building in uptown Charlotte, will support Charah's business needs and development activities in the Southern and Mid-Atlantic regions.
From this new location, Charah will provide services including regional management, business development, engineering, environmental services, transportation & logistics, project/process management and business services, company officials said.
According to Charles Price, Charah President/CEO, "Charah is committed to providing our utility partners with innovative solutions and superior service to meet all of their ash management and power plant support services needs. As we continue to grow our operations in the Southern and Mid-Atlantic regions, it is important that we become even more accessible to our utility partners and expand our presence throughout the region."
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