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The field and practice of education has reached a tipping point in the current political and economic climate of the United States. In addition to federal funds evaporating since the economic recession of 2008, state budgets have also been cutting expenditures in the public sector with possible threats to employment in police departments, fire departments, state and social workers, as well as public educators and administrators. To give this climate an extended context, US News & World Report published an article stating that the 2008 results from the Trends in International Math and Science Study (TIMSS), the largest international student achievement assessment, indicated that the United States is still falling behind Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan in its international ranking in education in areas such as math and science (US News & World Report, 2008). Outside of the national and domestic arena, since 2003 the US has become engrossed in a conflict in the Middle East that has drained funds from numerous federal government and state programs as well as led to destabilization in other regions of the East as well as around the world. Data from the National Priorities Project (NPP), an organization whose purpose is to make federal budget data publicly available, published figures in April 2009 showing that the median income family living in Los Angeles paid $2,994 in federal income taxes in 2008, of which nearly 71% has been spent on military funding, health expenses, as well repaying interest on debt, both military and non-military. In the same study published by the NPP, education received a mere 3% of the total federal income tax revenue for the 2008 tax year for the aforementioned demographic. Since 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act has placed an enormous burden upon schools and school districts to meet unobtainable goals at the cost of students' overall learning and has also created potential for replacement and unemployment for public educators and administrators. Statistics from an article published in the Boston Globe show that at the time of publication in 2004, the conservative estimated budget appropriations for the Iraq conflict would reach $216 billion, an amount that is almost four times the budget of the Education Department, double the amount the General Accounting Office estimated in the 1990s would be required to repair American schools, and enough money to fully fund No Child Left Behind nearly twenty-four times over. These figures should lead one to believe that the national priorities of the United States have drifted away from those of previous generations, whose achievements can be seen in the desegregation of schools following Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. This fact must have been clearly present in President Lyndon B. Johnson's mind when he proclaimed in the wake of the Civil Rights Movement that, "I do not want to see all those hopes and all those dreams of so many people for so many years now drowned in the wasteful ravages of cruel wars." Despite the lessons of past generations, the United States is facing another crisis of youth, one that has been growing throughout the twentieth-century and has more than overflowed into the dawn of the twenty-first century. The crisis educators are facing today is not one of segregation, but rather a drought of motivation and a resurgence of apathy.
Statement of the Problem
In the wake of the creation of a global market economy and the vast expansion of information technology in the last 20 years, students have more resources and interconnections that any previous generation of Americans. However, despite trends in long-term demographics that shows a decline in the number of high school dropouts each year, since 1970 statistics on the state level have revealed in increase in the amount of students who do not complete high school (Rumberger, 1987). More recently than 1970, according to the Current Population Survey conducted by the Bureau of Census, nearly 682,000 high school students dropped out during the 1985-1986 academic school year. This figure equates to an average dropout rate of 3,789 adolescents every day when based upon a 180-day school calendar year (Paulu, 1987). Since 1990, approximately 20% of all young adults ranging in age from 16-24 years old have been classified as dropouts, defined as neither being enrolled in school nor having graduated from high school (McMillen et al., 1993). These statistics paint a grim and gruesome picture for the future of United States and the futures of its youth; however, other countries have also experienced such drops in enrollment and engagement in public and private education including Canada, whose dropout rates during the same period in the 1990s are slightly above rates in the United States and have even reached 25% to 36% at its highest peak in the predominantly French-speaking province of Quebec (Statistics Canada, 1995). In more current news, The Associated Press published an article in 2007 that stated more than one in ten high schools in the United States can be considered to be a "dropout factory," a term coined by Bob Balfanz of John Hopkins University and is defined as a high school where the graduation rate of incoming freshmen four years later is less than 60%. Given the withstanding financial and budgetary crisis facing the United States and the documented history of dropout rates, one would imagine that the future of education in America is a bleak one at best. As such, this preexisting downward trend in education is the focal point of the following literature review, however, a more specific definition of its intent is a necessity.
Purpose of the Literature Review
As the United States, as well as other developed nations around the world, approaches this event horizon in education, a consensus needs to be established prior to the development of any specific programs or pedagogy can be implemented. The first step in navigating the problem of the ever-increasing dropout rate is to further clarify and define the term "dropout." However, as the research will indicate, creating a definition of a dropout is much harder than one would assume. The second section of this literature review, and the most expansive, is an analysis of the predictors and indicators for which students are at-risk for becoming a dropouts. These predicating factors for dropping out encompass an entire spectrum of socio-economic, political, and cultural categories and while many studies contend to have found the most influential factors for dropping out, it is impossible to single out any category as the sole culprit. The last, and hopefully, most applicable segment of the literature review investigates existing and possibly programs and strategies for reducing the dropout rate and, if given the chance for implementation, could serve as the most immediate and solution-focused section of this literature review. Regardless of any problem or social enigma, one must look at the importance of said problem in order to determine its priority among other pressing issues in the realm of education.
Importance of the Literature Review
While the dropout crisis seems to be an imminent and impending crisis, the ramification of which can already be seen without our current society and within published research. This issue is not only one within the field and practice of education, but also throughout the greater scope of society at large. High school dropouts affect such areas as unemployment rates, social welfare, public health, and the underlying areas of federal and state budgets as well as loss within the economy. A 2003 study by Stanard showed that among the class of 2000, 56% of dropouts were unemployed, which is daunting compared to the 16% of high school graduates who were unemployed. The US Census Bureau published data that correlates with the Stanard study in that the average income for a high school dropout in 2000 earns about $12,400 a year compared to a high school graduate who earns around $21,000 annually (Campbell, 2003-2004). In addition to income and unemployment, Martin, Tobin, & Sugai found that high school dropouts are more likely to deal with health problems, be involved in criminal activity, become dependant upon welfare, unemployment, and other governmental welfare programs (2002). To further intensify these findings, the Center for Democratic Policy, Institute for Education Leadership found that high school dropouts account for 52% of welfare recipients, 85% of juvenile justice cases, as well as, and most troubling of all, 82% of the United States prison population, which evokes the adage "Build schools, not prisons" (Stanard, 2003). Hayes, Nelson, Tobin, Pearson, & Worthy affirmed in a 2002 study that high school dropouts are greatly associated with less national income, fewer revenue for governmental services, increase in demand for social services, increase activity in crime and antisocial behaviors, reduction in political participation, lack intergenerational mobility, and poorer health levels. Rumberger (1987) conveys much the same sentiment and agrees with the aforementioned research in the areas of unemployment, lower annual income earnings, dependence upon welfare, engagement in criminal activities, as well as underlying health problems. Lastly, Schorr also agrees with preexisting research by declaring that dropouts are 7.5 times more likely to become dependent upon welfare for lack of income as well as twice as likely to become unemployed and live within the governmental definitions of poverty (1988). The above research indicates that the dropout rate crisis is not simply an education problem, but rather a problem for society, economics, as well as governmental policy. However, in order to tackle any problem, regardless of its enormity, it is imperative to look at the preexisting information and previous research in order to begin piecing together a solution.
Scope of the Literature Review
During the beginning of initial research for this literature review, it became obvious that a clearly defined scope needed to be developed in order for the literature review to be not only historically-based, in order to exude the fact that this problem is not newly emerging, but also sensitive to the fact that the dropout rate crisis is currently being compounded by lack of monetary resources as well as by an educational policy that forces immediate compliance without the compensation and time with which is necessary. The earliest research utilized within this literature review that addresses the problem of high school students dropping out of school is from a 1927 study. However, this article is not representative of the broader scope of the research. The majority of research comes from articles that were published after the 1970s, with some articles from the 1980s and 1990s, but many publications emanating from 2000 to the present. This stratification of research is deliberate and intentional, as the public school system has remained predominantly the same over the past three decades, in terms of composition and administration. The justification for choosing such broad scope is to recognize that this is not a recently developed problem and has been considerably researched throughout the twentieth century, especially towards that latter half of the millennium. Due to the fact that the federal legislature of the United States drafted the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, effectively changing the landscape and practice of public education, a considerable core of research will reflect these changes and hope to establish a more modern outlook to the high school dropout rate. Research used in this literature review will be drawn from various areas of academia, including, but not limited to, university education departments, private organizations, and federal and state reporting sources. In addition to these aforementioned groups, statistics will also be taken from international sources, such as Canada and East Asian countries, in order to further contextualize the problem of high school dropout rates in order to reflect a more global view of educational, as many problem facing the American education system are also indicative of other modern, industrialized nations' educational pedagogies.
Under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, individual states are required to report, among other statistics, the graduation rates of their students based upon race and ethnicity, socio-economic status and income level, status of disability, English proficiency, gender, as well as any students' migrant status (Christle, 2007). While the categories mentioned above seem to be encompassing and adequate for determining some kind of motivational or causal basis for defining the profile of a dropout, there are hidden discrepancies in reporting that do not allow for the clear identification of which students are more likely to continue their education and which ones will more probably dropout. The National Center of Education Statistics reported an overall national high school completion rate of 86% for students in the class of 2000 including those who received GED certificates and alternative school credentials, however, this percentage was determined by using a status method of reporting high school dropouts (NCES, 1992). In contrast to this previous statistic, Greene and Winters calculated that the graduation rate was actually at 69% for the class of 2000 using a methodology that counted students who entered high school in 1996 and the amount of those students who actually graduated four years later, not including GED certificates and alternative credentials (Greene and Winters, 2002). These two studies clearly show that there is a discrepancy in how the actual dropout rate is calculated and is indicative of many of the problems facing the education system today. These two modalities are used by different organizations in order to "stack the deck" in favor of their respective schools and organizations. Prior to any action-based programs can be developed, there are issues that need to be addressed; these problematic issues include the creation of a universal definition of a high school dropout, a single method of reporting actual graduation rates, as well as clarifying and demythologizing the predictors and indicators for potential dropouts. It is only after these three issues are addressed that educators and practitioners can begin piecing together research-based programs to decrease, and hopefully eradicate, the causes and correlates that underlie the actual decision to dropout of school. Since the purpose, importance, and scope of this literature review have already been discussed, it is time to examine how previous practice and research has lead to a faulty and unreliable definition of a high school dropout.
Definition of a High School Dropout
In education, as in war, before any battle can be fought on the battlefield, it must already be won in the minds of generals and politicians. Considering the downward slide education has experienced in the latter half of the twentieth century in terms of both budgetary funding and resource expenditures, it is no wonder that a standardized national, operational definition of a dropout does not exist (Christle, 2007). One might wonder why this is as most professions and fields of research encourage heavy standardizations and universal definitions in order level the playing field, however, in education it is beneficial to school administrators, state legislatures, and federal officials to not have a clearly defined method as it would be too apparent as to which schools are performing and which are not reaching their proficiency levels. The Phi Delta Kappa Center for Evaluation Development and Research has already made an attempt to find a clear definition of dropouts, but concluded that there exists no consensus within the field of educational at what defines a high school dropout (Frymier and Gansneder, 1989). . To further the confusion, Morrow (1987) categorized dropouts into several different phyla, which included Pushouts, Disaffiliated, Educational Mortalities, Capable Dropouts, and Stopouts. Pushouts include students that are considered undesirable individuals whose schools actively attempt to force them out of school. The Disaffiliated are students who neither bond with their school nor to other students within it; eventually they chose not to continue to be affiliated with the school or its students. Educational Mortalities are defined as students who are not academically capable of completing the requirements for graduation prior to their aging out of school. This type of dropout is especially prominent in Special Education as students are allowed academic access via district funds until the age of 22. If at that age they have neither completed a school program, nor the capability of completing such as program, they age out and are not allowed to continue their academic enrollment. Capable Dropouts are those students who possess the skills and attributes required for graduation, but are not socialized to the demands of their school or to the value of a diploma, and its importance in the real world. That last category of dropouts, Stopouts, are individuals who stop their education and leave school, but who eventually return with the same year that they temporarily exited. Each of these definitions of a dropout is accurate and no one definition or consensus has been able to encompass every type of dropout with such accuracy. In order to take action to stop the problem of student attrition, an accurate and precise definition system needs to be developed that does not lead to overgeneralization, nor lead to excessive specification. Although Morrow does describe several classifications of student attrition, other studies have also focused their attention upon trying to find a unified codification standard.
In Christle (2007), a dropout was defined as an individual who was enrolled at some time during previous school year but not enrolled at the beginning of the current school year. This study also defined a dropout as a student who has not graduated from high school, has not completed a state or district alternative education program, has not transferred to another public school or another state- or district-approved education program, has not been absent due to suspension, and is not deceased. Pallas and Verdugo's typology of a dropout defines a dropout as an individual who has stopped attending school prior to high school graduation, regardless of the whether or not that student enrolls again at another time, and is endorsed by Cairns et al. (1989), Rumberger (1995), and Ensminger et al. (1996). Despite all of these academic definitions for a high school dropout, the definition of one according to the United States General Accounting Office is a person who is neither enrolled in school nor has graduated from a high school (US General Accounting Office, 1986). However, based solely upon this definition, the dropout rate for 1994 was 10.5% of students and individuals between the ages of 16-24 were considered dropouts (NCES, 1995). At the end of the day, what is displayed above is a general lack of consensus on what is the definition of a high school dropout. Some definitions exclude students younger than a certain age or below a particular grade level, while others are broad and simple statements, whilst some attempt to create specific categorizes in which to classify dropouts with a unique status. While there exists a lack of universality in terms of definitions, there also exists a disparity in terms of the methods for reporting these dropouts.
Graduation Rate Reporting Methods
A secondary area of difficulty, which is equal to if not surpassing the creation of a universal definition of a dropout, is the method of reporting these dropouts and graduation rates. There currently exist two predominant methods for reporting graduation rates, which school and district administrators use interchangeably in order to "stack their decks" in an attempt to make their district and schools appear to be performing better than is accurate. The first method of reporting is known as the Event Method, which reports the percentage of student who left school in a particular year. The second method is known as the Status Method, which reports the percentage of students between certain ages who have left school, generally being reported over a four-year period of time. Schools tend to choose whichever method will provide them with a lower percentage of students who have dropped out. If a school were to choose the Event Method in order to report their dropout rate, it might be due to the fact that although they have a high percentage of dropouts over a four-year period, a particular year might have yielded fewer individuals who actually dropped out. If that same school is known for having a high number of individual drop outs during the school year, but those students always return the following year and complete their schooling on-time, then the school would choose to report their dropout rate using the Status Method as it would ignore the actual number per year who dropout in favor of focusing on how many of those dropped out and never returned to their schools.
In addition to school districts being able to choose their reporting method, there are other factors that complicate the matter of dropout rate reporting and muddy the educational waters. Various research studies have pinpointed loopholes and cracks in the system where students can fall through, but schools are not liable to report these events in their reported graduation rates. The actual dropout rates around the country are likely to be much higher than are currently reported, as national data does not include students who are under the age of 16 or those who are below the 10th grade level (Hayes et al., 2002). On a state level, Weis, Farrar, and Petrie (1989) also found that some states consider students as dropouts only once they have reached legal age, which means these states also do not count students below the age of 16 or the 10th grade. Another study surveyed public schools in Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, and San Diego to examine these schools' definition for a dropout and found that while every school began with a coding procedure, there was, again, the lack of a universal coding procedure, with some schools not reporting dropouts until 10th grade and others reporting during 9th grade (Hammack, 1987). In addition to a cap being set on the age and grade level reported by schools, students who are convicted of criminal acts and who are consequentially incarcerated are not counted as part of the graduation rate, even though these students will most likely never complete high school (Smink and Chargel, 2004). This poverty of universality in the realms of definitions and reporting methods only makes matters worse when one is trying to create a research-based plan of action for stopping, or at least slowing, the student attrition rate. Regardless of coding procedures and accounting practices, one must look at the causal or corollary relationship between the decision to dropout of school and the many factors that lead or contribute to that student's decision to leave school.
Indicators and Predictors of a High School Dropout
Despite relentless nature versus nurture arguments in human behavioral studies, one cannot separate the student who decides to dropout of school from the environment in which he exists. Many research studies have attempted to point to a single underlying cause for students who dropout, however, overall these studies have neither generated a clear reason nor a concise justification for the decision to leave school. While some studies point to a student's socio-economic status as the biggest indicator of dropout behavior, others have determined that the student's family and cultural background is more relevant. Still, other areas of concern include disciplinary and behavioral problems, social experience and peer rejection, academic achievement and grade retention, attendance and absenteeism, and school and classroom environment. In the end, as this literature review will show, is that all of these factors exist and exude pressure upon a student to leave school, however, these are only single factors in a multifaceted continuum of disengagement. This broader and overall encompassing continuum of disengagement is what needs to be addressed in stopping the student attrition rate. Before this continuum can be acted upon to keep students in schools, its needs to be dissected into its aforementioned parts, as it is only it piecing together the parts of this puzzle that one will be able to see the extensive scope of the problem.
Socio-Economic Status (SES)
The biggest single factor that has been used as a trump card in the forum of public opinion and educational policy debates correlating to higher instances of dropout rates is the socio-economic bracket in which the student lives as well as the mean socio-economic bracket in which the school that said student attends. Despite the simple logic that a student's economic level is a decent determinant of their success rate in school, the academic research is heavily favored towards other factors. However, there exists a fair amount of research to suggest that socio-economic status does play a role in rate of which students stay in school. Research pertaining to the effect of a student's socio-economic status on their likelihood of dropout goes back prior to the 1960s. In 1958, Tesseneer and Tesseneer reviewed 20 studies pertaining to the dropout rate. Later in 1984, Steinberg, Blinde, and Chan also reviewed 12 additional studies, and while there is nearly thirty years between the two teams' studies, both research teams concluded that the socio-economic position of the students' families within the community is the single most consistently predictable characteristic that separates high school dropouts from those who graduate. Another statistic from the Coalition for Juvenile Justice (2001) shows that students who come from low-income families are 2.4 times more likely to drop out of school than students from middle-class or high-income families.
In addition to researching individual family income levels, several studies have looked at this problem from a school level as opposed to an individual level, since schools are integrally linked to families and the community at large. It is rare if not absurd to see a school with a majority of students being categorized as low SES while the school and surrounding community are categorized as being of a high SES. Christle (2007) found that students who come from low SES backgrounds accounted for a significantly higher percentage of students at schools with high dropout rates than those with low dropout rates, which corroborates with a similar study. That study, conducted by The Center for Social Organization of Schools at John Hopkins University, examined contextual factors that contribute to the dropout rate of schools by identifying schools with extremely high rates of dropout and the neighborhoods, cities, and states in which these schools were located. The chosen schools were placed into two categories; those with poor promoting power and those weak promoting power, where 50% of students did not graduate 4 years after entering the school and 40% did not graduate 4 years later, respectively. The schools classified as having poor or weak promoting power constituted 2,000 of the total 10,000 schools that were examined. The study found that the strongest correlate to student dropout rate was poverty; meaning schools with poor and weak promoting power have fewer resources and fewer per-student budgetary expenditures. The study also found that in the areas where poor- and weak-promoting schools were located, the concentration of schools is such that there exists no alternative to attending these near "dropout factories." In this way, students who are robbed of resources at the schools they currently attend have no other option than to remain enrolled at such a school (Balfanz and Legters, 2004).
Despite the aforementioned evidence that a student's socio-economic level adversely affects their ability to remain enrolled in school and graduate, Frank (1990) found that the existing relationship between income level and dropout rate is not as strong as indicated in research studies once adjustments are made in order to consider the effects of other explanatory variables. This can be easily acknowledged by the fact that other variables may have a causal relationship to, or at least be a catalyst for, being classified in a low-income bracket. Such other variables include one's family and cultural background including parental education level, individual school behaviors such as achievement, engagement, and disciplinary history, as well as the school and classroom environment.
Family and Cultural Background
While a student's family and home environment display a strong correlation to student dropout rates, it is important to examine the role race/ethnicity and disability play in predisposing at-risk students to making the decision to leave school. These assertions that race and ethnicity have a strong correlation to dropout rates is backed by a study done by Leone et al. (2003), in which student ethnicity was found to have an historically strong relationship to the outcomes of students in school. Christle (2007) also demonstrates this correlation and found that the ethnicity of a school's student body is related to the dropout rate, but more specifically found that the higher the reported dropout rate at a particular school, the lower the percentage of white students who attend that school. In addition to a higher percentage of white students affecting the dropout rate of a school, Dorn (1996) found that the proportion of black students who fail to graduate from high school is twice as high as the proportion of white students who do not graduate, and that the rate of Black students failing to graduate is higher than that of Hispanic students. The Center for Social Organization of Schools at John Hopkins University found that nationwide, any school whose minority students constitute a majority of the student body is five times more likely to have a classification as a weak promoting power school than a school whose student body majority is white students. The Center for Social Organization also found that 46% of Black and 39% of Hispanic students attend schools where graduation is not the normative pattern (Balfanz and Legters, 2004). In addition to race and ethnic background, a student's classification as disabled also adversely affects their ability to meet the qualifications for graduation. Between the years of 2000 to 2001, students with disabilities had a dropout rate of 29%, ranging from as high as 53% for students with emotional disturbances to as low as 13% for student designated with cognitive disabilities (Bellis, 2003). While students with disabilities may be worthy of having its own category as a variable of the dropout rate, it can be closely related to a family's socio-economic status, but also, and more importantly, a school's student body composition, as often times schools with fewer resources and low per-capita student expenditures are not able to give these students the attention that they require in order to help them become high achievement and academically successful students. Another reason for including disabilities as part of family and cultural background as certain disorders can be genetically inherited, with the possibility that certain diseases being more prevalent in different racial backgrounds, such as the tendency to develop perfect pitch being linked with certain East-Asian pitch-based language phonemes as well the prevalence of heart disease and other coronary diseases having higher rates among African-Americans.
As race and ethnicity have been discussed, it is imperative to turn the focus to the variable subgroup of specific familial attitudes and environmental conditions that impact a student's ability to be successful in schooling. Christle (2007) found that out all surveyed participants, all school administrators and 14 out of 24 staff members at high dropout schools (HDOS) reported that the students' families had poor involvement in their schooling. Howell and Frese (1982) and Rumberger et al. (1990) also found that parental supervision and support are predictors of early student withdrawal from school after accommodations are made to control for socio-economic factors. Furthering these claims, Okey and Cusik (1995) note that many families do not value academic achievement or education in general, which might further entrench students' feelings of being unsupported. Obey and Cusik also found that these families had a history of poor achievement, multiple disciplinary problems, as well as volatile conflicts with school faculty, staff, and administrators.
Not only does parental support and supervision of student education have a role in predicting student dropout, family structure and parental education level also plays a factor in the success of students and their possibilities of graduation. Interestingly, Barrington (1989) found that by 9th grade, future dropouts were 69% less likely to live in a two-parent household whereas future graduates were 83% less likely to live in a non-divorced family. Vitaro (2001) found that socio-family adversity is a direct link in student dropout, which corroborates similar evidence from Ensminger and Slusarcick (1992), with the exception that the authors of the latter study found that poverty status and the mother's level of education is compounded with the student's characteristics to better predict the probability that the student will leave school. To further the assertion that parental education is a determinant of dropping out, Frank (1990) found that parental education level single most powerful predictor of dropout, but also showed that race and ethnicity are not significant predictors after adjustments are made for other explanatory variables. Although the aforementioned studies have found that the family background and home environment adversely impacts a students ability to remain in school and become academically successful, there are other factors that serve as important functions that occur at school and may exacerbate dropout behavior.
Disciplinary/Behavioral Problems (Suspension, Expulsion, and Severity)
Despite a student's home life and family background being an important variable in the decision to leave education, there is other, and some would argue more important, variables that are only found within the environment of the school. Areas such social experience among students and peer rejection as well as the actual attitudes and qualifications of administrators, teachers, and staff members are imperative topics of question, but disciplinary and behavioral problems also need to be looked at closer in order to determine its status as a predictor of trends in dropping out of school. Martin et al. (2002) have stated that behavior and discipline problems are a contributing factor in the alienation of students from school. In concurrence with Martin et al., Ensminger and Slusarcick (1992) found that an early profile of disruptive behavior can predict early student withdrawal from school, with this assertion still holding its ground after controlling for socioeconomic factors. Coley (1995) also found that in the two years prior to publication, nearly one half of school dropouts reported being absent for more than 10 days of school, one-third missed class more than 10 times, one-third had been suspended, and 19% of students were in some sort of trouble with the law. Vitaro (2001) found similar results to the Ensminger and Slusarcick study in that Vitaro found that student disruptiveness contributed significantly in predicting early and late dropout status when assessed during early school years, the effect of this disruptive profile accounting for twice the amount of early dropouts, even after the implementation of controls for the effects of socio-family adversity.
In addition to identifying students with disruptive behavior patterns as possible early and later dropouts, two studies also took in to account the actual process of disciplining these students. Obviously, students who exhibit disruptive behavior are more likely to be reprimanded for such actions and attitudes, and these students are usually dealt with through behavior contracts, detention, suspension, and possibly even expulsion depending upon the severity of the behavior. Christle (2007) found that the suspension rate and Board of Education violation rate was significantly higher for high dropout schools (HDOS). Christle also stated that schools with exclusionary practices might actually be impeding their students' educational progress and those students who are excluded from school due to these practices have fewer opportunities to gain academic skills necessary for graduation, as well as less exposure to appropriate social behaviors. In the Coley (1995) study mentioned earlier, 17% of dropouts reported having been told by administrators and school staff that they could not return to their school, which only lessens the opportunities for disruptive students to learn proper social norms and acquire necessary academic skills. While students are affected by their home environments, they can also be putting themselves at risk for dropout behavior by creating problems at school.
This disruptive behavior, while itself a detrimental component leading to dropping out, can also cause students to encounter disciplinary repercussion that will only lessen their opportunities for academic success. It is not very likely that a student will be able to achieve academically when they are misbehaving in such a way as to warrant being suspended from school. Although there behavior may be a concern on a individual basis, there are social aspects that can contribute to or directly lead to such a disruptive profile. Often times when students act out it is a symptom of which another variable is causing the problem. Some students act out for attention, others for entertainment's sake, and still others act out unintentionally as a way to gain acceptance from otherwise rejecting peers. By trying to find the cause of a student's disruptive profile, it leads to other variables, mainly that student's individual social experience within the school social environment as well as his or hers rejection from peers.
Social Experience and Peer Rejection
Since public schools are by no means an exclusionary learning environment, and one could counter that school is solely a social learning environment, students must be viewed in terms of their social experience at school and within their circle of peers. The behavior exhibited by students in the classroom can be indicative of problems outside of the classroom, but still within the confines of the school experience. Elliott and Voss (1974) assessed the network of friends of student from 8th grade through 12th grade over a 5-year period. Statistically significant, moderate correlations were found between exposure to friends who had dropped out of school prior to graduating at the beginning of the study and later dropout status. In addition to this link Elliott and Voss also noticed that a gain in exposure to dropout friends was also related to later dropout status. In support of this study, Cairns et al. (1989) also showed that the 7th graders who were most vulnerable to dropping out of school later in their academic career had affiliations with other students who were also considered at-risk for dropping out of school. In addition to these studies, other researchers have also reported that students who have stable relationships with deviant peers often display an increase in behavior problems, of which might lead to the aforementioned disciplinary actions that schools might take to control such individuals (Berndt, Hawkins, and Jiao, 1999). Lastly and most recently, Vitaro (2007) found that deviant or dropout friends better predicted early rather than later dropout status. Although this study found a correlation between dropout behavior and deviant/dropout friends, negative social experiences did not predict dropout status in the final model created in the study, after controlling for personal dispositions and family-related variables.
While students who associate with deviant or dropout friends may be more likely to dropout out later in their academic career, students who do not have healthy, friendly relationships with their peers are also at risk of being dropouts. Coie (1990) found that many students with disruptive behavior profiles often experience peer rejection; this is important due to the fact that peer rejection has been predicatively linked in some studies, but not all, to students dropping out of school (Hymel et al., 1996). Kuperschmidt et al. (1990) asserted that students' rejection from peers, or lack of friends, exacerbated the frustration of poor grades and punishment for low levels of achievement, which in turn increased students' desire and motivation to drop out of school prior to graduation. In support of the aforementioned study, Ollendick et al. (1992) reported that 9-year-old rejected children failed more grades and were more likely to drop out of school 5 years later than were children who did not experience rejection from their peers.


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The accommodation is arranged over three floors, with the lounge encompassing the top floor, with huge windows facing west, and doors leading to the balcony. The first floor offers open plan kitchen, dining area and a snug, ideal for family living. The ground floor...
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text: Oscar Peterson - A Night In Vienna (2004) • Genre : Videoclips, Concerts, Movies • Year : 0 • Label : • On demand! (album available 128-320kbs)* #/by GROVER Release code: ODI3020817 Added on 27-10-2014, 19:39 You want this album? link doesn't work? report us from your account! Release Info: Oscar Peterson - A Night In Vienna (2004) Oscar Peterson - A Night In Vienna (2004)DVD9 | NTSC 16:9 (720x480) VBR Auto Letterboxed (Anamorphic Widescreen) | Audio: Dolby AC3, 5 ch; Dolby AC3, 2 ch | 5% Recovery | 6.64 GBJazz | Length: 01:32:01 |Links are interchangableOscar Peterson has continued to fill concert halls -- for good reason -- following his return after a serious stroke in 1993. This 2003 concert, videotaped at the Musikverein in Vienna, shows a packed house enthusiastically applauding the veteran pianist and his quartet, which includes old friends Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen on bass, drummer Martin Drew, and the relative youngster of the group, guitarist Ulf Wakenius. In spite of the damage the stroke did to Peterson's once powerful left hand, which is most evident in the close-up shots of the keyboard, he has hardly lost his ability to swing hard; he simply relies more heavily on his right hand and the strong support of his group. The 11 songs from this concert are dominated by Peterson's originals, including old favorites like his gospel-inflected "Hymn to Freedom" and "Wheatland" (from his Canadiana Suite) and new works like the tender ballad "When Summer Comes." Add the dash through "Sweet Georgia Brown" (with the hot licks of Wakenius) and a standard like "Falling in Love With Love," and it is easy to understand why the proud pianist earned a standing ovation. Bonus selections on this DVD include a well-crafted nearly hourlong documentary of Peterson's life. Christopher Plummer was an inspired choice as narrator; not only was he a fellow Canadian and star of the film The Silent Partner (for which Peterson composed and recorded the soundtrack), but he also attended the same high school simultaneously with the pianist. There's also a brief film about the making of Bösendorfer pianos, long Peterson's instrument of choice, along with a complete discography of his recordings for Verve over the years. The production of this DVD is first class in every way, as are the quartet's performances.TracklistSet One:1. Falling In Love With Love 5:452. Night Time 8:503. When Summer Comes 7:134. Cakewalk 8:285. Requiem 8:506. Sushi 8:38Set Two:7. Wheatland 10:048. The Backyard Blues 10:049. Satin Doll 10:1210. Sweet Georgia Brown 8:24Encore:11. Hymn To Freedom 7:56Bonus Features:1. Keeping The Groove Alive: The Life And Times Of Oscar Peterson 53:022. Bosendorfer – The Making Of The World's Greatest Instrument 15:223. The Complete Oscar Peterson On Verve Discography4. Photographic Journey Of ViennaLine-UpOscar Peterson: PianoNeils-Henning Orsted Pedersen: BassUlf Wakenius: GuitarMartin Drew: Drums http://terafile.co/886991f388e1/vienna.part01.rar http://terafile.co/3db86431e3e3/vienna.part02.rar http://terafile.co/981b91826145/vienna.part03.rar http://terafile.co/77497cb31913/vienna.part04.rar http://terafile.co/2b4a54018261/vienna.part05.rar http://terafile.co/99196e889165/vienna.part06.rar http://terafile.co/43201a07d538/vienna.part07.rar http://terafile.co/904b034ee126/vienna.part08.rar http://terafile.co/41194242240b/vienna.part09.rar http://terafile.co/477615093598/vienna.part10.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/zbZKU3XmgPE8/vienna.part01.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/tFFjuXaYJ7ty/vienna.part02.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/92yctvGJgR9d/vienna.part03.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/6EW6B5Rs7VRp/vienna.part04.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/d2scJpSDxPWE/vienna.part05.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/tP5KHQyKDQtw/vienna.part06.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/RVt6Wvmv75VC/vienna.part07.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/uxWzqB8eNvEZ/vienna.part08.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/CyWD5eGyhjrN/vienna.part09.rar http://www.uploadable.ch/file/mAhFqeNpHZPk/vienna.part10.rar http://xerver.co/lkrp7ipsa3pq/vienna.part01.rar http://xerver.co/3m0g9sss2f5k/vienna.part02.rar http://xerver.co/wvkofy4y9xtf/vienna.part03.rar http://xerver.co/cv4g2c23f8hu/vienna.part04.rar http://xerver.co/te3bz74wj1qz/vienna.part05.rar http://xerver.co/20xgxtoapej4/vienna.part06.rar http://xerver.co/q4gv2hxqd0uc/vienna.part07.rar http://xerver.co/29egk56jdmm2/vienna.part08.rar http://xerver.co/z33cheipdxlp/vienna.part09.rar http://xerver.co/1ji89fzo3ub6/vienna.part10.rar http://vozupload.com/5la4csiz7pvj/vienna.part01.rar.html http://vozupload.com/hieygrmcmadw/vienna.part02.rar.html http://vozupload.com/p002oek7rib9/vienna.part03.rar.html http://vozupload.com/srkir1m39ea1/vienna.part04.rar.html http://vozupload.com/2o8bv6d59flz/vienna.part05.rar.html http://vozupload.com/a560wu14dbrb/vienna.part06.rar.html http://vozupload.com/duoppjbnaish/vienna.part07.rar.html http://vozupload.com/6rry42ya1k9e/vienna.part08.rar.html http://vozupload.com/6tqzw9kjv6ta/vienna.part09.rar.html http://vozupload.com/qplrdmg5cpck/vienna.part10.rar.html


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Black Cumin seed oil
Miracle seeds, magical herbs, superfoods, and healing potions. Many products on the market are labeled as such simply for marketing purposes. The promise of a certain positive effect or quick solution for your problem helps to sell, and unfortunately, we often fall for these tricks and gimmicks. There are a few plants that truly have health benefits, healing properties, and are called superfoods for a reason. Many of these natural remedies were used by ancient civilizations for centuries, but with time, modern medicine and man-made remedies have taken their place. Nigella Sativa, sometimes called Black Seed, Black Coriander, Black Cumin, kalonji seeds, or haba al-barakah (in Arabic) is one of these wonders of nature. Oil extracted from these small, crescent-shaped black seeds has a surprising amount of
Sulfur and MSM
We are often told to eat our vegetables to get vitamins, drink enough milk because of calcium, use sea salt for iodine, eat egg yolks for their healthy fat profile, or eat brazil nuts to get our daily dose of selenium. But sulfur is something we don't hear or read about very often, or at least I have never heard anyone telling me: eat your onions because they have plenty of the sulfur your body needs. When you think of sulfur, you probably think of match heads, glass, or even the paper industry. I spent four years in high school living in a city with the biggest paper factory in my country, and the smell of sulfur used to bleach wet paper matter was horrible and when it rained, yellow sediments appeared around the puddles of water on the ground.
But sulfur is not just a popular chemical component, it is actually the third most abundant element found in the human body! There are around 140 grams of sulfur in an average adult body, and it is not by accident. Sulfur is so important for our overall health it sometimes makes me wonder why is it not talked about more often. We hear about minera ...
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Everything you see around you consists of atoms and molecules. Well, even things you don't see, like gasses and particles in the air that are invisible to the eye (they are not magical, they are just too small for us to see without a microscope). Atoms are the smallest particles of matter; they can no longer be chemically divided into smaller parts, though the can be broken down physically (by a nuclear reaction). Inside of each atom, there is a core called the nucleus, surrounded by an electron cloud. The nucleus contains nucleons - protons and neutrons - and the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus contains electrons
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From the Publisher
This uniquely compiled volume addresses the current trends and issues in the field of early childhood education, reflecting the evolving nature of the field and teacher training in the United States and worldwide, preparing readers with the skill set necessary to meet the new needs and challenges that face the teaching profession toda...
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Roopnarine and Johnson's comprehensive and authoritative volume is the best preparation tool on the market for preparing future early childhood educators—tomorrow's leaders in the field—with the knowledge necessary to meet the ever-changing needs and challenges of teaching in today's world. Divided into four parts, its chapters a...
other books by Jaipaul Roopnarine
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Table of Contents
Part I : INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1: History of Early Childhood Education in Multicultural Perspective
Blyth F. Hinitz, College of New Jersey
Chapter 2: The Program for Infant/Toddler Care
J. Ronald Lally and Peter L. Mangione,
WestEd, San Francisco, California
Chapter 3 The Head Start Program
Douglas R. Powell, Purdue University
Chapter 4 Home Visiting Programs
Barbara Hanna Wasik, Adrienne Villagomez, Sheena Berry, and Priya Mulholkar,
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Part II : CORE THEMES
Chapter 5 Including Everyone: A Model Preschool Program for Children with and Without Disabilities
David Smukler, State University of New York at Cortland
Ellen Barnes, Jowonio School, Syracuse, New York
Chapter 6 More Than the Sum of Its Parts: Creating Multicultural and Linguistically Responsive Early Childhood Classrooms
Aisha Ray and Luisiana Melendez. Erikson Institute
Chapter 7 Early Prevention Initiatives
Karen L. Bierman, Celene Domitrovich, and Harriet Darling,
The Pennsylvania State University
Chapter 8 Assessment for Learning in the Early Childhood Classroom,
Jie-Qi Chen and Gillian McNamee, Erikson Institute
Part III : SPECIFIC APPROACHES—UNITED STATES
Chapter 9 Creative Curriculum
Diane T. Dodge, Cate Heroman, and Kai-leé Berke, Teaching Strategies, Inc.
Chapter 10 The High/Scope Model of Early Childhood Education
Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart (deceased)
High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, Ypsilanti, Michigan
Chapter 11 Tools of the Mind: The Vygotskian Approach to Early Childhood Education
Elena Bodrova, Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning
Deborah J. Leong, Metro State College
Chapter 12 The Developmental–Interaction Approach at Bank Street College of Education
Harriet K. Cuffaro and Nancy Nager, Bank Street College of Education
Chapter 13 The Project Approach: An Overview
Lilian G. Katz, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Sylvia C. Chard, University of Alberta, Canada
Part IV : SPECIFIC APPROACHES—EUROPE
Chapter 14 The Piramide Method
Jef J. van Kuyk, CITO Corporation, Arnhem, The Netherlands
Chapter 15 Reggio Emilia in the 21st Century: Enduring Commitments Amid New Challenges
Rebecca S. New, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Rebecca Kantor, University of Colorado-Denver
Chapter 16 Montessori Education Today
Martha Torrence, Cambridge Montessori School
John Chattin-McNichols, Seattle University
Chapter 17 The Waldorf Approach to Early Childhood Education
Christy L. Williams, Fairbrook First Steps Christian Preschool
James E. Johnson, The Pennsylvania State University
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Conveniently located in E - 69 Sector 55, this one storey hotel with a spacious terrace space is near to the Manasarover Apartment. There are 20 well-furnished AC rooms maintained within the white-coloured building of this property. Guests are served multi-cuisine fare from its in-house kitchen. Corporate travelers are also facilitated with a conference and seminar space, which can also be used for private functions.
Reception - Not organized, much needs to improve. Staff - Good and helpful. Breakfast - The only available options were Aloo Paratha or Bread and Butter.
Good Hotel for budget travellers.
Stay was good, starting of stay was not as hotel outsourced. For newcomers to be careful, There is no name on the property and this help them to play.
Very good place to staying and the service was awesome. Food was too good...I would like to stay again, if it travel Noida. :-)))
I had horrible time to stay at this place. It was me, who has given gud feedback last time. But, the things have changed in span of two months. I was shifted to several rooms in the hotel in three days and all the rooms are in worst condition without A/C. I had called Travelguru twice and didnt get any help from them. I was forcefully stayed with fans switched on after paying the full amount for A/C rooms. I never ever suggest anyone to stay here.
Overall experience was OK. I would recommend & prefer to stay again, as the hotel has quite ambiance.
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Filter Results:
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- Margo Wilson, Martin Daly
- Proceedings. Biological sciences
- 2004
Organisms 'discount the future' when they value imminent goods over future goods. Optimal discounting varies: selection should favour allocations of effort that effectively discount the future relatively steeply in response to cues promising relatively good returns on present efforts. However, research on human discounting has hitherto focused on stable… (More)
- 1992
Men take a proprietary view of women's sexuality and reproductive capacity. In this chapter, we (a) argue that sexually proprietary male psychologies are evolved solutions to the adaptive problems of male reproductive competition and potential misdirection of paternal investments in species with mistakable paternity; (b) describe the complex interrelated… (More)
- John Tooby, Leda Cosmides, +8 authors Margo Wilson
- 2005
1 On the Sociological Need to Find Arguments That Are Effective as Well as True Plato says. .. that our ''necessary ideas'' arise from the preexistence of the soul, are not derivable from experience—read monkeys for preexistence. In order for the study of the human mind and brain to become a successful natural science, a sufficiently large number of… (More)
- Margo Wilson, Martin Daly
- 2002
Violence against wives occurs in all societies, but the rates at which wives are beaten and killed are enormously variable over time and place. The rate of uxoricide (wife killing) in the United States, for example, is currently approximately five to ten times greater than in western Europe. In some societies, wife beating is normative and allegedly almost… (More)
- Martin Daly, Margo Wilson
- Trends in cognitive sciences
- 2005
- Margo Wilson, Martin Daly
- Psychological science
- 2006
It has been the prevailing view that young offenders are more present oriented than their peers, but this view has little empirical basis other than the actions that have defined these youth as offenders. In the present study, we used a decision task with actual monetary consequences to assess the tendency of young offenders and a control group of high… (More)
- Satoshi Kanazawa, Mary C. Still, +4 authors Martin Daly
- 2000
Hirschi and Gottfredson (1983) claim that the relationship between age and crime is similar in all social and cultural conditions and that no current sociological or crimi-nological theory can account for this similarity. We introduce the new field of evolutionary psychology and extend Daly and Wilson's (1988) work on homicide to construct a general theory… (More)
- Martin Daly
- 2003
77 of the physical target location, implying that the mean perceived target location is nearly coincident wi th the targ e t. Thjs find ing means that perceived egocentric distance is quite accurate under full cues for the range of distallces studied. When visual cues to rus-tance are diminish ed , observers make systematic errors in their visually directed… (More)
- Martin Daly, Lucia F. Jacobs, Margo I. Wilson, Philip R. Behrends
- 2008
We observed radio-implanted Merriam's kangaroo rats disposing of 10-g bonanzas of rolled oats in 48 trials in the field. The principal determinant of the initial disposition of discovered food was apparently its distance from the day burrow: food found within about 10m was mainly larder hoarded, whereas food encountered farther afield was usually dispersed… (More)
- C. Nadine Wathen, Ellen Jamieson, Margo Wilson, Martin Daly, Andrew Worster, Harriet L MacMillan
- Open medicine : a peer-reviewed, independent…
- 2007
BACKGROUND Intimate partner violence against women is prevalent and is associated with poor health outcomes. Understanding indicators of exposure to intimate partner violence can assist health care professionals to identify and respond to abused women. This study was undertaken to determine the strength of association between selected evidence-based risk… (More)


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Earlier this week Motley Crue announced "the Final Tour" with a November 21st Vancouver stop. Here's a snippet from the press release: "After more than three decades together, iconic rock 'n roll band MÖTLEY CRÜE announced today The Final Tour and the band's ultimate retirement. The announcement was solidified when the band signed a formal Cessation Of Touring Agreement, effective at the end of 2015, in front of global media in Los Angeles."
Ahead of next falls tour stop Willy in the Morning talked to Crue guitarist Mick Mars. Listen below.


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I adopted a pair of parakeets from a woman who was going off to college about a month ago. The boys are fine and well bonded to each other, but I haven't been able to really get them used to me. Most things I find, are aimed towards baby budgies or one that hasn't bonded already. They're not hand tame, their wings aren't clipped, and I'm afraid that they're just scared and anxious around me. Any tips on getting them to like me?
post #1 of 2
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|"jlwpc1" <jlw...@earthlink.net>
|Re: Is it possible to "unbind" a socket?
|Sat, 13 May 2000 18:15:06 GMT
> >> Specifically a Winsock2 socket? > > >> Now my question... > >> I'd like to recycle the socket explicitly with system calls rather than relying on > >> TransmitFile to do it for me. I can use shutdown on the socket, but how can I > "unbind" > >> it? > > > Shutdown(socket, how) and then closesocket(socket)? > > shutdown(socket,how) works fine. I don't want to close the socket. I want to put the > socket back into the same state as a socket created with the socket() call. Shutdown() does not release the socket's hold on the socket's internal info list. Only closesocket() releases all the sockets "hold" on internal info. So it is shutdown() -> (is everything ready - if so) -> closesocket() (release all internal info) -> (start over) -> socket() (store internal info). I believe once you call shutdown(), you start the loop but if data is queued or sent during shutdown() you fall out of this loop and the connection is reset. >TransmitFile() > has magic to do this. It has a couple of flags that cause the socket to be disconnected > then unbound, but -not- closed. Are you sure TransmitFile() does not close and re use? Maybe it's fast and/or sends a get out of shutdown() data back :) ??? TransmitFile() is all a kernal mode action and I fully "understand" your magic idea. WSASend() involves user mode to kernal mode actions. >You can then pass this exact same socket back to AcceptEx > and it works. That is why MS wants you to use their extras (see below). Most of the time they make them to work with other MS stuff. >I would like to be able to replicate this function in cases where > TransmitFile is not used. Have you tried these socket options (SO_CONNECT_TIME - used for AcceptEx seconds connect time count, SO_REUSEADDR - useful with ports in TIME_WAIT state, SO_UPDATE_ACCEPT_CONTEXT - used by AcceptEx taking the listening socket and the socket handle that becomes the accept client, SO_DONTLINGER or SO_LINGER)? But it would supposely be slower without using the MS magic - I assume that is why MS added these functions and other Winsock venders may have or may have not. AcceptEx and TransmitFile (NT sp4(?) and up) are _only_ MS extension functions that will be there if and only if you are using the mswsock.lib and thru the MS SPI (Service Provider Interface). There are other vender versions (SPI) of Winsock out there. Some Winsock functions are completely in ws2_32.dll and/or call WIN32 system calls. Others are in a lower layer (SPI). Examples: gethostname, htonl,WSAGetLastError, etc. are in ws2_32.dll. WSAEventXXX, etc. are sent to WIN32 system calls. WSAAccept is really SPI WSPAccept closesocket SPI WSPCloseSocket etc. Now applications "must use the Winsock 2 APIs" and are not SPI clients. App -> ws2_32.dll -> SPI -> TSP/NSP Info on SPI (layers) used to be in PSDK under winsock2/layered.zip and use ws2spi.h. Now SPIs are suppose to write functions the same way but you know how true that would be. I might write one and you might write one and we still call all the functions but they would not _always_ do the same thing in the same way. So do you really want to look at SPIs? Anyway AcceptEx and TransmitFile call a special SPI function in mswsock.lib called WSPIoctl(). Which has the socket, buffers, overlap info, completion routine, threadID, error and an IoControlCode. They use a GUID (globally unique ID). But what really happens - I'll leave to you (in other words - I don't know - I only know what I read and sometimes that is even wrong <g>). You can trace winsock API and SPI calls made from the ws2_32.dll. You need the winsock checked build and dt_dll samples. Supposely you can trace just the call you want. Good luck. > I bet there is a undocumented MS call to do this and I've tried to find it w/o success. > Undocumented? MS says there is no such thing :) - let us know when you find it! JLW
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Forschungsberichte Aus Der Biologischen Station Zu Plon.., Volume 6
Written by Anonymous
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Blogger Sarah Hearts shares some of the home and fashion items she loves this season!
art & design, color palettes, diy, fashion, food, get organized, holidays, kids, life, links to love, photography, Printables, store, travel, videos, wallpapers, wedding things
Sarah Hearts Home Tour
Take a tour of blogger Sarah Hearts' colorfully crafted Venice, California rental bungalow.
DIY Tree Shaped Wreath
Get your home ready for the holidays by creating a Christmas tree shaped wreath for your front door or anywhere!
DIY Colorblock Wall Clock
Learn how to make these stylish wall clock Sarah spotted in a London shop!
DIY Paint Dipped IKEA NORNÄS Outdoor Bench
Learn how to makeover an IKEA Nornas wood bench with a paint dipped technique.
DIY Laundry Room Update
Learn how to give your laundry baskets an update by creating your own unique stenciled label.
Framed Heart Photo Wall Collage
Learn how to easily create a photo wall piece using modular easy-to-hang frames.
Small Patio Decor Ideas
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The Housing Research Group of Rovira i Virgili University provides the Chair with scientific support. The group aims to perform an inter-disciplinary examination of the phenomenon of housing, particularly a legal analysis of the legal-private structures of Catalonian, Spanish and European judicial frameworks affecting the issue.
It has traditionally been felt that housing as a subject to be studied is not an autonomous discipline. Housing is a field of activity, an area of policy and practice, a multi-faceted phenomenon. Several different authors have focused their study of housing on a multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach. That is precisely what was proposed by authors like Kemeny, Bengtsson, Gibb and Clapham, who are in favour of the existence of a theory of housing, one that allows us to integrate the different disciplines and apply them to resolve a common problem. Clapham takes as his starting point King's ideas about locating the epicentre of the housing issue in the relationship between people and the houses where they live. Thus, said relationship can be seen in different ways; for example, psychologists analyse the meaning that housing has for individuals, while lawyers will look at what rights are inherent to it. Basically, we feel that housing is a complex phenomenon that deserves to be studied on a a multi-disciplinary level, this being the basic premise adopted by the Housing Chair.
The Chair aims to study housing from a comparative perspective, i.e. an international one. In this regard, a comparative analysis of housing first came about in the 1960′s and 1970′s. The main models for comparative study of the phenomenon of housing first came about in economic sciences and sociology, even if other disciplines, such as law or political science, have have also dealt with the issue. It could be said that an inter-disciplinary study of housing has been becoming more widespread in recent decades. This is evident from the significant increase in both the number of international bodies looking at this phenomenon from a comparative and multi-disciplinary perspective (for example, CECODHAS Housing Europe or FEANTSA, specialising on homelessness) and the number of existing research networks (for example, the European Network for Housing Research – ENHR- and the Asia Pacific Network for Housing Research – APNHR). Also notable is the increase in international journals specialising in this area, such as the European Journal of Housing Policy.
To conclude, housing can be analysed from different perspectives and disciplines at the same time. Thus, the Housing Chair has set itself the objective of promoting research in this area from a multi-disciplinary approach by means of activities focusing on education, research, technological transfers and dissemination, in a scenario (such as the present reality since 2007) in which housing has become the central point of the international financial crisis.
Below we look at some of the different aspects of the housing phenomenon, then going on to consider the challenges facing us in the future, which will be the main areas to be studied by the Housing Chair:
a) First of all, it is in their home that people feel free to express themselves and thrive both as individuals and as families, in other words: the home is a place that guarantees the free development of a person's personality. This right is expressly recognised in article 10 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 and is intended to help safeguard a person's dignity and respect. It is, therefore, important at this point to consider housing as something that an individual has a right to, which is vital for the individual to be able to develop in society.
To this end, several international texts have recognised the right to a home, for example, article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, as part of the right to a suitable quality of life, and the European Social Charter, revised in 1996. Furthermore, the European Court of Human Rights has protected the right to housing given its link to other classic civil rights, such as the right not to be subjected to inhuman or degrading treatment (art. 3) and to a private family life (art. 8). As for Spanish legislation, the right to suitable housing is not considered a fundamental right (art. 47 of the Spanish Constitution).
Thus, having legal regulations that govern housing is important for a person's development, not only as regards whether it should be considered a fundamental human right, but also as regards different kinds of property possession, which are precisely the way that citizens can gain access to housing. Nonetheless, the reality of Spanish society has shown that the property ownership/rental dichotomy (over 80% of the population own their home, while only 17% rent) has not responded well to these needs, quite on the contrary. Our economy's dependence on selling property as an almost exclusive way to access housing (by means of mortgages), has led to significant levels of family debt never before seen in our country, as well as liquidity problems for lending institutions. This situation has been made worse by the ineffective running of our rental market, both social and free market rental, which according to Eurostat (2012) only accounts for 15% of all homes, well below the European average.
These needs have to be resolved by means of positive rights, but also using other legal disciplines. In this regard, the public authorities have to promote access to different kinds of property possession (buying, renting, intermediate possession, etc.) based on the potential demand and the specific needs of different areas. This, therefore, implies prior territorial planning that needs to be carried out by those specialising in geography as a discipline.
b) Housing as a symbolic element. In recent years owning a home has effectively been considered a symbol of wealth, rather than just a place in which to live your personal and family life. This has come about due to the importance that has been placed on the value of changing home (the importance of property as a financial asset whose value can grow) to the detriment of its value as something useful (the usefulness of the property in satisfying the need for housing). This is the reason that buying a home has been the preferred way to hold property for over 80% of Spanish society, particularly in a period when prices were rising, meaning that owning property meant acquiring value in terms of both use and exchange, while renting only entailed acquiring value in terms of use. Furthermore, home ownership is an indicator used by European institutions in order to calculate a society's poverty (consequently, European citizens who owned a home in 2007 were held to have a lower risk of poverty than those who were renting).
c) Housing as a consumer and investment good: housing has traditionally been invested in to obtain a, more or less stable, profit in the long term. It is also an area of investment in which consumers have at times found themselves unprotected, which is corroborated, for example, by the existence (verified by the Supreme Court) of abusive clauses in mortgage contracts. In this regard, there are currently different policies being implemented as regards access to housing and the protection of consumers and users. In any case, there are tensions evident between the idea of a home as a fundamental right and a home as a financial asset.
d) Housing as a subject for study and for public policies of varying origins. Thus, in housing we find the following activities, by way of example:
- Legislation of official protection and public housing. In this regard, we should point out the Housing Plans at both a Spanish and regional level. These plans establish the priorities in terms of the most desirable types of property possession (owning, renting, etc.) and the renovation of existing homes. Furthermore, housing policies, seen from a social point of view, entailing support and help in accessing housing for the population as a whole, play an important role in a city's social fabric.
- Territorial and urban planning. The general and partial territorial plans (in Catalonia there is one dating back to 1995) are especially relevant in this regard, as are the major urban plans and the municipal urban planning programmes. These instruments allow us to address the territory's needs and plan the use of the same, such as by deciding whether or not to reserve public land for residential use.
- Analysis of population distribution and the existing stock of housing. This analysis is vital in order to implement a coherent housing policy, and it is, therefore, important to establish when and where it will be necessary to build again, as well as the social need for housing (young people and the elderly, the population at risk of social exclusion, situations of housing where there is under-use or where there is overcrowding, among other factors).
- Implementing regulations and protection for the territory, for example the planning instruments provided by the Law on the right to housing, such as the sector-wide territorial housing plan and other regulations, like the coastal building law.
Several disciplines come together in this point, such as law, economics, geography, anthropology, architecture, sociology and urban planning.
e) Finally, housing also makes up the city, i.e. it has gone from being something on the periphery to being integrated in the city. Housing is, in effect, a special asset, immovable, which is why it is relevant in the territorial and social context. Several disciplines come together in this point, such as law, geography, architecture, sociology and urban planning.
Rovira i Virgili University
University education in the Tarragona area goes back to the 16th century, when cardinal Gaspar Cervantes de Gatea founded a university in the city of Tarragona to teach Grammar, the Arts and Theology. This Universitas Tarraconensis was practically wiped out by the reprisals of Philip V after the War of the Spanish Succession. One school did remain, however: the Estudi Literari, which depended on the new University of Cervera until the middle of the 19th century, when university education was discontinued. Only the Escola de Mestres, which had been founded shortly before, was to survive, and it continued to provide non-university education until it became a part of the University in 1972. From the end of the 19th century to the 1930s, the Ecclesiastical University in Tarragona taught further education courses in Philosophy, Theology and Canon Law. University education did not return to the Tarragona area until the second half of
the 20th century, when three different roads converged to form the Rovira i Virgili University: The Universitat Laboral (Technical College), created by the Ministry of Employment in 1956, started to teach technical courses for the first time in 1961-62, with specialities in mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering. It depended on the Terrassa School of Engineering. Later, in 1972, the title of "Engineer" was changed to "Technical Engineer", and the Universitat Laboral ceased to depend on Terrassa and dropped its mechanical and engineering courses.
When the university reform bill was passed in 1984 the university sector was restructured, and the institutions in Tarragona were not exempt from the process. The University of Barcelona set up the Divisió VII to bring together all the institutions in the Tarragona area: the Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, the Faculty of Chemical Sciences,
the Faculty of Medicine and the Teacher Training School (which had become part of the University of Barcelona in 1972). Subsequently, new centres were created within this Division: in 1988, the School of Oenology in Tarragona and the University School of Business Studies in Reus, and in 1990 the University School of Information Technology in Tarragona. Finally, in 1991 the School of Nursing became part of the University.
There are also a number of other institutions that teach courses in the south of Catalonia and which were affiliated to the University of Barcelona through the Divisió VII: the "Verge de la Cinta" University School in Tortosa, the "Sant Fructuós" University School of Social Work in Tarragona and the Social School, also in Tarragona.
In 1973, the so-called University School of Industrial Engineering became part of the Polytechnical University of Catalonia. In 1971, the University of Barcelona set up local branches of the f
aculties of Philosophy and Arts, and Sciences in the city of Tarragona. From the very beginning, the aim was for these new courses to achieve the highest possible university recognition. As early as 1972, a request was made to convert these branches into a university college so that they could provide complete first-cycle courses. In 1977, medical courses began in Reus, and in 1983 the Spanish parliament established the Faculty of Philosophy and Arts and the Faculty of Chemistry in Tarragona.
On 30th December 1991, the Catalan Government passed Law 36/1991 and created the Rovira i Virgili University (published in the Catalan Government's official gazette on 15th January 1992). This law stipulates that "the Rovira i Virgili University (URV) must integrate and order the university studies that are at present being taught in the south of Catalonia as well as any new subjects, so forming the base for the development of a new University with a character all of its own". And it goes on: "The aims are, among others, to improve the territorial organisation, the quality and potential of the public service of further education to make it possible for people to exercise their right to education established in article 27.5 of the Spanish Constitution, and to increase and improve the structure of the p
rovision of university places throughout Catalonia."
The same law states: "The name of the University is in honour of the illustrious Catalan, Antoni Rovira i Virgili, writer, historian and politician and one of the most important theorisers and champions of Catalonia's national cause, who was president of the parliament of Catalonia and an example of public-spiritedness, hard work and esteem for the values of our people."


text: Mystic Merlin - Full Moon (1982) • Genre : Music Box, Billboard Charts • Year : 0 • Label : • On demand! (album available 128-320kbs)* #/by GROVER Release code: ODI78916 Added on 27-10-2014, 07:41 You want this album? link doesn't work? report us from your account! Release Info: Mystic Merlin - Full Moon (1982) Full Moon (1982)This album is mainly sought after for the 'rare groove' song 'Mr. Magician'. A "funtastic" track. This album has a very Eighties vibe going on. All bar one track are uptempo and seem almost like a snapshot in time, musically. Freddie Jackson left the group shortly after this set was released and the rest is history. (AMAZON)Tracks:1. Mr. Magician2. Perfect3. Rock The World4. Your Love5. Full Moon Rising (Prelude)6. Love Is What You Need7. Back To Zero8. Mindreader This album(s) is currently available for download only with a Premium account. To get a premium account, click here


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English Currant Scones
April Hentz
I'm originally from Edmonton, Alberta Canada and was raised by my grandparents who are of British ancestry, this recipe has been passed down for generations. You may substitute raisins for the currants.
- 2 c
- all purpose flour
- 4 Tbsp
- baking powder
- 1/4 c
- sugar
- 1/2 tsp
- salt
- 1/4 c
- butter
- 1/2 c
- raisins or currants
- 1
- egg
- 2/3 c
- milk
1Mix ingredients together to form a dough, roll out dough to a 1/2 inch thickness. Cut out with a large cookie cutter or in any shape you wish...my mom always cuts hers in triangles.
2Brush the top of the scones with milk and sprinkle sugar on top and bake at 425 degrees for 15 minutes.
About this Recipe
Course/Dish: Sweet Breads
Other Tag: Quick & Easy


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Agent recruiting is at an all-time high. The postcards come in the mail, and I receive e-mails from new companies and old companies. There are ads for real estate agents on the Internet, too. To an industry outsider it might even look like there is some kind of a shortage. There is a shortage of sorts: If the real estate companies can't make a profit from our sales, they will fold. They need as many agents as they can get, and they need to keep the agents who are generating sales. The recruiting methods are interesting, but mostly the same. Most promise a higher commission split and no hidden fees. Most promise the latest and great technology, and several advertise a fun work environment and training. Two things that most brokerage companies offer -- I consider them detriments to my business instead of assets -- are the free company e-mail address and Web site. We are independent contractors, and as such we run our own businesses. The real estate company e-mail address belon...
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Tyler Creek is a medium sized, high quality tributary of the Fox River. The stream drains generally to the southeast from southern Rutland Township toward the northwest side of Elgin, where it joins the Fox River. The Tyler Creek Watershed encompasses about 40.4 square miles and includes the small tributaries of Pingree Creek, Sandy Creek, and North Plato Ditch. The watershed currently has two very contrasting characteristics: the eastern part of the watershed is highly urbanized, dominated by more than 4000 acres of contiguous development.
The central and western portions of the watershed are agricultural in nature, with corn and soybean fields the dominant land cover. Also present in this area are two municipalities (Village of Gilberts and Village of Pingree Grove) and numerous small pockets of remaining upland forest, shallow emergent and wet meadow wetlands.
Stream/Water Quality Ratings
Tyler Creek was listed in the IEPA's 305(b) Report as being in Full Support of its Designated Use, which was listed as Aquatic Life. The IEPA also identified fish consumption as a designated use for Tyler Creek, although the rating for this use as classified as "not assessed". There are no other formal analyses which have been completed in the watershed to identify existing water quality or aquatic life impairments, although agricultural ditching and stream corridor encroachment have undoubtedly had significant impacts to the water quality and diversity of aquatic life that historically occurred in the watershed. Below its confluence with Tyler Creek, however, the Fox River is listed as an impaired waterway for pH, silt, dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform, total suspended solids, habitat and flow modifications, excessive algae, PCBs, and methoxychlor.
Reason for Concern
The primary concern for the Tyler Creek watershed is not so much existing degradation of watershed resources, but rather the potential for negative impacts brought about by the rapid expansion of suburban development from municipalities within the watershed. The three municipalities are currently undertaking or planning extensive development through annexation of land currently in agricultural use. The City of Elgin plans to annex about 8000 acres of the Tyler Creek Watershed at this time and possibly another 2100 acres in a subsequent Facilities Plan Amendment. This is part of the City of Elgin's Far West Area Plan, which upon final completion could account for nearly 55% of the total watershed area (10,300 acres new development in addition to 4000+ acres of Elgin currently in the Tyler Watershed).
It is essential that the watershed plan be updated so that existing natural resources can be protected and water quality maintained following the urbanization of this watershed. The City of Elgin, Village of Gilberts, and the Village of Pingree Grove has all indicated a willingness to cooperate and partner on this watershed initiative, which is essential to the effectiveness of the plan and its implementation strategies.
The original watershed plan for Tyler Creek was completed in January 1996 by Openlands Project with input and guidance from the City of Elgin, Village of Gilberts, Kane County Forest Preserve District, Kane County, and the IDNR. Funding was provided by the IDNR Office of Realty and Environmental Planning. The plan provided a summary of watershed history, current physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the watershed, and an outline for establishment of a watershed greenway plan, general watershed protection guidelines, and recommendations for restoration/protection of specific sites of concern/interest in the watershed's sub areas.
In 1997, the City of Elgin completed the Tyler Creek Management Plan, which focused on stormwater management and natural resource protection in the lower 1/3 of the watershed within the municipal limits of Elgin (current as well as proposed city limits at that time). This plan was born out of the City's need to insure the creek through the lower, already developed, portion of the City would not experience additional degradation due to further development upstream following municipal expansion. This plan identified stormwater management strategies for future development, stormwater retrofit projects, stream corridor restoration / stabilization projects, and wetland banks as part of a plan to improve water quality and reduce flooding. In 2000, the City took this plan a step further and prepared an EPA 319 grant application that included preliminary design plans and cost estimates for implementing several (12-13) of the projects identified in the 1997 Tyler Creek Management Plan. To date, at least two of these projects have been implemented by the City of Elgin.
The original watershed plan has been revised to reflect current conditions as well as address specific criteria for watershed plans established by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. These new criteria are designed to make watershed plans much more specific about the problems present in the watershed, the solutions or practices that could mitigate those problems, and identification of implementation costs and assigning of responsibilities to stakeholders to insure recommendations are put into practice. The last criteria the plan addresses is establishing a monitoring program in order to track the effectiveness of the watershed plan over time.


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With some of the largest stores and busiest streets in the city, this slice of the metropolis can be described as the heart of New York City. Midtown Center spans from 42nd street all the way up to the south side of Central Park, or 59th street, and between Park and 8th Avenues.
It's home to some the city's tallest skyscrapers, which headquarter global conglomerates, five star hotels and three major television networks.learn more about this neighborhood
#16Neighborhood popularity:based on Naked Apartments searches
Building Mix
- 63% Luxury Highrise
- 13% Elevator/Laundry Building
- 11% Pre War
- 4% Elevator Building
- 3% Walk-Up
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Midtown Manhattan by Steven Kreuzer is licensed under public domain
The Apartment One Br Apt, Bright and Spacious. New Kitchen with all new appliances. Full Marble Bath, Hardwood floors Walk in closet in the master bedroom The building- 24h/Doorman- Laundry on Site- Elevators Pets case by case basis. The location/areaAround the corner from Grand Central -Acommuter's Dreams . Close to all the great places in the midtown area ,Bars, resurrects and entertainment.3 block from Brian Park
Apartment Details
$2,700, One Bedroom, 1.0 Bathroom
Last Updated Over 4 Years
Listed For Over 4 Years
Available Immediately
Pets: No Pets
- 0 sq. ft.
- Web ID: NKA_alpha_66433
Doorman, Elevator
Nearby Subway Stations
S 4 5 6 742 Street - Grand Central (0.2 mi)
S 4 5 6 7Grand Central (0.21 mi)
E M 651st St (0.26 mi)
E M 6Lexington Av-53 St (0.37 mi)
B D F M 75th Av (0.39 mi)
E M5th Av (0.49 mi)
B D F M47-50th Sts Rockefeller Center (0.56 mi)
B D F M 742nd St-Bryant Park (0.58 mi)
E 34th Street Ferry Landing (0.65 mi)
633rd St (0.66 mi)


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Who is the PTA?
Who is the PTA?
We are a non‐profit organization made up of parent, teachers and administrators. We are a volunteer network who donate their time and abilities to the success of the PTA. We welcome all of you to join us by sharing your talents and volunteering.
Where does my money go?
All of your money goes back to the students of Buena Vista.* We provide funding and planning for various activities, engaging assemblies, classroom grant funds, computer labs, clubs and give‐back programs throughout the school year. We also supply student planners, field trip contributions, computers, technology, fine arts enrichment.


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Modern lines and chrome finish give this sleek ivory office chair high style.More Details >
The Hawthorne Collection features this adjustable office chair in ivory faux leather and a chrome finish base for the ultimate in high style.
Customers most agreed on the following attributes:
Needed adjustable desk chair with no arms in ivory. Did a lot of comparison shopping. The chair is comfortable for hours at the desk, works in multi-tasking environment, has height adjustment for multiple users, blends with soft contemporary design and is well-priced. Arrived in a timely manner and easy to assemble.
Just perfect for my very small real estate office. Being armless uses less visual space, yet the seat is roomy enough for comfort.