text:
Bowling Green, KY 42101 View Profile & Reviews
See All Results
orEmail Us
Gradyville Inpatient Drug and Alcohol Rehab Facilities
If you're looking to help yourself or someone you love struggling with substance abuse issues in Gradyville, KY, Rehabs.com presents a massive Internet database of executive private clinics, as well as a lot of other choices. We can support you in finding drug and alcohol abuse treatment centers for a range of drug addictions to Clonidine, marijuana, alcohol or any addictive drug. Search for a high-quality rehabilitation clinic in Gradyville now, and launch on the road to healthy living.
Today's Featured Rehabs
Bowling Green, KY 42101 View Profile & Reviews
Louisville, KY 40215 View Profile & Reviews
Oxford, MS 38655
Mills River, NC 28759
Chattanooga, TN 37421
Campbellsville, KY 42718
Campbellsville, KY 42718
Campbellsville, KY 42718
Jamestown, KY 42629
Jamestown, KY 42629
Jamestown, KY 42629
Jamestown, NC 27282
3 Reviews
Overall Rehabs.com Rating3.7
Jamestown, NC 27282
Jamestown, NC 27282
Talk to a Treatment Rep Near You
Even if You're Not Ready to Visit a FacilityFind a Local Rep
Latest Reviews of Rehab Centers in Gradyville, KY and Nearby
This facility was exactly what I needed. They took us to outside meetings and introduced me to AA. I...
they are very friendly and helpful. they are just very detailed on how they deal with the patients a...
This facility really helped my brother and another friend with their addictions. Family participati...
30, 60, 90-Day Inpatient Vs. Outpatient Rehabilitation in Gradyville, Kentucky
Achieving sobriety from Biocodone, Zohydro, alcohol or any other addictive substance you or your loved one is addicted to takes an specifically-tailored treatment plan. Two options of drug or alcohol addiction treatment clinics in Gradyville can help you succeed: either Residential or Outpatient Rehabilitation. Inpatient treatment offers long-run gains with longer stays in an excellent rehabilitation program. Outpatient treatments may be "easier", but lack the constancy and resources of long-term programs to become clean and sober. Ultimately, your decision is your own, and we are here to help you choose the best option for you.
Starr Judkins is a native of Louisville Kentucky. She studied Nursing and Social Science while in college and proceeded to work as a Health Services Administrator within the Correctional Systems. While employed in Corrections she was instrumental in the development of the medical detoxification proc...
Landmark Recovery of Louisville
Jerry Lucas has worked in Psychiatric and Chemical Dependency Treatment centers since May 1989, his experience in business development and marketing has offered him the opportunity to experience various methods of treatment and to understand that there is not one answer to the question of gaining ...
JourneyPure Questhouse
Co-occurring disorders refers to a person who is simultaneously dealing with substance abuse problems and behavioral or mental problems. For instance, an addiction to narcotics or Xanax combined with bipolar disorder, personality disorders or depression. For these individuals, a residential treatment center is definitely preferable, incorporating quality inpatient therapies with support group aid, such as one might see in Alcoholics Anonymous. Luxury drug rehabs in Gradyville, Kentucky will provide the latest treatment with upscale amenities for anyone requiring the very best substance treatment, just as Gradyville alcohol rehab centers will help those battling alcohol addiction to return to sober living.
Note About Insurance for Addiction Treatment: MVP Health Care, GEHA Health Plans and ComPsych frequently cover at least a part of your inpatient stay, and you can find out more about your own provider or benefits here.
Our large online catalog provides many alternatives in Gradyville, KY to help you achieve sobriety. Once you have decided to get clean and sober, you've taken the main step toward victory. Our free hotline advisors can then help you get to the next steps to recover from drug abuse with the best programs in Gradyville.
Recently Viewed
Browse Other States


text:
Meccano Tractor
List Price R 599
eB4 150
Discovery Miles 4 150
This item is in stock in our CPT warehouse and can be shipped from there.You can also collect it yourself from our warehouse during the week or over weekends.
This item is in stock in our JHB warehouse and can be shipped from there. No collection facilities available, sorry!
Eligible for Cash on Delivery. Learn more
Hassle-Free Exchanges & Returns for 30 Days. Learn more
Meccano Tractor
Now the youngest builders can discover the elements of real engineering with the Meccano Junior Truckin' Tractor! Help them develop their early logic and hand motor skills while having fun! Use the easy-to-follow instructions to build a Truckin' Tractor with a real working front loader! Explore the mechanical wonders of the world as you bring your your Truckin' Tractor to life.
- 87 Parts
- 2 Real Tools
- 1 Instruction Sheet
- Builds 4 different models including a Truckin' tractor, a Digger, a Ride-On Mower and a Mower
- Dimensions of Tractor: 8 inches x 5.5 inches x 4.5 inches
- Suitable for children ages 5 years and older
- No batteries required
- Categories
- LEGO & Building, Building Set, Transportation, Building
- Country
- South Africa
- Barcode
- 778988206287
- Title
- Meccano Tractor
No reviews yet.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Radio SAW 90er, 90s radio. Magdeburg, Germany. 128kpbs 90s Music.
4.3 out of 5 stars based on 6 total reviews
Hamburg, Germany, News. 128kbps
5 votes
Frankfurt, Germany, Jazz. 128kbps Jazz, Funk
Halle, Germany, Classical. 56kbps Classical Music
Berlin, Germany, Hip Hop. 128kbps Hip Hop RnB Urban Pop R&B Rap
11 votes
Trier, Germany, Pop. 128kbps Rock, Pop
Immenstadt, Germany, Christian. 64kbps Radio Maria Germany, Catholic, Katholisch
We'll send you the latest on TV and Radio playing all over the world.
Do you have new information about this channel? Let us know!.
Add a new channel with our online form.
See our help/FAQ section for info and tips on how to listen to live streaming radio online.


text:
Welcome to the end of the world4.40 / 5.00 2,634 Views
Living Dolls: No Evil 024
Wouldn'tyou just like to... leave conflict.4.26 / 5.00 614 Views
Cortex's Airship
What happened to Cortex's airship?4.23 / 5.00 2,463 Views
good, good!
i like this series. keep it up!
this is just to good!
just an amazing series
very good!
this is a very good series... the story is so suspenseful!!! i cant wait to c wat happens next!!!
It keeps geting better!
This is one of the best series I have ever seen!!! But I thought IV meant 4 not 3? Unless there is a episode III (3) that Newgrounds dosen't have.But...THIS IS EPIC!!!:-)


text:
Provide your email. When the exam is released , we will inform you at the first time.
to bring their own, tyranny difficult disease, even the production of women have it mothers The The Gu 300-208 Certificate Qing Qiao no longer can not listen to, and a lift 300-208 Exams was a Implementing Cisco Secure Access Solutions bullet from. So it seems, paragraph 300-208 Dump Test princes today must see me She suppressed the monstrous anger, looking at the sentence four sneer, 300-208 Practice Exam the eyes of the wind blowing out of the 300-208 Dumps murder 300-208 Vce Dumps of 300-208 Dumps light. Is four high 300-208 Exam Dumps jaw, look calm, the so called raw to see people, death to see the corpse, yet adults do not have to do unnecessary resistance. I... Qing Qiao Liu Mei inverted vertical, 300-208 Questions And Answers it 300-208 Qs&As 300-208 Exam Materials is very like to BS your grandfather did not know the eyes to see Cisco 300-208 Exam Test Questions the 300-208 Study Material unnecessary resis.
Cisco 300-208 Exam Test Questions u tell me these in advance 300-208 Practice Questions You 300-208 Dumps know Mr. Qi was shocked, then shook his head and wry smile, is the child of the Arabian said that the mouth. Mr. Qi touched her head, Wen Hao Ajo rest assured Implementing Cisco Secure Access Solutions that Mr. Qi will never harm you. Prince to conceal the identity of the temporary stay in the field, naturally have a bitter bitter Zheng said, A Yi is a perverse, but not bad The heart 300-208 Study Material of the child, just ask you to do more of 300-208 Cert his patience. Qing Qiao shook 300-208 Demo 300-208 PDF Dumps the fist, 300-208 Exam no 300-208 Cert longer call back. Back to 300-208 Certification Exam the room, she just feel like heart numb, just 300-208 Dump Test as if a flash. Everything is Cisco 300-208 Exam Test Questions patient. Qi, Mr. Shao Yi, Duan 300-208 Practice Exam Yu, Lu Zizheng...... everyone.


text:
- April 24: Lawsuit: Chrysler Gear Shift Confusing and Dangerous news | 0 days ago
- April 17: Jeep, Dodge and Chrysler Valve Stems Focus of Lawsuit news | 7 days ago
- March 24: Dodge Ram Tie-Rod Lawsuit Will Be Settled news | 31 days ago
- February 19: Chrysler Recalls Dodge Charger and Chrysler 300 recalls | 64 days ago
- January 30: Daimler Vans USA Recalls Vans Over Takata Airbags recalls | 84 days ago
2000 Dodge Grand Caravan
engine Problems
Worst 2000 Grand Caravan engine Problems
Click on a problem below to read more.
- serpentine belt broke2
- slow response when pressing the accelerator2
- stall while driving2
- alternator bracket broken1
- broken timing chain1
- engine idles rough1
- knocking and ticking1
- sounded like it was "missing"1
- NHTSA: Engine And Engine Cooling: Engine: Gasoline: ...36
- NHTSA: Engine And Engine Cooling18
- NHTSA: Engine9
- NHTSA: Engine And Engine Cooling: Engine9
- NHTSA: Engine And Engine Cooling: Engine: Gasoline6
- NHTSA: Vehicle Speed Control4
- NHTSA: Vehicle Speed Control: Cruise Control4
- NHTSA: Vehicle Speed Control: Accelerator Pedal1
Loading ...
one sec.
Stay Up to Date
Compare Dodge Grand Caravan Model Years
Curious how the 2000 Grand Caravan compares to other years?
Check out our Dodge Grand Caravan overview to see the most problematic years, worst problems and most recently reported complaints with the Grand Caravan.


text:
Either Michael Bay isn't doing that great a job of keeping spoiler-loving fans away from the filming of Transformers 2 — or he's going to extreme lengths to stage fake shooting for the benefit of fans. Read our latest set reports (with pics) and decide for yourself. You can also decide for yourself whether two mega-spoilery Doctor Who photos are real. And also, it's up to you whether you believe two actors when they spill some wacky details about Heroes season three. But you have no choice but to believe our revelations about The Spirit, G.I. Joe, Wall-E and Babylon A.D., because they come with photographic proof. And you can verify our spoilers for The Middleman, by watching tonight's debut episode. As Reagan would say, it's all about "Trust but verify" in spoiler-land.
Transformers 2:
Here's a silver concept car that was spotted on the set of Transformers 2 in Philadelphia. Fans speculate it's a 2009 Saturn Astra sedan, or a Corvette C7. (More at the link.) [Transformers Live via Seibertron]
And some other set photos show Bumblebee and Shia, plus a shot that required exact measurements of elbow-to-car-door distance. [Flickr via Latino Review]
Another set report involves a scene at a frat party at "the Castle," where Shia has parked Bumblebee in the bushes. Some cute coeds walk past, oohing and aahing over the cool car. And then Bumblebee's alarm sounds, and Shia runs outside. Some frat boys get pissed that a freshman parked his car in the bushes, but Shia says it's a friend's car and he just parked it there for a moment. The frat boys are all like, "why don't I park my foot in your ass?" and Shia says he'll move the car. Then he roars off to deal with some Decepticons. [Tformers.com]
G.I. Joe:
Remember that G.I. Joe drill vehicle we showed you from the New York Licensing Show? Apparently it's called the Mole Pod, and Cobra operatives — possibly including Destro and Storm Shadow — use it to tunnel into G.I. Joe headquarters at the Pit. Here's a video. [The Man Room]


text:
civil war ii 2016 1 of 7Download Book Civil War Ii 2016 1 Of 7 in PDF format. You can Read Online Civil War Ii 2016 1 Of 7 here in PDF, EPUB, Mobi or Docx formats.
The Fourth TurningAuthor : William Strauss
Genre : Social Science
File Size : 31. 95 MB
Format : PDF, Kindle
Download : 942
Read : 898
First came the postwar High, then the Awakening of the '60s and '70s, and now the Unraveling. This audacious and provocative book tells us what to expect just beyond the start of the next century. Are you ready for the Fourth Turning? Strauss and Howe will change the way you see the world--and your place in it. In The Fourth Turning, they apply their generational theories to the cycles of history and locate America in the middle of an unraveling period, on the brink of a crisis. How you prepare for this crisis--the Fourth Turning--is intimately connected to the mood and attitude of your particular generation. Are you one of the can-do "GI generation," who triumphed in the last crisis? Do you belong to the mediating "Silent Majority," who enjoyed the 1950s High? Do you fall into the "awakened" Boomer category of the 1970s and 1980s, or are you a Gen-Xer struggling to adapt to our splintering world? Whatever your stage of life, The Fourth Turning offers bold predictions about how all of us can prepare, individually and collectively, for America's next rendezvous with destiny. From the Trade Paperback edition.
Civil WarAuthor :
Genre : Comics & Graphic Novels
File Size : 58. 16 MB
Format : PDF, ePub
Download : 357
Read : 1328
An accident on a reality show leads the government to issue a directive that all superheroes must register, a requirement that pits Captain America and his Underground Avengers against the Iron Man and Mr. Fantastic, who want to comply.
Civil WarAuthor : Brian Michael Bendis
Genre : Comics & Graphic Novels
File Size : 81. 92 MB
Format : PDF, ePub
Download : 941
Read : 308
Ripped from the pages of New Avengers, comes an explosive hidden story of Marvel's secret past, the secret history of Marvel's most secret team - how they came together and how they are ripped apart. Plus: Spidey's got a new lease on life, new powers and a new costume, courtesy of his new best friend Tony Stark. So what could possibly go wrong? With clouds quickly building on the horizon, the bonds that Spider-Man now forges may very well determine his capacity to withstand a coming storm. The Marvel Universe is about to split down the middle, and the line is drawn here! You will be asked: whose side are you on? Collects Fantastic Four (1997) #536-537, New Avengers: Illuminati One-Shot, Amazing Spider-Man (1999) #529-531.
All New Wolverine Vol 2Author :
Genre : Comics & Graphic Novels
File Size : 29. 89 MB
Format : PDF, Kindle
Download : 625
Read : 1175
The battle has been fought, and won-but at what cost? As Laura and Gabby attempt to move on with their lives, Wolverine's past seems destined to catch up with her, and wreak havoc. Logan's legacy has cast a long shadow, how can Laura hope to step out of it? COLLECTING: ALL-NEW WOLVERINE 7-12
The Rise And Fall Of American GrowthAuthor : Robert J. Gordon
Genre : Business & Economics
File Size : 75. 14 MB
Format : PDF, Docs
Download : 488
Read : 772
In the century after the Civil War, an economic revolution improved the American standard of living in ways previously unimaginable. Electric lighting, indoor plumbing, motor vehicles, air travel, and television transformed households and workplaces. But has that era of unprecedented growth come to an end? Weaving together a vivid narrative, historical anecdotes, and economic analysis, The Rise and Fall of American Growth challenges the view that economic growth will continue unabated, and demonstrates that the life-altering scale of innovations between 1870 and 1970 cannot be repeated. Gordon contends that the nation's productivity growth will be further held back by the headwinds of rising inequality, stagnating education, an aging population, and the rising debt of college students and the federal government, and that we must find new solutions. A critical voice in the most pressing debates of our time, The Rise and Fall of American Growth is at once a tribute to a century of radical change and a harbinger of tougher times to come.
What Do We Know About Civil WarsAuthor : T. David Mason
Genre : Political Science
File Size : 69. 96 MB
Format : PDF, Docs
Download : 970
Read : 841
Since World War II, civil wars have replaced interstate wars as the most frequent and deadly form of armed conflict globally. How do we account for when and where civil wars are likely to occur, when and how they are likely to end, and whether or not they will recur? In this timely book, leading scholars guide us through what the latest research tells us about the onset, duration, outcomes, and recurrence of civil wars, as well as the ongoing consequences of conflicts in war-torn countries such as Syria, Sudan, and Rwanda. In mapping out the current state of our knowledge about civil conflicts, the authors also identify what we do not know about civil wars. The book describes new directions in civil-war research, including transitional justice institutions in post-conflict environments, the "resource curse," the role of women, and the relationship between the environment and civil conflict. The authors also highlight new trends in civil-war data collection that have enabled scholars to examine the geographic and temporal patterns of armed conflict. This authoritative text offers both an accessible and current overview of current knowledge and an agenda for future research. With contributions by Halvard Buhaug, David E. Cunningham, Kathleen Gallagher Cunningham, Jacqueline H. R. DeMeritt, Karl DeRouen Jr., Paul F. Diehl, Andrew Enterline, Erika Forsberg, Scott Gates, Kristian Skrede Gleditsch, Nils Petter Gleditsch, Caroline A. Hartzell, Cullen Hendrix, Jacob Kathman, Christopher Linebarger, T. David Mason, Erik Melander, Sara McLaughlin Mitchell, Alyssa K. Prorok, Idean Salehyan, Lee J. M. Seymour, Megan Shannon, Benjamin Smith, David Sobek, Clayton L. Thyne, Henrik Urdal, Joseph K. Young
Women In WarAuthor : Rebecca Rissman
Genre : Women and war
File Size : 87. 89 MB
Format : PDF, Mobi
Download : 170
Read : 1133
This book introduces readers to dozens of women who have made groundbreaking contributions in medicine, on the front lines, on the homefront, and in many other roles during wartime. Features include essential facts, a timeline, a glossary, additional resources, source notes, and an index.


text:
Featured Post
B. Ayesha's Phenomenal Allies Feature: Plexus Worldwide
Hey Guys & Dolls!! I'm so excited to present this month's feature on B. Ayesha's Phenomenal Allies! I'm a big supporte...
24 September 2014
On 9/24/2014 10:29:00 AM by Bina Ayesha in bayeshainc, fashion blogger, featured, style blogger, style post No comments
Heeeyyy Guys & Dolls!
I hope you guys have been doing well. This week I'm going to be reviewing eShakti.com. Their claim is that they're the only online women's fashion apparel company offering sizes 0-36W & custom clothing. First of all it was an honor to be approached by the company's media relations department to do a review of their processes and their clothing. With that being said, this is my honest review. I've never been one to sugar coat anything. LOL! So with that being said let's get started.
This is the dress that I chose to review:
The customization process was pretty easy. You will need to know your measurements before hand or have a measuring tape ready to go. You can't get through the custom process without entering the following body measurements. (It is recommended you get someone to measure you).
The third step (which is optional) is where I give a big thumbs up. I was able to change the length. I'm short (5'0") so something either needs to come above my knee or go all the way to the floor. I decided to get mine done as a mini.
The process was really easy. I placed my order Aug 25th. It shipped Sept 3rd. I received my custom order Sept 8th. Below you will see how it was packaged.
Here's how the dress looked based on the custom measurements that I gave eShakti.
Pros: the process was extremely simple. Customer service was excellent and most of all I LOVE MY DRESS!! It fits PERFECTLY!! This dress was about 70$ but I feel that's a reasonable price to have a dress made to fit you. I'm small in stature and weight. I have a hard time finding things to fit. If you are in the same boat, regardless of size, eShakti can tailor their clothing for you and that's absolutely AWESOME! It's not often that women of ANY size can shop in the same place and be happy about their purchase.
Cons: I only have one con with this dress. The zipper doesn't come all the way up the side. It stops at the arm pit, which makes it a little difficult to put on and take off.
You can find more about eShakti on Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest & Instagram.Here is a coupon code 'ayeshastyles'- exclusively created for your readers to get 10% OFF when they shop at eShakti – valid from 09/17/2014 – 10/17/2014Please note:Code has to be entered in the 'promotional code' box. It is not case-sensitive.Code can be used any number of times until the validity period.It can be clubbed with any other promotional offer, gift coupon or gift card in the same order unless explicitly specified otherwise in the offer conditions.This discount code is not applicable on clearance/sale, gift cards & overstock categories.
Not applicable on previous purchases.
So what do you guys think of the dress? Would you be interested in trying out eShakti? Any additional questions? Let me know in the comments below! Thanks for tuning in!! And don't forget to use the coupon code 'ayeshastyles' for a 10% discount!! See you next time!
|What do you think?
Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)
Follow Our Pinterest!
Popular Posts
Hey Guys and Dolls! For throwback Thursday, let's take a look at the first blog that featured me. I'm forever appreciative to Colli...
Diamonds Are Forever by b-ayesha featuring a flight jacket Adidas Originals flight jacket $69 - zalando.co.uk B. Ayesha Inc ~ Tee Designs ...
Everpetty by b-ayesha featuring distressed skinny jeans SET army field jacket $510 - trouva.com Distressed skinny jeans prettylittlething....
Hey Guys and Dolls!! It's MOTIVATIONAL MONDAY! We all need a little motivation to start the week off, right? I know I do! Each Monda...
Hey Guys & Dolls!! I'm so excited to begin this segment of my blog called B. Ayesha's Phenomenal Allies! I got the idea from an...
Good Morning Beautiful Ones!! via B. Ayesha Inc's Official Instagram http://ift.tt/1czEEEx Go Shop! www.bayeshainc.com ~XOXO Bina ...
Hey Guys & Dolls!! I'm so excited to present this week's feature on B. Ayesha's Phenomenal Allies! I'm a big supporter ...
Hey Guys and Dolls! It's me again here to talk ALL things fashionably fabulous! This week's style post will be dedicated to a ...
Hey Guys & Dolls!! I'm so excited to present this week's feature on B. Ayesha's Phenomenal Allies! I'm a big support...
Hey Guys and Dolls! I am back from my much needed mental hiatus. Did you miss me? Check out this week's hottest items over at Chaussu...


text:
In the beginning of October, I wrote a little about moving forward after some intense changes in my life. You can read that post –> here. Here's a summary: I began my Sat Nam Rasayan training (a form of kundalini yoga healing meditation). I got a job! Had three intense weeks of training, and worked my..
Category: the stars - page 2
there are some things that make me who i am that i get from my dad. my love of photography + documenting life. my love of driving, especially long distances. go ahead: challenge us. 8 hours? 10 hours? we are totally up for it. my weather obsession. there's a tornado warning? oh, yeah. we will go and..
it's dark outside right now. not literally, of course, because i am typing this on saturday morning and, though it's cloudy, the sun is up and my apartment is filled with a soft, gray light. but, it is a dark weekend. dark because we have a new moon and a solar eclipse happening throughout these..


text:
This preview shows pages 1–15. Sign up to view the full content.
This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version.View Full Document
This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version.View Full Document
This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version.View Full Document
This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version.View Full Document
This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version.View Full Document
This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version.View Full Document
This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version.View Full Document
Unformatted text preview: 22 Europe, S port, World 49. Dell/fiche Turn/Iliitter, Porto Alegre: dezembro de 1915. No.8, pp.8l~4.
50. Der/mile Turnbliitter, Porto Alegre: agosto de 1939. 51. Deutsche Tm-nlzliilter, Porto Alegre: setembro de 1935. N022, p3. 52. Ibid., p.5. Fug-TA.— Educators, Imitators, Modernizers:
The Arrival and Spread of Modern Sport
in Japan » ALLEN GUTTMANN and LEE THOMPSON' CLOSURE Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries from Portugaland Spain had arrived
in Japan in the sixteenth century, decades before Tokugawa leyasu
(1543—1606) defeated his rivals and consolidated his control over a more
or less unified nation. The European missionaries actively propagated
their religion among the 'heathen', many of which were eager to embrace
Roman Catholicism. The missionaries proved to be too successful for
their own good. The large number of converts to Christianity, especially
in the area around Nagasaki, led to a viciously xenophobic reaction. The vk shogunate banned Christianity, murdered thousands of Japanese who refused to renounce their new religion, ordered the expulsion of the
European priests, executed those who defied the order to leave, and
sought to seal the country off from foreign influence. The closure was never total. Some intercourse was permitted
through a small Dutch settlement on the island of Dejima in Nagasaki
harbour. (Protestants were thought to be less dangerous than Catholics.)
The Tokugawa file/62' records that the eighth Shogun, Tokugawa
Yoshimune (1684—1751), watched. what may have been the first Western
sport introduced to Japan: an exhibition of fencing by the Dutch.1 Of
course, European and American sports had not yet developed into the
forms familiar to us today. The rare Japanese whom the ever—suspicious government permitted
to visit the butch settlement were able to observe the long—nosed,
foreigners at their amusements, which included a precursor of
badminton. The game was described in 1787 by Morishima Chfiryo in
Ké'mo'zatsuma (Tales of the Red Hairs), along with illustrations of the
racket and shuttlecock.Z Other examples include a woodblock print of 24 Europe, Sport, World the Tokugawa period showing the Dutch at a game of billiards. Such
interest was unusual. While a number of eighteenth—century Japanese
were eager students of Western medical science and military technology,
which they studied in Dutch texts, few of them left evidence of much
curiosity about Western sports.3 OPENING On 8 July 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry arrived at the port of Uraga
with a letter to the Tokugawa shogun from President Franklin Pierce,
informing the Japanese that the United States (US) expected them to
open their islands to trade and provide humane treatment for
shipwrecked American seamen. Perry returned the following February
with a larger naval force, and a treaty was signed on 31 March 1854."l
Eight months later, Sir John Stirling successfully negotiated a similar
treaty between Japan and Great Britain.' Mercantile motives brought Perry to Japanese shores, but sport
played a small part in hisinitial interactions with his reluctant hosts. In
addition to a minstrel show, Perry's sailors put on a display of manly
fisticuffs. The Japanese responded with an exhibition by a score of beefy
sumo wrestlers. Neither party seemed properly impressed by the other.
The Americans were disgusted by the massive wrestlers and a
contemporary Japanese woodblock print shows 'bulky .../wrestlers
delivering the shogun's gift of bales of rice' to the scrawny American
sailors'.' During Stirling's negotiations, the British were allowed to/land
and indulge in 'athletic sports'.6 Townsend Harris, the first American consul, arrived in August 1856
and was met with 'consternation'.' Additional treaties with France and
other European powers brought more diplomats, more merchants, and
more dismay. For a dozen years, the shogunate was riven with internal
disagreement and was undecided about what to do with the largely
increasing number of foreigners with increasingly inconvenient
demands. Inconclusive' debates within the government led to ambiguous
policies and general confusion. The resolution came in 1868 in the form
of the 'Meiji Restoration'. The term 'restoration' suggests that the revolution of 1868 that ended
centuries of Tokugawa rule returned Japan to imperial rule, but the
emperor enthroned in Tokyo was more or less the same figurehead he
had been in Kyoto. In fact, real power was in the hands of clan activists The Arrival and Spread of M oderrz S port in Japan 25 whose 'restoration' Was actually part of a bold venture in what might be
termed instrumental modernisation. The new rulers were plagued by
power struggles among the leading clans, but there was a consensus
about foreign policy. Japan should acquire from the West the modern
science and technology necessary to defend Japan against the very real
threat of foreign domination. (China's helplessness in the face of
European military might was an ominousindication of the danger to
Japan.) In addition to {the Western experts who were invited to Japan,
over 11,000 Japanese went abroad for study between 1868 and 1902.
Among them was Ito Hirobumi, the nation's first prime ministers The modernizers' emulation of the West's scientific and
technological achievements was often constrained by the desire to
preserve What began to be identified as Japanese culture. The fiVC~
volume published report of the Iwakura Tomomi mission's two—year
sojourn in Europe and the US advocated modernization (human
knowledge rushes9 toward enlightenment), but the authors cautioned
against the hasty abandonment of 'old institutions and practices'.' There
were, however, some intellectuals whose admiration of the West (and
denigration of their own culture) was uncritical and extreme. Mori
Arinori suggested in 1872 that the country adopt English as the national
language and Takahashi Yoshio, writing in 1884, urged that Japanese
husbands. divorce their wives and marry Western women of robust
physique and superior intellect.10 Inevitably, uncritical enthusiasm for Europe and the US aroused
nationalistic opposition. Motoda Nagazane, for instance, condemned
what he saw as the effort 'to convert Japanese into facsimiles of
Europeans and Americans'.11 Criticism of the modernizers often took
the form of verbal or pictorial satire. The nineteenth—century novelist
Kanagaki Robun ridiculed his co'untrymen for aping the 'barbarians' by
wearing top hats, carrying umbrellas, eating beef, and ostentatiously
consulting their pocket Watches." Cartoons in conservative journals
lampooned sandal—shod Students with thick—lensed spectacles and
armloads of foreign books. Hostility was also expressed through the
murder of foreigners resident in Japan. Townsend Harris's secretary,
Hendrik Heusken, was killed in January 1861 and British diplomats were
attacked that July. Xenophobia also accounted for the 1889 assassination
of the minister of education, Mori Arinori, who was thought to have
betrayed Japan's traditional culture." The 'Imperial Rescript on Education' of 1890, promulgated after two 26 Europe, S port, Wbrld decades of modernization, was a positive assertion of Japanese culture.
Calling upon all Japanese to venerate the emperor; the Rescript was a
powerful statement of 'invented tradition'." Its goal was to transform the
deified emperor into the focal point of patriotic sentiment.ls To 'revere
the emperor' was not, however, necessarily to 'expel the barbarians'. The
men behind the 'Imperial Rescript' ~ men like Motoda Nagazane and
Nishimura Shigeki — wanted to slow but not reverse the drive to bring
Japan into the modern world.16 SN. Eisenstadt's shrewd comment about
the recent past applies as well to the crosscurrents'iof change in the Meiji
period: 'Tradition or traditionalism tended to become a crucial symbol of legitimation for new patterns of behavior, organisation,
cultural creativity, and discourse.'17 ,
Steamships, telegraph lines and modern weaponry were very much
on the modernizers' minds, not cricket bats and rowing shells. On their
extended missions to Europe and America, Japanese officials
investigated mines and factories, not baseball diamonds and tennis
courts. Japanese children's songs, which were certainly composed for
and not by children, listed lightning rods and gas lamps, not sports
equipment, among 'worthy objects':18 The enthusiasm for modern
sports — like the vogue among the Meiji elite of Western dress and
cuisine — was an unintended consequence of the desire for locomotives
and coastal artillery To put it in the language of the businessmen, who
arrived in Japan along with the foreign diplomats, advisors and teachers,
the modernizers got more than they bargained for. ,_ r
In the course of the Meiji period (186784912), a series of modern
sports popular in the West was introduced to Japan." Government
attempts to modernize the military led to the introduction of
gymnastics, fencing, rifle shooting, riding, and skiing/European and
American residents in the trading communities of Yokohama o'r Kobe
introduced football, rowing, athletics, tennis, baseball, cricket and golf.
The Meiji government invited many scholars from Europe and America
to teach in the newly established school system, and they introduced
their students to baseball, association football, rowing, athletics, rugby,
tennis and skating.20 Foreign missionaries, especially those associated
with the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA), propagated
basketball, volleyball, hockey and badminton. Students and other
Japanese, who had lived abroad, brought back with them table tennis,
I handball, basketball and volleyball. Participation in the Olympics and The Arrival cma' S pread Modern Sport in japan ' 27 other international sports events introduced wrestling, weightlifting and
canoeing. In addition, voluntary sports clubs took up activities such as
yachting and climbing.21 Although some scholars have seen the global diffusion of these sports
as proof of 'cultural imperialism',22 coercion played a very small part in
their adoption by the Japanese. On the contrary, the modernizing elite
seemed as eager to emulate Westerners at play as they were to learn from
Westerners at work?3 It should be emphasized, however, that enthusiasm
for British and American sports was for the most part limited to this
modernizing elite. This was especially true in the early years of the Meiji
period. Farmers, who still constituted the vast majority of the
population, remained for the most part content with the physical
contests traditionally associated with their seasonal festivals. In most societies en route to modernity, the military have played an
important role and Japan was certainly no exception. The Meiji leaders
imported the weaponry of ,modern warfare and passed legislation to
reconstitute the nation's ineffective military. A conscript armyreplaced
the samurai who had been Japan's traditional warriors." (The samurai,
deprived of their principal function, also lost their right to wear the
swords that had distinguished them from lesser moi'tals.) Between 1867
and 1880, French officers supervised the new army's training. Reorganisation included the adoption of Western notions of physical fitness and the proper ways to attain it. At the newly established Toyama
Military School (1875), the French instructed their Japanese
counterparts in the gymnastic principles they had learned from
Francisco Amoros at their military academy in Joinville. They also
taught the Japanese officers how to ride and to fence in the European
manner." In the dissemination of modern sports, however, French
officers were soon supplanted by British businessmen and diplomatic
officials and by American educators and advisors to the Japanese
government. I Despite the fact that Japanese terrain was seldom suitable for cricket,
a sport requiring an extensive and well—tended field of play, British
bowlers and batsmen refused to deny themselves the pleasures of that
pastoral game. On 16 October 1869, lerritons resident in the port city
of Kobe met a team from HMS Ocean. A cricket club was promptly
organized three days later, thanks largely to the initiative of Arthur
Hesketh Groom.26 Shortly thereafter, the British founded the Yokohama
Cricket and Athletic Club in Kobe, where occasional matches between 28 Europe, Sport, World the garrison and visiting naval personnel had actually taken place as early
as 1864.27 Although a few Japanese tried their hand at cricket, the sport
never became popular. 'Today cricket is almost the' only major foreign
sport that does not interest Japanese at all.'28 Readers consulting the
Kodaasha Encyclopedia of Japan will find an entry under 'cricket'; it
provides information on insects of the order Orthoptera. As early as 1862, the British organized horse races in Yokohama, gala
spectacles attended by the entire foreign community. In 1868, the British
residents of Kobe followed suit and celebrated Christmas Day with a
horse race. It was not unqualified success. The Japanese mounts bolted
when the race went by their stables. Three of the jockeys were thrown."
However, this mishap was not enough to extinguish the ardour of the
Victorian upper class. The Kobe Jockey Club was organized in 1870, and within a few years, the turf became a theme forwoodblock prints by . Hasegawa and other artists. Prints from the 18805 show the emperor and
his entourage in the grandstand at Ueno.30 Both forms of another British passion ~ fpotball — were played at
Japan's private universities during the Meiji period. Soccer, which was
introduced at the School of Engineering around 1873 by 'an Englishman
named Jones',31 failed to gain much of a foothold. According to
Kinoshita Hideaki, it was not until 1907 that two Japanese teams met on
the soccer pitch.32 The sport was not organized nationally until 1921.
Rugby, then the more popular of the two football 'codes', was played at private universities like Keio and Waseda. In 1890, only a year after Cambridge graduate introduced the game to Keio, the students played
against the British members of the Yokohama Athletic Club.33 In the
Kansai area, which includes Kobe, Osaka, and Kyoto, Doshisha University emerged as a hotbed of rugby enthusiasm. 1927, these _ private schools joined with the nation's most prestigious public
universities (Tokyo and Kyoto) to form a national federation for rugby."
Some sanguine British observers believed that 'the day is not far distant
when [rugby] will eclipse baseball in popular esteem',35 but that has not
yet happened ~ despite the excitement that accompanied Kobe Steel's
unprecedented string of seven Consecutive national titles from 1989 to 1995.36 Athletics (track and field) events were introduced as part of the r undo/ear (sports days) at various schools. The earliest of these may have
been the 'Student Competitive Games' held in 1874 at the Naval
Academy in the Tsukiji section of Tokyo. The initiative apparently came 7726 Arrival and S pread of M oa'era S port in japan 29 from the thirty—four British naval officers who had assumed posts at the
academy the previous year.37 Prizes were awarded to the top placers.
Four years later, an American educator, William Clark, introduced
athletics to the students of Sapporo Agricultural College. Educated
Japanese learned to quOte Dr Clark, in English: 'Boys, be ambitious', but
interest in 'athletics' remained minimal until the initiatives taken in 1883
by Frederick W. Strange, an Englishman who arrived in Japan in 1875 to
teach at Ichiko, which became the nation's most prestigious academy.38
Imbued with the Victorian conviction that sport was the proper
antidote for an excess of intellectual endeavour, Strangesummoned the
students 'to come out and play games'. This historic athletics meeting
took place on 16 June 1883. The participants were students from Ichiko
and the college that eventually became Tokyo University. A 300—yard
bamboo—fenced tracle was laid out on the college grounds. All of the
customary running, jumping, vaulting and throwing events were
included, along with the running of a three~legged race and hurling a
cricket ball. For the shot put and the hammer throvg, Strange made do
with whatever equipment was available. For example, 'Instead of a pistol
shot, the start was signalled by swinging down a folded Western—style
umbrella.'39 There was also 'a story that he brought out the school
benches for use as hurdles'.40 Thanks to the prestige of Tokyo ' University, this particular undékai greatly influenced the development of athletics on other campuses where students 'were also keenly
interested in foreign sports.'l To spread the gospel of manly sports, Strange wrote a short book
entitled Outdoor Games (1883), which Shimomura Yasuhiro translated in
1885. In 1900 Shiki Shuji published Ri/eujo' leg/o'gz' (Track—and—Field
Contests), the first book on the subject in Japanese. The term 'rikujé
kyogi' is still employed for athletics events."'2 At the turn of the century, distance races became popular. When
Yamaguchi HigheréSchool staged an 11—mile race in 1899, other schools
were stimulated to hold their own distance races, each one longer than the
one before. In November 1901 the newspaper jz'jz' S/a'mpo' sponsored a 12—
hour racearound the perimetre (1478 metres) of Tokyo's Lake Shinobazu.
A 25—year—old rickshaw—puller, Ando Shotaro, won the event, circling the
lake 71 times. In March 1909 a newspaper, Osaka's Maz'm'chz' S/a'mlzun,
sponsored what was publicized as the 'Kobe to Osaka Marathon Race'. (The
distance was actually 19.56 miles.) A reservist from Okayama Prefecture,
Kenko Chonosuke, won in 2 hours, 10 minutes, and 54 seconds.43 30 Europe, Sport, Worla' In the fall of 1902, Tokyo University's law department sponsored an
undokai at which one of the students, Fujii Minoru, was clocked in the-
100 metres at 10.24 seconds, an astonishing time. The president of the
university, Hamao Arita, proudly announced the time as a world record
and was listed as such by Spaltlz'ng's Athletic Almanac.44 According to Fujii Minoru's memoirs, reproduced _in the 1997
bulletin of the Tokyo University Track and Field Club, his time was
measured by an electric device developed by Tanakadate A1k1tsu, a
professor of physics who was also apparently the head judge at the
meeting. The start and finish of the race activated an electric current in
a machine that wound a tape at a speed of three centimetres per second.
The current was cut when Fujii crossed the finish line, and the length of
the tape was then measured to determine the elapsed time to one—
hundredth of a second.45 Noting that Fujii never again approached his
sensational time of 10.24, sports historians have been sceptical about the
alleged world record. In 1906, Fujii was said to have pole—vaulted 3.9
metres, which was 12 centimetres higher than the world record, but th1s
remarkable achievement was not recognized outside of Japan.46 Japanese men have never done very well in athletics competition with European and American sprinters. In 1912, for instance, when the world" record for 100 metres was 10.6 seconds, Mishima Yahiko held the
Japanese title with the unimpressive time of 12 seconds. The ZOO—metre
record set in 1911 by Akashi Kazue was a very slow 25.8 seconds.47
Japanese runners were destined to do better in long~distanée races than
in the sprints. In fact, long—distance relay races have become a Japanese specialty.48 In 1917, Tokyo's Yomiari Shim/71m celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the 1867 transfer of the capital from Kyoto to Tokyo by
sponsoring a 508—kilometre relay race from Kyoto's. Sanjo Bridge to
Tokyo's Ueno Park. Still another newspaper, the H 66/" S htt'ttbtm, 1ny1ted
students from Keio, Waseda and other universities to part1c1pate in an
e/ez'a'en (long—distance relay race) from Tokyo to the resort town of Hakone and back, a distance of over 200 kilometres. Ten thousand- spectators watched the first race on 11 February 1920.49 Although very few girls were encouraged to participate in athletics,- the most successful Japanese athlete of the early Showa period
(1925—30), was Hitomi Kinue. After her graduation from what is now
Tokyo Women's College of Physical Education, the Mazmcht Shrazbzm
hired her in April 1926 as a journalist. A month later, at the natlonal
athletics championships, she competed so impressively in the 100—metre The Arrival and S preaa' of Modern Sport in japan ' 31 dash, the long jump, the shot put and the baseball throw that she was
chosen to be Japan's lone representative at the second quadrennial
International Women's Games, which the Federation Sportive
F éminine Internationale had scheduled for Gothenburg, Sweden.
Travelling by the Trans—Siberian Railway, the nineteen—year—old
journeyed alone to Moscow and was then escorted to Sweden by a
Moscow—based Mariachi reporter. Competing in six events, she won the
standing and the running longjump, was second in the discus and third
in the 100—yard dash. Her 5.5 metres in the running long jump set a
world record. She was officially honoured as the outstanding athlete of
the games. Four years later, when the International Women's Games
were held in Prague, she competed in several events and won the long
jump with a leap of 5.9 metres ~ despite the fact she was suffering from
a sore throat and a fever. After the games, the Japanese team went on to
dual meetings in Warsaw, Berlin, Paris and Brussels. Althéiigh Hitomi
was exhausted and required almost daily injections, she competed inall
these meetings. Returning by ship from Marseilles to Kobe, she arrived
in such wretched health that her horrified father begged her to rest. She
was determined, however, to fulfil all her obligations to her employer
and to the national sports federation. She fulfilled these obligations, but
she never recovered her health. By the spring of 1931, she had begun to
cough blood and on 2 August, she died of respiratory failure.50 Fishermen and others who rowed and sailed on Japan's lakes, rivers J
and coastal waters must have had informal boat races, but Western~style
aquatic sports seem to have only begun on 26 September 1861, when a
regatta was held in Nagasaki._The participating vessels included four—
oared gigs, Japanese sampans and houseboats.51 However, rowing in the
European and American style wasn't inaugurated until foreigners
residing in Yokohama imported a boat in 1866.52 The British in Kobe
founded a Regatta and Athletics Club on 23 September 1870, and
constructed a boathouse and a gymnasium.53 In 1883, the Navy held
rowing races that were attended by the emperor. A major step was taken at Tokyo University in 1884 when Frederick
W. Strange, who had played a major role in introducing athletics to
young Japanese students, founded a boat club, modelled on those at
Oxford and Cambridge. The club members constructed three boats and
managed to borrow a technologically advanced four—seat racing shell
equipped with sliding seats. In 1885, the club's team raced against the
foreigners of the Yokohama Athletic Club. In 1887, the club organized 32 Europe, Sport, World intercollegiate races on the Sumida River, which flows through Tokyo.
Providing Japanese students with an equivalent to the Henley Regatta
was among Strange's last contributions to Japanese sports; he died of a
heart attack in 1889.54 , Rowing fever also spread to the Kansai area. In 1895, the governor of
Shiga Prefecture sponsored the All—Japan Joint Rowing Meeting on
Lake Biwa, the biggest lake in Japan. The meeting was well attended by
middle—school and company crews. Although many universities and
colleges in both the Kanto and the Kansai regions had crews, no regional
organisations were formed before 1906.55 Competition was held in the water as well as on it. Swimming was considered a useful skill for a warrior, and, like the other martial arts, was
taught by various schools at the end of the Tokugawa period. These native
swimming styles survived into the Meiji period, for unlike practitioners
of the other martial arts, swimmers were not immediately challenged by
imported styles that threatened to render native ones obsolete. 7
In addition to its military function, swimming had a recreational
aspect that came into its own in the Meiji period. From 1871 until their
prohibition in 1917, various schoOls taught traditional swimming
techniques at training facilities on the Sumida River. In 1898, Tokyo
University established a swimming facility in Toda in Shizuoka
Prefecture. Both Keio University and Tokyo Higher Normal School
accomplished the same in Kanagawa and Chiba Prefectures, in 1902.
The first modern swimming meeting was held on 13 August 1898 in
the waters of Yokohama Bay. Swimmers from the foreign settlement Nankai Railroad jointly sponsored a ten—mile swimming race in'the
waters of Osaka Bay. Only seven of the 28 starters finished the race.
Sugimura Yotaro, a student in Tokyo University's law department, won
the race, finishing in six hours and ten minutes. The arduous feat earned
Sugimura 300 yen, a barrel of sake and various other prizes. The first
timed swimming competition, which was sponsored by the jz'jz' S/zz'mpo
newspaper, occurred siX years later, on 28 August 1911, at Shibaura in
Tokyo. Ugai Yasaburo won the 220—yard race in 2.32 minutes. Although
Ugai swam then in a native style, he became known in the Taisho period
(1912—25), as the first Japanese to adopt the cran stroke. (Both
Sugimura and Ugai swam in native styles; the crawl and other Western
strokes were introduced after 1912.)56 terrain, was destined to become the preferred sport of the Japanese
corporate elite. Arthur Hesketh Groom, the same English merchant who
had led the way to the formation of Kobe's cricket club, planted the
Scottish game, in Japanese soil. In 1903, a four—hole course was
constructed at Mount Rokké', near the port city, and in turn the Kobe purpose and technique from the activities of the Alpine, Club (organized
in London a year before the Meiji Restoration).58 British sportsmen were
the first to climb mountains in Japan simply because there were
mountains to climb. The Rokko Mountains, which loom behind Kobe,
provided some initialadventures. Eventually, the more challenging peaks
of central Japan became a favourite venue. In time, the central range
became known as ~ in the Japanese pronunciation of the English word —
the Nihon Arupusu (Japanese Alps). Although the men and women of Kobe's British colony skied and
skated," geography dictated that winter sports were to be more popular of Takedax in Niigata Prefecture, Theodor von Lerch, an Austrian
military officer who had learned to ski from the famed Mathias Zdarsky,
introduced the techniques of the sport to the men of the 58th Infantry Sapporo founded an Alpine club to promote their favourite activity,
mountain climbing, only to discover thatit was more fun to glide swiftly
down a slope than to clamber labouriously up one. Furthermore, they
also seem to have been tutored by an Austrian called Egon von Kratzer.
In 1916, one of the teachers at Sapporo's national university returned to
Japan from a study period abroad and introduced the students to cross—
country skiing. The university's "club flourished and played a leading 34 Europe, Sport, World role in the formation, in 1925, of the Zen Nihon Ski Renmei (All—Japan
Ski Federation).60 ' Basketball and volleyball came to Japan via the Young Men's
Christian Association (YMCA), which was appropriate in that both
games had been invented by YMCA members (basketball by James
Naismith in 1891 and volleyball by William l\/10rgan in 1896). Both
sports emerged out of 'muscular Christianity'. The term, of course,
refers to the efforts of Charles Kingsley and other nineteenth—century
Englishmen to overcome the suspicion that had for centuries
characterized Christian attitudes toward the human body. In the place of t
monastic asceticism, the proponents of 'muscular Christianity'
advocated a robust, physically active engagement with the world. Sport
was central to this engagement, with the YMCA institutionalizing and
disseminating their idealsfl At the turn of the century, the YMCA was
probably the West's most active exporter of modern sports to China,
Korea and Japan."'2 Despite their origin in an atmosphere of fervent faith, both basketball
and volleyball were exemplary products of instrumental rationality; In a
1914 article published in the American Physieal Education Review and in
a short book entitled simply Basketball (1941), the game's inventor
described his reaction to the challenge posed for him by his superiors when they asked him to create a ball game complicated enough to . interest adults and spatially confined enough to be played indoors when New England winters daunted faint—hearted Christians. his article and his book, Naismith reconstructed the sequence of logical steps he
had taken as he reasoned his way to the solution of the problem. Perhaps \
the best indication of his instrumental approach was the placement of the basket. Fearful of potential injury from balls hurled forcefully at a ' ground—level vertical goal (as in soccer), Naismith elevated the goal
above the players' heads and designed it so that its aperture was horizontal and narrow. Without envisaging playing a team of six to ' seven—foot tall slamdunkers, Naismith reasoned that the ball had to be
thrown softly if its arc was to pass through the centre of the basket."3
Although the origin of volleyball was less carefully documented, the
game's invention was a similar triumph of rational design. Omori Heizo played YMCA basketball in the US in the 18905. After I returning to Japan, he introduced the game at the Tokyo Women's
University, where he taught. Prospects for diffusion of the game
diminished somewhat when Omori died, in the US, on his way home The Arrival and S pread ofMoa'ern Sport in Japan 35 from the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm. However, progress resumed in
. 1913 when Franklin Brown fostered the sport at the Tokyo YMCA and
when Elwood Brown included basketball in the first YMCA—sponsored
Far Eastern Games, held in Manila that same year." (The trials for the
Far Eastern Games were subsidised, in part, by the Marnie/2i S/iimban,
which seems to have had a hand in every other sporting event of the
Taishi) period.) At thefirst'Japanese championships, which took place
in 1921, the Tokyo YMCA was the easy winner. The Tokyo YMCA was also the birthplace of Japanese volleyball,
which Omori had observed at the Springfield YMCA in 1896. There
was a volleyball tournament at the third Far Eastern Games, which were
contested in Osaka in 1917. The game was yet to be widely played in
Japan, and so aJapanese team'was put together with mostly'r'unners and
basketball players who had had the rules explained to them only the day
beforetheir first game. Needless to say, they came in last among the
three teams, losing by a wide margin to both China and the Philippines.
Their losing streak at the Asian games continued until 1934 and they
nevermanaged to finish higher than last place. -_ volleyball was more popular as a women's sport. At the sixth Asian
Games in 1923, women's volleyball was an exhibition event, and the
team from Himej'i Women's Higher School won the championship,
beating China.65 A national volleyball federation was formed in 1927 and
a basketball federation in 1930.66 Despite the labours of Omori and his
friends at the YMCA, neither basketball nor volleyball was widely
played before the American 're—education' of Japan during the post—war
Occupation. General MacArthur's influence seems to have been
stronger than Franklin Brown's.67 Lawn tennis came to Japan in 1875 via the Yokohama Ladies Club.68
Amherst College's George A. Leland introduced the game to Japanese
students in 1878, a mere four years after England's Major Walter
Wingfield patented it. Tennis was fashionable among the Western—
oriented elite, but it was not widely played. Although students at
Doshisha Women's College took up the game in 1879,69 the male
undergraduates across the way at Doshisha University seem not to have
acquired the same enthusiasm. Perhaps young Japanese men scorned the
sport as a 'girl's game'. At any rate, Kobe's socially exclusive lawn tennis
club was not opened until 1900. The Mainiehi Shimbun, always eager to
promote the sporting events that increased its circulation, waited until
1910 to sponsor its first tennis tournament. Students and graduates of 36 Europe, S port, W0er Keif) University were prominent in the diffusion of tennis as they were
in the spread of baseball and many other modern sports, but their tennis
team was not organized until 1913.70 Despite this rather hesitant
acceptance of the game, Kumagai Kazuya took a silver medal in the
men's singles at the Olympic Games in Antwerp in 19720. Partnered with
Kashio Seiichiré, he won a second silver medal in the doubles
competition. The following year, the Japanese team upset the US in the
Davis Cup. In recent years, however, few Japanese players have reached
the top ranks in tennis. Participation in modern sports was not limited to college campuses «7 and cities with a nucleus of foreign residents. Young people in smaller
communities also organized clubs and built facilities to enable them to
engage in modern sports. The Ryojo Youth Club, established in 1886 in
the town of Yoshikimura in Yamaguchi Prefecture, serves as an example
of a sports—centred voluntary association. Most of the original members
seem to have been interested infidebate, but verbal dexterity soon gave
way to physical prowess. A sports festival was celebrated in May 1899
after a merger with the Sunday Club, which had been founded in 1/895
by young men interested in literature and the martial arts. The sports
festival included footraces over 220, 330, 440 and 880 yards, a three—
legged race, and a marathon. There were also baseball and soccer games.
In all, 126 young people participated in the festival. Over time, theuse
of the club's library declined, formal debates became sporadicand sports
completely dominated the calendar. Tennis was especially popular. In
1926, a tournament was held to celebrate the club's fortieth anniversary.
The matches were played on the grounds of Yoshikimura's', school,
where tennis courts had been constructed in 1920, but the Ryojo Club
built its own courts in 1931 and was able, in 1934, to host Yamaguchi
Prefecture's tennis tournament. Three years later, stifled by the
militaristic and anti—Western atmosphere of the late 19305, the club
ceased to exist.71 . , In 1886 the Ministry of Education established a small number of
highly selective 'Higher Middle Schools', which were renamed 'Higher
Schools' in 1894. They served as preparatory schools for the Imperial
Universities, and their headmasters were inspired by the example of
Eton, Harrow, Rugby and other English 'public schools' (private schools
for the wealthy).72 One of the most important of these administrators was
Kinoshita I-Iiroji, who served from ' 1889 to 1897 as headmaster of
Tokyo's 'First Higher School' (usually referred to as simply 'Ichiko)?' The Arrival and Spread of Modern S port in japan 37 After graduating from Tokyo University, Kinoshita spent several
years studying law in Paris, but what most impressed him during his
European sojourn was the annual Oxford v. Cambridge Boat Race on the
Thames. He was particularly struck by the high—minded ethos of fair
play, which reminded him of the Japanese claims for their own tradition
of [mshz'rio' (the warrior's path). This ethos, Kinoshita attributed to the
pupils' education at Eton and other 'public schools', where dedication to
sport and the humanities (in that order) seemed to produce a lifelong
devotion to public service." If Ichiko was to produce a similar class of
active young men eager to serve their country, sport had to be a central
part of their school experience. And they were. 'From sunup to sundown I
— before, between, or after classes — the crack of bamboo swords and
baseball bats filled the air...'75 There was no need for the masters to force sport upon recalcitrant
pupils (which was then the case in India, where Hinduand Muslim boys
initially resisted the efforts of English educators to bring'them the joys
of cricket and rowing)?" When the pupils of Ichikf) founded a Koyfikai
(Society of Friends) in October 1890, seven of the society's nine clubs
devo'ted itself to sports. British influence was obvious in the clubs for
rowing and for athletics, but indigenous traditions were strongly
represented in the Japanese fencing club, and there was also American
influence in terms of there being a baseball team. BASEBALL AND MODERNITY
fl In the world of sport, American influence was eventually dominant. In a
statistical analysis of sports participation in the 19805 and 19903, the
Dutch sociologist Maarten van Bottenburg observed that the percentage
of the population participating in sports of American origin (42 per cent)
is higher in Japan than in any European country, while the percentage
participating in sports of. British origin is lower than in any European
country (23 per cent). The reason is clear. 'The British may have been
dominant in commerce [in the Meiji period], but the Americans were
more influential in the educational and cultural spheres.'77 By the end of the Meiji period, at the very latest, baseball became Japan's most popular modern participant sport. (One indication of this is the fact that 44 books on baseball, and only seven on soccer, were
published during the Meiji period.)78 British observers were not happy
about this. Speaking tothe Japan Society of London in 1933, N.K. 38 I Europe, S port, World Roscoe revealed more than a trace of discomfort at the thought that the
American game had outstripped its British rivals: 'As far as popularity
goes I suppose there is no sport in Japan to equal baseball If the
errand~boy is late in delivering the mid—day vegetables, the probability is
that he has been briefly seduced from rectitude by an impromptu
baseball game on a vacant lot.'79 ' Horace Wilson, a teacher at Kaisei Gakko (later to become part of
Tokyo University) introduced the' game of baseball in 1873. Okubo
Toshikazu, Makino Nobuaki and Kido Takamasa learned the game When they studied in the US from 1871 to 1874. Returning in 1875, they » entered the Kaisei and helped popularize the game among the students.
The game was also played in Tokyo at what later became Sapporo
Agricultural College and at Ichiko. In addition, a number of Other schools had informal teams of baseball enthusiasts who enjoyed the game despite a lack of proper facilities and equipment, and sometimes
without a firm grasp of the rules.80 'Informal and unskilled players,'
writes Kusaka Yuko, 'sought only sporadically the ephemeral enjoyment
of these unorganized games.'81 , Railroad engineer Hiraoka Hiroshi Contributed togthe establishment
of baseball outside the schools. He had also learned the game during his
years in the US, between 1871 and 1877. During this period he became
acquainted with AG. Spalding, the American businessman who was an
important promoter of the game. Spalding gave Hiraoka a11,official
baseball rulebook and some equipment. After returning to} Japan,
Hiraoka established the Shimbashi Athletic Club at the Shimbashi
Railway Bureau, in 1882, and started a baseball team.82 The baseball
diamond at the club's facility in Shibaura in Tokyo was one of the first
to provide seats for spectators.83 Among the avid players was Kabayama
Aisuke, the railway's manager. Subsequently, it was no accident that men
engaged in modern transportation were among the first to play the game
that was then — contrary to what Americans now think — the very symbol
of modernity." \ By the 19205 most agreed that the game was wildly popular at the
nation's secondary schools and colleges. When Nels Norgren of the
University of Chicago led a collegiate team to Japan in 1922, he reported
in amazement that baseball 'is more the national sport of Japan than it is of America'.85 Norgren, who spent more time with Japan's educated elite . than with the nation's rice farmers and factory hands, probably overstated
the popular appeal of the game, but it was definitely an important part of The Arrival and S preod of Modern S port in fizjnm 39 campus life and was soon to become a national passion. Beginning in 1927,
it was possible for fans to hear play—by—play radio broadcasts of
intercollegiate and interscholastic baseball games. By 1932, 37.5 per cent
of those who had radios were tuning in to sports broadcasts. Baseball
games drew even more listeners than sumo tournaments.86 In 1938, a
German visitor, using almost exactly the same words as Norgren had in
1922, commented that baseball was more popular in Japan than in the
US.87 And twenty years after that, an American sportswriter repeated the
claim: 'The Japanese like baseball better than we do.'88 ' Donald Roden, Whose account of the Ichiko—Yokohama Athletic Club
series is a classic of sports history, believes that baseball 'caught on' in _ Japan because 'it seemed to emphasize precisely those values that were celebrated in the civic rituals of the state: order, harmony, perseverance,
and self—restraint'. That is, the Japanese adopted the game because such
perceived values were familiar ones. This is also the interpretation of
Tada Michitaro in Asobi to Nikonjz'n (Play and the Japanese).89 It is
certainly true that the Japanese have often described baseball as if it
were, indeed, the inculcator of harmony, perseverance and self—restraint, but there was no need in the Meljl period to find these values solely in baseball when Japanese archery and the other martial arts were readily
available. While it is certainly possible that the Japanese sought harmony
in baseball, it seems more likely that the Japanese seized upon the game
because it embodied values that were not traditionally Japanese. 'The
myth of modernization,' writes William R. May, 'underlines baseball's
continfiing popularity. '9" The American game, which Roden sees almost
as a stately ceremony, had Mark Twain characterizing it as 'the outward
and visible expression of the drive and push and rush and Struggle of the
raging, tearing, booming nineteenth century'. Twain was surely right.
Baseball symbolized — for both the Japanese and their American
contemporaries, — not tradition but modernity. Like the telegraph, the
telephone and many other technological marvelsof that era, the import
bore the magical stamp: Made in America." THE ROLE OF SPORT IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION Sport and physical education are closely related phenomena, especially
in Japan, where sport is widely considered a subcategory of physical
education. To understand Japanese sport, it is also necessary to attend,
briefly,_to the development of physical education in Japan. 40 Europe, Sport, World During the Edo period, most domains had schools to educate the
children of the samurai. Most of these schools were established towards
the end of the eighteenth century.'2 The arrival of Admiral Perry's
armada of 'black ships' intensified the domains' previously rather
desultory interest in modern methods of warfare and military training.
Accordingly, many domain schools adopted gymnastics as a form of
paramilitary training. Turning to European physical educators for
guidance, the shogunate first adopted the Dutch version of gymnastics,
then switched to the French system devised by Francisco Amoros.
Different domains acquired and adapted their gymnastics from a
number of different European countries: from Germany and the
Scandinavian countries as well as from the Netherlands and France.
Since many of these domain schools survived into the Meiji period as
primary and middle schools, physical education in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries can best be understood as an extension of
this paramilitary training.93 If Japan was to become a modern nation, the patchwork of local
schools needed to be replaced with an educational system modelled on
the systems developed in the US and Western Europe. Promulgating its
first major Education Ordinance (CakzrseiJ in 1872, the Meiji
government institutionalized physical education in the schools." Meiji—
period physical education was generally referred to as taisé
(gymnastics).95 'r 5 Implementing the Education Ordinance, the Tokyo Normal School
was established in 1872 to train teachers for all subjects, including
physical education. Just what activities were taught in the gymnastics
classes of the day can be inferred from the response that the principal of
the Osaka English School made in 1878 to a query from the Ministry of
Education. According to the principal's eclectic list, the children
marched, did calisthenics and gymnastic exercises, uscd Indian clubs,
and played on the seesaw and the swings. They also practised the high
jump and competed in soccer games.96 ' In 1879, the National Institute of Gymnastics (Taiso Denshfijo) was
established to develop methods of physical education and train
instructors for the schools.97 The minister of education, Tanaka
Fujimaro, travelled to the US and hired an American advisor, George A.
Leland, to teach at the institute. Although German immigrants to the
US had propagated the ideas of Turnvater Friedrich Ludwig Jahn,
Leland favoured the American gymnastic system that he had learned at The Arrival and Spread of M odern S port in japan 41 ' Amherst College. Since this system, devised by Diocletian Lewis, required a good deal of equipment, Leland stocked the school's
gymnasium with barbells, dumbbells, Indian clubs, beanbags and
wooden rings.98 8 ' The main programme developed at the Institute under Leland's
guidance came to be known as 'normal gymnastics' (firm? torso") or 'light
gymnastics' (1661' m5). But other forms of gymnastics were. developed
and taught as well. They included 'heavy gymnastics' (7'1? torso) and
'outdoor activities' (/eogai zmdo'). Included among the latter were football,
cricket, croquet, baseball and rowing.99 In the published collection of his translated lectures, Taiikuron,
Leland stated that the ultimate goal of physical education was not a
strong body, but a well—developed loo/eoro (translated as the English word
'mind'). Imamura remarks that Leland was rational in his methodology,
but spiritual (sois/zinshugiteki) in his goals.100 This is an interesting remark
because many commentators assert that seisla'ashugr is what makes
Japanese sport uniquely Japanese. The Instituteof Gymnastics was abolished in 1886 and a special
course for 'gymnastic' training was offered at Tokyo Normal School
(Tokyo Slfihan Gakké). Admission to the course was restricted to army
veterans of officer rank who applied within a year of their discharge
from active service.101 Many continental European educational systems,
of course, also looked to the military to staff 'gymnastics' programmes
that were, after all, eSsentially paramilitary.102 The 1887 Course of Study for Primary Schools (S/zogakkd Kyésoku
Tar/6(3) specified the programme for 'gymnastics' classes in primary
schools. In the early years of, the programme, classes were supposed to
consist of appropriate 'play and games' ()Ifigz') and 'outdoor activities'.
'Normal gymnastics' were to be introduced gradually, after which the
boys were to be taught some of the simpler 'military gymnastics'. The
guidelines did not specify as to what was meant by 'appropriate games
and outdoor activities'. Tsuboi Gendo's widely read book, Kogaz' Yzigi/zo'l
(Outdoor Games; 1886, revised 1889), Was probably used as a reference.
It includes various noncompetitive games and a small number of sports
(football, croquet, lawn tennis, baseball, and rowing. Baseball and
rowing, however, were dropped from the revised edition.).103 After the first sports festivals (zmdd/eaz') at the Naval Academy in
1874, 'sports days' spread to schools throughout the country and became
a mandatory extracurricular activity. The leading journal of education of 42 Europe, Sport, World the day, Dm' Nikon Kyfii/eu/em' Zoss/ri, mentioned 32 separate undo/mi
held between 1884 and 1892, mainly at the nation's primary schools.
Four—fifths of these sports festivals were interscholastic in the sense that
more than a single school participated. Imamura groups the events held
at these undo/mi into four categories. The largest category is yflg'i lqjlfigr',
which covers sports and noncompetitive games. Nearly 70 per cent of
the events fall in to this category. Of the events in this category, foot
races are the most popular, accounting for 32.4 per cent of all events.
Also included in this category are ball games (8.3 per cent), of which
soccer is the most popular (4.8 per cent) and thereby Clearly outstripping
baseball (1.3 per cent). A second large category, various kinds of gymnastics, comprises 25 per cent of all events. Considering the. important role assigned to the military at the Tokyo Normal School, one
is surprised to discover that military gymnastics, the third category,
accounted for only 3.9 per cent of the multikai events. The smallest of
Imamura's four categories is bujursu, the martial arts, which constituted
a mere 1.3 per cent of all events. Imamura concludes, quite plausibly,
that although modern sport may have'played a small part in the formal
curriculum, it was a major part of the children's actualphysical activities
(undo sei/eatsu).'°' : I I In 1885, at the beginning of the period studied by Imamura, only
four per cent of middle—school pupils were girls.103 Legislation passed in 1889' did require that every prefecture should have at least one high
school for girls, but the notion of using sport to prepare women for 5 . political and economic leadership remained (and to some degreestill
does) foreign. Physical education was considered to be a necessary part
of the girls' curriculum, if for no other reason than to prepare them for
their future role as healthy mothers of the boys destined to become the
nation's defenders. However, this eugenic motivation ran counter to
traditional notions about female modesty and beauty. Sportswear was a knotty problem. It was difficult to do calisthenics
in an obi (the tight sash worn with kimono) and nearly impossible to run
in gem (Japanese sandals). The long sleeves of traditional Japanese
kimono also hindered many sports activities.106 The reform—minded
Inokuchi Akuri, who had studied at Smith College in Northampton,
Massachusetts, and at Boston's Normal School of Gymnastics, returned
to Japan in 1903 and prescribed blouses, bloomers and skirts for her
physical—education classes. In 1915, Nikaido Tokuyo experimented with
the simple tunics that she had seen while studying in England. Neither g
l The Arrival and S preod of M adorn Sport in Japan 43 effort at dress reform was very successful. 'The transition was too
drastie',107 and so, it was not until the 19203 that Western sports clothes
became standard for female physical education. There was still another obstacle to the progress of physical education I
and sports at Japanese girls' schools and women's colleges. Male teachers
competent to lead the girls in their exercises were in scarce supply and
female teachers were even fewer. In 1912, there were 286 physical
education teachers at the nation's 299 Women's Higher Schools — less
than one per school. Of these 286 teachers, 150 were male and 136
female, but 128 of the men and only 22 of the women had proper
credentials. The Ferris School, founded in 1884,' supplied a few
reasonably qualified female teachers who — in the words of Dean
Matsuda Michi of D'éshisha Women's College — learned 'ethics and
gymnastics', but it was not until 1918 that Tokyo's Normal School for
Female Teachers instituted a two—year physical—education course for
prospective teachers.168 , , ' The anni/ial 'sports day' (undo/mi) that the Normal School
inaugurated for the girls at its affiliated middle school on 28 May 1891,
was a good indication of prevalent attitudes. The programme for 1904
had four footraces and two tug—of —war contests, but there were six
dances and ten displays of marching and doing calisthenics. The same I day, the boys at the middle school affiliated with the Normal School for. Male Teachers, played football, wrestled and competed in ten footraces.
And they, too, had tug—of—war contests." Reporting on the Normal School's third annual celebration, journalists mentioned basketball and tennis, but the 'expressive games' and the 'technical games' were apparently the focus of most attention.
The girls mounted bicycles, not in order to race, but rather to ride in
formation 'like butterflies'. In time, however, the Normal School added
classes in baseball to its physical—education curriculum, and the students
petitioned for hockey. If they hoped to find an advocate in Inokuchi
Akuri, they were disappointed. Although she was definitely an innovator
when it came to dress reform, she was hardly a strong supporter of
athletic competition for young women. She preferred Swedish
gymnastics and the 'showpiece' of the programmes she devised was a
'Faust Dance' to the music of Charles Gounod."0 At schools founded by or under their influence of Protestant
missionaries, in female physical—education programmes were generally
more ambitious. At Doshisha Women's College, for instance, lawn tennis 44 Europe, Sport, World was played as early as 1879. Tennis was considered, as it is today, an
appropriately 'feminine' sport, but what does one make of appearance of kendo in the diary kept in the 1890s by a student at Meip
Girls' School? 'Every day early in the morning I go to the kendo hall to
practice kendo, and then attend morning service. Getting in a sweat and
bracing up my spirits, I feel very refreshed. Then I find myself ready to
meet my God within."" - V . In April 1901, the Ministry of Education issued detailed instructions
for the schedule to be followed in boys' and girls' physical—education
classes during each year of primary school. The instructions indicated
the exact amount of time to be devoted to each of several categories of
activity: gymnastics, military gymnastics and games ()h'tgi). The instructions did not, however, specify what activities constituted games.112 The ministry's lack of specificity was remedied by a 'Detailed Plan
for Primary School Instruction' (Sho'galeled Kyfijnho Saimolen) published
by the Tokyo Higher Normal School in April 1903. The plan listed no
fewer than 64 different games, of which 44 involved COmpetition.113 This
was in stark contrast to a book on games (Yttgihd) published only;,nine years earlier, in which 25 of the 48 listed activities involved singing and marching'" In October 1904, the Ministry of Education returned to the question, V :4 of an appropriate physical—education curriculum and appointed a
Committee to Investigate Gymnastics and ,Games (Taiso Yfigi
Torishirabe Iinkai). They met 37 times and submitted their report in,
October 1905. Most of the report concerned gymnastics, but the
members of the committee did list games that should be included in the
curriculum for primary schools. These were divided into competitive
games, marching games and movement games. Under the first rubric,
the committee recommended a broad spectrum of extra—curricular
sports: running and jumping; a number of Western ballgames, ineluding
baseball and lawn tennis; sumo; and several of the Japanese martial arts
(archery, fencing, jfijutsu). The'report specifically stated, however, that
there Was no reason to include martial arts in the formal primary—school
curriculum. "5 During this period, games were not a part of the middle-school
curriculum, but they were played as extra—curricular activities. The
Ministry of Education's Committee to Investigate Gymnastics and Play
recommended that games become a part of the regular curriculum and The Arrival and Spread of Modern Sport in Japan 45 that more than one~third of class time be devoted to them."6 As these
various recommendations were implemented in the decade before the
First World War, ordinary Japanese schoolchildren began to participate
in the modern sports that had been introduced a generation earlier to the
sons and daughters of the modernizing elite. NOTES This chapter is an adapted andiabbreviated version of the chapter entitled 'The Arrival and ,
Diffusion of Western Sports' in Allen Guttmann and Lee Thompson, Tradition and zllodernit)! in
apanese Sports (forthcoming). Thanks are extended to Professor J.A. Mangan for editing this
version. 1. Imamura Yoshio, Nihon taii/enshi (Tokyo: Jumaidé, 1970), p.329. '
2. Tanaka Tokuhisa and Yoshikawa Kumiko, Silpfitszi (Tokyo: Kinté, 1990), pp.72—3; Imamura,
Nihon taiihushi, p.330. ' 3. Donald Keene, The Japanese Diseovery of Europe, 1720—1830 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969); \MG. Beasley, japan Eneonnters the Barbarian (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995). George B. Sansom, The Western World and japan (New York: Knopf, 1950), pp.277—.80. P.L. Cuyler, Sumo (New York: Weatherhill, 1979), p.11. 7 Hugh Cortazzil Victorians in Japan (London: Athlone Press, 1987), p.7. Sansom, The Western World and Japan, p.285. Marius B. Jansen, Japan and Its World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), p.64. Between 1862 and,1868, i.e., even before the Meiji Restoration, more than 100 Japanese students'were senf'abroad to study; see Beasley, japan Eneounters the Barbarian, p.119. 9. Eugene Soviak, 'On the Nature of'VVestern Progress: The Journal of the Iwakura Embassy', '
in Donald H. Shively (ed.), Tradition and Modernization in japanese Culture (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1971), pp.7—34. 10. Donald'Keene, 'The Sino~Japanese War of 1894—95 and Its Cultural Effects in Japan', in
Donald H. Shively, (ed.), Tradition and A'Iodernization in japanese Culture (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1971), p.170; Sansorn, The Western World andjapan, p.371. 11. h'Iotoda: quoted by Donald H. Shively, 'The Japanization of the Middle Meiji', in Donald H.
Shively (ed.), Tradition and zl/Iodernization in Japanese Culture (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1971), p.87. , 12. H. Paul Varley,]apanese Culture, 3rd ed. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984), p.208. 13. Beasley, japan Encounters the Barbarians, p.73; Shively, 'The Japanization of the Middle
Meiji', p.88. ' ' 14. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1983). By the term 'invented tradition', Hobsbawm and Ranger mean
consciously invented tradition, of which the Imperial Rescript was certainly an example. In the
sense that all traditions are socially constructed, they could be said to be invented, whether
consciously or not, but it is useful to make a distinction. See also Marilyn Ivy, who observes
in her, study of Japanese modernity, 'To say that all tradition is invented is still to rely on a
ohoite between invention and authenticity, between fiction and reality, between discourse and
history,' in Dismal-res of the Vanishing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p.21. 15. Herschel'Webb, 'The Development of an Orthodox Attitude toward the Imperial Institution
in the Nineteenth Century', in Marius B. Jansen (ed.), Changing Japanese Attitudes toward
[Modernization (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), pp.167—91. 16. Donald H. Shively, 'Nishimura Shigeki', in Marius B. Jansen (ed.), Changing Japanese
Attitudes toward Il/Iodernization (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), pp. 193~24l. 17. SN. Eisenstadt,]apanese Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), p.78. 18. Sansom, The Western World and]apan, p.383. 19. Toshio Saeki, 'Sport in Japan', in Eric A. Wagner (ed.), Sport in Asia and Afi'iea (Westport:
Greenwood Press, 1989), p.54. 20. Sociological research suggests that Japanese schools continue to play a larger role in the 90>]???- 46 21.
24. 25.
26. 27.
33. 34.
36. 37.
46. 47.
48. 49. 50.
54. 55. Europe, Sport, World socialization into sports than schools in the West; Yasuo Yamaguchi, 'A Comparative Study of
Adolescent Socialization into Sport', International Review of Sport Sociology, 19, 1 (1984-),
63782. ' Ikuo Abe, Yasuharu Kiyohara, and Ken Nakajima, 'Fascism, Sport and Society in Japan',
International journal of the History of Sport, 9, 1 (April 1992), 6. 7
On this, see Allen Guttmann, Games and Empires (New York: Columbia University Press,
1994 . Adogtion of the shit/eyiisei (weekly holiday system) facilitated regular participation in weekend
sports. See David W. Plath, 'Land of the Rising Sunday', Japan Quarterly, 7, 3 (1960), 35746.1.
Roger F. Hakett, 'The Meiji Leaders and Modernization', in Marius B. Jansen (ed.), Changingapanese Attitudes toward [Modernization (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), .243—73. ' nginoshita Hideaki, Supdtsn no Kindai Nihonslzi (Tokyo: Kyorin Shoin, 1970), pp.3~7.
Shinsuke Tanada, 'Diffusion into the Orient: The Introduction of Western Sports in Kobe,
Japan', Internationaljom'ual of the History of Sport, 5, 3 (December 1988), 372—76. Cortazzi, Victorians in ]apan, p.293. Edward Seidensticker, Low City, High City (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1983), p.167. Cortazzi, Victorians in Japan, p.293. '
Tanada, 'Diffusion into the Orient', pp.372—76; Kinoshita, Snpo'tsn no Kiudai Nihonshi, p.9.
Nihoa taiileushi, p.331. Imamura Kinoshita, Supdtsn no Kina'ai Nihonshi, p.85. Gareth Williams, 'Rugby Union', in Tony Mason (ed.), Sport in Britain (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1989), p.338. _ r
Tanaka Tokuhisa and Yoshikawa Kumiko, Spotsu (Tokyo: Kinto, 1990), pp.42~7; Kinoshita,
Suptilsu no Kindai Nihonshi, p.87. N.K. Roscoe, 'The Development of Sport in Japan', Transactions and Proceedings of the japan
Society, 30 (1933), 65. 7: , I On Kobe's string of championships, see Hayase Keiichi, Hirao Seiji, Hengenj'izaiini (Osaka:
Mainichi Shimbunsha, 1997). Many members of the championship team had played for
Doshisha, which is still a rugby power. a '
Imamura, Nihon taiilmshi, p.332. Ichiké is simply the abbreviation of the Japanese for 'First Higher Middle School'. Teijiro Muramatsu, l/Vcsterners in the rl'Iodernization ofjapan (Tokyo: Hitachi, 1995), p.224.
Roscoe, 'The Development of Sport in Japan', p.54. _ '
Imamura, Nihon taiilenshi, p.334. Ibid., p.337, 4Z4. Asahi Shimbnn, 28 January 1999; Imamura, Nihon taiileushi, p.424. Imamura, Nihon taiiknslzi, p.423. Asahi Shimbun, 20 January 1999. - '
William R. May, 'Sports', in Richard Gid Powers and Hidetoshi Kato (ed.), The Handbook ofapanese Popular Culture (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1989), p.173. Gordon Daniels gives
Fujii's height as 3.424 metres and the world record as 3.427 metres, but vaulting records were
not ordinarily measured to the millimetre; see 'Japanese Sport', in J.C. Binfield and John
Stevenson (eds), Sport, Culture, and Politics (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993),
p.178. Imamura gives Fujii's record as 3.66 metres; Nilzon taiibnshi, p.423. Tanaka and Yoshikawa, Supfitsu, pp. 144~5. The fondness for relay races supports Joy Hendry's comment about a predilection for
cooperative sports; see Understanding Japanese Society (London: Croom Helm, 1987), p.47.
On the other hand, sumo, kendé, kyfldo and the other sports that developed from the martial
arts are all individual. Kinoshita, Snpfitus no Kindai Nihonshi, p.60; Tanaka and Yoshikawa, Snpotsu, p.168; rl/Iirn
Supfitsu no Shin/ea" (Tokyo: Baseball Magazine, 1996), pp.174—80. Ohara Toshihiko, Hitomi Kinue Monogatari (Tokyo: Asahi Shimbunsha, 1990). Cortazzi, Victorians in Japan, p.19. Imamura, Nilzou taiilenshi, p.331. Cortazzi, Victorians in japan, p.164.. Muramatsu, Westerners in the Modernization ofj'apan, pp.219~25; Kinoshita, Supotsn no Kindai
Nihonshi, pp.21—2, 12245. Imamura, Nihon tuiileushi, pp.425—6. Ibid. 56. 57.
59. 60. 61. 62.
63. 64.
69. 70.
71. 72. 73.
74. 75.
76. 77. 78. 79.
80. 81.
82. 83.
84. , The Arrival and Spread of Modern Sport in japan 47 Sugimura later became deputy secretary—general of the I .eague of Nations and a member of the
International Olympic Committee. Imamura, Nihon taiilenshi, p.434; Kinoshita, Snpdtsu no Kind/ii
Nihonshi, p.66; Ikeda Ikuo, Mira Snpfitsn no Shin/ed, p.33; Asahi Shimbnn, 26 January 1999.
Tgnaka and Yoshikawa, Supétsn, pp.80—1. Kinoshita, Snpo'tsn no Kindai Nihonsln', p.40. Shinsuke Tanada, 'Introduction of European Sport in Kobe...', Civilization in Sport History,
ed. Shigeo Shimizu (Kobe: Kobe University, 1987) pp.68—76. ' Franz Klaus, 'Gedenken an Generalmajor Theodor von Lerch', Zdarhsy—Bldtter, 35 (March
1986), 11~13; Sasase Masashi, 'Hokkaido Teikoku Daigaku Ski—bu ni okeru Tozan to
Kyégi...', Taiileushi Ken/qyli, 11 (1994), 41—54. 7 Bruce Haley, The Healthy Body and Victorian Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1978); Elmer L. Johnson, The History of YMCA Physical Education (Chicago: Follctt, 1979).
Guttmann, Cantos and Empires, pp. 100—3. James Naismith, 'Basketball', American Physical Education Review, 19, 5 (May 1914), 339~51;
James Naismith, Basketball (New York: Association Press, 1941). Ibid., pp.153—4; Kinoshita, S npo'tsn no Kindai Nihonshi, pp.87—8. Asa/ii Shimbnn, 19 February 1999. Tanaka and Yoshikawa, S zzpdtsil, pp. 64—5; Kinoshita, Supo'tsn no Kindai Nihonshi, pp.184—5.
Kinoshita, p.184. Cortazzi, Victoriansinjapan, p.292. Yoshie Hata, 'The Influence of Protestantism of [sic] Modern Physical Education in Japan', 7 Civilization in Sport History, pp.77—86. Tanaka an Yoshikawa, Stipdtsn, pp.66—7. . Matsumot \Junko, 'Yamaguchi Ken Yoshikimura n'o Ryojo Seinenkai "Undébu" (1886—1937)
ni Kan suru shiteki Kosatsu...', Taiihushi Kenlqyfl, 10 (1993), 2942. For a detailedjilescription and analysis of the games cult (athleticism) of the schools which
greatly influenced schools in many parts of the world, see J.A. Mangan, Athleticism in the
Victorian and Edwardian Public School (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2000).
Donald Roden, Schooldays in Imperial Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).
For extensive consideration of the relationship between the English public schools, sport and
militarism and for evidence of public school martial indoctrination, for which there are now a
number of sources, see especially J.A. Mangan, 'Play up and Play the Game: the Rhetoric of
Cohesion, Identity, Patriotism and Morality', in Mangan, Athleticism, pp.179—203; J.A.
Mangan 'Duty unto Death: English Masculinity and Militarism in the Age of the New
Imperialism', in J.A. Mangan (ed.), Tribal Identities: Nationalism, Sport, Europe (London and
Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1996), pp.10—38; J.A. Mangan 'Gamesfield and Battlefield: A
Romantic Alliance in Verse and the Creation of Militaristic Masculinity', in John Nauright
and Timothy J.L. Chandler (eds), [l/Ialeing A/Icn: Ruby and Masculine Identity (London and
Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1998), pp.141—57. r Roden, Schooldays in Imperialjapan, p.113. Guttmann, Games and Empires, pp.3476, but see Mangan, The Games Ethic and Imperialism for
a further and sometimes hilarious description of the strenuous and successful efforts of the
English public school missionary and educator to bring the games' cult to the Indian
subcontinent. Maarten van Bottenburg, Iderbm'gen Competitio: Over de Uiteenlopendo Populariteit van Sporten
(Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 1994), pp.132~3. Ikuo Abe and J.A. Mangan, 'The British Impact on Boys' Sports and Games in Japan',
InlernationalJournal of the History of Sport, 14, 2 (August 1997), 189. Roscoe; 'Development of Sport in Japan', p.63. Kiku Koichi, Kindai pnro Supo"tsu no releislri shabaigalen (Tokyo: Fumaido shuppan, 1993),
p.57. , ' Yuko Kusaka, 'The Development of Baseball Organizations in Japan', International Review of
Sport Sociology, 22, 4 (1987), 266. Imamura, Nilion taiileushi, pp.331~2,. Kiku, Kindai paro Snpo'lsn no t'e/eishi shakaigaleu, p.238. Roscoe, 'Development of Sport in Japan', p.63; Watanabe Tohru, 'The Why of the Japanese
Choice of Baseball', Civilization in Sport History, ed. Shigeo Shimizu (Kobe: Kobe University,
1987) pp.113~28; Details of the earliest period of Japanese baseball differ from account to
account. 48 85. 86.
91. 92.
95. 96.
98. 99.
105. 106.
107. 108. 109.
116. Europe, Sport, World Norgren Nels quoted in Robert J. Sinclair, 'Baseball's Rising Sun: American Interwar Baseball
Diplomacy and Japan', Canark'anjom'na/ oft/1e History ofSport, 16, 2 (December 1985), 48.
Kozu Masaru, Nikon Kimlai Snpfitsnski no TeirJ/fi (Tokyo: Sobun Kikaku, 1994), pp.241—50.
Arthur S. Grix,]apan's Sport (Berlin: Limpert, 1938), p.63. Herbert Warren Wind, 'The Bouncing Ball', Sports Illustrated, 8 (24 February 1958), 57.
Tada Michitaré, Asoki to Nikonjin (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobf), 1974), p.76. May, 'Sports', p.181. Donald Roden, 'Baseball and the Quest for National Dignity', p.519; Mark Twain: quoted in
Harry C. Palmer, 'The "Around the World" Tour', in Harry Clay Palmer (ed.), Atkletio S ports
in Amerioa, Eng/am], and Australia (Philadelphia: Hubbard Bros., 1889), p.447. Imamura, Nikon toiiknski, p.204. ' Ibid., p.216. Ibid., p.306. Ikuo Abe, Yasuharu Kiyohara and Ken Nakajima, 'Fascism, Sport and Society in Japan',
International journal of the Histon of Sport, 9, 1 (April 1992), 4. 'Taiso' referred both to
gymnastic exercises and to physical education in general, which could include other forms of
exercise such as sports. '
Imamura, Nikon taiiknski, pp.327—9. Ibid., pp.341—3. . Ikuo Abe and J.A. Mangan, 'The British Impact on Boys' Sports and Games in Japan',
International Journal of tke History ofSport, l4, 2 (August 1997), 198; Norbert Mosch, 'Die
politische Funktion des Sports in Japan und Korea' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Vienna,
1987), 93. Imamura, Nikon taiiknski, pp.343—5. Ibid., p.375. Ibid., p.349. . Pierre Arnaud, Le Militaire, l'e'oolier; lo gynmaste (Lyon: Presses universitaires de Lyon, 1991).
Imamura, Nikon taiiknski, pp.399—401. ' \ us
Ibid., pp.410416. 7' Hiroko Seiwa and Chieko Onishi, '\Vomen and Athletic Meetings in Japan' (unpublished
paper, 1997). Imamura, Nikon taiikuski, pp.416—17. _ Miyoko Hagiwara, 'Japanese VVomen's Sports and Physical Education under the Influence of
Their Traditional Costumes', p.266. Nishimura Ayako, 'Zenkoku Koto J6gakk6 Ché Kaigi ni mirareru Kéto Jégakko no Taiiku
Mondai', Taiileuski Ken/gin, 5 (March 1988), 7—21; Yoshie Hata, 'The Influence of
Protestantism of [sit] Modern Physical Education in Japan', Civilization in Sport History, p.82.
Seiwa and Onishi, 'Women and Athletic Meetings in Japan'. Ibid. Hata, 'The Influence of Protestantism of [sic] Modern Physical Education in Japan', p.79.
Imamura, Nikon taii/euski, pp.475~77. Only one ballgame was listed: football. Imamura, Nikon taiiknski, p.478. Ibid., pp.455—66. Ibid., p.482. Coilfucianism, Imperialism, Nationalism:
Modern Sport, Ideology and Korean
Culture ' J.A. MANGAN and HA NAM—GIL Perhaps there is little need for this reminder but sometimes we fail to see what is under our nose and fail equally to appreciate its significance.
Thus, / /
=7 We live in a nationalized world; .The concept of the nation is
central toéthe dominant understandings both of political
community and of personal identity Notions of national
distinctiveness and of international competition or comparison
have become intrinsic to the ways in which we think and speak
about matters {as varied as economics and topography, art and
climate, sport and literature, diet and human character. We are
equipped, as one ethnologist has put it With a 'nationalizing eye': when we wish to describe or explain difference, we think of it in
terms of nations." ' I Self—evidently, also, all nations possess cultural traditions. Sport is
part of this cultural heritage. Prior to the nineteenth—century South—
East Asian nations such as China, Japan and Korea developed very
different traditions from those found in European nations. However,
in the wake of European imperialism during the second half of the
nineteenth century and the associated diffusion of its culture,
including its newly fashionable sports, throughout the world, these
new sports were transplanted in South—East Asia. Korea was not
immune. Sports from countries such as England (and the United States) were
introduced to, and took root in Korea during the period 1876 to 1945.
However, these sports became established in Korea only after an
involved political process due to the fact that during the period in which Editors and Advisers Executive Academic Editor t) J.A. Mangan
University of Strathclyde EDITORIAL BOARD S ,v , 3 '
y" Y, \
Evangelos Albanidis, Democritus University of Thrace ' y g _ ' ,
Hans Bonde, University of Copenhagen K x . D '
Jean-Michel Delaplace, University of Montpellier ' L 'y m
Gigliola Gori, University of Urbino ' - Vassil Girginov, University of Luton
Wojciech LipoI'lski, Adam Mickiewicz University
Henrik Meinander, University of Helsinki Gertrud Pfister, Freie Universitfit, Berlin '
Thierry Terret, University of Lyon
Wolfgang Weber, Vorarlberger Landesarchiv, Austria 3, ' ,
Ingomer Weiler, Karl~Franzens Universitfit i Editor $4
,5 University of S lmt/zclyde- ,i Pieces appearing in this collection are abstracted and indexed in Palz'timl Science Abstracts, Historian Abstr/ztls and America: History and Life and Physical Education
Int/ex ...
View Full Document
This note was uploaded on 02/07/2010 for the course HIST 303 taught by Professor Salesa during the Winter '10 term at University of Michigan.
- Winter '10
- Salesa
- The American, japan, Meiji period
Click to edit the document details


text: Spirit Camera Ghosts Category page 742pages on this wiki Add New Page Edit this page Classic editor History Talk0 Sorting type: Most visited Most visited Alphabetical | The spirits in Spirit Camera: The Cursed Memoir. Pages in category "Spirit Camera Ghosts" Hisame Kuze Woman in Black Akira Shiori Hasebe Kaito Hasebe Old Woman Subcategories Spirit Camera Male Ghosts Spirit Camera Female Ghosts Retrieved from "http://fatalframe.wikia.com/wiki/Category:Spirit_Camera_Ghosts?oldid=22639" Ad blocker interference detected! Wikia is a free-to-use site that makes money from advertising. We have a modified experience for viewers using ad blockers Wikia is not accessible if you've made further modifications. Remove the custom ad blocker rule(s) and the page will load as expected. Categories: Ghosts Spirit Camera Add category Cancel Save