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Jan McGuinness
Jan McGuinness has more than thirty years' experience in print and television journalism. She teaches feature writing in the School of Journalism at Monash University and is researching a biography of Shirley Hazzard.
Jan McGuinness reviews 'Bob Ellis: In his own words' by Bob Ellis, compiled by Anne Brooksbank
The climate of Murdoch
The House of Hancock
Recent Issues
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2016 Books of the Year & Publisher Picks
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November 2016
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'The god of cheaper prices: New threats to our literary culture from the Productivity Commission' by Colin Golvan
Lisa Gorton reviews Hag-Seed: The Tempest retold by Margaret Atwood
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Kotlikov E.N.,St. Petersburg State University of Aerospace Instrumentation |
Ivanov V.A.,Scientific Research Institute Giricond |
Tropin A.N.,Scientific Research Institute Giricond
PIERS 2010 Cambridge - Progress in Electromagnetics Research Symposium, Proceedings | Year: 2010
At the presented work, we report the results of research of optical properties PbTe, ZnSe, ZnS, BaF2 and PbF2 thin films in a wide infrared spectral range. These materials are used for manufacturing thin film multilayer interference systems working in the mid-infrared and probably be applied in far infrared to submillimeter. Optical properties in our understanding are spectral dependences of refractive index and extinction coefficient of layers. Films with thicknesses 3-7 microns were received by thermal vacuum deposition on single-crystal silicon substrates. Refractive index and extinction coefficient dispersion in 1.5-150 microns spectral range (2-200 THz) were determined by method based on analysis of the transmission and reflection interference spectra. Films of PbTe under consideration do not possess appreciable absorption bands in the investigated spectral range. While, other investigated films have intensive absorption bands in the 25-100 microns region. With using of the investigated materials the "solar blind" filter for 1.0-50 microns spectral range on the single-crystal silicon substrate was designed and made. Source

subset: commoncrawl


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Madagascar Assessment of Social Protection and Operational Challenges
- Josephine Rondeau
- il y a 1 ans
- Total affichages :
1 Madagascar Assessment of Social Protection and Operational Challenges (In Two Volumes) Volume II: Background Papers June 23, 2010 Africa Region Human Development Social Protection Unit 1
2 Madagascar Currency Equivalents (Exchange Rate Effective June 30, 2011) Currency Unit = Malagasy Ariary US$1 = Ar1939 Government Fiscal Year January I - December 31 Weights and Measures Metric System Abbreviations and Acronyms See the list of abbreviations at the beginning of each report Vice President: Country Director: Sector Director: Country Manager: Sector Manager: Task Team Leader: Obiageli Katryn Ezekwesili Haleh Bridi Ritva S. Reinikka Adolfo Brizzi Lynne D. Sherburne-Benz Philippe Auffret 2
3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Social Protection Assessment is the outcome of a collaborative process by the Government of Madagascar and the World Bank. This is the first draft of the report and it was delivered in July As a consequence, the report does not incorporate the economic developments that took place after July The final report is expected to be delivered by the end of This report has been a real team effort and has thus benefitted from an array of invaluable contributions. It has been elaborated under the management of Haleh Bridi, Country Director, Ritva S. Reinikka, AFTHD, Sector Director, Adolfo Brizzi, Country Manager, Madagascar, Lynne D. Sherburne-Benz, Sector Manager, AFTSP. The team is grateful for their guidance and support. The team was led by Philippe Auffret (Senior Social Protection Specialist) and included John Elder, Steven Farji Weiss and Joséphine Gantois. The report comes in two volumes. The first volume corresponds to the Social Protection Assessment itself; it is based on the background work prepared by several people comprising Anthony Hodges, Francis Hary Soleman Kone, Josiane Robiarivony Rakotomanga, Maminirinarivo Ralaivelo, Brigitte Jalasoa Randrianasolo, Rachel Ravelosoa, Tiaray Razafimanantena and the INSTAT. These background papers have been merged into the second volume of the report. This assessment also benefitted from the invaluable contributions of the many Malagasy citizens and development partners in Madagascar. The team would particularly like to thank Charlotte Adriaen (EEAS), Miaro-zo Hanoa Andrianoelina (GTZ), Nicolas Babu (Chief of Program Unit for PAM in Madagascar), Danny Denolf (GIZ), Pablo Isla Villar (EEAS), Dorothée Klaus (Chief Social Policy, UNICEF), Louis Muhigirwa (FAO), Jimmy Rajaobelina (INSTAT), Joelle Rajaonarison (EEAS), Adria Rakotoarivony (Program Officer, PAM), Olga Ramaromanana (Social Policy Specialist, UNICEF), Tahiana Randrianatoandro (INSTAT), Niaina Randrianjanaka (INSTAT), Mamisoa Rapanoelina (FID) and Paul Gérard Ravelomanantsoa (INSTAT) for their work which has helped the realization of this report. The first volume will be further developed in the months to come by John Elder and Joséphine Gantois, under the supervision of Philippe Auffret. 3
4 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Background Papers 1. Strategic Directions For Social Protection In Madagascar 2. Pauvreté, Vulnérabilité et Sources de Risques 3. Evaluation de la Vulnérabilité 4. Revue des Programmes de Protection Sociale à Madagascar 5. Revue et Analyse des Dépenses Publiques en Protection Sociale 6. Programme Tsena Mora 7. Revue et Analyse des Dépenses des ONG en Protection Sociale 8. Partage d Expériences sur la Protection Sociale : Transfert d Espèces et Autres Formes de Soutien Scolaire en Faveur d Enfants et Jeunes Scolarises Issus de Familles Pauvres 9. Etude de Mécanismes de Paiement pour la Mise en Application d un Transfert Monétaire en Espèces aux Pauvres à Madagascar 4
5 STRATEGIC DIRECTIONS FOR SOCIAL PROTECTION IN MADAGASCAR Anthony HODGES July
6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Introduction and conceptual framework 1. This paper discusses the challenges of strengthening social protection in Madagascar, where already very high levels of vulnerability have been accentuated by a deep political and economic crisis since Even before the current crisis the poverty rate (68.7%) was one of the very highest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Since the events in 2009, there has been a marked deterioration in living conditions, with the poverty headcount increasing to 76.5% in As in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, formal social protection systems are weak, with low coverage, especially of the poorest and most vulnerable. Short-term transitional social protection measures are urgently needed as well as a longer term policy perspective. 2. Social protection is generally understood to encompass the public and (non-profit) private actions that aim to prevent, manage and mitigate the impacts of risks or shocks affecting households and individuals and ensure a minimum level of human dignity. These include social insurance, the contributory branch of social protection which focuses on risk-sharing and cost-smoothing, and various types of non-contributory social transfers, including transfers in cash or kind, indirect transfers through price subsidies, and fee abolition in the social sectors, as well as social welfare services and protective legislation. An emphasis on building the capacity of the vulnerable is at the heart of modern social protection approaches, which go beyond a narrow, passive approach of assistance to emphasize the preventive and promotive dimensions of social protection. This emphasizes the empowerment of vulnerable households and individuals so that they can strengthen their capacities and reduce their vulnerability in a long-term sustainable way, in particular through building up their human capital and/or their productive assets. The risk and vulnerability profile 3. In Madagascar, vulnerability is widespread and deep across many dimensions, and a very high proportion of the population experiences frequent shocks environmental disasters such as drought, cyclones and floods, economic shocks such as the global rise in food prices since 2008, and the economic fall-out from political shocks such as the crises in 2002 and Rising food prices, especially for rice, the main staple, affect both the urban population and the large number of households in rural areas that are net food consumers or experience seasonal food shortfalls due to inadequate storage facilities. These covariate shocks are reflected at the individual or household level by food insecurity, very high rates of chronic malnutrition among young children, high rates of morbidity and mortality (especially among young children and among women during childbirth), and high rates of school drop-out and child labour. Households have limited means to mitigate and cope with shocks and some strategies, such as the sale of assets and withdrawal of children from school, have adverse long-term consequences for individuals capacity and resilience. 4. Monetary poverty limits the capacity of households to prevent, mitigate and cope with a wide range of risks. Furthermore, while poverty is a source of vulnerability, some non-poor households are vulnerable to falling into poverty. It has been estimated that, in 2010, 71% of the population was in chronic poverty and 16% was vulnerable to transitory poverty. Deprivations in human development are highest in the bottom quintiles but are high across all quintiles for many indicators. While poverty rates are very high overall, they are highest among small and medium farmers (due to their low levels of technology and productivity and very small landholdings), fishermen and casual labourers, in large households with several children, and in households with uneducated heads. Vulnerability has an 6
7 important spatial dimension, due partly to the geographic concentration of climatic risks, as well as distance from markets and services. The rural areas are generally more disadvantaged, especially the most remote areas, and the drought-prone southern regions are worst off. Vulnerability and risks also vary at different stages of the life-cycle, with young children and the elderly physically the most vulnerable, and monetary poverty higher among children than adults. Vulnerability also has a gender dimension, due to patriarchal cultural attitudes that limit opportunities for girls and women and expose them to genderbased risks of abuse. Existing social protection programmes 5. Despite the high levels of vulnerability and the multiple types of risks to which the Malagasy population is exposed, Madagascar has a weak social protection system with low coverage. Social insurance reaches only a small proportion of the population linked to the formal sector of the economy (less than 4% of all workers are insured) and covers only a limited set of risks. Experience with social transfers is quite limited. Madagascar has not developed large social transfer programmes on an entitlement basis, such as social pensions for the elderly or child allowances, outside the framework of contributory social insurance schemes. Apart from humanitarian assistance, experience with other types of social transfers is limited mainly to nutritional supplements and school feeding. Little is known about the objectivity of their targeting criteria and methods. Their main shortcomings are that they tend to be small, mainly donor-funded projects, with poor prospects for sustainability and scale up. 6. Madagascar has considerable experience with labour intensive public works, although these still only reach a small minority of the poor and provide very few days of work. Labour intensive public works provide a social transfer in the form of a wage (in cash or in kind) in return for participation in employment on socially useful works. Several organizations have established such programmes, which generally aim to achieve both social protection objectives (improved income and food security among the very poor, especially during the lean period before harvests in rural areas) and broader developmental objectives, such as the repair and maintenance of small-scale infrastructure and environmental protection (reforestation, etc.). Targeting is based in principle on geographical vulnerability and self-selection, but wage rates have generally been set above local market wage rates, making selftargeting difficult to apply in practice. Demand for work tends to outstrip supply at the wages offered, requiring the use of additional targeting methods to select beneficiaries, but there are doubts about their efficiency. Although labour intensive public works are one of the largest components of social protection in Madagascar, they still reach only a small proportion of the poor (about 10.5% including indirect beneficiaries in 2010) and provide only a very small number of days of work per year (on average less than 25 per person employed). There has also been criticism of the quality and durability of the infrastructure created or rehabilitated by some projects. 7. One of the largest government led and financed social protection initiatives is Tsena Mora, a programme launched in October 2010 to provide subsidized basic food commodities (rice and cooking oil) to the urban poor. Tsena Mora has wide urban coverage and provides a high level of subsidy, but one of its main limitations is that it does not cover the rural areas, where food insecurity is most extensive. As with other programmes, little is known about its targeting efficiency or its impact and cost-effectiveness. 8. Some social protection measures are specific to the education and health sectors. Demand-side policy measures in the education and health sectors can have a social protection character when they are intended to reduce or remove financial barriers of access, particularly for the poor, and to reduce long term vulnerability by promoting human development. In the education sector, for example, fee abolition (in 2003) has been followed by other demand-side measures such as the distribution of free 7
8 school kits. However, no school kits were distributed in the 2010/11 school year due to budget cuts. The cost burden on parents remains high, particularly because 67% of teachers (as of 2010/11) are not employed by the government but are hired and paid by local parents associations (FRAM). So long as this system continues, school fee abolition cannot become a reality, although the government, with partial support from the FTI Catalytic Fund, has been subsidizing the salaries of some FRAM teachers. School feeding, mainly provided by WFP, also aims to incentive school attendance and deter drop-out, but is limited mainly to highly vulnerable areas of southern Madagascar, which also have poor education indicators. Most of the demand-side measures in education have been universal in nature, albeit within specific geographical areas in the case of school feeding. Effectiveness is difficult to assess and has probably been offset by the fall-out from the current political and economic crisis. 9. Social protection mechanisms are particularly weak in the health sector. After an illprepared experiment in generalised abolition of health user fees after the 2002 political crisis, fees were reinstated in 2004, with adverse equity implications for access by the poor. The need for social protection measures in the health sector is clear from data in the DHS 2008/09, which highlights the need for money as the main problem experienced by women in accessing health services when ill (55%). The problems of distance (cited by 42% of women) and need for transport (28%) also have a financial dimension. Only a few services are currently provided free. Some other limited social protection mechanisms to facilitate access to health services have been introduced. These include fee waivers for drugs for the ultra-poor in health centres (CSB), fee waivers for hospitalization costs for the ultra-poor and a fund to finance free emergency obstetrical services in three regions, as well as small initiatives to set up mutual health insurance. But these are woefully inadequate to overcome the equity problems in access to health services. The CSB equity funds are heavily under-utilized, partly due to fears of stigma, and benefit only a tiny proportion of the poor (less than 1% of the population). The hospital equity funds cover only 2.0% to 3.4% of hospital admissions. The scheme to provide free emergency obstetrical and neonatal/paediatric services, without reference to socioeconomic status, covers a much higher proportion of patients in the hospitals included in the scheme, but does not cover transport costs, which remain a barrier for the poorest, and the scheme is donor funded and limited to only 4 of the 22 regions. The coverage of mutual health insurance is extremely small. Policies, institutions and resources 10. Social protection programmes have been developed on an ad hoc basis, often at the initiative of donors, without being part of a coherent overall policy framework. The Risk Management and Social Protection Strategy drafted before the current crisis was never officially adopted. The Madagascar Action Plan (MAP) makes commitments to strengthen social protection, but provides little detail and no longer really guides government action. There is thus a void in the overall development policy framework, although there are several more specific policies, strategies and plans with components relevant to social protection, such as the National Nutrition Policy and National Nutrition Action Plan 1 ( ), the National Policy for Management of Risks and Catastrophes, the National Employment Policy and the National Programme for Support to Employment, the Education for All (EFA) Plan, the National Plan for Rural Development, the National Microfinance Strategy, the National Policy for the Promotion of Women and the related National Plan of Action on Gender and Development, and the law on the protection of persons with disabilities. 11. State systems in general have been weakened by the political crisis and this has affected social protection provision like other fields of service delivery. Furthermore, social protection responsibilities are fragmented, and coordination is weak. The core ministry responsible for social protection is particularly weak and has suffered from institutional instability. Many other ministries and public agencies have social protection responsibilities in their respective domains. 8
9 Social protection functions have been decentralized only to a limited extent, although the political crisis has increased the role of local authorities in practice. The donor reaction to the political crisis has expanded the role of NGOs and helped to create parallel systems that risk undermining already weak government systems. Human resources are one of the main capacity constraints, particularly in the weaker government agencies. The UN system provides for coordination of humanitarian assistance, but government-donor coordination on long-term development, including social protection, has become almost non-existent since the crisis in There is also a weak culture of monitoring and evaluation. 12. Government social protection expenditure has fallen dramatically since 2008, while being offset partially by increased donor aid. On a narrow definition of social protection, government expenditure on social protection programmes declined by 89% at current prices and 91% at constant (2008) prices between 2008 and In part, this reflected the general decline in public expenditure by a government intent on preventing major budget disequilibria arising from the sharp decline in revenue and aid (outside the social sectors) since the crisis in early But the relative share of social protection in total government expenditure has also fallen, suggesting that social protection has had less priority than other spending areas, although this may be offset by substantial recent funding of the Tsena Mora programme, launched in October Government expenditure on population and social affairs fell by 66% from 2009 to 2010 (see table 10). Spending on education social protection measures was slashed by the September 2010 budget revision law, and government spending on labourintensive public works has almost ended. In the health sector, social protection measures are mainly funded by health service users rather than the government. Strategic challenges for social protection 13. Priorities for expanding social protection should be based on the risk/vulnerability profile, potential impacts, cost-effectiveness and practical feasibility. This will require an indepth feasibility assessment of alternative policy options, including quantitative simulations of likely impacts, costs and cost-effectiveness, as well as an assessment of the political and socio-cultural acceptability and administrative and financing capacity requirements of different options. 14. Scaling up labour intensive public works programmes appears to be the best option to provide revenue support to the poorest, while helping to build resilience in the long term, although programme design and implementation also need to improve. These programmes not only provide revenue support to vulnerable households, especially in rural areas during the lean period when food insecurity is most serious, but contribute to two of the most important developmental needs in rural Madagascar: construction and maintenance of rural infrastructure and environmental protection. The demand for this type of labour is clearly enormous, given the high level of under-employment among the rural poor and the seasonality of revenue, while the need for projects to improve rural infrastructure and environmental protection is almost without limits. The challenge is therefore to expand dramatically these programmes so that they can contribute on a much larger scale to both short-term revenues (and knock-on improvements in nutrition and access to social services) and longer-term vulnerability reduction through reduced exposure to environmental risks, improved productivity and better access to markets and services. At the same time, improvements in programme design and implementation are needed, particularly with respect to the wage rates offered, and the quality and durability of public works. The adoption of a common manual of procedures would help to harmonize procedures for identifying projects, selection of project contractors, beneficiary targeting methods, wage rates, quality standards and other aspects of HIMO management. Ultimately a dedicated national agency should be established to oversee HIMO performance by all operators in this field. 9
10 15. Reducing the burden of community-paid teachers and other education costs on households is the top education priority from a social protection perspective. One of the main priorities in the current period of crisis is to keep children at school, as the education system itself is struggling to survive, the education financing burden is increasingly falling on households and the most vulnerable children are dropping out. One of the key challenges is to stabilize the teaching corps, of which two thirds are now community-hired teachers, and to lessen the burden on parents of paying these teachers. 16. More equitable health financing mechanisms are needed. Since the reintroduction of generalized cost recovery in the health system in 2004, Madagascar has had a highly regressive health financing system. Very few services are provided free and the fee exemptions introduced for the indigent through the equity funds in health centres and hospitals reach only a tiny proportion of the ultra-poor, partly because of the limited financing available but also due to low levels of take-up resulting from the stigma attached to poverty-based fee exemptions. Of the approaches theoretically available, communitybased risk-pooling through mutual health insurance is unlikely to be a viable strategy to reduce health-cost risks for the poor. Establishment of a national health insurance scheme, as in Rwanda and Ghana, would be highly ambitious, given the huge administrative challenges of such a system in a country with a very large informal sector and weak capacity. Selective extension of fee exemptions, based on medical priorities to reduce under-5 and maternal mortality, would seem the most viable and effective approach, given budget constraints, but would have to be much better planned and financed than the disastrous experiment in generalized fee abolition in Some donors (although not yet the government) have been considering cash transfers as a possible new social protection initiative, but several factors could make this very challenging in the Malagasy context. Cash transfers could potentially boost investment in human capital, especially by improving school attendance and reducing drop-out, and help reduce long-term vulnerability. And some of the practical pre-requisites for implementation of cash transfers, such as the functioning of markets and the availability of a range of possible payment delivery methods, are in place. However, there are several unanswered questions about the feasibility of such an approach in Madagascar. There are major deficiencies in supply side provision of basic social services, which raise difficult issues about priorities and trade-offs. Targeting is likely to pose major challenges given the extensive nature of poverty and deprivations in human development. Furthermore, targeted cash transfers are demanding in terms of administrative capacity, which is extremely limited in Madagascar. There is also a socio-cultural risk of stigma from enrolment in a transfer programme without a labour requirement in the Malagasy context, which could hold back enrolment as in the fee exemption programme for access by the indigent to health centres. Finally, Government leadership and co-financing would be essential, including at the pilot stage, in order to ensure buy-in and reasonable prospects for sustainability and scale-up. 18. One possible approach would be to introduce cash transfers for households without labour capacity or a very high dependency ratio. A related issue that needs careful consideration is the potential relationship between cash transfers and labour intensive public works, which can also have human development benefits in addition to their direct revenue effects. Households with no labour capacity, such as those where the only adults are elderly, disabled or chronically sick, cannot participate in the employment created by public works projects, and so some social transfer programme elsewhere in Africa have been conceived specifically to assist such labour-deprived households. A cash transfer programme in Madagascar could potentially play such a role. 19. A study on targeting could help to rationalize targeting objectives and methods and pave the way for a common targeting mechanism for different complementary social protection programmes, although targeting is inherently difficult in a country with such widespread 10
11 vulnerability, especially in the rural areas. Targeting is especially difficult in countries where poverty is broad-based and there are only small differences in living standards between the poor and the near-poor, or those who are vulnerable to poverty. Madagascar is a country with very small differences in economic well-being between deciles, except at the top, where poverty is very extensive and where the near-poor are only slightly better-off than the poor. In these conditions, any targeting method risks producing large exclusion errors (non-selection of those who in theory should be eligible) and inclusion errors (inclusion of those who in theory should not be eligible). But on balance, use of proxy means testing could help to make selection more objective than at present, along with the use of wage-rates slightly below local market rates to improve self-selection in labour intensive public works programmes. 20. Strengthening of social protection will require improved coordination, leadership by a macro-level government institution and a new national social protection strategy. In view of the cross-cutting, multi-sectoral nature of social protection, a powerful macro-level institution such as the Ministry of Planning, the Prime Minister s Office or even the Presidency, will need to play a leading role both in developing a new national social protection strategy and in ensuring coordination among government institutions, donors and other actors for improved programme complementarity, harmonization and sharing of systems and methods, for example for common targeting methods, setting of public works wage rates, and overall review of performance. The revival of the social protection working group, decided in May 2011, is an important step forward. 21. Investments will be needed to strengthen administrative capacity and develop stronger monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Improvements in the quantity and quality of staff, both in the public sector and NGOs, will be essential for expanding social protection provision and raising standards. A clarification of the respective roles (mandates and financing) of local authorities (communes and fokontany) and deconcentrated bodies of central government institutions, such as the Ministry of Population and Social Affairs, is also essential in order to obtain the most efficient division of responsibilities, put in place adequate financing arrangements and build capacity for programme implementation at the local level. And the development of monitoring and evaluation mechanisms will be crucial for measuring the impacts, cost-effectiveness and efficiency of programmes, and thereby learning lessons and introducing improvements in programme design, in addition to generating the evidence needed to build high-level political support and financing scale-up. 22. Fiscal space will be tightly circumscribed in the short term but can best be expanded in the longer term by increasing domestic revenue. Fiscal space for expanding public programmes appears to be almost non-existent in Madagascar in the current conditions of political and economic crisis. Increasing domestic revenue will be the main way to generate resources for expanded social protection in the long term, given the risks of over-dependence on unpredictable aid, the limited scope for reallocating expenditures and the very low revenue/gdp ratio. Conclusions and recommendations 23. Both short and long term measures are needed. The primary purpose of this report is to make inputs for the development of a long-term national strategy on social protection. However, the gravity of the social situation in Madagascar calls also for short term transitional measures. In addition, although the formal process of preparing the long-term strategy may be delayed further by the continuing political impasse, further preparatory analysis is required and should go ahead as soon as possible. 24. Preparation of a new national social protection strategy is critical and should be led by the government, preferably at a high level and using a participatory approach to involve all the key actors. The strategy is needed in order to orient and guide social protection policies, measures 11
12 and programmes across a range of sectors, and to provide a framework for resource mobilization, both within government (using programme budgets and the MTEF) and from donors, possibly through a social protection fund. The strategy should not unnecessarily duplicate existing strategic frameworks that are already effective, such as the policy on management of risks and catastrophes (law 2003/010). 25. Key strategic priorities include the following: i. Scale up labour intensive public works programmes, to increase dramatically the offer of temporary employment, especially during the lean season in rural areas, and to improve rural infrastructure and environmental protection. ii. iii. iv. Reduce the burden of community-paid teachers and other education costs borne by households, in order to make free primary education a reality. Plan for a strategic extension of fee exemptions for maternal and child health care services, to address the equity challenges arising from the system of generalized cost recovery while giving priority to the MDGs on reducing under-5 and maternal mortality, given budget constraints. Fee abolition for maternal and child health service should be well planned in advance and adequately financed to avoid the negative effects of fee abolition experienced in Undertake a thorough cost/benefit and feasibility analysis before embarking on a pilot cash transfer scheme, while giving particular consideration to a scheme focused on households without labour capacity or a very high dependency ratio, as a complementary measure to the HIMO programmes. v. Establish strong coordination mechanisms under government leadership. As for the development of the strategy, implementation will require strong government leadership, again preferably at a high macro level in view of the multi-sectoral nature of the interventions required. vi. vii. Strengthen administrative capacity, including staffing, clarification of the roles of decentralized bodies and vertical ministries, and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Create fiscal space for expanded social protection by exploiting the potential for a significant increase in domestic revenue, using aid primarily to help co-finance the expansion of social protection in the short term. 26. Transitional measures to strengthen social protection are urgently needed and should focus in particular on strengthening HIMO programmes and reducing the education cost burden on households. Political normalization may take too long to wait for measures to strengthen social protection and address the heightened vulnerability of the population. Technical and financial partners should therefore agree to support expanded transitional social protection measures, notwithstanding the freeze in broader cooperation. Transitional measures should give priority to expanding and strengthening existing initiatives, especially those identified as strategic priorities. Measures to reduce the cost burden of education on parents and guardians are a prominent component of the Education for All Plan supported by the FTI Catalytic Fund. The scale-up of HIMO programmes would be the best way to enhance the revenue of vulnerable households in the short term, and would build on the trend towards more developmental approaches to replace traditional humanitarian relief. These programmes could also be scaled up relatively quickly, since experienced programme management structures are already in place. 12
13 27. Further analytical work should be undertaken to strengthen social protection design and feed into the long-term strategy. It is time to start preparing now for the post crisis-period, in particular by carrying out additional analytical work to inform the future social protection strategy. Studies are needed on targeting objectives and criteria, for simulations of impacts, costs, cost-effectiveness and affordability of social protection policy options, and for a feasibility analysis of cash transfers. Such analytical work could also feed into short-term improvements in the design and implementation of existing social protection programmes, particularly in the case of the proposed study on targeting. 13
14 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... 6 LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Section 2.1 Risk, vulnerability and capacity Section 2.2 Typology of social protection CHAPTER 3: THE RISK AND VULNERABILITY PROFILE Section 3.1 Main risks Section 3.2 Dimensions of vulnerability CHAPTER 4: EXISTING SOCIAL PROTECTION PROGRAMMES Section 4.1 Social insurance Section 4.2 Social assistance: transfers and social welfare services Section 4.3 Labour intensive public works Section 4.4 Consumer subsidies Section 4.5 Social protection measures in the education and health sectors CHAPTER 5: POLICIES, INSTITUTIONS AND RESOURCES Section 5.1 Policies relating to social protection Section 5.2 The institutional framework: responsibilities, capacity and coordination Section 5.3 Financing of social protection CHAPTER 6: STRATEGIC CHALLENGES FOR SOCIAL PROTECTION Section 6.1 Setting programme priorities Section 6.2 Improving efficiency: the challenges of targeting Section 6.3 National ownership and institutional strengthening Section 6.4 Creating fiscal space for social protection CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Section 7.1 Long-term strategy Section 7.2 Short-term transitional measures BIBLIOGRAPHY ANNEX: LIST OF PERSONS MET
15 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 : Types of households with highest poverty headcounts and weight in population Table 2 : Human development indicators by quintiles Table 3 : Food security and nutrition indicators by livelihood zones, September Table 4: Number of employers and employees affiliated to CNaPS, Table 5: Employment created by HIMO programmes, Table 6: Subsidized sales of essential food commodities by Tsena Mora, Table 7: Subsidization of FRAM teachers, 2008/ / Table 8: Difficulties cited by women in accessing health services when ill (%) Table 9: Government expenditure on social protection, commitment basis, (mn Ariary) Table 10 : Expenditure on population and social affairs, commitment basis, (mn Ariary) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Percentage of households suffering shocks, Figure 2: Political crises, GDP growth and the poverty headcount, Figure 3: Rice consumer price, (index 2000 = 100) Figure 4: Distribution of population by chronic poverty, vulnerability to transitory poverty and nonvulnerability to poverty (%) Figure 5: Key risks during the life-cycle Figure 6: Ratio of government revenue to GDP in Madagascar and Sub-Saharan Africa, (%)
16 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AFAFI ARI BNGRC CCPREAS CCT CEFor CNaPS CNGRC CNLS CPR CRCM CRENA CRENI CRS DHS EFA EPM EFSRP EU FANOME FE FEH FID FPCU FRAM GRET HIMO HIPC ILO INSTAT LEAP MAP McRAM MENRS MHO MTEF NGO ONN PFM PSA Let s protect family health together (mutual health organization in Antananarivo) Acute respiratory infection Bureau National de Gestion des Risques et Catastrophes (National Bureau for Risk and Catastrophe Management) Cellule de Coordination des Projets pour la Relance Economique et des Activités Sociales (Coordination Unit for Coordination of Projects for Economic Recovery and Social Activities), of Ministry of Finance and Budget Conditional cash transfers Crédit Epargne et Formation (Credit Savings and Training, micro-finance institution) Caisse Nationale de Prévoyance Sociale (National Insurance Fund) Conseil National de Gestion des Risques et des Catastrophes (National Council for Management of Risks and Catastrophes) Comité National de Lutte contre le SIDA (National Council for the Fight against AIDS) Caisse de Prévoyance de Retraite (Retirement Pension Fund) Caisse de Retraite Civile et Militaire (Civil and Military Retirement Fund) Centres de Récupération Nutritionnelle Ambulatoire (Mobile Nutritional Recovery centres) Centres de Récupération Nutritionnelle Intensive (Intensive Nutritional Recovery Centres) Catholic Relief Services Demographic and Health Survey Education for all Enquête Périodique auprès des Ménages (Periodic Household Survey) Emergency Food Security and Reconstruction Project, of the World Bank European Union Fonds d Approvisionnement Non-stop en Médicaments Essentiels (Fund for the Non- Stop Supply of Essential Drugs ) Fonds d équité (equity fund), of FANOME Fonds d équité hospitalier (hospital equity fund) Fonds d Intervention pour le Développement (Intervention Fund for Development) Fonds de prise en charge universelle Associations of parents of school pupils Groupe de Recherches et d Echanges Technologiques (Research and Technological Exchange Group), a French NGO Travaux publics à haute intensité de main d œuvre (labour intensive public works) Highly indebted poor countries (debt relief initiative) International Labour Office Institut National de la Statistique (National Statistics Institute) Livelihood Empowerment against Poverty (cash transfer programme in Ghana) Madagascar Action Plan Multi-cluster Rapid Assessment Mechanism Ministry of National Education and Scientific Research Mutual health organization Medium term expenditure framework Non-governmental organization Office National de Nutrition (National Nutrition Office) Public financial management Programa de Subsídios de Alimentos (Food Subsidy Programme, through cash transfers, 16
17 PTF SALAMA SALOHI SWAP UNFPA UNICEF U5MR WFP in Mozambique) Partenaires techniques et financiers (technical and financial partners) Central Drug Purchasing Agency of Madagascar Strengthening and Accessing Livelihoods Opportunities for Household Impact (USAID supported food security programme) Sector wide approach United Nations Population Fund United Nations Children s Fund Under-five mortality rate World Food Programme 17
18 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1. This paper discusses the challenges of strengthening social protection in Madagascar, where already very high levels of vulnerability have been accentuated by a deep political and economic crisis since As a result of partial sanctions applied by the international community crisis following the unconstitutional change of government in February 2009, aid was 29% below its 2008 level in US dollar terms in 2010 (World Bank, 2011). GDP contracted in real terms by 3.7% in 2009 and by a further 2.0% in 2010, the worst performance in both years for any country in Sub- Saharan Africa (IMF, 2011). Although donors have increased aid to the social sectors, by 42% between 2008 and 2010, this has been largely offset by cuts in domestic government expenditure as the government struggles to maintain overall budgetary stability in the face of a sharp decline in revenue and grants. 2. Even before the current crisis the poverty rate (68.7%) was one of the very highest in Sub- Saharan Africa, comparable only to a few fragile states emerging from prolonged civil wars, such as Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Parts of Madagascar, especially in the arid south, have for years been in a situation of repeated seasonal food insecurity. Child malnutrition is of particular concern, with the 2008/09 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) finding that nationally 50.1% of children under 5 suffer from chronic malnutrition (INSTAT and ICF Macro, 2010), a figure which is exceeded globally only by Afghanistan and Yemen (UNICEF, 2010). 3. Since the events in 2009, there has been a marked deterioration in living conditions, with the poverty headcount increasing to 76.5%, according to the preliminary results of a national household survey, the Enquête Périodique Auprès des Ménages (EPM), in This is the highest poverty headcount, based on national poverty lines, of all countries in Sub-Saharan Africa for which such data are available. 1 Poverty has also deepened, with the average poverty gap increasing from 26.8% (of the poverty line) in 2005 to 34.9% in 2010 (INSTAT, 2010). The country s already slow progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) appears to have been stopped in its tracks, with evidence for example of a significant decline in net primary school attendance rate from 83.3% in 2005 to 73.4% in 2010, according to the EPM in those years (INSTAT, 2010; Ravelosoa, 2011), and a decline in the primary school completion rate (MEN, 2011) As in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, formal social protection systems are weak, with low coverage, especially of the poorest and most vulnerable. There is a patchwork of poorly coordinated programmes, many funded by donors and/or executed by non-governmental organizations (NGOs), making it difficult to achieve sustainability. Although a Risk Management and Social Protection Strategy was drafted before the political crisis (Republic of Madagascar and World Bank, 2007), this was never officially adopted and so there is at present no overall social protection policy or strategy to guide the development of programmes and resource allocation. More generally, no overall development plan or poverty reduction strategy is orienting government action, although the five-year Madagascar Action Plan (MAP) adopted by the previous government remains nominally in place until The main focus of government is on short-term crisis management. Furthermore, government institutions, which were already weak, have become still more fragile because of budget cuts and the withdrawal of most donors from direct support to and through government systems. This has undermined the national ownership of programmes, eroded civil service capacity and fostered the development of parallel structures for 1 According to World Bank data (see the poverty headcount ranges from lows of 23% in South Africa (2006) and 25% in Uganda (2009) to highs of 67% in Burundi (2006) and 71% in the DRC (2005). 2 Before the crisis, Madagascar appeared to be on course to achieve only MDGs 2, 3 and 6 on gender equality, universal primary education and the fight against HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (WFP and UNICEF, 2011). 18
19 managing service delivery (World Bank, 2011). This is a challenging context in which to strengthen social protection, yet the gravity of the situation facing the people of Madagascar makes this an urgent necessity. 5. Short-term transitional social protection measures are urgently needed as well as a longer term policy perspective. As set out in the terms of reference, this report is intended to: (1) describe the current situation of social protection in Madagascar; (2) analyze the existing situation in light of international experiences with social protection in other comparable countries; and (3) make recommendations to improve social protection in Madagascar once the political situation is resolved. Given the extremely high and increasing levels of vulnerability in the country and the uncertainty regarding the resolution of the political crisis, such recommendations cannot be entirely relegated to an indeterminate future. Short term proposals are also needed to inform social protection programming, including transitional measures, pending the development of a nationally led and owned social protection strategy once the political conditions in Madagascar make this possible. 6. This report is based on several background papers commissioned by the World Bank, as well as other existing documentation and data, and interviews with key actors. The studies commissioned by the Bank included a vulnerability analysis (INSTAT, 2011), based on the EPM 2010, a review of existing social protection programmes (Ravelosoa, 2011) and studies on public expenditure (Ralaivelo, 2011) and NGO expenditure (Soleman Kone, 2011) on social protection. Many other existing sources of data and analysis have also been used (see the bibliography at the end of the report). These include in particular the data of two nationally representative household surveys, the DHS 2008/09 and the EPM 2010, as well as the Comprehensive Food and Nutrition Security and Vulnerability Analysis, carried out in 2010, which is representative of rural Madagascar (WFP and UNICEF, 2011). Documentary sources were complemented by a series of interviews with key actors (government ministries and agencies, donors and international organizations, and NGOs) at national level in May 2011 (see Annex A). Finally, the analysis has been able to take into account the information provided and proposals made during a workshop for experience sharing and reflection on social protection in Madagascar, held in Antananarivo on 25 May The report is structured as follows. After this introduction Section 2, provides a conceptual framework for the analysis of social protection in the rest of the document. Section 3 presents the main features of the vulnerability and risk profile to which social protection should provide a response. Section 4 then describes and analyses the main existing social protection programmes, from the angle of relevance (to the risk/vulnerability profile), effectiveness (including extent of coverage) and efficiency. Section 5 assesses the policies relating to social protection, along with institutional responsibilities, capacity and coordination, and the financing of social protection. Building on the previous sections, Section 6 addresses some of the main strategic challenges for strengthening social protection in Madagascar, including issues of prioritization and scale-up, targeting efficiency, national leadership, harmonization and coordination, fiscal space, and capacity building for institutional development. Section 7 highlights the main conclusions and presents recommendations to improve social protection. As indicated above, these include recommendations for short term actions in the current crisis of political, economic and social crisis as well as proposals to feed into the development of a national strategy in the longer term. 3 This workshop was jointly sponsored by the European Union (EU), the International Labour Office (ILO), the United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF), the Fonds d Investissement pour le Développement (FID), the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the German Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). 19
20 CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 8. Social protection is generally understood to encompass the public and (non-profit) private actions that aim to prevent, manage and mitigate the impacts of risks or shocks affecting households and individuals and ensure a minimum level of human dignity. Social protection is enshrined as a right in a range of international declarations and legal instruments, notably the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), although as a right requiring material resources for its implementation this is one of the economic rights regarded as being subject to progressive realization. This section briefly reviews the conceptual foundations of social protection (section 2.1) and then presents a simple typology of the main forms of modern social protection, with special reference to Sub-Saharan Africa (section 2.2) Section 2.1 Risk, vulnerability and capacity 9. The notion of risk, which underlies the idea of social protection, can be understood either as a sudden shock or as long-term adversity. Risks may have a range of origins or sources (economic, political, environmental, medical or socio-cultural) and different types of consequences (for example, loss of assets, employment and income, school non-enrolment and drop-out, and disease, injury and death). It is also useful to distinguish two broad classes of risks: those that are idiosyncratic, or affect households or persons individually, and those that are covariate, affecting whole communities, regions or countries. The different nature of these risks obviously requires different types of policy responses. Furthermore, it is important to recognise that social protection measures by themselves cannot deal successfully with certain types of risks, particularly those that are covariate in nature. These usually require actions at other levels too, for example the adoption of appropriate economic or environmental policies, good governance, and measures to prevent and resolve conflicts. 10. Two related concepts are those of vulnerability and the capacity to manage risks. The notion of vulnerable groups derives from the fact that some categories of people are more vulnerable than others to certain risks and have a lesser capacity to withstand and cope with these risks. Like risk, vulnerability is multi-dimensional in nature, including, among others, the following: Economic vulnerability: the low capacity of the poor and near-poor in terms of income, access to credit, savings, land and other assets; Geographical vulnerability: the high exposure of certain geographical areas to adverse environmental conditions and/or their distance from markets and public services; Life-cycle vulnerability: in particular, the heightened physical vulnerability of very young children, women of reproductive age and the elderly, but also the dependency of children on adults and their exposure to the risks of abuse; Health and disability related vulnerability: the low productive capacity and heightened risks of exclusion of people with chronic diseases (such as HIV/AIDS) and disabilities; Gender-related vulnerability: reduced opportunities (for example in education, employment, asset ownership or access to credit) and heightened risks (for example of violence or abandonment) arising from gender-based asymmetries, discrimination and exclusion; 11. With respect to economic vulnerability, poverty may be either transitory or chronic. In some cases, households or individuals experience poverty on a transitory basis, due to shocks or setbacks from which they can eventually recover. However, the poorest households tend to be caught in long-term poverty traps from which it is exceedingly difficult to escape. Some major shocks lead to the loss of productive assets and/or human capital (malnutrition and withdrawal of children from school), pushing 20
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A quick search reveals that the WWW holds a vast array of material and tools classed as emulators, virtual machines and interpreters. These range from the highly sophisticated to simple academic exercises. If you narrow your search and look for X86 assembler emulators, you will find commercial DOS emulators, Basic language tools, Java utilities such as Jasmin, and a CodeProject article, ASM.net X86, amongst others.
Another large class of related tools are standalone X86 debuggers and disassemblers, which can be used both to step through code fragments and examine generated machine code statically or on the fly. This article offers something different. A Visual Studio Express based solution, written using C++ and assembler, that allows the user to write and execute X86, X86/64 and ARM assembler line by line as easily as using a text editor. As code is only emulated, errors are trapped and reported within the program without any wider impact.
This article is not aimed at expert readers or professional application, but rather those seeking to develop their knowledge of C++ and assembler used in the .NET environment, or who like idea of such a tool for some anorak fun. For convenience, I have chosen to use and provide materials based on Visual Studio Express 2012 running under Windows 7 64bit (executables are X86 32 bit). My objective at the outset was to learn how to use Visual C++ to write multiform applications, to learn X86 assembler, and how to combine both of these to produce a single executable...
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Flowers Cedar Rapids, IA
44 results for Flowers in Cedar Rapids, IA
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Detroit Red Wings fans would all agree, that Chris Osgood was a key goaltender in the 1996–97 and 1997–98 winning seasons. Detroit Red Wings Chris Osgood had 13 successful seasons as starter goaltender. Throughout Chris Osgood's career he moved to other NHL teams New York Islanders and St. Louis Blues.
Chris Returned to the the Red Wings in 2005 to play another 6 seasons. In the 2007-08 season the Red Wings won another Cup. Chris Osgood had won a total of 3 Stanley Cups with the Red Wings. Chris retired in 2011 holding a number of NHL records.
This shirt represents a piece of Detroit Red Wings history. Produced in the late 90s during one of Chris Osgood's record seasons, the shirt is made of cotton with a full color photo featuring NHL goaltender Chris Osgood. Perfect for any Red Wings fan.