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Booms in my chest
Mr dr,am male.but booms in my chest.please help me.I wont remove booms.really I sad to speak.please help me
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Doctor Answers (1) on Booms in my chest
Dr Satyabrata Mohanty
9 yrs. of exp | Jaipur | Cosmetic/Plastic Surgeon
If you are having female like breast then it's gynaecomastia It needs surgical removal. You have to consult a plastic surgeon for this.
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3D-Tech News Around The Web / NVIDIA HairWorks 1.2.1 released« on: December 07, 2016, 05:16:37 PM »
NVIDIA HairWorks is a library for simulating and rendering dynamic hair and fur.
What's New
This is a minor update release. It does contain small API changes.
What's New
This is a minor update release. It does contain small API changes.
- Improved versioning information
- More explicit handling of rendering state with debug rendering
- AssetHeaderInfo - m_fileVersion string becomes m_serialVersion integer
- VisualizationSettings structure can control depth buffer on call to renderVisualization
- const BuildInfo& getBuildInfo() replaces getBuildString(). The m_buildString member of BuildInfo holds the same value as getBuildString().
- BuildInfo structure contains methods that can convert version numbers encoded as ints to strings and vice versa

subset: commoncrawl


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Full profile →'">
The author is a Forbes contributor. The opinions expressed are those of the writer.
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In trading on Thursday, music & electronics stores shares were relative laggards, down on the day by about 2.1%. Helping drag down the group were shares of Radioshack (RSH), off about 10.1% and shares of Gamestop (GME) down about 3.2% on the day.
Also lagging the market Thursday are airlines shares, down on the day by about 2% as a group, led down by United Continental Holdings (UAL), trading lower by about 6.6% and American Airlines Group (AAL), trading lower by about 6.1%.
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All Colombian Women Cheat
Posted on 09. May, 2011 by Colin in colombia
Alternate Title: Colombian Infidelity Statistics
All Colombian women cheat – this is a common belief among expats in Colombia. I've been hearing it from gringos ever since moving here. I always dismissed it though. I thought these gringos were meet girls of a lower moral fiber. If you meet girls partying in La Candelaria and Zona Rosa doing cocaine or ecstasy, what do you think you're going to get?
At university in St. Louis, I met many wholesome, family-type Latina women from Brazil to Peru. These kind of women come from the top 1% of society, usually homebodies that never leave their upper class bubbles. You're not going to meet those girls snorting coke at Ceci's. So I thought the infidelity perception was an anomaly due to the kind of Colombian women gringos meet.
That has slowly changed over time. Then, by extreme coincidence, I came across this hard copy El Tiempo article from March of last year: América Latina, territorio infiel (Latin America, land of infidelity). The article says that not only does greater Latin America cheat a lot, but Colombia leads the region. How can I argue with the national letter of record?
If you read Spanish, you can read the entire article linked above. If not, here's what's important:
6 of every 10 Latin Americans (63%) admit to having cheated at least once … Colombians seem to be the most unfaithful in the region … 66% of [Colombian] men and women admit to having cheated at least once.
The article isn't as interesting as the statistics, and unfortunately the El Tiempo archive online doesn't include those. So here are my picks, plus screenshots of the hard copy so you can see them all.
- 10.5% of Latin Americans would like to have sex more than seven times a week
- 9.2% of Latin Americans are currently cheating
- 45.2% of Latin women have never cheated
- 40.8% of Colombian women have never cheated
- 51% of Latin men have paid for sex
- 13.7% of Latin men's first sexual experience was with another male
- 47.5% of Latin Americans have participated in trios or group sex
- 9.1% of Latin Americans currently participate in trios or group sex
- Colombian trio / group sex percentages are higher than greater Latin America
- 22.3% of Latin Americans had their first sexual experience before 16 years old
- 63% of Latin Americans grew up in homes where sex was never discussed
After reading this article, I started thinking about the dealings I've had with Colombian women, and I think a majority had boyfriends! From the very first Colombian girl I made out with to the current booty call.
I was also shocked at the trio numbers. Many of my friends in the States are freaky motherfuckers who've been with women numbered in the several hundreds, and done trains and that kind of thing. I'm nothing like that, but I believed I was on the experienced end of the spectrum. But if 47.5% of Colombians have been in a trio, maybe not! I was just in my first one here last year.
206 Responses to "All Colombian Women Cheat"
14. Jan, 2017
Hi Ana, it appears that stereotypes are everywhere. Thank you for being the voice of sanity. You obviously are a good person.
14. Jan, 2017
Hi Lea, more people read than post. Thanks for being a voice of what is right.
20. Jan, 2017
Mean psicopathic gold diggas. They will hit and marry any fool with money, fuck everyone else they can and have the courage to shit on the other man's wife that they cheat on with. They are extremely envious about all women brighter and hotter than them and they will do anything to destroy those women lives. I am chilled about any nationality. But colombians always proved me to be mean, ignorant, arrogant hoes with some sorta mental illness.
02. Feb, 2017
Well you have definitely scared me as I was sicking a online relationship with a Colombian girl. Yes you can call me a dumb fuck. Thanks for sharing your experience.
02. Feb, 2017
Wow thanks for sharing your experience. I feel like a dumb fuck..
10. Feb, 2017
Mmmm my husband cheat on me with a colombian girl now we r divorce she s pregnant and im just waiting to see what its gpimf to happen, even though i told her he was married she stayed with him now she s pregnant and about to live in the house we used to share ;(


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We all struggle to find decent winter outfits for work or school. And we always end up wearing those few outfits way too often. So here are a few ideas...


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Welcome to Therapeutic Healthcare Collective. We are pleased to provide quality, clean, and lab-tested medical cannabis products to legally qualified medical cannabis patients and their caregivers in Santa Cruz county in a safe and professional manner. We offer individualized service in our collective. In doing so, we adhere to the highest standards around health, safety, and patients' rights. Our staff is professional, friendly, and able to advise our patients on the wide-range of cannabis products such as Cannabis, edibles, hash, flowers and more.
We offer discounts to seniors, the disable and veterans. Please come to our collective for more details.
Legal Disclosure:
Therapeutic Healthcare Collective and this web site is for Medical Marijuana Patients and growers who live in a city, state or country where cultivating Cannabis is legal. All information on this web site in compliance with the Compassionate Use Act of 1996, Health and Safety Code 11362.5, California's Proposition 215, California's Senate Bill 420. * You must be 18-21 years of age (depending on your state laws) or older to enter or read or join or email us at email@example.com
Therapeutic Healthcare Collective
5011 Soquel Dr. Soquel, CA 95073
Please confirm your email before writing a review.
The place is really small but it's cozy and nice. I kinda like the fact they are small because i feel like it's easier to see all their buds and products. For being small they have a really good selection. You can tell they appreciate quality over quantity and pay attention to their customers. They have a little of everything. Guy at the front door was really cool and welcoming. The budtenders were also very cool and helpful. I also like that most of their flowers were tested and labeled. That's important to me. I will be going back.
Lots of daily and regular deals! Good meds and friendly staff
I was a first time customer here and they made sure I felt welcomed. Highly recommend these guys! Prices were also very good.
I'm a somewhat new patient here/in general & this place has been my favorite in town by far! I love the whole staff, they are all so helpful & very welcoming to new patients. This place is great for patients with anxiety because the vibe there very calm & the staff all really want to help. The dispensary itself is pretty small & they don't have a huge variety of meds, but what they do have is really great quality! I've tried a good number of their strains & a ton of edibles & I've loved all of them! The only thing that I'm not 100% happy with is the fact that this is definitely on the more expensive side, but even so, its worth the extra few $. I would recommend this place to anyone.
great atmosphere guy at the door was kind and guided me up, I then met another sweet lady who checked me in, then was brought down to the good 👍 bud tender walked me through as a newbie. and gave me a complimentary preroll. left with some good smoke. Happy Camper thanks again (:
I was astonished at the extremely friendly atmosphere of this chill spot , very down to earth, staff and bud tender knew his flowers..and talked to me with interest about my ailments and what best suits me . not your run of the mill dispensary thats typical in SC..beleieve me i know.. I'm a frequent flyer! very medicinal like with information and top notch edibles as well. affordable meets knowledge and great service does it for me !! will be back in my travels Thanks much!!
If you have never been, don't go. You'll be turned away at the door rudely. Needed meds and it was the closest place I could get to after work and they turned me down at the door because I was a new customer. Super rude.
We would like to extend a sincere apology to you. Our policy is that we do not take a new patient 15 minutes before closing. We will take this complaint into consideration when we review the policy again. We also want to apologize for the rude and inappropriate behavior when you were greeted at the door. We have built a solid patient base of returning, loyal people, who actually say the exact opposite from your review (as stated in other reviews) and so we would like to extend a FREE gram of your choice flowers or the equivalent in an edible, so you can experience our collective, our medicine and who we actually are. Thank you, Therapeutic Healthcare Collective
johnnypinto i find this review hard to believe.. must be the wrong location! or just a negative person!
This has quickly become my favorite club in Santa Cruz. It's right in soquel and they have a solid selection of soleventless dabs which I really look for in a club. All the flowers I was shown were nice and big and good strain selection.
the best selection and also dablabs are good I enjoy the wonderful staff also must come here
1 person thought this review was helpful
Very nice guy and family that runs it but come on its time you get with the program. You never give deals and your prices are always the highest with tax added after that. Too many good shops with better prices in town so I hope you figure it out and see wont last long always charging high prices.


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This beautiful black and multicolored floor length mermaid prom dress has a sheer bodice. This sleeveless dress features multicolored floral appliques on the bodice, waistline and down the back of the dress. A concealed zipper fastens the dress in the back. This dress looks great on girls who want to show off their curvy figure. This is the perfect prom dress for the girl who wants to look both feminine and edgy.


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Blame Congress for Inaction on the Arctic
Read More.
The U.S. is behind Russia and several other nations in mobilizing for the impact of the Arctic's melting, the New York Times reported this weekend. With Barack Obama in Alaska where he is speaking on the issue, the center of attention is on the president.
Daniel Drezner was quick to criticize articles like this, saying they incite panic over peripheral issues. I had a different reaction. There may or may not be a story about the Obama administration's handling of the consequences of Arctic melting. But I immediately thought of Congress, because this is exactly the kind of challenge it has left itself unable to cope with.
Once upon a time, Congress eagerly sought the scientific knowledge needed for such a daunting problem. It founded the Office of Technology Assessment in 1972 to give "Congressional members and committees with objective and authoritative analysis of … complex scientific and technical issues." Excellent idea and excellent execution -- up until 1995, when Speaker Newt Gingrich and his House radicals shut it down.
Also once upon a time, congressional committees and their senior members -- especially in the House, where specialization has traditionally been encouraged -- built up quite a bit of knowledge. This may still be the case for House Democrats, but House Republicans instituted term limits for committee chairmen (also in 1995, also thanks to Gingrich). The current chairman of the Science, Space and Technology Committee is Lamar Smith, a Texas Republican who was chairman of the Judiciary Committee in the previous Congress. He is a capable legislator, but he can't be as good at his job as someone with years of narrow concentration on one committee's business.
Finally, expertise at the congressional staff level has also deteriorated over time. Congress has put more resources into public relations, while continuing to emphasize district operations. Something had to give, and it turned out to be the professionals -- the ones who can help legislate as well as provide oversight over the federal bureaucracy. It doesn't help that Congress has been cutting its own budget since Republicans achieved a House majority in 2011.
Washington Monthly's Paul Glastris and Haley Sweetland Edwards call all of this "the Big Lobotomy" Congress doesn't have the capacity to do what it once did.
That leaves Congress dependent on lobbyists for expertise in too many areas and weakens its oversight abilities. This may mean the president gets his way more often, but mostly it just leaves the executive-branch bureaucracy to do whatever it wants. No wonder the government is slow to react to new challenges. Congress is almost entirely missing in the New York Times story, and seems to have done little in this area.
Drezner may be correct that the Times overhyped a "Russia is coming" threat, but this doesn't mean nothing is at stake. Melting ice creates challenges for resources, transportation, diplomacy and more. I'd feel a lot better about U.S. policy in the Arctic if Congress was more visible in doing its part.
I wonder what Drezner has to say about the saddest bit of the Times article: "The United States, by contrast, has not even ratified the law of the sea treaty, leaving it on the sidelines of territorial jockeying."
Republican Senator Lisa Murkowski of Alaska has opposed Obama administration efforts to designate more of the Arctic as protected wilderness. Her Energy Committee held a hearing on the Arctic in March, and the House Transportation Committee had an Arctic hearing last July. Other than that, it appears Congress has paid little attention to the issue.
This column does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the editorial board or Bloomberg LP and its owners.
To contact the author on this story:
Jonathan Bernstein at firstname.lastname@example.com
To contact the editor on this story:
Katy Roberts at firstname.lastname@example.com


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South Indian Actress
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Colin Nicholls QC's specialist experience includes: war crimes; bribery and corruption; complex commercial crime; cybercrime; extradition; criminal mutual assistance and human rights.
His international experience includes advising in cases in France, the Channel Islands, Gibraltar, Kenya, Italy, Cyprus, Switzerland, the US, Venezuela, the Bahamas, India and Pakistan. He advised clients in connection with the Bhopal, Marcos and Bofors litigations, in the mani puliti trials in Italy, and in the 'cash for honours' scandal in England. He has acted as observer for Article XIX in a seditious libel in Zagreb.
Nicholls has advised and appeared in extradition cases since 1973 and given expert evidence in Ireland and the US. He has appeared as leading counsel in Hong Kong and St Helena, and been permitted to address the court as an advocate in the US.
In commercial crime, he has been instructed to lead teams of barristers, solicitors and accountants in cases involving up to two years' preparation and trials lasting up to a year.
His general criminal experience includes defending and prosecuting in all types of criminal cases including many murders.
His recent cases include acting as amicus curiae in the appeal of the former Bosnian president Momcilo Krajisnik against his conviction for crimes against humanity at the ICTY; and defending Daniel James, a British soldier and interpreter for General Richards for spying in Afghanistan.
For more information, click here.


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CTL - Los Angeles
Title Loans, Car Title Loans, Bad Credit Loans
A car title loan is a loan that is using your vehicle as a collateral. It is also known as a secured loan.
We check your car's make, model and year in order to determine it's value.
The application process is simple and can be done over the phone. You will get approved and come to collect the money. The loans are in the sum of between $2,501 and $20,000.
Please call us for more details or visit our website. Our team is waiting to answer your questions and to accept your application.
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News About: Kibbutz
Van Percy Purchased By OTI Racing
OTI Racing has purchased English-based galloper Van Percy and the talented gelding is set to head to Australia for the 2014 Spring Racing Carnival.
Van Percy made his racing …
Victoria Derby form has Savvy Nature at his peak
The 2013 Victoria Derby favourite Savvy Nature is in peak form heading into Saturday's three year old classic at Flemington according to Flemington track man Warren Huntly.
Huntly watched Savvy Nature go through his final paces leading up to the …
News Topics
- Chris Waller
- Melbourne Cup
- Gai Waterhouse
- Cox Plate
- Caulfield Cup
- Peter Moody
- Melbourne Spring Racing Carnival
- Golden Slipper
- Flemington
- Hugh Bowman
- Stradbroke Handicap
- Doncaster Mile
- Black Caviar
- Damien Oliver
- Caulfield Guineas
- Peter Snowden
- Queen Elizabeth Stakes
- Craig Williams
- Darren Weir
- James McDonald
- Caulfield
- Blue Diamond Stakes
- Newmarket Handicap
- David Hayes


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Check Out the new Remax App
Ask About This Home
Spacious 2560 sq ft 2004 Mobile home, brick foundation on 6.5 acres. 4 beds, 2 baths, with extra family room, utility room and large hallway with office space. Covered front and side porches. 24x38 detached 3 car garage with attic. Comes w/stove & fridge


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Video of Oldest Gymnast Johanna Quaas
You Won't Believe What This 89-Year-Old Gymnast Can Do
As the world's oldest active gymnast, German-born Johanna Quaas is challenging expectations and proving that even at 89 years old, she can flip, spin, and plank with the best of them. Johanna first caught the media's attention in 2012 (when she was a strong and spry 86), after videos captured her performing routines during the Turnier der Meister in Cottbus, Germany, proving that with passion, drive, and determination, anything is possible. Watch Johanna dominate the parallel bars, and then head to her Facebook page for even more age-defying inspiration.
Omg I cannot believe she can do all that at 89! I couldn't even do that and I'm in my 20's
So major fitspo right there! I need to hit the gym now haha
POPSUGAR, the #1 independent media and technology company for women. Where more than 75 million women go for original, inspirational content that feeds their passions and interests.


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News & Events
To infect its victims, influenza A heads for the lungs, where it latches onto sialic acid on the surface of cells. So researchers created the perfect decoy: A carefully constructed spherical nanoparticle coated in sialic acid lures the influenza A virus to its doom.
As signs of autumn such as falling leaves and cool weather days can be found across the Rensselaer campus, the university will be buzzing with activity as thousands of Rensselaer families are expected to visit Oct. 21-23 to celebrate Family Weekend.
Jennifer Pazour, assistant professor of industrial and systems engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, has been named the recipient of a 2016 Gulf Research Program Early-Career Research Fellowship.
Faculty and graduate students from the Center for Lighting Enabled Systems & Applications at Rensselaer and Boston University were awarded a U.S. patent titled "Sensory Lighting System and Method for Characterizing an Illumination Space."
This year, as part of the National Manufacturing Day program hosted by the School of Engineering at Rensselaer, a Sikorsky UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter will land on 86' Field on Friday, Oct. 14.


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Published byJessie Langwell Modified about 1 year ago
Intermediate STATA Adrián de la GarzaJeremy Green 27 March 2009 5/4/20151
2 Getting Help STATA Help: STATA Help: Just type help in STATA main Command window. STATA listserv: STATA listserv: http://www.stata.com/statalist/ UCLA Stat Computing: UCLA Stat Computing: http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/stata/ Yale StatLab Consultants, online help and FAQs: Yale StatLab Consultants, online help and FAQs: http://statlab.stat.yale.edu/help/ Manuals also available at SSL and Yale StatLab. 0. Introduction
3 Today's Workshop 1. Programming/Project Management Tips 2. Data Management 3. Analyzing Data - Graphs - Statistical Analysis Latest version: STATA v. 10: Commands throughout this presentation will always refer to this version, although most are backwards-compatible. 0. Introduction
4 Using DO files (1/2) DO files allow you to run a whole program interactively; you can run it all at once or select portions of the program. DO files allow you to run a whole program interactively; you can run it all at once or select portions of the program. AVOID making changes to your original data interactively using the STATA command window. Use DO files instead. AVOID making changes to your original data interactively using the STATA command window. Use DO files instead. Use DO files to make changes to your data and to run your statistical and graphical analyses. Keep track of your progress. Use DO files to make changes to your data and to run your statistical and graphical analyses. Keep track of your progress. 1. Programming/Project Management Tips
5 Using DO files (2/2) Keep your DO files organized: Helps to create a main DO file from which you run other DO files that perform smaller tasks on your data. Keep your DO files organized: Helps to create a main DO file from which you run other DO files that perform smaller tasks on your data. Write lots of comments in your DO file to help you remember what a command or a section of your DO file does. This will help you remember what you did months ago. Write lots of comments in your DO file to help you remember what a command or a section of your DO file does. This will help you remember what you did months ago. To open DO file, use FILE menu or DO-file button. To open DO file, use FILE menu or DO-file button. 1. Programming/Project Management Tips
6 Log files Syntax Open log file log using filename [, append replace [text|smcl] name(logname)] Close log, temporarily suspend logging, or resume logging log {close|off|on} [logname] Examples. log using mylog. log close. log using mylog, append. log close. log using "filename containing spaces" 1. Programming/Project Management Tips
Managing Your Data Back up all Master Data Files CD, USB drive, network Keep a detailed codebook Describes each variable and values Adding variables, cases, computing new variables Keep a roadmap Keep a log of all analyses with what you have done Save syntax files 2. Data Management 7
8 Inspecting Your Data (1/3) cd "C:\Documents and Settings\Adrian\My Documents\stata files" clear set mem 80m log using "C:\Documents and Settings\Adrian\My Documents\stata files\logs\mylog" sysuse census browse list state region pop if _n <= 3/* shows first 3 obs */ l state region pop if _N - _n <= 2/* shows last 3 obs */ l state region pop in 1/3/* shows first 3 obs */ l state region pop in -3/l/* shows last 3 obs */ 2. Data Management
9 Inspecting Your Data (2/3) generate agesq = medage^2 /* creates variable equal to medage squared */ sum pop /* shows summary stats for pop */ scalar popmean = r(mean) /* saves mean of pop to scalar popmean */ /* create variable equal to 1 when pop > popmean and 0 otherwise */ g dummy = 0 replace dummy = 1 if pop > popmean /* how many states have population higher than average? */ count if dummy == 1 /* how many states NOT IN THE SOUTH have pop > popmean? */ count if dummy == 1 & region != 3 2. Data Management
10 Inspecting Your Data (3/3) describe label list/* shows all labels attached to dataset */ label list cenreg/* shows label cenreg attached to variable region */ sum pop browse /* summarize population by region */ sum pop if region == "NE" /* this gives an error since region is not a string */ sum pop if region == 1 /* this does work */ 2. Data Management
11 Calculate mean population by region Method 1 sum pop if region == 1 sum pop if region == 2 sum pop if region == 3 sum pop if region == 4 Downside: We have to type the sum command for each individual region. If the dataset contained population data by city and we had to compute means for each of the 50 states, typing the sum command 50 times would be very painful!!! 2. Data Management
12 Calculate mean population by region Method 2 bysort region: sum pop Downside: This method shows the population means by region, like we wanted, but it also shows a bunch of other stats we may not care about. Also, the means are stored in memory but are not readily available for use in case we want to use those means for further calculations. 2. Data Management
13 Calculate mean population by region Method 3 table region, c(m pop) Downside: This method is great for presentation purposes: it shows exactly the information we want. One problem, however, is that the information is still not readily available for use in case we want to store the population means by region for further analyses. 2. Data Management
14 Calculate mean population by region Method 4 sysuse census, clear collapse (mean) pop, by(region) Downside: The collapse command converts the dataset in memory into a set of means, standard deviations, and other summary stats. In our case, the new dataset now contains population means by region. All variables other than the collapsed variable (pop) and the grouping variable (region) are NOT collapsed and hence disappear from dataset. Can we make any further analyses without the rest of the variables? 2. Data Management
15 Calculate mean population by region Method 5 sysuse census, clear by region, sort: egen meanpop = mean(pop) Downside: Do we really want an additional variable in the dataset that contains information on population means by region, a number that is repeated for each observation (state) within the same region? In very large datasets, one additional variable may lead to memory constraints. Use scalars? 2. Data Management
16 Reshaping Data sysuse bplong, clear br Suppose we want to take difference in bp before and after treatment. Difficult to calculate difference if data is organized in long format. Need to convert to wide format. reshape wide bp, i(patient sex agegrp) j(when) br g bpdiff = bp2 – bp1 2. Data Management
17 Value Labels (1/2) g gender = sex br Why do gender and sex look different? Value labels Why use value labels? * They save space (e.g., "0" instead of "male" for each obs.) * More informative to the researcher (e.g., what region is 3?) * Regression, lists, tables… display labels instead of values table sex, c(m bp1 m bp2) table gender, c(m bp1 m bp2) 2. Data Management
18 Value Labels (2/2) label value gender sex/* note that sex refers to label, not var */ br patient sex gender label value gender/* detaches sex label from gender variable */ br pat sex gend label define genderlbl 0 "man" 1 "woman" label value gender genderlbl br pat sex gend What do the following commands do? label define genderlbl 2 "na", add label define genderlbl 0 "Man" 1 "Woman" 2 "NA", modify 2. Data Management
19 Dummy Variables (1/3) Suppose we want to create dummy vars for each of the 4 regions in census database: g dum1 = 0 replace dum1 = 1 if region == 1 … What problems may these commands lead to? 2. Data Management
20 Dummy Variables (2/3) To create four dummies, we need to type those two commands four times. To create four dummies, we need to type those two commands four times. More importantly, the previous method generates 0s even when we have missing values. More importantly, the previous method generates 0s even when we have missing values. tab region, g(d) This second method tabulates the variable region, showing a list of the four regions, and correctly creates 4 separate dummies, accounting for missing values. 2. Data Management
21 Dummy Variables (3/3) One more command that will be useful in regressions: xi i.region, noomit This third alternative yields the same results as the tab method described in previous slide. 2. Data Management
22 Merging Data (1/4) sysuse census, clear keep state-popurban sort state/* both master and using data must be sorted */ save census1, replace sysuse census, clear keep state region medage-divorce /* note region is kept in both */ sort state save census2, replace use census1, clear merge state using census2/* remember: both files must be sorted */ table _merge/* _merge keeps track of how good merge was */ 2. Data Management
23 Merging Data (2/4) Important!!! If non-merging variable (e.g. region) is in both files, data on master file will be kept – while data on using file will be lost. use census1, clear l state region in 1 replace region = 2 in 1 sort state merge state using census2 table _merge l state region in 1/* region data in master file is kept */ 2. Data Management
24 Merging Data (3/4) Now suppose that each of the two databases contains information about only SOME (non-overlapping) of the 50 states. Do we lose information after merging the two datasets? use census2, clear drop in 3/6 sort state save, replace use census1, clear drop in 22/23 sort state merge state using census2 table _merge 2. Data Management
25 Merging Data (4/4) Finally, it's important to note that, in case a variable has value labels attached in both datasets, labels attached to variables in master dataset prevail. This may cause serious trouble, for example, when we are merging datasets from surveys taken in different years and for which the possible values in the answers may mean different things. Example 1: Change in scale (1 to 4 in 1980; 1 to 5 in 1990). Example 2: Omitted country in second survey, but all countries, sorted in alphabetical order, are assigned consecutive values. 2. Data Management
26 Other Data Management Issues Use StatTransfer software to convert Excel, SAS, SPSS, … into STATA. Use compress command to make your dataset as small as possible and use less memory. Some very large datasets won't open in STATA due to STATA's memory limitations. In this case, it is recommended that you open a subset of the dataset, delete variables/observations that don't interest you and try again: use varlist using filename 2. Data Management
Analyzing Data: Make a List Dependent Variable(s) (response, outcome, criterion) Independent Variables (explanatory or predictor variables) Treatment Variable Covariates / Confounding Variables Categorical and Continuous Variables Remember: Types of variables determine the statistics we use Time period Scope and type of analysis 3. Analyzing Data 27
28 Analyzing Data: Graphs (1/2) Draw a histogram: Draw a histogram: sysuse auto, clear histogram price Create a scatter plot: Create a scatter plot: scatter price mpg Draw line of best fit (linear regression): Draw line of best fit (linear regression): twoway lfit price mpg Put two graphs together: Put two graphs together: twoway scatter price mpg || lfit price mpg 3. Analyzing Data
29 Analyzing Data: Graphs (2/2) Type help graphs to: Type help graphs to: * create other graphs (pie and bar charts, box plots, etc.); * adjust graph settings (change labels, axes, colors…) An easier (although less customizable) option is to use GRAPH menu. An easier (although less customizable) option is to use GRAPH menu. 3. Analyzing Data
Analyzing Data: Statistical Analysis (1/2) Correlation: quantify relationships between variables Regression: predict dependent variable from independent variable(s) Group differences t-test & ANOVA Chi-square for categorical and frequency data Significance v. effect size More Complex Models 3. Analyzing Data 30
31 Analyzing Data: Statistical Analysis (2/2) cor var1 var2 gives the basic (Pearson) correlation between two variables. cor var1 var2 gives the basic (Pearson) correlation between two variables. cor price mpg regress var1 var2 gives the effect of var2 on var1. regress var1 var2 gives the effect of var2 on var1. reg price mpg Useful textbook for more on stats for social sciences: Agresti, Alan, and Barbra Finlay (2008): Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences, Prentice Hall, 4 th edition. Textbook examples with STATA: http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/examples/smss/ http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/examples/smss/ 3. Analyzing Data
Thank you!! 32
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Grand Rapids has 197,800 residents. It is located in Kent county.
Biology schools in Grand Rapids charged students an average tuition of $14,764.00 if they were Michigan residents, and $15,393.00 if they were non-residents, during the 2009 - 2010 school year.
The average cost of books and supplies for biology schools in Grand Rapids is $950.00. The average cost for room and board for students living on campus at biology schools in Grand Rapids was $7,259.00. The average cost for students living at home was $4,681.00 for the 2009 - 2010 school year. There are four biology colleges in Grand Rapids for students to choose from. 77 students were reported to have graduated from biology programs in Grand Rapids in the 2008 - 2009 school year.
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Norma Beatrice Choate, 94, Orofino
Norma Beatrice Choate was born to Ione and Wilbur Hill in Shepherd, MT on October 25, 1916. The family moved to Greer when Norma was five years old with her sisters Maxine and Phroda and brothers John and Leon. She attended school in Greer and Orofino.
Norma passed away on April 12, 2011 after a brief illness at Clearwater Valley Hospital with her family by her side.
Norma married Leon Marshall in 1934. They made their home in Greer until they moved to Bovill in 1942 and Ahsahka in 1947. During this time Madeline, Floyd, Richard and Penny joined the family. Norma and Leon were later divorced.
Norma was married to Basil Packwood who passed away in the early sixties. Norma became "mother" to Basil's children Carl "Buster", Laurel, Kenny, Edna, Lewis and Robert. They have remained close throughout the years.
In 1968 Norma married Joseph Choate. They made their home in Teakean until his death in 1972 when Norma returned to her home of many years in Ahsahka. Norma resided at Clearwater Health and Rehab for many years.
Norma had many hobbies including crocheting, knitting, embroidery and other handiwork. She enjoyed working word puzzles and all kinds of flowers. Norma enjoyed music and dancing in her younger years. Norma loved picking huckleberries and her family spent many wonderful days helping her fill the freezer. Norma was a wonderful cook. She cooked for her family and she made the best fried chicken around. Norma shared her love of all of the things with her family who continue to honor her enjoying these things in her memory.
Norma worked at many area cafes including the Empire, Ideal, Erickson's, Clearwater Health and Rehabilitation and the Woodlot in Ahsahka. She retired from State Hospital North in 1981.
Norma is preceded in death by her parents and her siblings, her son Richard Marshall, grandson Clark Ronald Umphenour, Jr. and Kenny Packwood. She is survived by Madeline Umphenour of Kamiah, Floyd and Diane Marshall of Winchester and Penny and Kenny Coon of Orofino. She is also survived by many grandchildren, great-grand children and great-great grandchildren as well as numerous step-grandchildren and extended family.
Funeral services were April 17 at Pine Hills Funeral Chapel in Orofino. A potluck dinner in honor of Norma followed services in Orofino.
Burial was at Teakean Cemetery.
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Dr. David Kells is a board-certified obstetrics and gynecology physician who has been serving patients in the Chandler area for over 25 years. Driven by a desire to help people and a love of science, he provides care in an intimate setting and gets to know each patient on an individual level, always listening to specific needs and desires. When he isn't seeing patients, Dr. Kells performs a variety of in-office research—from menopausal medications to new IUDs—seeking new opportunities to improve patients' lives. Dr. Kells loves having a tight-knit practice that allows him time to get to know his OB/GYN patients and truly understand their wants and needs when it comes to their health. Read more
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Additional Property InformationThis listing located at 446 Oakwood Circle, Coal Valley, IL offers three bedrooms. The property is presently offered for $199,900.
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Defenseman Lubomir Visnovsky took a long time to report to the New York Islanders after last summer's trade.
But he showed it was nothing personal by agreeing to an extension on Friday.
The Islanders announced that the sides have agreed on a two-year deal. Newsday reported that the total worth is $9.5 million.
The Islanders are in the playoff hunt this season, so they aren't a seller as they often are around this time. Instead, they have been negotiating with their potential unrestricted free agents.
Visnovsky had been acquired from the Anaheim Ducks last summer, but filed a grievance and also didn't report immediately after the lockout.
MORE: NHL trade deadline tracker
The grievance was over whether an earlier no-trade clause should have remained in effect. Once he lost that case, the lockout started and Visnovsky signed with the Kontinental Hockey League's Slovan Bratislava.
He tried to remain in the KHL after the lockout ended, citing a family issue, but was turned down because the KHL and NHL have an agreement to honor the other league's contracts. He finally reported in early February and has nine points in 22 games.
Thoughout both cases, his agent, Neil Sheehy, said that the defenseman had no issues with the Islanders or general manager Garth Snow. He tweeted on Friday that Visnovsky's deal included a no-movement clause.
"Lubomir Visnovsky is impressed with Garth Snow and his teammates on the New York Islanders. Lubo wants to help the organization win," Sheehy tweeted.


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Discussion in 'Headphones, Earphones & Portable Music' started by wilto, Jun 6, 2005.
After 10-15 days of owning your unit has your unit developed cracks on the buttons?
at the third time of asking. I've done it.
well done mate
thanks....i was starting to feel like the forum idiot!
We seem to be a few votes short on this poll so far
we need to wait for people to catch up on the new poll.
Yes, two cracks (top right and bottom left) after two weeks of moderate/light use. Silver model.
So far this one is looking the reverse of the figures on the previous poll that was not public ..... 64% No after 14 votes.
Still we had logged at least 11 Yes votes on the "cracks" thread so I guess theres a few more to come.
Is it worth asking all people who have voted to also post their serial numbers ?
that might be an idea!
i asked that b4 and noone replied with their serials.....its really useful for soon to be HD5 owners so they can possible check b4 buying.....
Maybe if wilto edits his original post on this thread to ask for serial numbers as well ?
I'd tell you mine but unfortunately I returned that unit without noting the number. My new one has not yet cracked after just 3 or 4 days or so.... just another week to go!
did you get another silver one as replacement, Hrochnick?
Yeah I did, they're the only ones on sale at Sonystyle and I didn't want to pay the extra for a 30gb one, and to be honest don't need 30gb anyway.
I still find it strange that onhly 6 people have registered on this poll as having cracks.
Seems disproportionate with the previous claims.
Surely noone has been telling porkies ......
I don't think they would have lied - besides I counted 9 on the thread about it - however, I think it is more about people not bothered to do the poll...
I actually lied when i clicked yes, mine had cracks after just six days!
Ten people so far.
And getting more representative of the extent of the problem I feel at almost 50/50.
I suspect that if the poll was for silver (and poss red) units only we would see 60%-70%.
Any chance those that have said "No" could confirm the colour of their players, or name them in the case of the NW-HD5H which does not seem to be "cracking" either?
Oh and please post if cracks appear after they have registered their vote.
Just to try to keep this poll worthwhile.
Edit - For those wondering what these cracks look like, this was the first picture of them taken from a silver NW-HD5
Well cracks have appeared on my silver model after 1 day. Running in a straight line from the top left arrow accross the play button and stopping at the right arrow button three quarters of the way accross. I am pretty fed up to be honest as I returned a Vaio pocket yesterday as it locked up and had appalling battery life. At least the HD 5 has good battery life.
OK - we all want to see this problem resolved asap, yes?
The only way we can do that is to make sure Sony and the public are aware of the extent of the problem which could be HUGE now if philthunder's theory is correct.
We already know Sony representatives read this forum so can we please ensure that EVERYONE affected does the following (whatever else they decide to do).
1) Please register a Yes vote on this poll.
As I write there are 11 votes on here but there are 14 more people who have reported problems on the forum that have not yet voted - please do ....
sacd, tribefan1010, premoejack, whiteairzuit, MRussell, meddyliol, verflucht, cuteboy, stylez_paniro, Jonny5Alive, briankai, acestar, philthunder, sean2tech
2) Please telephone Sony and inform them of your serial number, they are collating numbers with a view to a potential recall. Please help others by ensuring they have your number registered and, therefore, know the extent of the problem.
Thank you all.
Hi I'm from Australia and just bought a red HD5 on Friday, and by last night a crack has formed on the lower-left corner of the directional pad, and another one is forming on the upper-right corner.
So that's confirmation that the red one has the problem too. I'm sure this is an issue on all HD5 units. Since you guys are all in the UK I guess I have to contact Sony Australia.
Yes, im aussie, got an NWHD5S (silver) and i can see 2 cracks in the diagonals of the crosspad. not cool for 479 bucks
u bought it from sony australia? if so...then i assume ALL hd5 no matter what country they'r from have cracks....maybe i should get hd1 lol
btw, how much is it? sonystyle says its still pre order
Hi all
I got my HD5 only 5 days ago, and I have a crack to the bottom left of the play key from the centre to the outside, on one is now developing on the top right. NOT HAPPY SONY!! Will be going back for a refund today, as this is obviously another example of how Sony have sold out on quality in the ast 5 years!!
My second one has developed cracks... my vote counts double!
To those that have voted 'no cracks' - just wait and see, I have always said, and I still believe that this will affect every unit sooner or later.
I agree^^^ its obviously a design flaw.. the button is too thin in the pint where it cracks, and the buttons need to be made fully seperate.
Meh, not worth worrying over, im more concerned about the patterns that are showing up on my LCD screen when its white text/black background.
hmmmm. maybe i should get a HD3 instead....
Well, sony themselves werent very friendly apart from the standard "see a authorised service centre" template, but luckily my retailer is a good bloke and the first sony stockist in my state (since the 70s) so hes chasing it up with his sony rep and theyve actually asked me a couple of questions! wow!
(admittedly it was only what is the serial number, and are the pics your actual unit, or off the web)
So hopefully he might be able to give me some answers.
one things for sure, im left with a little sour taste in my mouth, which makes it all the more worse, because on the whole, sony products are some of the best in the world... TVs, game consoles, audio etc... i dont want to have to boycott ALL the best electronical gadgets
There are still a few people from that missing vote list compiled by KeanosMagicHat who haven't voted yet.
Separate names with a comma.


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Full profile →'">
The author is a Forbes contributor. The opinions expressed are those of the writer.
was hit with an injunction Friday that aims to stop it from further misdeeds in the e-book industry.
U.S. District Judge Denise Cote entered an injunction barring Apple from entering into any agreements with U.S. publishers that would prevent lower e-book prices or discounts. Further, Cote ordered Apple to hire an external firm to monitor its compliance with her ruling for two years.
Apple had fought to avoid hiring a monitor, arguing in court that it "exceeds the bounds of even criminal price-fixing cases" and that it shows a determination "to use this civil injunction to inflict punishment, which is impermissible." Regulators were unswayed. "This court should have no confidence that Apple on its own effectively can ensure that its illegal conduct will not be repeated. There must be significant oversight," they wrote in a separate filing.
The judgement will expire after five years, half the original term, though Cote included five possible one-year extensions to her ruling.
Cote in July found Apple had joined forces with five publishers to unseat from its market-leading position in the e-book industry. Those publishers include Hachette Book Group, HarperCollins, Penguin Random House, Simon & Schuster and Macmillan. All five have settled with the government.
A May 2014 date is set for Cote to determine damages, which could reach hundreds of millions of dollars.
Apple shares dropped 0.7% to $491.36 in early morning trading, while Amazon declined 0.9% to $292.18.
Reach Abram Brown at email@example.com.


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Pololu Blog »
User Profile: Paul
Two young children keep me busy outside of work, but I try to make time for some other activities: I am one of the organizers of the Las Vegas Ruby User Group and also a member of LVBots, where I am the reigning mini-sumo and dead-reckoning champion. I received my private pilot license in 2013 and fly a Cessna 172.
You might also want to visit my LinkedIn or GitHub pages.
Recent blog posts by Paul
New product: Romi 32U4 Control Board- 7 February 2017
What do you need to turn a Romi chassis into a functioning robot? Here are some Romi projects from the community, as well a couple of our example...
Polo-BOO! Halloween Sale- 7 October 2016
Halloween is quickly approaching, but there is still plenty of time for you makers out there to build something that will impress/terrify your...
New product: FEETECH FS90 Micro Servo- 15 September 2016
We are now carrying the FEETECH FS90 micro servo. At a weight of only 9 g and less than inch long, this servo is great for actuating tiny...
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Building a Raspberry Pi robot with the A-Star 32U4 Robot Controller- 4 October 2016
Thanks for the comment! I have updated the command as you suggested.
Paul's dead reckoning robot- 19 August 2015
For anyone interested in building a robot like this, our new A-Star 32U4 robot controller includes most of the...
Paul's dead reckoning robot- 20 July 2015
I have not made a wiring diagram (need to learn Fritzing!), but I still have the robot, so if there are any connections that are not clear in my...


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By Raghu Kumar
The upcoming Union Budget on 10th July is going to be a critical test for our new Prime Minister, as it puts him in the spotlight for the first time since he took over as the country's leader.
The country badly requires an economic revival as GDP lags at 4.6 per cent. With the monsoons showing much lower rainfall than expected, some economists are warning that we might be facing one of the worst droughts in many years.


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Founded in 2017, Nick Smith Services, classified under reg no. 10559015 is an active company. Currently registered at Vision House, 2, Affirm Accountancy Services Ltd BL4 7LX, Bolton the company has been in the business for 1 month. The company has not filed any account data yet, it is due on January 31 .
The firm employs one director. Nicholas Smith, born on March 1968, appointed on 11 January 2017. There are currently no secretaries employed. As of 13 February 2017, our data shown no information about any ex employees on these positions.
|Office Address
|Vision House, 2, Affirm Accountancy Services Ltd
|Office Address2
|Cawdor Street
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|United Kingdom
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August 15th, 2013
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Data Structures Data Structures Topic #6
Today's Agenda "Table" Abstract Data Types –Work by "value" rather than "position" –May be implemented using a variety of data structures such as arrays (statically, dynamically allocated) linear linked lists non-linear linked lists –Today, we begin our introduction into non-linear linked lists by examining arrays of linked lists!
Table ADTs The ADT's we have learned about so far are appropriate for problems that must manage data by the position of the data (the ADT operations for an Ordered List, Stack, and Queue are all position oriented). These operations insert data (at the ith position, the top of stack, or the rear of the queue); they delete data (at the ith position, the top of stack, or the front of the queue); they retrieve data and find out if the list is full or empty.
Table ADTs Tables manage data by its value! As with the other ADT's we have talked about, table operations can be implemented using arrays or linked lists. Valued Oriented ADTs allow you to: –-- insert data containing a certain VALUE into a data structure –-- delete a data item containing a certain VALUE from a data structure –-- retrieve data and find out if the structure is empty or full.
Table ADTs Applications that use value oriented ADTs are: –...finding the phone number of John Smith –...deleting all information about an employee with an ID # 4432 Think about you 162 project...it could have been written using a table!
Table ADTs When you think of an ADT table, think of a table of major cities in the world including the city/country/population, a table of To-Do-List items, or a table of addresses including names/addresses/phone number/birthday. Each entry in the table contains several pieces of information. It is designed to allow you to look up information by various search keys
Table ADTs The basic operations that define an ADT Table are:(notice, various search keys!!) Create an empty table (e.g., Create(Table)) Insert an item into the table (e.g., Insert(Table,Newdata)) Delete an item from the table (e.g., Delete(Table, Key)) Retrieve an item from the table (e.g., Retrieve(Table, Key, Returneddata))
Table ADTs But, just like before, you should realize that these operations are only one possible set of table operations. Your application might require either a subset of these operations or other operations not listed here. Or, it might be better to modify the definitions...to allow for duplicate items in a table.
Table ADTs Does anyone see a problem with this approach so far? What if we wanted to print out all of the items that are in the table? Let's add a traverse.: Traverse the Table (e.g., Traverse(Table, VisitOrder)) But, because the data is not defined to be in a given order..."sorting" may be required (the client should be unaware of this taking place)
Data Structures for Tables We will look at both array based and pointer based implementations of the ADT Table. When we say linear, we mean that our items appear one after another...like a list. We can either organize the data in sorted order or not. If your application frequently needs a key accessed in sorted order, then they should be stored that way. But, if you access the information in a variety of ways, sorting may not help!
Data Structures for Tables With an unsorted table, we can save information at the end of the list or at the beginning of the list; therefore, insert is simple to implement: for both array and pointer-based implementations. For an unsorted table, it will take the same amount of time to insert an item regardless of how many items you have in your table.
Data Structures for Tables The only advantage of using a pointer-based implementation is if you are unable to give a good estimate of the maximum possible size of the table. Keep in mind that the space requirements for an array based implementation are slightly less than that of a pointer based implementation....because no explicit pointer is stored.
Data Structures for Tables For sorted tables (which is most common), we organize the table in regard to one of the fields in the data's structure. Generally this is used when insertion and deletion is rare and the typical operation is traversal (i.e., your data base has already been created and you want to print a list of all of the high priority items). Therefore, the most frequently used operation would be the Traverse operation, sorting on a particular key.
Data Structures for Tables For a sorted list, you need to decide: Whether dynamic memory is needed or whether you can determine the maximum size of your table How quickly do items need to be located given a search key How quickly do you need to insert and delete
Data Structures for Tables So, have you noticed that we have a problem for sorted tables? Having a dynamic table requires pointers. Having a good means for retrieving items requires arrays. Doing a lot of insertion and deletion is a toss up...probably an array is best because of the searching. So, what happens if you need to DO ALL of these operations?
Searching for Data Searching is typically a high priority for table abstractions, so let's spend a moment reviewing searching in general. Searching is considered to be "invisible" to the user. It doesn't have input and output the user works with. Instead, the program gets to the stage where searching is required and it is performed.
Searching for Data In many applications, a significant amount of computation time is spent sorting data or searching for data. Therefore, it is really important that you pick an efficient algorithm that matches the tasks you are trying to perform. Why? Because some algorithms to sort and search are much slower than others, especially when we are dealing with large collections of data.
Searching for Data When searching, the fields that we search to be able to find a match are called search keys (or, a key...or a target). Searching algorithms may be designed to search for any occurrence of a key, the first occurrence of a key, all occurrences of a key, or the last occurrence of a key. To begin with, our searching algorithms will assume only one occurrence of a key.
Searching for Data Searching is either done internally or externally. Searching internally means that we will search an list of items for a match; this might be searching an array of data items, an array of structures, or a linked list. Searching externally means that a file of data items needs to be searched to find a match
Searching for Data Searching algorithms will typically be modularized into their own function(s)...which will have two input arguments: –(1) The key to search for (target) –(2) The list to search and, two output arguments: –(1) A boolean indicating success or failure (did we find a match?) –(2) The location in the list where the target was found; generally if the search was not successful the location returned is some undefined value and should not be used.
Searching for Data The most obvious and primitive way to search for a given key is to start at the beginning of the list of data items and look at each item in sequence. This is called a sequential or linear search. The sequential search quits as soon as it finds a copy of the search key in the array. If we are very lucky, the very first key examined may be the one we are looking for. This is the best possible case. In the worst case, the algorithm may search the entire search area - from the first to the last key before finding the search value in the last element -- or finding that it isn't present at all.
Searching for Data For a faster way to perform a search, you might instead select the binary search algorithm. This is similar to the way in which we use either a dictionary or a phone book. As you should know from CS162, this method is one which divides and conquers. We divide the list of items in two halves and then "conquer" the appropriate half! You continue doing this until you either find a match or determine that the word does not exist!
Searching for Data Thinking about binary search, we should notice a few facts: #1) The binary search is NOT good for searching linked lists. Because it requires jumping back and forth from one end of the list to the middle; this is easy with an array but requires tedious traversal with a linear linked list. #2) The binary search REQUIRES that your data be arranged in sorted order! Otherwise, it is not applicable.
Non-Linear Data Structures Instead of using an array or a linear linked list for our Table ADT We could have used a non-linear data structure, since the client is not aware of the order in which the data is stored Our first look at non-linear data structures will be as a hash table, implemented using an array of linear linked lists.
Hash tables For example, we could treat teh searching as a "black box" –... like an "address calculator" that takes the item we want to search for and returns to us the exact location in our table where the item is located. Or, if we want to insert something into the table...we give this black box our item and it tells us where we should place it in the table. First of all, we need to learn about hash tables when you see the word "table" in this context, think of just a way of storing data rather than the "adt" itself.
Hash tables So, using this type of approach...to insert would simply be: –Step 1: Tell the "black box" (formally called the hashing function) the search key of the item to be inserted –Step 2: The "black box" returns to us the location where we should insert the item (e.g., location i) –Step 3: Table[location i] = newitem
Hash tables For Retrieve: –Step 1: Tell the "black box" the search key of the item to be retrieved –Step 2: The "black box" returns to us the location where it should be located if it is in the table (e.g., location i) –Step 3: Check If our Table[location i] matches the search key....if it does, then return the record at that location with a TRUE success!...if it does not, then our success is FALSE (no match found).
Hash tables Delete would work the same way. Notice we never have to search for an item. The amount of time required to carry out the operation depends only on how quickly the black box can perform its computation! To implement this approach, we need to be able to construct a black box, which we refer to formally as the hash function. The method we have been describing is called hashing. The Table containing the location of our structures...is called the hash table.
Hash tables Assume we have a Table of structures with locations 0 thru 100. Say we are searching for employee id numbers (positive integers). We start with a hash function that takes the id number as input and maps it to an integer ranging from 0 to 100. So, the ADT operations performs the following: –TableIndex=hashfunction(employee id #)
Hash tables keyhash function index "Table ADT" hash table data
Hash tables Notice Hashing uses a table to store and retrieve items. This means that off hand it looks like we are once again limited to a fixed-size implementation. The good news is that we will learn in this class about chaining...which will allow us to grow the table dynamically.
Hash tables Ideally we want our hash function to map each search key into a unique index into our table. This would be considered a perfect hash function. But, it is only possible to construct perfect hash functions if we can afford to have a unique entry in our table for each search key -- which is not typically the case. This means that a typical hash function will end up mapping two or more search keys into the same table index! Obviously this causes a collision.
Hash tables Another way to avoid collisions is to create a hash table which is large enough so that each For example, for employee id numbers (###-##- ###)... we'd need to have enough locations to hold numbers from to Obviously this would require a TREMENDOUS amount of memory! And, if we only have 100 employees -- our hash table FAR EXCEEDS the number of items we really need to store. RESERVING SUCH VAST amounts of memory is not practical.
Collision Resolution As an alternative, we need to understand how to implement schemes to resolve collisions. Otherwise, hashing isn't a viable searching algorithm. When developing a hash functions: –try to develop a function that is simple & fast –make sure that the function places items evenly throughout the hash table without wasting excess memory – make the hash table large enough to be able to accomplish this.
Hash Functions Hash functions typically operate on search keys that are integers. It doesn't mean that you can't search for a character or for a string...but what it means is that we need to map our search keys to integers before performing the hashing operation. This keeps it as simple as possible But, be careful how you form the hash functions –your goal should be to keep the number of collisions to a minimum and avoid clustering of data
Hash Functions For example, suppose our search key is a 9-digit employee id number. Our hash function could be as simple as selecting the 4th and last digits to obtain an index into the hash table: Therefore, we store the item with a search key in our hash table at index 91. In this example, we need to be careful which digits we select. Since the first 3 digits of an ID number are based on geography, if we only selected those digits we would be mapping people from the same state into the same location
Hash Functions Another example would be to "fold" our search keys: adds up the digits. Therefore, we store the item with a search key in our hash table at index 44. Notice that if you add up all of the digits of a 9 digit number...the result will always be between 0 and which is 81! This means that we'd only use indices 0 thru 81 of our hash table. If we have 100 employees...this means we immediately know that there will be some collisions to deal with.
Hash Functions Another example would be to "fold" our search keys a different way. Maybe in groups of 3: = 1,970 Obviously with this approach would require a larger hash table. Notice that with a 9 digit number, the result will always be between 0 and which is 2,997. If you are limited to 101 locations in a hash table, a mapping function is required. We would need to map 0 -> 2997 to the range 0 -> 100.
Hash Functions But the most simple AND most effective approach for hashing is to use modulo arithmetic (finding an integer remainder after a division). All we need to do is use a hash function like: –employee id # % Tablesize – % 101 results in a remainder of 15 This type of hash function will always map our numbers to range WITHIN the range of the table. In this case, the results will always range between 0 and 100!
Hash Functions Typically, the larger the table the fewer collisions. We can control the distribution of table items more evenly, and reduce collisions, by choosing a prime number as the Table size. For example, 101 is prime. Notice that if the tablesize is a power of a small integer like 2 or 10...then many keys tend to map to the same index. So, even if the hash table is of size it might be better to choose 997 or 1009.
Hash Functions When two or more items are mapped to the same index after using a hash function, a collision occurs. For example, what if our two employee id #s were: and –...using the % operator, with a table of size both of these map to index 44. –This means that after we have inserted the first id# at index 44, we can't insert the second id # at index 44 also!
Linear Probing There are many techniques for collision resolution We will discuss –linear probing –chaining Linear probing searches for some other empty slot...sequentially...until either we find a empty place to store our new item or determine that the table is full.
Linear Probing With this scheme, –we search the hash table sequentially, starting at the original hash location... –Typically we WRAP AROUND from the last table location to the first table location if we have trouble finding a spot. –Notice what this approach does to retrieving and deleting items. We may have to make a number of comparisons before being able to determine where an item is located...or to determine if an item is NOT in the table.
Linear Probing Is this an efficient approach? As we use up more and more of the hash table, the chances of collisions increase. As collisions increase, the number of probes increase, increasing search time Unsuccessful searches will require more time than a successful search. Tables end up having items CLUSTER together, at one end/area of the table, affecting overall efficiency.
Chaining A better approach is to design the hash table as an array of linked lists. Think of each entry in your table as a chain...or a pointer to a linked list of items that the hash function has mapped into that location. hash table chains hash fnct
Chaining Think of the hash table as an array of head pointers: node * hash_table[101]; But, what is wrong with this? It is a statically allocated hash table... node ** hash_table; hash_table = new node * [tbl_size];
Chaining Do we need to initialize this hash table? Yes, each element should be initialized to NULL, –since each "head" pointer is null until a chain is established –so, your constructor needs a loop setting elements 0 through tbl_size-1 to Null after the memory for the hash table has been allocated
Chaining Then, the algorithm to insert an item into the linked list: –Use the hash function to find the hash index –Allocate memory for this new item –Store the newitem in this new memory –Insert this new node between the "head" of this list and the first node in the list Why shouldn't we traverse the chain? –Think about the order...
Chaining To retrieve, our algorithm would be: –Use the hash function to find the hash index –Begin traversing down the linked list searching for a match –Terminate the search when either a match is encountered or the end of the linked list is reached. –If a match is made...return the item & a flag of SUCCESS! –If the end of the list is reached and no match is found, UNSUCCESS
Chaining This approach is beneficial because the total size of the table is now dynamic! Each linked list can be as long as necessary! And, it still let's our Insert operation be almost instantaneous. The problem with efficiency comes with retrieve and delete, where we are required to search a linked list of items that are mapped to the same index in the hash table.
Chaining Therefore, when the linked lists are too long, change the table size and the manner in which the key is converted into an index into the hash table Do you notice how we are using a combination of direct access with the array and quick insert/removal with linked lists? Notice as well that no data moving happens But, what if 2 or more keys are required?
Chaining For 2 or more search keys, –you will have 2 or more hash tables (if the performance for each is equally important) –where the data within each node actually is a pointer to the physical data rather than an instance hash table By name data pointed to from another node in another HT chain
Chaining What if all or most of the items end up hashing to the same location? Our linked list(s) could be very large. In fact, the worst case is when ALL items are mapped into the same linked list. In such cases, you should monitor the number of collisions that happen and change your hash function or increase your table size to reduce the number of collisions and shorten your linked lists.
In Summary For many applications, hashing provides the most efficient way to use an ADT Table. But, you should be aware that hashing IS NOT designed to support traversing an entire table of items and have them appear in sorted order. Notice that a hash function scatters items randomly throughout the table...so that there is no ordering relationship between search keys and adjacent items in the table
In Summary Therefore, to traverse a table and print out items in sorted order would require you to sort the table first. As we will learn, binary search trees can be far more effective for letting you do both searching and traversal - IN SORTED ORDER than hash tables.
In Summary Hash functions should be easy and fast to compute. Most common hash functions require only a single division or multiplication. Hash functions should evenly scatter the data throughout the hash table. To achieve the best performance for a chaining method, each chain should be about the same length (Total # items/Total size of table).
In Summary To help ensure this, the calculation of the hash function should INVOLVE THE ENTIRE SEARCH KEY and not just a portion of the key. For example, computing a modulo of the entire ID number is much safer than using only its first two digits. And, if you do use modulo arithmetic, the Table size should be a prime number. –This takes care of cases where search keys are multiples of one another.
Other Approaches Another approach is called quadratic probing. This approach significantly reduces the clustering that happens with linear probing:index + count 2 It is a more complicated hash function; it doesn't probe all locations in the table. –In fact, if you pick a hash table size that is a power of 2, then there are actually very few positions that get probed w/ many collisions.
Other Approaches We might call a variation of this the Quadratic Residue Search. This was developed in 1970 as a probe search that starts at the first index using your hash function (probably: key mod hashtablesize). Then, if there is a collision, take that index and add count 2. Then, if there is another collision, take that index and subtract count 2.
Next Time... Next time we will begin discussing –how to measure the efficiency of our algorithms in a more precise manner
Data Structures Programming Assignment Discussion
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Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War
By (author) Enver Redzic Robert J. Donia
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Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War by Enver Redzic
Book DescriptionFive major groups fought one another in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Second World War: The German and Italian occupiers, the Serbian Chetniks, the Ustasha of the Independent State of Croatia, the Bosnian Muslims, and the Tito-led Partisans. The aims, policies, and actions of each group are examined in light of their own documents and those of rival groups. This work shows how the Partisans prevailed over other groups because of their ideological appeal, superior discipline, and success in winning the support of large numbers of uncommitted Bosnians, particularly the Bosnian Muslims.
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Book DetailsISBN: 9780714656250
(234mm x 156mm x 19mm)
Pages: 272
Imprint: Frank Cass Publishers
Publisher: Taylor & Francis Ltd
Publish Date: 5-Jan-2005
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Author Biography - Enver Redzic
Enver Redzic, born in 1915, joined the Partisans during the Second World War and attended key wartime Partisan political councils. After retiring from other work, he earned his doctorate in history in 1975 and has since written 15 books regarding nationality issues in Yugoslavia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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