text:
Geographical Skills
- Created by: lorretta
- Created on: 12-05-15 20:28
First 361 words of the document:
Lorretta Salkeld 13P
Unit 4 geographical skills
Sampling methods- Systematic sampling
Used when studying areas including environmental gradients
Sample points should be evenly spaced or distributed
It is quick and easy but it is easy to miss variations
Types of systematic sampling
o Point sampling
o Line sampling
o Area sampling
It is more straight forward than random sampling
A grid doesn't have to be used, sampling has to be in uniform intervals
A good coverage of the study area can be more easily achieved than using random
It is more biased as not all members or points have an equal chance of being selected
May lead to over or under representation of a particular pattern
Random sampling
Used where the study area is the same throughout e.g. flat grassy field where I could
assume the environmental conditions are the same so it wouldn't matter where the
sample was taken place
Can be used to choose spots or areas to sample as if choose sample yourself it could be
Random sampling is achieved by generating two numbers from either a random number
table or a scientific calculator and use the two values to make a coordinate and at that
point the sample will be taken from
Random sampling should be free from bias however it is hard to obtain a truly
representative sample.
Large samples are more accurate and representative
Types of random sampling
o Point sampling- grid is drawn over a map of a study area, coordinate is obtained
and sampling is taken place at that point.
o Line sampling- draw a line across a map between two random coordinates that
have been generated, then choose random points along it but there may be big
o Area sampling- dividing areas into sections, choosing random grid numbers but
may lead to empty site sections
Can be used with large sample populations
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Avoids bias
Can lead to poor representation of population or area if large areas are not hit by random
sampling, distorting results
Practical constraints- time available and access to certain parts of the study area
Stratified sampling
Is used when the population or sampling frame is made up of sub sets of known sizes
These sub sets make up different proportions of the total and results are proportional and
representative of the whole
This method should overcome the problem with missing…read more
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Line graphs
Simple line graph- shows single series of data
Comparative line graph- shows two or more on the same graph and use the same scales
Divergent line graph
Easy to draw and understand
Can show both positive and negative values
Displays relative numbers and proportions
Summarises large amount of data in visual way
Easy to spot trends and anomalies
Estimates can be made quickly and accurately
Accessible to wide audience
Often requires additional explanations
Easily manipulated to give false…read more
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Circle size can also be made proportional to total quantity to compare different
Summarises large data
Easily understood due to widespread use
May not show numerical data
Can get crowded with too many divisions
Categorical data only
Won't know exact values
Easily manipulated
Fails to show cause effects or patterns
Triangular graphs
Percentage and three variables
Example of how it could be used is employment structure so it is divided in to three
sectors- primary, secondary and tertiary
Visual…read more
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Can show previously unseen patterns e.g. log graphs show increase in world population to
be slowing down, normal graphs do not show this slow down.
Cannot start from 0
May make some relationships appear different as parabolic curves on a normal graph
become straight on log graphs
Kite diagram
Shows changes over distance
Show presence/absence of species along a transect, Thickness shows no.…read more
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Measured over a set period of time
Strong visual impression of both volume of movement & direction
Parts of the map may be obscured/crowded and difficult to interpret
Not appropriate for lots of variables
Desire line
Shows the strength of people who move from point A to point B, C or D on a map
Thickness of the line is proportional to the number of people
Visual impression of movement from areas to a point
Easy to interpret
May…read more
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One variable only
Inexact not the actual data
Isoline map
Maps showing lines drawn through points of equal value
Often used with colour between isolines to more clearly depict trends
Show more gradual change than choropleths avoid abrupt change
Can clearly see boundaries
Show gradients
Trends are shown clearly
Whole numbers, percentages and ratios can be used as long as the data is point data
Unsuitable for showing discontinuous data
Shading may imply equal value between lines
If…read more
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Testing for a relationship between two variables
If number is above critical value must accept the alternative hypothesis- there is a
If number is below the critical value, accept the null hypothesis- there is no relationship
Formulate a null hypothesis individually rank values of each variable find the
difference between the 2 square the differences sum the values input into the
Assesses statistical relationship between 2 variables.…read more
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Can't be used if there are less than five sets of data
Uses ranking so loses raw data
Chi Squared
Null hypothesis `no relationship between distribution of... and of...'
Subtract observed frequencies from expected
Square result
Divide this by the expected value for that group
Compare with degrees of freedom: on the critical value chart, the degree will be one less
than the total no. of observed values
Can test association between variables.…read more
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text: Do You Live Dangerously? According to the following article most of us do.... "We agonize over avian flu, which to date has killed precisely no one in the U.S., but have to be cajoled into getting vaccinated for the common flu, which contributes to the deaths of 36,000 Americans each year. We wring our hands over the mad cow pathogen that might be (but almost certainly isn't) in our hamburger and worry far less about the cholesterol that contributes to the heart disease that kills 700,000 of us annually." -LINK NOTE: I don't endorse every idea in this article. I just think the over-all point is a good one.

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Menswear and womenswear collections will walk together and will be on sale right after the show. These are the news from Burberry but the evolution is generalized: runway shows are changing


text:
Normal aging and chronic alcoholism result in disruption of brain white matter microstructure that does not typically cause complete lesions but may underlie degradation of functions requiring interhemispheric information transfer. We examined whether the microstructural integrity of the corpus callosum assessed with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) would relate to interhemispheric processing speed. DTI yields estimates of fractional anisotropy (FA), a measure of orientation and intravoxel coherence of water diffusion usually in white matter fibers, and diffusivity (<D>), a measure of the amount of intracellular and extracellular fluid diffusion. We tested the hypothesis that FA and <D> would be correlated with (i) the crossed–uncrossed difference (CUD), testing visuomotor interhemispheric transfer; and (ii) the redundant targets effect (RTE), testing parallel processing of visual information presented to each cerebral hemisphere. FA was lower and <D> higher in alcoholics than in controls. In controls but not alcoholics, large CUDs correlated with low FA and high <D> in total corpus callosum and regionally in the genu and splenium. In alcoholics but not controls, small RTEs, elicited with equiluminant stimuli, correlated with low FA in genu and splenium and high <D> in the callosal body. The results provide in vivo evidence for disruption of corpus callosum microstructure in normal aging and alcoholism that has functional ramifications for efficiency in interhemispheric processing.
The corpus callosum is the thick band of white matter fibers connecting cortical areas of both hemispheres (Lent and Schmidt, 1993). Dysfunction of the corpus callosum can lead to deficits in sensory and cognitive integration (Gordon et al., 1971; Jancke et al., 1997; Yamauchi et al., 1997; Eliassen et al., 2000; Pfefferbaum et al., 2000a; Fabri et al., 2001). Several studies have demonstrated a relationship between the corpus callosum size and measures of interhemispheric transfer time (ITT) in split-brain and acallosal patients (Marzi et al., 1991; Forster and Corballis, 1998, 2000; Roser and Corballis, 2002) and in aging subjects (>60 years) who show only modest thinning of callosal structure (Jeeves and Moes, 1996). However, the relation between specific callosal regions and interhemispheric information exchange is not clear. Some authors have suggested that either anterior or posterior corpus callosum areas are involved in the interhemispheric integration of motor and sensory processes (Tassinari et al., 1994; Iacoboni and Zaidel, 1995), whereas others suggested that the body of the corpus callosum, connecting the motor cortices of the two hemispheres, mediates interhemispheric transmission (Berlucchi et al., 1971; Tomaiuolo et al., 2001).
Recently, we reported a relationship between interhemispheric processing and corpus callosum areas present in aging and alcoholism (Schulte et al., 2004). Using structural MRI we found significantly smaller areas of total corpus callosum, genu and body subregions in alcoholics than in controls, consistent with other in vivo studies (Hommer et al., 1996; Pfefferbaum et al., 1996). The behavioral measurements used in that study yielded two interhemispheric indices: (i) the crossed–uncrossed difference (CUD) and (ii) the redundant targets effect (RTE), described next.
The CUD indexes the difference between crossed and uncrossed reaction times relative to the responding hand (crossed: left hemifield/right hand and right hemifield/left hand; uncrossed: left hemifield/left hand, right hemifield/right hand) (Poffenberger, 1912). The difference reflects interhemispheric transfer time, because the uncrossed response can be processed within the same hemisphere, whereas crossed responses require transfer of visuomotor information between hemispheres normally via the corpus callosum (Corballis, 1998, 2002; Pollmann and Zaidel, 1998; Tettamanti et al., 2002; Iacoboni and Zaidel, 2004). We found that the CUD was significantly shorter in younger than in older subjects (Schulte et al., 2004) consistent with others (Reuter-Lorenz and Stanczak, 2000). Furthermore, we showed that the CUD was correlated with the corpus callosum total area and size of the callosum body in controls but not in alcoholics (Schulte et al., 2004), suggesting that in controls a larger corpus callosum, with more or larger fibers, enabled faster interhemispheric transfer time (Jancke and Steinmetz, 1994).
Another measure of interhemispheric integration is the RTE, testing parallel processing of visual information presented to each cerebral hemisphere (Reuter-Lorenz et al., 1995; Miniussi et al., 1998; Iacoboni et al., 2000). The RTE is defined by faster reaction times (RTs) to double stimulation than to single stimuli, a major determinant of the efficacy of sensorimotor performance (Miller, 1986; Mordkoff and Yantis, 1991; Roser and Corballis, 2003). Theoretically, small RTEs can be explained by probability, implying independent processing of the two stimuli, i.e. 'winning the race' to a processing goal between signals transmitted along different neural channels. But when enhancement of RTE exceeds probability measures, neural summation is needed to explain the amount of response facilitation (Miller, 1982). Split-brain studies provide evidence that the corpus callosum plays a role in the RTE (Reuter-Lorenz et al., 1995; Iacoboni et al., 2000). Reuter-Lorenz et al. (1995) have suggested that in the normal brain, response inhibition is released by unilateral as well as by bilateral input, but enhanced redundancy gain in complete callosotomy patients is due to a slowing of responses to unilateral stimuli because response inhibition can only be released with bilateral input. By contrast, Iacoboni et al. (2000) proposed in his dual attention model that each cerebral hemisphere has its own attentional system (Mangun et al., 1994; Arguin et al., 2000) that would result in enhanced activation with bilateral input in the split brain, due either to subcortical summation or to the enhancement of both ipsilateral and contralateral motor control.
With equiluminant stimuli that restrict visual input to the parvocellular system (Livingstone and Hubel, 1987), a reduced RTE in the split brain suggested an involvement of subcortical structures, i.e. the superior colliculus (Corballis, 1998), or cortico-subcortical interactions (Roser and Corballis, 2002; Schulte et al., 2004). We found that the RTE was more enhanced with equiluminant stimuli than with high luminance contrast stimuli and that this effect was smaller in older alcoholics than in younger alcoholics or controls, suggesting compromised interhemispheric neural summation. However, there was no significant correlation between RTE and areas of corpus callosum macrostructure in either alcoholics or controls (Schulte et al., 2004). Thus, although macrostructural measures of corpus callosum have yielded some associations with interhemispheric functioning, a more sensitive assessment of the microstructural changes of white matter region (e.g. demyelination, microtubule deterioration, and axonal deletion) may reveal robust relationships between this white matter structure and functional parameters occult to conventional structural imaging (for reviews, see Lim and Helpern, 2002; Kubicki et al., 2003; Pfefferbaum and Sullivan, 2003; Sullivan and Pfefferbaum, 2003).
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) permits examinations of the integrity of the microstructure of cerebral white matter by measuring the orientational displacement and distribution of water molecules in vivo across tissue components (Moseley et al., 1990; Baird and Warach, 1998; Le Bihan et al., 2001; Le Bihan, 2003; Pfefferbaum et al., 2003). Fractional anisotropy (FA) is a measure of orientational coherence, indexes white matter integrity (Pierpaoli and Basser, 1996), and is typically higher in fibers with a homogeneous or linear structure than in tissue with an inhomogenous structure, such as areas with pathology (Neumann-Haefelin et al., 2000; Lansberg et al., 2001) or crossing fibers (Virta et al., 1999; Pfefferbaum and Sullivan, 2003). The bulk mean diffusivity (<D>) of the diffusion tensor matrix provides a measure of the amount of diffusion and higher values indicate more diffusion, commonly due to larger presence of mobile fluid in the tissue sample (Pierpaoli et al., 2001; Pfefferbaum et al., 2003; Pfefferbaum and Sullivan, 2003). In white matter with relatively homogenous structure, such as the corpus callosum, the diffusion of the water molecules is restricted and bound in a structure with a primarily linear organization resulting in high FA and low diffusivity. Diffusion tensor measures are sufficiently sensitive to detect acute cerebral ischemia (Huisman, 2003), as well as white matter abnormalities in schizophrenia (Lim et al., 1999; Ardekani et al., 2003), multiple sclerosis (Ge et al., 2004), alcoholism (Pfefferbaum et al., 2000a, 2002) and normal aging (Pfefferbaum et al., 2000b; O'Sullivan et al., 2001; Sullivan et al., 2001; Pfefferbaum and Sullivan, 2003; Head et al., 2004; Madden et al., 2004). Several studies have shown that despite absence of macrostructural size variation with aging or alcoholism measured with conventional MRI, DTI detected anisotropy declines in regions of white matter, including the corpus callosum (Sullivan et al., 2001; Pfefferbaum and Sullivan, 2002, 2003).
In this study we used DTI for the first time to test the integrity of tissue microstructure of the corpus callosum (Basser and Pierpaoli, 1996) in relation to behavioral measures of CUD and RTE in healthy controls and in alcoholics. We tested the hypotheses that white matter microstructural integrity of the corpus callosum, indexed as high FA and low <D>, would be correlated with CUD and RTE. Furthermore, we tested the hypotheses that microstructural disruption of the corpus callosum in alcoholics relative to controls would relate to compromised ability of parallel processing of visual information (RTE) and increased interhemispheric transfer time (CUD).
Materials and Methods
We studied 11 alcoholics (seven men and four women) and 13 controls (eight men and five women). Alcoholics were recruited from local rehabilitations programs, and controls were volunteers from the local community who participated in our earlier study, wherein the original report of the behavioral and conventional MRI data (Schulte et al., 2004). All subjects were screened with the Structural Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) and a clinical examination to rule out other Axis I diagnoses or substance abuse other than alcohol. Subject groups were well matched in age, handedness, and other demographic variables (see Table 1). The test of handedness Crovitz and Zener (1962) identified one subject in the alcohol group (score 34) and one subject in the control group (score 35) as just missing criterion for right handedness, where right handedness = 14–32, non-right = 33–49, and left handedness = 50–70. The median for all subjects was 18, for controls 15 and for alcoholics 22. For intelligence measurement we used the National Adult Reading Test (NART), which is widely employed in clinical settings to estimate pre-morbid intellectual levels. NART performance did not distinguish controls and alcoholics (see Table 1), who were neither demented nor amnesic.
|Age (years)
|Lifetime alcohol intake (kg)
|51.6 ± 12.9
|48.5 ± 70.5
|113.4 ± 6.6
|17.7 ± 1.8
|52.6 ± 11.0
|511.3 ± 305.7
|115.6 ± 3.9
|16 ± 2.4
|t-test; P <
|Age (years)
|Lifetime alcohol intake (kg)
|51.6 ± 12.9
|48.5 ± 70.5
|113.4 ± 6.6
|17.7 ± 1.8
|52.6 ± 11.0
|511.3 ± 305.7
|115.6 ± 3.9
|16 ± 2.4
|t-test; P <
NART IQ = National Adult Reading Test. NS, no significance.
Paradigm to Test CUD and RTE
Subjects sat in a darkened room 50 cm from a 17″ monitor and were stabilized by a forehead–chin rest to reduce head movement. They fixated on a point in the middle of a computer screen throughout the test and were instructed to sit with feet, legs, and arms separated to minimize the possibility of cross-cueing. The task was to press a button (Button-Box, PsyScope) as fast as possible whenever a stimulus appeared, whether a single or a double event. A warning tone (100 ms, ∼250 Hz) preceded visual stimulation. The inter-stimulus interval was randomly varied between 500, 700, 900 and 1100 ms. All stimuli were displayed for 100 ms. Four stimulus conditions were randomly presented: single stimulus presentation in either the left or the right visual field, simultaneous presentation of both stimuli in the left and the right hemifield, and catch trials (∼10%). Stimuli were filled white circular disks (210 cd/m2) on a black background (0.65 cd/m2) localized 9.4° left and right of the fixation point and ∼4.3° below the horizontal meridian (to avoid the blind spot). The CUD was calculated by subtracting the sum of crossed responses from the sum of uncrossed responses and dividing this difference by two.
We also analyzed the shortening of reaction times (RTs) to paired stimuli (equiluminant to background) relative to single stimuli according to the race measure R(t) (Miller, 1982). The race model assumes two stochastically independent processes; RT is initiated when information processing of either one of two or more stimuli is completed. If the shorter response to paired targets depends on the winner of a race between two independent processes initiated by either of two stimuli (S1 or S2), then the race model predicts that the cumulative probability of observing a response to redundant targets (S1 and S2) by time t would be less than or equal to the sum of the cumulative probabilities for detecting each component by time t:
The graph R(t) was calculated for each subject by ranking the RTs for the three stimulus conditions (S1, S2, and S1S2). We defined a bin consisting of 10 RTs and computed a cumulative distribution function, counting the number of stimuli in each condition in the first bin containing the 10 shortest RTs, in the second bin containing the 20 shortest RTs and so on, cumulatively. Positive values indicate a higher number of fast responses elicited by bilateral than by unilateral trials within one bin, i.e. the amount of violation. For statistical analysis, the maximum violation was described by amplitude which quantifies the maximum number of fast responses to paired in relation to single targets within the cumulative distribution function (see Fig. 1) (Schulte et al., 2004).
Other possibilities to quantify the amount of violation exist in addition to maximum violation. Corballis (2002), for example, used summed violation. However, a strong relation between the amplitude of the violation and the summed violation (control group, r = 0.94, P < 0.0001; alcohol group, r = 0.95, P < 0.0001, Pearson correlation) validates the use of the amplitude for description of the violation graph R(t). Thus, for correlation analysis with measures of callosal microstructural integrity we used the RTE amplitude with equiluminant stimuli.
To achieve equiluminance RTE stimuli were presented in a pale blue (118 cd/m2) on a yellow background (118 cd/m2). This is in accordance with the method described by Cavanagh et al. (1992) and Corballis (1998). We measured the light intensity three times at each of seven positions on a 17″ Apple flat screen (Measurement device: MAVOLUX from Gossen, http://www.gossen-photo.de/deutsch/lichtmess_produkte.html).
Each task comprised 380 stimulus trials, with 100 single left, 100 single right, 100 left and right stimulus presentations, and 80 catch trials in which no stimulus was presented. Stimulus conditions were randomly intermixed. The test block was initiated by the subject's pressing the button-box. Fixation performance was assessed using a short color-change of the fixation point in the middle of the screen between trials. RTs <150 ms (anticipations) and >600 ms (prolonged responses) were excluded from analysis. The total percentage of trials not entered in the analysis was 4.4%.
Diffusion Tensor Imaging
FA and diffusivity data were measured in the total corpus callosum and its substructures, the genu, body and splenium. FA, a measure of intravoxel coherence, ranges from 0 (lowest FA) to 1 (perfectly coherent anisotropy) and expresses the fraction of orientational coherence in an intravoxel level and is not affected by the intracranial volume of the supratentorium and thus, does not necessitate head size correction (Pierpaoli and Basser, 1996). <D> is expressed as area/time (e.g. 10−6mm2/s). DTI measurement of white matter microstructure is not linked to and is functionally different from size measurement.
Image Acquisition
As described previously (Pfefferbaum et al., 2003), an initial spin-echo midsagittal localizer scan (13, 4mm thick, contiguous slices; TR/TE = 300/14 ms; matrix = 256 × 256) was used to identify landmarks for prescription of all subsequent coronal scans. The superior/inferior (S/I) center position of the coronal acquisitions was chosen as the most inferior extent of the midpoint of the isthmus of the corpus callosum, and the extent of the prescription in the anterior/posterior (A/P) orientation subtended the entire brain for all subjects. The coronal MRI structural acquisitions included a dual-echo fast spin echo (FSE) sequence (47 4-mm-thick contiguous slices; TR/TE1/TE2 = 7500/14/98 ms; matrix = 256 × 192) and a Spoiled Gradient Recalled Echo (SPGR) sequence (94 slices; TR/TE = 25/5 ms, 2 mm thick, flip angle = 30°, matrix = 256 × 192). All images were zero-filled to 256 × 256 pixels in-plane by the scanner reconstruction software (1.5 T, GE Clinical MRI Systems, Milwaukee, MI).
DTI was performed in the coronal plane with the same slice location parameters as the dual-echo FSE, using a single shot spin-echo echo-planar imaging technique (4-mm-thick slices, 0 mm slice gaps, TR = 10 s, TE = 103 ms, matrix = 128 × 128). The amplitude of the diffusion-sensitizing gradients was 1.4 G/cm with 32 ms duration and 34 ms separation, resulting in a b-value of 860 s/mm2. Diffusion was measured along six non-collinear directions with alternating signs. For each gradient direction, six images were acquired and averaged. For each slice, six images with no diffusion weighting (b = 0 s/mm2) and one b = 0 s/mm2 image with an inversion recovery pulse were also acquired. The coronal structural MRI and DTI acquisitions produced either 2- or 4-mm-thick slices and were prescribed for consistent slice locations so that each 4-mm-thick slice precisely encompassed a pair of 2-mm-thick slices.
DTI Quantification
Eddy-current-induced image distortions due to the large diffusion encoding gradients cause spatial distortions in the diffusion-weighted images that vary from one diffusion direction to the next. These artifacts were minimized with information from the b = 0 inversion-recovery images, which do not suffer from such eddy current distortions. These images were used with a six-parameter affine correction on a slice-by-slice basis (Woods et al., 1998) to unwarp the eddy current distortions in the diffusion-weighted images. The inversion recovery image was used in the unwarping procedure to avoid inclusion of cerebro-spinal fluid in the reference image, which would result in excessive expansion of the diffusion-weighted images (de Crespigny and Moseley, 1998).
Using the averaged images with b = 0 and b = 860 s/mm2, six maps of the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) were calculated, each being a sum of three elements of the diffusion tensor. Solving the six equations with respect to ADCxx, ADCxy, etc. yielded the elements of the diffusion tensor. The diffusion tensor was then diagonalized, yielding eigenvalues of λ1, λ2 and λ3, as well as eigenvectors that define the predominant diffusion orientations. Based on the eigenvalues from the tensor, FA and <D> (that is, the average ADC of the three eigenvalues) were calculated on a voxel-by-voxel basis. Thus, each diffusion weighted study was reduced to a set of three images for each slice (FA, <D>, b = 0) to be used for analysis in conjunction with the anatomical images.
Image Registration, Reformatting and Warping to Common Coordinates
To place the images for all subjects into a coordinate system with a common origin and a standardized anatomical orientation, the anterior commissure (AC) and posterior commissure (PC) were manually identified on the SPGR images. The AC was shifted to a fixed coordinate in the A/P orientation, and the image volume was oriented by three rotations with the AC as the pivot point. The first rotation brought the PC level with the AC (as if the person nodded his head), the second one made the midsagittal plane vertical (as if the person tilted his head shoulder-to-shoulder), while the third rotated the PC to be on-axis with the AC in the axial plane (as if the person shook his head 'no'). After this shift and rotations, the original oblique axial plane that passed through the AC and PC was a straight axial section perpendicular to the midsagittal plane.
The 47-slice, dual-echo FSE and SPGR images were passed through FSL Brain Extraction Tool (Smith, 2002) to extract the brain and exclude dura, skull, scalp and other non-brain tissue. The processed SPGR and FSE images were aligned (Woods et al., 1998) and the FSE-to-SPGR alignment parameters were used to align the DTI data to match the SPGR images. Finally, the parameters required to accomplish the standardized alignment transformation for each subject were applied to the FA, <D> and b = 0 images, the datasets were resliced to isotropic 1 mm3 voxels and the field-of-view was set to 20 cm for each axis. This image volume was large enough to encompass the entire brain for all subjects in the study.
In order to quantify the FA of a given anatomic structure it is necessary to avoid using the FA signal itself to define a region of interest because low FA could be misinterpreted as a boundary. Thus the anatomic extent of the corpus callosum was manually traced on a display of the b = 0 midsagittal slice with comparable FA image also in view but not used as the primary determinant of the callosal area. The native but isotropically resliced data were used for callosal delineation (b = 0) and quantitation (FA and <D>) to accommodate echo-planar spatial distortions. After identification the corpus callosum outline was rotated placing the inferior aspects of the rostrum and splenium on a horizontal plane and the sillouette divided geometrically into genu, body and splenium regions (see Fig. 2) (Sullivan et al., 2002).
Data Analysis
Group differences in FA and <D> were tested with analysis of variance (ANOVA). To examine the relationships predicted between DTI measures (FA and diffusivity) and the behavioral measures of interhemispheric transmission (CUD and RTE), we used Pearson correlation to test the predicted relationships in each group separately. The alpha level was set to 0.05 for all statistical tests and adjusted for multiple tests with Bonferroni correction, where α is divided by the number of tests.
A repeated measures ANOVA for FA of the genu, body, and splenium as the within subject factor and group as the between subject factor revealed significant effects for corpus callosum regions [F(1,22) = 152.7, P < 0.0001; partial η2 = 0.87] and group [F(1,22) = 5.74, P = 0.03; partial η2 = 0.21], with higher FA in controls than in alcoholics. There was no group-by-region interaction [F(1,22) = 0.39, NS; partial η2 = 0.02]. The same analysis for diffusivity yielded significant effects for regions [F(1,22) = 22.4, P < 0.0001; partial η2 = 0.51] and a trend for group [F(1,22) = 2.82, P = 0.107; partial η2 = 0.11]. There was also no group-by-region interaction for diffusivity [F(1,22) = 0.32, NS; see Fig. 3].
For FA, 87% of the total variability could be attributed to the callosal subregions and 21% to the group effect. For diffusivity, 51% of the total variability could be attributed to the callosal subregions and only 11% to the group effect.
Correlations between CUD and DTI Measures
Behaviorally, alcoholics showed a CUD of 4.5 ± 8.4 ms, which was not statistically different from the CUD of controls (5.3 ± 6.3 ms; t = 0.25, NS).
We predicted that longer CUD times would be related to low FA and high diffusivity and therefore report one-tailed Pearson correlations. In multiple comparisons of different dependent variables the only possibility for Bonferroni adjustment is to calculate a new p-value by dividing α by the number of comparisons tested. For correlation analysis of the three callosal subregions genu, body and splenium, a Bonferoni correction would require an alpha level of 0.017 (i.e. 0.05 divided by 3 tests).
In the control group the CUD correlated significantly with <D> in total corpus callosum (r = 0.62, P < 0.01) and the genu (r = 0.71, P < 0.004), modestly in the splenium (r = 0.47, P = 0.053), but not in the body (r = 0.12, NS). By contrast, the alcohol group showed no significant correlation between CUD and <D> in any callosal measure (total corpus callosum, r = 0.11, NS; genu, r = 0.16, NS; body, r = 0.05, NS; splenium, r = 0.11, NS).
Fractional Anisotropy
In the control group, the pattern of relationships between CUD and FA was similar to that observed for diffusivity, but in the expected negative direction (total corpus callosum, r = −0.54, P = 0.03; genu, r = −0.48, P = 0.05; splenium, r = −0.51, P = 0.04; body, r = −0.11, NS). However, in the alcohol group, FA did not correlate significantly with total corpus callosum (r = 0.17, NS) or regionally (genu, r = 0.19, NS; body, r = 0.10, NS; splenium, r = 0.22, NS).
To test for a selective relationship between CUD and regional <D> in the controls, we conducted a stepwise regression analysis, in which CUD was the dependent variable and regional <D> values (genu, body and splenium) were the predictors. The total model accounted for 50% of variance in CUD [F(1,12) = 10.9, P = 0.007]. Genu <D> endured as a significant unique predictor of CUD (β = 0.71, t = 3.29, P = 0.007), after accounting for <D> in the body (β = 0.1, t = 0.44) and splenium (β = 0.02, t = 0.05) (see Fig. 4).
Correlations between RTE with Equiluminant Stimuli and DTI Measures
For RTE we had no directionality prediction and thus used two-tailed Pearson correlation. In the alcohol group, the RTE correlated significantly with higher FA in the total corpus callosum (r = 0.63, P = 0.04). With Bonferroni correction (for multiple comparison: P < 0.017 for three tests), the correlation with FA was marginally significant in genu (r = 0.62, P = 0.04) and splenium FA (r = 0.59, P = 0.055) but not significant in body FA (r = 0.43, NS). The correlations with <D> showed a different pattern: RTE significantly correlated with <D> in the body (r = −0.70, P = 0.017), but not genu (r = −0.35, NS) or splenium (r = −0.47, NS). None of these correlations was significant in controls. Correlations between RTE and genu FA, body FA and splenium <D> were of moderate magnitude but did not reach significance probably due to limited power.
We also conducted a stepwise regression analysis in alcoholics to test first for the relationship between RTE and FA, and second for the relationship between RTE and <D> with regional corpus callosum values (genu, body and splenium) predictors. The total model for FA accounted for 38% of variance in RTE [F(1,10) = 5.6 P = 0.04]. Here, genu FA was a significant unique predictor of RTE (β = 0.62, t = 2.34, P = 0.04), after accounting for FA in the body (β = 0.03, t = 0.07) and splenium (β = 0.20, t = 0.35) (see Fig. 5).
The total model for <D> accounted for 48% of variance in RTE [F(1,10) = 8.5, P = 0.02]. Here, body <D> emerged as a significant unique predictor of RTE (β = −0.70, t = −2.9, P = 0.02), after accounting for <D> in the genu (β = 0.47, t = 1.3) and splenium (β = 0.13, t = 0.34) (see Fig. 6).
Correlations between Lifetime Alcohol Intake, Age and DTI Measures
In the alcohol group, lifetime alcohol intake correlated significantly in the predicted direction with <D> (r = 0.73, P = 0.005) and FA in total corpus callosum (r = −0.67, P = 0.012). By contrast, the control group showed no significant correlation between lifetime alcohol intake and <D> (r = 0.10, NS) and FA in the total corpus callosum (r = 0.23, NS) (see Fig. 7).
In the control group, age correlated significantly with <D> (r = 0.76, P = 0.001) and FA in total corpus callosum (r = −0.55, P = 0.025). By contrast, the alcohol group showed no significant correlation between age and <D> (r = 0.36, NS) and FA in the total corpus callosum (r = −0.02, NS) (see Fig. 8).
Correlation analysis showed no significant age effect on the behavioral measures and only a trend for CUD and age in alcoholics (CUD–age: alcoholics r = 0.58, P = 0.08, controls r = 0.35, NS; RTE–age: alcoholics r = −0.05, NS, controls r = 0.07, NS). Correlations between behavioral measures and DTI measures with age as the covariate remained essentially unchanged: in controls, genu <D>–CUD r = 0.67, P < 0.009; in alcoholics, genu FA–RTE r = 0.62, P < 0.03; body <D>–RTE r = −0.77, P < 0.005.
We coupled DTI, a sensitive in vivo measure of early or subtle stages of white matter degradation, with tests of interhemispheric processing in alcoholics and healthy controls. FA, reflecting white matter microstructure integrity of the full extent of the corpus callosum (genu, body and splenium), was abnormally low in alcoholics. A trend for enhanced diffusivity was also present in all callosal regions in alcoholics relative to controls. This finding of reduced callosal FA is consistent with our prior studies (Pfefferbaum et al., 2000a; Pfefferbaum and Sullivan, 2002), which demonstrated a relationship between attentional and working memory deficits and significant white matter orientational coherence in nonamnesic alcoholics. The higher diffusivity in alcoholics may indicate increased intracellular and extracellular brain fluid and changes in myelin-associated bound water (cf. Pfefferbaum and Sullivan, 2005). In particular, lifetime alcohol consumption correlated with high diffusivity and low FA in alcoholics but not in controls, suggesting that alcoholism causes white matter microstructure disruption, possibly reflecting degradation of myelinated fibers in the corpus callosum. In support of this possibility, molecular studies have revealed that chronic alcohol consumption in rats produces disruption of cell cytoskeleton (Ren et al., 2000) quantified with decreased microtubule-associated protein-2 (MAP-2) mRNA levels in the extrapyramidal system, the mesolimbic system, the hypothalamus and the inferior colliculus (Putzke et al., 1998), i.e. in brain areas that are associated with motor functions.
In the present study, age was correlated with anisotropy (FA) declines and enhanced diffusivity in controls but not in alcoholics. This suggest that even though DTI is normally sensitive to aging (Pfefferbaum et al., 2000b; Head et al., 2004), lifetime alcohol consumption had a demonstrably greater effect than aging on disruption of brain white matter microstructure in alcoholics.
Relation between DTI Measures (FA and Diffusivity) of Callosal Fibers and CUD
The present study showed that the relationship between DTI measures of the structural integrity of callosal fibers and functional measures of interhemispheric processing differs for alcoholics and controls. In the control but not the alcoholic group, the CUD correlated significantly with diffusivity in total corpus callosum, and regionally, in the genu and splenium. Moreover, the relationships between CUD and FA were similar for diffusivity, but in the expected inverse direction, with low FA and high CUD implying less coherence of white matter and greater diffusivity (more free intra- and extracellular fluid) with prolonged CUD.
In a regression model, the CUD was best predicted by diffusivity in the genu of the corpus callosum. The genu connects prefrontal cortices involved in higher-order processing of motor control, planning, and execution functions that require the integration of information over time (Ongur et al., 2003; Brass and von Cramon, 2004). The CUD indexes additional time needed for crossed (left visual hemifield /right hand, right hemifield/left hand) compared with uncrossed (left hemifield/left hand, right hemifield/right hand) responses (Clarke and Zaidel, 1989). The association between CUD and genu diffusivity in controls suggests anterior interhemispheric exchange to integrate sensorimotor information between the two hemispheres and to prepare a motor response. Several lines of imaging research are consistent with our findings that both anterior and posterior callosal routes contribute to the CUD (Tassinari et al., 1994; Eliassen et al., 2000; Tettamanti et al., 2002). Others, however, reported that the crossed-uncrossed difference (CUD) (Iacoboni et al., 2000) and the redundant targets effect (RTE) (Reuter-Lorenz et al., 1995; Iacoboni et al., 2000) are unaffected by anterior lesions of the corpus callosum (Corballis et al., 2003). In healthy subjects, Iacoboni and Zaidel (2004) found in a recent fMRI study that anterior as well as posterior brain areas are involved in the CUD with the crossed compared to the uncrossed condition yielding greater activity in bilateral prefrontal, bilateral dorsal premotor, and right superior parietal areas. Also, Tettamanti et al. (2002) examined healthy subjects with fMRI and reported activations in a number of frontal, parietal and temporal brain regions and the genu of the corpus callosum that were specifically related to interhemispheric transmission of visuomotor information (CUD). However, white matter activations using fMRI measures are difficult to interpret and considered as problematic. BOLD activations reflecting hemodynamic changes within capillaries are consistently higher in cortical gray matter than in white matter regions (Hall et al., 2002), but combined analysis of DTI and fMRI data showed a positive correlation between maturation of white matter and BOLD response in several cortical and subcortical regions (Olesen et al., 2003). Combining structural MRI and EEG, Stancak et al. (2000) reported an association between lateralization of movement-related potentials and size of corpus callosum in a finger movement task. They found a positive correlation between genu size (and the anterior part of truncus of the corpus callosum) and enhanced pre-movement EEG potential over the ipsilateral sensory (S1) and motor (M1) responses areas, leading to the speculation that the contralateral hemisphere triggers the ipsilateral hemisphere to prepare for motor response via callosal connections (Tettamanti et al., 2002). In another functional MRI study, Iacoboni and Zaidel (2004) reported that crossed relative to uncrossed conditions (CUD) showed greater activity in bilateral prefrontal, bilateral dorsal premotor, and right superior parietal areas. Furthermore, signal enhancement in the right superior parietal cortex was correlated with the CUD, suggesting a key role of superior parietal cortex in interhemispheric visuo-motor integration. Activations of premotor and parietal cortex regions revealed with fMRI also map to fibers linking through the mid-body and anterior regions of the corpus callosum (Iacoboni and Zaidel, 2004).
Relation between DTI Measures (FA and Diffusivity) of Callosal Fibers and RTE
Behaviorally, we found more violations of the race model in the control group than in the alcohol group (Schulte et al., 2004). However, even in normal subjects, small RTEs have been reported supporting the race model (Corballis, 1998; Reuter-Lorenz et al., 1995; Roser and Corballis, 2002), but other studies observed enhanced RTE supporting the neural summation model (Miniussi et al., 1998; Savazzi and Marzi, 2002; Turatto et al., 2004). The controversial findings of small versus enhanced RTE in healthy subjects could be due to stimulus eccentricity and task difficulty (Miller and Ulrich, 2003). In our study, stimuli were presented more peripherally of the fixation point (9.4° right and left of the fixation point) and to control for saccadic eye movement, we implemented a color change of the fixation point, which additionally required sustained attention.
Previously, we failed to find associations between RTE and corpus callosum area using structural MRI (Schulte et al., 2004). Using DTI, by contrast, we have found that when redundant stimuli were equiluminant, the RTE amplitude was related to FA in genu and splenium and diffusivity in the body of the corpus callosum. Because redundant stimuli equiluminant with the background restrict processing to the parvocellular system, they may necessitate interhemispheric exchange via the corpus callosum, whereas redundant stimuli that contrast with background (high contrast) may be processed subcortically, e.g. via the superior colliculus (Corballis, 1998). All subjects, especially those with callosal pathology or compromise, showed prolonged RTs in the equiluminance compared with luminance contrast condition (Schulte et al., 2004). The increased processing demands of the more difficult task based on equiluminant stimuli may underlie the need for cortical processing and information exchange or comparison between the hemispheres. In alcoholics, the relationships between body diffusivity and genu FA with RTE provide evidence that subtle but significant microstructural disruption of white fiber tracts linking the hemispheres may be a significant neural mechanism underlying reduced response facilitation. By contrast, the control group did not show any correlation between the RTE amplitude and DTI measures. The RTE amplitude quantifies the degree of response time reduction under redundant stimulus presentation computed from the fastest reaction times and thus may be a sensitive measure when interhemispheric integration is slowed due to compromised fiber tracts connecting more anterior brain regions as seen in the alcoholics. Anterior parts of the corpus callosum connect homologous regions of the frontal lobe that may be more vulnerable than posterior brain regions to normal aging (Armstrong, 1990; Bartzokis, 2004) and to environmental influences, including alcoholism (Pfefferbaum et al., 2001). For example, Madden et al. (2004) found that the best predictor of a response in a visual task for younger adults was FA in the splenium of the corpus callosum, whereas for older subjects the best predictor was FA in the anterior limb of the internal capsule. Also, Iacoboni et al. (2000) suggest that the redundant targets effect requires intact anterior callosal fibers connecting the premotor cortices (see also Iacoboni and Zaidel, 2003). Thus, the controls, in whom the fiber tracts are more intact than in alcoholics, the relation between individual differences in RTE and corpus callosum structure integrity may be attenuated by a ceiling effect from callosal measures.
DTI is a suitable method for detecting subtle functional disorders (Le Bihan, 2003) not attributable to classical syndromes arising from disconnection of the hemispheres. The results of the present study provide in vivo evidence for disruption of white matter microstructure in alcoholism and suggest that interruption of white matter fiber coherence contributes to mild yet detectable disturbance in interhemispheric processing.
This study was supported by grants from the National Institute on Alcohol and Alcoholism (AA12388, AA05965, AA10723). The authors thank Anne O'Reilly, Anjali Deshmukh, Stephanie Sassoon, Andrea Spadoni, Marya Schulte and Carla Raassi for help with recruiting study participants and assistance in data collection, and Margaret Rosenbloom for constructive discussion about the data and manuscript.
Author notes
1Neuroscience Program, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA, 2Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA 94305, USA and 3Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA


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One person remains in hospital in serious condition after a deadly shooting in Mississauga Saturday.
Peel Regional Police had responded to the Queen St. S. and Church St. area around 4am after receiving numerous calls of a large disturbance in the area.
A man was pronounced dead outside of a community centre in the area, where police had found multiple bullet holes in a vehicle.
Two other victims were seriously injured in a nearby altercation and were transported to local trauma centres. One of the victims has since been released and one remains in hospital in serious condition.
It's not yet known of the two altercations are connected to the homicide.
The area near Queen and Thomas streets was closed for much of the day Saturday.
No information has been released about possible suspects in the investigation.
With files from Andy Borkowski
At least three people shot (1 pronounced dead) at Queen & Church Sts in Streetsville. Some victims tried to make their own way to hospital. pic.twitter.com/PxeKhVtqUb
— Jeremy Cohn (@JeremyGlobalTV) October 22, 2016


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Palo Alto Police Dept
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\t\tBy Jimmy Traina\tPhoto of the Day\t\t\t\t\tJeff Gordon and his wife, Ingrid, celebrate his victory at the NASCAR Subway Fresh Fit 500 :: Al Messerschmidt/WireImage.com\t\tThe Links...\tDoes Houston Nutt Know About This?\tIf you're worried about the youth of American, fear not. This past weekend, a Pennsylvania teen won $25,000 in a text-messaging contest that featured almost 200 competitors.\tM-E-S-S, Mess, Mess, Mess\tEach year, one of the highlights of the NFL Draft is watching Jets fans react to their teams normally awful picks. Here's a great compilation via ESPN. Sadly, it doesn't look like most Jets fans have updated their looks through the years:\t

\tStick to Money Matters\tForbes has released the team values for all 30 Major League Baseball teams which doesn't offer many surprises. Take a look, though, at the poll that accompanies the story. Vidro? Kendall? Erstad?\tAnd They Still Lost...\tA Mets fan was arrested Friday night for shining a "high-powered" flashlight into the eyes of a couple of Braves players, including starting pitcher Tim Hudson, who tossed eight shutout innings.\tNot Exactly Sanford and Son\tEver see a garage sale in front of a 30-room mansion? Well that's what took place Saturday at the former home of Giants defensive end, Michael Strahan. Strahan's ex, Jean, decided to unload memorabilia and other goodies, making for some very happy customers.\tWhy Do We Love Ed Hochuli?\t\t\t\t\tEd Hochuli shows off his guns:: Al Messerschmidt/WireImage.com\t\tWe don't know, but the New York Times caught up with everyone's favorite NFL referee, who discusses whether or not he's used performance-enhancing drugs.\tThere'll Be Lots of Pissed Off Fans When He Bolts\tAlabama, and new head coach Nick Saban, held an intra-squad scrimmage on Saturday, and a few people decided to show up -- more than 92,000 of them.\tAnother Imus Apology\tThis heartfelt, sincere and passionate plea, however, is unlike any of the others you may have seen.\tGot A Link We Need To See?\t\t\t\t


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Hosts give themselves a huge boost in their relegation battle with their first league win since November in entertaining game at Loftus Road
Mark Hughes enjoyed his first Premier League win at the helm of Queens Park Rangers with a largely comfortable 3-1 victory over the league's basement club Wigan Athletic.
Goals from Heidur Helguson and Akos Buszaky put the home side two in front in a scintillating first half performance before Hugo Rodallega ensured a tight finish with half an hour to go. Tommy Smith then scored a wonder goal with 10 minutes left to give Hughes' men all three points.
QPR showed three changes from Hughes' first game in charge against Newcastle last weekend as Fitz Hall, captain Joey Barton and DJ Campbell earned recalls in place of Danny Gabbidon, Shaun Derry and Jay Bothroyd.
Wigan's beleaguered coach Robert Martinez also made three changes as Steve Gohouri, Emmerson Boyce and Ben Watson replaced Antolin Alcaraz – who wasn't even in the squad – Ronnie Stam and Albert Crusat.
Athletic went within inches of opening the scoring inside three minutes as Steve Gohouri got on the end of a Jordi Gomez free kick. Gomez's ball was played in from the left and on his own on the six-yard line Gohouri skewed his right-footed volley wide of the far post with Hugo Rodallega lurking close by.
A bright start from QPR was almost rewarded as first a cross that swirled in the air from Luke Young was headed for the top corner before Ali Al-Habsi tipped it over the bar and then Campbell went close with a back header that the keeper stopped.
With the home side camped in the Wigan half, Campbell should have done better with a chance on the edge of the area after Jamie Mackie had capitalised on a Gohouri mistake.
As the first half went on it wasn't hard to see why Wigan were bottom of the Premier League at the start of the day as they lacked any quality when on the ball. Akos Buzsaky almost broke the deadlock on the half hour mark with a moment of real quality though. He turned away from McCarthy 25 yards out and struck a vicious shot just wide of the far post.
The breakthrough that QPR deserved duly came in the 33rd minute from the penalty spot as top scorer Helguson slotted his ninth goal of the season after James McCarthy had inexplicably handballed in the area.
Hughes' men then doubled their advantage on the stroke of half time with a magnificent free kick from Buzsaky. Campbell had done well to win the set piece from 25 yards out before the Hungarian international struck the ball with great whip and venom as the ball hit both posts before nestling in the back of the net.
Battling the drop | Wright-Phillips and Moses tangle as QPR prevail at Loftus Road
Martinez sent on Connor Sammon at half time in place of James McArthur as he tried to chase the game but it made little difference as Rangers continued to dominate and the visitors had little in the way of ideas.
Fresh from scoring his first ever goal in the Premier League Buszaky nearly doubled his tally with a wonderful volley from outside the area. Barton played the ball into him and flicked the ball up with his first touch and unleashed a fearsome volley that was headed for the top corner before Al-Habsi got across to save.
Against the run of play Rodallega scored a sublime free kick for just his second goal of the season. A soft foul was given away by Buzsaky on the edge of the area and under pressure the Colombian striker stepped up to stroke the ball into the top corner with keeper Paddy Kenny rooted to the spot.
The goal didn't have the galvanising effect Wigan might have hoped for as QPR won a penalty with a little over 15 minutes left to play Gary Caldwell was harshly adjudged to have pulled down Helguson and the striker's spot-kick was wonderfully saved by Al-Habsi, becoming the fourth player to have missed against the keeper this season.
Helguson nearly made up for the miss a couple of minutes later as a long ball over the top dropped nicely for him to volley with his left foot only to see it finish just inches wide.
However, substitute Smith made sure of all three points for Mark Hughes' men as a ball inside from Wright-Phillips found the winger in plenty of space before he let fly from 25 yards to find the top corner and ensure the home fans left happy with Rangers given a much-needed boost in their battle against relegation.
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- Excerpt from Employment Law Update After Young v. United Parcel Service, Inc.:
A pregnant employee walks into your...more
- Ambush Election Rules Confidentiality Agreements H-1B Mental Health Minimum Wage PDA Pregnancy Discrimination Reasonable Accommodation Unions Visa Caps Wellness Programs Whistleblower Protection Policies Young v United Parcel Service
A pregnant employee walks into your office and tells you that she has a lifting restriction of twenty pounds and needs an accommodation because she can't do her job. What do you do? In Young v. United Parcel Service, Inc.,...more
- Disparate Treatment Essential Functions PDA Pregnancy Discrimination Reasonable Accommodation SCOTUS Young v United Parcel Service
In This E-Note:
- Expanding Eligibility: Is Your FMLA Policy Ripe for Misinterpretation?
- New Year's Resolution Continued: The Multi-State Non-Compete Agreement
- The Corporate Board: The False Claims...more
- DOL False Claims Act (FCA) Final Rules FMLA Non-Compete Agreements Perez v Mortage Bankers Assoc Same-Sex Marriage Wage and Hour Whistleblowers
Can the wording in your handbook make employees otherwise ineligible for FMLA leave eligible? The Sixth Circuit (which has appellate jurisdiction over district courts in Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio and Tennessee) has answered...more
- Corporate Counsel Employee Handbooks Employer Liability Issues FMLA
In This Presentation:
- "We're Back"
- Recent Developments
- "Protected, Concerted Activity"
- Recent Developments
- "Bettie Page would be rolling over in her grave"
- NLRB Issues Opinions On Social...more
- Employer Liability Issues NLRB Protected Concerted Activity Social Media Policy
In This Presentation:
- Using Social Media in Hiring Decisions
..Scenario #1
- Hiring Employees with Restrictive Covenants
..Scenario #2
- Disparate Impact
..Scenario #3
- Federal...more
- Employer Liability Issues Hiring & Firing Job Applicants Restrictive Covenants
In This Presentation:
- Detroit Manufacturing
- 2013-14 Southeast Union Activity:
..UAW - Automotive
..Faurecia Northport election lost by UAW
..Continued UAW Presence at MBUSI & Nissan
- Automotive Industry Commercial Bankruptcy Detroit DOL Manufacturers Municipal Bankruptcy OEM Unions
Wage and Hour
White-Collar Exemptions
Minimum Wage
Employee Benefits
Minimum Salary
Pregnancy Discrimination
Young v United Parcel Service
Cell Phones
Employer Liability Issues
Employment Policies
False Claims Act (FCA)
Final Rules
Non-Compete Agreements
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- Location:
- Port Orange, FL, USA
- Price:
- Contact Seller
- Manufacturer:
- FOREMOST (Bantam)
- Model:
- Condition:
- new
- Stock number:
- Category:
- Grinding machines in United States
- Subcategory:
- Grinders
- Subcategory 2:
- Tool / tool & cutter
Hunton Vertical Punch and Die Grinder
Hunton Punch and Die Grinders are Ideal for Sharpening All Popular CNC Tooling
Sharpens turret press tooling quickly at the Workplace
Extends Up Time, Improves Finish: A Hunton grinder at the workplace facilitates quick and easy tool sharpening right at the workplace. Sharpening punches and dies at regular intervals not only extends tool life, but also improves finish quality.
Reduces Tool and Tooling Cost: Rather than use your expensive surface grinder for tool sharpening, Hunton Grinders do the same work at a third of the expense. Costly tool inventory and tool room exchanges are reduced significantly. When using the quick-change chuck with adapter kit, tools are removed, sharpened and reinstalled in minutes.
Easy to Use: Sharpening requires only a smooth swinging motion as the cast aluminum arm is supported by dual thrust bearings. The convenient hand wheel is graduated in 0.001" increments to provide fine feed and excellent finish.
Get email updates for FOREMOST (Bantam) BG90


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- Sign in
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- Traveler Inbox
- Rental types
- Newest Playa Flamingo Rentals
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- How to book
- Traveler Help Center
- Write a review
Casa Flamingo
From $400 / night
balance of due
Description from the manager
Description from the manager
Bedrooms: 3/
Bathrooms: 3/
Sleeps: 6/
Type: House
Book this 3 bedroom, 3 bathroom house in Playa Flamingo today! A total of 6 people can sleep here comfortably.
Guests can enjoy a pool, outdoor grill, and air conditioning among other amenities offered by this rental.
Travelers are sharing their opinions on this property. It has an overall rating of 4/5 thanks to an average of 9 reviews.
Costs vary, with the average weekly rate as low as $2,400.00 to as high as $5,500.00, depending on travel dates.
The owner last updated the property's calendar 3 weeks ago.
About the manager
About the manager
Special Places Of Costa Rica
Special Places Of Costa Rica
- Response rate: n/a
- Response time: n/a
- Calendar updated: 3 weeks ago
Overall rating:
4.6 / 5.0
Proximity to TripAdvisor's Top Playa Flamingo Attractions
Proximity to TripAdvisor's Top Playa Flamingo Attractions
Reviews (7)
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a chair woman for the international baccalaureate program, the name is commonly associated with the most evil people of history, such as Hitler, Charles Manson, and Darth Vador. common signs that you are going there is a bellor around include, temperature drops, an unexplained feeling of terror, and possibly self loathing.
I walked past a bellor today, and my ears started to bleed.
by Iben Jakinov April 23, 2008
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One side has the word, one side has the definition. Microwave and dishwasher safe. Lotsa space for your liquids.Buy the mug
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text: Blog Café® 3.0 – The Invitation Arie Rich09/21/201108/03/2014 Blog Cafe They say third time is the charm, well here's the charm for you! RSVP is required! BlogCafe3.eventbrite.com More from my siteBlog Café® 1.0 – The ReviewNina Shoes for Blog Café® 2.0Blog Café® 2.0 – The ReviewBlog Café® 4.0 – Our Awesome Sponsors! blog cafe, Blog Café 3.0 ← Special Limited Edition Blu-Ray Scarface available Tuesday 9/6/11 Fringe Season 4 – An interview with J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner →


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naturallycurly@anthonyanderson on stage talking about his new show Blackish! He talked about the absence of family programming featuring families of color, so watch out for him and his TV wife @traceeellisross to take your television screen by storm! Comes on after Modern Family, one of my fav shows! Def tuning in. #essencefest #naturallycurly #nola
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Для получения актуальных цен по гостинице Magic Aqua Excalibur Hotel Camping, пожалуйста, укажите интересующие вас даты и выполните поиск.
Business hours of reception: 24 hours Hotel Camping Magic Excalibur, between the cities of Benidorm and Alfaz del Pi, offers the possibility to spend your holidays in a medieval atmosphere. Enjoy excellent facilities and medieval spectacles. The hotel has a surface of 120.000 m?. Friends of the Middle Ages can realize the dream to live in another epoch, outdoors in magical and interesting surroundings. The bungalows are equipped with shower, TV, safe, kitchen with mini-refrigerator, air condition and heating. Guests can enjoy their meals in our cosy and calm restaurant. On request and reservation 24 hours in advance, vegetarian dishes and diabetic food are also available. The Club Amigos offers varied entertainment programmes during the day and in the evenings for both adults and children. During the day we offer sports activities like gym, archery, pool games, bowling, darts and board games. In the evening we present a wide range of cabarets, games and professional shows. and from : to: on weekends
Заезд: 17:00
Выезд: 10:00
Раннее заселение и поздний отъезд по возможности (услуга может быть платной).
Номеров: 250


text:
Is Dr. Agnes Andanar in Surigao Del Norte incorrect or missing key business information? Update your Hotfrog listing today.
Contact details
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Is Dr. Agnes Andanar in Surigao Del Norte in Madonna And Child Birthing Home, Jose Sering Road, Surigao City Surigao Del Norte 8400 your business? Claim your listing and attract more leads by adding more content, photos and other business details.
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Do you expect the husband to provide the primary income for the household?
Sep 19th 2016248 votes 26 comments
How do you feel about corresponding with more than 1 person at same time?
Sep 14th 2016285 votes 25 comments
Would you date someone who is dealing with an illness? (Not life-threatening)
Aug 13th 2016189 votes 68 comments
How important is physical appearance in deciding to communicate with someone online?
May 1st 2016330 votes 40 comments
What is the most important in creating and maintaining a solid, Catholic home life?
Mar 18th 2016235 votes 39 comments
What do you do when you come across someone you know in real life on this site?
Mar 2nd 2016199 votes 32 comments
If you were given the opportunity to accomplish only one thing during your lifetime, what would it be?
Mar 2nd 2016194 votes 64 comments
When do you feel it is appropriate to introduce your children to the person you're dating?
Feb 25th 20162085 votes 105 comments
What do you consider to be "within driving distance" in your dating profile?
Feb 24th 2016350 votes 44 comments
How long do you wait to start looking, after a relationship ends?
Feb 4th 2016116 votes 28 comments
How important is it that you share political views with your match?
Feb 1st 2016132 votes 23 comments
How would you handle big cultural differences between you and your significant other?
Jan 12th 201644 votes 10 comments
What would be your thoughts if a woman makes significantly more than the man?
Jan 12th 201637 votes 12 comments
What do you do when you receive a message from someone who you aren't interested in?
Nov 1st 20151582 votes 156 comments


text:
Watch Where the Wild Things Are Online
|Where the Wild Things Are (2009)
|Rating: 6.8/10 (87,327 votes)
Director: Spike Jonze
Writer: Spike Jonze (screenplay), Dave Eggers (screenplay), Maurice Sendak (book)
Stars: Max Records, Pepita Emmerichs, Max Pfeifer, Madeleine Greaves
Runtime: 101 min
Rated: PG
Genre: Adventure, Drama, Family
Released: 16 Oct 2009
|Plot: Yearning for escape and adventure, a young boy runs away from home and sails to an island filled with creatures that take him in as their king.
Please choose format to watch the movie:
The video keeps buffering? Just pause it for 2-3 minutes then continue playing!


text:
Small garden ideas
8 Pins3 Followers
Garden design designer clapham balham battersea small low maintenance modern garden (4)
House Doctor's Authentic Notes - welcomes a season of soirée in the garden. | Everyday 2016 | Outdoor, Outdoor Living and House Doctor
chris moss garden design / stockwell garden, london
Garden Design
Keeping it simple but very stylish - multi level contemporary garden, using white to cover a multitude of surfaces and unite the look, hip or what.
greencube garden and landscape design, UK: garden storage under seats (instead of a shed?)
slim contemporary garden design London


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Canon Powershot SX280 HS Review
Latest Camera Reviews
Mac users, we're pleased to announce Macphun's all-in-one photo editor Luminar is now available for just $69£52 with special Valentine Day bonuses (two eBooks, Vivid Wonderland preset pack, & Creative Sky Overlay pack) included for free until February 19. Use coupon code "PHOTOBLOG" to save another $10 on Luminar.
We rated Luminar as "Highly Recommended". Visit the Luminar web site to try it for free.
Entry Tags
hd video, hd, 3 inch LCD, 1080p, compact, wide-angle, movie, wi-fi, 12 megapixel, camera, wireless, wifi, canon, manual, travel, travel-zoom, travel zoom, GPS, 25mm, powershot, wi fi, 20x zoom, 20x, map, maps, Canon PowerShot SX280 HS Review, sx280, sx280 hs, sx280hs


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Artist: Glee Cast
Album: Glee: The Music, the Back Up Plan – EP
Genres: Pop, Music
Released: Apr 29, 2014
℗ 2014 Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation
Track List
1.Wake Me Up (Glee Cast Version)
2.Doo Wop (That Thing) [Glee Cast Version]
3.Story of My Life (Glee Cast Version)
4.Piece of My Heart (Glee Cast Version) [feat. Shirley MacLaine]
5.The Rose (Glee Cast Version)
Download Links: Uploaded | Sharebeast | Zippyshare | Mirrors**Please wait for 5 seconds and click Skip Ads to go to the D/L link. Thanks!


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This delightful two storey, 2 bedrooms, 2 bathroom house. Located in the area of Kathu, Phuket.
The house is conveniently located near: a fresh food Thai market, two '7-11's, a 'Family Mart', a Tesco Lotus (small), and a Super Cheap convenience store are a quick few minutes bike ride away; the Tesco Lotus Superstore, Central Phuket Festival shopping mall/centre, Head Start School, British International School (BIS), Phuket International Hospital, and 'FunStart Family Sports and Leisure Club' are less than a ten minute drive away; and Patong Beach is a twelve minute drive over the hill.
For the golfer, there are three golf courses very close by; Loch Palm, Red Mountain, and Phuket Country Club. The Phuket Country Club also offers a driving range for those needing to hone their skills.


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Know the Top 10 most popular hottest Korean female celebrities in 2016, The gorgeous Korean actresses: The Korean female celebrities are turning out to be an excess of famous among the people. They are gorgeous in their viewpoint. They are hot and provocative. They are capable.
They are taking an interest in live shows. They are getting lead parts in global movies. They have buckled down in coming to such positions in the charm world.
List of Top 10 most popular hottest Korean female celebrities 2016
We inquired about a ton to discover the names of provocative and hot Korean stars of the industry. Here are the names of most ten top sizzling and hottest Korean female celebrities. The Korean female celebrities is administering the household countries with their immense abilities.
10. Im Nana – she is without a doubt one of the hottest Korean female celebrities. She began her profession in the year 2009. She is a model as well. She a cosmetics craftsman. She looks shocking in her appearance. She is a stone star. She is a decent singer and a prestigious artist. She gives complete entertainment to her gatherings of people. Her blameless face surpasses her provocative viewpoint.
9. Song Hye Kyo – The actress has quantities of fans and she is famous for her TV dramatization movies, for example, harvest time in My Heart, Full House, and The Winter the Wind Blows. Her acting looks normal and she performs with all her interests. She looks hot and hot.
8. Park Min young – she is a gifted and capable actress, as well as one of the hottest female in Korean TV and demonstrating industry. For her provocative looks, Park Min Young has turned into the most popular female Korean genius in music recordings and TV plugs. A large portion of her plugs have gotten grants. In the promoting industry, too she got popularity.
7. Kim Tae Hee – she is in this film industry for 10years. She is an accomplished actor. Her magnificence is her quality. Her photographs are seen as the spread pages of numerous magazines and news papers. She is attractive and hot looking. She has the 7th rank in Top 10 most popular hottest Korean female celebrities 2016.
6. Yoon Eun Hye – she is a Korean actress conceived in 1984. She is a standout amongst the most gifted, wonderful, and popular female Korean stars in the year 2016. She began her vocation when she was just 15 years of age. She began her profession as a singer. She propelled 6 popular music collections with global scope. She assumed her first part in movies in the year 2006. Goong is one of her best movie.
5. Kim Hyuna – this actress is multi-gifted. She is a model, an artist and an entertainer all together. She began her profession with solo exhibitions in singing. She has her own particular fan adherents. She looks sizzling. She is gorgeous and all around figured. She won numerous hearts by her moving exhibitions. Presently days she performs with a new style known as Gangnam Style.
4. Park Shin Hye – this hot gorgeous actress was conceived in the year 1990. She was 24 years old on 2016. She did movies in particular Flower Boy Next Door and The Heirs. She is famous for her acting expertise and also for her amazing excellence. She is surely understood in the style industry for her hot and attractive figure.
3. Han Ga In – she is an actress with a hot figure, impeccable skin, and entrancing eye. This actress included herself in the promoting industry. She played with the parts in plugs for style and additionally for beauty care products. The association that directed the occasion deciding for the hottest actress of the year 2016 picked this actress as one of the hottest actress of Korea 2016. She hold the third position in the Top 10 hottest Korean female celebrities 2016.
2. Kim Hyo-Yeon – she is a Korean actress who was conceived in Inchon, a delightful city. Her normal ability and her excellence offered her in some assistance with becoming effective in her initial life. When she was just 11 years of age, Kim had a tryout for the prestigious SM Entertainment. Another outstanding breakthrough in her profession was the point at which she was selected as the main Idol Dancer in Korea by the Star News. Her amazing magnificence and ability blended together in making her the most popular provocative Korean stars of the year 2016.
1. Son Ga In – This skilled Korean young lady got the consideration when she performed in the Brown Eyed Girls bunch individuals. She was killed in the tryout. In the year 2006, the eminent Brown Eyed Girls gathering took her in and from that point forward she performed various shows under the scene name Crescendo. She is a decent entertainer and a star that looks hot and provocative. Her magnificence is combined with name and popularity.
So doesn't defer in the event that you motivate opportunity to see their works. try not to miss it they are just amazing in their parts.


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Visual communication is tremendously powerful. Images trigger emotions and attitudes, increase attention and recollection. About half of our brain is dedicated to processing images, and it's done at a staggering speed. In fact, the brain processes an image 60.000 times quicker than processing written text. While interpreting an image comes natural, reading is something we had to learn.
There was a time when you picked up the phone and called your advertising agency when you needed a certain logotype in a specific file format. If it was urgent, you got it delivered by bike courier, maybe even on a SyQuest disk (look it up). I'm old enough to remember when files weren't sent by email but by bike. I spent a summer doing just that; riding a bike with that SyQuest as my precious cargo. Then things happened in a quicker and quicker pace, transforming industries that had been around for decades. Leaving companies leapfrogged by quicker and smarter startups knowing how to leverage technology, or entirely transformed. Fast forward. Today, the world's largest carrier is not AT&T - it's Skype. Virgin Megastore has been totally overrun by online services such as Spotify or Apple iTunes and most people consume their news not by reading the morning newspaper.
Turns out that people really like print. Gutenbergs old invention dating back to 1436 is still going strong. Who would have guessed this in an almost all digital world where everyone stares into a smartphone or tablet?
Plaese feel free to share this blog post in social media or add a comment below.


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Deconstructing Me-First Faith
It's so easy to live a life that revolves solely around a single agenda: our own. Everything in the surrounding culture encourages us to create the life that we want, to see the fulfillment of our own goals as the ultimate prize, to stand apart from the crowd by being truly selfish.
Of course, Christianity suggests otherwise. It tells us that meeting our own desires is not the path to godly success. Jesus quotes from the ancients in Deuteronomy and Leviticus when He reminds His audience precisely what we ought to value most: to love God with all of our energy and passion, and to love others as much as ourselves.
Selfless living does not mean placing others on an equal footing with ourselves, handing out the compassion in step with the self-indulgence. True Christianity—to be near the kingdom of God, to understand the very fibers that hold together the essence of Christianity, to put our faith into bold practice—means handing over our own agendas in place of serving God and others. It might not be sexy or culturally on-message, but it's there, in plain and simple truth.
This devotion is adapted from an article in RELEVANT magazine. Get your own copy.
Talk About It
Make a to-do list for the week. Then cross off or re-prioritize the tasks that are purely selfish or need to be re-focused to better serve God and others?
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I help lead a middle school girls small group at my church. When I asked them about how often they were in their Bible, they each gave me reasons as to why they don't have enough time to read the Word. As I began to get sad for them, I realized that I do the same thing. I read my Bible when I have time or convenience rather than placing it before everything else. Life has become all about convenience and placing ourself first. Thanks for this reminder that we need to take a step back and put God before us so we can truly love and serve those around us.
We live in a made-to-order culture, which I think not only lead to a misconception of what/who Faith is about, but also to being entangled in a life of repetitive sin. Our self-centered culture forces us to see ourselves as being "right" in what we're doing because it suits us best. This article touches on it a bit: http://bit.ly/1sIo2iB
Well, developing a life around ourselves and our own desires won't be a happy one and it would be soon felt like a boring one as we will be having least connections with the society around us. It is better to make a living that has equal love for others too.
This is a nice post in an interesting line of content. Thanks for sharing this article.
Hello Guys my self Emily from Bold Model Escorts in Gurgaon i really happy to find your "Deconstructing Me-First Faith" topic, Its very helpful for me. Thanks for Admin for share that.


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Very little artistic merit in this one , just a an amazing pig like log in a friends garden
Wow…that is really cool. It looks like an animal, snout, eyeballs, legs and all!
The photo dosent do it justice , it is very cute & "Babe" like
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