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Effective Project Formulation: Addressing the Disjunctures Between Assumptions and Reality
- Stanislas Jobin
- il y a 1 ans
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1 Effective Project Formulation: Addressing the Disjunctures Between Assumptions and Reality Machal Karim IDSD01 Professor Paul Kingston Thesis Supervisors: Professor Albert Berry Professor Susan G. Solomon University of Toronto Scarborough Campus April 22nd 2010
2 Abstract Problematic project formulation is only one aspect of ineffective development practice. While in Niamey, Niger working with international NGO Oxfam-Québec on an urban waste management project, I witnessed this in effect. I assumed a dual role as both a member of the project formulation team as well as an external evaluator and this permitted the opportunity for empirical observation and data collection. I pursued my thesis research on how poor project formulation leads to flawed project design. By looking at the case of the PGDSM-N, I analyse the disjunctures between project assumptions and reality, which will most likely produce suboptimal results. I provide an overview of both literature and experience, on the reasons why these problems occur and the possible obstacles to more effective formulation and design. Finally, I suggest that in order to overcome this problem and achieve more effective development practice, we must consider routinely incorporating learning and adaptive techniques into our development initiatives, such as the evaluative tool of impact analysis at an ex-ante stage.
3 Table of Contents Introduction 1 Background 7 Context of Niamey, Niger 7 Project Description 12 Data Collection Methodology 15 Case of Niamey: The PGDSM-N 18 Labour and Prices 19 Access 25 Assets 30 Why Do Disjunctures Occur: The Challenges 33 Socio-political barriers and the development business as a whole 33 Organizational and NGO functioning 35 Community level: interactions between individuals and the working environment37 What Can Be Done: A Recommendation 40 Conclusion 46 Bibliography Appendix A: Photos of point de regroupement of pilot project Appendix B: Household Questionnaire Appendix C: Project Document Appendix D: Ethics Review Protocol Form
4 Introduction I have long questioned the effectiveness of international development 1 as a whole. Personal and academic experiences led me to suspect that my critique lay with the process of development in practice, specifically the initial stages of project, program or policy formulation. My ten-month work term in Niamey, Niger with international non-governmental organization (NGO) Oxfam-Québec, allowed me to pursue this as a matter of inquiry. This experience was limited to the micro-level NGO-led initiatives, and therefore restricted the nature of my research to NGO projects. With the resources available to me, I dove head first into observation. In accordance with my mandate, I assisted in the elaboration and development of an urban solid waste management project to be implemented in the capital city of Niamey early in This five-year project was budgeted at approximately CAD $26 million and included stakeholders from various levels of government and multiple society-based groups. A few months in, my suspicions about ineffectiveness on the ground materialized before me and I attempted to view the project not only internally as a formulator, but as an impartial evaluator as well. I considered the role of NGO driven projects within the larger development process and posited that problematic project formulation as a symptom of ineffective development practice occurs at the project s nascent stages, within the first few steps of the project cycle. By the mid 1970s, both academics and practitioners alike came to a realization that even after decades of experience in the field of international development, project implementation remained a difficult problem (Rodinelli, 1979). One of the most frequently cited causes was poor project design as, reliable and objective data for evaluating implementation 1 By international development as a whole I include all aspects of international development that we know of today. It includes the decision-making process, the implementation and the final outcomes. It involves those in which industrial countries play a role and those in which they do not. My critique is with the process of formulation of all kinds of development initiatives. 1
5 problems was hard to come by... (Rodinelli, 1979). By the 1970s enough discussion had surrounded the issue to provide some indication of the magnitude of the problem. The Pearson Commission on International Development (1969) was one of the earliest attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of the World Bank s aid initiatives. The Commission argued that because of ineffective project design and implementation, both donors and recipients have found it difficult to make effective use of aid. Similarly, the Jackson Committee s (1969) review on the capacity of the United Nations system noted that many projects, in the strict sense of the word, were not designed at all (Rodinelli, 1979). It became apparent that change was due, and in 1982 working for the World Bank, W.C Baum introduced the project cycle as a rational way of conceptualizing and managing projects (Biggs & Smith, 2003). The project cycle has since become standard, not only internally to the organization, but across the field of international development in various sectors where projects are continually implemented. The structure of the project cycle varies among organizations, in the number of stages it has and even in the name each stage bears. Nevertheless the broader framework and the progression from one phase to the next remain the same and can be identified in almost all project cycles (Biggs & Smith, 2003). Generally put, the project cycle breaks down into six phases: project identification, preparation or design, appraisal or feasibility study, support or approval, implementation and supervision, and evaluation (World Bank, 1998; Biggs & Smith, 2003; Thomas 2002). Some academics and practitioners have added programming or country strategies as the first step, prior to identification, but this seems more the overarching context in which the project would be identified instead of a unique step in the cycle. The project cycle is regularly used by local and international implementing agencies, donor agencies and organizations, governments and NGOs. The widespread use of the project cycle has made it a common feature in developmental discussion, as it has remained a central tool in micro-level 2
6 development management, practice and specifically project formulation since the mid 1970s onwards (Biggs & Smith, 2003). My critique of the effectiveness of development practice at the micro-level, specifically related to NGO projects, is mainly tied to project formulation. Project formulation occurs at the initial stages of the project cycle, namely in the identification, and design and preparation phases. It is these beginning stages of the project cycle which I believe are often flawed. A poorly formulated project could very well result in sub-optimal implementation and performance of project objectives and even produce undesirable outcomes on the ground. One symptom of ineffective project formulation is the manifestation of disjunctures between project assumptions and reality on the ground. Personal experience with the NGO project showed how these disjunctures could eventually hinder a project s success. Both normative and critical literature take a stance on the project cycle and its use in development practice. Traditionally, academic literature and texts written by donors advocated the project cycle for its ability to organize and streamline the development process. This body of literature is mostly theoretical and process focused, in which there is a natural expectation of positive results if the cycle were applied well. These perspectives draw on underlying assumptions of the project cycle approach yet fail to address the issues that stem from them. For instance, proponents of the project cycle assume that each step would be followed and completed most diligently, including recommendations from stakeholders at every stage from identification to evaluation (Biggs & Smith, 2003). In reality this assiduousness seems uncommon. A second assumption taken for granted is the expectation that adjustments will be made during the project cycle in response to ongoing events. The idea that the stages should be repeated if necessary is embodied in the use of a cycle rather than a linear form to 3
7 represent the life of a project (Biggs & Smith, 2003). But as experience on the ground shows, projects usually take on a linear form with a start date, a finish date, and project milestones along the way. Rarely does one come across a project repeating its cycle for a second time, let alone a third or a fourth. Ineffective project formulation was not resolved by the project cycle, and its proponents were mistaken to think the application of the cycle alone would improve development practice. A second set of literature focuses on the dissatisfaction with results in developmental practice. Taking a critical stance, these studies and texts mostly from the world of academia and NGOs, are focused on project outcomes and results and criticize the project cycle in practice and sometimes even the use of projects (no matter how they are applied) in general. They attribute the weakness of the project approach to the lack of participatory methods and to faulty donor-recipient relations. Common critical discourse includes imperialistic donor behaviour, imposition of westernized concepts, paternalistic control over resources, etc. (Koehn & Ojo, 1999; Thomas, 2002). Authors in this school tend to use participation rhetoric and champion participatory methods, without deliberating about other causes of problematic project formulation. In an attempt to improve micro-level development practice the literature mostly advocates approaches such as Community Based Management (CBM) in response to common project management techniques. It also prescribes forms of participatory research such as Participatory Action Research (PAR) or Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) when critiquing research and data collection methods in the identification and project design phases (Blackburn, Chambers & Gaventa, 2002). It has been generally agreed that to be effective in the 21st century, there was a need for community empowerment, building capacity for selfsustained and self-reliant development, and decentralization of donor powers and responsibilities (Koehn & Ojo, 1999). Though it might seem that not all projects require extensive community participation in order to be successful, this school of thought advocated 4
8 that some form of local participation should always be present in at least the first few stages of design, if not in the initiative s entire process. Nevertheless, this perspective also did not ensure an adaptive process which urged learning and adjustment throughout the life of the project from design to evaluation. Overtime critics and practitioners alike once again noted a lack of substantial change. That development in practice was still not providing the desired results and that merely participation was not making ends meet. Sporadically across the field of development, from the worlds of donors, social groups and academia, questions arose. Why is it that staff in development agencies and development practitioners in general, appear to make the same old mistakes rather than learn from them (Thin, 1998)? Why were the lists of lessons learnt and recommendations provided today the same as decades before (Thomas, 2002)? Even keeping in mind bureaucratic practices, why aren t organizations encouraging internal learning environments to limit repetition? In practice, participation rhetoric alone does not seem to accomplish the task. The idea of community participation has been so widely expressed and the terminology so randomly used, that the main difficulty lies in the application of this concept (Davidson et al., 2007). It has therefore been suggested that there is a need to tackle the organizational design of the project as a whole and broaden our perspectives from a project management point of view (Davidson et al., 2007). In line with my personal observations, a relatively small body of literature suggests that the problem of ineffective development practice lies in the lack of adaptive learning throughout the development process, but specifically during project formulation. Although there has been a decline in paternalistic donor behaviour, and an increase in participatory approaches, development projects still seem ineffective as agents of change 2 (Thomas, 2002). It is not a question whether the project as a concept is obsolete. Projects are needed at the micro-level of the state and society to materialize development objectives and goals. They are 2 In the sense that the overall effectiveness of sustainably achieving development goals through projects is still questionable 5
9 the vehicles by which international aid is justified and funneled into a country. The problem is that few people are learning from practice and applying the lessons to immediate and future actions. Even within the participatory school there is generally a lack of self-critique and analysis, which provoked the new wave of adaptive management techniques and promoted the concept of learning while doing. Within the realm of NGOs, Habitat International is an example of an organization attempting to incorporate learning techniques and accordingly adjusting project design to reality (Davidson et al., 2007). As a donor organization, the World Bank attempts to address the issue by engaging in systematic listening to beneficiaries as an approach to development learning, known as Beneficiary Assessment. Academics suggest that the answer lies in looking at the development organization or executing agency to examine the way things are actually managed and structured and understand why the project cycle is used differently across organizations and institutional contexts (Biggs & Smith, 2003). Since this perspective is still relatively new, the body of literature is small and the insight of practitioners and academics still fresh; various proposals on how to change our approach such as the ones above, have been introduced. In the hope of contributing to the exploration, one may also consider the regular and effective use of evaluative tools. One of the most promising tools is the impact analysis at an ex-ante or mid-term stage of the project cycle, because it can promote adaptive management, new learning and optimal project formulation. The following sections will first analyse the disjuncture between assumptions and reality that arose from problematic formulation of the PGDSM-N though it took what some would call a participatory approach, and assess the perceptions of various parties involved as I worked both as an evaluator and an intern to the project. They will explore the possible reasons that these disjunctures occur, and will finally reflect on a tool that could potentially minimize the problem. 6
10 Background On July 15th 2008, I arrived in Niamey, Niger to begin my 10-month work-term with international NGO Oxfam-Québec (OQ). Within the first few days of my arrival my mandate had been established. My primary role was to assist in the elaboration and development of the new Projet de Gestion des Déchets Solides Ménagers à Niamey (PGDSM-N), an urban solid waste management project to be implemented in Niamey at a citywide scale. Initially part of a team with two other people, I worked on the project design, which was modeled after the original PGDSM project in Bénin. From October 2008 onwards, the team was reduced to two people including myself as we worked full-time on the initial stages of the project cycle. I added two more activities to my mandate, the most important being a basic evaluation of a pilot project which was in the midst of completion on my arrival to Niamey, Niger. Context of Niamey, Niger Niger has a population of approximately 15.3 million, of which 16% is urban, and the annual rate of growth of the urban population is 4% (CIA Factbook, 2010). With about 62% of the population living below the poverty line and the GDP per capita (PPP) at $627, Niger ranks 134th out of a 135 countries on the 2009 United Nations Human Poverty Index (UNDP, 2009). Landlocked in sub-saharan West Africa, the economy is dominated by agriculture despite being plagued by droughts and desertification (World Bank, 2010). As the population continues to grow at an extremely fast pace (approximately 3.5%), the overall welfare of the people in this poverty stricken country is at risk as the burden on resources increases. The political fabric of Niger has been unstable over the past few years. Since early 2007 the Northern region of the country has been a conflict ridden zone, rife with armed 7
11 attacks and kidnappings by alleged rebel groups. Political turmoil was further perturbed by the military coup in February 2010, which ousted President Mamadou Tandja who had attempted to prolong his presidency by changing the Constitution and dissolving the National Assembly and the Constitutional Court (World Bank, 2010). Periods of political instability, at times exacerbated by droughts and famine, have led most of the population to distrust the capacity of the government to provide for their basic needs. Left with only day-to-day survival mentality, Nigeriens tend to have no immediate concern or plans for the future (A. Mega, personal communication, August 3rd 2008). Approximately 80% of the population claims to be of Muslim faith (CIA Factbook, 2010). Personal experience on the ground demonstrated the strong tendency towards a traditionalist, patriarchal society. Though not necessarily fundamentally religious, the population strains at emanating religiosity in every day life. For example, alcohol is widely available but is consumed in a clandestine way. Social and cultural norms are married to religious interpretations, and are an undercurrent in many parts of secular society. Working on the ground also demonstrated the influence on politics and daily issues by religious leaders or figureheads. The Imams are respected within society and are readily invited to forums, workshops, council meetings and any other policy dialogue spaces. I personally experienced their power of rhetoric to restrain policy within religious parameters based on their individual interpretations of the Qu ran. The city of Niamey is formally known as la Communauté Urbaine de Niamey. In 2002, under the law N , the city was divided into five towns each with its own decentralized district government and elected mayor (Oxfam-Québec, 2008). Respectively, they are known as Commune Niamey I, II III, IV and V. Due to successive periods of drought in the rural areas over the last decade, the population in Niamey has grown rapidly. This growth puts a strain on the city s infrastructure and housing. Niamey is not only the capital but also the 8
12 economic hub of the country, where almost 15% of the population practices small-scale agriculture and/or market-gardening. Large amounts of waste, bio-degradable and not, line the city streets. Under the Constitution, collection and removal of urban waste falls under the jurisdiction of the Municipal government, which in turn levies a waste removal tax on the residents of the city to finance the operation. To date, there is no dependable garbage collection service provided by the municipal government. Spread thin over a large geographical space, the densest areas of the city are at the center alongside the Niger River in Commune Niamey II. The collection of household waste in Niamey prior to the introduction of the PGDSM-N was at best an informal system which lacked structure. In an unorganized and uncoordinated manner various actors from both private and public sectors, specifically the district-level governments, were involved in the collection and transportation of the garbage from the households to the landfill sites. Individual garbage collectors were badly organized and poorly equipped, and to the delight of the neo-liberals freely entered and exited the market at their own discretion. The labour supply for this work was theoretically limitless, as any able person (most likely male) needing extra cash could pick up a wagon and travel door to door. These private collectors would unload their carts at unregulated and inadequately maintained public dumping sites throughout the city, which only heightened the unsanitary conditions already present. Run down trucks and low-volume bins funded by the district governments, limited the frequent removal of the garbage from these sites to the landfill which itself was abysmally below any environmental standards. In essence, the low capacity of the government handicapped its role as a service provider and provoked an alternate yet still ineffective waste removal system. In a situation such as this, I believe the most rational and logical way to address the issue is through a collaborative approach encouraging public-private partnerships between the 9
13 actors. This esemplastic technique could ensure the active and equal participation of all actors to uniformly and effectively provide the service by sharing roles and responsibilities in a systematic way. This concept is reflected in the strategy of the PGDSM-N as it aims to establish a shared waste management system, which encourages the involvement of various actors such as government, private organizations, NGOs and social groups. But the bigger question is whether the implementation of the PGDSM-N is a good idea at all. The issues that arise about this sort of project 3 can be summarized in two questions. First, is it an overall good idea to implement a trans-nationally borrowed PGDSM to fit the context of Niger? Second, in the situation that the PGDSM-N will be implemented regardless of whether it is a good idea or not, is it designed to optimally perform on the ground? To answer in short, there were no steps taken by project formulators to find out whether it was a good idea or not and as I came to find poor project formulation practices created flaws in the form of disjunctures between project assumptions and reality. This indicated the project was no longer adequately reflecting the needs on the ground and would most likely not optimally perform. The primary problem seems to be that there was not enough information present to establish the desirability of the project and make informed decisions. For example, in my data collection I gathered vital information on the income and expenditure habits of households, the effects of forced subscription on their overall welfare and the willingness of women and male labourers to participate in the project. This information should have been present to make informed decisions about desirability and design, but the project formulation process lacked the methods to acquire it and instead made inaccurate assumptions. The problem of lack of information overlapped both the rationale process and the design process of the project, as assumptions were rife throughout the first steps of the project cycle. As I discuss later in the 3 Meaning a project of this scope, magnitude, style and type. 10
14 paper, assumptions rationalizing the project were based on the fact that it was borrowed and assumptions made in the design of the project was based on imprecise perceptions of reality. These assumptions can be generally attributed to the lack of information, but are specifically due to socio-political barriers, organizational obstacles and challenges within interpersonal interactions and the working environment. Incorporating learning and adaptive management techniques would have forced formulators to continuously acquire the proper information, lessening the frequency of assumptions and mistakes made. After my arrival to Niamey, within the first few weeks I was brought up to date on the Commune Niamey II pilot project on a small-scale waste management system, which was scheduled to close by August This pilot project had been implemented two years prior and matched the PGDSM-N in design. From the documentation and discussion in the field it is unclear whether this pilot project was specifically designed to test the PGDSM model in Niamey or was simply an activity to use up unspent funding and balance the budget. Whatever the reason, vital information was revealed which was extremely germane to the effective design of the future PGDSM-N. I had the opportunity to work on the final project document which summarized all the activities and results achieved over the past two years. The pilot project had been implemented in the four most densely populated neighbourhoods which were surrounded by the major street markets and were located at the center of the city in Commune Niamey II. Due to high traffic in the area, sanitation was an acute problem as heaps of garbage hung on almost every corner and filled almost every sewage drain. The goal of the pilot project was to address this issue. Because the project was coming to an end, I realized that these neighbourhoods and the households within them were beneficiaries who had experienced a small-scale PGDSM-N. They would also be among the target beneficiaries of the future implementation of the PGDSM-N. 11
15 After wrapping up and closing the pilot project, our small team of three moved on to the much larger PGDSM-N dossier. In September 2008, the OQ PGDSM-N team and 10 representatives from different local partners in Niamey who were the focal points of the PGDSM-N, made a field study visit to Cotonou, Bénin. Since it had already been decided by OQ administration that the PGDSM-N would be modeled after the project in Bénin instead of being designed from scratch, the objective of the visit was to acquire hands-on experience and a visual understanding of how the project worked. For approximately one week we worked closely with the OQ team in Bénin who had been running the original PGDSM for the past 12 years, and made visits to various project sites to study how the project functioned on the ground. On our return to Niamey, we began to design a PGDSM project for Niamey, emulating the original structure and components of the project in Bénin. By this point I had become fully equipped and well versed in the project dialogue and design. Project Description The PGDSM-N is a five year project budgeted at CAD $26 million to be executed by Oxfam-Québec and implemented in The key actors involved in the project include the design team at Oxfam-Québec/Niger; the administrations of OQ offices in Niger, Bénin and Canada; the Nigerien ministries of health, environment, urbanization and city planning and the interior and public security; the municipal government; the five decentralized district governments; various society-based groups in composting and market-gardening; local garbage collection and transportation NGOs; households and donors. The project document states that the ultimate goal is to contribute towards improving the sanitary and hygiene conditions for the city of Niamey (Oxfam-Québec, 2009). Its specific goal is to support the implementation of a shared urban solid waste management system across the five Communes 12
16 or town districts within the city of Niamey. The project activities have been divided into five categories: pre-collection, collection, landfill, awareness and communication and project management. The first three of the five categories are the major components or phases of the waste management system identical to the ones in Bénin which the PGDSM-N aims to imitate in Niger. The pre-collection includes the collection of waste directly from the households. At this stage individual garbage collectors travel door to door (to the households subscribed to the service), fill up their wagon and make their way to the closest point de regroupement (See Appendix A), a regulated dumping drop-site, to unload the waste into large metal containers. The collection phase is expected to fall under the tutelage of each respective district government which will most likely contract out to a private organization or local NGO. This phase includes the transportation of the household waste now aggregated in the large containers, from the point de regroupement to a permanent regulated landfill site. The last phase is the monitoring, maintenance and management of the landfill site, which is the responsibility of the municipal city government. The fourth and fifth categories are not directly related to the waste management network but are attributes which will contribute to the success or failure of the system in place. The defining characteristic of the system is the cooperation and collaboration of all parties involved, within and between each phase of the system. The PGDSM-N management team at OQ is responsible for ensuring a collaborative stakeholder environment so that the system can run smoothly. According to the project document, the direct beneficiaries of the PGDSM-N are: the municipal government, the garbage collectors, local NGOs, recyclers, local authorities, and the indirect beneficiaries are the over households within the five districts of the city (Oxfam-Québec, 2009). As previously mentioned, the PGDSM-N was fundamentally modeled on the original PGDSM implemented in Bénin twelve years earlier. Having had direct exposure to the design process and being a member of the formulation team, I observed that there was a slight 13
17 attempt, to adapt the project to the local context. Though the two countries share a border, they are fairly different in various aspects. Economically, physically, socially and culturally, the capital city of Cotonou contrasts to its Nigerien counterpart. I noticed that simple modifications were undertaken after the decision to bring the project to Niger. For example, the environmental and climate components were adapted to suit Niamey s drier weather and siltier land, but this did not seem to suffice to fully adapt the project to local contexts. Observation of the process showed that social and cultural contexts were either deliberately disregarded or unintentionally overlooked, as impending deadlines and bureaucracy superseded meticulous design. The core structure, or the axes of the project remained identical to the one in Bénin, so despite the minimal alterations, the design of the project is more or less the same. It seemed that throughout the formulation process in Niamey the judiciousness of the project design and the project formulators never came into question. The project was evidently not based on a needs assessment of the country. It was put forward to the local partners by international NGO OQ, but its applicability to local situations was never assessed. It seems the assumption was that the contexts did not differ enough to justify designing the project from scratch and that the differences were not substantial enough to pose as an obstacle in the future. This prevented any detailed needs assessment and gathering of information to take place. Furthermore, it was apparently in the interest of OQ to duplicate project design instead of incurring startup costs to initiate a brand new project. This assumption that both locations were similar enough was the basis of the rationale to trans-nationally replicate and implement the project. As a fail-safe the OQ team made a superficial attempt to contextualize the project as experience in the field and discussion with colleagues demonstrated it was verbally acknowledged but was clearly overlooked in the design. Furthermore, any attempt by the OQ team in Niger to appropriate the project and transfer all project data to Niamey was met with resistance from the OQ team in Bénin. This eventually generated tension in the professional 14
18 relationship between both OQ national offices, causing more uncertainty about the legitimacy of decision-making process and the tenability of the project design. As time passed I began to view the project from an analytical standpoint and as a member of the project design team I noticed the project was laden with assumptions. Overall two sets of assumptions became obvious, though they did overlap on some issues. First, the largest assumption made was that Niamey resembled Cotonou enough to justify the transnational borrowing and copying of the PGDSM. As mentioned this allowed OQ to rationalize the introduction of the project in Niamey but also allowed it to draw a veil over their own vested interests in pursuing the implementation of the project, such as monopolizing the waste management sector. The second set of assumptions involved the project design. Various project expected outcomes and activity components were based on assumptions with respect to the situation on the ground, which in reality were inaccurate causing flaws in the design. Being a member of the design team, I took the opportunity to explore this further as my thesis research and assumed the role of an evaluator. This dual role gave me the benefit of the inside track, but also allowed an opportunity to step back and objectively assess the process of project formulation 4. Data Collection Methodology I conducted primary research by surveying a sample population of 200 households, all from the four beneficiary neighbourhoods of the pilot project completed in August 2008 in Commune Niamey II. I selected these neighbourhoods because they had already been exposed to a quasi-pgdsm-n on a much smaller scale and thus provided an ex-post scenario. In a team of four, composed of myself and three government officials from the district 4 It is also worthy mentioning that this dual role may have also shaped my perceptions and critique of the project itself. Therefore, all data analysis and observations provided by my experience should be considered in light of my place in the broader context. 15
19 of Commune Niamey II, we randomly selected 50 households per neighbourhood. Going door to door, we approached household members and asked whether they would voluntarily participate in a brief questionnaire which I designed and wrote up in French. Respondents about evenly included both males and females. For those who had trouble understanding French, the questions and their respective answers were orally translated into the dominant local languages of either Hausa (Houssa) or Zarma (Djerma). Primary research on the garbage collectors was also gathered by randomly surveying a total of 34 garbage collectors who happened to come by the pilot project s point de regroupement in a span of approximately 1 hour. As most of them had only rudimentary French language skills or were illiterate, almost all the questionnaires had to be verbally translated by the dumpsite security guard who was there as a government employee of Commune Niamey II. I also conducted key informant interviews with representatives from the district, municipal and ministerial levels of government, as well as a representative from the OQ project team. From an anthropological point of view, various barriers and problems were confronted in this primary data collection. Participatory observation led me to believe that answers respondents gave to certain trigger questions might be skewed and not representative of the reality. This can be easily attributed not only to the fact that I was a foreigner and a female in a patriarchal Muslim society, but also to the fact that I was accompanied by government officials who are usually considered as of higher authority in local social ranking. I noticed that trigger questions usually included ones related to cultural or social norms with religious or traditional undertones. These questions touched on topics such as allowing women of the household to work as recyclers, ranking gender issues as a priority to society, and gauging the meaning of community and participation. The social and economic rank of the questioners, including myself, posed as barrier to accumulating reliable data. Other barriers included political interests of those closely tied to the project and the wish of certain stakeholders to be well-perceived by 16
20 other stakeholders, resulting in biased and superficial responses in interviews and questionnaires. Nevertheless in spite of some ambiguity in the responses, generally the statistics were strong enough to confirm some of my initial suspicions that data from the ground was not being accurately represented in the project design. Along with my primary research, I conducted secondary research in an attempt to find a proper framework by which I could organize my analytical approach. I am borrowing from the World Bank s Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIA), a macro-level analytical framework for policy analysis. I scaled it down to apply it to my own micro-level research on effective project formulation and used some of its tools in my data collection methodology. Perusing the PSIA documentation, I formulated my survey questionnaire and designed my analytical framework. I decided to borrow what the PSIA calls impact channels as a means of categorizing the findings from my primary research on the disjunctures between project assumptions and the realities on the ground. Focusing on three separate aspects of socio-economic welfare, my analysis is broken into the categories of Labour and Prices, Access, and Assets. The following section will analyse the disjunctures which arose from the data collected, signaling problematic project formulation. 17
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text:
Three Philadelphia City Council members say PGW's proposed LNG terminal would threaten waterfront development and endanger residents. See their op-ed in Friday's Philadelphia Daily News.
Eversheds Sutherland is an international law firm helping the Fortune 100, industry leaders, sector innovators and business entrepreneurs solve their biggest challenges and reach their business goals. Dedicated to unfaltering excellence in client service, we are known for our business savvy and industry intelligence, providing creative and custom solutions for each of our clients. Industry and business experience makes the difference for our clients.
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text:
Saint-Gobain ContainersAcquired by Ardagh Group
Saint-Gobain ContainersAcquired by Ardagh Group
FilterFull-time Part-time
I worked at Saint-Gobain Containers full-time (More than a year)
Great environment and really enjoyed my time here!
There were no cons for me.
Advice to Management
Thank you for the support during my time here!
I have been working at Saint-Gobain Containers full-time (More than 5 years)
Pay and benefits are excellent
Weekly rotating shift with only 1 day off before shift changes again
No work/life balance
Hand-packing is a pain in the legs, feet, back and butt and if you complain loudly and aggressively enough to your supervisor they will probably place you in a different job for that day.
Too much favoritism - if you're friends with management/supervisors you can write your own ticket.
Advice to Management
Treat everybody the same.
Look into discussing with the union of course, other scheduling options to improve work/life balance
Have only a few selectors to train new selectors, so everyone is trained the same way.
I worked at Saint-Gobain Containers full-time (More than 3 years)
Pay and bonus are high. There is opportunity for training and advancement.
Toxic work environment at the plants. You will work many hours, than receive a phone call at 2am. No work-life balance whatsoever. Corporate is overstaffed and dictated how the plants operate without providing support for their orders. The safety culture varies depending on the location.
Advice to Management
Although I highly doubt the plant culture can be changed, give capital support to plant departments in addition to Forming. All departments affect the end product and, ultimately, profitibility.
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The company provides career growth opportunity and relevant training on a regular basis. The senior management is easily approachable and professional.
Work life balance is a major issues for certain job positions in both corporate and plant environment, and the company has not done enough to tackle those issues. Vacant positions take a long time to be filled.
Advice to Management
Focus on recognizing the employee wok life balance issues and take proper steps to fix the problems
I worked at Saint-Gobain Containers full-time (More than a year)
well established company and #2 largest glass container supplier in US
Bad work/life balance. Salary in production must be in plants for all holiday shutdowns (if there is a shutdown) and they wont tell you if there is a shutdown until a week prior to it. Horrible if you want to see out of town family.
No accountability, alot of finger pointing, no team players, constant atmosphere of people degrading each other, many salary positions open which causes many managers to have to take on an overwhelming amount of responsibilities.
Advice to Management
Fill the open positions, improve work/life balance, look at the assets you have in house.
I have been working at Saint-Gobain Containers full-time (More than 5 years)
you can get many connections. huge company. many different locations.
doesn't care about employee. sometimes, feel like we are money cow for french
Advice to Management
better take care of people or they will leave
I worked at Saint-Gobain Containers full-time (More than 10 years)
Privileged to have worked with many great professionals both salary and hourly. This company is dedicated to success and to providing quality products to the customers. Company is very active in improving safety, environmental compliance, and energy performance.
Life in any production facility is demanding.
Advice to Management
Try your best to improve the work/life quality balance.
Helpful (1)
the benefits are good, the pay is good
7 day swing shift is a long time getting to 1 day off
Advice to Management
changing the 7 day work may help absentism
Helpful (1)
I worked at Saint-Gobain Containers full-time (More than 3 years)
Global reach
Recognizable brand
Organizational politics
Heavy and slow bureaucracy
One bean is counted by several counters
Advice to Management
Get rid of dotted lines and focus on results of down line rather then worry about boss of the boss of the boss of the boss of the .....
I have been working at Saint-Gobain Containers full-time
Stable company with strong employee loyalty.
Salary not always competitive and desirable locations limited.
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Private In-Home and Online Chemistry Tutoring in Westchester, IL
Receive personally tailored Chemistry lessons from exceptional tutors in a one-on-one setting. We help you connect with in-home and online tutoring that offers flexible scheduling and your choice of locations.
Recent Tutoring Session Reviews
"We reviewed a lab write up determining the molar volume of hydrogen gas. We also covered material that may be on a quiz, which involved using the gas laws to find changing temperature, volume, or pressure."
"I helped the student with the concepts of intermolecular forces, including the topics of ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding, and London dispersion forces. We covered the reading from his textbook and I answered his questions from the reading. I helped him with the questions from his lab worksheet and we also covered some practice questions from the book. At the end of the session, the student told me I helped him understand the concepts a lot better. Great session overall!"
"During this session, the student and I continued to prep for the exam that would allow her to take a higher level chemistry class. She consistently got all of the problems about these laws correct. We talked about this and about study techniques she could use. For the rest of the class, we talked about a handful of the other topics on the study guide that we made during the last session, including the difference between molecular and empirical formulas and trends in the Periodic Table. She seems to feel comfortable with these topics so far, but I strongly encouraged her to keep studying on her own to ensure that she really has a strong understanding. We spent some time looking into other resources online."
Nearby Cities:Aurora Chemistry Tutoring, Crystal Lake Chemistry Tutoring, St. Charles Chemistry Tutoring, Oswego Chemistry Tutoring, Lake in the Hills Chemistry Tutoring, Batavia Chemistry Tutoring, Woodstock Chemistry Tutoring, Huntley Chemistry Tutoring, Yorkville Chemistry Tutoring, North Aurora Chemistry Tutoring, Montgomery Chemistry Tutoring, Whitewater Chemistry Tutoring, Oconomowoc Chemistry Tutoring, Fort Atkinson Chemistry Tutoring, Campton Hills Chemistry Tutoring
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Ingredients & Broths
Ingredients & Broths
There's nothing like some good one-on-one time with you and your kitchen to help you unwind and relax.
These baking ingredients will give you the resources you need to whip up delicious meals and treats for any situation.
Our products can be used today or for years to come!
Emergency Essentials®
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Honey 5-Gallon Bucket 60 lbs
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Thu, 02/02/2017 - 10:01
All six of MV Index Solutions' (MVIS) investable Long/Short Equity Indices, which are constructed using transparent, liquid ETFs and US Treasury securities, recorded positive performance in January.
Thu, 02/02/2017 - 09:15
Kettera Strategies, owner and operator of Hydra, an independent custody-based managed account platform, has appointed James Knoeck as chief financial officer.
Thu, 02/02/2017 - 09:11
The Neuberger Berman Large Cap Value Fund institutional class generated a 28.48 per cent return for the 2016 calendar year, ranking in the first percentile of Morningstar's Large Value Category (out of 1,268 funds), and outperforming the Russell 1000 Value Index by over 1,100 basis points.
Thu, 02/02/2017 - 09:09
In January 2017, the European Energy Exchange (EEX) reached a volume of 291.1 TWh on its power derivatives markets (January 2016: 332.4 TWh).
Thu, 02/02/2017 - 09:04
The Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation (DTCC) has appointed Ann Shuman, DTCC managing director and deputy general counsel, as general counsel, effective 1 February 2017.
Thu, 02/02/2017 - 08:56
Old Mutual Global Investors (OMGI), part of Old Mutual Wealth, has launched the Old Mutual Systematic Positive Skew Fund, targeting sophisticated institutional investors.
Wed, 01/02/2017 - 10:30
BT has signed an agreement to acquire IP Trade, a provider of unified communications and collaboration solutions for trading floor environments and command-and-control dispatch centres.
Wed, 01/02/2017 - 10:27
Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) has launched the CBOE S&P 500 Range-Bound Premium Income Index, which is designed to serve as a benchmark for investors aiming for consistent income distributions while taking the view that short-term equity returns will be range-bound.
Wed, 01/02/2017 - 09:58
EBS BrokerTec, a NEX Group business which provides electronic trading technology and services, has enhanced its EBS Live Ultra data feed, providing spot foreign exchange (FX) data at 5 millisecond intervals.
Wed, 01/02/2017 - 09:43
Guernsey is marking the the 20th anniversary of the introduction of its Protected Cell Company (PCC) Ordinance on 1 February 1997, providing the island's captive insurance sector with the first cell company legislation of its kind anywhere in the world.
Thu, 02/02/2017 - 13:50
Mon, 05/12/2016 - 10:57
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Mon, 31/10/2016 - 12:47
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Easily the most popular fighter that Cambodia has ever produced, Chan Rothana returned to the ONE Championship cage to showcase his new-found MMA skills. The results are devastating. watch video >>
One of the most exciting fights in the history of the flyweight division took place recently in Myanmar when former ONE Flyweight World Champion Adriano Moraes clashed with hometown hero Adriano Mora watch video >>
ONE Championship VP Rich Franklin recently conducted an exclusive MMA seminar in Yangon, Myanmar for Myanmar Lethwei Fighters. Check out the talent that he found! watch video >>
Myanmar's No.1 MMA fighter Aung La N Sang takes on Egypt's Mahmoud Salama in an explosive middleweight battle. Watch how it goes! watch video >>
ONE Championship crowned the first ever MMA Featherweight Tournament Champion in Yangon, Myanmar. watch video >>
ONE Championship crowned the first ever MMA Lightweight Tournament Champion in Yangon, Myanmar. watch video >>
Watch the highlights from Myanmar's first global MMA event when ONE Championship came to Yangon! watch video >>
BJJ World Champion and ONE FC Superstar Leandro "Brodinho" Issa from the Evolve Fight Team at Evolve Mixed Martial Arts demonstrates how to tie your belt for Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. http://www.evolve-mm watch video >>
http://fightnetwork.com - Fight Network previews ONE FC 6: Rise of Kings, ONE FC's 6th event, headlined by Shinya Aoki vs. Arnaud Lepont, and also featuring Melvin Manhoef and Jens Pulver from the Si watch video >>
http://fightnetwork.com/ - Fight Network recaps Cage Warriors 49 from Cardiff, Wales, headlined by a welterweight bout between Cathal Pendred and Bruno Carvalho, on October 27, 2012, shown on Fight N watch video >>


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Hotfrog Philippines provides information regarding Ines Moda Infantil in Metro Manila. Ines Moda Infantil is located at 1st Avenue Bonifacio Global City Taguig, Metro Manila and provides Newsletter services. Contact them on +639178086031 or by visiting them on their website http://www.inesmodainfantil.com.
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Luxury box with wedding chocolate
An assorted chocolate box created by La Maison du Chocolat is perfectly suited as a gift for special occasions. Find out more about our dark chocolate gift baskets!
"Coffret Maison", "Teamwork Hatbox", and much more: time to taste what French chocolate gifts are like. All chocolate gifts by La Maison du Chocolat are presented in beautiful and stylish gift boxes or baskets.
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Do you need a gift for a birthday party, for Christmas, graduation or another special occasion? Get an overview of all the chocolate party favours offered by La Maison du Chocolat online and choose the chocolate box of your dreams!
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If you are looking for a small chocolate wedding favour to offer to your guests, our collection of "Wedding Favour Boxes" will offer perfect delights for that special day. The luxury truffle and praline boxes will take your breath away!
Related pages :Chocolate gift hamper, Chocolate gift hampers, Dark chocolate cocoa powder, Chocolate catalogue


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- Home›
- Heritage Auctions›
- 2012 Vintage Sports #7051›
- Lot # 81775
81775: 2009-10 Sidney Crosby Game Worn Pittsburgh Pengu
Presented is a road white sweater worn during the 2009-10 season, when the NHL superstar tied Tampa Bay Lightning center Steven Stamkos for the lead in goals scored, with 51, earning him the Rocket Richard Trophy. The jersey sports a large logo patch at the chest, and the captain's letter "C" just below the left shoulder. Number "87" appears at each bicep and on verso, where it is placed beneath a boldly lettered "Crosby" on the rear nameplate. "Cutting Edge Sports" maker's label appears at interior rear hem, noting the Penguins exclusivity and "Set #2 2009-2010." Fight strap remains affixed just above. Several stick and board marks decorate the jersey front and sleeves, in addition to multiple team-instituted repairs on the left shoulder, which can be matched to included images. A better example from the future Hall of Famer's fifth season does not exist. LOA from Pittsburgh Penguins #92016.
Starting Bid:$2,500.00
Buyer's Premium:
- 19.5%


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Charter Communications, Cable Tv, Cable Tv Equipment, listed under "Cable Tv, Cable Tv Equipment" category, is located at 765 S Riverside Ave Medford OR, 97501 and can be reached by 8558582716 phone number. Charter Communications has currently 0 reviews.This business profile is not yet claimed, and if you are the owner, claim your business profile for free. If you are not the owner you can invite this business to join by email or by phone.Browse all Cable Tv, Cable Tv Equipment in Medford OR. Discover census data for Medford, OR.
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World War II on the Home front - WJEC HY4
World War II on the Home front - WJEC HY4
Covering a range of topics desciring life on the Home Front, including finance, politics and preparations for war.
- Created by: B
- Created on: 19-05-10 08:33
First 565 words of the document:
WWII on the Home Front:
There was, then, in the inter-war period a definite but not catastrophic decline in heavy
industry, and a pronounced decline in traditional exports.
In the late 1930s, a notable expansion of light industry occurred catering mainly for the home
market. Foreign trade was less important and the balance of trade had been restored in
1935, but surpluses thereafter were small.
Trade union movement was docile, and the decline can be related to the failure of the
General Strike and the depression, and the rise to the improved economic conditions of the
late 1930s.
The standard of living was rising steadily, and there was a plentiful supply of consumer
goods. With bolder investment and more determined government assistance, the economic
transformation might have happened more quickly and gone further.
Varying Impact on British People:
The people realised the restrictions were necessary and were fairly applied.
It is argued rationing caused an improvement in the nation's health by compelling people to
eat more nutritious food.
By the Emergency Powers Act of 1939 and 40, traditional liberties such as freedom from
arbitrary imprisonment and freedom of the press were made liable to suspension. The
Ministry of Information operated a form of press censorship.
People realised restrictions were necessary and were being fairly applied.
Organising for War:
The Navy and RAF were put on wartime alert, and the BEF were sent to France to join the
Air raid sirens and Anderson shelters were set up, although there was little action in the
West during the first 6 months of the war. This period is nicknamed "The Phoney War".
Shortages of uniforms, weapons and training facilities prevented rapid mobilisation.
Anticipating the total destruction of cities and the dropping of poison gas bombs, the
government prepared in 1930 plans for the evacuation of children out of London and issues
gas masks to the entire population.
Strict blackout regulations were brought into effect: street lights were extinguished, cars
couldn't use headlamps and householders had to blackout windows at night.
Chamberlain set up a small war cabinet.
Dealing with Shortages:
From January 1940 basic foodstuffs were rationed, followed by clothing. Beaverbrook
launched a national campaign for scrap metal, leading to miles of garden railings being
converted into spitfires and hurricanes. He also demanded extra work from the factories,
and, with Bevin's co-operation persuaded unions to suspend rules governing the length of
the working day.
Food rationing saw few luxuries become available and the Ministry of Food issued a list of
regulations determining e.g. the colour of bread and amount of meat in sausages.
The Ministry of Agriculture encouraged British farmers to produce as much food as possible
and, in particular, to cultivate land previously devoted to pasture.
In 1939 about 2 thirds of Britain's food was imported and as an island it was easy for the
German navy to block her supplies and food was in short supply.
Rationing was complicated and the Ministry of Food kept the public informed via leaflets,
posters and newspapers.
Poorer people actually benefited as they could now afford food previously more expensive.
Other pages in this set
Page 2
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The Ministry of Food also organised a widespread campaign giving suggestions for wartime
Dig for victory and grow your own were just 2 of the catchphrases used by the Ministry's
Clothes were rationed from May 1941 onwards. Textiles were in short supply as materials
were in great demand for military uniforms and blankets.
Petrol was rationed immediately but as time progressed people were asked to lay up their
cars to help the war effort.…read more
Page 3
Here's a taster:
During 1942 coal supplies were dwindling and production was down because of a lack of coal
miners. Bevin announced that conscripts could go down the pits rather than fight. Such
recruits following ballots were nicknamed "Bevin's Boys".
With agricultural workers being gradually filtered into the forces the void was filled by
members of the Women's Land Army.
Bevin introduced measures to improve working conditions so the bitter pill of direction
sweetened.…read more
Page 4
Here's a taster:
On the home front they took a variety of jobs. Women's contributions to domestic workforce
were undoubtedly important.
Wartime propaganda highlighted women's roles in the war, such publicity was good for
Many women disliked their war work. It tended to be monotonous, poorly paid and allowed
insufficient time for traditional home based occupations.
Housewives faced challenges with morale, rationing etc and most spent a sizeable part of
the war in queues
.in addition, women had to suffer a good deal of prejudice from men.…read more
Page 5
Here's a taster:
The Government directed the basic industries. Government commissioners co-ordinated
transport, taking over general control of the docks and railways.
Under pressure to do so from his own party, Chamberlain had invited Churchill to become
First Lord of the Admiralty. Churchill however failed to appreciate the impact of air power
and the only allied gain from the Norwegian Campaign was the massive damage done to the
German navy.
2 Months later when the Germans contemplated Operation Sea Lion, these losses were felt.…read more
Page 6
Here's a taster:
Even Churchill's harshest critics describe him as the "saviour of his country", and his decision
to withdraw the BEF from Dunkirk and to keep the RAF from fighting on the continent
certainly contributed to the country's survival.
However he did make mistakes. The Norwegian campaign is perhaps one of the most
obvious, yet he avoided blame and benefitted from the resulting attack on Chamberlain.
Churchill has been criticised for his attitude of Stalin, especially when he signed the
percentages agreement in Moscow.…read more
Page 7
Here's a taster:
The war so no economic renaissance for Britain but given the poor economic base from which
Britain started the war, the economy reacted well to the challenge.
Less doubt exists about the consequences of the war for the economy. The costs were
undoubtedly high with huge debts accumulated, large amounts of foreign investment sold
off and millions of tonnes of shipping were lost
It has been calculated that Britain lost ¼ of its pre-war wealth during the war.…read more
Page 8
Here's a taster:
Entertainment was available to the public and in 1940 the government provided finance for
what was to become the Arts Council.
Cinemas kept going during the war, providing valuable escapism for up to 30 million a week.
Ernest Bevin went out of his way to provide a cheerful working atmosphere in factories,
instituting "music while you work" among a number of other measures.…read more
Page 9
Here's a taster:
Reality was different from the propaganda myths; the idea of a shared experience was not always
true. Middle class people lived away from the main centres of bombing raids.
Most of the effects of change were temporary. Many women gave up their jobs at the end of the
war, either because they wished to or were forced to. Class loyalties stayed the same.
War service did more to reinforce class divisions than to break them down. The armed forces were
organised on class lines.…read more
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NIH Appoints Higher Ed Association Official to Post
March 2, 2010
The National Institutes of Health on Monday appointed a senior official at the Association of American Universities to head its legislative affairs office. Pat White, who as vice president for federal relations at the research university group has been a well-respected analyst of biomedical research and science funding, will become the biomedical research agency's associate director for legislative policy and analysis, where he will lead the office that tracks and analyzes legislation related to the agency's work.
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text: What Exactly Is Wrong With Gary Coleman?Slut Machine2/26/08 2:30pmFiled to: ClipsToday ShowAl RokerGary Coleman43EditPromoteShare to KinjaToggle Conversation toolsGo to permalinkOkay, all kidding aside, what is wrong with Gary Coleman? And I don't mean his congenital kidney disorder or that he's unable to consummate his relationship with his wife, for whatever reason. I'm talking about the fact that it was really difficult for me to get a screen shot — showing his eyes alert and open — from this interview on the Today show this morning. Is he on something? And for that matter, what is his wife's deal? I love that Al Roker had the balls to be like, "What is it that attracted you to Gary?" Because really, we want to know. Oh, also, Gary said that he has always wanted to be "an actor on the internet" and that he's embarrassed by other actors and "ashamed to be a member of the business." Also, he's apparently "not into fame." Right, so he's booking himself and his platonic wife around on all these TV shows to stay out of the public eye! Clip above. Reply43 repliesLeave a reply


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Tim Cook's Pay Slump as Apple revenue drop for first time
Tim Cook's Pay Slump as Apple revenue drop for first time
Apple penalized Chief Executive Tim Cook for the iPhone maker's first sales slump in 15 years with a 15% pay cut.
Cook still did extremely well, with a compensation package valued at $8.7 million for Apple's fiscal year that ended Sept. 24, according to a regulatory filing made Friday. But the amount was down from nearly $10.3 million in the prior year.
Apple's revenue dropped 8% to $216 billion, while its operating profit declined 16% to $60 billion. That was mainly because it sold fewer iPhone for the first time since the device came out in 2007.
Apple's regulatory filing revealed that the company was bracing for a sales drop last year, although not quite as steep as what occurred. The compensation committee for Apple's board of directors had established a revenue goal of $224 billion for last year, which would have been a 4 percent decline from the previous year.
The company cited a downturn in Apple's revenue and operating profit as the main reason it cut the pay of Cook and its other top executives.


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Download video: NBA 2k16 Defensive Strategies 4 Online Ranked
Channel: Chris Davis
TIP: Right-click and select "Save link as.." to download video
Initializing link download.....
Whats good people? This video is a preview into the defensive strategies I utilize to play Ranked games online. These clips were made versus the computer but you guys will just at least How I do what I do. If you have any questions hit me up


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Is Samuel Tie & Co incorrect or missing key business information? Update your Hotfrog listing today.
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Is Samuel Tie & Co in 47A, Second Floor, Jalan Buangsiol, Kuching Sarawak 98707 your business? Claim your listing and attract more leads by adding more content, photos and other business details.
We have more Retail services in Kuching Sarawak available on Hotfrog MALAYSIA. You can update your search for Kuching Retail by location, keyword or service options.
2567, Jalan Satok, Kuching Sarawak 93400
Lot 6807 & 6808, Matang Jaya Commercial Centre, Jalan Matang, Petra Jaya, Kuching Sarawak 93050
Lot 7, Lg 4, Sarawak Plaza, Kuching Sarawak 93100
184, Green Road, Kuching Sarawak 93150
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