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UNIVERSIDAD POLITÉCNICA DE MADRID ESCUELA TÉCNICA SUPERIOR DE INGENIEROS AGRÓNOMOS. Departamento de Producción Vegetal: Fitotecnia
- Nickolas Curtis
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1 UNIVERSIDAD POLITÉCNICA DE MADRID ESCUELA TÉCNICA SUPERIOR DE INGENIEROS AGRÓNOMOS Departamento de Producción Vegetal: Fitotecnia Trabajo Fin de Carrera Seasonal evolution of soil respiration in a mixed forestry plantation of walnuts (Juglans intermedia Carr.) and alders (Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Duby) in Domaine de Restinclières (France) AUTORA: ANA ISABEL BLÁZQUEZ SALCEDO Plan 2006 Producción Vegetal: Fitotecnia Cotutor: Jacques Wery (Montpellier SupAgro) TUTORA: Dña. ANA CENTENO MUÑOZ Departamento de Producción Vegetal: Fitotecnia November 2012
3 TRIBUNAL Raquel Casas Flores Presidente Margarita Ruiz-Ramos Secretario Marta Benito Capa Vocal 30 de noviembre de 2012 Fecha de defensa 9.5/10 Calificación
5 This work has been developed in cooperation with the UMR SYSTEM (INRA) following an ERASMUS exchange program ( ) in Montpellier SupAgro. It is framed within tasks of project Intens&Fix. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid Ana Isabel Blázquez Salcedo
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS En primer lugar quiero dar las gracias muy especialmente a mi tutora Ana Centeno, por la inestimable ayuda que me ha prestado, por su amabilidad, su cercanía, su tiempo y su trabajo. Sin ti no habría escrito estas páginas. Al profesor Miguel Ángel Ibáñez por su soporte con el programa informático R. A Carlos García Benítez por sus correcciones y ayuda con el inglés. Je remercie l UMR SYSTEM : Lydie, Aurélie et Jeff pour faire possible ce travaille. MERCI! A la cátedra de Arboricultura: a Raquel, Elisa y Javi por facilitarme la etapa final, por darme un sitio para trabajar y sobre todo por hacerlo agradable. Je remercie aussi les amis ERASMUS, spécialement Vitto, Erin, Pauli et Lola. Pour neuf mois incroyables. On se voit à Montpellier!! Por su puesto gracias a mi familia, a mis padres por aguantarme todos los días, por darme una carrera y por las posibilidades ofrecidas, que son tantas que no soy capaz de ver. A mis Gatos Cósmicos y a mi Primi por ser mis incondicionales todos estos años, Y LOS QUE NOS QUEDÁN, Cuchareras ;) A Juls, porque seguiremos tirando libres los años que hagan falta.... A vosotros! Sin duda! A Clark, a Carmenxu, a Belencia, a mi Prunus, a Saritrini, a Aidis, a Natt, a Charly, a Paquito, a Mery, a Guilleman, a Juanis, a Maje, a Camille y el todo el resto que no pongo y que me ha alegrado esta etapa inolvidable de mi vida. Gracias por aguantarme los gruñidos y por estar a mi lado. Gracias, gracias, GRACIAS. Pero sobre todo gracias a ti, EDGAR, porque me cuidas, porque me quieres y porque me ayudas a luchar en esta vida. Y porque siempre, Cholo, a ti y a mí nos quedará París.
9 Árbol, buen árbol, que tras la borrasca te erguiste en desnudez y desaliento, sobre una gran alfombra de hojarasca que removía indiferente el viento... Hoy he visto en tus ramas la primera hoja verde, mojada de rocío, como un regalo de la primavera, buen árbol del estío. Y en esa verde punta que está brotando en ti de no sé dónde, hay algo que en silencio me pregunta o silenciosamente me responde. Sí, buen árbol; ya he visto como truecas el fango en flor, y sé lo que me dices; ya sé que con tus propias hojas secas se han nutrido de nuevo tus raíces. Y así también un día, este amor que murió calladamente, renacerá de mi melancolía en otro amor, igual y diferente. No; tu augurio risueño, tu instinto vegetal no se equivoca: Soñaré en otra almohada el mismo sueño, y daré el mismo beso en otra boca. Y, en cordial semejanza, buen árbol, quizá pronto te recuerde, cuando brote en mi vida una esperanza que se parezca un poco a tu hoja verde... Antonio Machado
11 Dedicado a Campana. Porque te llevo dentro, porque tú me guías.
13 RESUMEN La intensificación ecológica de cultivos se propone como una solución a la creciente demanda de recursos agrarios y forestales en contraposición a los monocultivos intensivos. La introducción de cultivos mixtos como mezclas entre especies no fijadoras de nitrógeno y especies fijadoras de nitrógeno pretende aumentar el rendimiento como resultado de una mejora de la cantidad de nitrógeno y fósforo disponible en el suelo. Las relaciones entre cultivos han sido poco estudiadas a pesar de las ventajas que la diversidad de especies confiere a estos sistemas, tales como el aumento de la productividad, resistencia y adaptación a condiciones adversas y sostenibilidad ecológica. Los bosques y las plantaciones forestales pueden desarrollar un papel muy importante como secuestradores de carbono en sus tejidos, sobre todo en su madera, lo que supone una inmovilización del carbono a largo plazo. Un parámetro que simplifica el cálculo de la cantidad de carbono incorporado en el suelo por una plantación, es el TBCA (total belowground carbon allocation), por el cual, para periodos menores a un año y plantaciones en periodo de madurez, se calcula como la resta del flujo de carbono saliente del suelo (respiración del suelo) menos la hojarasca incorporada anualmente por el árbol. La respiración del suelo depende de una gran variedad de factores, tales como la temperatura y la humedad del suelo, así como la fertilidad de este y la presencia y tipo de vegetación, entre otros. El presente estudio se ha realizado en una plantación forestal mixta de nogales híbridos (Juglans intermedia Carr.) para madera con alisos (Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Duby.), especie fijadora de nitrógeno a través del actinomiceto Frankia alni ((Woronin, 1866) Von Tubeuf 1895). La zona de ensayo se situó en el parque natural de Restinclières, en las proximidades de Montpellier (Sur de Francia). La respiración del suelo varió enormemente a lo largo del año, influida fundamentalmente por la temperatura del suelo. La humedad del suelo no influyó significativamente en la respuesta de la respiración, ya que se mantuvo constante durante el periodo de medidas en niveles altos, por lo que no hubo condiciones de estrés hídrico. La distancia desde donde se tomaron las medidas respecto a cada nogal de control fue un factor altamente influyente en la respiración del suelo. Por lo general ha habido una tendencia a la disminución de la respiración del suelo cuanto mayor es la distancia al árbol. También se analizó la respuesta de la respiración del suelo en función del manejo de fertilizante (50 kg N ha -1 año -1 desde 1999 hasta 2010) y de la presencia de aliso al nogal de referencia. En general, ninguno de estos dos tratamientos influyó de manera significativa en la respiración, a pesar de que estudios realizados por otros autores constatan una inhibición en la tasa de respiración de suelo en condiciones de fertilización y en un aumento de nitrógeno disponible. Sin embargo los tratamientos sin fertilización o sin presencia de aliso registraron las mayores tasas de respiración en aquellas muestras en las que se obtuvieron diferencias significativas. La falta de diferencias significativas entre tratamientos puede haberse debido a la alta variabilidad que han presentado las medidas de respiración de suelo en cada tratamiento. Por último, se ha observado una fluctuación asíncrona entre la respiración del suelo y la caída de la hojarasca durante el periodo de senescencia de las hojas. Esto posiblemente se haya debido a la ralentización en la emisión de exudados radiculares por el árbol que se produce en el periodo de senescencia foliar, los cuales son responsables de gran parte de la actividad microbiana. Palabras clave: Cultivos mixtos, Juglans intermedia, Alnus cordata, Respiración del suelo.
14 ABSTRACT The ecological intensification of crops is proposed as a solution to the growing demand of agricultural and forest resources, in opposition to intensive monocultures. The introduction of mixed cultures as mixtures between nitrogen fixing species and non nitrogen fixing species intended to increase crop yield as a result of an improvement of the available nitrogen and phosphorus in soil. Relationship between crops have received little attention despite the wide range of advantages that confers species diversity to these systems, such as increased productivity, resilience to disruption and ecological sustainability. Forests and forestry plantations can develop an important role in storing carbon in their tissues, especially in wood which become into durable product. A simplifying parameter to analyze the amount allocated carbon by plantation is the TBCA (total belowground carbon allocation), whereby, for short periods and mature plantations, is admitted as the subtraction between soil carbon efflux and litterfall. Soil respiration depends on a wide range of factors, such as soil temperature and soil water content, soil fertility, presence and type of vegetation, among others. The studied orchard is a mixed forestry plantation of hybrid walnuts (Juglans intermedia Carr.) for wood and alders (Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Duby.), a nitrogen fixing specie through the actinomycete Frankia alni ((Woronin, 1866) Von Tubeuf 1895). The study area is sited at Restinclières, a green area near Montpellier (South of France). In the present work, soil respiration varied greatly throughout the year, mainly influenced by soil temperature. Soil water content did not significantly influence the response of soil respiration as it was constant during the measurement period and under no water stress conditions. Distance between nearest walnut and measurement was also a highly influential factor in soil respiration. Generally there was a decreasing trend in soil respiration when the distance to the nearest tree increased. It was also analyzed the response of soil respiration according to alder presence and fertilizer management (50 kg N ha -1 año -1 from 1999 to 2010). None of these treatments significantly influenced soil respiration, although previous studies noticed an inhibition in rates of soil respiration under fertilized conditions and high rates of available nitrogen. However, treatments without fertilization and without alder presence obtained higher respiration rates in those cases with significant differences. The lack of significant differences between treatments may be due to the high coefficient of variation experienced by soil respiration measurements. Finally an asynchronous fluctuation was observed between soil respiration and litterfall during senescence period. This is possibly due to the slowdown in the emission of exudates by roots during senescence period, which are largely related to microbial activity. Key words: Mixed cultures, Juglans intermedia, Alnus cordata, Soil respiration.
15 CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES...XVII LIST OF FIGURES...XIX 1. INTRODUCTION The importance of mixing plant species in cropping systems Carbon sink in forestry plantations Total belowground carbon allocation Soil respiration...4 Factors affecting soil respiration Litterfall...6 Litterfall and soil respiration relationship across one phenologic year Walnuts Alders Objectives MATERIAL AND METHODS Experimental site Location Climatic characteristics The orchard Description Soil Characteristics Measurements Soil respiration Soil temperature and water content Litterfall Data analyse RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Soil flux respiration Annual variation of soil respiration and relationship with soil temperature and soil water content Influence of distance from points measurements to walnuts in soil respiration Seasonal influence in soil respiration Litterfall Daily trapped litterfall Relationship between soil flux respiration and trapped litterfall CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES...39 XV
17 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Historic climatic data ( ) from Montpellier- Fréjorgues station...12 Table 2: Physical characteristics of soil. Field A4 of Domaine de Restinclières. Soil analyse made in Table 3: Chemical characteristics of soil. Field A4 of Domaine de Restinclières. Soil analyse made in Table 4: Variance analyse of the influence of different factors in soil carbon flux Table 5: Carbon content (g C m -2 ) corresponding to walnut and alder litterfall...34 XVII
19 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Processes and induced properties in multispecies systems...2 Figure 2: Conceptual model of the components and responses of CO 2 efflux from soil..3 Figure 3: Analogy for mass balance approach to estimate TBCA...4 Figure 4: Botanical characteristics of Juglans intermedia Carr..8 Figure 5: Botanical characteristics of Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Duby....9 Figure 6: Satellite picture of the Domaine de Restinclières...11 Figure 7: Annual evolution of rainfall and temperature of the study period...12 Figure 8: Plan for experimental design of soil respiration..14 Figure 9: Forestry plantation of walnuts and alders...15 Figure 10: LI-COR 8100 with the chamber placed on a collar...16 Figure 11: CS616-L Water Content Reflectometer and CR1000 Measurement and Control Datalogger (Campbell Scientific, Ltd., Shepshed, UK)...17 Figure 12: Picture of trays in one of the plot studied...18 Figure 13: Plan for experimental design of litter traps..19 Figure 14: Annual variation in soil carbon flux, soil temperature and volumetric soil water content...22 Figure 15: Relationships between soil carbon flux and soil temperature, and between soil carbon flux and soil water content...23 Figure 16: Annual flux variation according to distance to walnuts...24 Figure 17: Flux evolution versus distance in fertilized and not fertilized treatments...25 Figure 18: Flux evolution versus distance to walnuts according to alder presence...26 Figure 19: Seasonal flux distribution...28 Figure 20: Seasonal flux variation by distance to walnuts...29 Figure 21: Daily flux variations according to distance to walnuts along year seasons...30 XIX
20 Figure 22: Seasonal flux variation versus distance to walnut according to fertilization management...32 Figure 23: Seasonal flux variation versus distance to walnut according to alder presence...33 Figure 24: Autumn trend in soil flux respiration and litterfall both in g C m -2 day XX
21 Introduction 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. THE IMPORTANCE OF MIXING PLANT SPECIES IN CROPPING SYSTEMS The ecological intensification in forestry plantations studies how to increase wood production by tree, like a result of an availability improvement of nitrogen and phosphor in soil. Mixtures of nitrogen non-fixing trees with nitrogen fixing trees or nitrogen fixing herbaceous species are proposed as alternatives to forestry plantation in monoculture. Multispecies cropping systems are an application of ecological principles of biodiversity and plant interaction (Fig. 1). Species diversity is one of ecology s most respected hypotheses (Frank and Naughton, 1991). Biomass productivity in natural ecosystems is achieved through a high genetic diversity of plants involving different complementary functional groups. Multispecies systems are assumed to have potential advantages in productivity, stability of outputs, resilience to disruption and ecological sustainability (Vandermeer, 1989). In opposition there are the intensive agricultural systems in which predominate monocultures: crops in which plants and its genetic are reduced. External inputs are largely supplied in these systems to compensate the absence of the mutually beneficial functions and natural subsidies that lend stability and sustainability to natural systems. Several agronomists recently proposed that traditional multispecies systems could be used as models for designing sustainable cropping systems (Gliessman, 2001; Altieri, 2002). These traditional multispecies systems that have been largely cultivated would be maize/beans, groundnut/cotton in Africa; cereals/herbaceous legumes and grasses in Europe; shadow crops (coffee, cocoa or pineapple) between coconuts in Central America and tropical home gardens in humid tropics (gardens with lots of services for self-sufficiency). In Spain the mayor examples are mixtures of vineyard and olives, cereals and olives and holm oak and pasture. This last one is called dehesa, and it is an example of integrated farming. It constitutes an agroforestry system which combines the production of pastures for animal feed and the presence of trees which give several services as animal feed by its acorns or wood products. Nowadays it has a high environmental value added (Hernández, 2003). 1
22 Introduction Figure 1. Processes and induced properties in multispecies systems (Malézieux et al., 2008). In France, mixed plantations can be frequently found in Juglans sp. or Prunus sp. associated with perennial cultures of forage alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) or sainfoin (Onobrychis sp.). But in Europe, nitrogen fixing trees are not very common, that is why mixed perennial trees plantations are not found easily. The only genus of native nitrogen fixing species in Europe is Alnus sp. (alders). Despite of their increasing interest, mixed forestry plantations with nitrogen fixing species are not widely used. The Intens&Fix project is encompassed in studies which compare their interests and weaknesses with monoculture forestry plantations CARBON SINK IN FORESTRY PLANTATIONS It is generally accepted that forests can play a critical role in capturing and storing large amounts of carbon from the atmosphere. By the process of growing, trees absorb atmospheric CO 2 and they store it as cellulose (photosynthesis). Nevertheless, when these trees are used (e.g. for wood) or when they reach maturity, death of specimens and natural processes of decomposition return CO 2 to the atmosphere at the same rate that they removed it, due to which there is not a net increase of stored carbon. The use of plantations for absorbing CO 2 is more effective when it is a short term 2
23 Introduction solution or when the final product is wood that becomes into durable products, this immobilize CO 2 as cellulose for larger periods (Montagnini, 1998). Wood plantations exert a positive influx while trees are growing and they can contribute to reduce the atmospheric CO 2 tax, especially if wood is used properly. Heliophilous trees of quick growing have immediate effects, but with a mix of no heliophilous trees, shrubs or herbaceous species which increase total yield of a site, in this case, mix would be a more effective sink of CO 2 (Fig. 2). Figure 2. Conceptual model of the components and responses of CO 2 efflux from soil. Both the autotrophic and heterotrophic components of soil respiration are strongly controlled by substrate availability-phloem transport of carbohydrate supply for root and mycorrhizal respiration, and dead organic material for microbial respiration (Ryan and Law, 2005) TOTAL BELOWGROUND CARBON ALLOCATION Total belowground carbon allocation (TBCA) is defined by Giardina et al. (2005) as the quantity of carbon allocated belowground by plants to produce coarse and fine roots, root respiration, and root exudates and mycorrhizae. Raich and Nadelhoffer (1989) originally proposed a mass-balance approach to quantify the total quantity of carbon allocated belowground by trees on an annual time step (Fig. 3). The scheme is as follows: Plants send fixed C to roots. This C must either be respired by microbes or roots (measured as soil-surface CO 2 efflux or F S ) or stored in soil as organic matter, in the litter layer, or in living and dead roots: = Where C S is carbon content of mineral soil, C R is carbon content of root (coarse and fine) biomass, and C L is carbon content of the litter layer. This approach to estimate TBCA assumes that losses of C to leaching or erosion (F E ) are negligible, which is true for most forests on level topography (Giardina and Ryan, 2002). 3
24 Introduction If C storage in soil, roots, or the litter layer does not change over the measurement period of interest, and leaching and erosion losses are negligible, then conservation of mass dictates that TBCA must equal F S minus C inputs from aboveground litter (F AL ): = Figure 3. Analogy for mass balance approach to estimate TBCA. The flux of water into the tub from the underwater faucet (TBCA) can be calculated for any period of time by measuring the flux of water out of the tub (F S + F E ), the flux into the tub form the faucet above water (F A or F AL ), and any change in water stored in the tub over the period Δ(C S +C R +C L ).Through conservation of mass, the flux of water from the underwater faucet equals outputs minus inputs plus storage change. Source: Giardina and Ryan (2002) SOIL RESPIRATION Giardina et al. (2005) described CO 2 efflux (F S ) by the following equation: = Where F R is the flux of CO 2 from respiring roots, F M is the flux of CO 2 from respiring mycorrhizae, F AL and F BL are fluxes of CO 2 from decomposing above and belowground litter (including root and mycorrhizal exudation and turnover), and F SOC is the flux of CO 2 from decomposing organic C stored in mineral soil (microbial biomass, low-quality remains and by-products of litter decomposition). F R represents CO 2 of autotrophic origin while F M, F AL, F BL and F SOC represent CO 2 released by heterotrophic organisms, though F M can be also described as autotrophic (Gower et al., 2001). Quantifying the individual components of soil surface CO 2 efflux is challenging because belowground C processes are intimately associated with the soil matrix. Roots, mycorrhizae and soil are intimately connected, so these studies may not accurately represent belowground processes as they would occur in undisturbed soil (Högberg et al., 2001). Belowground (roots, microbes) and aboveground (leaf and branch litterfall) components of soil surface CO 2 efflux may not respond similarly to changes in the 4
25 Introduction environment (Giardina et al., 2004). Where more than one variable is changing (soil temperature, soil water content, nutrient supply), ecosystem responses to these multiple changes may be quite complex. Factors affecting soil respiration Several factors and mechanisms are involved in the formation and distribution of CO 2 in soils (Wood et al., 1984). CO 2 production in soils is related to biological activities such as root respiration and decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) by microbes (Amudson et al., 1990). One of the main factors controlling soil respiration is soil temperature. For example, soil CO 2 production rate and emission flux increase by between 1.5 and 3 times for every 10⁰C increase in temperature from 0⁰C to 50⁰C (Parada et al., 1983). Soil moisture also affects CO 2 production and distribution through its influence on gas diffusion and microbial activity. Increasing soil moisture between the permanent wilting point and 60 to 80% saturation increases the rate of CO 2 emission from soil (Salomon et al., 1987). Other important factor to take into account is energy supply in soil (active carbon), which regulates microbial activity or soil respiration, since heterotrophic components in soil respiration are dominant. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) has been used as an indicator of C available to soil microbes. The distance between collected measurements and closest trunk tree is an important factor that modulates soil respiration. Plants affect soil respiration through several ways: (1) By altering the soil moisture regime through the interception of precipitation and the extraction of soil water via transpiration (Rulter and Morton, 1977) (2) By influencing soil microclimate and structure (Raich and Tufekcioglu, 2000) (3) By providing the principal carbon source to decomposer microorganisms through dead plant material, thus determining both litter quantity and quality (Swift et al., 1979) (4) The fact that a strong fraction of soil respiration derives directly from the vegetation via root or rhizosphere respiration (Högberg et al., 2001) Soil respiration also varies with vegetation type. Different plant communities frequently demonstrate differences in soil respiration rates (Lundergärdh, 1972). Such findings indicate that vegetation type is an important determinant of soil respiration rate, and therefore that changes in vegetation have the potential to modify the responses of soils to environmental change. Mechanism of mixed plantation is based on the differences in physical or phenological characteristics of component species, the interactions between certain trees species 5
26 Introduction can lead to an increased capture of the limiting growth resource (Kelty, 1989). Greater capture of the limiting resource would be accompanied by an increased ability to utilize non limiting resources and the system as a whole would then accrue a total biomass, greater than the cumulative production of those species if they were grown separately on equal land area (Cannnell, 1996). However, very often, there is an overlap between the needs and physical structures of two or more species. When this occurs, species will compete for resources. In mixed-species systems, this is more the rule than the exception (Ong et al., 2004) LITTERFALL A significant fraction of soil respiration is derived from aboveground litterfall carbon, even though this fraction has a high variation across seasons. Raich and Nadelhoffer (1989) found that aboveground litter (F AL ) contributed 23% of soil CO 2 respiration at low efflux rates (400 g C m -2 yr -1 ) to 31% of soil CO 2 respiration at high efflux rates (1500 g C m -2 yr -1 ). These authors also found a global relationship between annual litterfall (F A ) and soil surface CO 2 efflux (F S ) and between F A and TBCA (estimated as the difference between soil surface CO 2 efflux and annual litterfall) and developed empirical models of the relationships (linear equations which relate F S and F A ). These relationships apply only to forests where a balance has been reached between litterfall, TBCA, soil carbon and organic matter turnover, such as mature forests and not recently disturbed forests or first rotation plantations, and always for annual periods. That is why Giardina and Ryan (2002) and Forrester (2006) concluded that litterfall was a poor predictor of TBCA, because their plantations were in a non-steady state. Litterfall and soil respiration relationship across one phenologic year Plant litterfall and soil respiration are processes whose intensity is asynchronous throughout the year and yet they are highly related processes. There are two important belowground processes associated with plant litterfall: reduction in plant nutrient uptake and retranslocation of nutrients and carbohydrates from leaves to stems and roots, which often occur before leaves fall. Changes in plant nutrient uptake or carbon and nutrient retranslocation could trigger temporal changes in soil microbial biomass, and thus in soil respiration. A root trenching experiment that terminated both plant uptake and root exudates production showed a drastic decrease in soil microbial activity as indicated by reduced soil CO 2 production (Boone et al., 1998). Ruan et al. (2003) reported an increase in soil respiration one month before litterfall. This phenomenon might be explained if microbial growth was either controlled by the availability of soil nutrients or belowground carbon, both of which could be altered by the processes of retranslocation of carbohydrate production and 6
27 Introduction competition for nutrients that are associated with plant litterfall during the annual cycles. Asynchronous uptake of nutrients by plants and soil microbes has been recognized as a mechanism for retaining nutrients and maintaining ecosystem productivity in temperate deciduous forest with strong temperature seasonality. Microbial biomass and microbial nitrogen and phosphor contents increase during the dry season, whereas microbes release nitrogen and phosphor at the beginning of the wet season when plant growth and demand for nutrients are high (Singh et al., 1989). The immobilization of soil nitrogen and phosphor into microbial biomass during dry season when plant uptake is low prevents soil nutrient accumulation to high levels that are subject to nutrient loss through gaseous emission or water leaching when wet season arrives WALNUTS Hybrids walnuts (Juglans intermedia Carr.) are a natural hybrid between common walnut (J.regia L.) and black walnut (J.nigra L.). They can produce eatable nuts, but its principal propose of culture is wood harvest. Walnut wood in France is the most precious produced wood. It has a semi-hard wood, fine grained, easy to work with and very aesthetic. The wood production in France has been decreasing since the 19 th century, when it was gathered about m 3 year -1 (Centre Régional de la Propriété Forestière d Auvergne, 1995). Nowadays annual national production in France would be about m 3. Production average would be higher than 1 m 3 ha - 1 year -1 of wood that have reached the size of slicing with a density of 80 walnuts ha -1. Oldest French plantations have an age of 40 years and they are estimated to logging every 25 years. The botany of hybrid walnut is very similar to that of common walnut (Juglans regia L.) and black walnut (J.nigra L.). These trees could measure m height and 2 m in trunk diameter. Stem bark is deeply longitudinally fissured, with a color pale gray. Leaves are deciduous, imparipinnate with 5-9 foliols of 6 to 15 cm. Foliols are oval of 6-12 cm long and 3-6 cm wide. They are glabrous and dull green colored. The cup has a compressed spherical shape. Its flowers are monoecious, the male flowers are inserted into the armpits of the previous year twigs, which are devoid of leaves in flowering time. The female flowers are grouped in terminals spikes on the wood of the same year. Since it is a natural hybrid, it has no seeds, what gives it an advantage in wood formation. 7
28 Introduction A B Figure 4. Botanical characteristics of Juglans intermedia Carr. Botanical details (A) and shape in a mature non commercial walnut (B). Hybrid walnuts have shown an increase in vegetative vigor than its parents. It grows quicker than J.regia or J.nigra and it has a greater disease resistance. It can resist heavy frost (until -25⁰C), being even less sensitive to frost than its parents. It combines the good qualities of common walnut and black walnut in wood production. It requires an annual rainfall of about mm (Navés, 2003) (average annual rainfall at Restinclières is about 950 mm). They can accept carbonates in soil and also ph of about 8, although they prefer soils near neutrality. They develop best in deep healthy soils without a trace of water stagnation, with a good water reserve and a balanced silty-clay texture. It grows, like J.regia and J.nigra, in cool temperate humid climate of Europe (Muncharaz, 2001). Commercial plantations of hybrids walnuts for wood have a density of plantation of about trees ha-1. It is usual to perform thinning because trees start to hinder each other and like this the best trees can be chosen. It can be expected an annual average growth of 3 cm of the tree trunk circumference. Green pruning is a widely used technique at June or the start of July in which it is cut the year s growth to avoid it continuing to grow but to allow it to feed the tree. The root system is more extended superficially than the aboveground part, although its proportion in biomass is lower 1/2.5 (Catlin, 1998). Roots can be extended from a distance to trunk of above 20 meters when they reach its greater development. Lateral roots do not develop following a specific shape, therefore its distribution in soil is not uniform. Its density is very low if it is compared with herbaceous plants root system (Muncharaz, 2001). Walnut roots could reach at 4 meters deep when soils are well 8
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text: Choppers, like the name, it's known to be the collection designated for night drivers, road riders, motorcyclist and truckers. Basically it is meant for the warriors on the road to have a comfortable glasses to protect their eyes and ease with their drive. Chopper 901 style was pioneer of the 900x collection. Its' classic sporty look with perfectly fitted wrap shape has been our client's all time favorite. White frame has been rising in popularity recently, for a hot summer day, riding down on the freeway with a sleek and cool looking shade will catch all the attention you need. Choppers 8CP901-WHITE uses matte white frame with flash mirror lens to make an impact! And to top it off a notch, we have added "EVA" (the same type of material uses for shoes foam) foam inside the lenses to give flawless rim protection. This pair is made with such high quality with fine finishes on the sunglasses temple and traditional cross Chopper logo.


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The 51-year-old had just reached the summit of the Canigou, in the Catalan Pyrenees of southern France, when he was hit and killed instantly by a bolt of lightning yesterday. A group of seven other climbers suffered injuries but survived.
Mr Pridmore was originally from Bromley in south-east London. A "wood artisan", he lived in Prades, six miles north of Mount Canigou - considered to be the spiritual home of the Catalan people.
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Those of us who publish e-newsletters spend a huge amount of time writing content for a small amount of people who actually read our articles — or at least that's the way it can seem at times!
Here are two ways I found to increase the readership for my weekly e-tips focused on one part of my practice — the fundraising industry.
Post Articles in the News Section of Relevant LinkedIn Groups
Each week, after we broadcast the latest issue, my assistant posts it to fundraising groups on LinkedIn, such as the Association of Fundraising Professionals and the Direct Marketing Fundraisers Association. Each group is like a mini-newsstand for these articles — and the members are almost all in my target market.
Within a week of posting my first issue, a consultant contacted me about working for one of her clients. After reading my e-newsletter, she could see that we took a similar approach to fundraising. Within minutes of our first phone call, we were chatting like old friends.
Display Links to Past Articles in Your Current Issue
I got this tip from a recent article in Mark Brownlow's excellent e-newsletter, Email Marketing Reports.
He has a section in his e-newsletter called "What You Missed in the Previous Issue" where he features links to previous issues. He shares how he got "bonus clicks" for past issues here.
I've had a similar experience. While I get great CTRs (define) for my current issues, it's really interesting to see how many new subscribers read every past issue as well. I list the previous e-tips in a sidebar next to the current content.
What's most rewarding to me about this is when I first started publishing my e-newsletter, I led off with my best content — but my readership was small. I felt that I was going to put a lot of effort to write for just a small circle of people in my target audience. But now I see that the ROI (define) for those first articles is very high — because as my readership grows every week, the new subscribers are going back in the archives and reading the "charter" e-tips like mad.
How do you maximize the ROI for your e-newsletter investment? Share your case studies with Karen.
Join us for Search Engine Strategies New York March 23-27 at the Hilton New York. The only major search marketing conference and expo on the East Coast, SES New York will be packed with more than 70 sessions, including a ClickZ track, plus more than 150 exhibitors, networking events, parties, and training days.
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When should you use confirmed opt-in?
As an email marketer, I would rather have 100 customers who open and engage with my messages than 10,000 who don't.
A wish for email in 2017
There are so many ways in which email continues to develop and progress, but in one way email still lives in the last decade.
What is email marketing and how do you create a successful strategy?
Email marketing may not be new, but it's still effective, so now is the time to dive into the best ways of mastering it to improve marketing success.
What did we learn from the 2016 US election? Not what you think
As the United States makes way for a new resident in the White House, I've been thinking about the election that led up to it. Others have pontificated about the impact email had on the presidential campaigns, but I'm not buying any of it.


text: Meta Battle Subway PokeBase - Pokemon Q&A Login Register All Activity Questions Unanswered Tags Users Ask a Question Rules Chat Recent questions tagged new-game 0 votes 1 answer 428 views How do you start a new game in XY? asked Feb 21, 2015 by Astronautical xy 3ds new-game 0 votes 1 answer 719 views Can you restart your file on dream radar, and if so, how? asked Jan 31, 2014 by hyper beam dream-radar new-game 0 votes 1 answer 322 views What happens if you try to trade when you already have another save file on your game? asked Mar 1, 2013 by the_netts file new-game saved trading 0 votes 1 answer 573 views If you start a new game on Pokemon conquest does it delete the info in the gallery? asked Feb 3, 2013 by Gʟɪɢᴜʀʀ new-game 0 votes 2 answers 1,312 views What happens to your previous save file if you start a new game and beat the game? asked Jul 27, 2012 by Kevin485 new-game saved file To see more, click for the full list of questions or popular tags. Useful Meta Posts Vote for Sun/Moon moveset questions How to change your username How to add a user avatar Why was my post hidden? The points system Question etiquette Flags vs Downvotes Anime FAQ


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by Tutor.com
System Message[00:00:00] *** Please note: All sessions are recorded for quality control. ***
Josh (Customer)[00:00:00] Solve for y
X= 1/4y -8
Alvaro O (Tutor)[00:00:08] Hey there![00:00:14] Welcome to Tutor.com !
Let's get started.
Josh (Customer)[00:00:47] can u pls show me the whole procedure.
Alvaro O (Tutor)[00:01:36] Sure! I'd be glad to help.[00:02:46] Great first step![00:03:26] Thats the right idea.[00:03:52] So we want to remove that 1/4
Josh (Customer)[00:04:31] yes
Alvaro O (Tutor)[00:04:30] what do we need to multiply 1/4 by to cancel it out?[00:04:59] Right![00:05:14] So we need to multiply all the terms by 4[00:06:04] That cancels the 1/4[00:06:21] Correct![00:06:28] Just one step left![00:07:31] You got it!
Josh (Customer)[00:07:48] cool
Alvaro O (Tutor)[00:08:03] Any questions about what we did?
Josh (Customer)[00:08:21] no[00:08:28] thank u
Alvaro O (Tutor)[00:08:28] No problem!
Josh (Customer)[00:08:39] I'm writing it down d[00:08:48] so I don't forget
Alvaro O (Tutor)[00:08:54] Great idea![00:08:56] Have a great day, and please rate me in the survey!


text:
Aileen Pringle &
Jameson Thomas
Christy Cabanne
Starring: Aileen Pringle & Jameson Thomas Director: Christy Cabanne
A broadway producer is murdered on a train and an innocent girl stands accused of the crime.
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sku: ALP 6460D
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DVD Features:
- Rated: Not Rated
- Run Time: 56 minutes
- Video: Black & White
- Released: November 30, 2010
- Originally Released: 1931
- Label: Alpha Video
- Encoding: Region 0 (Worldwide)
- Audio:
- Dolby Digital 2.0 Stereo - English
Performers, Cast and Crew:
|Aileen Pringle & Jameson Thomas
|Dorothy Christie
|Directed by
|Christy Cabanne
Description by OLDIES.com:
Beautiful actress Claire Norvelle takes a luxury cruise to Europe hotly pursued by debonair John Blair, a wealthy Broadway investor who refuses to take "no" for an answer. Blair, in turn, is being stalked by his angry and jealous girlfriend Constance. Rejecting Blair's advances, Claire finds welcome company with handsome Bruce Allen, a brilliant writer specializing in criminology. When Blair is found dead, Claire is arrested and charged with murder. Refusing to believe that Claire is guilty, Allen must uncover the real killer, and save her from the gallows.
London stage veteran Jameson Thomas, who moved to Hollywood at the dawn of the sound era, is best remembered for his performances in It Happened One Night and Jane Eyre, both in 1934. Wealthy, European educated Aileen Pringle rose to prominence in 1924 when she co-starred with Conrad Nagel in the potboiler Three Weeks. She was known as "Darling of the Intelligentsia" with George Gershwin, and H.L Mencken among her circle of highly cultured friends, and was recognized with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Product Description:
A woman wrongly convicted of murder is cleared when identical crimes occur in this early talkie.
Plot Synopsis:
An innocent man stands accused of a violent rape. Though no one believes her, his determined wife seeks the true rapist herself.
Production Notes:
- The Turner videocassette is part of the "TEC Collection."
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Related Resources
Presented By: Susan Scott | Published: October 19, 2015
Community: Management & Leadership
Susan Scott, Founder & CEO of Fierce, Inc. discusses current performance reviews in business today and how they need to change. Scott will share some actionable tips on what leaders can do differently to make the most impact.
Fierce is a leadership development company that transforms the conversations central to their clients' success. If you talk, you need Fierce. If you don't talk, you need Fierce even more.
To learn more about this Webcast and future Webcasts please Click Here
To learn more about the underwriter of this podcast please Click Here
To Download this Podcast visit iTunes and search "Human Capital Institute." or Download Here


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(Player Event) So much for DC being dead? 3-22-11
Discussion in 'UO Great Lakes' started by SixUnder, Mar 22, 2011.


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Carhartt Boots: Men's Brown Composite Toe Waterproof EH Hiking Shoes CMO3350
Tennis shoes and basketball shoes have the style that everyone wants, the low-cut comfort your feet deserve. The trouble is, they're made for indoor use -- and hard work just doesn't stay indoors. Carhartt CMO3350 Men's Brown Composite Toe Waterproof Hiking Shoes a ... (see full details) (see specifications) #CHFCMO3350.
Carhartt Boots: Men's Brown Composite Toe Waterproof EH Hiking Shoes CMO3350
Tennis shoes and basketball shoes have the style that everyone wants, the low-cut comfort your feet deserve. The trouble is, they're made for indoor use -- and hard work just doesn't stay indoors. Carhartt CMO3350 Men's Brown Composite Toe Waterproof Hiking Shoes are made for rough terrain and outdoor weather, but they've got the stylish look your feet deserve.
The brown uppers, styled with black accents, are made with a combination of action leather and nylon. Action leather isn't named for nothing -- it's flexible and pliable, soft and stretchy through every step. Abrasion-resistant nylon is tough, but it also releases heat to keep your feet feeling less sweaty.
Padded collars and contouring OrthoLite comfort tongues add more softness where your feet need it, creating a comfortable fit. Speaking of soft OrthoLite, the insoles are made with the cushioning material to shift and adjust to your steps as needed. EVA foam midsoles in these Carhartt Shoes add another soft, airy layer.
The waterproof membranes block moisture, keeping you dry in the roughest weather situations. Cement sole construction further strengthens the weather-resistant bond. Tough cementing, a glued construction method, keeps the slip-resistant rubber soles in soles. These men's Carhartt hikers are also oil- and chemical-resistant, strong enough to resist corrosive workplace chemicals.
The soles on these hiking shoes are also rated for electrical hazard resistance. That means they'll absorb dangerous electricity and keep you safer when you're on the job. The composite toes are lightweight and non-metallic, but they're as strong as steel and ASTM 2413-05 rated for safety. Carhartt CMO3350 Men's Brown Composite Toe Waterproof Hiking Boots look great already, but they look even better when the weather's bad.
Sizes Available: M 8-12,13,14 I W 8-12,13,14,15
Detailed Product Specifications
Additional Product Features
- Discontinued
- Chemical Resistant
- Slip Resistant
- Oil Resistant
- Electrical Hazard (EH)
- Imported
I want to express my praise and appreciation for the people in your organization that provided me with exceptional service today. First is a young lady in your Customer Service Dept. She is a very strong asset to your company as she is the first impression of the company for a customer. She did an excellent job in answering my concerns and helping me figure out the best way to handle the problem. Second, but not least, is another young lady in your return goods department. She is a breath of fresh air for a customer to deal with. She is heading up things so I get my replacement coat in time for my trip. In closing I want tell you that it's very refreshing to know that there are still companies out there that have a sense of pride in what they do, how they treat their customers and are willing to provide "real" customer service. You make me proud to be a Hoosier. Please be sure and pass this along to both ladies for me and give them a raise, they deserve it!"
Fred B. from Palm Harbor, Florida


text:
Find online courses made by experts from around the world.
Take your courses with you and learn anywhere, anytime.
Learn and practice real-world skills and achieve your goals.
In this course, I am going to tell you my story of how children's minds develop in the modern world, and how their social environment influences this development. In this story, I will not be following the existing handbooks on children's cognitive development. Rather, my aim is to illuminate and illustrate some ideas, which in my view are central for understanding this development.
I will start this course with discussing the issue of how some ideas of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky can help us understand recent discoveries of infants' extraordinary cognitive abilities.
I will continue with presenting some models on how our ability to learn new things and develop our minds works.
I will then illustrate these models by presenting and discussing research on the development of perception, thinking and executive function.
I will finish this course by presenting and discussing extended psychological-pedagogical programs aimed to enhance independence and creativity of children's judgment and behavior in the classroom through facilitating their ability to resist the urge of imitating confusing social signals.
The course includes four sections, eight lectures supplied with relevant readings, and a quiz. Lectures contain author's text, author's videos, a video with a child performing on an executive control task, graphs and animated pictures.
I built this course for students in social sciences, specialists in education, child care, medicine, writers for children and all those who want to learn more about topics on children's cognitive development that they will not be able find in most traditional handbooks.
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|Section 1: Infant cognition through the prism of development
|Lecture 1
In this lecture I will introduce you to this course and briefly describe the content of subsequent lectures
|Lecture 2
•In this lecture I will briefly introduce main concepts of Vygotsky's developmental theory.
•I will then describe some recent discoveries of extraordinary cognitive abilities in human infants.
•Finally, I will show how Vygotsky's understanding of cognitive development can help us appreciate the differences between cognitive abilities in infants and similar abilities in older children and adults.
|Section 2: Models of cognitive development
|Lecture 3
•In this lecture I will present an experiment that aimed at testing Model 3 (coexistence) on children and adults' understanding the difference between sensations and physical properties of objects.
•I will show that despite all of the efforts of science education to separate the description of objects in terms of physical structure from subjective perception of the same objects, both children and adults still confuse their senses with physical reality.
|Lecture 4
•In this lecture, I will tell you what happens to our beliefs as we ascend up the ladder of knowledge.
•I will consider three models of how the competition between the old and the new knowledge can be resolved, and report the experiments that tested these models.
|Section 3: At the origins of agency
|Lecture 5
•In this lecture I will explain what executive function is.
•I will then present an experiment that shows how the first forms of executive activity emerge in the child.
•I will finish the lecture by presenting experiments that evaluate the role of language in children's executive performance.
|Lecture 6
In this lecture, I will analyse social factors that affect executive performance in children.
I will then present experiments, which show, how social influence can confuse us and impede executive performance.
|Section 4: The origins of independence
|Lecture 7
•In this lecture, I will consider executive functioning still further, taking this functioning in a real life social context.
•I will present experiments that simulate real life situations, in which CSPs influence the child indirectly.
•We will then analyze the causes that make children succumb to CSP.
•I will finish the lecture with presenting the experiment that examined various ways of assisting children to overcome their tendency to imitate CSPs.
|Lecture 8
•In this lecture I will present experiments that aimed to enhance independence of children's judgment and behavior in a classroom through elevating the children's social position in the adult-child interaction.
•I will then show how enhancing children's independent behavior positively affects their creative ability.
|Quiz 1
|14 questions
Eugene Subbotsky obtained a PhD in Developmental Psychology at Moscow State University. He taught at Moscow State University, Russia (1975-1990), Lancaster University, UK (1991-2013) and was an Alexander-von-Humboldt Fellow at Konstanz University, West Germany (1990-1991). He is known internationally for research on children's moral development, the development of children's metaphysical reasoning, and the development of magical thinking and behaviour over life span. He conducted research in Russia, Germany, United Kingdom, USA and Mexico. He published over 100 papers in scientific journals and is the author of 12 books, including those published by Harvard University Press, Oxford University Press, and Psychology Press. Eugene is an Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society, a BPS charted psychologist, a Member of the BPS Division of Teachers and Researchers in Psychology.


text: Regulars may get tired of the menu - it's been unchanged for quite a few years. Still, this pan-Mediterranean restaurant has fresh, tasty options at lunch and dinner. The "hidden" entrance in a side shoot of a strip mall opens into a nice, small space. Service is usually good and the kitchen is consistent. The sampler salad is always a... More


text:
Cure Kids Cancer: Elsie Marieneau
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Time to Fill Out Your Bracket For the 2016 Million Dollar Bracket Challenge
We just wanted to remind you that today is Selection Sunday. The teams were announced and when you're ready, you may fill out your bracket.
What Restaurant Do You Want in Sioux Falls?
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Elementary School Cancels Christmas: Read the Story Before You Jump to Conclusions [OPINION]
A school administrator is being blasted for canceling Christmas celebrations at his elementary school. Before you break out the tar and feathers, read the story - it is actually a perfect example of what and administrator SHOULD DO.