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Thank you for visiting Butterflies and Moths of North America. We hope that you find this site useful and informative. Please see the About page for more information about this project.
If you appreciate the information and services provided on this site, please consider supporting our work by making a financial contribution. Butterflies and Moths of North America (BAMONA) is an ambitious project that is labor-intensive, but limited funding from advertising barely covers expenses. We have no salaried staff. Thus, this website is made possible through a lot of hard work and dedication from unpaid staff and volunteers.
How will my contribution be used?
Your kind contribution will go directly to support our server costs and to offset development costs. In 2017, we are working on a new responsive (mobile-friendly) version of BAMONA that will better serve our submitters and coordinators. This development work takes time, and we are regular folks like you who are volunteering our time to make BAMONA better.
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Kelly Lotts and Thomas Naberhaus


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What a joyous and peaceful time. Bringing back fond memories of the 70's this fun loving hat is brightened up with hot pink, bubble gum pink, sunshine yellow, olive, forest green, orange, and chocolate peace signs that pop on a white background.
This scrub hat looks great with Black Scrubs or our Pink Sorbet Scrubs.

subset: commoncrawl


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About us
CYCA's mission is to advance the Colorado youth conservation movement. The Colorado Youth Corps Association (CYCA) is a non-profit organization that provides ten independently operating Colorado youth conservation corps with technical assistance and resource development services. It helps to garner private, federal and state fee-for-service contracts and grant funds and manages an accreditation program to assure uniform principles and practices across all the youth corps.
Contact information
Government ID number: 84-1532028
Email: Log in to view email addresses.
Phone: 303-863-0600
Fax: 303-863-0610
225 E. 16th Ave., Suite 475, Denver, CO, 80203, US


text: A COLD WAR MENTALITY was deeply entrenched on both sides when, on August 12, 1953, President Eisenhower announced that the Soviet Union had detonated a thermonuclear bomb in Siberia. Fifty years ago today American scientists responded with the first hydrogen bomb test on the Bikini Atoll. The device, named Brava, was the largest nuclear bomb yet made, and the photographs that were taken of the vast, luminous mushroom cloud that it created are still the most enduring images we have of a nuclear explosion. Scientists thought the test a success. But that night, the inhabitants of the neighbouring Rongelap Atoll


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production by a respected producer
These are just a few of the hundreds of attributes cataloged for this track by the Music Genome Project.show more
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text: Dave Annable : Ask Biography RSS Dave Annable Personal informationBirth nameDavid Rodman AnnableBirth dateSeptember 15, 1979(age 37)Place of birthSuffern, New York, United StatesOccupationActorSpouseOdette Annable (2010 – present) Home | American actors | Dave Annable David Rodman "Dave" Annable (born September 15, 1979) is an American actor. He played the character of Justin Walker on the television series Brothers & Sisters from 2006 to 2011. Warning: simplexml_load_file(http://gdata.youtube.com/feeds/api/videos/-/Dave/Annable?orderby=viewCount&max-results=10) [function.simplexml-load-file]: failed to open stream: HTTP request failed! HTTP/1.0 410 Gone in /home/askbio/public_html/index_bio.php on line 257 Warning: simplexml_load_file() [function.simplexml-load-file]: I/O warning : failed to load external entity "http://gdata.youtube.com/feeds/api/videos/-/Dave/Annable?orderby=viewCount&max-results=10" in /home/askbio/public_html/index_bio.php on line 257 Fatal error: Call to a member function children() on a non-object in /home/askbio/public_html/index_bio.php on line 260


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Mobile trends to watch out for in 2017
With the launch of the iPhone 7, 2016 marked a big year in the history of mobile phones. Mobile devices are getting more powerful and connected than ever before, but what's in store for 2017? We look at some of the key trends to watch out for this year. iPhone 8? Apple might be releasing … Continued


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Wallpapers and Wallcovering ASRO is well established it's service in Wallpaper and Wallcovering supply and installation in Singapore. Our wide range of Wallpaper and Wallcovering from various manufacturers give you better choice to select designs with greater flexibility with relating to your budget. We sell office wallpaper and as well the home wallpaper. We also keep wide range wallcovering products like korean wallpapers, European wallpaper, Disney and Children collection wallpapers, Wallmural, photo murals. Our installation team is highly capable and experience in this field and they are specially deputed to do only the Wallpaper and Wallcovering side over 20 years. Our online sample catelogue gives you greater flexibility in selecting the design, color and to check the price of the particular Wallpaper before going to further steps in your purchasing..
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no boyfriend no problem
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This Gif entitled no boyfriend no problem was created from the youtube video 2 years ago. It uses 18 frames per second and is displayed at 640px resolution. This animated image plays for 7 seconds, was built with high quality and an estimated weight of 24.83 MB for download. This animation was originally created from the Best Vine Clips December 2014 - No boyfriend no problem video from 00:00 to 00:07.
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Enjoy the best On Demand experience, the most reliable in-home WiFi, and unlimited nationwide talk and text when you switch to XFINITY from Comcast.
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Moving to everett, washington?
Here are some helpful links to get you started.
About: everett, washington
Located about 28 miles north Seattle, Everett is home to the largest public marina on the west coast of the U.S. It is also home to Boeing's assembly plant for the 747, 767, 777, and the new 787 in the largest building in the world by volume at 116.5 million cubic feet. Everett is also home to the Port of Everett, an international shipping port that brings trade, commerce, jobs and recreational opportunities to the city.
Population: 103500
Local Newspapers: The Everett Daily Herald
Local Sports Teams: Seattle Seahawks (NFL) Seattle Mariners (MLB) Seattle Thunderbirds (WHL) Seattle Storm (WNBA) Seattle Sounders FC (MLS)
Local Colleges: Everett Community College
Quick Links and info for Everett, Washington
City Info
Local: 425-257-8400
Emergency: 911
Local: 425-257-8100
Emergency: 911
Everett City Hall
121 5th Ave. N. 2930 Wetmore Ave. Ste. 9-A Everett, WA 98201
Phone: 425-257-8703
Natural Gas Hook-ups and Disconnects
Washington Natural Gas
2615 W Casino Rd, Everett, WA 98204
Phone:(425) 347-0707
Water Hook-ups and Disconnects
Public Works Department
3101 Cedar St. Everett, WA 98201
Phone: 425-257-8999
Trash Removal Schedule:
Pick up and Recycling schedule
Puget Sound Energy
3630 Railway Ave, Everett, WA 98201
Phone:(425) 356-7501
East Snohomish County Visitor Center
1301 1st St Snohomish, WA 98290
Phone:(360) 862-9609
Economic Alliance Snohomish County's (EASC)
728 134th Street SW Suite 128 Everett, WA 98204
Phone: (425)743-4567.
Local Airport
Paine Field Airport
3220 100th St SW Everett, WA 98204
Area Hospital:
Providence Regional Medical Center
1321 Colby Ave, Everett, WA 98201
Phone:(425) 261-2000
Local Organizations:
1420 Hewitt Ave, Everett, WA 98201
Phone:(425) 252-2227
Local Colleges:
Everett Community College
2000 Tower St, Everett, WA 98201
Phone: (425) 388-9100
Comcast Arena
2000 Hewitt Ave, Everett, WA 98201
Phone:(425) 322-2600
Points of Interest
Museum of Flight Restoration Center
2909 100th St SW, Everett, WA 98204
Phone:(425) 745-5150
Have a local business that you would like us to link to? Visit our Facebook Page and send us a message!
Zip Codes associated with everett, washington:
98201 98203 98204 98205 98208
Towns/Cities near everett, washington : Marysville Snohomish Mukilteo Lochsloy Machias Glacier View Pine Hurst Mill Creek Silver Firs Cathcart
Taking birding to extremes: A fine madness
For Dr. Steve Mlodinow, the annual time tally looks like this: 100 days birding, 10 days writing a birding column, more days working on a new birding book -oh, and a full-time family medical practice in Everett, Washington. Somewhere along the line, the notion of birding as a hobby flew the coop.'A great loss to the city'
The City of Colville has large shoes to fill with Municipal Services Administrator Eric Durpos' last day being Feb. 24. "He will be a great loss to the city," said Mayor Louis Janke. "He's made great strides, and basically moved Colville to a position where it's admired by many cities because of all the different projects we've got going on."Donald Lee Conner
The Conner family is sad to announce the passing of Donald Lee Conner on January 31, 2017 in Everett, Washington. We encourage our readers to comment.Arnold "Arnie" Martin Wiggum
Beloved father, grandfather, father-in-law and friend, Arnold "Arnie" Martin Wiggum, passed away on February 9, 2017, in Wenatchee, , in 1922, where Arnie grew up. After attending Everett public schools, Arnie graduated in 1938 from Everett High School.Point S Rebranding Exceeds Expectations in the U.S., and Points to More Growth
Tire Factory Inc. members have rebranded the vast majority of their 206 stores to the Point S banner at a breakneck pace. And leaders of the Oregon-based cooperative are unveiling new programs with two big hopes: the momentum of current members continues, and more independent tire dealers join their network.Day Trip Discoveries: Go beer tasting at local microbreweries
Microbreweries seem to be popping up everywhere these days, and several intriguing ones have established themselves from Edmonds to Everett in just the past few years. Curious to try unusual beer flavored with peanut butter, coconut or juniper berry? Beers ranging from Bavarian-style MA rzen to dark, hoppy Porter? Those made with organic or locally sourced ingredients? Then explore some of these small working microbreweries, where you can try handcrafted beers ranging from hoppy IPAs to malty ales, plus seasonal and specialty beers.China's Juneyao Airlines finalises $1.32 bln order for five Boeing 787s
Invited guests for the world premiere of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner are reflected in the fuselage of the aircraft at the 787 assembly plant in Everett, Washington, July 8, 2007. ) 787-9 dreamliners, part of a plan for new routes to North America, Europe and Australia over the next four years.LSS heads Under the Sea for next musical venture
Langley Secondary students are taking audiences on an underwater adventure next week in their musical production of The Little Mermaid. Starring nearly 40 students, accompanied by an 18-member community orchestra, the show will run Feb. 24, 25, March 2, 3, and 4 at 7 p.m. with 2 p.m. matinees on Feb. 25 and March 4. The musical follows the story of Ariel, a young mermaid, who seeks the help of the wicked sea witch, Ursula, to become a human.Airliner Repair, 24/7
Jim Testin, director of Airliner repair services at the Boeing factory in Everett, Washington, made a prediction in July 2007 based on 27 years of experience. "I can tell you this: Something will always happen on Christmas Eve," he said with the certainty of a man who has missed many family gatherings.Person shot by police in Arlington
A person in Arlington was shot by police Tuesday morning, according to tweets from Everett police and the Snohomish County Sheriff's Office. An interagency team of investigators is launching its review of what happened, with more information expected this morning, said Shari Ireton, a spokeswoman for the sheriff's office and for the Snohomish Multi Agencies Response Team, which will include evidence technicians and other experts to interview the officers involved in the incident and meet with witnesses.At 16, My Mom Flew to Japan Alone to Have an Abortion
But as aggressive rollbacks on women's health care ensue, with Trump reinstating the to the Supreme Court who could pose a severe risk to women's reproductive rights, her experience no longer seems so far-fetched. My mother's abortion was a footnote in an otherwise expansive and fulfilled life-a life, of course, enabled by her decision.Council selects Jason Sanders to fill vacancy
This week Sanders was sworn in to take ex-council-man Zach Wilde's seat. Wilde resigned abruptly after being outed for living outside city limits.Recipients of 2016 Environmental Landscape Awards Announced by the...
Twenty awards were recently announced by the Washington Association of Landscape Professionals , showcasing the talent and skill of landscape professionals from around Washington State. The purpose of the awards is to recognize exceptional performance and "foster personal and company pride in superior workmanship" within the landscape industry.WA city taking OxyContin drug maker to court over "gross negligence,...
City lawyers in Everett, Washington are preparing to sue the makers of OxyContin, a leading opioid painkiller, blaming it for its role in the United States' opioid and heroin epidemic. The city filed a lawsuit against Purdue Pharma claiming they knew the drug was being illegally trafficked to residents and did not act to stop it.At 16, My Mom Flew to Japan Alone to Have an Abortion
In 1966, my mother flew from Seattle to Japan, alone, to have an abortion. She was 16. It's strange, as a daughter, to wish you could protect your mom from something that happened so many years ago.Bills aim to beef up oil transportation safety
In this July 27, 2015, file photo, traffic passes one of two mile-long oil trains parked near the King County Airport in Seattle. More crude oil than ever is expected to move through Washington state, particularly since the Canadian government approved the Kinder Morgan pipeline project that will triple the number of tankers and barges plying local waters.Everett mayor says he won't seek re-election
The Daily Herald reports that Stephanson's announcement Wednesday comes two weeks after he said he would seek another term. In a news release, Stephanson said after reflecting on the position and speaking with his family he changed his mind and decided to step down at the end of his term.
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Linda Leigh Hargrove 06-23-2009
Every day across America we see self-segregation in lunchrooms, in classrooms, and in church pews on Sunday morning. But how about online?
Aaron Taylor 05-14-2009
A few weeks ago, I read Brian McLaren's post on this blog that caused some intense soul-searching.
Kevin Lum 05-08-2009
Historically, the number of individuals who say they have no religious affiliation in America ranges between 5-10%, but a new poll conducted by Robert Putnam (of http://www.amazon.com/gp/p
Brian McLaren 08-25-2008
I understand the sentiments shared by many voters in the recent Pew poll on faith and politics. The Chicago Tribune reports:
Social conservatives are growing more wary of church involvement in politics, joining moderates and liberals in their unease about blurring the [...]


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Free personalized radio that
plays the music you love
Joyce Kennedy
Though the recordings ended, she still performed all over the Chicago area. She met singer Glenn Murdock, an ex-Vondells member, and the soulful duet embarked on tours across the country. After marrying, the two formed Mother's Finest in 1975, presumptively billed as the first black rock band. They had a steady stream of album releases, all critically acclaimed, but only scrounged a couple of small hits. A nonentity for black audiences, the band's fondest fans were white, and after disbanding in 1984, Kennedy signed with A&M. During 1984-85, she enjoyed a string of hit singles, led by the Top 40 "The Last Time I Made Love" (a duet with Jeffrey Osborne), but also including "Stronger than Before," "Lookin' for Trouble," and "Hold On (For Love's Sake)." ~ Andrew Hamilton
Selected Discography
Track List: The Breakfast Club (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)
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Paul Biancardi Basketball Recruiting
Recruiting update: Espn no.1 PG Trevon Duval will go directly to Baylor for an official visit right after his Arizona visit this weekend. He will be in attendance for the West Virginia game on Monday. Plans are to visit Seton Hall in March. Per his dad Trevor Duval.


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Casio Men's Clock DQ541D-2
was $15.00 Special Price $12.75
In stock
No one enjoys sleepless nights filled with dreams about oversleeping and running late the next day. Fortunately, this Casio digital alarm clock will help you to rest easy and ensure you will wake up on time, every time. Easy to use, this alarm clock will not only tell you the time of day, but also features LED light up display, 12 or 24 clock and snooze button and only uses AAA batteries to operate. When it comes to your sleep, every minute counts and with this Casio alarm, you will never spend another minute of it worrying about waking up on time.
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Norland High Debate Prompts Riptide Critic
This morning, Riptide posted a blog about a former pot smuggler's plan to organize a Norland Senior High reunion. It notes Bruce Perlowin -- the west coast's biggest marijuana importer in the seventies -- has been planning a 40-year reunion-festival for the class of 1969. He has gotten some opposition from Ron Sachs, an opinionated former Miami Herald reporter and Spokesperson for Governor Lawton Chiles. (Check out the blog here.)
After reading the article, Sachs -- who believes Riptide should have been harder on the hippie-turned-criminal -- wrote a letter New Times. He noted Perlowin's reunion has since been canceled, and that we should have reported that. (Perlowin, however, counters the event is still on. He says it has gone from "official" to "unofficial" and has changed locations.)
Sach's e-mail reads:
"It is unfortunate that the real facts run counter to the perspective [Riptide] wanted to provide your readers...to the point of ignoring them and romanticizing Bruce for, essentially, trying to scam his class. To call him an 'idealist' is the most pathetic stretch of all. I am sorely disappointed in this major shortfall in your paper's journalism.
Upcoming Events
Florida Atlantic University Owls Men's Basketball vs. UTSA Roadrunners Basketball
TicketsSat., Feb. 25, 7:00pm
Harlem Globetrotters
TicketsSun., Feb. 26, 4:00pm
Florida Panthers v Ottawa Senators
TicketsSun., Feb. 26, 7:30pm
Florida Panthers v Carolina Hurricanes
TicketsTue., Feb. 28, 7:30pm
Norland Class of 1969 IS having a reunion....Far more simple and traditional than Bruce's scheme-turned-scam.....I know this isn't some major piece for Miami New Times, but when a reporter goes out of her way to get a simple story wrong -- for the sake of making it a better yarn -- it makes one wonder about the bigger stories that really do matter. Honest mistakes are one thing -- but an intentional deception for turning a good line or popping out a hoped-for amusing piece of fictionalized news reporting is not journalism at it best."
We'd like to hear thoughts from Norland High Alumi.
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2158 Military Rd, Washington WI 54521 $169,000
Features of 2158 Military Rd Washington WI 54521
- CommercialProperty
- Status: Active
- Est. Year Built: 1988
- Body of Water: Anvil
- County: Vilas
- Property Taxes: $1,634
- Property Tax Year: 2016
- Listing Company: Re/Max Property Pros
- Listing Agent: Judy Barr
Property Description for 2158 Military Rd Washington WI 54521
2158 Military Rd Washington WI 54521 - ANVIL LAKE POLE BUILDING- Business building with access lot on crystal clear Anvil Lake! If you are a business owner in search of a central base for your office, storage, and workshop, this property fits the bill. The pole-building is located on a 3.5-acre buildable parcel ready for your dream hillside home to be constructed. The 1.5-acre Anvil Lake access lot is not buildable, however, you could put a pier out and have a place for your boat and still have the perks of lakeside living. The building itself includes an office, showroom, loft, bath, workshop, and plenty of storage space. It is an extremely well insulated 8, 640 sq. ft. building that includes a car hoist, 10'H x 12'W garage doors, steel lined walls and ceilings, concrete floors, and modine heaters in all the rooms. Another notable feature is the huge overhead doors on both ends and a formal entrance. Thinking outside the box may get you what you need at an affordable $169,00 price tag!
Interior Features
- Heating/Cooling: Hydronic/Hot Water
Building and Construction
- Flooring: Carpeting, Concrete
- Roof: Metal
Land Features
- Waterfront/Access: Y
|MLS Number
|New Status
|Previous Status
|Activity Date
|New List Price
|Previous List Price
|Sold Price
|Oct 24 2016 10:18AM
|Sep 17 2016 2:17AM
|Mar 31 2016 3:19PM
Estimated Monthly Payment
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Community Homes Near 2158 Military Rd
Buyer understands that the information which is contained on Data pages is obtained from a number of different sources and which has not been independently verified or confirmed by the various real estate brokers and agents who have been and are involved in this transaction. If any particular measurement or data element is important or material to buyer, Buyer assumes all responsibility and liability to research, verify and confirm said data element and measurement. REALTOR *MLS* Equal Housing Opportunity


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- Bryce McGee
- 1 years ago
- Views:
1 RECOVERING CAPITAL EXPENDITURES: THE RAILROAD INDUSTRY PARADOX George Avery Grimes, Ph.D. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Christopher P. L. Barkan, Adviser Following deregulation in 1980, the U.S. freight railroad industry invested large amounts of capital, expanded output and increased earnings, but paradoxically it did not earn a competitive return on investment. As a result, investors became increasingly wary of expanding investment in this industry, even as demand for rail transportation services continued to grow. In recent years, investment has been constrained, capacity has become more restricted, prices have risen, and returns to investment have improved but continue to fall below the industry's cost of capital. This research examines the possibility that railroad capital expenditures represent an incremental cost of traffic that was, and may continue to be, substantially underestimated in industry calculations of marginal cost. As a result, railroad pricing strategies may rely on overstated contribution ratios that do not consider the full incremental capital cost associated with each shipment. Because railroads invest more capital, as a percentage of revenue, than any other major industry sector, they are particularly vulnerable to such miscalculations. All variable costs (expenses and investments) must be included in marginal cost calculations if the economic value of the firm is to be maximized in the way it prices its goods and services. This research combines engineering, economic, and financial methods and makes contributions in each area. Railroad maintenance strategies that rely more heavily on capital investment are more cost effective. Infrastructure capital spending is caused by current and future output, and is therefore a short run marginal cost. Railroad marginal cost formulae appear to substantially underestimate the true incremental nature of ongoing capital expenditures. Regulatory average variable cost formulae do not incorporate variable capital expenditures suggesting that Surface Transportation Board estimates of revenue to variable cost are overstated, subjecting a larger share of rail traffic to potential economic regulation than would otherwise occur.
2 2004 by George Avery Grimes. All rights reserved. ii
3 RECOVERING CAPITAL EXPENDITURES: THE RAILROAD INDUSTRY PARADOX BY GEORGE AVERY GRIMES B.S., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1978 M.S., University of Nebraska at Lincoln, 1994 DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Civil Engineering in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2004 Urbana, Illinois
4 This page is reserved for the (signed) Certificate of Committee Approval A page number is not included on this certificate. ii
5 Dedications This dissertation is dedicated to my father, Dr. George Murray Grimes. Raised as a depression era farm child in west Tennessee, he overcame many obstacles to study veterinary medicine at Texas A&M University. He became a leader in veterinary education in the U.S. Army, conducted advanced studies at Texas A&M and Tulane Universities, served as a professor at the University of Illinois, and was a worldwide missionary dedicated to improving the health of impoverished peoples. My father has served as an inspiration on many levels, both personal and spiritual. When I was a child, he showed me the world, from east to west. When I was a teenager, he was patient and encouraging. He always demonstrated integrity in difficult decisions and perseverance in difficult challenges. He demonstrated to me that love, family, spiritual matters and knowledge were more important than personal possessions or wealth. He continues to be my great inspiration and educator. This dissertation is also dedicated to the memory of Professor W. W. Hay, who provided guidance and inspiration during my undergraduate years, and kept railroad engineering education alive and thriving almost single handedly. My last meeting with Doc Hay was in late 1997 shortly before his death. Despite difficulties caused by his stroke, we talked about the students that he had taught and his significant contributions to this industry. He would be greatly pleased that his legacy has been carried forward at the University of Illinois by a new group of dedicated educators, researchers, and students. iii
6 Acknowledgements The completion of this research could not have been possible without the efforts, support, and inspiration of many individuals. First and foremost, Chris Barkan, principal adviser and friend, for critical encouragement and significant support; and for his dedication to this industry and the education of railroad engineering students. Carl Nelson, economist and committee member, provided inspiration despite my relatively new exposure to advanced economic theory. James Gentry, teacher and committee member, provided encouragement and guidance in modern financial theory. Liang Liu, committee member, provided guidance in engineering theory and decision analysis. Gerard McCullough taught railroad economic theory and provided many contacts. Others that contributed to my education were Scott Irwin (econometrics), Amy Ando (economic theory), Jeff Douglas (statistics), Dick Hill (transportation), Hayri Onal (dynamic modeling) and Lucio Soibelman (engineering). I also thank co-students Justin Gardner and Maria Boerngen for assisting me with advanced economic theory. Bob Gallamore provided encouragement and academic resources at critical points. Harry MacLean and Eve Brady gave advice, encouragement and editing assistance. I also want to acknowledge my friends and colleagues in the railroad industry. Those persons that contributed and/or provided insights include Carl Martland, Craig Rockey, Dale Lewis, Jeff Warren, Dave Burns, Jim Valentine, and Lou Anne Rinne. Of special note are my teachers at Missouri Pacific and Union Pacific Railroads, including (in chronological order) Art Mennell, Mike Godfrey, Sam Rice, Chuck Dettmann, Dick Davidson, Art Shoener, Dennis Duffy, Jim Dunn, John Holm, Bill Wimmer, Ken Welch, Lanny Schmid and Mike Hemmer. Many others should be in this list. To these individuals I owe a mountain of gratitude for my real-world education. Finally, and fundamentally, I could not have started much less completed this effort without the support of my entire family, George, Lillian, Bill, Elizabeth, and Chris. My father for his attentive ear, lifelong encouragement, and patience and faith. My mother for her constant love and instilling a sense of confidence. And my son, Chris, for encouragement and providing that last push, advising, Ya gotta go for it, Dad. iv
7 Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction Principal Hypothesis Key Findings Significance of and Reasons for Research Dissertation Organization Multi-Disciplinary Approach Cost-Effectiveness of Railway Infrastructure Renewal Maintenance Background Methodology Data Preparation Renewal Strategy as a Single Independent Variable Alternative Hypothesis: Influence of Size Alternative Hypothesis: Influence of Light Density Track Miles Alternative Hypothesis: Influence of Average Density Combining Statistically Significant Variables Discussion Conclusions Appendix Railway Output and Infrastructure Capital Expenditures Historical Studies of Railroad Investment Variability Engineering Foundations of Variable Capital Expenditures Methodology and Decision Criteria Data Preparation Gross Ton Miles as Single Independent Variable Influence of Free Cash Flow and Net Income Lag and Causality: Capital Expenditures and Output Lag and Causality: Capital Expenditures, Net Income, and Free Cash Flow Estimation of Causality using Vector Auto Regression Discussion and Conclusions Appendix Recovering Capital Expenditures in Prices Integrating Economic and Financial Cost Concepts Contractual Costs, Net Income and Free Cash Flow Price Components Combining Price Components and Quasi-Economic Formulae Methodology and Decision Criteria Incorporating Financial Trends into Quasi-Economic Formulae v
8 4.7 Evaluating Results Using Sensitivity Analysis How Economic Losses Result From Mis-estimated Marginal Costs Discussion and Conclusions Appendix Summary and Discussion Review of Principal Hypothesis Chapter Chapter Chapter Origins and Application of Marginal Analysis in the Railroad Industry Marginal Analysis and Engineering Practice Efficient Resource Allocation The Public Policy Question Maximizing Earnings v. Returns to Investment The Executive s Dilemma Future Research Allocation of Variable Capital Expenditures to Particular Traffic Segments Recovering Variable Capital Expenditures in Other Industries Recovering Variable Working Capital and Other Investments Firm Value and Investment Literature Survey References Cited Curriculum Vita vi
9 1.0 Introduction Estimates of the cost of handling added traffic are as old as the railroads themselves. Interstate Commerce Commission, Rail freight service costs, 1943 Some carriers are considering the elimination of whole lines of business. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2002 Being a growth railroad is simply not a terribly sound business or investment strategy. CitiGroup, Principal Hypothesis The principal hypothesis of this dissertation is that railroad capital expenditures represent an incremental cost of traffic but are largely excluded from marginal cost estimates. This results in sub-optimal pricing decisions and sub-optimal returns to invested capital. Because railroads invest more capital, as a percentage of revenue, than any other major industry sector, they are particularly vulnerable to such mis-calculations. I propose that infrastructure capital expenditures are, on the whole, correlated with and caused by current and future output and should be included in marginal cost estimates. I also propose that U.S. freight railroads and their economic regulators do not properly interpret these incremental investments as marginal cost. If so, then (1) railroad pricing and investment strategies do not optimize return on invested capital, and (2) Surface Transportation Board estimates of revenue to variable cost (R/VC) are overstated, subjecting a larger share of rail traffic to potential economic regulation than would otherwise occur. The concept that ongoing expenditures for investment should be considered in the estimation of marginal cost, and therefore included in criteria for pricing decisions, was not found in the financial literature but does have foundation in economic theory. It 1
10 appears to represent a gap in the application of economic theory to railroad cost accounting methods. Railroads have not mis-applied current financial theory but they may be struggling to resolve the paradox of maximizing earnings (net income) or returns to invested capital (free cash flow). The solution to this paradox, according to this thesis, requires an extension of how cost accounting models incorporate economic theory. A robust integration of these concepts highlights the need to treat incremental investment as an incremental cost. Firms with large variable investment requirements can use pricing strategies to either maximize earnings (net income) or returns to invested capital (free cash flow), but not both at any given moment. Variable investment must be included in marginal cost calculations if the economic value of a firm is to be maximized in the way it prices its goods and services. 1.2 Key Findings The key findings of this dissertation are: 1) The intrinsic cost of maintaining railroad infrastructure does not substantially vary among Class I railroads, and apparent differences in unit maintenance cost can be explained by the degree to which individual firms apply renewal strategies, 2) Railroad maintenance strategies that employ a greater portion of renewal-based maintenance are more cost effective than those that use less renewal, 3) Railroad infrastructure investment (capital expenditures) is principally a function of current and future demand, 4) Regulatory cost formulae underestimate actual cost variability by not including variable capital expenditures, subjecting a larger share of rail traffic to potential economic regulation than would otherwise occur, 2
11 5) Commercial pricing formulae used by railroads appear to underestimate the true incremental nature of capital expenditures resulting in sub-optimal pricing decisions and returns to invested capital, 6) Significant differences exist between accepted railroad cost accounting practice and economic theory regarding marginal cost analysis, and 7) This analysis suggests that firms with substantial variable investment cannot maximize both net income and free cash flow, at least in the short run. 1.3 Significance of and Reasons for Research Following deregulation in 1980 through the late 1990 s, U.S. freight railroads increased capital spending, expanded output, reduced costs, and improved service. During the same period, they consistently failed to earn a rate of return commensurate with their cost of capital (U.S. Congress House Committee 1998, 2001; Flower 2003a; Flower 2003b; Gallagher 2004, Hatch 2004). Since 1998, railroads have become more conservative with capital spending as investors have become increasingly skeptical about the industry s financial competitiveness (Flower 2003a; Flower 2003b; Gallagher 2004; Hatch 2004). Shippers and public transportation officials are increasingly concerned about the effects of further constraints on rail investment (U.S. Congress House Committee 2001; AASHTO 2002; Hatch 2004; Hensel 2004). Transportation officials predict there will be additional costs to transportation users of $400 to $900 billion if future rail investment is constrained (AASHTO 2002). This research offers one explanation as to why railroads earn poor returns on investment despite seemingly healthy rates of earnings growth. If corrected, railroads may find it easier to earn their cost of capital, resulting in fewer external constraints on capital investment. Transportation industry professionals have often expressed concern over the railroad industry s inability to earn a competitive return on investment, or its cost of capital (U.S. Congress Senate Committee 1987; U.S. Congress House Committee 1998, 3
12 2001; AASHTO 2002; Hatch 2004). The specific direction of this research was established when I first discovered a correlation between capital expenditures and output while studying economic and financial theory. An experiential knowledge of industry and regulatory cost procedures lead me to suspect that there might be a systemic error in the way capital expenditures were reflected in marginal cost estimates and pricing strategy. This research presents a new explanation for a chronic problem of significance to the railroad industry, and it presents new financial techniques that may be useful to other industries with substantial variable investment requirements. 1.4 Dissertation Organization This dissertation is designed as a series of chapters, three of which are intended as individually publishable papers. As a result, each chapter will cover some material discussed in previous chapters. Chapters 2-4 form the core of the dissertation. Chapter 5 presents a summary of findings and additional conclusions. Chapter 6 identifies additional research needs. Chapter 7 is a compendium of related literature dating from the 1840 s to References cited and curriculum vita follow chapter 7. Chapter 1: Introduction This chapter presents the principal hypothesis, key findings, significance of the research, a description of each chapter, and contributions claimed. Chapter 2: Cost Effectiveness of Railway Infrastructure Renewal Maintenance This chapter discusses how and why railroads make capital investments in infrastructure from an engineering perspective. Railroads maintain their infrastructure through a mix of ordinary maintenance activities and periodic renewal programs. Different railways use different proportions of these two approaches and the cost effectiveness of emphasizing one maintenance regime over the other has not been previously analyzed empirically. The objective is to investigate the cost-effectiveness of renewal-based maintenance strategies using data from industry sources. The primary 4
13 hypothesis is that an emphasis on infrastructure capital expenditures reduces total infrastructure maintenance cost. Alternative hypotheses are tested with regard to the effects of railroad size and density. The results indicate that engineering management strategies that place more weight on renewal maintenance relative to ordinary maintenance reduce total maintenance cost. Railroad size and average density are significant but secondary factors. The effects of size and density appear consistent with recent econometric studies on the nature and behavior of railroad costs. Chapter 3: Railway Output and Infrastructure Investment This chapter investigates the relationship between infrastructure capital expenditures and railroad output. The hypothesis tested is that infrastructure capital expenditures are variable with, and caused by, changes in railroad output. Alternative hypotheses tested are that free cash flow and/or net income are primary causal drivers of infrastructure capital expenditures. My analysis suggests that, over the past 15 years, changes in annual investment were closely correlated with, and caused by, changes in annual output. Lag analysis suggests that annual infrastructure investment is principally forward looking, determined by current and future output, and not by past output. As a result, I conclude that capital expenditures are marginal costs, and that regulatory variable cost formulae are incorrect because they do not treat them as such. Annual investment appears to be a better predictor of free cash flow and net income than output. Chapter 4: Recovering Capital Expenditures in Prices This chapter presents a new method to calculate the percentage of capital expenditures that are reflected in railroad price floors. This methodology integrates economic and accounting concepts of cost, and compares trends in net income and cash flow to estimate the price component for recovery of variable investment and variable capital expenditures. The primary hypothesis is that, contrary to rational economic behavior, the proportion of variable capital expenditures included in railroad prices is 5
14 substantially less than one. A sensitivity analysis is conducted to determine the degree to which other factors may influence the results of the analysis. My analysis suggests that railroads systematically underestimate the true incremental nature of capital expenditures in their estimates of marginal cost, contribution ratios, and price floors. Chapter 5: Summary and Discussion This chapter provides a summary of Chapters 2-4. It presents an explanation, from a historical viewpoint, for the mis-application of marginal analysis with respect to railroad capital expenditures. Engineering practices are examined to highlight the variable nature of capital expenditures. Public policy questions are analyzed, and implications of this research for firms with substantial variable investment are discussed. Chapter 6: Future Research This chapter presents additional research needs based on the broader interpretation of these findings. Research is needed to develop a method to properly allocate capital expenditures to specific traffic movements using transportation network theory and economic benefit analysis. The degree to which other industries may underallocate variable investment in marginal cost estimates should be investigated. Research is recommended to test the relationship between firm value and investment strategy based on new derivations of firm value and free cash flow with respect to variable investment. Chapter 7: Literature Survey The literature survey is a compendium of literature that was used, directly or indirectly, in the development of the dissertation, and includes a combination of relevant economic, regulatory, financial, and engineering topics. Part of this material is presented in Chapters 2 through 5. The survey presents a broader and more complete picture than provided in the previous chapters. The material is presented in chronological order so the reader can more fully comprehend how railroad economic theory developed over 165 years to its present state. 6
15 1.5 Multi-Disciplinary Approach The chapters that form the core of this research program tend to blend different disciplines, but each has a different focus. Chapter 2 focuses on railroad engineering issues related to optimal maintenance strategies. Chapter 3 combines engineering practice and economic theory to define the relationship between infrastructure investment and output. Chapter 4 combines economic and financial theory to analyze commercial costing practices. Chapter 5 presents a history of economic theory and cost accounting methods to explain current mis-interpretations, and demonstrates how to correct these errors using current engineering practices. The chapters are designed to build upon each other through a series of inquiries (primary discipline(s) in parentheses): Why do railroads make capital investments in infrastructure? (engineering) What are the most efficient strategies used to maintain infrastructure? (engineering) What are the relevant economic attributes of capital investment? (economics) Can financial trends provide insight into the commercial interpretation of the economic attributes of capital investment? (economics and finance) How do these economic attributes compare with current regulatory and commercial interpretations? (economics and finance) Why would economic theory be mis-interpreted by industry and regulatory institutions? (economics, engineering, and finance) What guidance can be used in future situations? (engineering and economics) Specific contributions are claimed for each discipline, as follows: Contributions to Civil (Railroad) Engineering A new technique that segregates railroad capital expenditures into renewal maintenance and capacity expansion categories, A new model that estimates the effectiveness of renewal strategies in the maintenance of rail infrastructure, and A finding that baseline maintenance costs do not vary from one railroad to the next if renewal maintenance strategies are taken into account. 7
16 Contributions to Economics A new, post-facto, pricing analysis tool, A new method that estimates cost-related price components. Contributions to Finance A new model of free cash flow using quasi-economic variables, A new method to estimate the degree to which investment cash flows are reflected in price floors, and A new method to relate changes in firm value to changes in free cash flow with respect to variable investment. 8
17 2.0 Cost-Effectiveness of Railway Infrastructure Renewal Maintenance In his advice, the engineer rarely is able to confine himself to technological considerations alone. The decision to install a new piece of equipment or to undertake a new process must take into account demands and money costs. But once all of the elements are incorporated into his analysis the engineer should not be surprised to find that he has all along been talking economics. W. J. Baumol and S. M. Goldfield, Precursors in Mathematical Economics, 1968 Since the railway infrastructure investment boom of the mid-1980 s, all Class I railroads, have made significant efficiency gains in infrastructure maintenance that are the result of improvements in a number of areas. Technological advancements in infrastructure components such as cleaner and harder steel have reduced asset life cycle costs. Improved component management has also reduced costs, for example new developments in rail grinding and lubrication (IHHA 2001). Infrastructure maintenance delivery systems and maintenance equipment technology has changed considerably. Better performance measurement tools and cross-functional teamwork has transformed additional engineering practices. (A Class I railroad is a U.S railroad that meets a revenue threshold of $277.7 million.) Railroads maintain their infrastructure using a combination of ordinary maintenance and renewal maintenance techniques. Ordinary maintenance generally includes the replacement of small quantities of infrastructure components using relatively small gangs and small equipment, whereas renewal maintenance techniques involve the replacement of larger quantities of components with larger gangs and bigger, more sophisticated and more expensive equipment. Ordinary maintenance activities are normally charged to operating expense and renewal maintenance programs to capital expenditures according to Surface Transportation Board (STB) accounting requirements (U.S. Senate Committee 1995). 9
18 Over the past 20 years, according to this research, all Class I railroads have increased their use of renewal-based maintenance compared to ordinary maintenance, however, the degree to which they do so varies substantially (Figure 2.1). Some railroads allocate less than 40% of their total maintenance budget to renewal programs, while others consistently allocate over 60%. There is also substantial variation in renewal regimes among international railroads (Burns 1983) Renewal as a proportion of Total Maintenance Cost Figure 2.1: Renewal as a proportion of total maintenance cost (line indicates weighted average and bars indicate range among individual Class I railroads) as derived in this research. Both renewal capital expenditures and ordinary maintenance expenses represent costs incurred for maintenance of infrastructure, but the engineering management strategy of each approach has a subtle yet significant difference. Renewal based maintenance results in better average track condition over the life cycle of the track but also greater variability. Selective ordinary maintenance, on the other hand, is generally used to maintain track to a consistent minimum standard (Figure 2.2) (Burns 1980). Both are required, but an emphasis on one or the other can result in a wide variation of 10
19 Track Quality Renewal Project Renewal Project Renewal Project Average (Renewal) Minimum Standard Ordinary Maintenance Time Figure 2.2: Comparison of the temporal relationship between renewal and ordinary maintenance, and track quality maintenance costs. A low-quality track might support relatively high-axle loads with a high maintenance regime; conversely higher investment can mean higher axle loads and relatively low maintenance (Australian Government Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2003). There are also substantial differences in the equipment employed and the schedule of work. In general, renewals involve capital expenditures made to replace and/or improve infrastructure components in response to, or anticipation of, wear and tear caused by output (defined here as gross ton miles). In contrast, capital expenditures for expansion of facilities (terminals and yards, siding or mainline trackage, signal or dispatching systems, etc.) are made to accommodate rail traffic growth and are called additions. However, post facto railroad financial statements do not segregate capital expenditures into these categories. For the purposes of this study, I classify Ordinary Maintenance as maintenance that is expensed, Renewal Maintenance as maintenance activity that is capitalized, and Additions as capacity expansion (Table 2.1). The question addressed in this chapter is whether there is a relationship between the engineering management strategy, in terms of its relative emphasis on renewal or ordinary maintenance, and the overall cost effectiveness of the maintenance function. 11
20 Table 2.1: Infrastructure Costs: Purpose, Study Classification and Accounting Category Purpose Study Classification Accounting Category Infrastructure Maintenance Capacity Expansion Ordinary Maintenance Renewal Maintenance Additions Operating Expense (excluding depreciation) Capital Expenditures 2.1 Background Track maintenance by renewal is not new. It was originally developed in the U.S. in the early 1900's and even then it was believed to be less expensive (Burns 1981). Renewal was originally performed by hand or with relatively simple machines. Recent changes in technology and practice have led to improvements in overall efficiency for both ordinary and renewal-based maintenance techniques. However, the efficiency difference between small section gangs performing selective maintenance (characteristic of ordinary maintenance) and large mechanized gangs (characteristic of renewal maintenance) has increased. This difference results, in part, from improvements in delivery technology including track renewal systems, tie-handling equipment, surface and lining equipment, rail laying equipment, and ballast delivery systems. Newer maintenance of way equipment is safer, cleaner, easier to maintain, and easier to operate than earlier models (Judge 1999). Advances in computerization have improved the reliability of this equipment (Brennan 1997). Although improvements have been made in all types of machinery, the high-end, high-production equipment has provided much of the recent productivity improvement (Kramer 1997). These advances and the larger scale of equipment and gangs permit greater economies of scale compared to ordinary maintenance. Renewal programs also tend to have relatively long planning horizons so that track possessions can be coordinated with transportation operations to minimize service disruptions. These programs may target various track components for replacement and the scope of individual programs may vary widely. For example, a tie program may 12
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Prime Minister Narendra Modi recently attended an inaugural event of a cheese and whey plant set up with state of the art technology at a cost of 350 crore rupees at the milk co-operative dairy plant of Banas dairy in Deesa in Banaskantha district of Gujarat. The milk for this project will be drawn from the famous Kankrej variety of cows. At the event, Mr. Modi gave a phenomenal speech which included the importance of farmers and how dedicatedly they work towards our nation and the food industry, he also mentioned his problems with demonetization, and introduces some important and significant changes in the food industry. Along with the cheese and whey plant, Mr. Modi also inaugurated a honey plant, Banas bank with online and mobile facilities and also released a book.
PM Narendra Modi also inaugurated a state of the art Amul cheese plant at Banas Dairy. The cheese plant produces the capacity of 50 tonnes per day. One of the changes introduced by Prime Minister Modi was the launch of 'Amul Deshi A2'. It is cow milk that is targeted towards the people who consume pure cow milk from various indigenous breeds of cows. The plan will be marketed to other states of India but will be only marketed in Ahmedabad to begin with. Prime Minister Modi mentioned the increasing farming of honey in this region of Gujarat and said that there will definitely be a White Revolution in Banaskantha which will be accompanied by a Sweet Revolution.
Prime Minister Modi praised the farmers of Banaskantha for producing potatoes on such a large and successful scale. He mentioned Deesa (in Banaskantha) as 'Asia's largest potato producing hub'. He gave immense credits to the farmers of Deesa who made this possible through their hard-work and efforts and also changed their lives without relying on anybody else. Prime Minister Modi boldly gave numerous credits to the farmers around Gujarat (as well as India) for creating such a strong agricultural segment of the country. Having made a mark as Asia's largest potato producing hub, Deesa in Banaskantha is writing a new history for the generation of farmers to come.
The Prime Minister also laid emphasis on the importance of irrigation for the agricultural sector. He mentioned drip irrigation and said that it will deeply help farmers to increase their agricultural productivity. Having told the importance of water, Mr. Narendra Modi said that every farmer will be given this basic necessity. Prime Minister Modi, as always, made an influential speech and made a deep impact on our farmers and the food industry. The changes mentioned by our honorable Prime Minister will definitely lead our country's food industry into a better future.
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... so what kind of earnings stats do you keep? Are there any magic programs to figure out how much each visitor is worth, etcm or do you just do the math.
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THATTA: The commonplace government is minimum inspired by enhancing the standard of instruction in Thatta and other in reverse ranges of Sindh, said speakers at a gathering on 'Locale Education Budget Tracking 2015-16' held at the Makli gymkhana here on Tuesday.
Partab Shivani, an agent of Alif Ailaan, a non-administrative association, condemned that the methodology of the authorities concerned could be gaged from the way that so far not a penny had been discharged for the improvement segment of the area's schools by the Sindh government, however 360 of the 1,583 schools were shut. He said that in spite of the administration's tall claims the standard of instruction was declining, including that the education rate of the region was minor 23 for every penny. He said that different associations were attempting to make mindfulness about training among the general population to prepare the future eras to battle terrorism and lack of education.
Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz MPA from Thatta Syed Ameer Hyder Shah despised that several schools were lying shut in his beach front region with no beam of want to get any positive reaction from the present government.
Asad Palejo, Nazeer Ahmed Chandio, Rustam Samejo and others likewise talked.


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