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for Teachers, Students, & Home Hobbyists
Serving you since 1961
e here at Foothill Hydroponics have been providing supplies and guidance for hydroponic gardeners since 1961. Today, we are especially pleased and excited to be helping thousands of elementary, middle-school and high school students, and their teachers, with their Hydroponic science projects. In partnership with the state-wide Agricultural Literacy & Fairs Alliance, we are actively bringing the fascinating world of Hydroponics to schools all across California. We also continue to help the film industry with Hydroponics systems, and with living plants for background effects. In fact, a feature film currently in production will feature an amazing array of Hydroponic systems. If this booklet whets your appetite for more information about Hydroponics, we have more than 100 free brochures on virtually every aspect of soilless growing. We also have a brand-new catalog with 60 pages of systems, equipment, media and nutrient supplies. Whether you are an educator, student or hobbyist, please feel free to call, write or e-mail us with any specific questions you may have. I would also recommend a visit to our Web site, at: www.foothill-hydroponic.com. I would also like to mention three dear friends who were devoted to Hydroponics, and who have since passed on. Jim McCaskill was an inspiration to anyone who likes growing plants. As a professional lecturer, he taught classes on Hydroponics and plant nutrients at more than a dozen community colleges, universities and garden clubs in Southern California. His widow, Gallena McCaskill, has graciously granted us permission to publish Jims work, carrying on the tradition of humanity and caring that were Mr. James McCaskills trademarks. Buck Isham was the founder and previous owner of Foothill Hydroponics, and worked with us for seven years. Gary Pelland was very helpful over the 10 years we knew him. They are missed. Thank you for your interest in Hydroponics, and welcome, friend, welcome! Mohsen Daha and Colleagues Foothill Hydroponics
Introduction ............................................................................................. 2 Objectives ................................................................................................ 3 Hydroponic fundamentals ........................................................................ 3 Activities .................................................................................................. 4 Advantages ............................................................................................. 5 Hydroponic culture types ......................................................................... 6 Wick System ............................................................................................ 8 Grow Bag Technique ............................................................................... 9 Subirrigation ............................................................................................ 9 Flood and Drain (Ebb & Flow) ............................................................... 10 Rockwool Technique .............................................................................. 11 Propagation ........................................................................................... 11 How are seeds sown in Rockwool? ....................................................... 12 Growing On ........................................................................................... 12 Rockwool Slabs for crops that grow over 6 months ............................... 13 Aeroponics ............................................................................................ 14 Recycled Pump Feeding (PVC tube system) ........................................ 16 Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) ............................................................... 18 Growing media ...................................................................................... 20 Care and maintenance of hydroponic systems ...................................... 22 Crops ..................................................................................................... 23 Nutrient solution and the elements it contains ....................................... 24 Preparation of the nutrient solution........................................................ 26 Pre-mixed Plant Foods .......................................................................... 28 The Nutrient Solution In Use ................................................................. 28 Changing the Solution ........................................................................... 29 Nutrient Solution pH .............................................................................. 30 The E. C. of the Nutrient Solution .......................................................... 30 TDS meters ........................................................................................... 31 Water quality ......................................................................................... 31 The Root Environment ........................................................................... 32 Nutrient deficiency symptoms ............................................................... 33 Historical Highlights ............................................................................... 34
1 Copyright © 1999 Foothill Hydroponics
soil is replaced by inert media such as perlite. The basic techniques of hydroponics have been known for some time.Introduction Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil. It brings the disciplines of chemistry. and physics together. teachers and home gardenersgain enough knowledge of hydroponics to be able to successfully and satisfactorily grow plants by this modern procedure. In nature. 2 . students at all levels will be able to appreciate the different ways in which plant life can be sustained. Gericke of the University of California at Los Angeles successfully grew tomatoes in water culture before 1936. The commercial and hobby production of vegetables and cut flowers hydroponically is becoming more popular. In hydroponics. the soil provides nutrients and is a means of physical support for the plant. horticultural rockwool. If optimum growing conditions and nutritional requirements are applied. or fired clay pebbles to which the necessary elements for growth are added in the form of a nutrient solution. sand. For many centuries. high yielding crops may be produced in areas where climate or location may previously have hampered the production of crops by soil cultivation. vermiculite. By incorporating a study of hydroponics into the school curricula. hydroponics can offer an alternative means of food production. but it is only since the beginning of this century that the techniques have been refined to the point where they could be applied commercially. Good quality. Many students and teachers like using hydroponics as a learning tool because it is a hands on method. Dr. arousing great interest in hydroponics as an alternative method of horticulture. biology. This booklet is intended to help people of all ages students. people have endeavored to increase yields and improve crop quality against natures inconsistency. combined with sound horticultural management.
However. who grew their plants on rafts on shallow lakes where cultivation in soil was not possible. and the plant roots grew through the soil down into the water of the lake. Commercial hydroponics is a relatively recent development. Commercial hydroponics was really first started in 1936. The definition of hydroponics has gradually been broadened. Professor D. which was used by the U. Hoagland of U. All systems except hydroculture can be used for the commercial production of vegetables and cut flowers. A few of these floating gardens still exist near Mexico City. To be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of the various hydroponic systems. Robert and Alice Withrow at Purdue University developed the Nutriculture* system of gravel culture in 1940.C.Objectives 1. labor). and literally means water works. It is synonymous with the term soilless culture. in the early 1930s. and both terms are restricted to the growing of plants without soil. To be able to set up one or more of the various hydroponic systems. when Professor Gericke at U. 3 . 3.C.S. The name comes from two Greek words: hydro (water) and ponos (to work.A. Hydroponic fundamentals The word hydroponics was coined in the U. the art of hydroponics is believed to date back to the Aztec Indians of ancient America.L. Army well into the 1950s to supply troops in Japan and Korea.. 4. To be aware of the different media used in hydroponics. Berkeley verified many of the Gericke experiments during the 1930s. 2. Today it is used to describe all ways of growing plants without soil. To be able to maintain the hydroponic system(s). These rafts were covered with soil removed from the lake bed. when gravel culture was used. 5. coined the name to describe the growing of plants with their roots suspended in water containing mineral nutrients.S.A. To understand nutrient elements and solution pH.
the preferred media.Activities There are many ways in which hydroponic systems may be established. The hydroponic systems which follow may be classified under eight headings: Surface Watering Technique Subirrigation Wick System Grow Bag Technique Soak and Drain Rockwool Technique Drip Feed Technique Nutrient Film Technique Each system may be modified or expanded to suit individual requirements while. the medium used may be varied from that suggested here. 4 . similarly. The manner chosen largely depends upon the availability of space. There is abundant scope for imagination and initiative in the design of an installation which would suit your particular needs. financial concerns and the type of crops desired.
No crop rotation is necessary as the growing medium can be reused continually. once the unit is established. Plants are usually uniform in growth and maturity. production in hydroponics compared with soil cultivation in a comparable area may be increased approximately two times. Root diseases are controlled to a greater extent. There are virtually no weedsand no gophers! As the nutrient requirement of plants varies according to the seasons. There is minimum wastage of water. as benches or units may be adapted to their requirements. The work involved is generally light. compared with growing plants in soil. 5 . Heavy manual operations associated with normal cultivation practice. and ploughing. are eliminated.Advantages A number of advantages can be identified when growing crops hydroponically. or replaced. Because plants do not have to compete for moisture and nutrients. Disabled people are not excluded from participating in hydroponics. such as digging weeding. The labor input is less than if soil is used. The need for dangerous pesticides is largely eliminated if the plants are grown in a controlled environment. This will enable maximum growth to be achieved. hydroponic gardening can provide plants with optimum quantities of the necessary nutrients during the different seasons.
Hydroponic culture types At the 4th International Congress of Soilless Culture in 1976. 6 . The Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) is an example. This works very well for small experimental systems. which are supported in a chamber filled with moist air. scoria. pumice. Fine perlite. plastic beads. the various systems of hydroponics were classified and defined as follows. giving inadequate aeration of the roots.S. if used especially for growing ornamentals in the home or office. with rounded edges preferred. Gravel. or a mixture of vermiculite with any other organic material. after research in the 1970s. Excellent for slow growing house plants like ferns or orchids. Aeroponics: This system uses a spray of nutrient solution that is aimed at the plants roots. Hydroculture: All systems or methods of hydroponics. Vermiculaponics: Roots of plants growing in vermiculite. Used in the 1970s in subirrigation systems in the U. Water Culture: Roots of plants submerged in the nutrient solution with little or no growing media. Very high growth rates have been observed. Gravel Culture: Roots of plants growing in a solid aggregate composed of particles with a diameter more than 3 mm. It usually means using fired clay pebbles in a passive system with no pump.A. basalt. The size of most gravel used is between 5 to 10 mm in diameter. and other inorganic material. Sand Culture: Roots of plants growing in a solid aggregate of particles with a diameter less than 3 mm. and washed river sand have all been used. This method really came into its own during the 1980s. Beach sand is too fine.. plastic. Horticultural Rockwool Culture: Roots of plants growing in horticultural rockwool or any similar material.
Small. portable system 7 .Hollow. foam-slab system Aeroponic systems come in all sizes and shapes. But they all use a spray or mist to soak bare roots with water and nutrient.
or by using a lamp wick. Hydroculture is a special type of wick system that uses the high capillary action of fired clay pebbles. rayon or polyester. or a see through window in the outer pot lets the gardener visually check the water level. Stand a pot. It holds the clay pebbles and the plant itself. Rockwool could also be used. in a tray. Vermiculite. The inner pot looks like a coarse net type of structure. Soak the wick thoroughly before passing it through the drainage hole into the nutrient solution. supported above the nutrient solution. perlite. No actual wick is required. the roots are moistened by the nutrient solution passing up a wick made of nylon. Hydroculture system Culture Pot or net pot Fired clay pebbles Water level indicator Container & water 8 . but it may hold too much water for many plants. Either a float type water level indicator. The growing medium must also be thoroughly soaked to enable the wick to draw up the nutrient solution. This culture pot or net pot fits inside another container which is water tight. leaving 10 cm of wick in the pot. or fired clay pebbles are the most commonly used growing media for wick systems. Unravel the upper end of the wick to give better distribution of the nutrient solution throughout the medium.Wick System In the wick system.
9 . Four to six plants per bag is usually sufficient. Regular flooding of the nutrient solution in the tray to the 5 cm mark will alleviate drying out of the media. place polyethylene sheeting underneath the bag. The first 5 cm above the level of the nutrient solution is saturated and therefore unsuitable for root development. Otherwise standing water may become anaerobic at the root area. Plants should receive nutrient when required. approximately 10 mm from the base to allow drainage of excess nutrient solution. Of the 15 cm of growing medium available.Grow Bag Technique Using grow bags is a simple and cheap way to grow plants hydroponically. only 10 cm is suitable for root growth. due to its very high capillary action. so that water has somewhere to drain. To ensure good hygiene. This level will differ according to the particle size of the river sand used. Fired clay pebbles are an excellent media for cooler climates. Cut holes in the top of the grow bag to allow plants to be inserted. Subirrigation This system is based on the capillary action of the growing medium which carries the nutrient solution up to the root growing zone. Cut 3 or 4 drainage slits around the outside edges of the bag. Fill a large clean opaque polyethylene bag with the growing medium of your choice and seal the open end with freezer bag ties or insulation tape. the nutrient will rise approximately 15 cm above the level of the solution. before inserting the plants. Use a plastic watering can or drippers to apply the nutrient solution. When river sand is used as the growing medium. The drippers could be automated by using a timer and a pump. Thoroughly soak the medium in the grow bag with dilute nutrient solution. but the number will vary according to the type of plant grown or the size of the bag. Rockwool must have a drainage area below it. In this particular method a pot is permanently left to sit in nutrient solution. Lie the grow bag on a firm surface. Rockwool will draw up even more water than sand.
The medium must not be left totally flooded during hot weather because this will cause rapid root death. the nutrient solution will flow out and soak the growing medium. The other end of the hose is connected to a bucket or drum which contains the nutrient solution. When the bucket or drum is lowered. The size of the container should be limited to approximately 18 liters. Completely renew the solution every 1-2 weeks. Flood and drain is super simple. as any larger will make lifting difficult for students. and lower it to drain. the excess nutrient solution will drain out of the medium back into the bucket. 10 . When the container is held above the level of the growing container. The container is then topped off with water for the next irrigation. It is advisable to retain a small reservoir of solution in the bottom of the container to carry plants over a weekend or during periods of hot weather A pump and timer could be used to automate this system. The normal recommendation is to water every 2 hours during daylight.Flood and Drain (Ebb & Flow) A waterproof growing container is placed on a bench and sloped to an outlet to which a hose is connected. The tray should fully drain within 30 minutes after the pump shuts off. You raise the container to feed.
and may have toxic fire retardants. Propagation Rockwool propagation blocks are used with the uncut surface uppermost. 11 . which are then transplanted into rockwool 75 mm wrapped cubes. or small cubes Rockwool 75 mm wrapped cubes (or 100 mm) 900 mm x 300 mm x 75 mm rockwool growing slabs The advantage of using rockwool as a growing medium lies in the fact that the plants at no point need to be removed from the rockwool. Beware of using standard thermal rockwool products as these are water repellent. Cuts in the block help prevent roots from growing from one block to another and also make the blocks easier to separate at the end of the propagation period.Rockwool Technique Horticultural rockwool can be used as a soilless growing medium. The rockwool hydroponic system depends upon using: Rockwool propagation blocks. Blocks are placed in seed trays or placed directly onto propagation benches lined with polyethylene sheeting. Plants are propagated in rockwool propagation blocks. which are then directly placed onto the rockwool growing slab when plants are at an advanced stage. The large slabs are only needed for crops with a very long life like tomatoes or cucumbers. Both of those crops could keep bearing for six to nine months. Looking at the underside of the propagation block the air gaps are readily observed. The rockwool referred to is a horticultural grade of rockwool capable of absorbing water and made to a specific density. Most plants may be grown to maturity in the wrapped cubes.
Once the rockwool has been moistened it has no irritating effects on skin. water them with nutrient solution. Growing On Tear away the rockwool propagation blocks with the struck cuttings or seedlings. Air gaps reduce rooting into adjacent blocks. roses and fuchsias. The vertically-arranged fibers in rockwool allow most softwood and semi-hardwood cuttings to be inserted directly into wet propagation blocks. Safety Note: If the grower suffers from skin allergies it is advisable to cover the arms and wear leather gloves while working with dry horticultural rockwool. Keep the rockwool moist. Mist propagation can be used. legumes. To improve drainage. Increased humidity can be achieved by using a small polyethylene tent which will aid the establishment of plants. stand blocks in seed trays or on a coarse aggregate. When roots are visible on the outside of the propagation block they are ready to transplant into the larger blocks. but not soggy. The propagation blocks fit neatly into the holes in the larger cubes. zucchini. Individual blocks can be removed easily. indoor plants. begonias.How are seeds sown in Rockwool? A hole is made in the propagating block into which a seed is sown. The blocks must be completely wet before the seeds are sown. DO NOT push the rockwool fibers together to cover the seed. but waterlogging and plant diseases can develop from frequent misting. Plants suitable for cuttings are carnations. if available. 12 . chrysanthemums. should be used. The propagation blocks are then directly placed into rockwool (75 mm or 100 mm) cubes. Bottom heating. Plants that can be direct-seeded into cubes are cucumber. Separation of blocks is easier when wet. Once the seeds have germinated. This can be achieved by submersing the blocks in nutrient solution. tomato and lettuce.
13 . Thoroughly soak the growing slabs with nutrient solution before the wrapped cubes are placed on the slabs. Irrigation must be sufficient to prevent the rockwool from dehydrating and to prevent the development of dry spots and areas of salt accumulation. Set the dripper in the top of the 75 mm cubes. to ensure at least a 10% drainage of fluid through the slab. A drainage channel will be required to remove any excess solution. Seasonal variation and the different needs of plants will influence how often the system is irrigated.Rockwool Slabs for crops that grow over 6 months Soak the rockwool-wrapped cubes (75 mm or 100 mm) with nutrient solution before inserting the propagation blocks. Extra solution should be pumped at each watering. along which the growing slabs are laid in rows. It is necessary to have appropriate timing mechanisms in order to irrigate for the required time. Then cut 3-4 tiny slits on each side of the growing slabs. so the slabs must be tilted slightly toward the drainage channel. Drippers are used to provide each plant with nutrient solution. Pump the nutrient solution from a large tank using a submersible pump. The roots should grow into the slab from the rockwool-wrapped cube in 3-7 days. Lay sheets of black polyethylene on the ground. The extra amount ensures that nutrient buildup doesnt happen too quickly. approximately 10 mm from the base to allow for the drainage of excess solution. The cubes must be watered daily with nutrient solution. When the plants in the rockwool cubes are at an advanced stage. Arrange the 750 mm x 300 mm x 100 mm rockwool growing slabs in beds approximately 300 mm apart. place the cubes on a well-drained surface. the cubes containing plants can be placed directly onto the rockwool growing slabs. Again. It is necessary to prepare the rockwool growing slabs prior to placing the cubes on the slabs.
just to give the cutting or seedling something to grab onto. patent protection has been applied for and is currently pending. We at Foothill developed the Superstarter Aeroponic System in 1997.S. 14 . Kids are amazed by the visible root structure. The pump forces water through a special nozzle that develops a flat circular spray of water. The roots grow past the rockwool and into the air and water spray. high-efficiency submersible pump. and have been refining it. but were very expensive to build and maintain. then in Arizona. the systems were effective. U. The plants are held by a netpot that in turn holds a small rockwool cube. The system uses a low-pressure.Rockwool Aeroponics The ultimate method is growing the roots in an enclosed space that is misted or sprayed with droplets of nutrient solution. First tried in Israel.
Hydromax Superstarter Aero System Seedlings or cuttings planted in our Superstarter aeroponic kit are usually ready to transplant after 3 or 4 weeks. Then they may be placed into larger rockwool cubes. 15 . or into containers of fired clay pebbles. We have grown cherry tomatoes and even lettuce to maturity in the Super Starter (spaced every other hole). although some plants may be ready in just two weeks.
16 . To construct a supporting frame various materials can be used. steel pipes or angle iron. Otherwise. Cut off the bottom of the soda bottle. Make certain power to the submersible pump has been turned OFF before the tank is emptied. including wood. manually top-off the nutrient solution with fresh water as needed. The growing tubes are made from 100150 mm PVC drainage pipes.Recycled Pump Feeding (PVC tube system) Designed to recycle the nutrient solution. the recycled pump feeding PVC tubes uses a submersible pump and therefore does not require as much attention as do some of the other systems mentioned. The plants roots grow out past the rockwool into the PVC tubing. Black ½-inch (12 mm) poly tubing is used for connection to the submersible pump. Caps are fitted to each end with a tee piece or elbow. Plants should be spaced 6 to 12 inches apart. aluminum. The growing media is then placed inside the netpot. A 50 mm (2) diameter hole saw can be used to cut out the PVC pipes so that plants can be inserted. A hose can be connected directly to the tank from a tap to maintain a constant level of nutrient solution in the reservoir. Another option is using a tee fitting with the open end facing upwards. depending on how large they will grow. and insert a 100 mm netpot into it. The whole system must be flushed out with water every 2-4 weeks. using a float valve. A small 50 mm netpot is used to hold a small piece of rockwool. as needed to assemble the system. The neck of a 2 liter soda bottle will fit right into it. Change the nutrient to a fresh nutrient solution every 7-14 days.
Drip feed technique with recycled pump feeding The roots grow right down into the PVC pipe! 17 .
although some type of support for plants may be necessary. is collected and returned to the top of the channel by means of a continuously running pump. or plant death.Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) The Nutrient Film Technique is based on the principle that a constantly flowing stream (film) of nutrient will supply the growing plant with its requirements. One example of an NFT system is made of strips of polyethylene laid out on a slope with the sides folded up to make a channel. These systems were easy to build. but hard to clean and even harder to sterilize. It is important to check nutrient levels regularly. to ensure correct drainage. Any period without irrigation of more than 30 minutes may result in water stress. In the l980s. it is necessary to have the solution running along channels. we built NFT systems using PVC tubing. Light must be prevented from reaching the roots of the plant as this will prevent growth. In order to have the roots in contact with the nutrient. 18 . This can be minimized by replacing the nutrient solution on a regular basis. Some growers use off-cycles of up to 30 minutes to let the channels drain out completely back to the reservoir. The bottom of the plastic should be placed upon a very flat surface. The nutrient solution runs along the channel and upon reaching the end. No growing medium is required for this particular system. preferably constructed from black polyethylene.
19 . Larger plants can be supported by pegging plastic sheeting to wire.Nutrient Film Technique Nutrient is pumped to the top. and gravity returns it to the reservoir.
but has a relatively low water retention capacity.Growing media Many types of media and combinations of media may be used to grow plants hydroponically. Avoid inhalation of the dust.5 mm to 2. Sand: Coarse washed river sand is a mixture of fine and coarse particles. It is sold as lava rock in many hardware stores. vermiculite is light and has a very high capacity for water retention. Scoria: Scoria is a relatively porous volcanic rock which is very good as a medium. Works well in warm climates. In hydroponics approximately 3 mm particle size should be used. screened crushed granite of approximate particle size of 2 mm should be used. Between 20-25 per cent by volume of peat moss may be added to improve moisture retention. Crushed granite: In hydroponics. 20 . The medium can be reused over a period of time. allowing drainage and good aeration. Builders sand may be used as long as it does not contain large quantities of fine broken shell which will increase the alkalinity of the medium. being heavy enough to support plants yet having good aeration. Generally a mixture of fine and coarse scoria is used. the type of system in use and the plants to be grown. The medium is inert and sterile and is used as a lightweight support medium. expands into lightweight particles. It does not have a high capacity for water retention and has no nutrient holding capacity. Perlite: Perlite is a volcanic rock. Sand in the 0. which when heated in excess of 1000 C. Because of its flaky structure. The medium is totally inert.5 mm range is most suitable. depending upon specific plant needs. Choice is largely dependent upon availability. Vermiculite: An expanded mica. vermiculite eventually breaks down and requires replacement every 2-4 years. The medium must be pre-wetted before use. Perlite can be used on its own or with vermiculite.
as it simulates the natural way they grow on trees. the United States and Europe the product is marketed under the brand name of Grodan Rockwool. Not recommended for recirculating systems due to leaching of organics into the water. In Canada. low in cost but not recommended for recirculating systems due to the leaching of large amounts of tannic acid into the water. The sawdust must be replaced each season. very light when dry. is not biodegradable and has a very high water and air holding capacity. Coconut Fiber Coir: Not used much in the United States. Fired Clay Pebbles: This is a high performance growing media. sterile. It is sold in Australia under the trade name of Growool. Canadian tomato growers used to use non-recirculating drip systems with coarse sawdust with good results. The clay pebbles are either formed from clay and fired. or milled form shale rock. The less porous hard shell prevents the media from degrading in the presence of water. and doesnt hold excess water. In either case the end result is a porous interior surrounded by a less porous hard shell. It is advisable not to mix sand. Rockwool: Horticultural rockwool consists of a mat of long. fine fibers.GROWING MEDIA (continued) Mixes: A 50/50 mix of perlite/vermiculite makes an ideal growing medium. and then fired. but due to the low cost it is used in tropical countries. as they will separate when wet due to differences in densities. Shredded Fir Bark (or coarse fir sawdust): Again. 21 . It is inorganic and inert. spun from molten natural rock. The capillary action is very high. Orchid growers use fir bark. scoria or crushed granite with Perlite or vermiculite. Three sizes are available.
Do not top off the tank with nutrient solution. a conductivity meter can be used. Every 1-4 weeks flush the whole system out with plain water. This instrument measures the electrical conductivity of freshly prepared nutrient solution. the nutrient solution will need replacing. it should be topped off to its original level with water. the supply tank is simply topped off with nutrient solution at any convenient time. deposition of nutrient salts in the growing medium occurs. the solution needs to be replaced or topped off with nutrients. otherwise you will have no idea of its strength. Non-Recirculating Systems: In systems where the nutrient solution is not recovered and reused. Try to keep wastage to a minimum by learning how much is required under various conditions and efficiently applying the correct amount. or automatically by the use of a float valve placed in the nutrient tank. Flushing: Over a long period of time. which may cause an imbalance in the nutrient supply. After a while. and in winter every four weeks.Care and maintenance of hydroponic systems Recirculating Systems: As the level in the supply tank falls in hydroponic systems which recirculate the nutrient solution. As a more accurate method of determining when to replace the nutrient solution. Moisture Content: The nutrient solution should be applied at a rate to fully wet the growing medium and cause some drainage. Do not keep the growing medium flooded with solution as this will force the exclusion of air and have detrimental effects. every two weeks in spring and autumn. so when the conductivity falls to two-thirds of the original reading. Make sure that the supply tank is big enough to hold sufficient nutrient solution to last a number of days. 22 . As a rough guide this should be done about every 1-2 weeks in summer. This can be achieved manually.
lettuce. Very little protection can be given to plants grown in the open. If grown inside a greenhouse. all of which are much more palatable when fresh and also yield well. density of planting. good air movement is essential and will assist growth and reduce the incidence of fungal diseases on the foliage. Low Temperatures: Complete protection from low temperatures can only be achieved with a heated and regulated greenhouse. capsicums. The plants may need some shelter such as shade cloth if grown outdoors. Herbs are another alternative. eggplant. and the cost of purchasing the crop locally. Care must be taken to provide optimal growth conditions for the plant variety chosen. The management of crops. and advance their growth slightly. which are easy to manage and will produce for at least three years. must be similar. Carnations. if galvanized iron is used. cucumbers. whether they be grown hydroponically or in soil. a number of factors need to be considered. zucchini and celery. Using a hydroponic system in no way increases your chances of success. if you fail to observe normal management procedures. roses. These factors can influence your choice greatly and restrict the variety of crops to a few. Covering plants with a plastic sheet can protect against light frosts. Containers: When building any hydroponic systems. the yielding capacity of the crop. shade cloth or the application of whitewash may be needed. These include: The availability of space. Cut flower production is worth trying as another experiment. In greenhouses. especially grown in individual containers which are easily portable. use inert materials like plastic or fiberglass. gladioli and chrysanthemums are suitable. Another popular crop would be strawberries. For example. zinc toxicity in plants will occur. Vegetables worth considering are tomatoes. CROPS When trying to decide the type of crop to grow in your hydroponic system. Some materials corrode and cause a nutrient imbalance.High Temperature: If the temperature becomes too hot in summer then some protection will be needed. 23 .
and sulfur. zinc. 24 . or phosphorous. Some are designed for general use (like Hoaglands solution). but changes also occur in the nutrient balance. but this is not surprising when the optimum nutrient ranges in Table 1 are studied. hydrogen. nitrogen is the first to become depleted and the appearance of nitrogen deficiency symptoms is a good indicator that the solution is exhausted. Manganese. potassium) and others relatively slowly (magnesium. Cobalt and sodium are also used by some plants. With repeated usage not only does the nutrient level fall in the solution. which includes nitrogen. iron. calcium). 16 elements are required for optimum plant growth: Oxygen. There are numerous nutrient solution formulations described in scientific papers on plant nutrition. boron. The rest must come from the solution. its composition is immediately changed by plant uptake. Some nutrients are rapidly taken up by the plant (nitrogen. and are used in micro amounts. and others for specific plants. which are all macro elements used in large quantity. all from the air. it begins to run short of some nutrients. They all differ in composition. Another problem encountered with old solutions is that some nutrients gradually become unavailable to the plant like iron. phosphorous. Plants have the ability to actively select nutrients according to their need. and in books and articles on hydroponics. copper. Generally. and carbon (from carbon dioxide). Iron deficiency causes the youngest tissue on the plant to become very yellow. magnesium. potassium. calcium. silicon and chlorine are all called trace elements. and this can be totally independent of the ratio between nutrients in the solution. The number of nutrient concentration combinations available are almost unlimited.Nutrient solution and the elements it contains Once a nutrient solution comes in contact with plant roots. If the solution is used for a long time without renewal. This may become apparent with the development of foliar symptoms.
Nitrogen plays an important role in hydroponics. Plants take some time to switch back and forth. High rates of growth have been reported at only a few PPM of the macro nutrients. In other words add more potassium. There is a high nutrient mode and a low nutrient mode. vegetable root crops grown in hydroponics have a much lower nitrogen requirement than leafy crops. Potassium levels are generally increased for flowering plants. It is common practice to increase the potassium/nitrogen ratio of the nutrient solution during winter months. As a general rule. Table 1 illustrates seasonal variation of the major nutrients. 25 . and less nitrogen during cool or cloudy weather Nutrient Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Magnesium Winter ppm 150 70 350 120 50 Spring/Autumn Summer ppm ppm 200 70 300 160 50 260 70 260 160 50 Table 1. This area is ripe for further research. seasonal variation in the concentration of major nutrients in the solutions. As an example. Plants have two methods of uptake. It is very important to know a crop-specific requirement for this nutrient.One advantage of a hydroponic system is the nutrient composition of the solution can be varied to cater to a plants seasonal and developmental needs. This reduces plant succulence and makes for hardier winter growth.
For ease of handling.22g zinc sulfate-ZnSO4*7H2O (d) 0. Iron is prepared separately by dissolving 5g of sodium ferric ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (iron EDTA) in 1 liter of distilled water. Make up four separate stock solutions of each major nutrient salt (these are molar concentrations). Weigh out. Only soluble salts are used.4H2O (d) 246g magnesium sulfate-MgSO4.024*4H2O 26 .7H2O Place the weighed-out amounts into separate containers and bring the volume of each up to one liter.08g copper sulfate-CuSO45SH2O (e) 0.02g manganese sulfate-MnSO4*4H2O (c) 0. Step 3. Step 1. and has been used for the various hydroponic systems described earlier. including the Nutrient Film Technique. and then dissolve in 1 liter of distilled water: (a) 0. Make up a stock solution of the other trace elements. This is achieved by weighing out: (a) 115g ammonium dihydrogen phosphateNH4H2PO4 (b) 101g potassium nitrate-KNO3 (c) 236g calcium nitrate-Ca(NO3)2.Preparation of the nutrient solution The method described below is used to prepare Hoaglands solution.02g ammonium molybdate(NH4)6Mo. Make up an iron stock solution.38g boric acid-H3BO3 (b) 1. Step 2. all trace elements are added together.
then the amount of stock solution is adjusted accordingly. 27 . We also have the book Plant Nutrients for Hydrorenics & How to Make Your Own Fully Formulated Plant Nutrient. to make up 100 liters of Hoaglands solution. put together by professional agricultural engineer Pat Sano (now retired). For example. For further study. If smaller or larger quantities of nutrient solution are required. Make up the nutrient solution. to 80 liters of water add: 100ml ammonium dihydrogen phosphate 600ml potassium nitrate 400ml calcium nitrate 200ml magnesium sulfate 150ml iron solution 100ml trace element solution Top off with tap water to make 100 liters.Step 4. Add so many ml of each stock solution to a given volume of water. we have a brochure called Observing Nutrient Deficiencies: A Science Project. by Jim McCaskill.
To be safe. Growth of plants on solutions made from these preparations is unpredictable. for some reason. growth will be slow. The Nutrient Solution In Use To maintain active growth. Therefore there is a need to vary irrigation frequency and rate according to plant usage. A word of warning: For many years soluble plant foods have been on the market designed primarily as foliar feeds. These should never be used for hydroponics because they make imbalanced nutrient solutions.Pre-mixed Plant Foods Pre-mixed hydroponic plant foods are now available at the local market. This latter situation can result in poor aeration and root death. use only those plant foods which are specifically formulated for hydroponic use. due to its huge water storage capacity. Rockwool is more forgiving than most other media. If. the plants fail to receive an adequate nutrient supply by failure to renew or supplement the nutrient solution. The result is an overall loss of potential production. 28 . These proportions are ideally suited for the hobbyist or those with small hydroponic gardens. it is imperative that the plants at all times have a good level of nutrition. gravel and vermiculite cultures) the nutrient solution must be applied at such a frequency that the medium never dries out or remains excessively wet or waterlogged for long periods. even after being modified by the addition of calcium and magnesium salts. In the growing medium (sand. These are dry mixtures of salts blended together in the correct proportions so as to provide a balanced nutrient solution when added to water at the recommended rate. Reduction in growth rate can often go unnoticed because in the early stages there may be no other symptoms.
Fresh water also helps prevent harmful fungi from growing on the plants roots. This practice prevents the possible build up of unused salts in the medium to toxic levels. the roots are always seeking a new growing area. All hydroponic units using a growing media need to be flushed out with water every so often (1-4 weeks). In soil. 29 .Changing the Solution A nutrient solution which is recycled through a hydroponic garden must be renewed on average every 4-14 days. and in extreme situations could induce a temporary salinity problem and adversely affect plant growth. if not replaced daily. water usage is extremely high and. so exudates do not build up. The changing of the old nutrient also removes root exudates that are naturally produced. Also. By the time the plants reach full maturity and maximum production potential. During hot weather. The life of a solution varies with the nutrient demand of the plants. the volume of the remaining solution may become inadequate to maintain the moisture level in the growing medium. the solution may need renewing every 4-7 days. This can be done manually or automatically with a ball float valve in the nutrient tank. In all hydroponic systems it is important that water loss from solutions by evaporation and/or plant transpiration is replaced daily. or should receive regular nutrient supplements. the nutrients become concentrated. A solution feeding a bed of seedlings may have a practical life of 3-4 weeks because of the small nutrient usage.
and above 7 is basic (alkaline).Nutrient Solution pH The term pH stands for potential hydrogen. The E. while less than 7 is acidic. is short for electrical conductivity. These meters enable changes in the total nutrient level of a solution to be routinely monitored. 30 . An upward pH drift in solutions is corrected back to 6. and is a logarithmic scale with a range of 0 to 14.5. Plants can tolerate a wider pH range in a nutrient solution than in soil. This problem with iron is overcome by using iron chelate instead of iron sulfate in the solution. some of the nutrients may precipitate out of the solution and become unavailable (like iron and calcium phosphates).C. Plants grown beyond either end of the range make poor growth and may have nutritional problems. Citric and acetic acids are also useful organic acids that lower the pH. plants should remain healthy and continue to grow. which provides a measure of the total amount of dissolved salts in the solution. and indicate when the solution needs to be replenished with nutrients or renewed. nitric or sulfuric acids. However.0 is neutral. Electrical conductivity is measured by a conductivity meter. It does not tell how much of each nutrient is present. provided that the pH lies between 5. A pH value of 7. C. The maximum range of pH values in nutrient solutions is from 5 to 8. These are now available.5. For this information. giving direct readings in microsiemens (uS/cm) or millisiemens (ms/cm).5 by the careful addition of either dilute phosphoric. or colorimetrically with either universal indicator papers or solutions. The major danger arising from this pH drift is that once pH exceeds 7.5 and 7. Most plants grow best at a pH range of 6-6. pH will rise with time as plants remove nutrients. The pH of a solution can be determined electrically with a pH meter.5. In most hydroponic solutions. chemical analysis is necessary and costly. of the Nutrient Solution E.
7 of the uS/cm conductivity value. It is good practice to have total solution renewal every so often. 1 gram per liter of potassium phosphate. dissolved in one liter of water. Hard tap water usually works very well. conductivity provides no information on the nutrient balance in the solution. or a total salt concentration less than 350 ppm. TDS meters TDS meters read conductivity out directly in parts per million (PPM). To compensate for the low ionization of some salts. say. one gram of sodium chloride. all water suitable to drink or used to irrigate greenhouses is ideal for hydroponics. otherwise false readings will occur. The accuracy is more than adequate for hydroponic use. the nutrient composition of the solution will gradually change in time. Therefore in systems in which a replenishing solution is added to the nutrient solution to maintain conductivity. Harmful amounts of sodium and boron can cause problems in some areas. water suitable for hydroponics should have a conductivity less than 500 uS/cm. as those nutrients not readily absorbed by the plants are accumulated. but after pH adjustment may bounce back to very high pH values. Very soft water should be used with calcium-containing nutrients. for example. In taking conductivity readings it is important to keep the nutrient solution topped off to its correct volume. (2000 uS/cm = 1400 PPM) Water quality As a general rule. Remember. 31 . nutrients are added to maintain a value between 2000-3000 uS/cm (2-3 ms/cm). when the conductivity falls below 2000 uS/cm (or 2 ms/cm). TDS meters are corrected to read 0. To be more precise.As a guide for the NFT systems. Because different fertilizer salts ionize at different strengths. and is simpler to relate to in actual usage. is more conductive than.
Remember. the NFT was heralded as a cost-cutting method in which expensive hydroponic beds were replaced by gullies made from plastic sheeting. 3.The Root Environment For a plant to thrive and achieve maximum production. An adequate supply of water. particularly if it is fully automated. A foremost motivating force is the search for cheaper materials and systems. oxygen and nutrients in. Initially. These conditions are relatively easy to achieve in hydroponics. Be completely free from harmful factors. The establishment of a microbial population in the medium to decompose dead root tissue and root secretions. Insulation of roots against adverse fluctuations in temperature. without oxygen at the roots no nutrients can be absorbed. site or crop. and removal of carbon dioxide from. It becomes a personal choice of what you consider to be the most appropriate and economical. A major objection to hydroponics is the initial high capital outlay to establish a system. it may be necessary in some systems to provide the plants with physical support. it must at all times have an optimum root environment. 2. 5. 32 . toxic chemicals. 4. Provision of anchorage so that roots can physically support the plant. A soilless system can be tailored to suit a particular need. For example. root pathogens. to both maintain and establish for your particular situation. cucumbers will need a trellis to support the weight of the vines and fruit. However. Soilless culture systems are extremely versatile and the only limit is ones imagination. etc. such as insect pests. The criteria which constitute a good root environment are as follows: 1. The temperature at the roots should not go below 68 degrees F (20 degrees C). the root environment.
The leaves may be glossy blue green of small size. the new leaves are very small with yellow between the veins. page 37. with yellow patches between the veins. Radish plants are described. volume 9. with white spots near the edges that turn brownish. with other plants being similar. Magnesium: Leaves look bronze. 33 . Growth is stunted and slow. then yellow. and roots with a torn patchy look on the surface. December. Potassium: Scorched brown leaf edges that curl upwards.Nutrient deficiency symptoms Nitrogen: The oldest leaves turn pale green. Older plants get dead spots on the leaves and stunted roots. Manganese: Very yellow between the leaf veins. Calcium deficiency may start to develop as a result of lack of Boron! Iron: Very pale leaves. Roots are stunted. Boron: Deformed roots. The veins stay dark. 1997. Calcium: New leaves cup backwards. Source: Growing Edge. #2. with new leaves yellow instead of green. Sulfur: Older leaves turn purple.
gravel culture for commercial crop production was developed. a German scientist. showed the value of the nutrient solution to study the nutritional requirements of plants. such as aeration and iron deficiency. Naturally. and with it the science of hydroponics. One question which must have been raised was how does soil sustain plant growth? The answer gradually emerged over a period of 250 years.A. He grew tomatoes in water culture which aroused much public interest. but enthusiasm waned as problems appeared. Historical highlights can be summarized as follows: 1699 Woodward in England found he could grow plants in water to which soil was added. 1938 Hoagland and Arnon of the University of California at Berkeley developed a nutrient solution which today is widely used in scientific fields and is known as Hoaglands solution. 1850s Liebig. he began to explore the mysteries of plant life.M an is an inquisitive being with an unquenchable thirst for knowledge and the meaning of life. thus freeing plants from the need of soil for growth.S. 1929 Professor Gericke of California developed the first commercial hydroponic unit. 1936 In the U. 1860s Sach and Knop of Germany prepared nutrient solutions from mineral salts.. 1870-1920s There was a gradual increase in knowledge regarding the nutrient requirements of plants. 34 .
where climatic extremes and shortage of land hindered the development of normal agricultural practice. Jersey Channel Islands. 1946-1970 Initially producing in excess of 40 tons of fresh vegetables hydroponically. 1990-onward Aeroponic and aquaculture systems lead the way in research. Japan (26 x 90 meter-long gravel beds). Gravel was the growing media. Many hydroponic farms developed in the southern states of the U. Expansion is continuing worldwide. developed at Purdue University by Robert and Alice Withrow. and the nutrient solution was made according to the Nutriculture specifications. Army constructed the worlds largest hydroponic farm on Chofu Island. the U. Cultivation by rockwool culture in the Netherlands has increased from about a half-hectare in 1975. to over 1300 hectares in 1983.S. source: Home Hydroponics & How To Do It. Research on hormones and auxins has resulted in the mass production of plants using tissue culture techniques.S. with genetically engineered plants now a reality. increasing rapidly in the 1980s.1939-1945 American forces on the remote and barren Ascension Island grew vegetable crops hydroponically. to between 20-25 hectares in 1978. There has been a sharp rise in world interest for the communal production of vegetables and flower crops. 35 . 1977.A. had six hectares under NFT. pheromones. in 1979. by Lem Jones. and fungal diseases for the bad insects. The system used was the Nutriculture system. Insect control is now done with predator insects. For example. 1970-1985 This period witnessed the development of the Nutrient Film Technique and rockwool culture.


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Baseball Ballerina Strikes Out (Baseball Ballerina)
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Here's the sequel to the best-selling Baseball Ballerina. This time, Baseball Ballerina's team has finally made it to the play-offs. But Baseball Ballerina can't even get to first base! With a little monkey business and a lot of laughs, her team is able to come out on top!
Published April 11th 2000 by Turtleback Books
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Ever see Twilight, wherein vampy-girl Alice Cullen does a graceful posture on the mound during baseball with her friends? Granted that's a cool combo of ballet and baseball, and I'm ure you guys had YOUR "bats" raised (hah hah, bad joke). Now finally there's a cute kids' book that combines the two in a way that honors both w/o the double entendres that go normally with ballet grace. A young girl finds flexibility playing baseball and ballet, fusing them into one and becoming the star player, but ...more
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Animated cleaning crew illustrates that cleaning up is rather easy
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Minute Media Closes On $15M Investment Round Curry Speaks Out On Plank's Trump Comments ESPN Still Hurting Disney Quarterly Results Under Armour's Kevin Plank Defends Company MLB Postseason Boosts 21st Century Fox' Q2 Callaway Golf Posts Solid Financials Are Curry Shoes Hurting Under Armour Sales? Under Armour Unveils U.S.-Made Apparel Line Under Armour Posts Tepid Forecast For '17 No Bidders For Bauer Hockey's Parent Co.
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YOUTH MOVEMENT: In Baltimore, Andrea Walker writes under the header, "Under Armour's Rookie Strategy For Endorsement Deals. Sports Apparel Company Goes After Up-And-Coming Athletes." Under Armour, which has "built itself from a basement startup to a billion-dollar enterprise, wasn't always able to afford the big endorsement deals of its more established competitors." The athletes the company turned to were "well-respected in their sports -- some of them rookies with the potential to become stars -- but not necessarily known to a broader audience." Under Armour Senior VP/Sports Marketing Matt Mirchin said, "We have positioned ourselves as a brand for the next generation of athletes." The company recently has signed a "variety of athletes," including Newton, Cowboys WR Miles Austin and Ravens WR Anquan Boldin. Under Armour also is "using a small group of up-and-coming players to help build its basketball line." The company also counts Bucks G Brandon Jennings, T'Wolves draftee Derrick Williams and Bobcats draftee Kemba Walker as endorsers (Baltimore SUN, 7/26).


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UN chief calls late Ambassador Churkin 'uniquely skilled diplomat'World February 21, 8:01
Vitaly Churkin's sense of humor will be remembered by his UN colleagues — Ban-Ki-moonWorld February 21, 7:59
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US envoy to UN pays tribute to Churkin's 'great skill' in advocating Russia's positionWorld February 20, 23:29
Energy minister says Russia outpaces its February schedule of oil production cutBusiness & Economy February 20, 23:02
Russian UN envoy Vitaly Churkin's death is big loss for Russia, premier saysRussian Politics & Diplomacy February 20, 22:52
Colleagues mourn Russia's ambassador to UN as 'diplomatic giant and wonderful character'World February 20, 21:58
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RUSAL, which is the world's largest aluminum producer, has earlier applied to the London and Jersey courts for the first time in Russia's corporate history for debt restructuring after failing to win unanimous support from its creditors.
The date of holding the creditors' meeting was not specified in the statement. The Royal Court of Jersey will hold a hearing on July 15 on RUSAL's request for the creditors' meeting convocation.
By now, RUSAL's request for debt restructuring has received support from 94% of the company's creditors and the aluminum giant is currently negotiating the deal with the remaining 6%. RUSAL still needs to agree on a $3.6 billion restructuring deal with banks.
RUSAL has aluminum assets in 13 countries. The company integrates 34 enterprises. The aluminum giant's core shareholders are En+ controlled by Deripaska (48.1% of shares) and ONEXIM Group of Russian billionaire Mikhail Prokhorov (17.02%).


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Red Sox notebook: Ryan Lavarnway looks to be odd-man out right now
|02.09.13 at 2:01 pm ET
FORT MYERS, Fla. ' Red Sox general manager said that, as of now, Jarrod Saltalamacchia and David Ross are being viewed as the major league catchers, leaving Ryan Lavarnway as the odd man out.
Lavarnway, who has an option, played in 46 games with the Red Sox last year after totaling 17 appearances in 2011.
'Well, right now, our expectation is Salty and Ross, their the two proven guys and we signed Ross for a reason and Salty has continued to build on each year and has added some things and gotten better and he's a power threat and capable of being one of the best catchers in the league,' Cherington said. 'We've seen that. We've seen other parts of season where he's struggled. He's still a young guy. We expect him to continue to develop and he might be even better this year than he was last year. We think Salty and Ross complement each other well. And we feel pretty good about where we are catching-wise.
'Ryan Lavarnway has come a long way. We think he's going to be a really good player for us. Sometimes the sort of clock doesn't start exactly w hen the player wants to. He's proven at the triple a level that he's capable of helping a major league team. That's going to happen. We just don't know exactly when.'
– Cherington said the team hasn't started extension talks with any players. It is expected, however, that the Red Sox will open conversations with Dustin Pedroia at some point this spring.
'I can't rule it out, but I can't rule it in, either,' the GM said regarding extensions. 'It's something that, I think in those cases, certainly the closer a player is to free agency, the more likely those conversations take place. For the team, there's obviously a benefit to having players on a good contract and having control left. So, there's a fair amount of incentive for the team to just let that play out. When you have players who have done a lot for the team and mean a lot to the team, I think you always have to have an open door to a conversation, but that doesn't mean that it goes anywhere. And there's nothing going on right now as I sit here today.'
The Red Sox general manager took the blame for a lack of depth in the starting rotation in 2012, explaining he feels more confident about the team's pitching positioning this time around.
Besides the projected rotation of Jon Lester, Clay Buchholz, John Lackey, Ryan Dempster and Felix Doubront, the Red Sox will also be stretching out Alfredo Aceves and Franklin Morales as starters in spring training.
'Yeah, I didn't do a good enough job last year in that area,' Cherington said. 'I don't think it's something that happens in one offseason. You can do some things in the offseason, but it really has to happen over time. Starting pitching depth can't just come from free agency or one area; it has to come from every avenue. We have to develop pitchers, we have to sign the right guys. We have to trade for the right guys. I feel better going into this spring training than we did last year as far as health.'
Daniel Nava and Mitch Maier both worked out at first base under the watchful eyes of coaches Gary DiSarcina, and Brian Butterfield. Ryan Sweeney, who arrived in town after driving from Iowa, said the team hasn't asked him to play first base but is having his first base glove shipped to camp just in case.
– Principal owner John Henry was in attendance and will speak with the media Monday. Henry did pass on two interesting items: 1. He is the father to a newborn son; 2. Ticket sales for spring training are up by seven percent over last year.
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Today's Devotional
New BeginningsHow has God equipped you to follow Him?
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Holy Dedication (HMong)
On February 14, 2009 after Ly Chai and Say have given themselves to each other by solemn vows, with the joining of hands, and the giving and receiving of rings, they were pronounced as husband and wife. Their pastor, Rev. Paul Joseph T. Khamdy Yang, blessed them with these words: O God, you have so consecrated the covenant of Christian marriage that in it is represented the covenant between Christ and his Church. Send therefore your blessing upon Chai and Say, that they may surely keep their marriage covenant, and so grow in love and godliness together that their home may be a haven of blessing and peace; through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.


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Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology,Bhopal Department of Computer Science & Engineering IEEE 802.11 WLAN Guided By: Mrs. NAMITA TIWARI Presented By: Manisha Bhadoria Manisha Bhadoria 082112111 082112111
Technology Tree for Wireless LAN HomeRFBluetooth
What is unique about wireless? Difficult media Difficult media interference and noise quality varies over space and time shared with Unwanted 802.11 devices microwave ovens, bluetooth, etc., shared with non-802 devices (unlicensed spectrum: microwave ovens, bluetooth, etc.,) Full connectivity cannot be assumed Hidden node problem Multiple international regulatory requirements
Uniqueness of Wireless (continued) Mobility variation in link reliability power management battery usage: requires power management want seamless connections Security no physical boundaries overlapping LANs
Wireless LANs: Characteristics Types Infrastructure based Ad-hoc Advantages Flexible deployment Minimal wiring difficulties More robust against disasters (earthquake etc) Historic buildings, conferences, trade shows,… Disadvantages Low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s) Proprietary solutions Need to follow wireless spectrum regulations
IEEE 802 Protocol Layers
Protocol Architecture Functions of media access control (MAC) layer: On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address and error detection fields On reception, disassemble frame and perform address recognition and error detection Govern access to the LAN transmission medium Functions of logical link control (LLC) Layer: Provide an interface to higher layers and perform flow and error control
Components/Architecture Station (STA) - Mobile node Access Point (AP) - Stations are connected to access points. Basic Service Set (BSS) - Stations and the AP with in the same radio coverage form a BSS. Extended Service Set (ESS) - Several BSSs connected through APs form an ESS.
infrastructure network ad-hoc network AP wired network AP: Access Point Source: Schiller
IEEE 802.11 Architecture (model) Distribution system (DS) – the network backbone Access point (AP) – a bridge or relay Basic service set (BSS) Stations competing for access to shared wireless medium Isolated or connected to backbone DS through AP The entity in which the stations are within range of each other although BSSs can easily overlap Extended service set (ESS) Two or more basic service sets interconnected by DS usually a wired LAN
802.11 Architecture Model DS ESS
Wireless LAN: Motivation Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks? Example CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a collision occurs (original method in IEEE 802.3)
Medium access problems in wireless networks signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver sender may not "hear" the collision, i.e., CD does not work CS might not work, e.g. if a terminal is "hidden"
Difference Between Wired and Wireless If both A and C sense the channel to be idle at the same time, they send at the same time. Collision can be detected at sender in Ethernet. Half-duplex radios in wireless cannot detect collision at sender. A B C A B C Ethernet LAN Wireless LAN
Fragmentation Wireless LANs have high bit error rates. The probability of erroneous frame is much higher for wireless links 802.11 uses fragmentation to reduce the frame error rate.
MAC management Synchronization - finding and staying with a WLAN - synchronization functions Power Management - sleeping without missing any messages - power management functions Roaming - functions for joining a network - changing access points - scanning for access points Management information base
Scanning Scanning is required for many functions - finding and joining a network - finding a new access point during roaming Passive scanning - find networks simply by listening for beacons Active scanning - on each channel send a probe and wait for probe response
802.11 Protocol Architecture MAC Entity basic access mechanism fragmentation/defragmentation encryption/decryption MAC Layer Management Entity synchronization power management roaming MAC MIB (management information base) Physical Layer Convergence Protocol (PLCP) PHY-specific, supports common PHY SAP provides Clear Channel Assessment signal (carrier sense)
802.11 Protocol Architecture (cont.) Physical Medium Dependent Sublayer (PMD) modulation and encoding PHY Layer Management 224us channel tuning (channel switching delay : 224us in 802.11b) PHY MIB Station Management interacts with both MAC Management and PHY Management
Commercial Products : WLAN Cards One piece Two pieces
Commercial Products : AP
Outdoor Application - Antenna
Outdoor Application
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) - Authentication Open system authentication Exchange of identities, no security benefits Shared Key authentication Shared (secret) Key assures authentication WEP (wired equivalent privacy) is easily broken since key is used to encrypt every transmission Immediate solution for WEP was to increase key length from 40, to 128, to 156 bits where 128 bits is the minimum used today.
IEEE 802.11a, 802.11b and 802.11g IEEE 802.11a 5-GHz band with data rates of 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbps Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) Subcarrier modulated using BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-QAM IEEE 802.11b Provides data rates of 5.5 and 11 Mbps at 2.4 GHz Complementary code keying (CCK) modulation scheme IEEE 802.11g 2.4 GHz, up to 54 Mbps, OFDM.11g and.11b can operate simultaneously but with an.11b user in the cell the wireless network will degrade the.11g performance (AP must do translation for.11b) but still much faster than.11b alone.
802.11a : 802.11a The 802.11a standard uses the same data link layer protocol and frame format as the original standard, but an OFDM based air interface (physical layer). It operates in the 5 GHz band with a maximum net data rate of 54 Mbit/s, plus error correction code, which yields realistic net achievable throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/s[citation needed]. Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used to the point of being crowded, using the relatively un- used 5 GHz band gives 802.11a a significant advantage. However, this high carrier frequency also brings a disadvantage: The effective overall range of 802.11a is less than that of 802.11b/g; 802.11a signals cannot penetrate as far as those for 802.11b because they are absorbed more readily by walls and other solid objects in their path due to their smaller wavelength.
802.11b : 802.11b 802.11b has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s and uses the same media access method defined in the original standard. 802.11b products appeared on the market in early 2000, since 802.11b is a direct extension of the modulation technique defined in the original standard. The dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared to the original standard) along with simultaneous substantial price reductions led to the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the definitive wireless LAN technology. 802.11b devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band. Devices operating in the 2.4 GHz range include: microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors and cordless telephones.
802.11-2007 : 802.11-2007 In 2003, task group TGma was authorized to "roll up" many of the amendments to the 1999 version of the 802.11 standard. REVma or 802.11ma, as it was called, created a single document that merged 8 amendments (802.11a,b,d,e,g,h,i,j) with the base standard. Upon approval on March 08, 2007, 802.11REVma was renamed to the current standard IEEE 802.11-2007.[4] This is the single most modern 802.11 document available that contains cumulative changes from multiple sub-letter task groups.
Useful Web Sites from Stallings IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Working Group: Contains working group documents plus discussion archives. IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Working Group Wi-Fi Alliance: An industry group promoting the interoperabiltiy of 802.11 wireless products with each other. Wi-Fi Alliance
References Brian P Crow, Indra Widjaja, J G Kim, Prescott T Sakai. IEEE 802.11 Wireless Local Area Networks. IEEE Communications Magazine www.breezecom.com Jochen H. Schiller, Mobile Communications
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SP21010 Retro Stand Mixer with 4.5L Capacity and S/Steel Bowl in Red
Home > Small Appliances > Food Processors, Mixers & Blenders >
Experience the low noise motor running at an impressive 1000w power, making the toughest of mixing jobs and breeze, allow yourself to indulge your inner sweet tooth and take the effort out of baking, whether it's mixing cake mixtures and icing, or whipping egg whites, creams or batters, the SP21010 can handle it all.
With a 4.5L capacity Stainless Steel bowl, you'll be able to mix everything you need to in one go without having to worry about leaving any mess.
8 Speed Settings allows you to have perfect close control over your mix, so you have an option for any kind of food product, even if your tastes go a bit more towards the savoury side, you can mash potatoes, knead dough or even make your own homemade dips, sauces and mayonnaise, all without breaking a sweat.
The noticeable retro design of the SP21010 will look good in any kitchen, so you can keep it out on display on your counter without having to worry about it looking a mess or in the way.
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Lego party decorations
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So many great ideas including these lego bricks made from canvases, empty ribbon spools, foam letters and paint!
Have yellow cups and black sharpies and have everyone do their own and write names on them
These would be easy to DIY. The hanging ones would be good to complement balloon banner
lego faces - just so it's easier to know what to draw on the lego party favors I pinned.
Lego Birthday Banner
Lego Photobooth, Lego Party, Lego Birthday Party, Lego Party Decor, Lego Brithday Photo Booth, Photo Booth Props Lego.
Love this wall. Colored paper and matching plates create a lego WOW look! WOW for VBS! Johns Creek UMC www.cokesburyvbs.com
cute candle holder idea ... PJ, I keep finding all these cute ideas for you.
Birthdays are a big deal for children, and we like to celebrate it appropriately. We make a big deal out of it. Our children get a party for family and close family friends (the 'family party'), and then they get to invite a few classmates for another party (the 'friends' party).
ONLY 14.99, 20 Tassel LEGO Tissue Paper Garland, Lego Party Decorations, Building Blocks, Birthday Party Decorations, Sesame Street Party


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Stupendously rare or unissued New Orleans R&B and blues in incomparable sound quality. Despite being based in Linden, New Jersey, DeLuxe recorded all across the USA in the company's formative period in an attempt to score hits. DeLuxe was the first indie to tap into what was going on in the Crescent City in the years immediately following WWII. The label's biggest find during that time was Roy Brown, the subject of two CDs in our "King & DeLuxe Acetates" series. In "Beef Ball Baby!" you can hear the surviving acetates of some of the other highly talented people DeLuxe recorded in New Orleans in the acetate era.
Charles Tatum, a down-on-his-luck reporter, takes a job with a small New Mexico newspaper.
Margaret Wyndham Chase wants to run for governor and approaches Eddie Ace, local political kingmaker/fringe gangster, to get his support. Ace's belief is that "beautiful women and politics do not mix" and he declines to help. She decides to play the game rough-and-tough without him, but he shows he is even rougher-and-tougher, and she gives up and withdraws from the race. But Ace has fallen in love with her at about the 45-minute mark and, with his new-found ardor for clean politics, he makes some (unclean) manipulations behind the scenes, and she is picked to run on an independent good-government ticket.
To be a Pet Detective, you have to understand both the criminals and animals. Ace Ventura goes even further..


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Bubble shooter games
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A story of cute spider who uses his web to save his friends and bugs in need! Join his journey and accompany him in the greatest bubble shooter game!
Download Bubble Shooter Game Free V 1.2.8: Here we provide Bubble Shooter Game Free V 1.2.8 for Android 4.0.3++ This is the most classic and addictive bubble shoot and bubble match-three game on Google Play. This free version is the only one that contains Puzzle Mode, Arcade Mode and Play vs CPU.With 350+ puzzle levels you will... #Apps #androidgame #LeopardV7 #Casual http://apkbot.com/apps/bubble-shooter-game-free-v-1-2-8.html
GemsMagic Bubble Shooter
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Xmas Ball Shooter is a Christmas themed bubble shooter game with 2 modes. The usual mode is presented with a good challenge where the board of bubbles comes down to danger line. You need to remove the bubbles so that the board can be saved from danger l
Bubble Shooter Valentine - http://zoopgames.com/bubble-shooter-valentine/ - Bubble Shooter game is widely played on the web. Here we are happy to present you a nicely done variant of the genre. You need to find a group of 2 or more same colored hearts and then you will shoot the heart relevant heart towards the group. Clear the board to win the game. - boys, Buuble, Classic, girls, kids, love, office, Pink, shooter, Time-pass, Valentine
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