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Say Goodbye to Law Schools: and Credentials More Generally
Law school applications have gone off a cliff. Just look at this statistic from today's NY Times.
As of this month, there were 30,000 applicants to law schools for the fall, a 20 percent decrease from the same time last year and a 38 percent decline from 2010, according to the Law School Admission Council. Of some 200 law schools nationwide, only 4 have seen increases in applications this year. In 2004 there were 100,000 applicants to law schools; this year there are likely to be 54,000.
This radical drop in law school applications is not because people are suddenly reading Shakespeare. The reason is clear. Lawyers aren't getting jobs. For law school grads in 2011, only 55% got full-time jobs working as lawyers. That means 45% did not get jobs they were trained to do. No wonder students and their parents aren't lining up to take out debt to get a legal education.
Just as journalism has been upended by the Internet revolution, so too law is changing. The changes are different. Lawyers are still needed and law firms will exist. But more of the work can be done more cheaply, off-location, and by fewer people. Quite simply, we need fewer lawyers. And those we do need, don't command the salaries they once did.
Finally, law school was for years the refuge of the uncommitted. For liberal arts grad unsure of what to do next, the answer was law school. But now with tuitions skyrocketing, debt ballooning, and job prospects dimming, law schools are out of favor.
What is more, these changes coming to law schools will be coming to other professional and graduate schools as well. All those Ph.D.s in hyper-specialized disciplines ranging from Italian studies to Political Theory are in for a really tragically rude awakening? There are no jobs. And those jobs are not coming back. For academics to keep bringing young scholars into Ph.D. programs now is really deeply wrong.
This retreat from law school is a good thing. My J.D. was hardly an educational experience worth three years of my time. Law schools are caught between being professional schools training practicing lawyers and the desire to be also to be something more. The result, they largely do neither well. They don't produce lawyers ready to practice. Nor do they produce deep legal minds. Little would be lost if law school were reduced to 2 years (or even less), which is why legal academics are pushing an experiment to offer two-year J.D.s.
Education does matter and will continue to distinguish people who pursue it and excel at it. Liberal arts majors who combine a love for the renaissance with an interest in dance will succeed, whether they create new works of art or found a business curating Italian wines, these students learn to pursue their dreams. Education will survive because it raises people from their daily lives to the life of the mind. Education, as opposed to factory schools and large lectures, fosters creativity and daring, leading people to invent lives for themselves in pursuit of their passions.
While education will survive, schools and universities that have become credentialing factories will be increasingly challenged. When what matters is measureable performance, credentials will become ever less important. Law schools—at least many of them that do not offer an elite status—are credentialing institutions. So too are many of the colleges and universities around the country, where students sit in large lectures for four years so that they can get a degree that stamps them employable. Such credentials are ever less valuable in an age of cheap Internet driven education. That is why these institutions are under pressure.


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One of the hardest decisions you may encounter as a pet owner is deciding when to put your dog or cat down. It's a sad and frustrating fact that our beloved pets have shorter life spans, but part of being a caring owner means understanding when your canine or feline companion is experiencing too much pain to make his or her life worth living. If you're struggling with this decision, here are some tips to help guide you.
What does the vet say?
Vets are always the best people to talk to about possibly putting your dog or cat down. They will be able to tell you how long your pet may have to live, what his or her quality of life may be like, and what other owners have done in similar circumstances. Vets can also give you an objective opinion, and offer advice on how to cope with pet loss after making this difficult and heartbreaking choice.
Is your pet's illness curable?
Many pet owners come to a decision about euthanasia after their pet has received a diagnosis. Some illnesses, like diabetes insipidus in dogs or obesity in dogs or cats are not fatal and with proper treatment, afflicted pets can still live full and happy lives. Other illnesses may contribute to a decline in quality of living, and thus may prompt you to put your dog or cat down. Some of the diseases or changes in health that may warrant such a choice include blindness, incurable cancer, pain associated with severe arthritis in dogs or kidney failure in cats or dogs.
Does your pet still enjoy life?
When you boil it down, the question you must ask yourself is if your dog or cat still truly enjoys life. You must do your best to separate yourself from this question, as it's likely you want your pet to remain a part of your life for as long as possible. You may want to ask your vet to go over veterinarian Dr. Alice Villalobos' quality-of-life scale, which aims to provide an objective outlook on an animal's end of life experience. It rates pain in dogs or cats, as well as animals' hunger, hydration, hygiene, happiness, mobility, and whether they are having "more good days than bad." Each is rated on a scale from one to 10, which may help put your pet's life quality in perspective.

subset: commoncrawl


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You got a good point. To Each His Own.
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Skip to comments.Now in Story Development: Petraeus Ran Rogue Operation in Libya.
Posted on 11/13/2012 12:42:12 PM PST by Kenny Bunk
As the thoroughly unbelievable saga spins its merry way across the MSM, IMHO the stage may be being set by the administration for a thoroughly implausible case for "plausible deniability" for Obama.
I predict that Petraeus will be accused of running a rogue CIA operation in Libya about which the President, as carefully explained by dementia patient Joe Biden, knew nothing.
Interesting clues: Broadwell's co-author on the bio is a WaPo reporter. Says "he had no clue..." What he probably does have is WH connections. The Tampa "socialite" Broadwell allegedly harrassed turns out to be absolutely dead broke and living in a foreclosed McMansion. Just who the hell is Broadwell, BTW?
The truth? The POTUS doubtless saw the Benghazi Massacre unfolding live in the situation room and went to bed instead of into action. An A-10 flight could have been on scene in under an hour from Sigonella AF Base in Sicily. An armed drone was already on the scene.
Petraeus' story would make u-no-hoo look very bad. He had to go. The admin had this year-old-affair in the bag and ready to go when needed.
Where did the Youtube Documentary Story come from?
Who ordered the resue team to "stand down?"
Is it possible that the guy who knew "nothing" was Petraeus?
No furking way Petraeus could have started that. He wasn't there long enough. But they certainly could try to pin it on him.
The question is can the White House order Petraeus not to testify on the grounds of national security? If yes, could he still be forced to testify in a closed session of the House Intelligence Committee? And if he does testify in this manner, will the true story just be buried by cowardly House Republicans?
Curiouser and curiouser. Stock up on popcorn (and other food items, and ammo).
People need to be very careful about any reporting on this story that comes from NY TIMES, AP, CBS, ABC, CNN or anyone in Chicago.
There are no reliable journalists to investigate and report the facts. Only propaganda apparatus. Maybe Fox News. But they have BOR and Dick Morris and karl Rove on their channel.
we are screwed.
I think this is possible.
The MSM tried to hush all mention of Benghazi prior to the election. Now we're getting wall-to-wall coverage of the affair. Very curious.
Do you have a link or is this just a personal prediction?
The answer is no to that. If it is deemed a security risk they can do it behind closed doors, although I doubt the GOP led house would allow that.
Here is the deal. Gaddafi had WMDs we didn't know about and after the war started, we lost track of them. Now we have Libyan Al Qaeda fighting in Syria.
There is also a theory out there that we were sending chem weapons from Libya to Turkey to be used against the extreme elements in the Syrian rebellion in order to blame Assad for the attack to justify Western intervention.
I predict a blockbuster movie in the making. Sex, spies, intrigue, double agents, double crosses, blackmail, sex crazed, power crazed generals, war, terrorism, death, blood, guts, gore, treason, power crazed presidents, impeachment, rebellion, villains, heroes. It's all there.
Go higher in the chain. Try Clapper in the White House.
"Bush did it..!" —> "Petraeus did it...!"
Change? Sure..! Just change ONE WORD..!
A steamy tale of sex and adultery that leads to someone named Clapper....now THAT'S funny!
LOL I think you hit on something there, Jim!
That would get me in a movie theater.
I believe that Petreus was going to talk about what he found going on when he was given the CIA post... and some others may be trying to come to his defense, and they're being systematically destroyed.
Fact One:
1) Only the POTUS can authorize a CBA (cross border authority) command for a rescue mission in a foreign nation.
Plus Fact Two:
2) No rescue mission was attempted.
Equals Fact Three:
3) 0bama turned his back on 41 State Dept. and CIA employees refusing to issue a CBA command and went to bed so he could go to Las Vegas the next day.
"People need to be very careful about any reporting on this story that comes from NY TIMES, AP, CBS, ABC, CNN or anyone in Chicago.
There are no reliable journalists to investigate and report the facts. Only propaganda apparatus."
Yes. Nothing can be believed.
They conflate and completely make things up like the youtube video story.
Please see posts #s 13 and 14.
I think this is going to unravel quickly. If Petraeus is the man he appears to be, we'll hear the truth. Gun running to the Syrian Rebels or whatever? It will come out.
The main question I want to know is:
Did Obama fail to send aid to Benghazi when the raid developed and our men asked for help? And if so, why? The man in the WH is a coward. There is no way he will send brave men and women into battle if there is a risk of failure. Keep in mind that he didn't even order the killing of the Pirates and had his people on the way to stop the confrontation.
All talk of the clap aside, Clapper is the one who told Petraeus he should resign. You know, there has never been a CIA director who had an affair or even multiple affairs. /s
I'll settle for just the impeachment part.
You can't make this stuff up... and make it sound so real.
this is all a smokescreen designed to make Patreaus's testimony on Libya appear biased, IMO.
Implausibly plausible.
First the Chicago goons will destroy the General's credibility with the juicy sex tales then no matter what he says, the black mafia will simply pull a Saul Alinsky and deflect any facts as just the words of a discredited man.
There is no question about that. See post #17.
nobama is the CIC - Corrupt Incompetent Coward!!!!!
I thought it was the Kelley woman who was broke, not Broadwell.
But where's the ka-BOOM? There was supposed to be a big, giant ka-BOOM.
I haven't seen a tale of sex, greed and murder this thrilling since Who Framed Roger Rabbit.
The only question now is who's going to get their cheapie version of the movie out first, the National Geographic channel or the porn industry?
Then Broadwell and Kelly are our "Fawn Hall's"...
Scandal ping
We have to wait for the ending.
Yes...that's the bottom line.
More than a movie...a whole franchise.
hell that's nothing, the Russian bloggers have Petraeus running a failed coup attempt against Obama
What if some of those WMDs could be traced to Saddam's Iraq?
That would mean Pres. Bush was right after all.
The LEFT would do anything to prevent that.
"If Petraeus is the man he appears to be, well hear the truth."
Here's the only problem with that. But for Clapper, Petraeus might well have tried to gut it out. He thought his affair could be kept secret. Note that he didn't bring it to light and resign because of a pang of conscience. He did so merely because he knew it was going to be publicized anyway, so the path of least resistance was to preemptively resign rather than be forced to resign through circumstances. Thus, he's far less honorable than he might appear.
Of course! Now that Obama is firmly ensconced in his second term, there's no reason that he'd be playing "rope-a dope" as some leftists claim. He can tell the truth, freely, which he WON'T because it will expose what a lying sack of shit he really is. If the truth would have shown him as some kind of great leader, they would have used it in campaign ads.
Each and every one of these roads and "diversions" lead right to Obama himself.
Well, there have been a few pieces of this puzzle fall into place. The Kelley woman was just the local head of the Wounded Warrior project, not some unpaid State Dept social liaison. The FBI agent was a personal friend of Kelley's with whom she had been exchanging emails and the emails that she was complaining about were in no way threatening, just critical of Kelley's behavior and conduct on the base.
We also know that the FBI agent was illegally using his position to investigate the emails and was told to drop the investigation by the cyber crimes unit, who themselves took over the illegal investigation when they saw some interesting names pop up.
We know that Petraeus said that no one at the CIA had issued the order to Woods to stand down and we know that Petraeus had just returned from a fact finding trip to Benghazi, Libya and other countries in the Middle East in preparation for his testimony before Congress, when he was asked to tender his resignation.
Oh, and we know that Kelley really was a floozy and was involved with the General who took over from Petraeus in Afghanistan. It is very possible that the critical emails from Broadwell were an accurate criticism of the woman's behavior and totally justified.
The chemical WMD are to go not only to Syria, but to the states surrounding states to Israel. And to Iran.
And Stevens was not the primary target. The first thing the attackers did was setup road blocks as the Turkish Diplomats were leaving. You normally do not start with roadblocks, since that would tip your hand. My guess is the Turkish Diplomats were one of the primary targets and that is why the roadblocks were setup first.
So yes, it was an attack to remove the covert weapons supply line. Including the Turkish aspect. IMHO.
Urkel could play Obama. Or mayabe Hugo Chavez as Obama.
Snoop Dog for Holder.
Bill Maher can play Axelrod, Monica Lewinsky can play Hilliary. Naw, Joy Baher or Rosanna.
Bridgett Gabriel for either Huma or Jarrett. The irony would be hilarious!
WC Fields as Bill Clinton.
Harry Reid played by The Angel of Death.
What was the outcome of the Turkish diplomats? Haven't heard....
It would make a heck of a soap opera/spy thriller.
The Republicans, the ambassador and the General would be the bad guys and the Obama guy and his clown car of commies and jihadists would be the heros.
Not been reported. So it is either classified or the Turks are not talking. There was some astonishment that the Turks did not see the roadblocks since they should have. That caused a conspiracy theory about the Turks setting up Stevens. But we do not know what happened to the Turks.
Maybe, I think he was told to back the WH line which we all now know is BS or else. He probably agonized, on what to do, and in fact sounds like he may have given false testimony in the closed door hearing.
If he comes forth and tells the truth about OBAMA and his mininons all sins are forgiven.
One thing for sure... Obama will fail the next test and the next one. Our enemies are biting at the bit right now to test us. You think he'll go to the aid of Taiwan....hell no...Do you think he'll put the screws now to Iran...nope...Iraq is deteriorating by the day...
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B.W. Cooper's Tea Sweet Tea Concentrate - 10+1
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After a 40 year apprenticeship in the field, the title of "Tea Master" is often used to describe this modern-day master B.W. Cooper. Premium tea leaves are brewed and concentrated to make his own signature blend of iced tea. This tea is for the sweet tea customer made from real brewed tea leaves, with no artificial colors or flavor. Simply mix with water and experience a burst of delicious, refreshing, brewed tea flavor.
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Columbia Women's Coolhead Ball Cap III
Product Information:
When you keep your head cool with the Columbia® Coolhead Ball Cap III, your temperature starts to drop. Featuring an Omni-Freeze ZERO™ sweatband and Omni-Freeze™ in the fabric, it's guaranteed to cool you down in intense conditions. A simple hook and loop back adjustments easily provides the perfect fit, while built-in sunscreen shields you from harmful rays. Don't head outdoors without the Coolhead III performance cap.
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Country of Origin: VietnamWeb ID: 17414806
Customer Reviews:
Rated 4.8 out of 5 by 8 reviewers.
Rated 5 out of 5 by KK Love these hats! I have three of these hats and I absolutely love them! Lightweight, breathable, and they help your sweat actually cool you. Great to wear when in hot, or humid, conditions. Also washes up well in the sink with dish detergent - hang to dry September 27, 2016
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Rated 5 out of 5 by kellsenberg Love it Bought this hat for a hiking trip. Kept the sun out of my face and my head pretty cool. The fabric is very thin, but seems to be durable. I usually wear a large in hats and this one fit no problem and I had it on the smallest setting. September 25, 2015
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Share Your Reflection

Not only does he start with words from "Lift Every Voice
Not only does he start with words from "Lift Every Voice and Sing," i hear the ending (before the amens) is a riff on Big Bill Broonzy's "Black, Brown, and White."
"They says if you was white, should be all right
If you was brown, stick around
But as you's black, m-mm brother, git back, git back, git back"

Reverend Lowry's prayer reminds us, in its human
Reverend Lowry's prayer reminds us, in its human understanding, that persons of color have born
our pain for centuries....and that out of that suffering has come a wisdom and acceptance
and a sometime- triumph that strengthens our souls. That is, if we allow ourselves to know and
embrace that experience.

 He brought up history old and new with language and
He brought up history old and new with language and texts (lyrics), which was in perfect rhythm with the inauguration speech. How many people do this think responded to his call? Doesn't that in itself embody what the inauguration was about? We as a nation needed this to be fresh. It was brilliantly so.

Three days later, I am still touched, deeply, by The
Three days later, I am still touched, deeply, by The Reverend Lowery's benediction. May his words resonate in me and in all of us, three months, three years, three decades from that day. His is another voice which is calling all of us to get back on the path.

Wonderful, real benediction. The crowd in my living room
Wonderful, real benediction. The crowd in my living room was shouting Amen right along with everyone else.
And what a incredible contrast to the dismal invocation that preceeded it. Thank God for Dr. Lowry...and God forgive Dr. Warren.

I was embarrassed and dismayed by Dr. Warren's invocation
I was embarrassed and dismayed by Dr. Warren's invocation. Absolutely dismayed.
An invocation is supposed to be a public prayer that invokes God's presence. It is supposed to pull the hearts and minds of those present together so that they can experience God's presence. Dr. Warren's words didn't even come close to accomplishing that.
Dr. Warren's words were nothing more or less than a sermon which was disguised as a prayer. His words were exclusive and excluding. His tone was condescending. As a Christian, and as a Christian clergy, I was embarrassed and even angered by his words.
This is the main reason I was unhappy with the tranistion team choosing him to give the invocation. I was afraid that he would do exactly what he did. I hoped he wouldn't... but I was unhappily correct in my fears.
Thank God, again, for Dr. Lowry. Left us with a true "good word."

Our beloved, Reverend Lowery ( many younger people who
Our beloved, Reverend Lowery ( many younger people who made smart remarks.)..do not know him. But, he did lift our hearts and voices and ...as it often happens...he cleaned up after the Rev. Warren spoke...and now we have to help our new President Obama...clean up!

Great! Wonderfully full of love, and humor, and touching
Great! Wonderfully full of love, and humor, and touching on the reality of our time. In contrast his prayer and his rhythmic delivery made Rick Warren sound like a rookie preacher.

I appreciated the poetry and imagery of his words except
I appreciated the poetry and imagery of his words except for his closing paragraph jn which he prays for a day when 'white will embrace what is right'. Considering the fact that these words were spoken at the benediction of an African American President made them superfluous.


text:
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text: Is Tie Guan Yin supposed to be floral or non-floral in flavor, or does it depend? I really don't like the floral kinds that I've had and really liked the non-floral. Is there a different name for the two different kinds or a mislabeling that I should be aware off?


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text:
""Corporate executives should be your core business . . . You need [account executives who are] comfortable with the kind of boardroom leaders that see Learjet as a tool, not a frivolous extravagance for movie stars and their pets." "
Do Pilots Make Better CEOs?
CEOs who are also pilots may be more successful leaders. That's the conclusion of a study by Matthew Cain, assistant professor of finance at Notre Dame, and Stephen McKeon, assistant professor of finance at the University of Oregon. According to their research, the urge to fly an airplane results from an inherited tendency towards risky behavior–a tendency that appears to produce more aggressive performance and success in the corporate world. Firms led by CEO pilots typically have more debt and greater stock volatility and engage in more mergers and acquisitions.
On the other hand, having a CEO who flies his or her own airplane is considered to be a little too risky by some corporate boards. This concern often leads to some sort of compromise, such as insisting that the chief executive always fly with a copilot or purchase "key person" insurance, which would compensate the firm for financial losses should its leader die while in office.
The still-unpublished "Cleared for Takeoff? CEO Personal Risk-Taking and Corporate Policies" is based on 18 years' worth of information about 3,110 CEO pilots.
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Neuroimaging techniques, such as positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging are essential tools for the analysis of organized neural systems in working and resting states, both in physiological and pathological conditions. They provide evidence of coupled metabolic and cerebral local blood flow changes that strictly depend upon cellular activity. In 1890, Charles Smart Roy and Charles Scott Sherrington suggested a link between brain circulation and metabolism. In the same year William James, in his introduction of the concept of brain blood flow variations during mental activities, briefly reported the studies of the Italian physiologist Angelo Mosso, a multifaceted researcher interested in the human circulatory system. James focused on Mosso's recordings of brain pulsations in patients with skull breaches, and in the process only briefly referred to another invention of Mosso's, the 'human circulation balance', which could non-invasively measure the redistribution of blood during emotional and intellectual activity. However, the details and precise workings of this instrument and the experiments Mosso performed with it have remained largely unknown. Having found Mosso's original manuscripts in the archives, we remind the scientific community of his experiments with the 'human circulation balance' and of his establishment of the conceptual basis of non-invasive functional neuroimaging techniques. Mosso unearthed and investigated several critical variables that are still relevant in modern neuroimaging such as the 'signal-to-noise ratio', the appropriate choice of the experimental paradigm and the need for the simultaneous recording of differing physiological parameters.
Functional brain imaging techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), are now central to evaluating organized neural systems in task-driven and resting states, in both healthy and pathological conditions. Behind the scenes of modern neuroimaging is 'the quest for an understanding of the functional organization of the (…) human brain, using techniques to assess changes in brain circulation', a search that 'has occupied mankind for more than a century' (Raichle, 1998). We currently know that the actual physiological relationship between brain function and blood flow changes was first investigated in 1890 by Charles Smart Roy and Charles Scott Sherrington. Despite their promising studies, interest in this topic ceased until the end of the 1920s because of the lack of appropriate scientific devices and the great influence of Leonard Hill, Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons in England, who stated that no relationship existed between cerebral function and cerebral circulation (Hill, 1896; Raichle, 2009), a statement that remained unchallenged until a clinical report by John Farquhar Fulton (Fulton, 1928). However, previous reference to changes in brain blood flow during mental activities can be found on page 97 of the first volume of Principles of Psychology (James, 1890). While introducing the concept of changes in brain blood flow during mental activities, James specifically mentions the investigations of Angelo Mosso (1846–1910), 'the foremost Italian physiologist of his time and his generation' (Anonymous, 1946; Sandrone et al., 2012) (Fig. 1). In the late 1870s, i.e. 10 years before Roy and Sherrington's research, Mosso moulded his previous observations into the hypothesis that an attentional or cognitive task can locally increase cerebral blood flow. To test this idea experimentally, Mosso conceived the plethysmograph, a device that could measure cerebral blood flow variations by recording brain pulsations in patients with skull defects (Mosso, 1881; Cabeza and Kingstone, 2001). This invention established the so-called 'Mosso method', which was a valuable approach to measuring blood flow variations and quantifying the magnitude of the organ volume changes by converting brain pulsation into plethysmographic waves (Zago et al., 2009). Using this method, Mosso was able to measure the changes in cerebral blood volume that occurred subsequently to cognitive tasks, such as performing mathematical calculations in patients suffering from a wide frontal skull breach (Mosso, 1881; Berntson and Cacioppo, 2009; Zago et al., 2009). These observations led Mosso to conclude that alterations in blood flow to the brain were determined by functional changes (Raichle, 2009). The demonstration of a local increase in blood flow during mental activities in patients with skull defects encouraged William James to enthusiastically affirm that this was 'the best proof of the immediate afflux of blood to the brain during mental activity' (James, 1890). Although extremely interesting, 'Mosso method' was only applicable to patients with skull breaches, and could not be used to assess brain flow variations in healthy subjects. To overcome this limitation, Mosso developed the 'human circulation balance' (Mosso, 1882), cited by James as a 'delicately balanced table which could tip downwards either at the head or the foot if the weight of either end were increased' (James, 1890). Notably, the crucial importance of the 'human circulation balance' was not entirely appreciated by James, who indeed refers mostly to the plethysmograph rather than to the balance when reporting Mosso's experiments, a bias that probably results from the fact that Mosso's works on the balance were written almost entirely in Italian. This language barrier may also explain why subsequent mention of the exact operating procedures of the balance were only rarely quoted (Lowe, 1936, but see also the citing of the balance by George Oliver during the 1896 Croonian Lecture), and Mosso's experiments with the balance have never, to the best of our knowledge, been previously reported in detail. Our current rediscovery of Mosso's work is the first to be based on his original writings (Mosso, 1882, 1884; Fig. 2 and Appendix 1) and indirect reports (Mosso, 1935) in the Archives of Turin, in Italy. Moreover, we put the 'human circulation balance' under the spotlight through the lens of contemporary neuroscience and discuss in detail its operating mechanism, the studies it performed, the experimental procedures and confounding variables, as well as the limitations and issues, that Mosso had to contend with.
How the balance works
The 'human circulation balance' invented by Mosso consisted of a wooden table lying on a fulcrum (Fig. 3). Subjects were first asked to lie down on the balance and not to move. Subsequently, after an initial adaptation phase needed for the blood to redistribute equally within the bodily tissues, the subject was steadily repositioned so as to overlap the barycentre with the central pivot of the fulcrum. This overlap was partially achieved by careful regulation of balance weights but also, as Mosso showed, by adjustments to the level of water inside a glass bottle positioned on one side of the table (Mosso, 1884). Once equilibrium was reached, the only observable movement was that induced by breathing during inspiration. Because this might cause a transitory increase in blood flow towards the lower extremities, the wooden table was linked to a heavy counterweight to dampen respiratory fluctuations. Mosso carefully detailed the procedure in order to allow anyone to build such an apparatus by themselves (Mosso, 1884; Fig. 4). Interestingly, Mosso paid particular attention to building a machine that ensured the experimental subject would be comfortable; one instance of this attention was the padding Mosso placed on the table that he used for recording sessions (Mosso, 1884). The subject's body was set in equilibrium as described above, with its respiration movements causing only slight, regular oscillation in the wooden horizontal table of the balance (Appendix 1).
Experimental variables and limitations of the balance
Several confounding variables needed to be reconciled for blood flow analysis to be valid, and Mosso was certainly aware of them. Indeed, he was determined to render the experimental conditions as 'close to normal' as possible (Mosso, 1884; Fig. 6 shows Mosso's laboratory in Turin). In particular, he struggled to identify equilibrium between the ecology of the set-up and the need to record the differing parameters required to understand the effect of each variable (Fig. 5A–D). Mosso accounted for head motion and other voluntary movements by setting reference points on the wooden table and using said points to identify the original position of the subject (Mosso, 1884). Physiological breathing-induced movements and those of the balance itself were recorded with a pneumatic pneumograph, an instrument that was invented by Jules Marey (1865) and modified by Mosso. A belt encircled with a flexible membrane on a metal drum was used to evaluate thorax movements, as breathing in and out caused variations in drum volume. These variations were then simultaneously registered on paper with a kymograph, an instrument invented by Carl Ludwig (1852). The kymograph consists of a drum that is covered by a paper sheet and rotated by a clockwork mechanism at different speeds so that an ink pen or a fine stick could draw a line depicting the variation in time of this physiological parameter. Furthermore, Mosso also considered the concurrent changes in the volume of feet and hands to be a major variable during the recordings: these changes were co-registered with a hydraulic plethysmograph (Mosso, 1884; Figs 4, 6 and 7). Overall, despite Mosso's keen awareness of the number of artefacts that might arise from this procedure, together with his extensive efforts to quantify possible confounding variables, it is not clear whether the 'Mosso method' could realistically and sensibly discriminate between the signal (real brain blood flow changes) and the noise that, as Mosso himself stated, 'must be distinguished from other, psychically-induced types of blood movement' (Mosso, 1884) (Appendix 1).
The balance at work: Mosso's experiments
In 1884, Mosso reported the first results of the experiments performed on two healthy subjects, V.G, a 22-year-old medical student, and Giorgio M., Mosso's laboratory technician. Mosso wrote that, to avoid artefacts, 'the participant initially spent at least one hour supine on the balance', and was sometimes overtly asked, during this so-called 'resting period', to relax (Mosso, 1884). With his balance, Mosso was able to measure blood flow variations in several organs, and in particular the pulmonary changes occurring during respiratory movement (Appendix 1). Mosso used the balance not only to measure blood flow alterations as caused by respiratory movements, but also, towards the end of his career, to study the blood flow effects of emotional tasks. After the 'resting' period, Mosso presented the subjects with varying types of experimental conditions and measured any tilt in the balance towards the head-side. In his last experimental set-up (Appendix 1), Mosso's first stimulus was the sound of his hand hitting 'the knob of an electric key, just like those used to transmit telegrams' (Mosso, 1884), whereupon he observed that the balance tilted towards the head-side. In subsequent experiments (reported by Mosso's daughter in 1935), Mosso continued to investigate the effect of cognitive tasks on blood flow alterations with 'escalating' experimental paradigms that ranged from a 'resting' state to an 'active' cognitive state (Mosso, 1935). After the resting period, Mosso sequentially exposed the subjects to a wide range of stimuli of increasing cognitive complexity, such as a page from a newspaper, from a novel, from a manual of mathematics or philosophy, or a page written in abstruse language (Mosso, 1935). He reported that the increasing complexity of the stimulus modulated cerebral blood activity: the balance tilted faster towards the head side when the subject was reading a page written in abstruse language or belonging to a manual than it did when the subject was reading a newspaper or a novel (Mosso, 1935). Mosso stated that the increase in cerebral blood flow was thus proportional to the complexity of the cognitive task (Mosso, 1935), and he further measured the cerebral response to emotional stimuli, both in isolation and in interaction with cognition. In two other experiments, when Mosso's brother read a letter written by his spouse and when the student read a letter from an upset creditor, 'the balance fell all at once' (Mosso, 1935). To his surprise, Mosso noticed that subjects did not react equally to the same stimulus, and that this variability might have been due to differences in 'age…and education' (Mosso, 1935).
Temporal dynamics of cerebral activity
Mosso was always quite elusive in his interpretation of the exact temporal dynamics between the experimental stimuli and the modification of blood circulation. In a book published in 1883, he wrote that he had measured this temporal relationship exactly but would deliberately not provide further details as '…this is not the place to give numbers' (Mosso, 1883); his manner here is reminiscent of the famous demonstration omitted by Pierre de Fermat, on account of space constraints, and reported as a note scribbled in the margin of his copy of the ancient Greek text Arithmetica (Singh, 2012). Subsequently, in one of the last sentences of the work he published in 1884, Mosso noted that further details about the temporal dynamics of this relationship would be the object of 'a future Memoria [proceedings]' by Dr (Giulio) Fano, one of his assistants on that topic (Mosso, 1884). However, a search for this Memoria in the Archives of the Accademia dei Lincei revealed no publications written by Fano concerning the 'human circulation balance'. Moreover, it is rather surprising that during an important lecture, when the audience included the Italian Royal Family, Fano never quoted the balance (Fano, 1910). Although the truth about these writings remains to be ascertained, we speculate that Mosso probably did not have access to the data obtained by Fano, or perhaps that Fano's reports were not considered original enough to be published by the Accademia dei Lincei. Mosso was probably not aware of the psychophysical investigations on reaction times undertaken by Franciscus Cornelis Donders (1868, 1969; but see also Luce, 1986), but his interest in temporal dynamics might have influenced his decision to bring Federico Kiesow to Turin; Kiesow had worked in the Wundt laboratory in Leipzig and was trained in the use of reacting time methods (Appendix 1).
Discussion and outlines
Angelo Mosso's initial claim was that local brain blood flow is intimately related to brain function (Raichle, 1998), and current researchers can recognize that the 'human circulation balance' can be considered as the conceptual basis of today's non-invasive functional neuroimaging techniques (Sandrone and Bacigaluppi, 2012). To our knowledge, the present paper is the first attempt to retrace Mosso's investigations with the balance, and specifically to discuss the operating mechanism in detail, as well as the studies performed, the experimental procedures and confounding variables, limitations and related crucial issues. Mosso wrote that the 'human circulation balance' allowed him to observe the same 'psychic fact' as that observable with the plethysmograph (Mosso, 1884). Nonetheless, we have no direct evidence that the balance was really able, as stated, to measure changes in cerebral blood flow during acts of cognition. Moreover, although it is still in existence, and despite its proven ability to measure blood volume changes in various organs (e.g. lungs, feet and hands), Mosso's original balance (Fig. 8) can no longer be used for experimental purposes. Accordingly, we cannot prove directly that it was actually capable of measuring alterations of cerebral blood flow during emotional and cognitive tasks.
However, the balance certainly fired popular imagination, and on 1 December 1908, a French newspaper reported that numerous people 'were passionate about the experiments of Professor Angelo Mosso' and enthusiastically believed that this device 'would soon fully explain the physiology of the human brain' and lead to new treatments for neurological and mental illnesses.
Interestingly, Mosso was able to build his balance because of a unique combination of abilities and skills that ranged from his knowledge of medicine and physiology to the carpentering skills he learned from his father (Sandrone et al., 2012); later, collaboration with his mechanical assistant, Corino, additionally taught him how to build a machine piece by piece (Mosso, 1935; Foà, 1957). Mosso's daughter remembers that when she was a child, her father used to nickname his balance as the 'metal cradle', the 'bed-balance', the 'machine to weigh the soul', or, more generally, 'one of my sisters', a conventional term he used for all his inventions, and who was always looking for 'a little window to look inside the human brain' (Mosso, 1935). In 1936, the scientist M.F. Lowe built a copy and a modified version of Mosso's balance in the Psychological Department at King's College London in order to repeat Mosso's experiments (Fig. 9). Unfortunately, due to some differences in the technique and in the experimental paradigms used, the two series of experiments are not strictly comparable (Lowe, 1936). Moreover, the exact relationship between increases in cerebral blood flow and cognitive activity still labours from knowledge gaps (Fox, 2012), such as the extent to which layer-specific neural processes are reflected in the functional MRI signal (Bandettini, 2012a; Goense et al., 2012). While cerebral blood flow during cognitive tasks, as detected by functional MRI, is believed to exceed that of the resting state by 20–30% (Mildner et al., 2005), there is still no ultimate evidence that increases in blood flow are linked to a detectable increase in brain weight, nor are there any conclusive results concerning the relationship between global and regional blood flow variations and cerebral blood volume (Krieger et al., 2012). It is intriguing, and greatly to Mosso's credit, that work he published more than a century ago already contains many of the major themes and difficulties that characterize today's functional neuroimaging techniques (Bandettini, 2012b; Gazzaniga, 2009; Kandel et al., 2012). In this respect, the first point to note is that Mosso did not shy away from recognizing and discussing the low signal-to-noise ratio of his indirect study of brain function (Appendix 1), which is perhaps one of the most central issues in modern functional neuroimaging (Turner et al., 1998; Logothetis, 2008). In anticipation of what is frequently practised today, Mosso's balance included tools that detected and measured both head motion and breathing-induced oscillation, two of the most prominent sources of noise in functional MRI time-series. Mosso's use of a balance in conjunction with several other instruments (pneumograph, kymograph and hydraulic plethysmograph, Fig. 5A–D), is also a good example of the current perception that a multimodal approach is required to increase the precision and resolution in the recording of physiological variables or to simultaneously record and stimulate the brain (Landini, 2009; Peruzzotti-Jametti et al., 2013; Peters et al., 2013). These tools for measuring head motion and breathing-induced oscillations very much anticipate the current rhetoric of 'physiological artefact removal', and resemble the current use of respiratory, electrocardiographical and other physiological measurements as a basis for confounding regressors in functional MRI (Lund et al., 2006; Iacovella et al., 2011; Birn, 2012). Mosso's prescience also comprehended the (still very current) tension between the need for substantial recording apparata, with which to derive ever more precise measurements, and an ecological set-up (Maguire, 2012). Mosso also considered the importance of psychological and demographic variables, and stressed both the importance of patient comfort in reducing unwanted artefacts (Russel et al., 1986; Byars et al., 2002), and the impact of variables such as age and education on experimental observations, variables that are often included today as covariates in data analysis. One of the most remarkably modern aspects of Mosso's work, however, relates to his choice of experimental designs (Mosso, 1935), which featured a comparison baseline or 'resting' period in an apparent block design (Petersen and Dubis, 2011; Sandrone, 2012) and in a parametric manipulation (Braver et al., 1997) to assess the cerebral response to increasingly complex acts of cognition (Dolan, 2008; Price, 2012). Interestingly, all the conditions were matched in their basic verbal nature and reading requirement, while differing in complexity. The increasing complexity of the stimulus in modulating cerebral activity recalls both the early approach to experimental design in the seminal PET word processing studies (Petersen et al., 1988, 1990; Posner et al., 1988), and the inception of cognitive subtraction in brain mapping, which is conceptually based on Donders' 19th century work on reaction time and thus extended from the temporal to the spatial domain (Donders, 1868, 1969; Posner, 1978; Luce, 1986). Finally, it is also noteworthy that Mosso's experimental team consisted of a medical student from his own institution and his own laboratory technician: the implicit, underlying sampling bias problem, is still very widely discussed in both psychological (Henrich et al., 2010) and brain research (Seixas and Basto, 2009; Chiao and Cheon, 2010). Mosso's balance inspired popular imagination to voice, through the writings of contemporary journalists, high enthusiasm for the invention that promised ultimately to 'fully explain the physiology of human brain' and to 'be used to treat neurological and mental illness': once again, these are sentiments and words that resonate in contemporary neuroimaging. In conclusion, paraphrasing the Nobel Laureate Jean Baptiste Perrin, weighing what was still invisible, Angelo Mosso started to increase our understanding of the visible (Perrin, 1926/1965). As the modern tools and techniques of functional neuroimaging continue to chart the road towards a greater understanding of the human brain, our rediscovery of Angelo Mosso's work allows us to firmly anchor the beginnings of several features of today's neuroscientific work in the 'human circulation balance'.
The authors wish to thank Ada Baccari, Laura Forgione, Rita Zanatta, Marco Guardo and Alessandro Romanello for their help in providing texts and authorizations from the Accademia dei Lincei; Brain's anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful and constructive comments, which helped us to improve the manuscript; William Cooke for text editing and Bruno Borgiani for image editing.
Appendix 1
English translation of Mosso's speech to the Accademia dei Lincei entitled 'Applicazione della bilancia allo studio della circolazione sanguigna dell'uomo'. Atti della R Acad Lincei, Mem Cl Sci Fis Mat Nat 1884; XIX: 531-543
Application of the balance to the study of blood circulation in men
Memoria of the member Angelo Mosso delivered in the presence of the President, Academic Year 1883–84
Instrumental Part
The desire to simplify the tools that are used for studying blood circulation in men gave me the idea of placing an individual on the yoke of a balance, as shown in Figure 1 [Fig. 3 for Brain readers]. A wooden plank D, C can be made to oscillate about its centre when placed upon a steel fulcrum E, in the shape of a triangle, which rests one of its corners on a platform likewise made of steel. This section, which represents the yoke of a balance, is supported by a table A, B within which there are three openings: one in the middle and two at its extremities. A metre-long iron rod G, H, which has a large cylindrical cast iron weight at its lower end, is inserted into the openings; two additional rods, which meet at an angle, M, H, L, maintain the central rod in its position. The weight I moves along the rod thanks to a screw thread; a manual twisting motion enables the weight to move up and down the thread and thus to make the balance more or less sensitive. When a man is placed supine on the plank C, D, it is as if this were filled with water; or rather the man can be compared to a long bowl filled with liquid, which displaces at each movement of the plane upon which it is resting. It is enough to tilt the balance towards the head or towards the feet, by a few millimetres, or a centimetre at most, for blood to accumulate at one end in sufficient quantity to incline the balance to one side, which in turn requires a weight on the opposite side to return the balance to the horizontal position. This is one of the simplest and most conclusive experiments to demonstrate the great ease with which blood vessels dilate at the smallest change in pressure. If the balance is made so sensitive that, when it is empty, 100 grams placed at one extremity is sufficient to induce a tilt of approximately one centimetre, and a man is subsequently placed on the table C, D, with the balance reaching equilibrium, it will be seen that the balance does not move, regardless of the side towards which it tilts. This equilibrium is due to the accumulation of blood towards the head or the feet, even for depressions of less than a centimetre. To avoid this occurrence in the experiments that I will describe later, the weight I had to be placed lower; thus, by moving in the opposite direction to that of the blood, and given the length of the rod G H, the weight would act as a counterweight and brought the balance to equilibrium. To prevent the balance's oscillations from being too large, I placed two pieces of wood or elastic rubber upon the table A, B, acting as stops, these latter reduced the oscillations to a centimetre or less. To ensure that it was truly the shifting of blood towards the feet or the head that made the balance tilt, I concurrently recorded the volume changes in organs under similar circumstances. To obtain the recordings of the pedal pulse, I employed a sphygmograph that I had been using for several years [Footnote 1: It was with this apparatus that Dr Fano conducted some experiments in my lab on reflexive reactions in blood vessels, the results of which I reported to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1881]. It is an extremely simple instrument, which I had used in my application of the same methodology to the hand and foot, and it gave me very satisfactory results in the study of brain circulation. The methodology consists of transmitting the organ's volume changes to an ordinary tympanum and lever device; for the foot I made a half-boot of gutta-percha, which I closed with glassworker putty, as shown in Figure 2 [Fig. 4A for Brain readers]. Anyone can build this half-boot without difficulty or assistance. We wrap a piece of paper around the foot of the subject we want to study, and thus create a tailored half-boot paper cornet; using this cornet as a model, we then cut a sheet of gutta-percha, soften it in hot water and apply it to the foot, which has previously been well lubricated with oil or grease. The gutta-percha sheet is then joined at the sides and at the tip before being left to harden in cold water. These half-boots have to fit comfortably, so that the skin is not compressed and a small pocket of air remains between the foot and the boot; a cork opener can be used to make a small opening at the extremity of the boot, where a glass tube is inserted. This is the simplest and most practical sphygmograph to study the pedal pulse. To seal the half-boot, I usually use glassworker's putty. Thinner forms of this putty are preferable as they can be preserved in water and, when hardening is excessive, re-mixed by the addition of some oil drops until the putty becomes soft and sticky again. After the half-boot has been fitted to the foot, the putty is used to shape a border around the boot, the skin having been lightly greased to ensure better adherence with the putty. To study the pulse of the hand I often employ a gutta-percha glove, or simply a glass bottle from which I have cut the bottom, as shown in Figure 3 [Fig. 4B for Brain readers]. Here again, I employ the glassworker's putty for sealing purposes. This figure shows the drawing of the tympanum and lever I use to record the pulse in the more delicate experiments; the apparatus is much smaller than Marey's, although an ordinary tympanum may work just as well. In the experiments reported in this Memoria and in those that follow, since I was unable to use my water plethysmograph, I had to build a different plethysmograph, which works simply by air movements, and is much easier to handle. The device is shown in Figure 4 [Fig. 4C for Brain readers]. The outflow air from the half-boot, or the glass cylinder within which the hand or forearm is enclosed, enters from the bottom of a vase through tube F, and ascends vertically to a point above the level N M. An extremely thin metal bell A is kept in equilibrium on pulley C by counterweight B, in which the inserted pen writes on the cylinder. Although this feature is not entirely necessary, the pulley's hinges C turn upon two small wheels, so as to render the apparatus more sensitive. Vase D should be filled with petroleum essence, ether, or a liquid with little density, up to level N M. As can be seen in the figure, this apparatus is akin to a small gasometer; for this reason I named it a gasometric plethysmograph. Making the bell float by keeping it in equilibrium in a liquid, so that the volume of the gasses accumulated under it can be measured, is a task that presents several difficulties [Footnote: Note. For a plethysmograph to be useful as a measuring instrument it must abide by two conditions: firstly, it must accurately transcribe the volume changes of the organ whose circulation is under investigation; secondly, the surface pressure of the organ must remain constant. Several physiologists who perform plethysmographic research have built devices that differ from the liquid-movement plethysmograph proposed. I have never written a critique of these instruments because they lack the required conditions for an exact recording and for constant pressure, and they accordingly achieve much lower accuracy than that of my plethysmograph]. Everybody knows how this issue was solved with a spiral pulley in Hutchinson's spirometer. Nonetheless, I did not choose this compensatory method because it is not practical and also because the use of an asymmetric pulley introduces errors that are difficult to correct for. I preferred a partial compensation, and accordingly resorted to the use of extremely thin silver bells that move when immersed in a light liquid, thus producing negligible amounts of pressure. The bells are 20 cm tall and have a 30 cubic centimetre (cc) capacity. At their bottom end, there are two hooks to which the two silk threads that go to the pulley and hold the counterbalance are attached. The control experiments performed with this plethysmograph demonstrated that the additional pressure required lifting the entire cylinder above level N M, or the negative pressure resulting from entire immersion of the cylinder produced a maximum error of approximately 1 mm of water. This apparatus is so sensitive that when the rubber tube is filled with ether vapours, a minimal lifting of the tube is sufficient to let the vapours pass under the bell and lift it.
Influence of respiration-related movements on blood circulation
If the gravity centre of the balance is shifted to very low, so as to confer the necessary sensitivity that prevents the balance from inclining too easily, when an individual is placed on and in equilibrium, the balance will continuously oscillate, as dictated by the respiratory rhythm. During inspiration, the balance tilts towards the feet. This movement, however, is not exactly synchronous with the respiratory movements, but rather is slightly delayed as a result of the inertia of the balance itself and of further factors that we will discuss later. Figure 6 [Fig. 5D for Brain readers] depicts the traces of an experiment in which I recorded respiratory movements with Marey'spneumograph and a pen that had been attached to the extremity R of the balance, as shown in Figure 1 [Fig. 3 for Brain readers], to trace line B. From the trace it is clear that the movement of the balance B matches the respiratory rhythm R with a short delay. PP indicates the correspondence of the two pens. Because it would be legitimate to ask whether these oscillations depend on the movement of the intestinal masses induced by diaphragmatic contraction, I fixed a support, like the back of a high chair, to the balance, so that the subject would be in a sitting position and the diaphragmatic motions would take place vertically on the fulcrum of the balance; nonetheless, as seen in Figure 6 [Fig. 5D for Brain readers], the respiratory oscillations are still evident. Line B is very different from the line in Figure 5 [Fig. 5A for Brain readers], because, in this case, the balance tilts and hits an elastic rubber cork, thus producing a greater number of oscillations. All things considered, it is easy to recognize that this increase derives from a real redistribution of blood to the extremities at each inspiration, when the feet swell and the hands diminish in volume. Figure 7 [Fig. 5B for Brain readers] simultaneously records the respiration with Marey's pneumograph placed around the thorax (line R), the foot pulse with the air sphygmometer (line P), and the hand pulse with the same method (line M). The oscillations of the balance, recorded on the foot-side, are shown in line B. What emerges from these traces is an antagonistic relationship between the respiration-induced volume changes in the hand and the feet. I would like to first point out to the reader that with the balance it is possible to recognize and record spontaneous movements of the blood vessels that I had already studied in humans with a plethysmograph and named undulations. For as yet unknown reasons, constrictions and dilations of blood vessels at the extremities produce, in humans, a movement of the blood that makes the balance incline to one side or the other. Figure 7 [Fig. 5B for Brain readers] depicts one of these undulations. The left-hand side of the previous section of this tracing (not shown here) recorded a dilation of the blood vessels of the foot, the reasons for which elude me completely. The volume of the extremities noticeably increased throughout six respiratory movements, and the balance inclined downward and stabilized in this position. This state persisted for three respiratory movements, which were marked by a progressive contraction of the foot's blood vessels, as shown by the downwards trend of line P. Line B shows that, after the decrease in foot volume, the balance resumed its oscillatory motion. These undulations, which are produced during sleep and restful wake for internal causes, are unknown to us and must be distinguished from other, psychically-induced types of blood movement, which we will discuss later in this Memoria. A close examination of the traces of the hand and foot shows that they have an antagonistic relationship. Indeed, in point A, towards the end of the inspiration, I found that the volume of the hand diminished, whereas that of the foot increased. In my previous work on brain blood circulation, the numerous experiments assessed the influence of respiratory movements on blood pressure; diversely from the physiologists who preceded me, I stressed the importance of the volume change at the extremities, and specifically that said changes derived from to thoracic inspiration and abdominal pressure [Footnote: A. Mosso. Cerebral blood circulation in man. Memorie of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei, 1880, Vol. V, p. 237]. Without wishing to review this controversial issue yet again, my observations argue that abdominal pressure, which increases during inspiration, impedes blood as it returns towards the heart, thereby producing an engorgement of venous blood in the legs. In other words, we see in the lower part of the body what typically happens when an obstacle hinders a river's flow: a slow surge takes place on the spring side of the river. To analyse the speed at which this venous blood backflow occurs, and to distinguish it from a greater arterial blood afflux, I simultaneously recorded the time at which the veins of the foot and the veins between the knee and the hip engorged. To this end, I built a gutta-percha boot made of two matching parts that were hermetically sealed with putty so that an air drum could measure the pulse and volume changes along the whole leg. On the other leg I attached the half-boot described above to the front of the foot. Figure 8 [Fig. 5C for Brain readers] demonstrates that the volume of the whole leg does indeed increase faster than that of the foot during inspiration; in the foot, the engorgement appears with a lag of approximately 2 seconds. I find it difficult to conceive any explanation of this result other than as a venous engorgement; from now on, in order to assess the influence of respiration on venous circulation when studying volume changes in the brain, hands and feet, it will be necessary to take into account the lag linked to this venous blood reflux. When respiration-related volume changes in the brain and foot appear to match, it is important to consider that the inspiration-induced volume increase in the foot might take place so late that it can occur simultaneously with the volume increase seen in the brain during the subsequent inspiration; conversely, the cerebral volume decrease during inspiration can occur simultaneously with the inspiration-related volume decrease in the foot. I will discuss these results in a future Memoria on the topic of cerebral blood circulation in man. The complete opposition that exists between the venous circulation superior and inferior to the diaphragm is even clearer when the respiratory movements are exaggerated. In Fig 1 of table I [not shown], I recorded the respiratory motion of the thorax, line T, the abdomen, line A, and the pule at the foot P, and at the hand M; as soon as inspiration begins it can be seen that the volume of the foot increases, while that of the hand decreases. The antagonism between these two changes remains throughout the inspiratory effort; as soon as expiration starts, the leg veins can unclog and the veins of the hand swell and regain their volume. If one tries to take a deep breath with the diaphragm alone, and the thorax motionless, the volume increase in the legs is much greater, while the volume decrease in the hand is barely visible. Conversely, if the thorax is greatly dilated and the diaphragm is not fully contracted, the inspiratory stagnation in the inferior extremities' veins can disappear because of the absence of venous pressure in the abdominal cavity. When a person lies on the balance, it takes quite some time before the foot's vessels unclog and the blood which had accumulated, because of gravity, in the inferior extremities uniformly distributes to all organs. To avoid any discomfort to the experimental participants when they had to remain still for a long time, I padded the case D C [Fig. 3], and made markings on the borders of the case in order to notice any involuntary movement of the hands. If the weights placed in R allow equilibrium to be achieved soon after a person assumes a supine position, the legs become rapidly lighter; to keep the balance horizontal it is necessary to continuously add weights. To measure the quantity of blood that flows from the foot towards the middle of the body I place a glass by the feet and fill it, from a 1/10 cc calibrated burette, with as much water as is needed (minute by minute) to keep the balance in equilibrium. The amount of blood that flows away from the inferior extremities when someone moves from a vertical to a horizontal position is greater than is commonly believed. The eye is unable to detect these changes even though, for the two feet together, the changes invariably exceed 100 cc. When the ambient temperature is high, the changes are much greater. Once, when a subject kept both feet in hot water for 10 minutes before participating in the experiment, the difference reached 260 cc after half an hour. I will cover this phenomenon in a future Memoria, in which I will relate my research on the tonicity of blood vessels in humans; however, I would like to point out that the balance here described allows certain features of human blood circulation to be studied much more easily than does the plethysmograph; for instance, the effects of warm and cold temperature and humidity on blood vessels. When the plethysmograph is sealed, it is impossible to ensure that blood vessels do not get compressed. Although I have yet to deal with the issue experimentally, I believe that use of the balance might enable the diagnosis of serum draining in the abdominal cavity, a diagnosis that cannot be determined by any other means.
Determining the amount of blood that accumulates in the lungs during respiratory motions
In my first work on this topic [Footnote: Sulla circolazione del sangue nel cervello dell'uomo. R. Accademia dei Lincei Vol. V 1880, Chapter X, XI; and Uber den Kreislauf des Butes in menschlichen Gehirn. Leipzig 1881] I built a device which measured the amount of blood that accumulated in the lungs at each respiratory motion. Despite the fact that those recordings were performed outside the thoracic cavity and by the means of artificial circulation, the experimental set-up was so close to normal conditions that I felt it left little doubt concerning the amount of blood that accumulates over a certain period of time in the lungs during deep inspiration. Using the balance I confirmed in humans the results I had obtained with artificial circulation in explanted organs. Indeed, I observed that if one makes a deep inspiration when the balance is in equilibrium it tilts first towards the feet and then, as soon as the inspiration finishes, it inclines towards the head, where it momentarily rests. For an approximate measure of the amount of blood that is accumulated in the thorax, I thought it would suffice to place a subject in equilibrium on the balance, have him repeatedly take deep breaths and then determine the weight that had to be removed from the thoracic area to re-establish equilibrium. Because said removal of weights presented practical difficulties, I devised a system whereby a half-litre pitcher with an opening at the bottom was positioned by the thorax; a drain in the form of a rubber tube extended from the bottom of the pitcher, and bent at 90 degrees to the balance's fulcrum, point E. Having filled the pitcher with water, and with the subject in equilibrium, I would ask him to perform one or two inspirations. I would then open the tube's faucet so as to drain off sufficient water for the balance not to remain tilted at the head end. This approach circumvented the problem of having to touch the balance to re-establish equilibrium and thus of generating undulations. The drained water was then collected in a cylinder and graded in cc, allowing the approximate measurement of how much liquid had moved towards the lungs. As of the very first experiments, I noticed that when people made a series of deep inspirations a few minutes after laying down on the balance, this latter seldom reverts to equilibrium, even after a lengthy period of time. The reason for this has to do with something that resembles inertia, an imperfect elasticity, which I would describe as a state of blood vessel mellowness. The fact is that when vessels are filled (and hence dilate) excessively, irrespectively of the cause they never revert completely to the same state. When one is in a vertical position, the leg's blood vessels dilate and engorge slowly because of gravity; if one then lies supine, the vessels do not unclog completely; the presence of a residual amount of blood would lead one to believe that the blood vessels have remained inert. Indeed, when there is a diminution in the blood vessels' content on account of neural or mechanical causes, these vessels do not retain their initial volume because of their elastic properties: the dilatation force exercised by the heart and blood pressure is diminished. We thus have to assume that the same is true of the lungs in a living animal. To avoid potential errors potentially deriving from the un-clogging of blood vessels in the leg, when I performed experiments on respiration, I ensured that the participant initially spent at least one hour supine on the balance. I will now report on a set of experiments I performed on the 15th of February.
1st experiment
Giorgio M., a worker in my own laboratory, is a burly 25 year-old man, 1.62 m tall, 61.5 kg in weight, and has a pulmonary capacity of 3500 cc. At 2:15 he lay on the balance and took a nap. After an hour the legs appeared to be entirely un-clogged, since the balance was mostly in equilibrium and oscillating regularly in keeping with the respiratory rhythm. At 3:25 he took two deep breaths. Immediately the balance inclined towards the head. I then opened the jug's faucet to bring the balance back to equilibrium, and 130 cc was drained. The balance spent just a few seconds in a horizontal position and then, in keeping with the respiratory rhythm, exhibited a tendency to tip towards the feet. I thus had to add water to the jug on the side of the lungs. At 3:32 the balance resumed oscillating. However, 100 cc of water was still missing. I thus performed a double-check: I poured 100 cc of water into the jug by the thorax to return to the previous conditions, and then opened the faucet and noticed that once 105 cc had been drained, the balance resumed its oscillations. At 3:38 I asked for a series of deep breaths. I had to immediately remove 105 cc of water for the balance to tip towards the feet. However, after 1 minute the lungs were so un-clogged from the blood that had accumulated that I had to add water to the jug to keep the balance in equilibrium. At 3:40 I added another 65 cc to re-establish the previous oscillation. Five minutes later, 175 cc of blood was seen to have accumulated on the side of the head, since the same amount of water was missing from the jar by the thorax. Giorgio was resting. At 3:48 I asked him to perform a forced expiration, where upon the balance inclined towards the legs. I had to add water to the jug by the thorax. Two minutes later the balance was again in equilibrium: 125 cc was missing from the jug. I am confident that the subject did not move, so the 125 cc of blood likely accumulated in the lungs.
2nd experiment
The subject was V.G., a 22 year-old medical student, 1.80 m tall, 73 kg in weight and with a pulmonary capacity of 4000 cc: on the 11th of February I placed him in equilibrium on the balance; when it oscillated regularly in keeping with respiration, to assess the sensibility of the scale, I placed a weight of 20 g by the knees and observed the scale tilt towards the feet. At 4:10 I manually kept the balance still at the foot end, and I had Mr G. perform five deep inspirations. Once these were performed I released the balance, which tilted immediately towards the head. I then had to remove 360 cc of water from the jug so that the balance oscillated towards the feet; successively, as the lungs became un-engorged, I had to add water to keep the balance horizontal. At 4:14 there was still 220 cc remaining on the side of the lungs. The balance had a continuous tendency to tilt towards the feet, so I accordingly added water on the side of the lungs. At 4:23, without anything changing or any other external cause, the balance tilted towards the head; I was thus forced to drain more water to re-establish equilibrium. A total of 420 cc was drained before the balance returned to equilibrium. Prompted by this unusual phenomenon, I asked Mr G. how he was feeling; he answered that after the apnea he had experienced some vertigo, and that now, without knowing why, he felt that the blood was coming back to his head. I have observed this phenomenon in several other subjects. There is an accumulation of blood on the side of the lungs because of the apnea. Subsequently, the blood has a tendency to return to the previous state of equilibrium and returns to the peripheral parts of the body, following which there is a second movement of blood towards the core of the body, for reasons that I cannot explain.
The movement of human blood vessels as studied with the balance
All of the phenomena concerning blood circulation that I observed in humans with the plethysmograph are equally observable with the balance. Indeed, they appear even more clearly because the apparatus is simpler and thus the expression of the phenomenon is more sensitive. I report a trace to demonstrate the method I developed in these observations. Generally, I recorded several traces simultaenously: respiration, the pulse of the hand and foot, and the movements of the balance. On 21st April 1882, I ask my lab worker Giorgio M. to drink a little bit of wine at lunch, because I wanted to perform an experiment on his pulse. At 2 we began: he lay on the balance, while I attached the gutta-percha half-boot to the right foot and the gutta-percha glove to the right hand. The left arm was resting with the elbow on the edge of the table, and the forearm was on the chest, so that the hand remained at the level of the sternum. The left arm was lifted and rested on a pillow behind the head so as to gently wrap around the occipital. I fitted Marey's pneumograph around the chest. I took great care that the plastic tubes that ran to the drums were all of the same length and did not impede the movements of the balance. The pulse was just as strong in the hand as it was in the foot. Giorgio napped lightly. Every time I talked to him, I noted a strong contraction of the blood vessels in the hand and foot, and the balance inclined towards the head. At the beginning, the extremities' blood vessels were highly irregular, and exhibited pletysmographic undulations that were so strong that the curves of the hand and the foot's pulse would sometimes not correspond and appear entirely independent. Whenever Giorgio fell asleep, the balance tended to tilt and rest towards the foot end. Any external noise produced a contraction of the extremities' blood vessels and a consequent inclination of the balance towards the head. This phenomenon is very clear in the recordings in Figure 2, Table I [not shown], where a noise modified the respiration and the circulation, but did not wake Giorgio up. At 3, the balance was oscillating regularly in keeping with the respiratory rhythm, line B. At point R, I made a noise using my hand to hit the knob of an electric key, just like those used to transmit telegrams. After mark R, we can see that, in line I, several seconds passed before any sign of contraction in the hand's vessels was noticeable, and it took a few seconds more for the contraction to be noticeable in the foot. I cannot make further considerations concerning the time that elapses between the moment when a psychic impression is made and the moment when a reflexive response is observed in the blood vessels, since this was the subject of a study performed in my laboratory by Dr Fano, which will be reported in a future Memoria as an integration to the preliminary communication made to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1882. Similarly, I cannot further comment on the time elapsing between a psychic event, or any type of excitation, and a change in respiration, since this too will be included in a future Memoria. Comparing the thoracic respiratory trace T with line I, which marks the time when the noise was made, we see that the thorax stopped almost immediately at the beginning of the inspiration. When the contraction of blood vessels in the hand and foot reached its maximum, the balance inclined towards the head, and rested there throughout the time in which the foot's volume was decreased. The line of the foot's pulse is incomplete; the horizontal section is produced by a pen which is held by the drum below it. After rapid contraction, during which the subject did not wake up, the blood vessels of the hand and foot relaxed and followed the curve that can be observed (complete) in the hand's recording. In comparison with the respiration, we can see that, immediately after a brief stop, some faster and deeper respirations followed, before reverting to the previous rhythm. The balance's trace, line B, shows some sinuosity that corresponded to the pulse's rhythm. I could show other traces where the cardiac pulsation traces are more evident, but it would not be very helpful since the inertia of the apparatus only allows the pulse's frequency to be recognized. In conclusion, the above shows that all of the phenomena I previously observed with the plethysmograph concerning blood vessels in humans, including pulsations, respiratory oscillations, spontaneous movements of blood vessels and the undulations that correspond to psychic facts, are equally visible with the balance.


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Mitzi and Teddy Hit The ShetlandsThursday, September 16th, 2010
My famous furry sidekick and partner in crime Teddy Tedaloo (or McTedaloo) and I are recently back from a glorious weekend in the Shetland Islands of Scotland (aye, laddie), where I was invited to appear at the ninth annual Wordplay book festival. Though I've been to other parts of Scotland (see my blog posts 1, 2, 3), this was my first visit that far north, and I was warned of high winds that might blow me over into Norway, but instead I just ended up with my hair being blown the wrong way.
On the Saturday I did a talk and performed readings from my short story "Hell is Where the Heart is" from Getting Even: Revenge Stories and two selections from In Sleeping Beauty's Bed: Erotic Fairy Tales. I think it went over fairly well, since I didn't hear any snoring. On the Sunday morning I conducted one of my erotic writing workshops. The somewhat unusual fact that it was scheduled at 10am on a Sunday morning was pointed out to me by several people, and, though I worried that it might conflict with church services, I went ahead with it anyway, playing to a sellout crowd who clearly found some divine inspiration!
I tell you, it was all happening in Lerwick that weekend. Aside from Wordplay, there was Screenplay (the film festival), and even a blues festival taking place. Ted and I managed to squeeze in the screening of Requiem for Detroit from film director Julien Temple, who was in attendance. We even went on a boat cruise to Bressay and Noss, which left at least one person seasick (Ted was looking a bit green himself) due to the rough seas, though it was great fun when we went along at a swift clip. We were at the aft with some of the heartier passengers, hanging on for dear life to a pole, the wind in our hair (and fur), as we rode our watery roller coaster. It left me feeling unsteady and queasy for the next 24 hours, but hey, it was worth it!
When I landed in the Shetland Times, I figured I was a pretty hot commodity. I (along with Ted) was also interviewed by the presenters of BBC Radio Shetland's arts and culture programme "Sideways", and they were most impressed with Ted's erudition and fine fashion sense. In fact, I suspect the young lady presenter quite fancied him (can't say I blame her, Ted being an extremely handsome bear). I suppose with all this publicity it shouldn't have been surprising that the entire town seemed to know who I was – from the local tourist office to the blokes who operated the tour boat (one of whom suggested I teach erotic writing to the other passengers). I tell you, I was feeling like a real celebrity. Until…
…I found out that Teddy had almost made the cover of the festival brochure. At that point I began to suspect that it might not have been me the festival folk wanted to grace their stages, but Ted. This wasn't the first time I've been upstaged by him; however, things really became glaringly obvious when Julien Temple entered into a discussion with Ted about doing a film about his life, only to end up in tears (Julien, not Ted) when they couldn't agree on a soundtrack. Julien wanted The Sex Pistols; Ted's more a Temptations bear. He loves their song "My Bear." (I've got sunshine on a cloudy day…)
Which brings me to the subject of food. Did I mention the breakfasts at our hotel? You'd never get that kind of breakfast in London, EVER. I asked for a small kipper to accompany my other selections, and I got a kipper the size of a vintage Cadillac. And it was a real kipper, not some freeze-dried, shrink-wrapped, bargain kipper either. One breakfast was enough to feed me for an entire week.
Of course, no venture outside of my front door is complete without some mishap. My worst fear on returning home was the tube strike, which began at tea time on the day of the evening I was to fly back to London. When I arrived at Gatwick, it was pissing down with rain. However, the adventure had only just begun, for my suitcase had not arrived along with us. I suspect it had remained behind at Edinburgh airport (where we changed planes) to avail itself of the whisky-tasting table at the duty free. Note that I'd carried this piece of luggage with me for the two flights on the way up, but encountered a problem at Sumburgh Airport in Shetland, where my tweezers appeared to spark fears of a terrorist attack.
They searched my suitcase and everything in it looking for my sinister contraband – you'd have thought I had a bomb strapped to my back from the way they were going though my stuff. When they found the offensive item and threatened to take it off me, well… I wasn't having it. I can't buy those tweezers anywhere (and they never caused a problem before in a carry-on), so after a few minutes of discussion, they agreed to mail them back to me if I paid for postage. Then it was suggested (especially since the plane was a small propeller one) that I should just check the bag all the way to London. By that time I would have agreed to anything, therefore I hurriedly checked it, instantly regretting it and having an ominous sense of foreboding that it would not be arriving with me. All during the flight I feared the loss of my mobile phone charger, my camera charger, numerous items of clothing, my favourite black suede boots, the Shetland fudge and Scottish tablet I'd bought, bits and pieces from the festival…
Despite my scarily accurate sixth sense, my tale has a happy ending. The suitcase was recovered (and fully intact) and delivered to my home the next night, and Teddy and I are now making really quick work of that Scottish tablet and Shetland fudge!
If you fancy trying your hand (so to speak) at a bit of erotic writing, you can catch me at my Literotica workshop in the first weekend of October on the Isle of Wight.
(A bit of after-party merriment, featuring fellow Yank, Will Kaufman.)


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Analysts' Actions: ABT BK JNJ LULU
Abbott Laboratories (ABT) was downgraded at Deutsche Bank from buy to hold. Valuation call, based on a $33 price target, Deutsche said.
Aruba Networks (ARUN) was upgraded at Stifel Nicolaus from hold to buy. $27 price target. Growth could re-accelerate in 2013, Stifel Nicolaus said.
The Bank of New York Mellon (BK) was downgraded at Citigroup to neutral from buy. Valuation call, Citi said.
BancorpSouth (BXS) was downgraded at Keefe, Bruyette & Woods from market perform to underperform. Valuation call, based on a $12 price target, KBW said.
Cardinal Health (CAH) was upgraded at Mizuho from neutral to buy. $46 price target. Company will likely renew two major contracts in 2013, Mizuho said.
Continental Resources (CLR) was initiated with a buy rating at Deutsche Bank. $94 price target. Solid Bakken position can continue to drive growth, Deutsche said.
Cepheid (CPHD) was downgraded at Piper Jaffray from overweight to neutral. $34 price target. See further downside potential to near-term results, Piper Jaffray said.
Endo Pharmaceuticals (ENDP) was downgraded at Piper Jaffray from overweight to neutral. Opana ER is facing generic competition, Piper Jaffray said. $28 price target.
Esco Technologies (ESE) was upgraded at Robert Baird from neutral to outperform. $52 price target. Company should see higher orders in the near term, Robert Baird said.
Edwards Lifesciences (EW) was initiated with a market perform rating at JMP Securities. Company trades at a premium to its peers but has limited upside earnings potential, JMP said.
East West Bancorp (EWBC) was upgraded at Sterne Agee to buy from neutral. $26 price target. Earnings power from expense management, Sterne Agee said.
FactSet Research Systems (FDS) was initiated at Goldman Sachs with a sell rating. $79 price target. Slowing growth and emerging competition, Goldman said.
Freescale (FSL) was downgraded at JP Morgan to neutral. Company could see lower demand and lacks near-term catalysts, JP Morgan said.
Illumina (ILMN) was upgraded at Piper Jaffray from neutral to overweight. $61 price target. Company can continue to gain market share in next-generation sequencing, Piper Jaffray said.
Johnson & Johnson (JNJ) was upgraded at Deutsche Bank to buy. $82 price target. Company has a diversified business and deserves to trade at a premium valuation, Deutsche said.
Lululemon (LULU) was downgraded at Credit Suisse from outperform to neutral. $80 price target. Comp sales growth is slowing, which could weigh on margins, Credit Suisse said.
Mattel (MAT) was upgraded at Needham from hold to buy. Company likely gained market share during the holiday season, Needham said.
Shutterfly (SFLY) was upgraded at Topeka from hold to buy. $40 price target. Have increased confidence in management's ability to deal with increased competition, Topeka said.
Texas Roadhouse (TXRH) was upgraded at Deutsche Bank from hold to buy. $20 price target. Company can continue execute in a difficult environment, Deutsche said.


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Frederick R. "Fred" Saatio
TWIN LAKES – Frederick R. Saatio, 77, a resident of Twin Lakes, died unexpectedly in his sleep at his home on Saturday, Dec. 29, 2012.
He was born in Calumet on Jan. 24, 1935, a son of the late Arthur and Lempi (Arglander) Saatio and attended Calumet High School.
On Dec. 16, 1957, he was married to the former Patricia Hocking in Houghton.
Fred worked as a heavy equipment operator for George Hocking Construction Co. in South Range, as well as other various construction companies. Prior to retirement, he was employed at U.P. Power Co. at Presque Isle in Marquette.
Fred was a veteran of the U.S. Army, serving during the Korean Campaign from Oct. 1953 to June 1955.
Fred enjoyed the outdoors. He was able to drive anywhere in the woods with his Jeep 4WD that a 4-wheeler could go. He also enjoyed hunting and fishing.
Fred was instrumental in completing the site work for the Houghton County Arena in Hancock and also helped to establish the Range Snowmobile Club. He also coached hockey in the Copper Country Jr. Hockey Association.
Surviving are his wife, Patricia; his children and grandchildren: Terri O'Neill and her children, Matt and Tiffany, Ray (Lisa) Saatio and their children, Ryan (Joanna), Kyle (Ashley), Dennis (Amber) and Eli, Randy (Julie) Saatio and their children, Scott, Brad and Kristin; three great-grandchildren, Morgan, Joseph and Olivia; one brother, Art (Kathy) Saatio; several nieces, nephews and cousins; and his two Welsh Terriers, Ginger and Candy.
Besides his parents, Fred was also preceded in death by three sisters, Esther, Marie and Kathleen; and a brother, Rudy.
Private funeral services will be held Saturday, Jan. 5, 2013, in the Mountain View Mortuary in South Range with Fr. John Martignon to officiate.
In lieu of flowers, the family has requested donations be made to the charity of one's choice in Fred's memory.
Arrangements are being handled by Antila Funeral Service, Inc. Online condolences may be expressed to the family at antilafuneral.com.


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We are lucky in Eastwood country to be located in a great location for the collector car culture. We have Carlisle about an hour from us where you can see some of the largest car and truck shows in the country, Maple Grove Raceway where we can see some of the largest drag racing events in the country, and a little town called Macungie, PA which houses a few of the largest classic car shows on this side of the country. Probably the largest is the "Das Awkscht Fescht", which occurs in the beginning of every August. This show has been one of our favorites here at Eastwood, and we decided to hit the 49th edition of the show and share what all the excitement is about.
Each year the show organizers choose a classic, antique, or special interest vehicle to highlight at the show and give them center stage. Enthusiasts flock to show their vehicles and memorabilia, giving spectators a lot to see and learn about the chosen vehicle. This year the focus was on the U.S. manufacturer of one of the most delightful little microcars ever; Crosley. I've read a little about Crosley, but I wasn't aware there was such a following of these neat microcars!
Crosley was originally formed by the owner of the Cincinnati Reds baseball team Powel Crosley, Jr. and his brother Lewis. The duo set out to make a subcompact car with a fuel efficient drivetrain, and they had much success during World War II when fuel rationing was crippling sales of larger automobiles. The Crosley models ran 2-cylinder aircooled engines originally and later were the first to mass produce a Single Overhead Cam engine (SOHC).
Speaking of firsts, Crosley was the first in the US to equip its vehicles with certain features like 4-wheel disc brakes! They also built the first American sports car- the Hot Shot. They even went on to coin the term "Sport Utility". Years later their sales dwindled and they shut down after a failed merger with Nash. Their spirit still lives on with Crosley enthusiasts and their racing heritage is firmly planted after the Hot Shot and Crosley powered race cars dominated the race circuits in the '50's.
Thanks to the enthusiasts that brought out some of the most rare Crosley vehicles and literature in the world and helped educate the classic car community! Below is a slideshow of some of our favorites from the event.[thethe-image-slider name="Crosleys"]


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Are visas required for travel to Tanzania [2]?
U.S. and Canadian citizens are required to have a visa to enter Tanzania. Your Tanzania visa is best obtained upon arrival at Kilimanjaro International Airport (JRO). This is a very easy and cost effective way to obtain your visa and we highly recommend it. Just follow the signs for visa on arrival at JRO upon your arrival. The present cost is $100 USD per person, per visa. Note that credit cards, Canadian dollars, traveler's checks, and personal checks are not accepted. There are no passport photos required. The visa fee is subject to change without advance notice.
What vaccinations are required to for travel to Tanzania?
roof of yellow fever vaccination is required to enter Tanzania only if arriving from a yellow fever affected area. North American is not a yellow fever affected area. No other immunizations are required. The CDC recommends that all travelers to East Africa be up-to-date on vaccinations for measles/mumps/rubella (MMR), diphtheria/pertussis/tetanus (DPT), poliovirus, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, yellow fever and typhoid; however, you should consult with your personal physician.
What kind of vehicles are used on the Tanzania Wildlife Safari?
Getting as close to the wildlife as safely as possible — while being mindful of the potential impact on the animals — is IE's primary goal for your safari. International Expeditions uses specially equipped, custom-built four-wheel-drive Land Cruisers. These vehicles comfortably accommodate six passengers, each of whom is guaranteed a window seat and roof-hatch access for unimpeded game viewing and terrific photo opportunities. All of our vehicles are equipped with VHF radio communication and cool boxes.
[1] http://www.ietravel.com/africa-and-middle-east
[2] http://www.ietravel.com/africa-and-middle-east/tanzania-wildlife-safari
[3] http://www.ietravel.com/sites/default/files/interiorheader/Cheetah-GerlachNaturePhoto_0.jpg


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New York City's Children's Aid Society will open a charter school offering health care and social services to low-income Bronx children, reports Gotham Schools.
Drema Brown, a former elementary principal in the Bronx, will lead the effort. She plans an outreach effort to persuade welfare parents to apply to the new school.
The 158-year-old charity works with city schools to provide social services and after-school programs. Children's Aid also runs a clinic in the Bronx.